IIHIHUINNIIIHJI“thIWINJIHIHHWIINIINHHI LIBRARY 31293 00070 5255 Michigan Sm University This is to certify that the dissertation entitled ACADEMIC MOTIVATION FOR PARTICIPATION IN KENYAN UNIVERSITY-LEVEL EDUCATION presented by Lynn Joesting Day has been accepted towards fulfillment of the requirements for Ph.D. Department of Educational degree in Adminis trat ion Jambz§a Major professor Date 10/30/87 MS U is an Affirmative Acn'on/Eq ual Opportunity Insliturion 0-12771 A MSU I RETURNING MATERIALS: Place in book drop to LJBRARJES remove this checkout from ‘— your record. FINES will — » be charged if book is returned after the date stamped below. \JJIV W‘L R. L1 | ACADEMIC MOTIVATION FOR PARTICIPATION IN KENYAN UNIVERSITY-LEVEL EDUCATION BY LYNN JOESTING DAY A DISSERTATION Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment for the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy Department of Educational Administration 1987 Copyright Lynn Joesting Day 1987 To the present and future university students in Kenya. Thank you for sharing so freely. Best wishes for achieving your noble goals. To William Robert Day, my husband who has so earned his Kikamba and Kikuyu names "Mwendwa" and "Munene" given by our friends. He lives, loves and gives of himself so deeply. Thank you Will'um for the wonderful adventure and Joy of life with you. To Edwin and Maud Joesting, my parents who raised me on "we know you can do it" love and encouragement. Thank you Mom and Dad for living life with such gusto, honesty, generosity, and open love. Funny how I married a man who does the same. ii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The research project was a cooperative venture among many people who openly shared their knowledge, skills, and wisdom with me during my studies. I am most grateful for their interest and kind help. The individuals named below deserve special thanks for their help and encouragement throughout the study. To Professor Ted ward, my advisor and committee chairman, thank you for how you have taught, encouraged, corrected, and persisted in ways that teach me about excellence, strength of character, and pride in my work. Having a mentor and friend as an adviser means I put out extra work for a person I immensely respect. Thank you for teaching me so much about the art of inquiry and the challenges and joys of nonformal education. Thank you to Margaret Ward also for joining Ted in your personal interest in his students and for the many times with your family in your home. To Professor S. Joseph Levine, my committee member, thank you for your interest in my work and professional development evidenced in the many hours freely volunteered to listen to my thoughts and review the work. From you I have learned to love the study and practice of adult education. Thank you also to Robbie Levine who with Joe has offered Bill and me a most enjoyed friendship. To Professor Eugene deBenko, my committee member, thank you for introducing me to the riches of the MSU libraries. The independent iii studies with you and consultations about African education for the dissertation research have been much appreciated. To Professor Charles A. Blackman, my committee member, thank you for the studies and opportunities to stop by your office even when it was not always convenient for your schedule. Your constructive comments and encouragement have been most helpful and always appreciated. To Mrs. Geneva Speas, administrative assistant, friend, and mother to all the "wardites," a very warm and heartfelt thank you hug for so much love and help throughout the years. Thank you for taking such personal interest in us all, giving encouragement, and making it feel like "coming home" to come by your office. The help offered by Kenyan Government leaders and officials was highly valued. Special appreciation is expressed to the Honourable Professor Paul M. Sumbi, Member of Parliament and Assistant Minister for Foreign Affairs; Mr. Lukalo, Assistant Provincial Commissioner of Nairobi, and Mrs. C.A. Mwango, Director for Research, Permanent Secretary of Cabinet Affairs in the Office of the President. The principals, deans, department chairpeople, and faculty of the twelve universities, university colleges, and seminaries and the two research institutions participating in the study worked closely with me in planning and conducting the research project. My appreciation goes to several people for whom much credit is due for the accomplishments of the research but for whom no criticism is merited for its shortcomings. They are listed below according to their institutional affiliation. iv At At At At At the University of Nairobi: Professor 0. K. Mutungi, Principal of the College of Humanities and Social Sciences; Professor G. Muriuki, Dean of the Faculty of Arts in the College of Humanities and Social Sciences; Dr. R. Mutiso, Chairperson of the Department of Sociology, and Mrs. Mary Thairu, Lecturer in the Department of Sociology. the Institute for Development Studies: Professor G.M. Ruigu, Assistant Director, and Mr. Benjamin Makau, Research Associate. Kenyatta University: Dr. J. K. Yego, Secretary of Kenyatta University; Dr. F.N. Owako, Registrar; Professor G.K. Karugu, Chairperson of the Department of Educational Psychology; Professor Frederick Okatcha, Department of Educational Psychology; Dr. Pamela wanga, Department of Educational Administration, Planning, and Curriculum Development; Dr. Rosalind Mutua, Department of