EDUCATIONAL PLANHENG FOR THE DEVELOPMENT Q5" HUMAN RESOURCES IN LEBANON Thesis {or flu: Degree of DE. D. MICHEGAN STATE UNIQERSITY George G. Murr 1966 THESIS This is to certify that the thesis entitled Educational Planning for the Development of Human Resources in Lebanon presented by George G. Murr has been accepted towards fulfillment of the requirements for l A!) I degree in /.’rC[ A) d’Wl . . I, ”'7 \fl‘l/é/J (in/é d v I / Major professor Date 5144:]! 9/ ifé/é; 0-169 LIBRARY Michigan State University sl- .nvv ." 3. I v4: \ €3.31 ...1 1'" II‘ “1 ABSTRACT EDUCATIONAL PLANNING FOR THE DEVELOPMENT OF HUMAN RESOURCES IN LEBANON by George G. Murr Statement of the Problem The study identifies and describes the development of human resources in Lebanon. The description includes: (1) the existing educational system in terms of its capacity in training for manpower, (2) national planning for education and (3) known manpower requirements. The study was undertaken to determine: (1) the discrepancy between education supply and manpower demand, (2) the implications of this discrepancy to educational planning and (3) the need for adjusting education supply to manpower demand. Design and Method of Study The study is designed to provide a foundation of descriptive data that lend themselves to the nature of the problem. It is not meant to be 'hypothesis testing', though it has the potential of testing the validity of the underlying assumptions. Essentially, the study is descriptive and analytic: descriptive in the sense that it includes facts and current conditions found in a specific situation, analytic in observing the facts, organizing them and evaluating the findings in the light of pertinent criteria. ...A H‘. .u. . 15¢- 'Ip- vi.- I.. u“ “o. . C 2‘4 George G. Murr Relevant data and material were collected by two methods: (1) through the revision of current literature on educational planning with respect to known manpower requirements in Lebanon and other pertinent material on the human resource situation and (2) through personal inter- views conducted with concerned authorities in the field of education and economics in Lebanon. Collected data was screened through a comparative analysis of education supply and manpower demand. Major Findings of the Study The study has revealed that: Lebanon, in its present stage of social-economic development, is in need of skilled manpower at different levels and that education is the primary producer of manpower required by the existing economy. The educational system in Lebanon is a mixture of public and private education, both sectors functioning separately within a broad national context. There is no evidence of a well defined educational policy that coordinates the activities of public and private education. The organizational structure of the educational system gives greater emphasis to academic education at the expense of vocational- technical education. The academic stream accommodating 87 41 of total student population on the secondary level is out of prOportion to the 10.81 in the vocational-technical stream and the 1.8% of students at teachers' institutes. George G. Murr The Lebanese economy is demanding a higher caliber of manpower with a minimum of four years beyond elementary schooling coupled with saleable skills and experiences. There is a noted discrepancy between education supply and manpower demands, demonstrated by shortages in the producing of manpower with vocational and technical skills and surpluses in manpower with academic and theoretical knowledge. There are many attempts on the part of the Lebanese authorities to bridge the gap between education supply and manpower demand as demon- strated in the work of various standing committees on planning. But there is no evidence of integrating educational planning with overall national programs. There is considerable lack of accurate and reliable statistical data, evidenced by the dearth of scientific research on population, manpower and economic growth. On the basis of these findings, the study suggests a working policy for educational planning that takes into consideration the adjustment of education supply to manpower demand. EDUCATIONAL PLANNING FOR THE DEVELOPMENT OF HUMAN RESOURCES IN LEBANON by . .7"-\ ‘-. George Gr’Murr A THESIS Submitted to MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY in Partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY College of Education Department of Administration and Higher Education 1966 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The writer expresses his sincere appreciation and gratitude to Dr. Floyd G. Parker, Chairman of the doctoral guidance committee, for his generous and sincere help during all phases of the study. Through his direction and counsel the writer was able to overcome a number of obstacles posed by the nature of the study. Special appreciation for the help and encouragement of Drs. Cole Brembeck, Donald Leu, John Useem and William Roe, the other members of the doctoral guidance committee. A debt of gratitude is owed to Dr. Cole Brembeck, Chairman of the Institute for International Studies. With his help a grant was secured from the Institute which sponsored the study tour to Lebanon conducted by the writer in the summer of 1965. Finally, a special note of thanks is extended to the personnel in the various Ministries and public offices in Lebanon for their generous assistance in providing the writer with data necessary to the study. ii ~1‘M A. TABLE OF CONTENTS ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . LIST OF TABLES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . Chapter I. II. III. INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY . . . . . . . . . . . . . The Nature of the Problem The Purpose of the Study Underlying Assumptions Related Literature Definition of Terms Method and Plan of the Study A GENERAL SURVEY OF THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM IN LEBANON- Histdric Background The Aims and Philosophy of Education The Administration of Education The Administrative Machinery The Financing of Education The Organization of Education Primary Education Upper Primary and Secondary Education Higher Education ' Teacher Education Vocational and Technical Education Adult Education Summary THE STRUCTURE AND COMPOSITION OF STUDENT POPULATION A Demographic Overview Growth of Student Population in the Recent Past The Structure of the Educational System Distribution of Students in the Educational Structure Composition of Student Population Summary iii Page ii vii ix 22 S9 Page Chapter IV. NATIONAL PLANNING FOR EDUCATION IN LEBANON . . . . . . . 87 The Need for Educational Planning Population Expansion Social Needs Economic-Occupational Needs Increasing Aspirational Level The Role of the Ministry of Education in the Process of Planning Examination of the Present Situation Short Term Planning Long Range Planning . The Impact of State Policy on Educational Planning . Organizational Structure of the Planning Machinery Planning on the Policy Level Planning on the Work Level Analysis and Evaluation of the Present Situation A Comparison Among Existing Educational Plans Analysis of Comparisons Implications of the Situation Summary V. EDUCATIONAL PLANNING WITH RESPECT TO KNOWN MANPOWER REQUIREMENTS IN LEBANON O o o a o a o o a o a o o o O 122 An Overview of the Economic Situation Basic Features of the Lebanese Economy Major Economic Sectors Trends and Implications of Economic Growth in the Recent Past Labor Force and Manpower Distribution Problems of Definition and Measurements The Size and Magnitude of the Labor Force By Age and Sex Distribution By Industrial Distribution By Regional Distribution The Employment Situation in General Known Areas of Manpower Requirements in Lebanon High Level Manpower Requirements Middle Level Manpower Requirements Low Level Manpower Requirements Summary iv Page Chapter VI. OVERALL APPRAISAL OF THE PRESENT HUMAN RESOURCE SITUATION ‘“ 162 Economic Occupational Demand for Middle Level Manpower Increasing Demand for Qualified Manpower Appraisal of Manpower Stock by Economic Occupational Qualifications Present Educational Capacity with Respect to Manpower Requirements Quantitative Appraisal of the Educational System Qualitative Appraisal of the Educational System Comparison Between Educational Supply and Manpower Demand Overview of Comparisons on Various Educational Levels Discrepancy Between Educational Supply and Manpower Demand as Demonstrated by: Surplus in Academic Education Deficit in Vocational and Technical Education Deficit in Teacher Education Implications of the Situation to Educational Planning Educational Streams to be Emphasized Educational Streams to be De-emphasized Summary VII. SETTING UP A WORKING POLICY FOR EDUCATIONAL PLANNING° ° 209 Educational Planning with Respect to Overall National Planning The Need for a Working Theory of Educational Planning Re-evaluation of Existing Educational Policies Integrating Educational Planning with Overall National Planning Estimating Future Manpower Requirements Procedures of Estimating Future Manpower Demand Analysis of Future Manpower Requirements Estimating Future Education Supply Overall Estimate of Graduate Trends at Secondary School Level my D." ”I w— on, . sat-A Page Chapter VII. Analysis of Future Capacity of the Educational System Adjusting Educational Supply to Manpower Demand Relating Education Supply to Manpower Demand Transferring Manpower Requirements into Educational Data Setting up a Financial Policy for Educational Planning ' Summary Chapter VIII. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . 245 APPENDIX A . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260 BIBLIOGRAPHY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262 vi LIST OF TABLES Page Table 1. Appropriations to Education in Relation to Total National Budget . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40 2. Allocation of Educational Resources Among the Directorates of Instruction in the Ministry of Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41 3. Weekly Time Table of Primary Teachers' Institutes . . . 51 4. Estimated Distribution of Rural and Urban Population of Lebanon by Muhafazat, 1959 . . . . . . . . . . . . 63 5. Population Distribution by Age Group 1959 . . . . . . . 64 6. Estimated Distribution by Age and Sex, 1944 . . . . . . 65 7. Growth of Public and Private Education on Primary and Secondary School Levels, 1955-1965 . . . . . . . . 67 8. Distribution of Students Among Higher Institutes of Igarnir‘g 9 1964- 1965 s o o a e o a s o o o o s o e s o 68 9. Distribution of Students in the Academic Stream by Educational Level 1964-1965 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76 10. Secondary School Population by Educational Streams, 1964- 1965 O O O O I 0 O O O O O O O 0 O O O O O O O O 83 11. Growth of National Income of Lebanon by Economic sectors, 1950-1957 . 0'. o o s s o s s s s s s o o . o 129 12. National Income Distribution by Sector and Working Populat ion, 1957 o s s o o a s s s o a s s s o s s s o 130 13. Distribution of Working Population by Industrial ‘ sector ’ 1959 O I I O O O O O O O I O O O O O O O O O 0 141 14. Distribution of Labor Force According to Industrial D1V1810n8 D 1960 O o o s o s o s o s e o o 0 142 15. Occupational Distribution of Labor Force . . . . . . . . 145 16. Distribution of Working Population According to Selected Occupational Activities .‘. . . . . . . . . . 146 vii Table 17. 18. 190' 20. 21'. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. 33. 34. 35. Regional Distribution of Labor Force . . . . . . . . Regional Distribution of Medical Corps . . . . . . Middle Level Manpower Distribution in the Sectors of Commerce and Services . . . . . . . . . . . . Employment Trends by Industry . . . . . . . Estimated Increase in Employment . . . . . . . . . . Manpower Requirements by Occupational Qualifications Graduates from Academic Schools, 1960-1964 . . . Graduates from.Academic Schools in Percentage of TOtal candidates 0 o s a o s s s o s s s o o s s e . Technical Education Graduates According to Specialization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Graduate Trends in Public Vocational Schools, 1960- 1964 O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 0 Graduate Trends in Hotel Management Schools, 1956-1964 . . C . . . . O . . l. O . C O C O . . Agriculture Education Graduate Trends,l957-l964 . . Graduation Trends from Vocational and Technical Schools, 1963-1967 . . . . . . . . . . . . . Classification of Graduates by Occupational Qualifications 0 O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 0 Average Yearly Replacement Requirements Estimated at an Annual Rate of 41, 1960-1975 . . . . . . . . Estimated Average.Annua1 Manpower Requirements by Occupational Classification . . . . . . . . . . . Graduate Trends from Public Vocational-Technical Schools Combined, 1955-1964 , . . . . . . . . . . . Growth of Secondary Technical Education . . . . . Comparison between Education Supply and Manpower Demand by Occupational Classification . . . . . . viii Page 148 154 156 170 171 172 175 176 178 180 182 183 198 199 228 229 233 235 237 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 1. The Administrative Structure of the Educational system, 1955-1964 0 s s o e s s a o s s o o s 2. The Organizational Structure of Education in ubanon O A 0 O O O O O O O I O O O O O O O O O 3. Growth of Student Population in Public Vocational and Technical Schools . . . . . . . 4. Growth of Student Enrollment at Primary Teachers' Institutes, 1955-1964 . . . . . . . . 5. Public and Private School Enrollments, 1964-1965 . 6. Retention of Students at Primary and Secondary School Levels, 1964-1965 - . - . - . - - - . . 7. Student Enrollments at Secondary Level by Educational Streams, 1964-65 - - 8. A Proposed Organizational Structure of Education . 9. The Organizational Structure of the Planning ' ”Chine” o o o o s s s s s s o s s s o e o s 10. Relationship of Education Supply to Manpower “mad 0 O O O I O O O O O O O O I O O O O O O 0 ix Page 38 43 71 73 78 82 85 107 111 195 a 0‘0- ... v .— I! n l - .,. 0 AA . v “-s. y » . A o I! v.. CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY Recently, there has been an increasing interest in the study of educational planning with respect to the development of human resources. Trends in the fields of education and other social sciences show that this interest is becoming universal. Whether in the Eastern or Western WOrld, underdeveloped or developed countries, national governments, supported by an increasingly enlightened and aspiring populace, are appropriating larger portions of their budgets to education. This is being done on the assumption that education plays a vital role in the social and economic development of a nation. Accordingly, educational planning for the develop- ment of human resources is being looked at as an indiSpensable process in relating education to overall national objectives. More important, trends show that this aspect of education is resulting in the opening of new horizons to educators, social scientists and politicians. Approached from such perspective, educational planning could be considered a focal point in the study of human resources, social and economic development and other areas related to this field. The increasing amount of current literature indicates the importance of this trend in education and social science. 1Among the many studies conducted in this field to mention very few: Educational Planning, by Donald Adams, editor, Syracuse University, 1964. Education, Manpower and Economic Growth, by Harbison, Fredrick and Myers, Charles New York, McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1964. "Estimating the Returns to Education," by E. F. Renshaw, Review of Economics and Statistics, Vol., 42, No. 3, August 1960. Economics of Higher Education, By Selma J. Mushkin, U. S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare, 1962. .s I." ' ' . :IU‘ a ”.uusn r. n’!‘ ”um-s b ‘IA'A \ I ’ .,--~ . ‘s-m -‘ a... t. .p. 'u" ' \ - inns-b ...., ,, .It. ,s F "' 7‘s. ‘1'- w... VG. KAlt‘S II I 1““ I n... '- .v. (I- I!) In line with these trends and views, it is the purpose of this study to concentrate on the examination and analysis of educational planning for human resource development in one of the newly independent countries of the Middle East, Lebanon. The Nature of the Problem Lebanon is a small mountainous country, located on the eastern shore of the Mediterranean Sea. It achieved its independence in 1943. Soon after, Lebanon became a member of the Arab League and the United Nations. The country has an area of approximately 4000 square miles (about the size of the state of Connecticut) and a population slightly over two million people. The population density is approximately 500 persons per square mile, the highest in the Middle East, with the exception of the Nile Valley in Egypt. Politically, Lebanon is a parliamentary Republic based on universal suffrage. Legislative power is vested in a unicameral (Humber of Deputies which has a present membership of 99 deputies, elected by the people for a four-year term. The President of the "Capital Formation by Education," by Theodore W. Schultz, Journal of "Education and Political Economy, Vol. 67, No. 6, December 1960. Investment in Human Capital," by Burton A. Weisbrod, Journal of Political .Economy {Supplement} Vol. 70, No. 5, Oct. 1962. OECD Publications on lEduoation and Manpower Planning in Some Mediterranean Countries, (Paris), 1960-64. 2Ministry of Planning. Central Directorate of Statistics, JBUIJIetin Statistique Mensuel, (The Monthly Statistical Bulletin), Vol. 3: NO. 1, March 1965. According to the Bulletin, Population of Lebatten in 1965 was 2,151,884. The last national census was that of 1932 . Any demographic account after that date was based on estimates 2: the United Nations Statistical Service or local authorities. This ea will be further investigated in Chapter III. .oq- : ..;.. .. i I" ' . '- .5.th- I- « . a. D “sob . :e- - .b . a '79' On .«‘.! . | '4. JAE (1 so. '1, g 9 n, .,.v. Republic is elected by the deputies for a six-year term. The executive body is vested in the Cabinet, which is headed by a Premier, who, in his turn, is appointed by the President of the Republic. From an economic viewpoint the country enjoys a relatively high standard of living in comparison to other countries in the Middle East. The per capita national income is slightly over 1000 Lebanese pounds -- about 350 U. S. dollars. This is the highest level among Arab countries with the exception of the oil rich states of Kuwait, Qatar and Bahrein.3 The major sources of income are derived from agriculture, industry, commerce, services and tourism. The educational system in Lebanon, highly centralized under national control, is meant to serve many purposes, basically, national and individual. On the national level, the system functions as a unifying factor bringing together all the cultural elements in the society under one broad aim of national identification. This aim is being translated into practice through a prescribed national program of studies and an official language of instruction, which is Arabic. On the individual level, the system is meant to provide the citizen with the proper knowledges and experiences to help him develop his potentialities and seek better Opportunities in life. In terms of control and support of education, the Lebanese educational system is the shared responsibility of both public and private sectors. Public education is the responsibility of the Ilational government. Through the Ministry of Education, responsibilities ‘ 3 U. S. Department of Commerce, "Market Factors in Lebanon. ShflElflEeas Business Report, March 1964, p. 1. and duties are delegated and coordinated in the administration and organization of public schools. At the same time, the constitution of the country makes provisions for private education on the condition that it abides by the overall national policy and other pertinent rules inherent in the legislation of education. Like many other emerging nations, Lebanon is undergoing a tremendous process of change and development. This process embraces almost all aspects of the society's life: social, cultural, political, economic, educational, and religious. Presumably this change has been introduced at a time when there was not adequate national planning to channel it in the proper direction. It is true that political independence was achieved in 1943, there existed however, a state of economic dependence, social immaturity and cultural conservatism. The national government did not have the sufficient resources, basically financial and human resources, to cope with the new situation and plan for change. Consequently, some sectors in the society progressed more than other sectors. This unbalanced progress resulted in many cultural lags and social stratification. This kind of situation was likely to result in many social, economic and educational problems requiring immediate solutions. Confronted with all these problems the national government started seeking solutions that would lead to social justice, political stability, economic prosperity and equality of Opportunities. Among I:he solutions to these problems education was given a top priority. It was conceived by the government authorities and all other groups in ifhe country that the establishment of a sound educational system as: a.' nu. Is... "6s 4,. ..I. l“. ... 'L._ ‘- Q.‘ s. I. is the most permanent foundation for a modern Lebanese Society. It was assumed that education would hopefully result in a more literate and enlightened populace qualified to seek better opportunities from life. . Accordingly, the Ministry of Education, as an official govern- ment institution, assumed its responsibilities in designing an educational system appropriate with the new face of the nation. In 1944, the Ministry embarked on various educational programs that were deemed feasible in providing solutions to existing school curricula and designed a new national program of studies to fit the situation. Upon the recommendation of these committees a new curriculum was built in 1946 and is still in effect at the present time. Similar measures were taken in other areas of the educational system affecting the certification of education, and the various streams in the educational structure. Thus, in successive years, the government was able to cope with the situation and to set the foundation for further educational policies and programs. At present, the Lebanese educational system claims the accomplishment of many educational goals. Public schools provide education, both free and universal, to about 40% of the school age pOpulation on the elementary and secondary levels. Correspondingly, private schools provide education for the remaining 601 of school ,POpulation on the above mentioned levels. Teacher institutes, raised fzxnn one in the forties to five in the mid-sixties, accommodate about 140() student teachers and graduate each year about 300 potential teaChars. Vocational and technical schools train the youth for use-I) than-a- ss-s-t r b. .X... 1 .t.. 1 to f‘ nu»: at' .- ‘s ‘e ~L. skilled labor. Higher education offers professional and liberal arts education to those who are college bound. School facilities are being provided within the limitations of available funds. However, a few questions may be raised at this point about the educational system in terms of its function to meet the competing demands from education and on its relation to the overall national objectives. Does the system provide youth with the kind of education that meets their interests, capacities and resources? To what extent is vocational and technical education adequate in providing students with the skills and experiences demanded by the market? Are teacher education programs efficient in training the demanded number of teachers needed in elementary and secondary schools? To what extent is higher education accessible to those who finish their high school education? Is the educational system, as it functions at present, adequate in meeting the social and economic needs arising in the various sectors of the society? To what extent is education related to overall developmental programs in the country? Do educa- tional plans reckon with the major changes, scientific, technical and the like, affecting other institutions in the society? Viewing the educational system through the socio-economic structure of the Lebanese Society the major question that may be posed irlthis respect is: to what extent does the present educational system .in Lebanon meet the need for human resource development? In order to answer the above question intelligently two main areas must be examined and discussed: the educational system in terms 0f lits productive capacity--both quantitatively and qualitatively--in ‘.'Vfl‘ '4 I.“ mi.‘ ‘ "9‘ Jul“ . .0 O. In Us \- ;:-:.-- lie-h. "s v . ~heg. 'A-b‘ ..... . 5. .‘ "H o \ o training for manpower and the economic system in terms of manpower requirements. The study of the educational system includes a review of the main developments in the field of education in Lebanon since independence. It calls for a description of administration and organization of education, the control and support of education (both public and private), the educational streams provided by the system, the composition and structure of student population and other pertinent aspects of the educational system. In studying the economic system of the country relevant emphasis is placed on current and future trends in occupations, labor force and other areas of manpower requirements. Discussion of these trends require a description of the Lebanese economy in terms of major economic sectors, national income, natural resources, the employment situation and related aspects contributing to classification and illustration of manpower requirements in the country. Once these two areas are thoroughly investigated, the next step is to compare and contrast the education supply on the one hand and manpower demand on the other hand. This phase of the study concerns itself with the analysis of the educational system in relation to the social economic situation of the country. How do educational plans relate themselves to overall national plans? What is the impact of State policy on educational planning? What adjustments can be made to meet social and economic needs? What educational streams should be emphasized? What should be the guiding policy in educational planning? lknv can education play an effective role in the development of human resC’urces? The answer to these questions will form the core of this Study . :2: :2 sl-w- V 'u‘ta ‘ lvww; us" ss‘:. . ‘ I ‘U. a -..\- . . at . .. .E s "F 'l 1'.- ‘1 l I “P D! 'A LI nP.“ on: II. E s.._ s U r" (ts III an ‘9 u fil- If, The Purpose of the Study As was indicated above, the study raises a number of issues that may be conceived of as inherent problems in the Lebanese educational system. The broad purpose of the study calls for the examination of educational planning with respect to human resource development. Derived from this purpose is the identification and suggestion of ways and means by which the educational system can contribute more effec- tively to the achievement of overall national goals through short term and long range plans. In studying the educational system of any country, with a view of recommending improvement and suggesting change, there is a tendency on the part of the planners to concentrate on structural modifications of the system. Such recommendations seem to be appealing because the changes suggested are tangible and can often be implemented readily, given the suitable political and economic power of a certain regime. This is not the position assumed in this study. Although administrative changes are important, they are not crucial in the development of human resources. The major point given emphasis in this study is the quality and functioning of education in producing a certain caliber of manpower that has a demand in the social and economic spheres of the society. It should be made clear at this point that education, by definition, has many functions. It cultivates the intellect, develops aesthetic feelings and broadens one's horizons. Some peOple acquire education 88 an end in itself. Others acquire it for gaining a better status A in Society: social, academic and otherwise. Still others acquire it as 1! means to occupational ends. All these claims are legitimate and ”was" '._....~ ‘11‘7’ n‘v’vh» .u- . s a: u s .l. a . a a Y; . .u. t - . l 9'. We. M“ A: .7 . ”Wm - n a s . s .Kvm. ,v a J n i. P a .-1 Via .\U .. .rs . s. w 0 n .C urn I. . .n... .0“ I. a?!“ "9% .0. sh» I.” ,p. IL F . p i . . . , Pt. I a .C .v t .o . x .s. We .u- .: a v .3. s s an Pl ~ ~ .: 2.. u I r t 1. . a s s n: . A .3 v . s s s u n u .. n. :i s. s socially desirable. However, it is the purpose of the study to concentrate on education, consistently as a developer of human resources. By this is meant the extent to which education provides the people of the country with the necessary skills, knowledges, and experiences that qualify them to fit into occupations and other economic and social opportunities both available and required in that country. Hence, the emphasis of the study is on what may be termed a "manpower- requirements approach." This implies the anticipation and foreseeing of the future occupational structure of the economy and the planning of education so as to provide the requisite number of personnel with the qualifications which that structure demands.4 The manpower requirements approach is not the only significant aspect in educational planning. There are human, spiritual, social and cultural dimensions that may be considered as constituent elements in the process of planning. These elements are not, and should not, be dismissed from any study dealing with the development of human resources. Hence they are used by the study as givens, and are referred to when necessary. By a logical necessity, the study deals with certain problems that lend themselves to manpower planning, manpower requirements and other aspects related to the economic sphere in the Lebanese society. However, this is not the main purpose of the study. These aspects are introduced to serve as criteria or points of reference for the (:Iassification of underlying issues related to human resources. Thus, 4Herbert S. Parnes, Forecasting Educational Needs for Economic and_ Social Develo ment, (Paris: OECD Publications, 1962), p. 15. th‘ as: «it no’ ’ 1,. nib! . unit I ... .-.~~ .‘,.:o‘. .u'\ .u b' . . 1 a.._-O‘ .cva-s .0 04 s ' . ”use-u 'n'uaa n~s..\. I .... ' a u». . r:x‘h tofi DU :5” I... p 6‘- v ’A s . I :2- 'Re{ i." .- .'- I» ‘1‘ 10 when these issues are raised by the study, emphasis will be on current and future trends in the economic sphere that are likely to affect the educational process. The underlying assumption is that educational planning is closely related to other areas of planning in the Lebanese society. Thus the introduction of technology and automation in the industrial sector is most likely to incur deep changes in the inherent structure of the society. The same thing could be applied to the introduction of any innovation which is likely to result in anticipated social and cultural change. All these changes suggest the need for a flexible curriculum that provides both theoretical and practical education according to the arising needs of the situation. The effectiveness of an educational system in this respect depends on the degree to which it is cognizant of the new developments of the social and economic order and the extent to which it can adjust itself to the new situation. In the light of these observations, the study will be limited to the examination and analysis of the following areas: 1. A description of the present educational system, its recentprogress and plans for future developments. 2. Analysis of the productive capacity of the system in terms of student population and graduates. 3. An examination of existing educational plans and decisions affecting the process of educational planning. 4. A survey of the basic characteristics of the Lebanese manpower demand as being demonstrated 1: SE ‘7‘"- a n... a I‘- s A lI’I ' i 'l syn. ed 535' ‘n f 'M i‘..~e" A a l s a, I, '\ -."Jac 11 by specific indicators related to manpower requirements. 5. A comparison and contrast between education supply and manpower demand as being demonstrated by specific indicators related to manpower requirements. Because the scope of the study is wide and comprehensive, the study will be limited to the discussion of the educational system on the secondary level. This includes all education streams on that level, both academic and non academic, in public and private schools. However, a description of other levels in the educational system is presented in order to provide the reader with a comprehensive view of the system. Similar approaches will be followed in the discussion of the economic system. Finally, the purpose of the study is to explore some of the conceptual and methodological problems involved in the assessment of educational and economic needs and to suggest alternative approaches that appear to be useful and feasible in the development of human resources in Lebanon. UnderlyingfiAssumptions The nature of the study, based on a descriptive analytic approach to the problem more than an experimental approach, makes it difficult to generate testable hypotheses. However, the study is based on certain assumptions that may serve as "guiding lights" in approaching the basic issues inherent in the problem. 12 Underlying the whole study is one major assumption stating that the educational system, in terms of its productive capacity does not meet manpower requirements existent and arising in the economic and social spheres of the Lebanese society. Stated in a positive form the assumption implies a discrepancy between the educational system as a producer of manpower and the economic system as an employer of human resources. Other minor assumptions include the following: 1. There is a discrepancy between education supply and manpower demand. This is evidenced in the fact that the national economy is not absorbing students after their graduation. To date, there has been little planning in the field of education. Whatever planning exists is exclusively done under the pressure of immediate educational needs. There is little coordination of educational planning with overall developmental programs in the country. In contrast to an overstressed academic stream of education, vocational and technical education is understressed. Incentives are insufficient to attract capable students to vocational and technical education. There is an increasing awareness on the part of concerned authorities of the vital role of educational planning in the deve10pment of human resources. sly a. p a) r a on"! :cn- sou-.1.” n\. up.» . 