Educational Administration, Planning, and Curriculum Development; and Dr. F. Ingule, Department of Educational Psychology. the Bureau of Educational Research: Professor George S. Eshiwani, Director; and Dr. Paul Rono, Dr. John Shiundu, Dr. Sarone Ole Sena, Dr. Mwiria Kilemi, and Ms Florence Kiragu, research fellows. the Private University Colleges and Seminaries: Fr. wenceslaus M. Urassa, Vice Rector of Apostles of Jesus Major Seminary; Fr. Peter Schiavinato, Dean of Studies of Consolata Seminary; Dr. Stephen Talitwala, Principal; Dr. Godfrey Nguru, Dean; Dr. Robert Primrose, Director of Research; Mr. Robert Oehrig, Research Unit Coordinator; Mrs. Nereah Makau, Research Associate; Mr. Paul Mbutu, Student Research Assistant; and Mrs. Esther Njeri; Research Unit Secretary oanaystar University College; Rev. Jimmy Biggs, Principal of East African School of Theology; Fr. de Decker, Rector of Hekima Seminary; Rev. Paul Kohls, Principal of Pan African Christian College; Rev. Moses Mutuiri M'Ithinji, Dean of St Paul's United Theological College; Fr. Alfous Mondui, Rector of St. Thomas Aquinas Seminary, Rev. William Mull, Lecturer at Scott Theological College; Dr. Lillian Beam, Director; and Mrs. Keziah Nyamweya, Admissions Officer of the United States International University. At Michigan State University, I was assisted in the statistical analysis by Mr. Joshua Bagaka, a Kenyan Ph.D. candidate in statistics at the Office of Research Consultation. His help and personal interest in the study were much appreciated. I am grateful for the jobs and financial assistance which helped support the doctoral studies. Special appreciation is expressed for the National Education Research Fellowship I had for two years, administered through the African Studies Center at Michigan State University. Thank you to Professor David Wiley, the Director of the African Studies Center and the members of the African Studies Center vi for their personal interest and help during the studies. Sincere gratitude is also expressed to members and friends of Hope Presbyterian Church in Richfield, Minnesota, and the University Reformed Church in East Lansing, Michigan for their support while in Kenya. Finally, a special word of thanks to very good friends. My best friend and husband, William R. Day is one of a kind. Thank you, Bill'um for everything, especially for your personal enthusiasm about the study and for the hours of formatting tables and figures to be sure the job is done well. Life is incredibly fun and full with you. My parents Maud and Ed Joesting have been constant, loyal, wonderful supporters. Your love and encouragement has meant so much. Thank you also to Ed and Catherine Bremer who have been like parents to me for many years, especially during these studies. In a study of university student academic motivation, it would seem appropriate to mention my own motivation for seeking the Ph.D. studies. I have done so for the opportunity to better prepare myself for work in nonformal education for international development. I am grateful to the Lord for life in Christ and want to live that life fully with him, my husband, and the people of Africa and other areas of the world with whom we work and live. vii ABSTRACT ACADEMIC MOTIVATION FOR PARTICIPATION IN KENYAN UNIVERSITY-LEVEL EDUCATION By Lynn Joesting Day The purpose of the research was to identify academic motivational factors and influences reported by students in public and private university-level institutions in Kenya. The intent was to provide university educational planners, researchers, administrators, and faculty data about student self-reports of their motivation to pursue undergraduate degrees. The research instrument was developed in Kenya in collaboration with Kenyan university researchers, faculty, and students. A prelimi- nary open-ended questionnaire solicited student reports of their academic motivational factors and influences. Responses were grouped into 11 categories of academic motivational factors and 15 influences from which a Likert-style questionnaire was developed and administered to 494 students in two public universities and 306 students in nine private university-level institutions. Interviews of 76 students were conducted at eight institutions. The 800 students participating in the final study were arts or social science majors at the University of Nairobi, Kenyatta Univer- sity, or one of nine private Christian university colleges, colleges, or seminaries. Three research questions asked about public university, private religious university, and combined public and private university student motivation. Data were analyzed according to whether students were beginning or midway through their studies, male or female, had begun studies within two years of completing secondary school, Kenyan or non-Kenyan, and students' parental education achievements. Data revealed that public and private university students primar- ily identified with employment-related motivational factors. Concerns for service to the country, their people, and God ranked second, followed by motivation for graduate studies. Social status factors received the lowest scores. Motivational influences were primarily personal motivation, followed by influences from professionals, parents, and students' personal concerns about needs of their country. Separate analyses of public and private university students showed similar motivation but at different levels of agreement for employment and service-to-others motivation. The study confirms public assumptions that students seek univer- sity degrees to prepare for future careers, but not assumptions that students seek social status or higher living standards. TABLE OF CONTENTS Page LIST OF TABLES O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O Xii LIST OF FIGURES O C O O O O O O O O I O O O O O O O O O O O O XVi CHAPTER ONE: STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM . . . . . . . . . . . 1 Statement of the Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 Purpose of the Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 Nature of the Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 Background of The Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 Official Expectations for Educational Systems . . . . 5 Value of the Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 Overview of the Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1O Delimitations of the Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 Assumptions of the Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 Limitations of the Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 Definition of Terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 SWARY O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 1 8 CHAPTER TWO: PRECEDENT LITERATURE . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19 African Academic Motivation Studies and Perspectives . . 19 Public Educational Expectations . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22 Educational Disillusionment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23' African Literature and Media Reports . . . . . . . . . . 25 Review of Previous Motivation Research . . . . . . . . . 26 The Concept of Academic Motivation . . . . . . . . . . . 28 Motivation Factors and Influences . . . . . . . . . . . 33 SUMMARY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35 CHAPTER THREE: RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY . . . . . . . 36 Research Design and Methodology . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36 Research Question One . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36 Research Question Two . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37 Research Question Three . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37 Population . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38 Public Government Universities . . . . . . . . . . . . 40 Private Religious Universities . . . . . . . . . . . . 41 Sample . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44 Overview of Instrument Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51 Instrumentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52 viii Open-ended Questionnaire Development . . . . Questionnaire Design . . . . . . . . . . . . Validation of Academic Motivation Scale . . Reliability of the Motivation Factors Scales . Construction of the Final Instrument . . . . Student Interviews . . . . . . . . . . . . . PilOt Study 0 O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O I 0 Data Collection Procedures. . . . . . . . . . . . Presenting the Study to the University Students SUMMARY 0 O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 0 CHAPTER FOUR: ANALYSIS OF FINDINGS . . . . . . . . . . . . Research Question One . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Motivational Factors: Findings From Preliminary Studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rank Order of Motivational Factor Scales For Students of Public and Private . . . . . . . Universities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Motivational Influences: Findings From Preliminary Studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rank Order of Motivational Influences From Final Questionnaire For Students of Public and Private Universities . . . . . . . Findings From Sub-Questions of Research Question One . Sub-question One: Beginning and Intermediate Students 0 O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O Sub-question Two: Male and Female Students . . . . Sub-question Three: Continuous and Non-Continuous Students . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Sub-question Four: Fathers Previous Education . . Sub-question Five: Mothers'Previous Education . . . Sub-question Six: According to Kenyan or Non-Kenyan Students . . . . . . . . . . . Report From Student Interviews . . . . . . . . . . Research Question Two . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rank Order of Motivational Scales For Students of Public Universities . . . . . . . Rank Order of Motivational Influences For Students of Public Universities . . . . . . Findings From Sub-Questions of Research Question Two Sub-question One: Beginning and Intermediate Students . . . . . . . . . . Sub-question Two: Male and Female Students . . . . Sub-question Three: Continuous and Non-Continuous Students . . . . . . . . . Sub-question Four: Fathers' Previous Education . . Sub-question Five: Mothers' Previous Education . Sub-question Six: According to Kenyan or Non-Kenyan Students . . . . . . . . . . ix Page W U.) 54 55 61 64 66 68 69 69 72 74 74 75 76 75 78 79 81 82 84 86 88 9O 92 94 95 95 96 . 97 . 98 100 102 104 106 108 Page Report From Student Interviews . . . . . . . . . . 110 Research Question Three . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111 Rank Order of Motivational Scales For Students of Private Universities . . . . . . . 