13 7. The success or failure of any plan, educational or other, depends largely on the attitude and orientation of the people. These, plus other conceivable assumptions that may arise during the sequence of the study, are meant to provide tentative answers to questions that may be raised around the efficiency or feasibility of educational planning. Confirmation or refutation of these assumptions is pending the findings of the study. Related Literature The review of the current literature reflects the importance and seriousness of the problem. Not many studies have been conducted in the area of educational planning in Lebanon. However, the very few that have been accomplished so far suggest the need for educational planning as a primary condition to the achievement of educational goals. These studies point directly to the bearing of educational planning on future social and economic development of the country. The most pertinent and authoritative studies conducted in this field are those being sponsored by the Ministry of National Education and other concerned educational authorities and agencies in the country. The significance of these studies inheres in their conceptualization of the problem and the visualization of goals and objectives that relate education to other developmental programs in the country, primarily social and economic programs. These studies, being compiled in the form of periodicals, brochures and monographs, attempt to examine educational planning in terms of aims and means.5 The studies focus 5Among these materials are the studies conducted by the '_.o "5::- ru- .. .:' :IOI‘. . os- " P .‘ ,..- ss'fl " I .5.‘ ' .s.¢I’v Ii...‘ s ’IAPQ- 0.5:... O . s- - ‘ l ~4- .4. . 14 on both the immediate and ultimate purposes of education and investigate the means through which these aims could be attained. They also relate education to the basic needs of the society. A significant contribution of these studies is the data they provide, in terms of statistical data with respect to major social and educational developments in the country. Among other enlightening studies dealing with the social and economic deve10pment of Lebanon and the laying down of overall develop- mental plans are those conducted by the IRFED Mission to Lebanon.6 The mission, composed of experts in the fields of education and social sciences, was sponsored by the Lebanese government and entrusted with the responsibility of examining the socio-economic needs of the country and the possibilities of national development. After a thorough study of the socio-economic situation, the Mission came out with many find- ings in light of which it presented suggestions and recommendations that would meet these needs. Furthermore, the Mission laid the foundation of a short-term national plan from 1964 to 1968 that includes target years for education and other sectors in the Lebanese economy. This plan was later adOpted by the Ministry of Planning, with some modification as a guide line for a five-year national plan.7 Lebanese delegation to the "Regional Center for the Training of Advanced Personnel in the Administration of Education in the Arab World," (Beirut), 1961-63. 6L'Institute International de Recherche et de Formation on Vue de Development (IRFED), Besoins et Possibilités de Development du Liban, (Two Volumes and Annex in French), (Beirut), 1961. 7Ministry of Planning, The Five-Year Plan for Economic Development in Lebanon, (Beirut), 1965. g l" 1 , IAA I. :ss ‘ ¢s-~' . a. h; u 5 us 4. .1 AI. R “I .. — . u ;-u .1.5. | ‘Il-s adb.‘ :3» -- ev.;< 5"”. Us.” . .A \L 15 One of the most up-to-date and illustrative studies that has a direct bearing on the problem was that conducted by the team sponsored by the Economic Research Institute at the American University of Beirut, Lebanon.8 The study emphasized the fact that serious thought had not been given, up to that time, to manpower planning or the balanc- ing of manpower resources and requirements in Lebanon. It also made clear that the country was still in the early stages of economic deve10p~ ment, and until recently offered little scope for the utilization of its rapidly increasing number of technical and professional personnel. Among the obstacles to manpower planning in Lebanon, the study indicates to the problems of relating a manpower program to the existing educational system, which was described as a non-coherent mixture of private and public education. A series of related works which are of great value to this study are those initiated and sponsored by the OECD under the Mediterranean Regional Project.9 The purpose of these studies was to examine the social and economic situations of some European countries on the Mediterranean sea. The examination was to be included in reports prepared for the national governments of each country indicating the assessment of the educational needs of these countries until 1975 and recommending plans to meet these needs: 8Simon Siksek, et. a1., Preliminary Assessment of Manpower Resources and Requirements in Lebanon, Economic Research Institute, American University of Beirut, 1960. 9Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development, (OECD) A Series of Publications dealing with economic and social developments in six Mediterranean countries in Europe: Greece, Italy. Portugal, Spain, Turkey,fiand Yugoslavia, (Paris), 1955-1963. 16 Due to the fact that Lebanon, by virtue of being a Mediterranean country, shares many traits with these countries, basically geographic and climatic; it is assumed that it also shares with them similar problems arising from the economic and social situations. Hence, from a comparative viewpoint, solutions, and suggestions addressed to educational problems in these European countries could be applicable, with some modifications, to their counterparts in the educational situation of Lebanon. There are many other works of similar content which have been conducted in other countries that share some commonalities with Lebanon. It is sufficient in this respect to single out the Thai-USOM human resources study.10 The significance of the study inheres in the survey- ing of the socio-economic situation of Thailand and the assessment of the country's needs in the light of the overall social and economic goals of the country. In its methodological and systematic approach to the problem, the Thai Project can be of great value in the building of a methodology to the study. In brief, it may be said in this respect that the progressively increasing studies in educational planning with respect to human resource deve10pment suggests that a remarkable work can be initiated and conducted in educational planning in Lebanon. Definition of Terms This study makes use of some particular terminology, concepts and notions which are defined within the context as follows: 10Thai-080M Project, Preliminary Assessment of Education and and Human Resources in Thailand, 2 Vols., Report of the Joint Task Committee and working Papers, 1963. 17 Educational Planning (like any other planning) is the process of preparing a set of decisions for action in 11 the future. Educational Needs imply values and goals that happen to be held by a society and to the total amount of resources available for the pursuit of those goals. A country's "needs" for education depend upon the criteria selected and even then can be ascertained only in reference to a host of competing needs.12 Manpower Planning the total process by which there is achieved proper development and wise utilization of the human resources of a nation in attaining the objectives to which the nation has committed itself.13 Manpower Requirements the functional (occupational) composition of employment that will be necessary if certain social and/or economic targets are to be achieved. The concept is different from manpower demand in the sense that the latter is used as a schedule of relationships between quantities of labor and a series of possible wage rates. Thus, whereas "manpower demand" is used as an economic concept, "manpower requirements” is used as a technological one.14 11Donald Adams, (editor) Educational Planning, (New York: Syracuse University, 1964), p. 9. ~ 12Parnes, H. S., op. cit., p. 12. 13Siksek, S., et.al., op. cit., p. 24. l4Parnes, H., op. cit., pp. 17-18. g..-v' itv"‘ vv‘g . UAO' EETTC: it"? .. \r .'..>. I'D I'D I—l ._.’ .I‘._rn‘ \¢ '- I Q. “ O. .. 5:, ‘n i ‘A In. dure ‘- :-. ‘1’\ '-)‘l .19. ‘u‘a r; b 'p _!V‘._'A . "C I I}. u" . “:LL: 18 Method and Plan of the Study The study is descriptive and analytic in its nature. It is descriptive in the sense that it includes facts and current conditions to be found in a specific situation and under certain circumstances. It is analytic in that it observes the facts, organizes them and evaluates the findings in the light of pertinent criteria. Out of this analysis conclusions and generalizations can be deduced. In its approach to the problem, the study is theoretical. Essentially, this approach implies the postulation of certain assump- tions and principles that can be investigated and interpreted on a conceptual level. Relevant data and material were collected by two methods: first, through the revision of current literature in the fields of education and known manpower requirements in Lebanon and second, through personal observation and examination of the situa- tion. To accomplish this part of the study, the writer conducted a three month study tour to Lebanon during the summer of 1965. Personal interviews were conducted with concerned authorities in the Ministries of National Education, Economy, Planning and other authorities knowledgeable on human resources. Primary sources were obtained from the above Ministries and offices related to them. It should be made clear at this point that a study of this nature, in order to be valid and meaningful, has to be established on basic data and thoroughly examined information. Accordingly, all data related to the educational aspect of the study were primarily derived from the Statistical Bureau of the Ministry of Education in Beirut. Such data was updated to 1965. Similar data pertaining to 19 The sphere of economy was obtained from reliable sources in that area. However, one should be warned that the concept of "statistics" and "census," as is understood in the Western World, is something new to Lebanon. The scientific method is to a large extent an academic endeavor more than an accepted frame of reference for observing and evaluating data. Consequently, statistics upon which to base accurate estimates and forecasts are either difficult to obtain, and if obtained, are quite often close estimates and approximations to a given situation. Besides, costs fluctuate greatly from year to year in the same manner that Lebanese conditions are changing rapidly. For these reasons any forecasts about the sc0pe of education or economy in Lebanon, five or fifteen years hence, are likely to miss the mark. However, such estimates, whether conceived as enlightened guesses or random projections to present conditions, are better than no estimates at all. It should be borne in mind that the nature of the problem posed by the study is quite thorny and intricate. The writer, by his own individual effort expects no more than to set the ball rolling, by letting the door of inquiry come wide open, for the real task calls for the ingenuity of experts in diverse fields of study. If the present study succeeds in stimulating a prompt and honest exploration of the problem and suggests some new lines of thought in that direction, then it will have served its purpose. Based on the above considerations, collected data and material will be incorporated and organized in the following order: Chapter I Introduction. A preliminary rationale to the problem including the nature, the purpose and methodology of the study. Chapter II Chapter 111 Chapter IV Chapter V Chapter VI 20 A general survey of the Lebanese educational system. The survey covers recent trends of the educational system, aims and philosophy of education, as well as administration and organization of education. The composition and structure of student popula- tion, including distribution of students by educational streams at all levels of the organizational structure of the system, with emphasis on secondary education. The national planning for education. Discussion centers on existing plans, both short and long term, as approved and implemented,with reference to the impact of state policy on educational planning. Discussion is concluded by analysis and evaluation of these plans with respect to overall social and economic goals of the country Educational planning with respect to known manpower requirements. This includes a general survey of the Lebanese economy: its basic characteristics, the size and magnitude of the labor force and the economic and occupational distribution of the population. Overall appraisal of the present human resource situation. This includes an analysis of existing educational capacity in the light of manpower 21 requirements as revealed in the previous chapter. Included also is a comparison between education supply and manpower demand. Chapter VII Setting up a working policy for educational planning. This includes discussion of pertinent issues revealed by the study. Also a suggestion for integrating educational planning with overall national planning and adjustment of education supply to manpower demand. Chapter VIII Conclusions and Recommendations. CHAPTER II A GENERAL SURVEY OF THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM IN LEBANON The educational system in Lebanon, like many other educational systems in the world, functions to meet the competing demands arising from social, cultural, economic and political aspects of the society. These aspects influence, to a great extent, the aims and means of the system, govern its contents and its philosophy. Studying merely the machinery of the system: the administration and organization of educa- tion, the curricula, the teaching methods, and classroom procedures is meaningless without having all these aspects placed in a social cultural context. Consequently, in order to understand, appreciate, and evaluate the meaning and function of the Lebanese educational system, it is essential to become acquainted with its history and tradition and to know something about the underlying forces that govern its administration and organization and ordain on it its unique status. Moreover, such an understanding provides an insight into the system and helps in the clarification of relevant issues affecting the process of educational planning. It is the purpose of this chapter, then, to describe the educational system in Lebanon in terms of its administrative and organizational machinery. Special consideration will be given to the historic background of the system with respect to the social, cultural, and political developments that affected its growth and shaped its 22 23 purposes and philosophy. This does not mean, however, that the descripa tion will be thorough or comprehensive, which is beyond the limits of the chapter. It is rather a general survey with particular emphasis on those aspects of the educational system which are closely related to the development of the study. Historic Background The Lebanese Society is characterized by many features which give it a unique position in the Middle East. Most of these features are derived from historical, geographical, social, and cultural factors. In contrast to many homogenous societies, Lebanon is mainly characterized by the fact that it is composed of different communities that belong to various ethnic, racial, religious, and social groups, which in spite of their differences happen to live in a state of close geographic proximity and social-economic interdependence.1 This state of interdependence was dictated by many factors, namely a network of common interests, protection from foreign invasion, and the maintenance of internal stability and security. Hence, all communities concerned came to an agreement, throughout the ages, upon a peaceful co-existence. Historic developments, later on, left a direct impact on the culture of the society and its ethnic religious structure. Since the days of the Phoenicians, Lebanon was looked at as a refuge of different people and groups who sought liberty and safety in its mountains. This situation became a commonground after the Christian Era. Christians and non-Christians, Arabic and non-Arabic speaking communities came to he 1Albert H. Hourani, Syria and Lebanon, (London: Oxford University Press, 1946), pp. 121-129. 24 Lebanon as minority groups. Being aware of their differences, they were eager to preserve their identity and way of life. Each community governed the personal affairs of its members in accordance with its religious beliefs and traditional practices.2 These conditions were further reinforced by the geographic location of the country. Being located on the eastern shore of the Mediterranean Sea at a central point between three continents: Asia, Africa and Europe, Lebanon had been the crossroads of many cultures and civilizations. Many of the invading powers whether coming from the East or the West left some of their remains in the country. Thus, we can find Phoenician relics side by side with Hittite cuniform, Egyptian hierogliphics, Persian monuments, Greek Sculpture, Roman architecture, Arabic languages and Ottoman rules, all of which con- tributed to the heterogeneity of the Lebanese society.3 Another basic feature of the Lebanese society was that of autonomy. "The Lebanon has through the centuries enjoyed in part or in whole an existence of full or semi-independence. By its very nature, it was the last of the lines to fall into the hands of foreign invaders, and having fallen it was soon found expedient to allow it to persist in its autonomy.“ This situation was best demonstrated under the rule of the Arabs and the Ottoman Turks. The suzerainty of the Arab Caliphs and Ottoman Sultans was purely nominal and strictly 2Philip K. Hitti, Lebanon in History, (London: The Macmillan Press, 1957), pp. 3-10. 31bid. 41bid, p. 8. 25 confined to the collection of tributes and taxes. In succeeding centuries, the rights of the indigenous.communities were further extended, especially so when the Ottoman Empire granted France some capitulations in the Middle East. Under the terms of these capitula- tions France assumed the responsibility of protecting the Christians in that area of the world. Later on, the autonomy of the Greek Orthodox and the different Catholic communities were confirmed and sanctioned by international laws and agreements. After the emergence of Lebanon as a new nation under French mandate in 1920, all existing communities maintained their legal rights by legislation. These rights were confirmed by the Constitution of 1926.6 In 1943, when Lebanon became an independent state, the practiced state of affairs became a tradition. All religious and ethnic groups maintained their judicial and political status, but within the framework of a nation-state. These groups stand in this order: Maronites, Sunni, Shia, Greek Orthodox, Catholics, Armenians, Druze, Protestants, and Jews.7 No single group has the opportunity to become a majority. There seems to be a constant balance of power between the two leading religious groups: Christians and Moslems. This situation resulted undoubtedly in a unique political phenomenon. The whole political life in Lebanon is based on what may SNicola A. Ziadeh, Syria and Lebanon, (New York: Fredrick A. Praeger, 1957), pp. 31-36. 6Kamal, S. Salibi, The Modern History of Lebanon, (New York: Fredrick A. Praeger, 1965), pp. 166-168. 7Hourani, Albert, op. cit., pp. 121-125. 26 be called the "National Pact," which is a gentleman's agreement among the different comunities to live together. The "National Pact" concluded in 1943, on the eve of independence, and may be compared to the "Mayflower Compact," defines Lebanon's personality in view of its special problems. By that definition, Lebanon is an Arab country with a presumed Christian majority.8 According to the terms of the "National Pact“ political power is distributed among the various comunities in relative prOportion to the size of each community as described by the 1932 census. In the same manner, other public offices and positions were distributed athong the citizens. Thus, the President of the Republic should always be a Christian Maronite - the Premier, a Muslim Sunni - the Speaker of the House, a Muslim Shia and so on . . . . In the Cabinet, as well as in the Parliament, all the seats are distributed in a proportionate manner, where the Christian- Muslim ratio should always be 6 to 5. This illustrates the numerical composition of the Parliament, which cOnsists at present of 99 deputies. Viewed from a social-economic perspective, Lebanon may be described as a "classed" but "open" society. Although social strati- fication is not classified according to a universally accepted method, as in the Western World and especially in the United States, there are 8Ome known determinants of social stratification. These are basically family background, real estate, income and education. This social c(unposition was superimposed on the cultural - religious condition of 8Emil Lengyel, The Changing Middle East, (New York: The John Day 00., 1960), p. 185. ‘fl vi ‘- 'a I II. In Vs. I“? 27 the country and the value-orientation of the people. Communities, composed of certain religious and ethnic groups, became through successive historical developments, more influential elements in the social and economic composition of the country than other com- unnuties. For example, some Christian communities, by developing close affiliations with the West, prospered more than other com- munities which remained either isolate or non--commital.9 Social- economic discrepancy resulted in a different distribution of power, basically, political and economic power, a condition which is disc played at present by relentless contest among interest groups, POIitical leaders, and demagogues for the achievement of more power and influence. All these underlying forces were likely to leave a direct ilnPact on the educational system by ordaining on it a unique status “hi-ch is a mixture of all conditions: social, economic, ethnic, religious, and political. Hence, the educational system in Lebanon may best be described as a mixture of sub-systems reflecting a multi- lflicity of interests, aims, and objectives. Conventionally, the system can be classified under two main categories: public and private education. :Public education is the responsibility of the national government t1'lrough the Ministry of Education, and private education is the responsi- bility of individuals or groups outside the domain of the government. w‘hereas public education is free and universal, private education is InOstly tuitional. Whenever private schools are non-tuitional they are \— 9Hourani, Albert, op. cit., pp. 127-128. 28 10 entitled to receive subsidies from the government. With the joint effort of the public and the private sectors, education may be con- ceived of as a partnership between the two sectors. This view is endorsed by Article 10 of the Lebanese Constitution which stipulates that: "Education shall be free insofar as it is not contrary to public order and good morale and does not affect the dignity of any of the several faiths or creeds (Mazaheb). There shall be no violation of the right of the religious communities (Tawaif) to have their own schools provided they comply with the general prescriptions concerning public instruction which is decreed by the state.” The basic characteristics of the educational system, among CHJHEIB, which shall be discussed in the following paragraphs are likely to (Ivershadow any educational reforms or planning that may be envisaged by the educational planner. The Aims and Philosophy of Education When discussing the Lebanese philosophy of education it is very difficult to pinpoint one piece of legislation or delineate a single somrce book-~say a yearbook-wand say these are the contents of that Ffililosophy of education. Basically these materials are non-existent QEgt'se. What may be found under "a philosophy of education" is deducted ‘WY inference from the different legislation of education, from scattered references included in the preamble of the national program of studies, leMm other state messages issued by the government and from the various \— 10Ministry of National Education, A Ministerial Decree on the ‘3? anization of Teachigg Personnel in Private Schools, (Beirut: June 12. 1956), Art. 62. 11The Constitution, (Lebanon: May 27, 1926), Article 10. 29 Ministerial decrees. All these sources combined, plus the existing theories and practices of education in the country, embody among themselves an unstated, but implicit philosophy of education. Based on a free universal education, such a philosophy reflects a strong faith in the dignity of the individual and his right to a free access to education. By extending educational opportunities, there is the belief that an enlightened citizenry is apt to build a sound society. These views are consistent with the aims of education which emphasize the development of the productive and good citizen who knows his rights and is aware of his obligations.12 Evidence shows that more than 851 of the country's population are literate.13 Trends indicate a strong commitment to education on the part of the people. Practically, all the Lebanese value education. This is expressed by their increasing demand for schools. These demands are met with the establishment of more schools and the preparation and recruitment of more teachers. The underlying philosophy of education runs parallel to the social and cultural developments described in the previous section of this chapter. It may be summed up under two main views: national objectives and individual interests. On the national level, the system aims at the maintenance of political stability, the promotion of economic prosperity, and the observance of cultural unity. These objec- tives are strongly needed in a country composed of diverse religious 12Ministry of National Education, The Proggam of Studies, (Beirut), 1946. 13Ibid., Educational Statistics on level of literacy in Lebanon, (Beirut), 1965. 30 and ethnic groups. Based on these considerations, the educational system acts as a unifying factor bringing together all the cultural elements in the society under one national goal. This task is accom- plished through a prescribed national curriculum and the usage of one common language of instruction. On the individual level, the educational system is meant to provide the citizen with the proper experiences and knowledge that help him develop his potentialities and actualize his aspirations. For the achievement of these aims, the educational system was organized along lines which are congenital with the nature of the Lebanese society and compatible with both national objectives and individual needs. In both theory and practice, the system reckons with the diversity of the cultural elements that constitute the society and with the multiplicity of the expectations and aspirations of the citizens. To cater to these competing demands, equality of educational opportunity is provided to all the citizens irrespective of their religious, ethnic, social and economic background. The system makes clear that education is obligatory and free at the primary level, free and optional at the secondary level, and available, with nominal fees, at the higher level. Every six year old child is accepted in primary schools, and all children, after obtaining the primary certificate of studies, are admitted to the first year of upper primary or secondary education. Successful graduates from these schools are qualified to pursue their education in higher institutes of learning or to enter vocational, technical, teaching or military schools in the country.14 14Lebanese Delegate to the Regional Training Center of Advanced Personnel in the Administration of Education, A Panoramic Survey of Education in the Lebanese Republic., Vol. 1, (Beirut), 1961. 31 However, a closer examination of the educational aims as being stated in the preamble of the program of studies would reveal that there are at least three distinct sets of aims: general aims, aims of primary education and aims of secondary education. General Aims. Are basically concerned with the preparation of .the whole man, the thoughtful citizen and the active member of society. Thus preparation rests on three foundations: spiritual, intellectual, and physical education. Spiritual education is based on the idea of God and His relation to creation. It is based on the respect of human personality and the worthwhileness of the individual. It also takes into account "a hierarchy of values" from matter-to mind-to soul. It is based on the practice of the rights and duties of man.15 Intellectual education is based on the fostering of correct habits of thinking and reasoning. It is based on the observation and adequate evidence arrived at by empirical and logical methods. Such methods are meant to help the student tackle successfully the current problems of life.16 Physical education aims at strengthening the body through physical exercises and athletics. These practices are deemed conducive in the promotion of health and beauty in the youth.17 15 Ministry of Education, The Program of Studies, (Beirut: 1946), P.16. 16 Ibid. 17 Ibid. CHVC slug no t .1 L1. n: >1 a l O ‘ ‘X‘, ‘P n“¥, 32 Aims of Primary Education. These aims are two fold: on the one hand, primary education is to be considered as an independent unit ending with the primary certificate of study. Presumably, this stage is considered to be terminal. It provides students with practical education that would prepare them for trades and vocations and other means of making a living. On the other hand, primary education may be considered a first step on an educational ladder leading to secondary and higher levels of education. In either case, the broad purpose of primary education is to create within the individual an awareness of his place in society. This purpose implies the promotion of native aspiration and the cultiva- tion of innate abilities of the child in order to develop an independent personality based on self respect. Translated in terms of behavioral patterns, these purposes imply the teaching of the history and geography of the country, with native language being the essential medium of instruction and communication. The basic knowledges of reading, writing, and arithmetic occupy a central position in the curriculum. With respect to methodology, the program of studies states explicitly that the aims of primary education should be realized through methods compatible with individual capacities, especially during the early stages of the child's growth. The teacher should instill in his student the love of his country and foster within him a proud feeling of his nationality and the good deeds of his nation accomplished, especially those deeds that contributed directly to the improvement of the human society and world civilization. 33 The teacher also should take into account the theory of the "whole child" and use it as a guideline in his teaching. He should be aware of the integrity of the personality of the student. He should be able to channel all divergent methods in the educative process in a way where they converge into the broad aims of primary education. Aims of Secondary Education. Taking a different tone and emphasis from elementary education, secondary education may be considered essentially an academic or liberal arts education. The broad purpose of secondary education is to select and train the gifted youth of the country. It is geared toward the training of the intellect and orientation of the mind to carry out the major responsi- bilities in current life. Also it is meant to prepare the youth for professional and specialized education. Secondary education, in this sense may be described rightfully as college preparatory education. Derived from these aims, methods of instruction at this level concentrate on the quality of teaching rather than quantity. Emphasis is placed on the theoretical and logical evidence more than the practical and pragmatic consequences of the act. To achieve its aims, secondary education runs in two parallel lines: literary and scientific. Both branches and with the high school diploma-othe Lebanese Baccalauréat, Parts I and II, which upon attainment, qualify the student to enter college. Vocational, and technical education, and teacher education, though they run parallel to the secondary level, will be discussed separately. Few observations can be drawn with regard to the aims of educa- tion that may help later on in the examination and evaluation of both 34 the aims and means of education and the establishment of some functional relationships between these two phases of education. Taken by their surface value, these aims in general sound noble and superb. They reflect a highly selected set of ideals and principles that the human mind ever aspires to attain. A closer examination of these aims, however, is likely to generate some questions about their validity and feasibility. First, to what extent are these aims implementable? or attainable? Are they merely a set of utopian ideas, to be considered, but never to be realized, or could they be translated into a workable program--say a curriculum? Is there evidence so far, at least in terms of observed behavior of the people, that these aims are being realized in part or in whole? Evidence so far indicates that there is a wide gap between these aims and the educational practices in the country and that whatever is prescribed in the preamble of the program of studies is not put in practice in terms of concrete behavioral conduct on the part of the teacher and the learner. The Administration of Education The Lebanese educational system may be described as a highly centralized system. All matters of educational legislation, decrees, and laws are issued from one center--the central administration in the capital. Both support and control of public education are vested in one governmental agency, the Ministry of Education. Administratively, the Ministry is structured on a hierarchical line of authority that runs from the Minister of Education down to the maintenance personnel 18Najwa Assayed, SecondaryAEducatign in Lebanon: Aims and Means. (in Arabic) (An unpublished Masters Thesis), American University of Beirut, 1960. vn' V'; ,.. E.»- I. V'- ,5 ‘K 3‘;— 1': ,_,.' l...‘ v .¢.~ A ,I. ‘t-. “A , c ‘bl . q . i 35 in the lowest echelons. This situation is best illustrated under two interrelated aspects: the machinery of administration and the financing of education. The Administrative Machinery Essentially, the administrative machinery includes the various offices, departments and personnel that fall under the domain of the Ministry of Education. The person in charge of this machinery is the "Minister of National Education and Fine Arts." The office of the Minister is accountable to the Cabinet, which is, in its turn, accountable to the House of Deputies. ' The Minister of Education is assisted by the Director-General who is appointed to this position for an indefinite term. The Director- General, though held directly responsible to the Minister, is the‘brain worker'of the machinery. Whereas the destiny and durability of the Minister is directly associated with that of the Cabinet which is a political body and influenced by the political atmosphere of the country, the Director-General is outside this body. He, in fact, gives the position a character of stability and durability. Working closely with the Directorwceneral and accountable, in turn, to his office are the eight directors in the Ministry of Education. These directors are in charge of the following offices:19 The Lebanese University Primary and Upper Primary Education Secondary Education 19Ministry of Education, Legislative Decree No. 26 concerning the Administration and organization of Education, (Beirut), 1955. 36 Vocational and Technical Education Teacher Education The National Conservatory of Music The National Library The Antiquities The central administration itself is divided into six sub- divisions. These are:20 Directorate-General of Education Chief of the Cabinet Educational and Cultural Affairs Inspection of Instruction Office of the Finances Regional Administration Regional Administration covers such responsibilities as the recruitment and appointment of inspectors for primary schools and supervisors for district offices. Besides that, regional administration is in direct charge of the supervision of educational affairs in the four administrative regions into which Lebanon is divided. These are: Northern Lebanon, with Tripoli as its center Mount Lebanon, with Ba'abdah as its center The Biqa', with Zahle as its center South Lebanon with Sidon as its center As a matter of fact, there is a fifth administrative region in the country, which is Beirut, the capitol. Because the Ministry of education is located in that city, hence, the educational affairs of Beirut fall under the direct auspices of the central administration. 201616. 37 Figure 1, illustrates the administrative structure of the educational system in Lebanon. In terms of relationship of the Ministry of Education with other government agencies and how decisions are made and followed up on policy level and work level, these aspects will be discussed in Chapter IV under the impact of state policy on educational planning. The Fipancigg of Education The second related area that forms the vital nerve or moving power in the administration of education is finances. It was mentioned earlier that public education is both controlled and supported by the Ministry of Education. This involves, by definition, the financing of the system by revenues derived solely from public funds which are appropriated by the national budget. Hence, the expenditure of the Ministry of Education, which is about 152 of the national budget, is earmarked by government legislation. The Ministry distributes its budget among the various directorates and educational offices in a proportionate manner depending on recurrent expenditure and operational funds. Recurrent expenditure includes mainly salaries hf personnel both instructional and administrative and other items that appear from.year to year. Operational funds include the construction of school buildings, purchasing of new materials and equipment and other new investments in education. Extra appropriations for some educational areas are: research, publications, and scholarships. These are arrived at as a result of political atmosphere or emphasis on some areas in the system that require mere investment, such as, extra appropriations to primary education in order to secure free and universal education to the increasing student 38 The Administrative Strtciure of the Educational System Ministry of National Education F-"—'__]T__— __________ |_" h'_'1 l I :l I I The Lebanese I: Directorate General : Directorate Gen University :I of National Education I of Antiquities {I I i ' I I ————————— | I I"" ‘J — -—-—-*~ —-- I l l I i 1 National | Teacher Excava- The Cunaetvaiu VOC. & Tech. Ed. I Educa- tions Museum of Music I tion I r--—-—--—-—-l———-———--—--. . I 1 Dept. of Common The Central Office Regional Affairs Adminis. I | T I | ' L i -- Wi— r--—T-‘- I— —T‘--T r-—~ --- I" ‘T "I _; _|_ | I U! I) a o. a i O w-G a O I} 2 '37. '3 3 o 13‘ '2: a t: a o u u u u u u a a c c o u o u a :‘a m m c D c u o u c G G a H u u m H a m h o N a 5 u 5 a £2; H H I—HH O u t: u m 0 on 8—D - .0 a .. a: s 3 z:- 2 t. “a :I ’ 3 9:: E’. 8 m a: H a. .3 I I"— ——T"~-— ~—+————‘T—— ‘—-'I I I I l l Primary Secondary ;Physical Private State IEducation Education ‘ Education Education Emminatkms Figure l 39 population at that level, and more investments in higher education for the provision of adequate personnel on administrative and professional levels. Table 1 illustrates the appropriations to education in relation to the total national budget. The distribution of educational resources among the directorates of public instruction is illustrated in Table 2. Recent trends indicate closer cooperation between the Ministry of Education and the private sectors on the local community level. This cooperation is manifested in the joint efforts of both public and private sectors for the construction of school buildings. The Ministry of Education established in 1953 an independent treasury for that purpose. This treasury is financed by many revenues, mainly a 51 taxation derived from construction permits.21 Other sources contributing to that fund are derived from registration for public examination and nominal fees collected by public schools at the beginning of each scholastic year. Other sources are derived from anonymous donations. This trend reflects, in fact, the spirit of partnership in the support and control of education. Local communities seeking the con- struction of a school building must provide at least the land for that and other maintenance expenses, while the Ministry takes care of the construction and operation of the school. Such trends reflect a move toward decentralization where local communities are having more say in the affair of education.22 Private schools represent the other extreme of a decentralized system of education. 21Ministry of Education: Educational Legislation withiregard to Independent Treasury for the Construction of School Buildingg, (Beirut), 1953. 22 Ibid. , Comittee on Educational Planning. A Proposed Recom- mendation for the Decentralization of Education, (Beirut), 1965. 40 TABLE 1 APPROPRIATIONS TO EDUCATION IN RELATION TO TOTAL NATIONAL BUDGET (IN LEBANESE POUNDS)* 1951 - 19658 Year Educational Expenditure National Budget Percent of Total 1951 9,762,837 90,051,120 10.84 1952 9,995,130 88,509,851 11.29 1953 11,687,903 96,308,967 12.13 1954 13,051,816 111,182,939 11.73 1955 16,274,935 132,376,965 12.29 1956 17,355,889 161,348,024 10.76 1957 21,220,209 192,466,137 11.02 1958 25,678,390 181,162,233 14.17 1959 28,007,145 198,571,296 14.11 1960 28,715,170 243,087,753 11.81 1961 36,374,451 269,260,306 13.5 1962 42,172,738 415,278,121 10.16 1963 56,223,900 425,400,000 13.21 1964 63,399,100 476,400,000 13.58 1965 74,233,600 514,790,000 14.45 *Each Lebanese pound (LL) is equivalent to $0.33 aMinistry of Finance, Annual Bulletin on The National Budget. (Beirut), 1957-1965. .6.“ A ooe.mm~.en ooa.amm.ne ooa.m-.em mm~.~ma.~a Hme.eam.em oea.maa.m~ maa.aoo.o~ omm.mne.m~ no~.o-.a~ new.mnm.aa awmum oom.ee~.~ oom.eoo.a oom.oee.a mem.awa aom.mnm mam.wmm eeo.amm.a ene.mam mae.mwm flaw.em~ .oaeu em“ ooa.woe.m oo~.aee.n ooo.eaa.m -e.~ea.a Hme.~mo.a mua.ame man.eaa ama.ae~ ae~.oam amm.ae~ .uaeu a...“ ooe.aa~.a ooe.ea~.m ooa.-a.~ mao.amm.a aae.emm.a eNm.oam.H nem.am~.a use.eea.e eam.emo.a en~.mmm Hosea ewe amcowu Imuo> ooa.emm.a oom.m~H.e ooe.wem.m moa.moa.~ soa.oom.~ mem.-w.a o-.eom.a -a.ea~.a mom.ae~.a mwa.wwe .6ae a... oom.oem.oa oom.eme.em oo~.mem.am tee.hee.m~ mmm.mnm.m~ uao.m~e.mH anm.aam.wa moa.aee.wa eem.omm.ea ene.aam.aa sawmmm mama «and mesa Nona acme oeaa mama mama Nana emma ; emcee - emaa ZOHHummcooom _E._-I._:I_ E..E. _ _caomoH«cm mumueuea _ _|L N | 0 II n GOAUQOQVN _ _ fill; zhmswwm Home: _ _ _.I.INI'.. _ E -_ coaumoamm genomes _ _ _ m _I N I a J _ eoaaaoaem bear—a “ _ ;.I.:._I_.._I- Hechauem _ - "ucmusmummx mew Huuom_ wcucuuuh you goonom . _ _m 1+ ~ .I. a eel I..: n I. ~ .J_—_—L :Oaumosmm uocwfi: _ . _ A _ II cogu4osvm _ cIél m I. N I H I; Hmowcnuoa can Hucowucoo> _ , huevcooum “ zumaaum _ _e_alel_m.ralmINI-c ow< chwmoaocouno n.» 44 immediate life situations and to train for leadership and higher occupations. Students who are expected to leave the system at the completion of six years of schooling are provided with the basic knowl- edges of reading, writing, and arithmetic. They are supposed to be absorbed by the economy that requires unskilled and semi-skilled labor. For those who wish, and are able, to continue their education, the doors of higher levels of education are open to them. The status of primary education is based on both legal and procedural foundations. Decrees number 6998 and 7002 dated October 1, 1946, govern the programs of studies and tests in primary schools.23 Legislative decrees number 25 and 26 of 1955, define explicitly the role 24 These decrees stipulate that a primary and nature of primary education. school is to be established in every village and local district where there are thirty or more children of primary school age. The same policy applies to schools for girls, though the number required in this case should be fifty. If there is no girls“ school, then girls to the age of twelve may enroll in the schools for boys. This shows that public education is separate (in terms of sex) and the education of girls is less emphasized than that of boys—-as indicated by the minimum number of girls required for the opening of a public school. Each public primary school has a principal in charge, sometimes called "director" or "first-teacher." The principal is assisted by one or two supervisors, depending on the size of the school and the number 23Ministry of Education, Government Decrees Concerning the Legislation of Education, (Beirut), 1946. 24Ibid. 45 of students. An average size school of 150 students has one principal, one supervisor and five teachers. Generally, the principal is in charge of administrative affairs. However, when the school has less than 12 teachers, he is assigned instructional duties. The same provisions apply to the function of the school supervisor. From an organizational standpoint, primary education lasts five years (known as "sanats"). These years correSpond to the first five grades in American elementary schools. Every school year at this level must correspond to a given age of the child. For example, a child of age six must be enrolled in grade one, age seven grade two, and so on. Nevertheless, this rule is not observed closely, especially in rural areas where children do not attend school regularly. Another similar characteristic is the grade-pupil ratio. Theoretically, each grade should consist of thirty students. Practically, this rule is quite often overlooked. Due to the steady and progressive increase of student enrollment and the shortage of teachers and school buildings, it is not unfamiliar to find crowded classrooms that exceed the maximum limit per grade. This situation will be further explained in subsequent parts of the study. School and state examinations are the crowning part of primary education. In general, pupils at this level sit for a school examina- tion at the end of each term. The third term examinations, consisting of written and oral tests, cover all the material studied during the academic year. More important than school examinations, are the external (state) examinations. Basically, these cover the major areas studied in school, 46 namely: arithmetic, composition, dictation, history and geography, nature study, drawing (for boys) and knitting (forgirls). Successful candidates of state examinations receive in recognition, the preparatory primary studies certificate (Shahadat Al-Ibtidaiyyat AleI'd‘adiyyat). On completion of this level, successful students are qualified to pursue their secondary education, to enter a vocational school or to seek a living. Upper Primary and Secondary Education This level of education, of 7 year duration, includes two over- lapping levels: upper primary and secondary education proper. The upper primary level, of a'4 year duration, corresponds with the first four years of secondary education. However, students enrolled in upper primary schools are required to sit for a state examination at the com- pletion of the fourth year, whereas students enrolled in secondary schools, pe£_gg. are not required to do so. The significance of this distinction is that upper primary education is meant to prepare students for vocational and technical education, teacher education, and those occupations that require 4 years of schooling beyond the primary level. Secondary education, on the other hand is college oriented, it is meant to prepare students for the professions and higher level of occupations that require a minimum of six years of schooling beyond primary education.25 From an organizational view-point the 4-3 sub-levels of secondary education correspond to the American junior and senior high school. The first four years of that stage may be classified as general education. 25Ministry of Education, Pregram of Studies, Preamble, 1946. 47 The remaining three years run in two courses: literary and scientific. After the completion of the sixth year of their secondary education students are expected to sit for a state examination, known as the Baccalaureate Part I. At the conclusion of the seventh year (the last year of secondary education) another state examination is conducted under two separate branches: philosOphy and mathematics. This is known as the Baccalaureat Part II. Successful candidates in either Part are qualified to enter any higher institution of learning in the country. From an administrative view-point, the inclusion of upper primary education under secondary education proper is likely to result in a tech- nical misnomer which requires some clarification. Administratively, secondary education is controlled, like primary education, by a separate directorate headed by the director of secondary education. Legally, upper primary education falls under the jurisdiction of the directorate of primary education. By definition, upper primary education means a complementary stage of primary education proper. This situation is illustrated in the chart on the organization of education. (p.43) Technically, the situation is resulting in many paradoxes and inconveniencies which are subject to controversy and debate. ‘For example, a student attending the upper four grades of a primary school is taught by a primary school teacher, who is at best a graduate of primary teachers institutes and at worst, has a secondary school diploma. Whereas, a student attending the lower four grades of a secondary school is taught by a teacher who has professional training in education and is a graduate of the Higher Teachers'Institute. Thus, the discrepancy in equalizing educational opportunities beocmes clearly observable. 48 A question may be raised in this respect: who should sit for upper primary examinations and why? Some views are in support of making the examination obligatory for all students completing the fourth year beyond primary education, while others urge these examinations be dropped altogether.26 Another question to be considered is the position of the upper elementary level in the educational system. Some views consider this level to be a residue of a dual system and should be eliminated altogether. A new organization structure, more consistent with the views and philosophy of education should be designed.27 Other views hold to the support of this level, because it has been there. Higher Education Higher education is the last stage in the academic stream. The purpose of this stage is to prepare the youth for professional and specialized occupations, as well as to train for leadership. Higher education extends from two to seven years depending on the nature of the course of study or the selected field of specialization. At present there are nine institutes of higher learning that are all located in the capital city of Beirut, or its environs. The institutes are: The American University established 1866 The University of St. Joseph " 1875 Beirut College for Women " 1924 26Ministry of Education, Committee on Curriculum Development, A Proposed Plan for a New Program of Studies, (Beirut), 1965. 27Committee on Educational Planning, Suggested Recommendations for the Organization of the Educational System, (Beirut), 1965. 49 The Lebanese Academy established 1937 Middle East College " 1939 Centre d'Etudes Superieures " 1944 The Lebanese University " 1951 Beirut Arab University " 1960 Baptist School of Theology " 1964 Among all these institutions, the only State University is the Lebanese University. The remainder are private institutions operated either by natives or by foreign agencies and missions. In this chapter the discussion will be focused on the Lebanese University as a representa- tive of higher education. The Lebanese University started in 1951 as a higher teacher's institute and a research center with the specific task of preparing teachers for secondary education. At that time, the program of studies contained basically general and specialized courses in educatior geared toward the teaching on a secondary school level. This was the case until 1959. From that date on, the University grew at a more progressive rate. It expanded in terms of its student enrollments and its faculties and departments. In 1965 the Lebanese University had an enrollment of 5,230 students in comparison to the 100 students enrolled in 1951.28 A similar growth took place in the different branches and course offerings. By 1965 the University had the following schools and institutes: The School of Arts, the School of Sciences, the School of Law, Economics and Political Science, Higher Teachers' Institute, 28 Ministry of Education, Bureau of Educational Statistics, Statistical Data on Higher Education in Lebanon, (Beirut), 1965. 50 the Institute of Social Sciences and the Institute for Financial and 29 Administrative Studies. Admission to the Lebanese University is based on the Lebanese Baccalaureat Part II, plus a competitive entrance examination. The period of study ranges from four to five years. Courses are ended by a final examination and successful candidates are awarded a degree equivalent to the Masters Degree. Teacher Education Students planning a teaching career may enter primary teacher education schools (sometimes called normal schools) in order to teach in elementary schools, or enter the higher teachers' institute in order to teach in secondary schools. Teacher education, in Lebanon, although started during the second decade of this century grew at a very slow and staggering pace. Until 1943 there was only one teacher institute located in Beirut, 30 With an enrollment of less than 30 students. Within a period of 20 Years the number of institutes grew to five, with a student enrollment 0f about 1,500.31 Primary teacher education is the sole responsibility 0f the government as there are no private primary schools for teacher education. Selection of students for teacher education is based on the uPper primary certificate (the Brevet). In addition to that a student —‘ 29Ibid, Ministegial decrees concerning the Administration apd 2£82§i§ation of the Lebanese University, (Beirut), 1955. 3 0George Murr, An Analytic Study of Teacher Education Curricula 12_Lshgggp, (in Arabic) an unpublished Master's Thesis, American University of Beirut,1962. 31Ministry of Education, Directorate of Teacher Education, Statistical Data on Growth of Teacher Educatipp, (Beirut), 1965. 51 has to pass a competitive entrance examination. Once accepted and admitted to the institute, the student receives a monthly allowance of 90 Lebanese pounds. In return, he has to sign a four year contract for teaching in public schools. A violation of the terms of the contract results in the payment of all fees and expenses by the student. The curriculum of primary teacher education is of three-year duration. It consists of academic (general) and professional (specialized) courses in education. Academic courses include languages, history, geography, and other courses which are general in their nature. Specialized courses include the history of education, child psychology, and other courses dealing with methods of instruction and other educational theories. Besides that, students are required to do practice teaching for a certain number of hours during their third year. Practice teaching is usually done at adjoining laboratory schools, or in any other primary school in the area. Table 3 shows the contents of the Teacher Education Curriculum distributed on the three year program. TABLE 3 WEEKLY TIME TABLE OF PRIMARY TEACHERS' INSTITUTESc Number of Hours Course lst. yr. 2nd. yr. 3rd. yr. Arabic 8 4 2 French 8 4 2 History 1 1 - cMinistry of Education, Directorate of Teacher Education, Teacher Education Curricula, (Beirut), 1965. 52 TABLE 3 WEEKLY TIME TABLE OF PRIMARY TEACHERS' INSTITUTES (continued) Number of Hours Course lst. yr. 2nd. yr. 3rd. yr. Geography 2 2 - Natural Science ' 2 2 1 Health Education 1 l - Physics 2 l 2 Chemistry 2 2 - Mathematics 2 2 2 Music 1 l 1 Drawing 1 1 l Moral Education & Civics - 2 2 Physical Education 1 l 1 Sociology - 1 1 Education (in Arabic) - 2 6 Education (in French) - 2 ‘ 4 Child Psychology - 2 2 Preparing Educational Materials 1 1 l. Home Economics (for girls) 1 1 3 Agriculture (for boys) ._1 ‘_1 ,_2 Totals 33 33 33 Table 3 indicates that emphasis is being placed on general education during the first two years, whereas, during the third year emphasis is on specialized education. 53 The teacher education program is concluded with a final examina- tion conducted by the directorate of teacher education. Successful graduates are required to teach one year on probation before they obtain permanent tenure. Vocational and Technical Education It is very difficult to present a thorough account on vocational and technical education in Lebanon. There are many impeding factors since this phase of education is still undergoing a transitory and experi- mental process. As will be disclosed in subsequent chapters, many reforms and modifications have already been introduced into these schools and other modifications are being contemplated by official authorities. 1 Another factor which makes tflie study of vocational and technical education quite thorny is closely related to the scope, function, and control of this kind of education. These schools, like their counterparts in the academic stream, are the shared responsibility of public and private sectors. Data on private vocational and technical schools, though obtain- ‘able, is quite elusive and questionable. Furthermore, the nature of courses given at these schools is wide in its scope. It ranges from the highly technical to the very practical, which requires a separate study by its own. In line with the purpose of this chapter, a brief account will be presented in the following paragraphs concerning the nature and function 'of vocational and technical education. Further details will be presented when this area is discussed under subsequent chapters. Administratively, vocational and technical education, falls under a special directorate, headed by the director of vocational and technical 54 education. The director is assisted by an advisory board composed of representatives from the Ministries of Public Labor, National Economy, Finance and the Union of Engineers and Industrial Workers. _The board is under the chairmanship of the Director-General of Education.32 From an organizational viewpoint, this phase of education may be classified under three main categories; vocational education, technical education and commerce education. In terms of their ascending order in the educational ladder these categories can be grouped under two levels: (a) primary and (b) secondary schools. Vocational-Technical Schools on the Primary Level Admittance to these schools require the primary certificate and the passing of a competitive entrance examination conducted and administered by the directorate of vocational and technical education. The period of specialization at this level extends from three to four years. The pur- pose of this level is to prepare students for various occupations that require basic skills in such fields as carpentry, blacksmithing, mechanics, chemical work, painting, radio, and car repairs. The curriculum at this level includes courses that are in line with the requirements of the above mentioned occupations. In its nature, the curriculum combines between theoretical and practical education. .On the theoretical level, the following courses are given: Arabic, French, Mathematics, Physics, Chemistry, Mechanics, History, and Geography, Civics, and Moral Education. 0n the practical level, the courses include Industrial 32 UNESCO, World Survey of Education, (printed in France, 1955), psi 4180 " 55 Training, General Mechanics, Car Mechanics, Radio Repairing, Electrical 33 Work, Aviation, Printing and Metal Werk. Vocational Technical Schools On the Secondary Level This level is more oriented to technical education. As a matter of fact, secondary vocational and technical educationis confined to one 'school with two branches both located adjacent to each other in the vicinity of Beirut. These are the School of Arts and Crafts, and the Training School fer Hotel and Restaurant Personnel. The period of specialization in the School of Arts and Crafts is of a four-year duration. Only students who have obtained the upper primary certificate (the Brevet) as a minimum are admitted, provided they pass a competitive entrance examination. Once admitted students may enroll in either one of the following programs: building and civil engineering, electro-mechanics, radio, television, industrial chemistry or topography. The program at this level makes provision for students upon graduation to transfer to a higher institute of learning and pursue their specialization in a professional or technical education program. The Training School for Hotel and Restaurant Personnel is the only school of its kind in Lebanon. Essentially, the program of the school is divided into two levels: a primary level of 3 year duration and a secondary level of 6 year duration. The primary level trains students for skilled work in hotels and restaurants. The secondary level aids at Vtraining hotel managers, chefs, and highly skilled personnel in that area. 33The‘Ministry of Education, Directorate of Vbcational and Technical Education, Curriculum of Vocational and Technical Schools, (Beirut), 1965. 56 It is noteworthy to say at this point that vocational and technical education is t:he center of debate and controversy and is being recently given more consideration by both official authorities and the public. Why this concern and attention? This will be further explored when discussing vocational and technical education with respect to known manpower requirements in the country. Adult Education I It is more appropriate to say in this respect that there are adults ‘attending training schools more than to talk in terms of adult education, per se, because adult education is a recent innovation in the country. Whatever adult education is available is exclusively the responsibility of private agencies and institutions. Hence, it is outside the domain of public education. Most of adult education programs are restricted to evening schools. These schools offer classes that correspond to and extend throughout secondary education. Courses prepare students, especially those who are unable to attend regular schools, for the Baccalaugéeg examinations and other occupations requiring high school education or its equivalent. Evening school programs are very condensed, instead of the 30 weekly hours of secondary school program, there are 18 hours: three hours each evening, six days a week from 6:00 p. m. These courses include Arabic, a foreign language, mathematics, science, history and geography. The main purpose of adult education is to assist those who wish to continue their studies until the high school level, and to qualify, them for either promotion on the job or to seek better economic opportunities. The major drawback of adult education as it is being carried on, is the lack of attention it receives from official authorities and the public. 57 This makes adult education lack a social status and recognition. Hence its standards tend to be low as demonstrated by their poor results through state examination. Summagy In the light of what has been presented in this chapter it becomes readily apparent that the educational system in Lebanon is the outcome of social cultural and religious developments that prescribed its contents and governed its aims and philosophy. The present educational system is the shared responsibility of governmental, lay and religious institutions. This fact demonstrates a unanimous agreement among the populace concerning the role and place of education in the society. Education is considered as a means of achieving national objectives and realizing individual aspirations. Hence, the aims and philosophy of education were the idealization of national goals and ' preparation for good citizenship. The curriculum was presumably meant to be the translation of these aims and objectives. Being cognizant of the cultural diversity of the Lebanese Society, the administrative machinery of the system was highly centralized. The purpose behind that was the achievement of cultural unity, political stability, iand economic prosperity. In accordance with these principles one prescribed curriculum was put in effect, one major language of instruction to be followed by all the schools and externalcstate examinations to be the universal rule in certification of education. Patterned on this administrative design, the organization of education followed the same channels. Through a presumably one ladder of education 58 that runs from primary through secondary to higher education, educational opportunities were extended to all the citizens. However, each level throughout the organizational structure is crowned by a state examination. The same principles apply to vocational and technical education and teacher education. Finally, it has been shown how students are channelled through the organizational structure of the educational system. Due to the importance of this area in terms of its direct bearing on the problem, it will be discussed further in the next chapter. CHAPTER III THE STRUCTURE AND COMPOSITION OF STUDENT POPULATION Educational developments in Lebanon during the last two decades reflect an increasing growth of education through the country as, well as an increasing concern among the populace concerning the role that education can play in the life of individuals and the society. There is ample evidence in support of educational growth in Lebanon. From a quantitative aspect, statistics show that education is expanding in terms of increasing school buildings, student enroll- ments, teacher recruitment and appropriations of funds for the maintenance and operation of education. From a qualitative aspect, there is an urgent desire on the part of official authorities to seek means and alternatives for a better standard of education. This process involves the improvement of teaching quality, the revision of curricula, the determination of a desirable teacher-student ratio and student-classroom ratio. All these views and trends are derived from the belief that education can play a vital role in the social and economic development of the country. This belief is coupled with other views that conceive of education as a main channel for social mobility, better occupations and a status-symbol. It is for these reasons that public and private sectors are competing among themselves to meet the increasing demand on the part of the public for education. Although the motives and objectives of each sector may differ, both agree, however, that the more 59 60 schools, the more teachers and the more students, the more likely the results to be better opportunities, more enlightened citizenry and a better society. Having reached this stage of its development a few questions may be raised about the educational system with respect to its role and function. Does the educational system as it functions at present provide for better opportunities? Are the educational streams channelled in such a way to prepare youth for persistent life situations? Are the activities and policies of public and private sectors coordinated in relation to the achievement of overall national objectives? If so, does this coordination demonstrate itself in a systematic educational plan? If not, what evidence is there to show on what grounds each sector may lay its policy of action? Although these questions may not be answered fully in this chapter, it would be sufficient to use them as guidelines in pursuing the inquiry about the place of the educational system in the development of human resources. Essentially, it is the purpose of this chapter to discuss the educational system in terms of its structure and composition and the distribution of student papulation on all the educational streams. The discussion involves logically a description of the quantitative aspects of education, namely the schools, the teachers, the students and their respective position in the system. It also involves the examination of the productive capacity of the educational system in terms of its accommodation to the population which is of school age and their placement in the approprinte streams. The discussion is carried at this level on two lines of reasoning. First, it is aimed 61 at furnishing as much background on the quantitative aspects of education, namely on student population. Second, the aim is to stimulate further thinking on the productive capacity of the educational system in terms of its preparing youth for known manpower requirements in the country. Because the study is basically concerned with educational plan- ning for middle level manpower requirements, emphasis is placed on the secondary level of education. This includes the academic stream, as well as the corresponding streams in vocational, technical and teacher education. The discussion does not exclude, however, the other levels of the educational system which will be included in order to present a full configuration of the educational scene. Finally, in order to place student population in focus with the total population of the country, it is essential to present a brief demographic overview of the papulation and its distribution of age, sex and geographic regions. This presentation may be of great help in successive parts of the study in tracing population trends in the country and determining the size and magnitude of the labor force and other related factors on population. A Demggraphic Overview It is difficult to give an accurate figure on the present popula- tion of Lebanon. This is due mainly to the lack of vital statistics information. The few published documentaries on births, deaths, sex ratio and other ecological data are not accurate and at times may be misleading. Hence, this area has to be investigated with reference to the available data provided from primary and secondary sources and 62 it has to be assumed that such data is valid and reliable until evidence to the contrary is presented. The last complete census officially conducted in the country dates back to 1932. At that time the total population numbered 793,4261 Since then, various attempts have been made to assess the increase in population., These estimates in their majority have been based on administrative returns and data, both complete and incomplete, derived from the national registry and other official bureaus of census in the country. Recently the Directorate of Central Statistics, a semi- autonomous branch of the Ministry of National Planning, has been entrusted with the responsibility of coordinating and computing all statistical data pertaining to the different aspects of the society. Through a monthly bulletin issued by the directorate, ecological data is given in terms of marriages, divorces, births, and death rates in the various; regions of the country. The latest figure on population according to the Directorate of Central Statistics as it was in 1965 is 2,151,884.2 But no breakdown of that figure is given in terms of sex, age, or geographic distribution. The most comprehensive data on population which are used as an authoritative source, though they date back to 1954, are those issued by the IRFBD Mission. The Mission, in a pilot study conducted in 1959 and based on administrative returns from 1953, came up with figures on the growth and composition of population in Lebanon. At that time the 1 Ministry of Interior, General Directorate of National Registry, Statistical Data on Population Growth in Lebanon. Beirut, 1965. 