111 Rank Order of Motivational Influences For Students of Private Universities . . . . . . . 112 Findings From Sub-Questions of Research Question Three . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113 Sub-question One: Beginning and Intermediate Students . . . . . . . . . . . 114 Sub-question Two: Male and Female Students . . . . . 116 Sub-question Three: Continuous ‘ “and Non-Continuous Students . . . . . . . . . . 118 Sub-question Four: Fathers' Previous Education . . . 120 Sub-question Five: Mothers' Previous Education . . . 122 Sub-question Six: According to Kenyan or Non-Kenyan Students . . . . . . . . . . . . 124 Report From Student Interviews . . . . . . . . . . 126 SUMMARY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127 CHAPTER FIVE: CONCLUSIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128 Review of the Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130 Combined Public and Private University Student Findings . . . . . . . . . . . . A Comparison of Employment-Related, Life Style . . 131 9 and Service to Others . . . . . . . . . . . . 132 Service to Others Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . 134 Social Status Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137 Further Education Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138 Public and Private University Student Sub-Question Findings . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139 Public and Private University Student Motivational Influences . . . . . . . . . . . . 142 Summary of Public and Private University Student Findings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143 Public University Student Findings . . . . . . . . . . 143 Public University Student Sub—Question Findings . . . 143 Public University Student Motivational Influences. . . 145 Summary of Public University Student Findings . . . . 146 Private University Student Findings . . . . . . . . . . . 146 Private University Student Sub-Question Findings . . . 146 Private University Student Motivational Influences . . 148 Recommendations for Future Research . . . . . . . . . . . 148 Implications of the Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151 CONCLUSION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152 Page APPENDICES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154 Appendix A: Procedures for Approvals and Communications 154 Appendix B: Research Proposal Feedback Form For Consultants . . . . . . . . . . . 157 Appendix C: Open-Ended Questionnaire: University Education Interests . . . . . . . . . 153 Appendix D: Student Responses to Open-Ended Question- naire: University Education Interests 161 Appendix E: Questionnaire Format Validation Study . . . 178 Appendix F: Academic Motivation Questionnaire Exercise 182 Appendix G: Sample Cover Letter to Institutions . . . . 206 Appendix : Overview of Research Project . . . . . . . . 208 Appendix : Academic Interest Survey Student CoverLetter..........o..209 Appendix J: Final Questionnaire: Academic Interest Survey . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210 Appendix K: Student Interview Protocol . . . . . . . . . 212 Appendix L: Other Influences: Responses to Open-Ended Questions #43 and #50 on the Final Questionnaire . . . . . . . . . . . . 213 BIBLIOGRAPHY O O O O O O O O O O I O O O O O O O O O O O O O 214 Table 3-1 4-4 4-5 LIST OF TABLES Student Sample. Participating students from two public and nine private universities in Kenya . . Beginning and Intermediate Students in Public and Private Universities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Male and Female Students in Public and Private universities O O O O O O O I O O O O 0 O O O O O O 0 Continuous and Non-Continuous Students in Public and Private Universities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Previous Education Completed by Fathers of Students in Public and Private Universities . . . . . . . . Previous Education Completed by Mothers of Students in Public and Private Universities . . . . . . . . Citizenship of Students in Public and Private Universities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Cronbach's Alpha Test of Reliability for the Motivational Factor Scales . . . . . . . . . . . . Types of Academic Motivational Factors Identified by Students in the Open-Ended Questionnaire . . . Rank Order of Responses to Motivational Scales by Combined Public and Private University Students . Types of Academic Motivational Influences Identified by Students in the Open-Ended Questionnaires . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Academic Motivational Influences. Ratings assigned by Combined Public and Private University StUdents O O O O O O O O O O O O O I O O O O O O 0 Academic Motivational Factors and Level of Public and Private University Students. One-way Analysis of Variance Examination to Determine the Relationship Between the Two Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Academic Motivational Factors and Gender of Public and Private University Students. One-Way Analysis of Variance 00084 to Determine Relationships Between The Two Groups. xii Page 46 1.7 48 49 49 50 ' 51 62 75 77 78 8O 83 Table 4-7 4-10 4-11 4-12 4-13 4-14 4-15 Academic Motivational Factors and Continuity of Public and Private University Students. One-Way Analysis of Variance Examination to Determine the Relationship Between the Groups. . . . . . . . . . . . Academic Motivational Factors and Level of Fathers' Formal Education. One-Way Analysis of Variance Examination to Determine the Relationship Between the Amount of Fathers' Previous Education at Public and Private Schools. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Academic Motivational Factors and Level of Mothers' Formal Education. One-Way Analysis of Variance Examination to Determine the Relationship Between the Amount of Mothers' Previous Education at Public and Private Schools. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Academic Motivational Factors and Citizenship of Public and Private University Students. One-Way Analysis of Variance Examination to Determine the Relationship Between the Groups. . . .'. . . . . . . . Rank Order of Responses to Motivational Scales by Public University Students . . . . . . . . . . . . . Academic Motivational Influences. Ratings assigned by Public University Students . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Academic Motivational Factors and Level of Public University Students. One-Way Analysis of Variance Examination to Determine the Relationship Between the Two Groups 0 O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O I O O O 0 Academic Motivational Factors and Gender of Public University Students. One-Nay Analysis of Variance to Determine Relationships Between The Two Groups. . . . Academic Motivational Factors and Continuity of Public University Students. One-Way Analysis of Variance Examination to Determine the Relationship Between the Groups. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xiii Page . 91 . 96 101 103 Table Page 4-16 Academic Motivational Factors and Level of Fathers' Formal Education. One-way Analysis of Variance Examination to Determine the Relationship Between the Amount of Fathers' Previous Education at Public SChOOls O O O O 0 O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 0 0 1 05 4-17 Academic Motivational Factors and Level of Mothers' Formal Education. One-Way Analysis of Variance Examination to Determine the Relationship Between the Amount of Mothers' Previous Education at Public Schools. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107 4-18 Academic Motivational Factors and Citizenship of Public University Students. One-Way Analysis of Variance Examination to Determine the Relationship Between the Groups. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109 4-19 Rank Order of Responses to Motivational Scales by Private University Students . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111 4-20 Academic Motivational Influences. Ratings assigned by Private University Students . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112 4-21 Academic Motivational Factors and Level of Private University Students. One-Way Analysis of Variance Examination to Determine the Relationship Between the Two Groups. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115 4-22 Academic Motivational Factors and Gender of Private University Students. One-Way Analysis of Variance to Determine Relationships Between The Two Groups. . . 117 4-23 Academic Motivational Factors and Continuity of Private University Students. One-Way Analysis of Variance Examination to Determine the Relationship Between the Groups. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119 4-24 Academic Motivational Factors and Level of Fathers' Formal Education. One-Way Analysis of Variance Examination to Determine the Relationship Between the Amount of Fathers' Previous Education at Private Schools. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121 4-25 Academic Motivational Factors and Level of Mothers' Formal Education. One-Way Analysis of Variance Exam- ination to Determine the Relationship Between the Amount of Mothers' Previous Education at Private Schools. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123 xiv Table Page 4-26 Academic Motivational Factors and Citizenship of Private University Students. Analysis of Variance Examination to Determine the Relationship Between the Groups . . . 126 XV Figure 2-1 2-3 3-1 LIST OF FIGURES Page Factors of Student Motivation Found in Motivation ResearCh O O O O O O O O O O O O O O I O O O O O O O O O O O 30 Influences on Student Motivation. Eight motivational influences examined in six studies. . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 Areas of Focus. Nine demographic foci examined in five Studies. 0 O O O O O O O O I C O O O O O O O O I O O I O O 32 Academic Motivational Factor Scales. Instrument validation panel results from the academic motivational questionnaire exercise. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58 xvi CHAPTER ONE STATEMEIT OF THE PROBLEM All sectors of African society value some form of formal or traditional education. In Kenya formal education has been rapidly replacing ownership of land, livestock, and recognized personal wisdom as accepted values of worth and a basis for future security (Shef- field, Ch.1, 1973). While the process of change is obvious, little is known in Kenya about the compelling motivation to acquire formal education degrees. At the same time, the government of Kenya spends 34% of its national budget on education (Sifuna, 1980, p.128), parents spend or borrow heavily to finance their children's studies (Eshiwani, 1980, p.7; Abreu, 1982; Keller, 1980, p.60), ethnic community or- ganizations focus their efforts on providing schooling for their youth (Sheffield, 1972, p.32), and international development organizations define development in terms of educational standards