2Ministry of Planning, Directorate of Central Statistics, The Monthly Statistical Bulletin, Vol. 3, No. 1, (March 1965), pp. 8-9. ll 63 'registered population was 1,416,570. This figure includes Lebanese nationals who have emigrated since 1924, but excludes resident aliens, such as Palestinian refugees who numbered 102,000 at that time, plus other citizens from neighboring Arab countries and other foreigners. The Mission's figure of l,626,000.became universally accepted and may be considered the latest authoritative figure on population in Lebanon.3 Table 4 illustrates the geographic distribution of population on the five administrative districts (muhafazats) of Lebanon. The distribution takes also into consideration the rural and urban population in each district. TABLE 4 ESTIMATED DISTRIBUTION OF RURAL AND URBAN POPULATION 0F LEBANON BY MUHAFAZAT, 1959.a A“ J-E ig:gz:--1================== MUhafazat Rural Pop. 1 of Total Pop. Urban Pop. 1 of Tot. Tot. Pop. Metropolitan Beirut --.—- 0 450,000 27.7 450,000 Mount Lebanon 302,000 18.6 70,000 4.3 372,000 North Lebanon 188,000 11.6 150,000 9.2 338,000 South Lebanon 163,000 10.0 75,000 4.6 238,000 The Biqa 163,000 lQ;Q| 65,000 ._g,g 228,000 Totals 816,000 50.2 810,000 49.8 1,626,000 aIRFBD Mission, op.cit., Besoins et Possibilites de Development du Liban, Vol. 1, p. 47. 31mm Mission, op. cit. , Besoins et Possibilites" Ade DevelogtLent fig Liban, Vol. 1., p. 47. ~ 64 The table shows that the population is split almost equally between urban and rural communities. More than 50% of the urban population is located in Metropolitan Beirut. The largest rural population is found in Mount Lebanon, next largest is in North Lebanon. South Lebanon and the Biqa share an equal distribution of rural population. The distributions of population by age group is shown in the following table. TABLE 5 POPULATION DISTRIBUTION BY AGE GROUP: 1959b Age Group 4 Population I of Total Population 0-4 203,250. 12.5 5-11 300,800 18.5 12-20 341,450 21.0 21-34 292,700 18.0 35-50 276,400 17.0 51-60 97,550 6.0 61-0ver 113,850 7.0 Totals 1,626,000 100.0 ngig., p. 48. A striking feature of this distribution is revealed in the fact that more than 501 of the population is of 20 years of age and below. This shows that Lebanon is a young nation. It also indicates a pOpulation expansion evidenced by a high proportion of population among lower age groups. 65 As to the composition of population by sex, the latest estimate goes back to a demographic study dated 1944.4 distribution of population according to age and sex. TABLE 6 Table 6 illustrates ESTIMATED DISTRIBUTION OF POPULATION BY AGE AND SEX, 1944c Age Group Males Females Total Totzlogopulation 0-4 69,835 61,821 131,656 12.4 5-11 105,692 92,000 197,692 18.6 12-20 120,236 109,325 229,651 21.6 21-34 92,943 96,385 189,328 17.8 35-51 87,306 93,016 180,322 16.9 Sl-Over 67,137 68,490 135,627 12.7 Totals 543,149 521,037 1,064.186 100.0 - 51 . 49 - 100 °J. Gholl: "L'Bvolution Demographique Libanaise," Travaux du Seminairgd'fltudes Economiques et Einancieres, No. 1. , Beirut, 1957-1958. The table shows a sex ratio of 51, which gives males a very slight majority over females. HDwever, comparing table 6 with table 5 in regard to age distribution it is observed that there exists striking similarities between the two. The difference in practically any age group tends to be less than 12. Moreover, the same age grouping of population was followed by the two studies. 43.06611: The only exception was the division of the last age "L' Evolution Demographique Libanaise," Travaux du Seminaires d' Etudes Economiques et Financieres, No. l. , Beirut, 1957- 1958. 66 group by the IRFED study into two categories. This fact reveals a propor- tionate growth of population and consistent distribution by age and sex. Growth of Student Population in Recent Past Corresponding to the national growth of population, there has been a similar growth of student population in Lebanon. Recent trends in student enrollment reflect an unprecedented situation in terms of student population. Both public and private schools are undertaking tremendous measures to cope with an ever increasing flow of students. The following statistical data derived from the Ministry of Education reflect the growth of student population in the last two decades on all educational levels.5 On the Primary Level In 1943 there were in the country about 350 public schools with an enrollment of 23,000 students and 451 teachers. This compared with 1279 private schools that had 108,000 students and 3,985 teachers. The percentage of students in public schools in comparison to the total student population was 171. After twelve years, in 1955, there were 967 public schools with 80,567 students and 3,457 teachers in comparison to 731 private schools having 113,024 students and 3,764 teachers. Both systems combined had 1,698 schools, 193,591 students and 7,221 teachers. In 1965 public primary schools totalled 1,050 with 141,129 students and'7,642 teachers, corresponding to 1,400 private schools with an enroll- ment of 194,560 students and 6,024 teachers. Combined, the two systems totalled 2,450 schools, 335,689 students and 13,666 teachers. 5Ministrv of Education, Bureau of Educational Statistics, Reports on Educational Gnawth in Lebanon, (Beirut: 1965). Prior to 1949 there were no public secondary schools. on the Secondary_Leve1 came into existence after that date. 67 This level In 1965 there were 246 public upper compared with 206 private schools having 51, 178 students. primary and secondary schools providing education for 26,720 students, The growth of education in public and private sectors combined TABLE 7 during the last ten years is illustrated in table 7. AND SECONDARY SCHOOL LEVELS 1955-1965 GROWTH.OF PUBLIC AND PRIVATE EDUCATION 0N P IMARY Schools Students Teachers Upper Upper Primary & _ Primary & Year Primary Secondary Total Primary Secondary Total Total 1955-56 1698 170 1868 193,591 27,405 '220,996 7221 1956-57 1886 181 2067 208,490 30,062 238,552 7936 1957-58 1916 194 2110 211,477 31,180 242,657 8442 1958-59 2064 195 2259 217,706 33,144 250,850 9230 1959-60 2114 246 2360 235,340 41,364 276,704 10546 1960-61 2070 364 2434 265,191 45,457 310,648 11436 1961-62 2149 387 2536 278,783 49,770 328,553 12700 1962-63 2209 428 2637 291,700 53,519 345,219 14511 1963-64 2288~ 441 2729 310,601 60,638 371,439 16066 1964-65 2450 452 2902 335,689 77,898 413,587 18481 Educational growth in Lebanon, Beirut, 1965. dMinistry of Education, Bureau of Educational Statistics, Reports on 68 On the Higher Education Level Higher education experienced a similar process of growth, though along different lines. Prior to 1944 there were six private institutions of higher learning in the country. These were: The American University of Beirut (1866), The University of St. Joseph (1875), Beirut College for Women (1924), The Lebanese Academy (1937), The Middle East College (1939) and the Centre D'Etudes Superieures (1944). It was not until 1951 that the first state college came into existence. Today, the Lebanese University ranks first among other higher institutions of learning in terms of student enrollment. Beirut Arab University, established in 1960, occupies a fourth rank after the leading three Universities: The Lebanese University, The American University and the University of St. Joseph. Table 8 illustrates distribution of students in higher education. TABLE 8 DISTRIBUTION OF STUDENTS AMONG HIGHER INSTITUTES OF LEARNING 1964-65e ' Name of Institute Number of Students The Lebanese University 4 5230 The American University of Beirut 3250 The University of St. Joseph 2150 Centre D'Etudes Superieures 1270 Beirut Arab University 2950 Beirut College for Women 538 The Lebanese Academy 150 The Middle East College. 15 Baptist Schoo1.for Theology ' 17 Totals 15,570 eIbid. 69 It should be noted that there are slightly over 3,000 foreign students attending Lebanese colleges.6 This leaves an approximate number of about 12,500 Lebanese students in higher education. There is a considerable number of Lebanese students who are studying abroad. Due to lack of data on these students they are not included in the study. The colleges offer among their departments and institutes, professional and technical courses in arts and sciences, medical sciences, agriculture, law, engineering, theology, oriental and occidental studies. Another striking feature about these colleges is their embodiment of comparative and divergent theories and practices of education on the higher level. Practically no other country in the whole area-~and maybe the whole world-- is so privileged to have in one city an American University side by side with a French University, an Arab University, and a Lebanese University. The existence of these universities in one geo-physical proximity offers a living example of comparative education. On the Vocational and Technical Education Level There were seven public vocational and technical schools in Lebanon previous to 1965. These schools have a total enrollment of 1,281 students. Three schools are located in the city of Beirut: the Vocational School, the School of Arts and Crafts and the Training School for Hotel and Restaurant Personnel. The remaining four schools are distributed respectively in the cities ofTripoli, Sidon, Zahle and Dair-el-Ramar. From 1955 to 1965, enrollment in public vocational and technical education increased from 580 to 1,281 students. The distribution of students among 6Ministry of Education, Bureau of Educational Statistics, Statistical Data on Higher Education in Lebanon, Beirut, 1965. 70 educational branches in these schools is as follows: Vocational schools, 706 students; School of Arts and Crafts, 334 students; and the Training School for Hotel and Restaurant Personnel, 241 students. Related to this field of education is agriculture education. By 1965, there were in Lebanon four agriculture schools, three at the primary level located in three rural areas in the country, and only one school at the secondary level located in the city of Beirut. All schools combined had a total enrollment of 250 students. Figure 3 illustrates the growth of student population in public vocational and technical schools during the last ten years. Besides public vocational and technical schools, there are 25 private schools, native and foreign, that provide vocational and technical education. A great majority of these schools offer also commercial and industrial arts education. Combined together private schools had an enroll- ment Of 5,090 students in 1965, which is four times the size of enrollment in public schools. More important, private schools offer a highly flexible and diversified program including nursing, mid-wifery, radio and television, mechanics, typography, bookkeeping, auditing, stenography, and the like. Most of these courses do not have counterparts in the public schools.7 Included under the private sector are schools which may be classi- fied as avocational. These schools are primarily concerned with the teaching of languages, namely: Arabic, French, English, German, and Spanish. Other courses offered in these schools cover music, dancing, ballet, book- keping, auditing and others. In 1965, these schools had a total enrollment of about 5,000 students, mostly adults. One may find in this sector also 7Ibid. 71 Growth of Student Population in Public VocatiOnal and Technical Schools: 1955 - 1964 No. of Students 1300 1281 / / 1200 I l 1147 I 1100 / / I I 1000 7 , 980 V . l“ ‘9‘72 950 / / “\l / 900 / 875 ,v’ 1 / / 800 780 (I A ./ 700 / 670/ I / 600 580 // F ~ 533/ 500 400 \D h w ox O v-I N m d’ in '9 ‘9 ‘9 ‘9 ‘9 ‘9 ‘9 ‘9 ‘9 ‘9 In «0 1x m as o H N m <9 «1 1n n In 1n \0 NO ND ND \0 as 0‘ O\ 0‘ O3 0‘ G O 0‘ 0‘ —‘ w-l 0-! 0-1 0-! 0-0 0-4 F! 0-! 0-0 Figure 3 72 other private agencies operating schools in civil aviation, wireless and other vocations. These schoOls have an enrollment of about 200 students. In terms of the productive capacity of vocational and technical education in both public and private sectors, all these schools provide this type of education to about 13,000 students. The significance of this capacity will be discussed in subsequent parts of this study. On Teacher Education Level There were in 1965, five public teacher education institutes preparing teachers for primary schools with a total enrollment of 1,497 students.8 There are no private institutes in teacher education for primary level schools in the country. There are, however, private institutes that train teachers at the secondary level. These are the American University of Beirut and Beirut College for Women. Between these two institutes and the Higher Institute of Education at the Lebanese University teachers are trained for secondary schools. There has been a considerable increase in student enrollment at the elementary teachers institutes during the last ten years. Students at these institutes had grown from 223 students in 1955 to 1,497 in 1965. Figure 4 shows this growth. The Structure of the Educational'System In broad terms, the structure of the educational system is composed of three levels: elementary, secondary and higher education. Considering the upper primary level as a "de facto" level, overlapping or included in, 8Ministryof Education, Directorate of Teacher Education, Statistical _Data on Student Enrollments in Teachers Institutes, Beirut, 1965. 73 Growth of Student Enrollment At Primary Teachers' Institutes 1955 - 1964 No. of Students 1500 1450 1400 1350 1300 1250 1200 1150 1100 1050 950 900 / 850 '800 / 750 700 / 650 / 600 / 550 500 450 42y 400 395 , ’ 350 277 307 z ’ 300 246 g , 1’ - ’ :33 222/ 1000 970 / 1955-56 1956-57 1957-58 1958-59 1959-60 1960-61 1961-62 Figure'4 1962-63 1963-64 1964-65 ~ ‘2 ”qt :m 74 secondary education, this would make elementary and secondary education three distinct levels of 5-4-3 years duration. Each level is culiminated by a state examination and the state certificate is the "password" in the promotion process from one level to the next. The structure is illustrated in Chart 2 (page 43). Essentially, the whole structure is superimposed on a pre-primary level of education, which includes nursery schools and kindergartens, confined exclusively to private education. It does not appear as an integral part of the structure though it is implicitly recognized as a sub-level pertaining to primary education. The academic stream has been explained in the previous chapter. Following is a brief description of the non-academic stream, including vocational-technical education and teacher education. Vocational and technical education parallels the secondary stream. Practically all vocational schools in the country, whether public or private, require the primary certificate (or its equivalent) as a pre- requisite for admittance. Public schools require, in addition to the primary certificate, a competitive entrance examination. Some private vocational schools are less restrictive in this sense. The school of Arts and Crafts in Beirut, and its prototypes in the private sector, require the upper primary certificate and a competitive entrance examina- tion for admittance. The period of study in vocational schools on the primary level is four years. At completion of his studies, a student is granted the ”Certificate of Professional Aptitude." The period of study in the School of Arts and Crafts is also of a 4 year duration.' Successful candidates are ‘granted the "Baccalaureat Technique." 75 The Training School for Hotel and Restaurant Personnel is divided into two cycles with a three and six year duration respectively. The first cycle trains students for semi-skilled and skilled work in hotels and restaurants. 1. e., chamber maids, bellboy, waiters and pastry workers. At the completion of this cycle students are granted a diploma known as "Brevét Hotelier." The second cycle of a six year period trains students in secretarial and managerial work, including the supervision of workers in restaurants and hotels. The cycle is Crowned by a diplOma known as the "Baccalaureat Hotelier." Teacher education corresponds to the upper grades of secondary education. The period of study is of‘a 3-year duration. Teachers' institutes prepare students to become elementary school teachers. Success- ful candidates, who pass the final examination conducted by the Teacher Education Directorate at the endof the period are granted the teaching diploma. Graduate students from teachers' institutes have the first priority in the recruitment of teaching personnel for public elementary schools. 4 ‘ This is in brief a rough description of the organizational structure of the educational system in Lebanon. Throughout the educational streams and levels students are channelled in a very preordained way--everyone is expected to follow one stream or the other during his schooling years. In line'with the educational aims and philosophy, the system is supposed to prepare youth in order to meet life situations. Whether the system in terms of its structure and composition is adequate enough to meet the continuous arising needs of the society is another question which will be discussed in the next chapters. Following this descriptive survey 76 of the organization of education let us examine how the students are channelled through these educational streams and who goes where. Distribution of Students in the Organizational Structure Viewing the educational system from a quantitative perspective, it becomes easy to obtain a clearer picture of the productive capacity of the system in terms of student enrollments at all educational levels. From the available data obtained from the Ministry of Education on student population, it was possible to determine the number of students in the academic stream, including both public and private schools. A breakdbwn of data by educational levels is shown in Table 9. TABLE 9 DISTRIBUTION OF STUDENTS IN THE ACADEMIC STREAM.BY EDUCATIONAL LEVEL, 1964-65 . Educational Level . 4 No. of Students 2 of Total Pre-Primary 37,100 8.8 Primary 298,589 70.3 Secondary Lower Grades (1-4) 49,745 10.4 Upper Grades (5-7) 28,153 7.2 Higher I 12,500 ‘ ,_§g§ Totals 426,087 100.0 These gross figures shown in the table above provide a quantitative picture of student population at each educational level. A quick glance at the table points to the thick density of students at the primary level, which 77 comprises more than 70% of the total student enrollment. Between pre-l primary and primary education combined there are 335,689 students, or about 801 of total student pOpulation._ This leaves roughly about 201 of the student population distributed on secondary and higher education. This situation suggests that the great majority of students are frozen at the primary level. The contrast between primary and secondary levels, in comparison with the higher education level becomes strikingly clear. Out of the total percentage of student population, higher education claims less than 42. What do these figures represent and what is their significance in the process of educational planning?- These figures as they are presented so far determine the location of student population on the educational structure. Their significance, however, becomes more meaningful when they are broken down by grade level. This next step involves the allocation of students by what may be termed "the educational pyramid." This implies the location of students through the system in an ascending order by grade which usually takes the shape of a pyramid. The base of the pyramid represents the first grade of primary education whereas the apex stands for the last year of higher education. A11 grade levels are distributed between these two extremes. The classification of student population according to this order results in a more illustrative picture of student distribution throughout the organizational structure of the system. Figure 5 illustrates the combined student enrollment of public and private schools in the educational PYramid. At first sight, the pyramid seems to have a normal shape. Closer eRamination, however, shows many variations in the pyramid. The most 78 Higher 6 210 Higher 5 550 Higher 4 1300 Higher 3 -———2020 Higher 2 ,_———2550 Higher l [5620 Sec. 7 3349 Sec. 6 ———4559 Sec. 5 5995 1 Sec- 4. 10707 See-3 | 12550 Sec. 21 17263 Sec. 1 23475 Pr. 5 39382 Pr.4 [ 43721 pr, 3 52680 _ Pr. 2 60911 Pr. 1 101890 Pre-Primary 37100 Figure 51 Public and Private School Enrollments 1964-65 79 observable variation that catches the eye is the very expanded first grade on the primary level. This grade, with more than one hundred thousand students, contains just about 222 of the total student population in the system. There are many explanations to this unique phenomenon. Basically, grade one acts as a storeroom to the system, especially in public schools. Because public education does not include a pre-primary level, hence all students for the first time under different ages and backgrounds are admitted (or stored) in that grade. Another factor responsible for the swelling of that grade is due to the promotion policy. Usually, a student, often attending regularly that grade is expected to be promoted to the next higher automatically. HOwever, in practice, this is not the case. The level of retention in grade schools is relatively high in Lebanon. Aside from valid causes for retention, such as extensive sickness, mental or physical retardedness and the like, many students are retained due to academic reasons, namely academic achievement. Quite often a student may spend more than one year in grade one or other lower grades of the system. This explains in part why the committee on educational planning recommends that promotion on this level be less restrictive, at least in the first three grades.9 Another variation in the educational pyramid that may attract attention is found under the demarcation line between the elementary level and the secondary level. It is observed that there is a noticeable drop-out of students just across the line. About 16,000 students fade from the picture after the fifth primary grade. Where do all these students go? Presumably many of them enter vocational and technical schools. Some others follow other kinds of education, while the rest are absorbed in the economy, where they join the low-level labor force. 9Infra., p. 103. 80 Still another variation in the pyramid can be detected between secondary 4 and secondary 5, where the number of students is cut in half from one grade level to the other. What happens there is explained by the fact that secondary 4 marks the end of the upper primary level of education. Students, who leave the system at that time have many other alternatives to choose from. They either enter vocational or technical schools, enroll in teacher education institutes or enter the field of occupations at the middle level manpower. Finally, there is another variation point between the end of the secondary level and the beginning of the higher education level. In contrast to what may be expected at this point, the pyramid is marked by a sharp increase in students. There is a sort of a "bottleneck" marked by a protruding shape of the pyramid. Why? Explanations are basically similar to the first grade situation on the primary level. The first year of college functions as the "storeroom" for higher education. It is not surprising to find hundreds of students claiming a college-student status, by merely signing for one course without even lattending classes. This fact is quite compatible with the course offerings at colleges patterned after the French system of education. There, instead of following the conventional four years adopted by the Anglo- American system at the undergraduate level, courses are given separately and in isolation from one another. Thus, in order to major in law, or any other professional career, a student needs to study and pass a certain number of courses, known as "certificates." These range in number from four to seven depending on the field of specialization. The accumulation of the required number of "certificates" entitles the student to a college 81 degree usually identified as the "license" (after the French college degree which is equivalent to the Master's). It is no wonder then, to find a student spending five, ten or fifteen years in college before getting this degree. However, the pattern reflects a sharp decrease in the last two years of higher education where the pyramid reaches a very thin and sharp apex. Another way to view the productive capacity of the educational system is in terms of students retained at each grade level. The best way to determine student retention is to examine how many studentS'enter- ing grade one will remain until the end of secondary seven. For example; from a thousand students, how many are retained until the last year of secondary school. Viewing all grade levels in primary and secondary education on aoontinuum from grade one until grade twelve one obtains. a picture such as that presented in.Figure 6. The chart indicates that from 1,000 students only 33 reach the twelfth grade, a proportion which requires consideration when discussing educational planning with reapect to manpower requirements in Lebanon. Having explored the distribution of student population through the various levels, let us turn to the composition of students in the system. The Composition of Student Population In the light of presented data, it becomes more meaningful to focus on one particular area of the educational structure, secondary education. This level, including the various streams that comprise it, will be discussed in more detail at this stage of the study. It is assumed in this respect that secondary education provides the student with certain 82 Retention of Students atPrimary and Secondary School Levels - 1964-1965 No. of Students Retained b 1 1000 ___ {Osgousands 900 -—- 800 -—— 700 — 0 600 ._ ‘1 525 500 ‘-- 435 400 _ —— 390 fi 300 ———— 233 200 -—- 100 ——— 6‘” ?I ,—-—,E l 2 3 4 5 1011 U. 8. Grade Equivalent Figure 6 83 competencies that are deemed indispensable in meeting middle level man- power requirements. The discussion, however, will be confined to the descriptive aspect of the situation. The purpose is to furnish the background for the implications of the assumption in terms of the aims and functions of secondary education. Viewed as a separate unit, secondary education includes the following streams: academic education, vocational and technical educa- tion and teacher education. Earlier parts of this chapter described recent developments of these streams. Presented in a quantitative form, Table 10 locates student population in each stream and its relative size to total student population on the secOndary level. TABLE 10 SECONDARY STUDENT POPULATION BY EDUCATIONAL STREAMS, 1964-65 Educational Stream No. of Students 1 of Total Academic 77,898 87.4 VOcational and Technical 9,732 10.8 Teacher Education 1,497 1.8 Total 89,127 100.0 The table reflects a disproportionate size of student population between the academic and the non-academic streams. Whereas more than 872 of the students belong to the academic stream, only about 11% are in vocational and technical schools and less than 21 are in teacher education schools. 84 Another way to look at secondary education with all these streams placed in focus is through an educational pyramid, which is illustrated in Figure 7. The chart points clearly to the large number of students in the four lower grades of the academic stream, in comparison to all other grades in the remaining streams. In fact these grades repreSent a combina- tion of upper primary and lower secondary levels. Students at this level comprise the mainstream of the system. The sharp breakdown of student population that occurs between the 4th and 5th grades of the level shows that less than 552 of the students fade away from the academic stream. Where do these students go? As illustrated by Figure 7, there is a relative decrease in the upper secondary grades of the academic stream. There is at the same time a parallel stream of teacher education that appears on the scene. This means that some students leaving the fourth grade, which marks the completion of upper primary education, enter other streams in the system. But since the increase in the other streams is so insignificant in comparison to those dropping from the system, it means that those who leave the stream seek economic and occupational opportunities with four years of schooling beyond the primary level. Whether this amount of education is sufficient in meeting the requirements of manpower is another question that will be further discussed under a separate heading in the chapters to follow. It is sufficient in this respect to say that the composition of student population at the secondary level is limited to three types of education: academic, vocational and technical and teacher education. These three areas are considered by the study to form the basic dimensions of manpower supply on the middle level. 85 Student Enrollment at Secondary School Level by Educational Streams 1964 - 1965 94 305 3349 700 511 4559 918- 681 5995 1161 10707 1120 12550 1609 17263 1882 23475 2248 General Education Vocational Technical Education Teacher Education - ‘ Figure 7 86 Summagy In conclusion, the findings of this chapter revealed many factors which were likely to shed some light on the educational system in terms of its function and operation. In terms of the productive capacity of the educational system in accommodating students through the various educational streams it has been noticed how students are being channelled and distributed. The "educational pyramid" illustrated the allocation of students on the successive educational levels. The corresponding educational pyramid on secondary education had shown that a great majority of the students are enrolled in the academic stream. This fact leaves the non-academic stream with a limited number of student population to train for existing manpower requirements in the country. Whether the educational system as it functions at present is adequate and effective in meeting manpower requirements, and whether the existing educational policies reckon with the current trends and forces arising in the economic and social aspects of the society, all these issues will be examined and discussed in the next chapter. CHAPTER IV NATIONAL PLANNING FOR EDUCATION IN LEBANON The previous two chapters have revealed in a quantitative form the size, structure and composition of student population in the educational . system. Along with these findings it was revealed that recent growth of education on all levels has had no precedent in the history of the country. The growth of student enrollments at schools was accompanied by a correspond- ing growth of total population. It was indicated also that the educational system through its administration and organization was set up in a way to achieve certain prescribed goals and objectives, basically national and individual. Among its various functions, it is assumed that the educa- tional system plays a vital role in the development of Lebanon's resources. This role in its turn involves the setting up of educational policies, the making of decisions and the preparation of plans, all of which are to be followed up and accomplished within a certain period of time. What are those policies and plans and who makes decisions--educationa1 and otherwise--and how are these plans and decisions being passed and executed? What are the implications of the situation to educational planning with respect to the development Of human resOurces? The answer to these questions involves the exploration of another area that has a direct bearing on the problem--the national planning for education. In light of these findings and speculations it is the purpose Of this chapter to examine the role of the Ministry of National Education 87 ta] tic YES inf ter 111: ES;¢ EXP} and; 30:56 88 in educational planning. The purpose is to examine specific measures taken by the Ministry in recent years for the realization and implementa- tion of certain educational plans aiming at the development of human resources in the country. The examination involves both short term and long range plans. Because the state policy is assumed to have a direct influence on educational planning, this area will be investigated in terms of its functional operation with other agencies in bringing about decisions that affect the process of planning. The examination is pre- ceeded by a rationale that demonstrates the need for educational planning. It will be followed by an analysis and evaluation of the existing educational plans and their implications in the development of human resources. The Need for Educational Planning It has been indicated earlier that recent trends in the field of education suggest an urgent need for educational planning, particularly initiated and intensified by current developments taking place in all aspects of the human society. In this age, characterized by pOpulation explosion, technological advancement, space race and other aspects that have no precedent in the history of mankind, planning becomes a vital and indispensable step in the development of a nation's resources. "The consensus among administrators, planners and scholars is that the question today very definitely is not, to plan or not to plan, but the degree of rationality of the planning.1 Applying the afore mentioned formula to the existing situation in Lebanon, its significance becomes readily discernable. The Lebanese 5 a°<=J1ety, as it has been indicated in chapter 2, is undergoing a tremendous \ 1Donald Adams, (ed.). Educational Plannigg, (New York: Syracuse UM-"ersity, 1964), p. l. 89 process of change that has affected cultural, social, political and economic aspects. All these areas suggest the need for wise and rational planning. It is sufficient in this respect to single out four specific areas where educational planning is most needed. These are: population expansion, social needs, economic-occupational needs, and increasing aspirational levels. Population Expansion Like many overpopulated areas in the world, Lebanon is experiencing a population "boom”. Comparing the present population of the country, which is estimated at 2,151,884, with that of 1944 which was 1,064,186, it may be observed at a glance that the population has almost doubled in 21 years.2 Projecting population growth at an annual rate of 2.22, it is estimated that by 1970 the total population will be 2.5 million and by 1980 it will reach 3 million. This figure may seem small compared with larger populated countries, but in comparison to the 4,000 square mile area of Lebanon it makes the population density exceed 400 persons per square mile. This fact places the country among the most densely populated areas in the world. In educational terms, the situation may be interpreted as an inevitable increase in student population. This presents the national government with the ever-existing responsibility of providing sufficient classrooms, adequate teachers, educational facilities, equipment and services. In all these instances, the situation calls for wise planning and sound decision-making. —¥ 2Supra.,pp. 63-65. So: an (CS are of 1 115:1 :90 5 . II 20:5 90 Social Needs On the social scene, there are a number of needs which indicate an unbalanced growth of the social aspect of the Lebanese society. The result is a socially stratified society where some segments of the people became privileged and some others slip down to form a sub-culture of poverty. Studies in this area show that about 502 of the people are classified as poor with an annual income that ranges from LL 1200 to 2500 in comparison to 41 who are classified as rich with an annual income of LL 15000 and above. The remaining 461 of the people are classified as middle class with an annual income ranging from LL 5000 to 15000.3 This situation indicates that the potentialities of the country are placed in the hands of a social elite enjoying all conveniences of life whereas the other half of the society live in dire misery. Thus, instead of conceiving of one society in socio-economic terms, there are two societies, one comprised of the "haves" and the other of the "have- nots". In order to cope with this problem, lest the social gap gets wider and out of control, the government is called upon to interfere.. Any measure adopted in this respect requires wise and long range planning. From an educational view point the question is one of equality of educa- tional opportunity. In deciding how to equalize educational opportunities for those who are not able to pursue their schooling beyond a certain level of education, educational planning becomes essential. ,Economic - Occupational Needs Current developments in the economic sphere indicate a progressive demand for personnel-with higher level of education and qualifications. 3IREED Mission, op. cit., Vol. 1., p. 93. ('1 LED It. 91 This demand is based on the assumption that most of the new occupations created by the introduction of machinery and automation require a certain caliber of personnel with a minimum of four years of schooling beyond the elementary education level. Studies on manpower need in Lebanon emphasize the necessity for the creation of 300,000 occupational positions in the country within the next fifteen years.4 The rising need for these occupa- tions necessitates a corresponding demand for skilled, technical and managerial labor. In educational terms this type of manpower demand calls for an adjustment of school curricula, methods of study, educational facilities, instructional materials and other related factors. Any adjustment of this sort calls for planning. Educational planning in this sense becomes essential in producing cultivated men as well as the training of employees, clerical workers, technical assistants and teachers. IncreasingTAspirational Level Alongside the previous trends, there is another social-economic phenomenon, reflected in the aspirational level of the people and particularly the youth. ;Although it is technically difficult to implement concrete measurements in describing or explaining the intensity of aspiration, an abstract term, there are nevertheless some indicative criteria which may offer some explanation. For example, in a society where the educational system lifts individuals, as well as groups, from one social status to another, it can be assumed that education is highly valued. Education in this sense is not only considered as a symbol of social status but as a Proper vehicle of social mobility, better jobs, more opportunities, and in the long run a better life. Thus, the higher the level of education \ 4Institute of Training Personnel for Development. Lubnan Indal (111 Arabic} Wile. (Beirut: 1963). P- 40- vb f0 be 301 131 f0: gui mt ab: 92 a person attains, the better jobs he aspires to obtain and the better life he expects to live.4 In the same token, it may be observed that in the Lebanese society, where education is conceived of as a status symbol as well as a vehicle for better opportunities, everyone aspires to obtain the maximum education he can afford. Parents want their children to have a better life than they themselves had. They want them to obtain better opportunities in life. At the same time the children are aspiring for better occupations and better standards of living. This situation is likely to result in more pressing demands for schools, for teachers and a better quality of education. For these conditions to be met properly there arises the need for educational planning. Planning in this sense includes counseling and guidance as well as identifying the means by which students are channelled into the proper educational streams, according to their interests and abilities on the one hand and in the light of manpower requirements on the other hand. Having established the grounds for the need of educational plan- ning, we turn now to examine the role of the Ministry of Education in that field. The Role of the Ministry of Education in the Process of Plannipg It has already been established that the educational system in 'Lebanon is highly centralized and that the Ministry of National Education represents the legal authority on the national level in assuming full responsibility concerning all matters of public education. Besides these major functions, the Ministry plaw different roles in the field of education. ¥ 4Burton R. Clark, Educating the Expert Society, (San Francisco: chandler Publishing Company, 1962), pp. 69-80. 93 With the cooperation of private institutions, it works toward the promotion and advancement of education, science and fine arts in the country, and in cooperation with other institutions and agencies in the country, works toward the achievement of the broad educational and national goals. Thus, within its capacity, the Ministry of Education is assumed to may a compatible role in the planning for education. This role includes the preparation of various educational decisions and policies, as well as the laying down of specific plans to be accomplished within a definite period of time. What are these plans? How are they made? What specific measures does the Ministry take to put them into effect? How far has the Ministry progressed in accomplishing these plans according to a set schedule? To what extent do these plans address themselves to the social and economic needs of the country? The answer to these questions involves an examination which will focus basically on the analysis and interpretation of short term and long range planning and its pertinent factors. Eggpination of the Present Educatiopal Situation It is very difficult to pinpoint any specific documentation on educational planning in Lebanon. The concept of planning is new to the country. This is evidenced in the fact that prior to the sixties any .allusion to planning in educational terminology was very general and Estated in broad terme of educational goals and objectives. Educational planning, as it was understood until recently by official authorities, and as it is demonstrated by the program of studies, lacks a clarity of meaning. It also lacks scope and direction. At no place in the curriculum 94 is there a clear-cut mention of a functional relationship between education and existing social economic needs of the country. Were there any mention with respect to the development of human resources and the investment in education it was stated in the form of general and broad educational goals. The evidence in support of these views is the curriculum itself, which has been in effect for the last twenty-two years without any modification or adjustment in light of the developments that occurred during that period of time in the society. Based on these considerations the analysis. of the existing educational situation in terms of plans, decisions and policies has to be generated and inferred from whatever data available in that field assuming that anch data is both valid and reliable.5 Based on a quick revision of the literature in the field of educational planning, the existing situation may be summed up under the following needs. There is a pressing need for the extension of educational opportunities to the remote and isolated villages in rural areas where there are no public schools, in terms of school buildings, teachers and instructional material.6 There is a corresponding need for the expansion of primary teachers'institutes to accommodate a larger number -5These sources include: statistical data derived from the Bureau of Educational Statistics in the Ministry of Education, Legislative decrees submitted by the Ministry of Education to the Cabinet, proposed educatiOnal plans conducted by the Educational Committee in the Ministry of Education and related educational reports prepared by the Lebanese Delegation to the Regional Training Center of Advanced Personnel in the Administration of Education in the Arab World, Beirut, Lebanon, 1961 through 1964. 6Ministry of National Education, Office of Cultural Affairs and Fine Arts, A Report On Recent Educational Plans in Lebanon, submitted to the Educational Committee in the Arab League during its 17th. Session held at Cairo, Egypt, March 9, 1965. 3‘3- VC L. L. 95 of student teachers, whereby these institutes will reach a capacity of graduating 500 teachers a year. In order to provide for opportunities of professional growth there was an expressed desire for the expansion of in-service training sessions for those teachers who did not have the chance to obtain professional education. In other educational areas there were pressing needs for school equipment and instructional material, namely audio-visual material which is non-existent in.most of the schools in the country. There was as well an urgent desire for the publication and distribution of educational journals and materials in a systematic manner. There was also a specific mention of an existing project of the organization of scholarship funds for specialization abroad. the expansion and development of higher education and the expansion and upgrading of vocational and technical education. For the convenience and purpose of the study all existing and conceivable educational plans will be classified and discussed under two broad categories: Short term plans, those that are envisioned for the immediate future, basically for the next four to five years; and Long range plans that extend beyond that period and embody far reaching plans beyond 1970. Sport-Term Planning Short term planning as being conceived and practiced by the ltinistry of Education may best be described as a series of decisions and policies set up to meet the immediate needs of the situation resulting from an increasing student population, shortage of teachers, scarcity of school buildings and dearth of school equipment. ¥ 71bid. ment [OS 1962 all! 5110 ‘r» ‘1)\, 96 In a recent study conducted by the Members of the Lebanese Delegate to the Regional Training Center in Beirut there was specific mention of educational planning including a description of the exist- ing social economic situation in the country, a rationale for the need of planning and concluding suggestions and recommendations. With respect to short term planning, the study suggests a three year plan beginning in 1962.8 On the primary education level it was mentioned that there were at that time 107,800 children of School age in the country who were not attending schools. There were 700 villages denied any kind of elementary schools. In the light of this situation the plan suggested the construction of 700 school buildings and the recruitment of 3,600 new teachers. In addition to this, the plan estimated the expected growth of student popula- tion in the next five years to be 160,000 at an average rate of 32,000 students a year. This natural increase of student enrollment requires the recruitment of 5,500 teachers at the rate of 1,100 teachers per year. As a matter of fact the Ministry of Education, being aware of this pressing need, had submitted in 1962 a proposal to the Cabinet requesting the appropriation of five million Lebanese pounds for the recruitment of 1,500 teachers and for the purchase of needed educational facilities.9 On the secondary education level the plan suggested the establish- ment of secondary schools that were needed in various regions of the COuntry. Guided by the provisions of the plan, the Ministry of Education t200k specific measures in the appropriation of required funds for the ¥ 8The Lebanese Delegate to the Regional Training Center for the Training of Advanced Personnel in the Administration of Education in the Arab World, m1}... , Vol. 1. , pp. 45-49. 9Ibid. 97 expansion of secondary education. At the same time measures were taken to upgrade thirteen upper primary schools and include them under the secondary education program. On the higher education level, the plan requested the expansion of the existing programs at the college level, with special reference to the Lebanese University program. It was suggested in this respect that higher education should be more diversified with due consideration given to technical education. With respect to vocational and technical education the plan indicated that in 1962 there were 800 students in vocational and technical education in comparison with 15,000 students in secondary education. In the light of this data, the plan calls for the expansion of the area of vocational and technical education so that by 1965 about 601 of the secondary school students should find a place in those mentioned schools. In the field of teacher education the plan admits the inadequacy of the existing teachers' institutes in meeting the immediate need for primary schools. Hence, the plan suggests open recruitment of teachers on a provisional basis pending the establishment and operation of teachers' institutes. The plan in this respect specifies the need for 5,500 teachers within a 5-year period and recommends that the future capacity of teacher education should provide a minimum of 500 trained teachers a year. These were, in brief, the provisions of the short term plan as being suggested by the members of the Lebanese delegate to the Regional Training Center. It is worthwhile mentioning in this respect, that ' Practically all the members were either inspectors in the Ministry of 3chication, or had held administrative positions in the field of education. 98 Turning to another project designed by the Ministry of Education through its standing committee on educational planning, we Obtain a similar picture of short term planning. The findings and recommendations of the committee are included in the form of working papers submitted to the Council of Ministers in the form of suggested proposals and recom- mendations for the modification and reconstruction of the educational system in Lebanon.10 Essentially, these papers include educational plans that are addressed to the immediate needs of the situation and are meant as well to introduce a radical change in the educational system including long range planning. The significance of the work in general inheres in presenting the most recent data on education and the estimation of future trends in terms of student enrollments and educational expenditures. Mere- over, the work in its entirety represents the viewpoint of the Ministry of Education itself. The provisions of the plan, then, will be discussed with respect to both short term planning and long range planning of education in Lebanon. The main provisions of the plan in relation to short term plan- ning take into consideration the qualitative and quantitative dimensions of the educational situation. From a qualitative viewpoint, the planners decry the general standard of education, which is degenerating in successive years. "With the exception of some partial progress in secondary education and some sporadic accomplishments in some private schools." The planners ‘maintain that, "schooling, which is provided to about 901 of the student .POpulation, is of a very low quality, both in public and private schools." 11 ‘ 10Ministry of Education, Committee on Educational Planning, WOrking !!uasss on The Planning for the Extension of Education to the various Regions __°f Lebanon, (Beirut: 1965). 11Ibid., p. l. As] Ben! I. 6' _l. 99 As for the underlying causes of the low quality of education, the planners mention such factors as the weak organization of the Ministry of Education, augmented by the poor training of school teachers and the ineffective role played by the Ministry in raising educational standards. The planners specify that out of 8,000 public school teachers, there are only 300 who are graduates of the higher teachers' institute and 800 who are graduates of primary teachers' institutes . The remaining 7,000 teachers do not have professional training. Beside this dubious image of the teaching force there is a corresponding deterioration in school buildings and dire need for educational facilities, primarily audiovisual materials. From a quantitative aspect, the planners present the following data based mostly on the IRFED Mission works. Given a total population of 1,864,000 in 1965 and considering the distribution of population by age groups in line with the IRFED distribution, the resultant breakdown of population by age group is most likely to be as follows: population in the age groups between 5 and 11 years form 18.52 of the total population or approximately 344,400. Those between the ages of 11 to 15 years comprise 10% of the total population, or about 186,400. In educational terms this means that population between the ages of 5 to 15 years, whose total is 531,000, is supposed to form the school age population. How many Of this number are actually in school? The planners refer to the educational Statistics of 1963-1964 which show that total student enrollment in that Year at both public and private schools was 316,000. This means that there are 215,240 youths who are of school age but who are not actually in schools. 48 'the planners see it, the situation results in a very apparent and serious educational problem which requires an immediate and rational solution. at at ime upc [4.“ to u A,“ 4:2,. 100 The Committee on Educational Planning considers a number of solutions as candidate answers to the problem giving educational planning a top priority. The committee members suggest an educational plan aimed at the modification of the existing educational system including its organizational structure. The suggested plan is meant to serve the immediate needs of the situation and to furnish the grounds for the setting up of a long term project. Regarding the immediate needs arising from the situation, the plan is basically concerned with the accommodation of all children of school age by the system on more equitable terms. Based on the assumption that an average class on the primary education level accommodates 25 pupils, this implies that the teacher student ratio should be 1:25. This formula is suggested by the planners in determining the number of teachers and classrooms required. Evidently, the plan is confined to public education. It avoids the recommendation of similar measures for private schools on the assumption that this sector will take care of its own affairs. Other details included in the plan refer to the technical aspects of the implementation and follow up of the proposed recommendations. Whether the provisions presented in the plan are implementable or not, or whether the plan in its totality is feasible, realistic or out of proportion, these issues will be further analyzed and evaluated. Long Range Planning The examination of the role of the Ministry of Education in relation t0 the preparation of long range plans will be exclusively confined to the discussion of the concept as being manifested by the same works conducted 101 by the Committee on Educational Planning. Essentially, the plan to be discussed in the next few pages may be considered as a sequential con- tinuation of short term planning. Any difference between the two phases is one of degree more than one of kind. In its broad outlines, the long range plan calls for the recon- struction and reorganization of the educational system in a manner to meet the existing and anticipated needs of the country. Following are the main provisions of the plan and the justification on which they are based. On the elementary education level, it was pointed out that this stage in its existing function is considered a separate unit, culminating with the primary education certificate. A considerable number of Lebanese youth leave the school system at this level and enter the world Of.economy and compete for occupations and other opportunities with a primary school level of education. The planners criticize the system for being built on such grounds. They maintain that the basic education a child gets at that level would. not wipe out illiteracy, nor provide him with the basic skills and knowledge for practical work. To support their views, the planners refer to the various studies, whose findings show that a person with primary education only, will revert back to illiteracy if his education is not reinforced by further schooling. For this same reason many nations of the world are extending compulsory education to include more years of schooling. Some nations namely: England, France and the United States, have compulsory education that includes the secondary school level. The planners contend that in Lebanon, a Student finishes his primary Education at the age of 10. Can a child at this age decide what career or I 102 occupation he should follow? This decision requires some degree of maturity and studies show that children at this level do not possess the needed maturity to enable them to make a wise decision. On the upper primary and secondary levels, the planners present more criticism, most of which they infer from within the context of the existing curricula. According to the committee, this level of education as it functions, results in an undesirable duality of education for which there is no justification. This duality is demonstrated in the gap between the upper primary education and the lower grades of secondary education. This in effect lead to two separate educational streams: four upper primary grades that belong administratively and organizationally to the primary level proper, and a corresponding four lower secondary grades that belong to the secondary level proper, in a similar manner. Such an educational, practice resulted logically in many untenable consequences. For example, it was very difficult to channel students at the outset of the upper primary stage. Moreover, there was no preparatory stage between primary and secondary education that would enable the school to guide the child into making choices or decisions. Apparently, there prOved to be no significant difference between the two streams in terms of practical outcome. The planners decry the rigidity of the curriculum at the upper secondary grades which is confined to three streams: literary, scientific and ancient languages that are culminated in the Lebanese Baccalagrdht Part I and the two branches of philosophy and mathematics which are culminated With the Lebanese Baccalaureat Part 11. With respect to vocational and technical education, the planners Grinchmtthe existing program for being too rigid. They maintain that this tyDe of education is confined to teachers' institutes, agricultural schools 103 and vocational and technical schools all of which are limited in quality and quantity. At this point, the planners refer to the findings of recent studies on the relationship between education and national economy which state emphatically that the school at all levels has a vital role to play in the preparation of manpower in order to meet the rising man- power requirements in the various economic and occupational aspects. They conclude that it is time to expand the aims of secondary education and prepare new educational programs that will be more functional in the preparation of manpower supply in accordance with the social and economic needs of the country. In light of these criticisms, the Committee on Educational Planning recommends the following principles as a guideline for any future educational policy and as an outline for a new organizational structure of education: 1. The extension of universal free education until the age of 14 for all the youth in the country. 2. The reconstruction oftde organizational structure to include the following levels: a. Pre-primapy. One year duration. Students at the age four to be admitted to this level on a voluntary basis. b. Primapy. Extended to five years, from grade one through grade five. Children five years of age are admitted to grade one. Promotion in the first two grades of this level should be automatic, with close observance of the child. After the third grade, the child should not be allowed to repeat a grade more than once. The comittee suggests the elimination of the primary certificate of 4. 104 education, which is to be replaced by a school certificate indicating that the child attended and completed the fifth grade. This certificate should qualify the child to participate in an entrance examination to the first grade of the succeeding educational level. Those failing this examination would be allowed readmittance to the fifth grade on the primary level. Complementary (or intermediate). Of four years duration from grade one through grade four. At the age of ten, students will be admitted to grade one on the secondary school level. This level should replace both the upper primary and the lower grades of secondary education, and should be considered as a unified complementary school for all, and aims primarily at the close observation of students beginning with grade one, whereby they will be guided throughout their education in this level to make a sound decision with respect to the educational stream of their choice. Once they reach grade four, students will be able to choose one of three educational streams: theoretical general education, technical general education and vocational education. These streams will be more fully explained under the secondary level of education. Secondapy. Including the following streams: a. Theoretical General. Of three years duration ending with the Lebanese Baccalauréet Part II (including both 105 the literary and scientific sections). Students who successfully pass the intermediate level, are admitted to this stream provided they pass a qualifying entrance examination. Technical General. Of three years duration, ending with the Lebanese Baccalaureat of Technique with all its branches. Students are admitted to this stream on a similar basis as the theoretical streams. Teacher Education. Of four years duration, ending with the Teaching Baccalaureat. The curriculum of this field should include both general and professional education. Students who pass the intermediate level are qualified to enter this stream and be enrolled in one of three areas: (1). The teaching of general education (2). The teaching of physical education and scouting (3). The teaching of fine arts and home economics Vocatignal Education. Composed of two cycles: Cycle 1. Of five years duration. Students who hold the intermediate certificate and do not wish to pursue their education further are admitted to this cycle. These students would be trained vocationally to meet middle level manpower requirements. This branch would be preceded by a preparatory year for those who failed the intermediate certificate. Cycle 2. Of one year duration, admitting those who hold the Lebanese Baccalaureat Part II, but who do not 106 want to continue their higher education. This cycle shOuld also be preceded by one year for those who failed the Baccalaure’at examinations. 6. Higher Education. Including the following streams: a. General b. Technical c. Teacher - the teaching of general education d. Teacher - the teaching of technical educatiOn and vocational education. . Figure 8 illustrates the proposed organizational structure of education. The comittee, in this respect, recommends a decentralized system of education centered around educational spheres; with larger spheres providing secondary education and smaller spheres--primary and intermediate education. With respect to the implementation of the plan, the comittee suggests that the required personnel be trained to supervise andguide the complete educational process during its transitory phase. Finally, the committee suggests that the plan should go into effect Stalr't::l.ng with the academic year of 1967-1968. Having surveyed the major provisions of both short term and long range planning and the role of the Ministry of Education in these areas, let ‘48 examine another related area where the state policy is involved in the process of educational planning. maoosum woausosvn Hancock mo casuauuan Hanna: mousuwumsH gunman asuaqguua «usuauusn uunwum muuaomoa mowoaaoo muuauwumsm nonwwm w shaman Auauao uncanny Augean usuamv Hmowsnooauamco«umoo> you .vu .nooa .uo> .mu .auoa .oo> , samurosvu nonomoa .vm .oom coaumuamm humussauamaoo .ua massage Voc. Voc. Voc. General General .cOwumoavw mo ousuoauum amcowusuacmwuo monomoum < no” Pre Primary Education 108 The Impact of State Policy on Educational Planning It is assumed that in a centralized system of education all educational affairs, especially in the public sector, are the responsibility of the Ministry of Education. The Ministry itself is but an agency in a more comprehensive political institution, the national government. The government, which is vested with constitutional authority and legal power, is assumed to have a direct impact on educational planning as well as on other decisions and policies involved in the educative process. Thus, any educational policy, no matter how simple, is directly or indirectly influenced by the state policy. In chapter 11 it was indicated that the Office of the Minister of Education is directly related and accountable to the central government. There is ample evidence in support ofthe view that the influence of state policy permeates practically the whole educative process. From a constitutional viewpoint, it was mentioned earlier that Article 10 of the Lebanese Constitution defines the nature and function of education in the country. From a legislative viewpoint, it was shown also that legislative decrees govern and direct all educational practices.12 Perceived from another perspective, the state policy in Lebanon Imay be described as the-manifestation of the social and political atmosphere of the country. This implies the embodiment of the vested interests of the 'various pressure and interest groups, political parties, religious organi- zations and all the social-cultural paraphernalia that constitute the fiber and matrix of the Lebanese society. It was indicated earlier in the study that Lebanon has a unique socio-political situation. This is eVidenced in the fact that the "national-pact," which governs to a great \ =12The Lebanese Government, The Official Paper: Legislative Decrees lfifii: 25 & 26 with respect to the Organization and Administration of Education, (Be irut: 1955). ' 109 extent the political life of the country is still in effect to the present day. Through the provisions of the "pact", the various political and administrative offices in the state are distributed proportionally among the various groups. Being superimposed on such a social cultural diversity, the total political situation is mostly featured by confessionalism, ethnocentricism, feudality, nepotism, and favoritism.13 Given this kind of situation characterized by the mentioned features, any outlook on educational planning, or other developmental plans in the country tends to present a dubious image to the planner. The situation as it exists does not lend itself to strong responsible leadership. Moreover, there is a sheer lack of statesmanship demonstrated by less wise official action.14 The underlying causes as suggested by one of the authorities on Middle Eastern Affairs are due basically to the lives lost in the first world war massacres, to emigration, or the lack of training facilities.15 Whatever may be the case, the situation is assumed to be the result of the various social and cultural forces that became embodied in the existing political regime, which in its turn becomes a causal factor to other conditions in the society. Based on these considerations, it becomes more meaningful to focus «on one particular aspect of state policy and establish a relation- ship between educational decisions and other national decisions. The discussion of this aspect involves primarily a description of the organiza- tional structure of the planning machinery through the successive courses that educational planning follow on the administrative hierarchy. k 13Arthur E. Mills, Private Enterprise in Lebanon, The American University of Beirut, 1959, p. 120. 141mm, pp. 120-120. 15Hourani, Albert,02- Cit- . P. 118. 110 Organizational Structure of the Planning Machinery Essentially, the planning machinery shares many features with the administrative machinery of the educational system (Fig. 1, Chapter II). Both run on hierarchical lines of authority that flow from the upper echelons downward. Both are organizationally stratified throughout the hierarchy; and personnel that fall on any stratum of the structure report to the next higher office. All offices in turn are under direct control of a central office in the administration. The planning machinery however, as conceived by the study is more encompassing. It touches, in its nature and function, on more than one Ministry and agency that has a direct relationship with planning. Figure 9 illustrates the organizational structure of the planning machinery. As indicated by the chart all the various branches of the machinery stem from one point of origin, the Parliament. The Parliament itself, embodying the legislative branch of the state, is representative of the people. Deputies are elected to office by universal suffrage. Next on the line is the Council of Ministers. This council represents the executive body of the State. It embodies the cabinet which is headed by a Premier. The Premier himself is appointed by the President of the Republic and is delegated with the authority of selecting the members of the cabinet. The cabinet is responsible and accountable to both the President of the Republic and the Parliament. The next step on the hierarchy is the Ministerial level. Each Ministry is presided over by a Minister who, in his turn is directly accountable to the Council of Ministers. The Ministry, with its various offices and departments, constitutes a semi- autonomous administrative unit which is organized on well defined 111 The Organizational Structure of the Planning Machinery The Parliament 4———a The Council of Ministers /7 $ T \ // / I \ \ g / / \ Jfik/r V I \ m l Ministry Ministry of Finance Ministry Of Education of Planning A A I I I I I I I I I I I I I I 9 Directorate Directorate Directorate General General General a 16* 'r / \ I I / \ I / \ ' I fz/ \ I I} I Office of Committee on Administrativ Central Nat'l. Budget Educational Personnel Directorate Revenues, Exp. Planning of Statistics \ Legend Schools at all Levels being in a State of Readiness to Implement Decisions Authority Line ------- Flow of Decisions Figure 9 112 organizational lines that run from the Minister down to the lowest echelons of the hierarchy. The Ministries that have direct relationship to educational planning, as shown on the chart are those of Planning, Education and Finance. Although some other agencies and institutions on that level may have a relationship in the process of planning, however, they were not included in the chart. For the convenience of the study these three Ministries and their respective departments were selected to serve as concrete examples on the interrelationship of decisions and interests involved in the process of planning. Closer examination of the chart would show two sets of lines: one set follows a vertical direction, the other a horizontal direction. The vertical lines stand for the line of authority which usually follow a one-way course from upward down. This is represented in the uninterrupted line on the chart. There is, however, another vertical line which is dotted, and which follows an upward course. This line represents decisions, Studies, and findings of standing comittees that are‘reported to the upper echolons of the hierarchy. The horizontal line may be called a Staff line and represents the interdepartmental and/or inter-Ministerial relationship in the process ofdecision making. All these interrelation- 81"1138 in the planning machinery become more meaningful when they are Placed in focus under the process of planning and the different levels that the process follows. Llanning on the Policy Level Ideally, planning on the policy level involves the cooperative effort of personnel in the higher echelons of the administrative hierarchy 113 i;n the preparation of plans. Usually plans are prepared by special (mommittees created for that purpose and delegated with the authority treeded for the accomplishment of the task. Thus, from an administrative ‘riewpoint, the Committee on Educational Planning, which was appointed by tihe Ministry of Education for the specific purpose of setting up educational [>1ans, has defined duties and responsibilities. It observes the situation, ccillects the necessary data and prepares plans. The committee in turn I atibmits the proposed plans to the Director General, who in turn makes his coments and remarks -- then submits the plan to the Minister. At this level, the Minister examines the plan from his own standpoint and in concert with the Ministers of Planning and Finance. These agencies study time plan in terms of available resources and in light of statistical data derived from the Central Directorate of Statistics. At the suggestion of these Ministers, the plan is submitted to the Council of Ministers, upon whose consent, goes through its last stage to the Parliament. Once the plan is passed by the Parliament, it becomes a law and retraces its path down the administrative hierarchy for implementation. This exposure to the process of planning may be conceived as an oversimplification of the situation. This is true were the issue left at-‘this level, however, there are many intervening variables that affect each step of the process. What happens in practice, as a matter of fact, 13 Inore complicated than what has been demonstrated in this hypothetical EHI-t\1ation. Quite often, a plan takes from one to ten years from the time it is initiated before it is finally passed by Parliament. It is no BurPrise to find at times that some plans never see the light. As one I‘ebllnese authority remarked, "if you want to kill a plan, appoint a committee to Study it. "16 __‘ ’16An Interview with an Inspector in the Ministry of Education, Beirut, SW? 10“ I.-- ----- 11-- __._---‘..l-_ t‘ 114 What actually happens on the policy level may be explained under two different concepts: "educational decisions" and"political decisions." As a rule, an educational plan is initiated by some person inside or outside education. This is done, presumably, in light of a rising educa- tional need. The proposed plan is considered under a certain set of conditions and criteria. Thus, when an educational comittee studies a plan it considers all relevant factors and possibilities that have a direct bearing on the plan. Conceived from this viewpoint the plan is a matter of an educational decision. As soon as the plan is passed to the office of the Minister it becomes a political decision. "It is assumed the decision of the Minister of Education is influenced by other decisions coming from pressure groups, from comunity leaders, and other factions in the society. There is ample evidence showing that a considerable nuniber of educational practices are the result of political decisions.17 Similar measures are followed in the support of" private schools and the provisions of financial subsidies to schools that operate under the pretense of being non- tuitional . The significance of the situation in terms of its bearing on educational planning becomes readily discernible. Any educational plan on the policy level is directly governed and influenced by political decisions. ~It may be concluded then that the process of planning starts as an educational decision and grows into a political decision. This tetHilency is likely to be true on the work level of planning as well. \ 17The Lebanese Government, The Official Paper: Ministerial decrees Wu for the opening of Private Schools, Current issues of the Paper, (Beirut: 1964-65). 18Ministry of Education, Ministeral decrees with respect to the EEEEOrt of pgivate education, (Beirut, 1965). 115 Planning" on the Workievel From what has been shown in Figure 9, it becomes apparent that the work level in the process of planning involves the lower echelons of the administrative hierarchy. The schools in this sense, including their administrative and instructional staff, are in a state of readiness to implement the approved plan. The teachers in the educational system, especially in public schools, are considered public servants and are treated as such. Public school teachers being paid by the state are also controlled by it. They have no right to form or join teachers' organizations or any other unions or parties, especially political parties. They are not allowed to have any other occupation or operate a business of their own as long as they are in the school system. They are expected to behave in a certain manner both in the school and outside.19 The situation dramatizes the line of authority on the administrative hierarchy. It shows that the impact of the state on educational policies is unchallenged. The clearly defined course that decisions follow from the higher echelons down the line indicates the upper hand played by the policy makers. It also suggests the process of planning as being a One-way process making educational decisions implied in political decisions. I‘IIDI'e important, the situation suggests that decisions being initiated and aIZIPIt'oved at the policy level are not shared with those at the work level. This means that all personnel in the lower echelons of the hierarchy are exeluded from the decision making. Their share in the whole process is to carry out and implement decisions. \ 19Ministry of Education, Internal Bj-Laws governing the Behavioral Wilublific School Teachers, (Beirut: 1955). 116 Looking finally at the planning machinery in retrospect, a few questions may be‘ raised at this point. How are the various plans related to each other? What are the guiding principles for initiating and designing educational plans? Considering the existing administrative structure that channels its working personnel in the same manner that it channels the student population -- what happens to the individual initiative and the level of incentives? What should be the basic responsibility of the Ministry of Education in the process of planning and how should this responsibility be shared by its various departments and offices? All these questions require some analysis of the educational situation which Will be concluded in the next part of the chapter. Analysis and Evaluation of the Present Situation After this exposition of the various educational plans reflecting the different viewpoints of official authorities both on the state level and on the Ministerial level, it becomes appropriate to conclude the discussion on the national planning for education with a brief analysis Of the various plans. as they relate to each other and as they bear on the concept of human resource development. The discussion implies a comparison 8“long the educational plans as being presented in the previous sections Of this chapter and their implications on the educational situation. L Comparison Among Existing Educational Plans Casting another look on the different educational programs, it beeOmes clear that they share many things in cannon as well as they differ in their conception, approach and estimate of the notion of educational Planning. 117 First, it should be pointed out that all the different planners, irrespective of their differences, are in full agreement of the need :for educational planning. This agreement has been demonstrated in the <:onscientious awareness on their part of the seriousness of the situation. They have supported their views by evidence derived from data on population I:rends, on student population and on objective diagnosis of the various educational needs of the country. Second, all planners are in agreement with the primary role played try the Ministry of Education in the promotion and the sponsoring of educa- t:ional plans. Whether they approve or disapprove of the existing educational policies, they do consider that the Ministry can play an effective role in tfhe process of planning. This role is derived from the legal authority crf the Ministry in the support and control of education. Third, educational plans, whether short term or long range, are most likely to be influenced by the state policy which is to a large extent the expression of the predominating political atmosphere in the country. All plans in order to acquire legal recognition have to be either passed by the Parliament or the Cabinet. Fourth, it can be readily observed that the existing plans differ 11! their scope, intensity and dimensions. Whereas short term plans are Primarily concerned with suggestions and recounendations that address themselves to the imediate problems arising from the situation; long teifin plans address themselves to far reaching goals and objectives. Finally, it may be said that short term plans in general have confined themselves to provisional educational decisions and policies to b9 accomplished within time not exceeding five years. Whereas, long 118 term plans were left ”open-ended" in the sense that they did not set up target years for education that may be attained within a given period of time. .Analysis Of Comparisons The various plans present concrete evidence for the need of the xnodification and reconstruction of the educational system on different levels and degrees. This evidence was grounded in the pressing needs of ifhe situation. ‘Expressed in a numerical formula these needs meant shortage (of teachers, school buildings, facilities, and funds for education. The problem as evidenced at this level, was one of quantity rather than quality. It was focused on issues such as: how to recruit teachers? Iiow to find school buildings that would accommodate the increasing number <>f students? and how to raise funds? Miserable schoolhouses, jammed czlassrooms and poor teacher qualifications were overlooked as being essential elements in the process of planning. Another striking feature of these plans was the concentration of planners on the structural reorganization of the educational system. This tendency was mostly demonstrated by the long term plan which included a Preposed organizational structure of the system from pre-primary to higher education, with each level being carefully defined in terms of 8¢<>pe and function. However, in spite of the apparent merits of these plans, they do maIlifest many shortcomings. Basically, most of them were very general. 'rhere was no specific provision for the working policy that would state PrOcedures, define goals and identify the means according to which the Prescribed goals could be obtained. The over concern of the planners 119 for the finding of solutions to the immediate educational needs made them overlook the implications of their own solutions. For example, how did they come to determine educational needs outside the immediate aspects of the situation? What were the criteria for expanding vocational education programs or similar programs in technical education? All these facts suggest that the planners overlooked economic social needs of the society in terms of manpower requirements and other occupational demands rising in the economic sector. If there were any mention of these aspects, they were stated in the form of generalizations, that expose a situation, but never explain :it. ance educational plan- ning in this sense is assumed to be prepared in isolation of other deve10pmental programs in the country. It is assumed also that the process of planning, as being conceived by the different planners and carried out by the responsible agencies in the country including the Ministry of Education, suggests the need for a guiding policy of educational planning, a policy that would help the planner to integrate educational planning with overall national planning. Implications of the Situation The situation as it has been presented in the previous sections of this chapter leaves many implications and raises many issues pertinent to education, to the state, to the Ministry of Education and to the educational planner. To education, these implications may be stated in terms of educational priorities. Where should the emphasis be placed in suggesting recommendations for the improvement of an educational program? What educational streams should be emphasized and what other streams should .120 be de-emphasized? How can education be adjusted to the arising social- economic needs of the society. The implications to society may be included under an overall encompassing policy that defines national goals and objectives and identifies the means for achieving these goals. It involves the coordina- tion of all activities in the various Ministries and public agencies. It involves decision making as well. Is the state ready to play this role of statesmanship or leadership in the process of planning? Is the political atmosphere conducive for this purpose? In similar measures where should the Ministry of Education stand on educational decisions? What kind of role should it play? To what extent should it delegate full authority to standing committees on educa- tional planning? What is the role of the professional and of the expert in the process of planning? And on what level should educational policies be made and followed up? Finally the planner is the one who is directly involved in the whole process. Is the educational planner in Lebanon fully aware of the social-cultural forces that influence education? Is he technically and professionally provided with the required experiences and knowledge in the field of planning? Does he have sufficient training in his field?’ Is he in a position to relate educational planning to other aspects on manpower planning and other developmental plans? These are the minimum issues to be considered while contemplating the setting up of any educational plan. Most of these issues suggest the need for relating educational plans to other national plans. Thus, before considering a thorough appraisal of the educational system in terms of its capacity in the development of human resources, it is 121 appropriate to consider another major area that has a direct bearing on educational planning. This area involves some known manpower require- ments in Lebanon and will form the topic of discussion in the next chapter. SummaEy It has been revealed in this chapter that there is an urgent need for educational planning in Lebanon. This need has been triggered by many developments taking place in the Lebanese Society basically: population expansion, economic and occupational needs and rising aspirations on the part of the people. All these factors were likely to leave a direct impact on the educational system. The system itself became under direct questioning in terms of its preparing youth to meet new life situations. Several attempts were made suggesting new educational plans that would meet the needs of the situation. Most of these plans were carried under the auspices of the Ministry of National Education. The procedures followed in the designing and implementing of these plans were directly influenced by the state policy. These plans in their totality expressed an urgent desire on the part of official authorities for the improvement of the educational system and the extension of educational opportunities to all the people of the country. The discussion was concluded by an analytic comparison of the existing plans. It was indicated, finally, that the various practices in educational planning suggest the need for an objective appraisal and evaluation of the educational system in terms of training for the development of human resources. The appraisal requires an examination of a related area in the field of economy, which will be discussed in the next chapter. CRAFTER V EDUCATIONAL PLANNING WITH RESPECT TO KNOWN MARPOWER REQUIREMENTS IN LEBANON The discussion in the previous chapters presented a descriptive account of the nature and function of the educational system in the country in terms of student enrollments and the planning for education. Essentially, these students form the potential of manpower stock which is likely to provide the needed competencies at different levels of manpower requirements in Lebanon. Moreover, it was disclosed that various educational plans, at both short term and long range intervals, are either being installed or are in the process of implementation. Presumably, these plans are conceived by the concerned authorities as prerequisites in a more comprehensive developmental process which is meant to serve the individual needs and, simultaneously, to cope with the overall social and economic objectives of the country. Prior to any investigation of the validity of these assumptions, it is appropriate at this phase of the study to present a survey of the economic Sphere in Lebanon. The purpose of this survey is to furnish basic data on manpower requirements in the country assuming that there is a functional relationship between educational planning and manpower requirements. The discussion involves a brief presentation of the economic background. It also involves an examination of the existing labor force in '-0 10 "J 123' the country as to its composition and distribution according to age, sex, and occupation. This is followed by an investigation of the known man- power requirements in relation to professional competencies and other required skills. Special emphasis in the last part of the chapter is on middle level manpower requirements. Due to the fact that the current literature in this area tends to overlap in substance and methodology, for the purpose of this chapter some basic sources will be exclusively used as authorities. The major source of information that will be adopted in this respect is the work of the IRFED Mission entitled, "Besoins et Possibilites de Development du Liban," (Needs and Possibilities of Deve10pment in Lebanon). Other studies will be used when necessary. An Overview of the Economic Situation It is practically an undeniable fact that the geography of a country and its natural resources play a vital role in its developmental process. This kind of situation is closely related to that of Lebanon where the geographical position of the country, the size and the density of population were responsible in shaping its economy, and influencing its development. The following discussion is aimed at revealing the nature and structure of the Lebanese economy, namely the basic features of the economy, the major economic sectors and trends of economic growth in recent past. Basic Features of the Lebanese Economy Lebanon is characterized by many features some of which reflect a favorable, rather colorful, picture of economic prosperity, while 124 others convey a gloomy, rather dubious image of the country's economic situation. In either case, the dimensions of the Lebanese economy are directly influenced by the country's geography, its size, climate and the value system upheld by the Lebanese people. Being of a relatively small area which is densely populated, Lebanon is faced with many handicaps that impose themselves on its economic growth. Moreover, this situation is more intensified by other unfavorable conditions which were likely to impede some conceivable developmental projects as heavy industry, oil production and the like. The fact lies in the absence or scarcity of natural resources which are considered to be preconditions for such projects. Thus, the country in general has very limited natural resources. "Except for a pleasant climate and beautiful scenery, nature has been niggardly towards Lebanon. (The country) has not received even a small fraction of the large oil deposits, vast alluvial plains and broad rivers with which some of its neighbors have been endowed." Consequently, these physical limitations were likely to have a direct impact on the people in terms of occupational activities. From a general viewpoint Lebanon is classified as an agrarian community in the sense that about half of the population derives its income, wholly or partly, from agriculture, and a little more than half lives in rural 2 areas. However, the continuous flow of population from the country to 1Charles Issawi, "Economic Development and Liberalism in Lebanon," The Middle East Journal, Vol. 18., No. 3, Summer, 1964, p. 280. 2Yusif A. Sayigh, "Lebanon, Special Economic Problems Arising From a Special Structure," Middle East Economic Papers, Economic Research Institute, American University of Beirut, 1957, p. 68. 125 the towns has already reduced the rural population to a half of the total. Recent trends indicate to more predominance of urbanism over rural life. This is evidenced in the fact that "the rural-urban dis- tribution has been shifting steadily for a few decades with more and more villages to the urban centers, eSpecially Beirut."3 The explanation of this phenomenon inheres partly in the topo- graphy of the country and partly in its geographical position. It should be noted in this reapect that out of the total area of the country, which is estimated at about 2.5 million acres only 30% is cultivated and less than 20% is cultivable, whereas the remaining 50% of the area is practically wasteland consisting of mountains and swamps. This fact is contrasted with prosperous service industries, banking, insurance, commerce, transportation, and tourism,‘which account for an overwhelming 601 of the total national income. The national income derived from the agricultural sectoz is less than 207..5 Hence, it is no surprise to find that some other studies qualify the assertion that Lebanon is primarily a country of trade and services.6 It becomes obvious then, that the limitations imposed by the topography of the country on the occupational activities of the people play a crucial part in its economic structure and development. In the 31bid., p. 69. 4U. S. Department of Commerce, "Basic Data on the Economy of Lebanon," WOrld Trade Information Service, Part 1, No. 61-75, (1961), p. 4. 5The Arab World, "Lebanon's Unique Resourceful Economy," vol. 9., Nos. 7 & 8, (July-Aug., 1963), pp. lO-ll. 6Albert Badre and Associates, "The National Income of Lebanon," Middle East Economic Papers, Economic Research Institute, American University of Beirut, 1956, pp. 31-34. 126 same token, the geographical position plays a similar role, though on a different level. In this latter case, the future is more promising. By virtue of its location on the Eastern shore of the Mediteranean Sea at a central point of trade routes that connect three continents--Asia, Africa, and Europe-~Lebanon undoubtedly enjoys the benefits of this unique position. This fact is being demonstrated by revenues collected from trade, transit and tourism. But were the topography of the country to be a curse on the one hand, it may be conceived a blessing on the other hand. At least two major features may be attributed to the influence of topography on the economic sphere. First, the existence of a range of mountains rising to more than 10,000 feet and running parallel to the sea coast from.north to south establish a climate barrier which results in heavy precipitation in the country, especially on the western slopes of the mountains,ranging from 30 to 40 inches of rainfall every winter. This condition provides water for irrigation and non-irrigation agriculture. A second and equally important factor is the influence of this topography on the progressively growing industry of tourism in Lebanon. Accordingly, recent statistics indicate that somewhere between 285,000 visitors in 1953 to 901,000 visitors in 1955 had entered the country; this is a rise of 2161 in three years.7 At present, more than a million visitors enter the country each year, who contribute to a noticeable increase of the national income. Hence, the assertion that "Lebanon is the Switzerland of the Middle East" is of tremendous significance in economic terms. 7William Persen, "Lebanese Economic Development Since 1950," The Middle East Journal, Vol. 12., No. 3, (1958), p. 289. 127 Another striking feature of the Lebanese economy is Lebanon's balance of visible trade. This balance has consistently reflected a ratio of 5 or 6 to l to the advantage of imports over exports.8 An examiner of the situation would expect under such circumstances a depreciation in the value of the local currency in relation to other currencies. But instead, there has been a marked tendency for the Lebanese pound to appreciate, where as in 1950 LL. 3.47 exchanged for one American dollar, the rate of exchange in December, 1961, had dropped to LL. 3.05 to the dollar.9 Thus, deSpite the great deficit in the visible balance of trade, the index of the balance of payments has indicated a surplus. The reason for that is due to many factors, basically to the continuous capital inflow on the country from many sourcea,such as foreign aid, capital from nearby oil rich Arab States, emigrant remittances and other donations.10 All these features are culminated by another feature which accords the Lebanese economy a unique position in the whole region. This is the free economic enterprise. Within the bounds of this economic practice a spirit of entrepreneurship fostered by private initiative preordains on the Lebanese trader the maximum of economic liberty, a condition provides enough incentive for economic enterprises.11 8United Nations, Economic Developments in the Middle East,(New York: United Nations Publications, l962),p. 72. 9Marwan Iskandar, "The Structure of Lebanon's Economy,"'Middle East Forum, V61. 38., No. 4, (April, 1962), p. 37. lolbid. 11George Kent, "Beirut, City of Money and Mystery," Reader's Digest, Nov., 1964, pp. 25-36. 128 Major Economic Sectors The lack of reliable data on the national income creates a number of statistical gaps in assessing the structure of the Lebanese economy. The first systematic and empirical study conducted in this field_ was that of Albert Badre and Associates at the American University of Beirut, which is included in the Middle East Economic Papers, 1956, pp. 1-37. This study became a basic source of information to further studies for the next ten years to follow. With some modification and adjustment in the light of Lebanon's economic development, other authori- ties made similar strides to present an objective picture in terms of basic data on the structure of the Lebanese economy. Among these studies is that of the IRFED Mission on "The Needs and Possibilities of Develop- .. ment in Lebanon." Additional information on the major economic sectors is included in various bulletins issued by the Ministry of National Economy and the Central Bureau of Statistics in Lebanon as well as by the United Nations'“Economic Development in the Middle East" and U. S. Department of Commerce on'World Trade Information Service." Basically, most of these authorities classify the economic struc- ture under such categories as agriculture, industry, construction, real estate, transportation and the like. Such classification is based on the national income. The growth and development of the national income according to the major economic sectors is shown in Table 11. 129 TABLE 11 GROWTH OF NATIONAL INCOME OF LEBANON BY ECONOMIC SECTORS 1950-19578 1950 1957 Income in 1 of Income in 1 of Economic Sector Million LL. Total Million LL. Total Agriculture 206 19.8 238 15.8 Industry 141 13.5 189 12.6 Construction 43 4.1 41 2.7 Trade 300 28.9 469 31.2 Finance 40 3.8 91 6.1 Transportation & Communication 44 4.2 80 3.3 Public Administration 72 6.9 108 7.2 Real Estate 96 9.2 139 9.3 Other Services _lQQ ‘_2;§, _l§§_ 9.8 Total 1,042 100.0 1,503 100.0 aIRFED Mission, op. cit., Vol. 1., p. 81. The table shows that the total national income has increased by over 450 million Lebanese pounds during the seven year period. It also reflects the relevant growth of the various economic sectors during that same period. I Thus,it is shown that trade contributes as the major source of income. Trends indicate that the trade sector has increased from 28.91 to 31.21 during that period. Finance was the other sector which has abmost doubled its growth from 3.82 to 6.11 of the total national income. 130 Whereas the remaining sectors maintained a proportionate growth, it is observed that the only sector which experienced a relative decrease during that period was agriculture. The table shows that the contribution of agriculture had decreased from 19.81 in 1950 to 15.8% in 1957. This phenomenon becomes of great significance when national income is related to labor force in the country. Another way to view the economic situation is by observing the relative distribution of national income on the working population. Table 12 illustrates by numerical figures and percentages how the national product is distributed on the working population. TABLE 12 NATIONAL INCOME DISTRIBUTION BY SECTOR AND WORKING POPUIATION - 1957b Economic Sector Nat'l Pr. in Z of Working Z of Per Capita Million LL Total Pop. Total Nat'l Inc. Agriculture 238 15.58 220,000 48.9 1,082 Industry and Handicrafts 189 12.60 54,000 12.0 3,500 Construction 41 2.70 33,000 7.3 1,242 Transportation 80 3.30 24,000 5.3 3,333 Trade 469 31.25 53,000 11.8 8,849 Finance 91 6.10 2,000 0.44 45,500 Public Adminis. 108 7.20 16,000 3.6 6,750 Real Estate 139 9.25 - - - - - - - Other Sources _14§ 9.85 48,000 10.7 ._§,Q§§ Total. 1503 100.00 450,000 100.0 3,340 aA-n‘, *- no b1bid., p. 55. ° 131 Table 12 shows that the working population in 1957 was 450,000. Out of this number roughly 49% derived their livelihood from agriculture. Comparing this percentage with the percentage of people deriving their income from trade or finance, the difference becomes quite apparent. As it is indicated in the last column, the per capita income derived from agriculture, in comparison to other levels of income derived from other sectors is the lowest one. This suggests the unbalanced distribution of wealth among the population of the country. Trends and Implications of Economic Growth in Recent Past. In tracing the trends of the economic development of Lebanon, it is essential to consider these trends in terms of the national income, per capita income, the state budget, and its distribution on the various ministries, and other related polocies issued by official authorities. In terms of national income, studies in this area report that in 1950, the national income amourtad to 1,042 million Lebanese pounds. Divided by the population at that time, which was estimated at about 1,200,000, the per capita income was estimated to be LL. 800, or the equivalent of $250, at the current rate of exchange.1 In 1957, the national income had arisen to LL. 1503 millions, 13 Since then, there was with a per capita income of LL. 1000 or $315. a proportionate increase in both income and population, which gives an average increase per capita of 2.11 per year.14 12Badre and Associates, op. cit., p. 3. 13IRFED Mission, op. cit., V61. 1., p. 76. 14Ibid. 132 But this picture may not be representative to reality, because the figures reported are statistical and represent a given average of wealth. This suggests that in order to obtain a more representative picture of the distribution of wealth on the population, one has to go beyond this sheer division and focus on the actual distribution of wealth among the people. It was shown roughly in the previous section that about 501 of the total population derive their living from.the agricultural sector, whereas the income arising from that sector amounted to about 151 of the total national income. Correspondingly, the population involved in trade and commerce is less than 101 of the working pOpulation, but nonetheless, it acquires more than 30% of the national income, which indicates an inequitable distribution of wealth. Hence, the outcome is likely to be a pronounced social and economic discrepancy among the various economic sectors and their occupants. This situation opens many issues for further consideration on social economic development in the country. Another significant trend in the economic progress in Lebanon is reflected in the tremendous growth of the various economic sectors within the last few years. Table lZillustrated clearly this growth in comparison to the sectors of economy within a certain period of time. Similarly, if we trace the national budget, we find a corresponding growth as well. In 1951, the budget was LL. 90,015,000. In 1957, this figure grew into LL. 192,466,000. By 1960, it went up to a level of LL. 222,235,000. And by 1965, it soared to a record figure of LL. 514,790,000.15 15The Ministry of Finance, A Report on the National Budget, (Beirut, 1965). 133 In line with these trends, the Lebanese economy is characterized by a continuous move from a primary to secondary and tertiary economy. It has already been indicated that income from agriculture is overshadowed by the progressive increase of national income derived from industry, manufacturing, trades, finance and services. Turning to other indicators on economic growth, a person may be able to generate from the available ministerial decrees and messages to the state a number of conclusions on the economic situation in the country. Usually, every new regime upon assuming power presents to the Parliament the policy which is to be adopted by that regime. For example, in its message to the state, the government that took Office in August, 1960, after the national elections of that year indicated that it would encourage industry while at the same time safeguard Lebanon's commercial position. The report issued by the High Council of Customs stated that the government objectives were to encourage national industry by reducing import duties on raw materials and equipment and giving sufficient pro- tection to certain industries without, however, discouraging imports of similar products.16 In a subsequent situation, it was proclaimed through a ministerial declaration issued in November, 1961, by the newly appointed government of Premier Rashid Karame that the regime will adopt the following prin- ciples in its economic and financial policies.17 16Middle Eastern Affairs, "Lebanon," va1. 2., 1961, p. 78. 17Ib1d. 134 "The declaration affirmed the principle of economic liberalism and private enterprise, but also committed the state to a reduction in the differences in levels of development of the various economic sectors, as well as in the living standards of the social classes. The social aspect of the declaration implied recognition of the fact that something had to be done to narrow the growing gulf between Beirut's affluent commercial and financial community and the bulk of the population. The government pledged to enact a social security pro- gram by stages, a vocational training law and a labor law recognizing collective bargaining and arbitration." In fact, these declarations reflect the social-economic needs of the country. The merit of such policies inheres in reflecting the public authorities concern of recognizing existing problems and attempting to solve them within a given policy. Other economic trends are reflected in the existing policies enacted in the various economic sectors, basically agriculture and in- dustry. The agricultural policy of Lebanon was based in recent past on the following criteria: Acceleration projects for drinking water to all parts of the country Development of road networks Extension of electricity to all rural areas Extension of agricultural credit Developing adequate marketing facilities, and Intensification of afforestation through the green plan.18 In the industrial sector, a number of projects were under con- sideration. Plans were in the making for building a glass factory to fill 18United Nations, op. cit., 1963, p. 23. 135 the gap between the existing level in domestic glass production of 2,700 tons per year and the average annual consumption of 7,000 tons. Also envisaged was a synthetic rubber plant to provide for raw material estimated at about 2,500 tons in 1963.19 All these trends indicate a progressive movement in the social and economic spheres. They imply, as well, quite a number of problems arising from the distribution of wealth,and other inequities. Before an analysis is made of the situation, we will turn to the labor force in the country and examine its composition and struc- ture in the various occupations and regions. Labor Force and Manpower Distribution. Among the essential givens in a country's human resource develop- ment, is the labor force, including all people who are economically active and productive. A discussion of the economic structure is incomplete without the human element, the labor force; its dimensions, distribution and magnitude. In this section, an attempt will be made to discuss the existing labor force as to age, sex, industrial and occupational distri- bution. Problems of Definition and Measurement. In assessing and determining the size and magnitude of the labor force in Lebanon, one is likely to be confronted with many problems that arise from the economic and social situations of the country. These problems include: lack of vital statistics, lack of universal defini- tions, and identification and usage of measurement. 19Ibid., pp. 40-41. 136 Lack of Vital Statistics The task of assessing the labor force would be easily deter- mined provided certain basic data on population is available, such data including an exact census of the population and its distribution by age, sex or by region. In Lebanon, the lack of such data underlies the crux of the problem. This is primarily caused by the fact that not much research has been conducted in this field. Whatever data is available provides merely the outside or maximum dimensions of the labor force. At its best, this data serves as a guideline for a rough estimation of the labor force. Lack of Universal Definitions Another Obstacle is the vague usage of operational definitions of the term in a universally accepted manner. As a matter of fact, it is assumed that there is no such conventional definition of the term. Practically all working definitions in labor force are arbitrarily determined by the operating social, cultural and economic forces in each society. It follows logically then, that data on labor force in different countries are not comparable. The above assumption is supported by the evidence derived from various definitions that reflect different interpretations of the same concept. For example, in the United States, labor force is defined as: "The sum of all persons reported to be employed during a certain specific week. The "employed" category covers all persons 14 or older who have jobs or business for pay or profit: including employers and self-employed, unpaid family workers in a store or on a farm who help produce a saleable product or service and employees of non-profit enter- prises and government agencies. The "unemployed" 137 category includes persons 14 or older who have no jobs or business of the above mentioned sort and are seeking such employment during the survey week."20 According to another definition, "Labor force is meant all persons who are working for an income, or who are desirous of working for an income."21 For the purpose of the study, labor force may be defined as all the persons who are economically active, in the sense they are poten- tially capable to produce. The concept includes both categories of employed and unemployed persons who fall within the age limits of 14 and 60 years, including both sexes. Further explanation of the term will be defined operationally within the context. Another inherent problem underlying the concept is the meth- odology followed in identifying and using measurements to determine size of the labor force. What criteria should be used in an economy where the majority of the working population are indulged in agricul- ture, which is not fully drawn into the money or exchange system? Many Lebanese farmers work only during certain seasons and rest between these seasons. Under what category should they be classified? Seasonal employment? More important, it is worth mentioning in this respect that the Lebanese, especially those who live in the rural areas, derive their income from.more than one source. e.g., a person may be a taxi driver, 20C. D. Long, The Labor Force Under Changing Income and Employ- 2525, (New York: Princeton University Press, 1958), p. 42. 21anzi Saad-ed Dine, "Labor Force in the Sudan," Middle East Economic Papers, Economic Research Institute, American University of Beirut, 1958, p. 22. 138 a shop keeper and,at the same time, have a poultry farm. All Of these occupations are contributing to his accumulated amount of income. Under what category should this person be classified, part-time employ- ment or self-employment? What about the disguised occupations, in- volving people who have a major occupation, as well as additional jobs from which they derive a second source of income. What measurement should be used to differentiate between the various levels and sources of income? In the absence of reliable data on the unemployed, what criteria may be used to differentiate between those who are actually employed and those who are potentially employable? All these issues present a considerable number of insurmountable obstacles which are likely to reduce or minimize the efforts being focussed on that area. However, it is assumed that available sources and methodologies being used to assess existing labor force are valid and reliable, providing the error does not exceed the 10% level of con- fidence. The Size and Magnitude of the Labor Force It follows, from the above observations, that the assessment of the existing labor force in Lebanon is a "thorny" task. The task itself is more complicated due to the dearth of pre-established conventional and systematic classifications of labor force under certain categories. This implie‘ that attempts undertaken in this respect are being done on arbitrary grounds. However, to guard against such arbitration, the study will draw from sources which may serve as indicators of the magnitude and size of the labor force. The discussion that follows is centered around certain dimensions of the existing labor force in 139 Lebanon, basically age, sex, industrial, occupational, and regional distribution. By_Agg and Sex Distribution In terms of age distribution, as was mentioned earlier, the adopted range for the working population falls between the ages of 14 and 60. It may be rightly questioned to what extent is that range representative of the population? Quite often, it is found that a considerable number of youth in the country under 14 are involved in a series of materially renumerating activities, such as working on the farm, taking care of cattle, selling papers, shining shoes, and the like. Similarly, one finds peOple beyond the age of 60 who are still quite active and work for a salary. In drawing a line around the minimal and maximal age limit, it is assumed that all people who are below the 14 age limit are either dependable or supposed to be in school, especially if the rules of compulsory education went into effect. Hence, by a process of elimination, this age group can be discounted from the labor force. Similarly, the higher age limit was determined on the assump- tion that people beyond the age of 60 are supposed to be retired. How- ever, the assumption may not be warranted, due to the fact that a considerable number of people are indulged in economic activities beyond that age. Nevertheless, that line of demarcation is meant to serve as a maximal age limit of the labor force. Thus, within the bounds of these two age limits, a rough estima- tion of the external dimensions of the labor force in the country can be determined. Using again the 1959 age distribution of population and 140 excluding the age groups that fall outside these bounds, an approximate figure of 950,000 may be obtained representing those who are potentially active. However, the figure is not representative of the situation for many reasons. For example, as it will be revealed later in this chapter, a large proportion of women do not work, thus reducing the actual size of the labor force. According to the IRFED Mission, the population.that was poten- tially active in Lebanon totalled about 800,000 or roughly 50% of the total population. The age limits used by the Mission were 15 and 65.22 Further analysis of the size of the labor force follows under subsequent sections. In terms of sex distribution of the labor force, there is no ample data to the relative percentage of females to males. The only indicators available present a rough picture of the situation.23 In a more recent study conducted by the Ministry of Labor and Social Affairs on demographic and social characteristics of salaried workers in Lebanon for 1963, it was revealed that salaried workers totalled 98,853: 83,278 males and 15,575 females. It may be deduced from these figures that the percentage of females in the salaried occupa- tions does not exceed 157..24 By Industrial Distribution The diverse studies in this area present different estimates on the economically active population in the various economic sectors. 22IRFED Mission, op. cit., V01. 1., pp. 54-56. 23Ministry of Labor and Social Affairs, Statistical Data on Distribution of Labor Force Accordin to A e and Sex, (Beirut: 1959). 24Ibid. rm 0f is , o I" 141 It has been shown in previous parts of this chapter that according to the IRFED estimates, the economically active population was placed at about 450,000 A more detailed distribution of working population by economic sectors is illustrated in Table 13. TABLE 13 DISTRIBUTION OF WORKING POPULATION BY INDUSTRIAL SECTOR" - 1959c Employers or Industrial Division Self-Employed Employees Total Agriculture 125,000 95,000 220,000 Mfg. and Construction 12,000 75,000 87,000 Trade, Banking & Transportation 26,000 53,000 79,000 Services - not government 20,000 28,000 48,000 Government services -- 16,000 16,000 Total permanent working population: 183,000 267,000 450,000 Casual & Temporary -- 130,000 130,000 Combined Total: 183,000 397,000 580,000 * Figures presented in the above table exclude the armed forces. cIRFED Mission, op. cit., Vol. 1., p. 55. In another study conducted in the area in 1960 on the distribution of working population by industrial sectors, the working population was estimated at 610,000. The findings of this work is illustrated in Table 14. 142 TABLE 14 DISTRIBUTION OF LABOR FORCE - ACCORDING TO INDUSTRIAL DIVISION, 1960d Industrial Division No. of Workers Manufacturing 40,000 (in est. with 5 workers or more) 20,000 (in eat. with less than 5 workers) Building & Construction 20,000 Agriculture 300,000 Trade, Banking, Services and Professional 153,000 Transportation 30,000 Government 17,000 Armed Forces 10,000 Unemployed 20,000 Total 610,000 d Siksek, et. a1., op.cit., p. 32. It should be mentioned that the above table includes the armed forces, estimated at about 10,000 and the unemployed estimated at about 20,000. Were these figures to be excluded from the picture and were the findings of this study to be compared with those of IRFED, the results would be almost identical. Thus, both studies place the active working population by industrial distribution at about 580,000. In light of the data presented in the above tables and in relation to the total pOpulation in Lebanon, a few observations may be drawn in this respect. In 31' 91 {h 143 First, that population potentially active is estimated at about 800,000 and corresponds to about 501 of the total population. Second, that population actually active ranges between 282 and 362 with a rough average of 327. of the total population. This is a rather low percentage in comparison to that of other countries. In some selected countries, percentages of economically active population are as follows:25 Ceylon (1946) . 39.2 Egypt (1947) 35.5 Iraq ' (1947) 27.7 U. S. A. (1950) 39.9 United Kingdom (1951) 46.2 Belgian Congo (1953) 50.6 The explanation of the low percentage of economically active labor force in Lebanon lies in the high ratio of children and dependents, and the low ratio of working population among women. Third, that a relatively high percentage of the Lebanese are either employers or self-employed. According to IRFED, the ratio of this category of working population to the category of employees is 1:2. Finally, in Spite of the fact that Lebanon is conceived as a country of trade and services, it is still equally true that about 45% of the population work in agriculture in comparison to 18.52*working in industries and handicrafts and 32.5% in other services. This indicates that the agricultural sector predominates other sectors in terms of working population. _’i 25International Labor Office, Year Book of Labor Statistics, (Geneva: 1955), p. 6. 144 By,0ccupational Distribution various attempts have been made to arrive at a breakdown of the employment into occupational activities. In the 1942 census, all the people that were counted were asked about their occupations. The result showed that 754,200 out of a total population of 1,004,199 had no occu- pation.26 This fact may suggest that 752 of the country's population were unemployed. However, there are many interpretations, namely, that the employed preferred not to declare their occupation to the census authorities, or that the farmers who formed a high proportion of rural population considered themselves to be unemployed, if employment were understood to imply a regular salary. Since 1950, the Ministry of Labor and Social Affairs required each establishment in the country to file with the Ministry an annual report containing information about the people employed in their establishments, their age, sex, religion, marital status, number of children, date of employment and date of leaving the establishment. However, from a total number of 31,184 establishments in 1959, only about 3,000 supplied the data. The total employment in these estab- lishments amounted to 36,984, thus not all files were brought up to date and, therefore, some inaccuracies exist in the data given. A more detailed breakdown of the working population in accord- ance with the various occupational activities is best shown in Table 15. 26 - Siksek, et. a1., op. cit., pp. 32.33. 27Ibid., p. 35. 145 TABLE 15 OCCUPATIONAL DISTRIBUTION OF LABOR FORCEe -l958- Type of WOrk Industry Igggg Finance Services Grand Total Engineers 126 33 l 54 214 Engineer Aides 4 2 - - 6 Mechanics 480 427 11 336 1,254 Foremen 235 66 29 454 784 Accountants 137 285 95 295 812 Draftsman 37 4 - 65 106 Blacksmiths 360 67 - 77 504 Clerks 1,976 2,856 1,114 2,413 8,359 Executives 190 180 132 431 933 Experts 93 77 3 75 248 Plumbers 18 7 - 23 48 Machine Operators 44 6 - 93 143 Electricians 217 78 - 236 531 Skilled Workers 2,600 443 - 2,380 5,423 Carpenters 346 112 - 115 573 Doctors 7 - - 20 27 Teachers 1 - - 735 736 Nurses 2 - - 235 237 Missionaries l - - 32 33 Unskilled WOrkers 6,692 2,160 413 6,748 16,013 Totals: 13,566 6,803 1,798 14,817 36,984 e Ibid., p. 36. 146 In another study in this area, the working population was classified into five major categories: professional and technical, administrative, clerical, skilled and unskilled.28 Percentages derived from surveys on occupational activities of working population in 3,000 establishments in the country are shown in Table 16, presenting a broad indication of the occupational distribution in some selected industrial sectors of the economy. TABLE 16 DISTRIBUTION OF WORKING POPULATION ACCORDING TO SELECTED OCCUPATIONAL ACTIVITIESf Average Category of Worker Industry Trade Finance Services 1 Professional & Technical 2.02 1.71 OPZL 8.21 4.4 Administrative 2.4 6.8 12.6 4.9 4.7 Clerical 14.6 42.0 62.0 16.3 22.6 Skilled 31.7 17.7 2.2 25.1 25.0 Unskilled 49.3 31.8 23.0 45.5 43.3 fIbid., p. 12 This table reflects the contrast between professional and technical categories on the one hand, and that of unskilled labor on the other hand. With the exception of services the former category never exceeded the 21 level, while that of unskilled labor was being 45 and 502 in both sectors of industry and services. The category of administrative personnel mflects a low 28Joint UNRWA-ILO Survey Mission to Arab Countries, Mission Report on Lebanon, (Beirut: 1962-1963). 147 percentage in all four sectors and especially in the industrial, where it is expected more managerial personnel is needed. Clerical and skilled labor occupy an average position.' However, the table reflects a low percentage of skilled labor in both trade and finance. Comparing the average percentage of all categories according to sectors, it is‘ indicated that the upper two categories occupy the bottom scale in terms of labor magnitude. By Regional Distribution. According to this classification, the working population is examined in terms of its distribution in the regions, or administrative districts of the country. In 1961, the Ministry of Labor and Social Affairs conducted a survey including 21,131 establishments located throughout the country. After arranging these establishments according to regions, it was found that more than half of these establishments were located in the capital city of Beirut, and less than half were distributed among the four remaining regions. Table 17 illustrates the regional distribution of the labor force. A This table shows that 12,119 establishments, 572 of the total, are located in Beirut and 4,400 or 212 - located in Mt. Lebanon. This leaves fewer than 5,000 establishments or 22% of the total located in the remaining three districts. Distribution of labor force by districts follows roughly the same proportionate distribution. The concentration of industrial and manufacturing establishments in Beirut and other urban centers in the districts explains in part the influx of rural population to the cities in pursuit of jobs and occupations. 148 TABLE 17 REGIONAL DISTRIBUTION OF LABOR FORCE, 1961g No. of No. of Salaried 'Salaries District Establishments Employees (LL. 1,000) Beirut ~ 12,119 62,165 ’ 178,566 Mt. Lebanon 4,400 31,412 68,591 North Lebanon 2,511 10,840 28,480 South Lebanon 1,068 4,138 8,384 Beqa 1,033 3,578 5,455 Total 21,131 112,133 289,471 8Ministry of Labor and Social Affairs, Statistical Data on Employment in Lebanon, (Beirut: 1961). The Employment Situation in General The difficulty in assessment of this situation arises, in part, from the fact that public and private organizations have not joined efforts in establishing employment services and placement offices. They do not cooperate in tabulating data on employment, which could have been a source of information in this respect. The five employment offices, located exclusively in Beirut, are private and act independently of each other and from government agencies. Their major activity is placement of workers for employers, including oil companies and contractors, most of whom operate outside Lebanon.29 Other studies and surveys conducted in this area indicate that unemployment is less chronic in comparison with that of under-employment 29 UNRWA Mission, op. cit., p. 13. 149 in the country. In a sample survey made by the Social Affairs Service in 1947, the number of unemployed stood at approximately 20,000. Later, in 1956, the same authority placed the number at 25,000.30 In another study conducted in 1960, it was indicated that 20,000 unemployed was a possible figure at that time.31 In the light of the limited data, a rough estimate of the unemployment stands at 30,000 persons, which con- stitutes about 5% of the actual active labor force in the country. It is assumed in this respect that under-employment presents a more pressing problem to the social-economic structure than unemployment. Although the assumption lacks the support of concrete evidence, however, there are many indicators which confirm this trend. First, it is assumed that a sizable segment of the labor force is not fully employed and in many cases can be completely withdrawn from the labor market without any noticeable effect on the gross national production. It is sufficient to refer in this reSpect to the findings of the IRFED Mission on casual workers. In 1959, there were 130,000 workers or 22% of the total labor force that were classified as casUal and temporary workers with no particular occupation. These people, who may be considered actually employed, may be simultaneously considered potentially unem- ployed. They, in fact, do not have saleable skills to depend on as a basic occupation. Second, indications show that the operating placement offices in the country share one major complaint. They all express the diffi- culty in placing the workers with insufficient practical experience.32 30Ministry of Labor and Social Affairs, Social Affairs Service, Statistical Data on Employment in Lebanon, 1947 and 1956. 31 32 Siksek, et. a1., op. cit., p. 32. UNRWA Mission, Op. cit., p. 13. 150 Third, in the study conducted by the Economic Research Institute at the American University of Beirut in 1960, the findings revealed a number of discrepancies between manpower supply and requirements. These discrepancies were reflected in the following fields:33 In the field of agriculture, it was found that there was a current need for Specialized technicians with at least an M.S. degree. But the study recorded a surplus of technicians in this field with a secondary education only. Since 20 graduates a year had created this surplus, great caution was recommended in evaluating current needs in this category. In the engineering field, it was felt that in the absence of an effective economic development program in the government sector, no shortages were expected. On the contrary, it was anticipated that an increase in engineering graduates from local or foreign universities was likely to cause a Surplus in that field. Unless industry starts employing engineers on the technical and executive level, there was expected to be more supply than manpower demand on the engineering level. In the health sector, the study found that there was a demand for physicians, nurses, public health technicians, which was likely to increase in the future. The greatest demand was expected to be in the field of. nursing. A demand was also expected in the field of pharmacy. In the field of teaching, the demand for 3,000 teachers was estimated for the coming four years, particularly if elementary education in Lebanon were to become compulsory. It was recommended in this reSpect that teachers' colleges be set up in each of the administrative districts of the country. 33Siksek, et. a1., op. cit., pp. 46~48. 151 A final observation derived from the IRFED study suggests the difficulty of laying down any precise training requirement program in the absence of Specification and classification of the working popu- lation, by trade or occupation. This tudy, therefore, recommended that the Ministry of Labor and Social Affairs should add to its survey forms some questions relating to occupations and the qualifications needed by the workers.34 All these indicators are of great significance to this study, primarily because they pinpoint the discrepancy between education supply and manpower demand. Moreover, they all suggest and emphasize the necessity of institutionalization of developmental programs that handle instrumentally and effeciently the available manpower resources in the country. Known Areas of Manpower Requirements Thus far, it has been indicated that the socio-economic structure of the country suggests the need for certain competencies in the various sectors of the economy, e.g., the need for professional teChnical com- petencies in indusrry, trade, services, and the like, as well as the need for skilled and unskilled labor in these and other economic sectors. This phenomenon was demonstrated implicitly in the previous sections of this chapter. In order to investigate the known competencies, skills, and experi- ences available in the country and examine their implications in terms of human resource development, a certain methodology has to be followed. In IRFED Mission, op. cit., Vol. IL, pp. 208-218. 152 the following sections, these skills and competencies will be discussed under three main categories: high level, middle level, and low level manpower requirements, with Special emphasis on the middle level man- power requirements. fligh Level Manpower Requirements High level manpower requirements is defined by the study as those known areas in the social economic Sphere of the Society demand- ing certain competencies and knowledges on the professional and tech- nical levels. This category includes such fields and disciplines as engineering, medicine, law, teaching and other scientific domains. All the above mentioned fields are considered to be essential variables in the development of any country. In this reSpect, where does Lebanon stand? What are the available human resources in the country at this level? What measures are being taken to adjust educa- tion supply to known requirements on this level? Current studies in this area indicate that the Situation is generally acceptable. The country as a whole enjoys an average cadre of professional and technical personnel. The indicators as demonstrated in the fields of engineering, health, science, and teaching are in support of this view.35 In the field of engineering, there were about 1,500 engineers in Lebanon in 1959. Some 300 of them work abroad, while 100 foreign engineers were employed in the country. According to the Syndicate of Engineers in Lebanon, which has a membership of 870 engineers, the classification of engineers by occupation was as follows:36 35IRFED Mission, op. cit., Vol. 1., pp. 70-73. 36Ibid., p. 71. 153 Beirut Tripoli Total 2 Construction & Public WCrks 656 54 700 80 Industry 118 18 136 15.5 Agriculture 25 8 34 4.5 Total 800 70 870 100.0 In the health sector, the IRFED Mission reported that there were in 1959 about 1,450 physicians, 451 dentists, 332 pharmacists, 964 nurses, 37 Apparently, there and midwives and 29 health inspectors in Lebanon. was one physican for every 1,125 persons which the report considers to be a relatively acceptable situation. This figure, however, represents only a statistical average which does not square with the existing Situaa tion. The distribution of physicians in the country tends to present a disheartening picture which is likely to result in a very unbalanced situation between the capital city and all the remaining districts. Table 18 shows the distribution of the Medical Corps by the administrative districts. The inequity of medical distribution in the regions of the country is more pronounced in comparison with that of engineering. More important, the concentration of health centers and services in the City of Beirut at the expense of the remaining districts is likely to result in numerous social and health problems, which present many obstacles in the face of future developmental programs in the country. 37Ibid., pp. 71-72. 154 TABLE 18 REGIONAL DISTRIBUTION OF MEDICAL CORPS. 1960h Number of Physicians District 1959 1962 Beirut 894 1,072 Mount Lebanon 213 259 North Lebanon 180 197 South Lebanon 82 85 Biqa 71 78 Total 1,440 1,691 h1bid., pp. 71. 1n the field of science, it was found that there were 100 chemists (20 of whom were foreigners), 12 biologists (all foreigners), 10 geologists (8 foreigners), 50 mathematicians (20 foreigners), and 10 statisticians (5 of whom were foreigners).38 The situation reveals a number of deficiencies in this field. For example, from a total of 150 scientists and specialists 65 of them were foreigners (i.e. 451). This suggests a need for specialization in this area and the adjustment of higher education to meet the demand arising in this field. As mentioned earlier, there were 395 secondary school teachers with professional training in public schools and a similar number in private schools. In light of increasing enrollments in secondary schools, the situation suggests the education and training of more secondary school teachers. 381bid., p. 72. 155 Middle Level Manpower Requirements This concept is defined by the study, as the needed competencies and skills requiring a minimum of four years of secondary schooling. Under the classification are found such occupational requirements as technical, clerical, and skilled labor. Viewing manpower supply in Lebanon within the bounds of the above definition, one is likely to be confronted with many difficulties because there is no official source at any level, representing an exact breakdown of data by occupational classification. Taking into consideration the limitations of the situation, the following discussion concentrates on the same selected sectors in the Lebanese economy, namely: industry, trade, services, and teaching. It is assumed that these sectors include the major areas related to middle level occupations. In the industrial sector, current data shows that about 64,000 workers and employees were involved in industry and manufacturing activities. It was estimated, also, that about 452 of the labor force in this sector were classified under the categories of clerical and skilled personnel.39 Further trends in the industrial sector reflect a rising need for trained labor on the engineer aide level, foremanship, and technical levels. In commerce and services: two related sectors, the UNRWA survey reported a number of findings in the distribution of working population in these sectors. Table 19 illustrates the distribution of workers by sex and establishment. 39 Ibid., p. 55. 156 TABLE 19 MIDDLE LEVEL MANPOWER DISTRZBUTICN IN rat SECTORS OF comuxaca AND SERVICESa19591 No. of Salaried Employees Hajor Industry No. of Estab. Male Female Total Commerce Wholesale & Retail 7,706 21,194 1,869 23,063 Banking 8 Finance 218 2,897 527 3,424 Insurance 48 506 143 649 Real Estate 86 284 34 318 Total 8,058 24,881 2,573 27,454 Services Community 1,197 6,024 5,792 11,816 Eusiness 611 1,900 322 2,222 Recreation 843 2,871 233 3,104 Personal 24921_ _§4§22 858 7,550 Total 4,672 17,487 7,205 24,672 iUNRWA Mission, op. cit., p.11. The figure on services precludes government services, which were estimated to have 17,000 employees. This brings the total working force to approximately 42,000 salaried employees in the services sector. Commerce and services sectors combined have a total of about 70,000 employees that may be classified under middle level manpower. However, this figure excludes independent workers in these two sectors, which was estimated at about 58,000 employers and self-employed persons.40 4OUNRWA Mission, op. cit., p. 11. 157 Various trends indicate that commerce and services tend to play the key role in the Lebanese economy. This was demonstrated in terms of the national income derived from these sectors. Furthermore, these sectors possess the most absorptive capacity of middle level occupations requiring skilled and technical competencies: typing, shorthand, accounting, auditing, formanship and the like. Findings in these areas suggest the need of training for middle level manpower. Lastly, in the teaching field there tends to be an abundance of statistical data on the teaching force, However, most of the data represents gross figures on teachers in public and private schools at the various educational levels- There was on the other hand, limited data on the breakdown of figures into subsdivisions, e. g., elementary teachers, upper elementary, and secondary teachers. The total number of teachers in public and private schools in 1965 was estimated at 18,481.41 A breakdown of these figures into elementary and secondary educational levels follows: TFACHERS Upper Elem &. Eggmentagy Secondary_ legal Public Schools 7,642 1,710 9,352 Private Schools 6,024 . 24192 9,129 Total 13,666 4,815 18,481 Comparing the number of teachers, shown in this breakdown, ‘with the number of students in Table 7, Chapter III (p.67 ), the situation suggests a rising need for teachers especially on the elementary level. 41 , _ . Ministry of National Education, Bureau of qurational Statistics, Statistical Data on the Teaching T’orce in Lebanon, (Beirut: 1965) 158 This need is likely to increase if the educational system has to accom- modate the students of school age, not enrolled in school. Are teacher's institutions, especially at the elementary level, adequate enough in training teachers to meet this need? To what extent are provisions being made to c0pe with future needs in the teaching field? These issues will be examined further in subsequent parts of the study. Low Level Manpower Requirements This classification is defined by the study as the skills that require a maximum of elementary schooling. Broadly speaking, low level manpower includes the unskilled labor in the country. Statistically, this category, as previously pointed out in this chapter, comprises the highest percentage in the fields of agriculture, industry and services. All these sectors have an absorptive capacity of taking care of the largest portion of semi-skilled and unskilled workers. It is sufficient in this respect to concentrate on one sector of the economy: agriculture, and determine the significance of that sector in terms of low level manpower requirements. It was shown earlier in this chapter that agriculture absorbs ‘ about 220,000 permanent farmers and 100,000 part-time farmers.' This means that people working in agriculture, full or part-time, account for slightly over 50% of the total labor force in the country. Almost all of those involved in agriculture possess the minimum of technical and saleable skills. This situation is likely to pose many implications. For a country whose economy is derived in the most part from trade and services and whose labor force depends almost entirely on agriculture, 159 there is evidently a kind of unbalanced situation. The IRFED study pointed out that the working population in agriculture get the lowest income, whereas, those working in trade and finance get the highest rate of income.42 This situation was evidenced by the relative decline of the agricultural sector in terms of national income. All these indicators suggest emphatically that serious consideration should be given to the evaluation and planning for economic development based on the recognition of such realities of the situation. Furthermore, it was indicated by one of the studies conducted in this area that agriculture does not require as much manpower on the low and middle levels as it does on the higher level.. The study revealed that the public sector of agriculture does not absorb more than 200 employees with technical skills. These skills were provided in the agricultural schools in the country, basically, the American University of Beirut and the public agriculture schools. Hence, it was suggested in this respect that a change in the curricula of these schools would better equip the graduates for field work in private enterprises and agriculture extension. Finally, indications show that the concerned authorities in the country, basically the Ministries of Education and Agriculture, are expressing their awareness and concern of the intensity of the situation. As a matter of fact, these agencies were in the process of preparing a series of decisions and policies aiming at the improvement of agricultural and vocational education.44 But to what extent do these decisions and 4ZIRFED Mission, op. cit., Vol. 1, pp. 54-55. 43Siksek, et. a1., op. cit., p. 57. 44Ministry of Education, Directorate of Technical and Vocational Education, Panorama de L‘Enseignement Technique, (A Survey of Technical Education), (Beirut: 1965), pp. 86-88. 160 policies square with the facts? What should be the productive capacity of the training institutions to meet existing and ancitipated require- ments in this area? How to upgrade vocational education to make it seem more lucrative to the student? These are the minimum issues reflecting the impact of the situation on human resources at this level. Summary To sum up the diverse points and ideas presented in this chapter, it becomes evident that the manpower requirements situation in terms of economic trends, occupational activities, and the labor force poses many implications and has direct bearing on educational planning. Essentially, the endeavor was made to shed as much light as possible on_the underlying forces governing the existing social-economic situation and influencing possible direction of manpower requirements in the country. Also, an attempt was made to prepare the groundwork for further analysis of human resource development in terms of manpower requirements vis-a-vis education supply. The main concern in this chapter was focused on such areas as: the basic features and constituent sectors of the Lebanese economy, the size and magnitude of the labor force and some known manpower require- ments that are assumed to be of direct relation to the problem. It was indicated, many times, that the Lebanese economy, although predominantly agrarian in terms of the people‘s livelihood, is showing a tendency toward industrialization and other services. There is a definite transition from a primary to a secondary and tertiary economy. This trend is demonstrated by the important relevance of economic sectors 161 in terms of occupational requirements, demanding a minimum of four years of secondary schooling beyond elementary education. It was further noted that there is marked shortage of manpower supply on the higher and middle level. The situation calls for an overall appraisal of the educational system in terms of meeting manpower requirements, which will be discussed in the next chapter. CHAPTER VI OVERALL APPRAISAL OF THE PRESENT HUMAN RESOURCES SITUATION One of the major assumptions posed by the study is that there exists a pronounced discrepancy between education supply and manpower demand in Lebanon. This implies that the educational system in its present capacity does not meet the social-economic needs of the country las demonstrated by certain known manpower requirements.' The previous chapter has indicated that these requirements, rising from the various sectors of the economy--industry, commerce, finances and services--call for adjustments on the part of the educational system. The underlying assumption is that education provides the skills, knowledge and experience required by certain occupational activities on varying levels and degrees. To determine the correlation between education supply (in terms of graduates) and manpower demand (in terms of economic-occupational requirements), it is necessary to make an overall appraisal of the present human resource situation in Lebanon. The purpose of this chapter is to appraise and evaluate the educational system in terms of its productiVe capacity of manpower that is needed at certain levels of the economy. The discussion of the various dimensions of the human resource situation will focus on the following points: 1. Examination of some economic areas requiring middle level manpower competencies. 162 163 2. Tracing of recent trends in the economy influencing the training and preparation of manpower. 3. Assessment of the educational system, both quantitatively and qualitatively. 4. Analysis of comparisons and contrasts between education supply and manpower demand as being demonstrated in certain areas of manpower requirements. 5. Suggestion of the need for the modification of the educational system and recommendation of necessary adjustments in the system to meet economic and occupational demands. A final point which should be made clear in this respect is that the study reckons with the difficulty in determining precisely, at any level, the economic needs of the country. Hence, it is sufficient for the purpose of the study to establish some trends that will serve as frames of reference in the evaluation of the educational systemlwith respect to manpower requirements. Economic-Occupational Demand for Middle Level Manpower The previous chapter brought home the fact that the Lebanese economy, at its present stage, is undergoing an unprecedented process of change in its structure and composition. This change was mostly manifested in various economic trends, such as the acceleration of industry, the prominence of the financial sector as a result of foreign trade and the practice of a 'laissez-faire' economy based on individual enterprise. In the economic sphere, trends indicate a continuous move from a primary'to a secondary and tertiary economy. This movement is likely to 1Issawi, Charles,op. cit., pp. 279-292. 164 have a direct impact on the labor force. Until recently, the manpower factor in Lebanon was conceived of in terms of unskilled labor.2 But in an economy moving more and more towards industrialization and services, it is assumed that the new type of labor force is to be composed primarily of a larger proportion of skilled and technical workers provided with the necessary knowledge and experience required by the job. In the industrial as well as in the technological realm such knowledge and experience is considered extremely important in making decisions on the process of production, distribution of products, utilization of capital, as well as in the improvement of the quantity and quality of the end product. Another equally important factor in a changing economy is the new nature of the industrial market which differs drastically from the traditional barter economy. Whereas in the old market, products were traded on an arbitrary supply-demand basis; the new market depends primarily for its success on the pattern of cost-price, quality of product, distribution and transportation of products. How, where, and by whom are these knowledges and skills produced and developed? Through what processes are they channelled? Who should be held accountable for their investment, the state, the various institutions in society, or other groups and individuals? How should .available manpower be placed in vacant positions and what kind of plans for future manpower development should be made? It is agreed that knowledge and skills reach the market through schools, vocational and technical institutes, at home and abroad, foreign expertness, and other sources. .All these institutions are supposed to channel manpower in accordance *— 2n111s, A., op. cit., p. 11. 31bid., p. 37. 165 with existing and anticipated economic needs. Funds are invested in the development of human resources on similar grounds as they are invested in natural resources. Related literature to the field shows that the returns from education are equally, if not more important, than the returns from other investments.4 In the light of these observations, where does the human resource situation in Lebanon stand? To what extent do these assumptions hold true with respect to manpower development? What is the impact of existing trends on the labor force in terms of qualifications? All these questions involve an examination and evaluation of the present human resource situation in terms of manpower demand and education supply. Increasiggjbemand for Qualified Manpower The term "qualified manpower", as it is used in the study means a designated caliber of labor force possessing certain technical and vocational competencies superimposed on a minimum of nine years of schooling.5 Thus, qualified manpower is demonstrated through the performance of certain activities in specified sectors of the economy such as industry, trade and services on some level of proficiency. The following examination is guided by the above criteria. The findings in the previous chapter have pointed out very clearly that the unbalanced distribution of the labor force in Lebanon was the result of an uncoordinated growth of the various economic sectors. Indicators suggest that Lebanon suffers from an overabundance of unskilled labor contrasted with a sheer dearth in qualified manpower. The Lebanese'economy in general is handicapped by the '4Patricia Sexton, Education and Income, (New York: The Viking Press, Inc., 1961), pp. 13-15. SFrederick Harbison and Charles A. Myers, Education Manpower and Economic Growth, (New York: McGraw Hill Book Co., 1964), pp. 15-16. 166 lack of skilled labor. The labor force situation may be described as an inverted mushroom with the mass of unskilled labor at the bottom and a very small group of trained and partially trained leaders and risk takers at the top. There is almost a denuded series of middle ranks which are supposed to form a stratum between the other two classes.6 This kind of distorted image of the labor scene was likely to place the economic system, especially the industrial sector, at a double dis- advantage. On the one hand, the system lacked qualified personnel to fill in the creative and organizational upper levels which are found in Western countries. These levels, as well as the supervisory level, are virtually absent in the Lebanese economic sphere. On the other hand, the economy lacks a strong skilled level upon which all the superior levels in the hierarchy rely for quality of performance. Consequently, the labor force situation, operating under such handicaps, is likely to suffer, not from the sheer bulk of unskilled labor, but more so, from the scarcity of skilled labor. Usually, the simple skills can be learned on the job. But this is not the case with skilled labor, which requires re-training preceded by a certain amount of formal schooling. All these requisites are not provided except through Inanpower producing institutions. Thus, the entrepreneur who considers opening up a factory is not particularly worried about the task of turning .an.unskilled worker into a semi-skilled one. He is, however, concerned saith the problem of recruiting skilled men.7 6M1118, A-.op. cit., pp. 36-48. 71bid., p. 43. 167 Similarly, an observer may find in other technological areas that entrepreneurs are becoming more convinced that low paid unskilled labor still forms a liability rather than an asset in modern industry. This view is explained by the fact that the nature of the new highly competitive market, requires the production and distribution of commodities under the best possible conditions in terms of quality and price. This type of market requires a caliber of labor force which is knowledgeable and competent to perform such tasks. The advent of technology was directly accountable in intensifying the demand for qualified manpower in Lebanon. The new technology differs from traditional practices in its structure and implementation. The difference adheres primarily to the methodology incurred by the new technology. This methodology requires a certain level of "know-how", which implies a scientific method. To what extent is the Lebanese society entrenched in this method? To date it can be assumed that Lebanon is still at a stage of evolution where its culture and philosophy are not yet imbued with the scientific outlook.8 Another factor closely associated with the scientific method, and which lies at the heart of technological advancement, is the spirit of research. For an industry, to be flexible and successful, it requires research. Research in its turn calls for investigation, analysis and experimentation. All these factors are assumed to be not well established in the Lebanese society. It may be generalized then that there is an observable gap between industrial development, requiring certain preconditions--basically a 8 ' ‘ Ibid., p. 44. 168 scientific method--and a traditional value systemlwhich is still predominant in the Lebanese society. It is true that there are some break-throughs of technological change in the indigenous culture. Nevertheless, the level of resistance to this change may be easily observed in the existing way of life of the people. This is demonstrated by the fact that the leaders of the communities, especially in rural areas, do not perceive the significance of science in modern life. This social pattern and value orientation is still closely related to the pre-scientific and pre-industrial environment which was a legacy of the Ottoman rule. The cultural foundations are not conducive to the growth of a strong indigenous core of technical training and research.9 Appraisal of Manpower Stock by Economis- Occupational Qualifications The evidence so far supports the view that the new developments in the economic sphere do have a direct impact on the quality of the labor force in terms of training and sophistication. These same deve10p- ments have their influence on the distribution and reshuffling of the labor force on the various economic sectors in relation to the demand of these sectors for different levels of qualified manpower. This economic phenomenon calls for a re-orientation and readjustment of manpower in accordance with the exigency of the new situation. Recent economic trends reflect the gradual predominance of the trade and service industries over the agrarian economy--at least in terms of national income. Corresponding trends in pOpulation growth, a higher standard of living, 9 Ibid., p. 38. 169 coupled with mounting aspirational levels, suggested an increasing emphasis on skill-oriented employment and white collar jobs. What impact do these trends have on the occupational structure of the economy? What evidence is there to demonstrate the demand for qualified personnel in the various economic sectors? ~What qualifications are required at each occupational level? In order to understand the implications of the economic situation in terms of occupational qualifica- tions as it stands at present and as it may be projected into the future, it becomes necessary at this point to examine the size and magnitude of the labor force in terms of its distribution in some industrial sectors. Once this step is accomplished, it is followed by an exploration of future occupation trends as being estimated and projected by known authorities on manpower development in the country. Essentially, the data presented in this part of the chapter is derived from the same sources referred to in Chapter V, namely the IRFED Mission and the Ministry of Labor and Social Affairs. The IRFED Mission, in the study on the social and economic needs of Lebanon made an estimate of the labor force for 1957. From this estimate, some projections were established indicating the possible growth of working population from 1957 to 1975. Table 20 illustrates the employment situation in 1957 and future projections in relation to distribution of working population in some selected industrial sectors. 170 TABLE 20 EMPLOYMENT TRENDS BY INDUSTRY (IN THOUSANDS)“ Industrial Sector No. of Laborers Employed Increase }9_57_ 1975 ' in 1 mm. Max. Pro j . Pro j . Min. Max. Agriculture 220 265 318 21 45 Manufacturing 54 101 121 87 124 Construction 33 42 47 27 43 Transportation 24 39 45 58 87 Comerce 53 68 76 28 43 Other Services .2 _l_0_7_ _l_lj ii; _24 Total 450 622 722 37 60 aIRFED Mission, op. cit. , Annex. , p. 41. The table at a glance shows that all sectors of the economy, excluding agriculture, reflect the tendency of increasing manpower require- ments. It is also observed that manufacturing and services are estimated to have the highest manpower growth. This situation is of extreme importance in estimating future trends of manpower requirements. In another study done by the UNRWA Mission in this area, the same labor situation was approached from a different perspective. The study included an estimated annual growth of labor force which was used as a formula for projecting labor force from 1960 to 1975. Table 21 illustrates the estimated growth of working population by economic sector. 171 TABLE 21 ESTIMATED INCREASE IN EMPLOYMENT 1960-197sb Est. Rate of “ Perm. New Jobs Sector-wise Growth Employees Expected increase Economic Sector 1 1960 1960-1975 1 Agriculture 4.0 220,000 79,500 36 Manufacturing 6.0 54,000 44,100 82 Construction 4.0 33,000 11,600 35 Trade & Banking 4.0 55,000 20,950 38 transportation 6.0 24,000 19,400 81 Public Administration 5.25 16,000 4,000 25 Other Services 6.0 48,000 38,600 80 Total 450,000 218,150 bUNRWA Mission, op. cit., p..15. The table reflects a comparative annual rate of increase among the various economic sectors ranging from 41 to 6%. It is shown that the highest rates are expected to occur in the sectors of manufacturing and other services. Comparing Table 20 with Table21, both present identical figures of labor force, and their projections are practically similar.‘ Both indicate to the expected increase in the sectors of manufacturing, trade and other services. Assuming that such trends are valid, what would be their implica- tions on manpower requirements in terms of occupational qualifications? Looking at the same situation from another perspective, the implications become more indicative of the occupational differentiation of manpower 172 stock. Table 22 presents a different picture of labor force according to occupational qualifications which follow the same projections. TABLE 22 MANPOWER REQUIREMENTS BY OCCUPATIONAL QUALIFICATION 1960-1975c Class of Trade Trans- Workers Mfg. Const. Bk. portation Services Total Prof. - Tech. 882 511 330 854 3,493 6,070 Administration 1,058 545 1,526 912 2,087 6,128 Clerical 6,439 2,621 9,149 4,384 6,944 . 29,537 Skilled 13,980 2,900 3,437 4,850 10,693 35,860 Unskilled 21,784 5,023 6,508 8,400 «12,281 61,955 Total 44,143 11,600 20,950 19,400 42,600 138,650 chid. The table reflects a quantitative contrast between professional and technical occupations on the one hand and unskilled labor on the other. It also shows that the upper echelons of these occupations are very scarce in comparison with the lower occupations. What do these figures suggest to the manpower planner as well as to the educational planner? What educational priorities shall be given in the curriculum for the training of'mmnpower in an economy where there is more demand for skilled labor on the managerial and technical levels? In light of the given data, a few observations may be made. First, economic-occupational trends indicate a relative increase of manpower required by representative economic sectors at different occupational levels. .173 Second, these trends show that the need for clerical and skilled work, which corresponds to middle level manpower, is most likely to increase in the future, as being demonstrated by the ascending increase of these occupations in the different economic sectors. Third, in comparing the different classifications of work, it is assumed that each occupational level requires a compatible level of competencies, as demonstrated in the previous chapter. By inference, then, it may be said that there is adequate supply for manpower demand on the low level. Most of these workers, once available, could be trained on the job. It may be said, on the other hand, that existing manpower supply does not meet manpower demand on the higher occupational levels, since the demand on these levels is preconditioned by a minimum of educational preparation which ranges from six to twelve years. Finally, it may be concluded that there is a pressing need for more training and more education. Whether in agriculture, industry, or services, there are minimal requirements in terms of educational achievement and pre-service training that have to be provided. In order to know whether existing educational institutions are training human resources to meet these occupational needs an examination of the educational system is required in terms of its productive capacity of graduate students at the different educational levels. Present Educational Capacity with Respect to Manpower Requirements Previous parts of the study dealt with the productive capacity «of the educational system in terms of student enrollment at all educational 174 levels in the academic stream.10 Based on previous data, the attempt in this section is to examine existing manpower producing institutions, quantitatively and qualitatively, and to determine their capacity in terms of graduates on each level within the various educational streams. The next step is to determine the potential capacity of these institutions in terms of teacher-student ratios, the quality of the teaching personnel, school buildings and other qualitative aspects related to these institutions. Quantitative Appraisal of the Educational System Presumably, Lebanon claims the highest literacy rate in the Arab World.11 Through the combined efforts of its educational institutions, more than 851 of the country's youth, of school age, were accommodated in schools. Educational trends and policies show that plans are in the making to provide equality of educational opportunity to all the youth of the country in the few years ahead. Apparently this situation reflects a bright and promising picture of the productive capacity of the educational system, but does the present situation reflect this image? To what extent is the system geared to the training of manpower stock to fill the vacancies available or expected in the economic sphere? What caliber of graduates doIthese institutions produce on the various educational levels and in the various educational streams? In the academic stream, the system provides education to slightly over 426,000 students ranging from pre-primary to higher education. Educational trends based on student enrollment and average increase in 1r§gp£g.,.6hapter 3» Ppo.66-853 ll - IRFED Mission, op. cit., Vol. 1, p. 59. 175 population show that by 1970 there will be approximately 600,000 students in primary schools only.12 A proportionate increase will take place on the secondary and higher education levels. In terms of graduates from the academic streams Table 23 shows graduate trends in the last five years on the primary, higher primary and secondary levels. TABLE 23 GRADUATES FROM ACADEMIC SCHOOLS 1960-1964d 1960 1961 1962* 1963 1964 Primary (Etudes Primaire) 16,022 17,005 15,718 20,860 18,414 Upper Primary (Breth) 2,267 3,467 3,386 3,921 7,361 Secondapy I (Bagcalaureat Part 1) Literary 370 444 732 875 1,110 Scientific 1,000 919 822 1,088 813 Secondapy ’ (W Part 117 Philosophy 307 321 396 618 434 Mathematics 308 358 410 496 343' Totals 20,274 22,514 21,464 27,858 28,475 *First Cycle - Those who passed the June examinations. dMinistry of National Education, Center of State Examinations, Statiptical Data on the Results of State Examinations, (Beirut: 1965). From a general outlook, the table shows a progressive growth of graduates at all levels, with the highest growth at the end of primary education. The increase of graduating students at this level is at the rate of 2,000 per year. By tracing the academic stream through upper lleinistry of National Education, Committee on Educational Planning, .A.Proposed Plan for the Reorganization of the Educational System in Lebanon, (Beirut: '1965). 176 primary and secondary levels, it is easy to discern the lower rate of graduates at both levels, particularly at the secondary level, where it reaches a kind of 'bottleneck' with an increase of less than 100 graduates a year. How can such a situation be explained? Comparing the normal increase of student population, especially on the primary level, and the number of graduates, there are some intervening variables that need explanation. In reviewing the results of the state examinations one striking phenomenon seems to be a basic factor in the channelling process of student flow on the educational ladder, which is the high degree of failure of students in the last year of each level. This is explained in Table 24 in terms of percentage of successful graduates at the same educational levels and during the same period of time. TABLE 24 GRADUATES FROM ACADEMIC SCHOOLS IN PERCENTAGE OF TOTAL CANDIDATES, 1960-64e 1950 1961 1962* 1963 1964 1 1 1 1 1 Primapy . (Etudes Primaire) 64 68 54.5 64.5 51.19 0' er Prima (Brevet) 47 S3 42. 28. 65.5 Secondapy flgcgalauréat Part I Literary 37 28 23. 20.5 29. Scientific 43 28 12. 20. 25.5 Baccalaureat Part II Philosophy 40 33.5 21.5 30. 30. Mathematics 50 35.5 24.5 40. 38.5 *First Cycle: Those who passed the June examinations. eIbid. 177 The high proportion of candidates failing in state examinations demonstrates the high selectivity of the educational system. Even at the primary level no more than 651 of the candidates in any year passed the state examinations. From Primary Five to Secondary One (or upper primary) promotion is supposed to be automatic, however, more than 351 of the student population at this level are detained because of failure in the state examinations. Similar bottlenecks are formed at the end of Secondary Four,_Secondary Six and Secondary Seven. These students, though having studied a certain number of years at the secondary level, are considered unqualified to pursue further education or even be admitted or accepted to certain jobs without a state diploma. Hence they may be classified as drop-outs. In vocational and technical education, it is more difficult to calculate graduate trends on a nationwide level. The difficulty stems from the fact that private institutions, in quantity and quality, play a predominant role in manpower training. In 1965, there were 44 institutions in the country involved in technical, vocational and com- 1nercial education. From this number only 11 institutes were public, while the remaining 33 were private. In the public sector, the distribution of the manpower producing institutions follow this order: One Technical School Five Vocational Training Centers One Training School for Hotel and Restaurant Personnel Three Primary Agriculture Schools One Secondary Agriculture School 13Ministry of Education, Bureau of Educational Statistics, Statistical Data on Vocational and Technical Education in Lebanon, (Beirut: 1965). 178 All these institutions combined provide training in technical and vocational skills for about 1,200 students. Graduation trends in the technical school from 1955 to 1964 inclusive are illustrated in the following table. TABLE 25 TECHNICAL EDUCATION GRADUATES ACCORDING T0 SPECIALIZATION 1955-1964f Field of Specialization 1955 1956 1957 1958 1959 1960 1961 1962 1964 Electricity 4 3 - - - - - - - Mechanics 3 3 - - - - - - - Electro-Mech's. - ~ 9 6 13 9 9 ll 13 Civil Engrg. 3 5 13 12 l3 l4 9 11 8 Indus. Chemistry 3 3 4 - - 1 2 - 5 Topography - - - l6 8 7 6 5 6 Electronics __-_ _; _; _3 _6_ __8_ L0 _]_._1 _l_é Total 13 14 26 37 40 39 36 38 45 Note: 1963 was omitted because there were no graduates that year. fMinistry of Education. Directorate of Vocational and Technical Education, Panorama de L'Enseignement Technique, (Beirut: 1965), p. 42. This table shows in general that technical education is progressing precariously. There are some gaps which even indicate a regressive trend. For example, student enrollment in electricity and mechanics fell sharply after 1956. The situation suggests that students wanting to specialize in these fields have to do so through private institutions. The only area where there is an observable indication of progress is that of civil engineering. 179 Based on the facts presented in the table, does the situation imply that technical education is not wanted? Or, does this demonstrate some kind of inadequacy in the operation of technical education? Evidence reflects a weakness in the program. In order to rescue technical educa- tion from a catastrophic ending, the concerned authorities suspended the whole program during 1963 and enacted a new policy aimed at saving the image of the institution and regaining the confidence of the public. As a result, the period of training in the technical school was raised from four to five years. A new center was built in the vicinity of the capital City and was equipped with modern laboratories and other facilities. Graduates from the technical school were granted a degree entitled "Baccalaureat in Arts and Crafts." Moreover, government authorities are planning to overhaul all technical education programs and expand this type of education throughout the country.14 Similarly, graduate trends in public vocational schools were as moderate as in the technical school. Table 26 reflects the productive capacity of these schools in terms of graduating students from 1960 to 1964. A quick glance at Table 26 shows that some courses: auto mechanics, metal work, printing, commercial design, weaving and radio-electricity, .are exclusively offered in the vocational school at Beirut. This leaves the program in the other vocational centers limited to four areas: general mechanics, carpentry, blacksmithing, and electricity. By tracing the progress of the two courses of carpentry and blacksmithing through the years, one finds that the number of graduates in these courses is on the 14Ministry of Education, Directorate of Vocational and Technical Education, Panorama de L'Enseignement Technique, (Beirut: 1965), p. 42. .ms-ms .aa .anuAs "ususuNs .oamsaauus uauaeawMMeam.A 0v maeuocem .=0sueu=vm seesanuoa use Hmaosueoo> mo oumuouueuwn .:0suausvm mo mhuewcwzw HaflMnfiquaa I G «usam - m oseaN u N ssoesua u a Basso: - m a. as Ns we Ns as a as an oN «s as NN mm ss ms os as an ss as as me usauos - - m - - - - a - - - - m - - - - as - - - a nusaousuosm osvum u u u - u a n a n u u u u u n u n a u n u a waw>mo3 . 1 N u u 1 u n a u u u m n u n u a n u n N :wsnon Hewouuaaoo - - s - - - - s - - - - s a - - - m - - - s wasuasum - - cs - - - - e - - - - ss - - - - a - - - ms .goux aosses>< .. - .. - .. - - - u u - - n .. - .. - .. .. .. u a 3.3: s30: - - N N - - - m m - - - as N - - - m - - - a massage»: oua< s e a e o m as as o w o m N m m m a ss m m m ms aususfiuosu s N m N a - s s m m m m m s m - - m m s e - easessaaxuasm m - - - s - - - s s s - - .. - .. s s - - s s D6538 m e m e a e N m m N s m e m a o m a s e m m massage»: sauoaoo N a a n m N a m a m N a m o m N a m m N a m «osnoos «ems moms sass . sass cams gossaussusuuam «6 esosm asses-o6As msocmom sezosyeoo> assess zs mazmea ma<=a