achieved (Abreu, 1982; Undugu, 1984, p.11). Educational expectations are usually discussed from the perspec- tives of educational advocates: government leaders, educational planners, and individual families -- all of whom hope to provide students with the necessary knowledge and life skills to both enter and improve "the world out there" (Ominde Report, 1964, p.25; Kenyatta, 1953; Keller, 1980, p.62). These observers quite easily talk about the benefits an education will have on society and on their 2 families once those they send to school are "educated" (Keller, 1980, p.17; Ishumi, 1981, p.152; Foster, 1980). In Kenya, Mutua (1975) and Keller (1980) have written about such perspectives, and Gakuru of the University of Nairobi is currently examining parental academic motives for Kenyan pre-primary children. While appropriate for speculation about primary and secondary students, such broad assumptions about academic motivation are inadequate for university-level students who are themselves adults making adult decisions about their life goals. Proponents of education assume that university students operate from pragmatic, altruistic, and security motives, or at least that they can be taught such values. Critics of education, highly skepti- cal about the benefits of Kenyan university education for the nation, assume that students adhere to primarily elitist motives that lead to self-perpetuating class divisions (reported by INADES, 1984, p.59; Mutua, 1975. pp. 126-27; Mwaura, 1972). Proponents and critics alike discuss student motivation on the basis of assumptions that lack reference to research into university student academic motivation. Because such assumptions about students' academic motives abound, they easily become the primary basis for educational planning and evaluation. The problem, however, is that educational planners have little research data available about students' motivation to seek university studies. Casual observations and opinions about university student motivation in Kenya provide an insufficient data base for educational planners to determine curricular policies or evaluate academic programs. Research to identify the factors and influences of student academic motivation is needed at the university level where more monies are spent than for any other level of education (Kenya 3 Development Plan, 1979-83, Part II, p.174), and where the greatest hopes are placed on students to meet societal and family expectations. University students today represent the first post-colonial generation of university students in Kenya. Most educational planners grew up under colonial rule and therefore have a different set of life experiences from the students they direct. An understanding of academic motives held by current university students who have not experienced colonial rule themselves may offer insight to post- colonial educational aspirations and expectations in general. Unanswered questions remain about the extent to which students pursue personal goals for a higher socio-economic niche in life, as is so often attributed to them (Sifuna, 1980, p.133; Mwaura, 1972, pp.49- 50), and the extent to which they seek an education to help promote national development, as is expected of them (Ominde Report, Part I, 1964, p.29; Hughes, 1985; d'Souza, 1980; Nwangu, 1976). Also unknown are the similarities and differences between the academic motivation of students from public national universities and those from the emerging private universities and university colleges in Kenya today. An examination of the compelling motivation to acquire formal degrees can provide a better understanding of the nature of post-colonial expectations and values about life in Kenya today. Purpose of the Study The purpose of the study is to inquire into the nature of the growing Kenyan drive to earn a university level degree. The specific focus of the study is to provide a data base of students' reports on their academic motivation for seeking university degree 4 studies in Kenya today. The study explores thirty three individual motivational factors and fifteen types of family, friend, and other influences that students report as significant in their motivation to pursue university degree studies. Nature of the Problem In Kenya, as in many African and Western countries, educational administrators are faced with the problem of having to make university student program planning and evaluation decisions without empirical knowledge of what it is that students themselves report they expect to gain from their degree studies. In the past, descriptive research of the academic motivational factors and influences reported by students as the reasons for their determination to acquire a university degree in Kenya has not been available. The problem is addressed in this study in terms of three research questions that ask what university students in general, public university students, and private univer- sity students identify as their academic motivational factors and influences. Each research question has six related sub-questions that further explore the responses from students of specific characteris- tics within the group: beginning students and intermediate students male and female students continuous and non-continuous students (referring to recency of completing secondary studies) fathers' formal education mothers' formal education citizenship The Overview of the Study (pp. 10 to 13) discusses each of these characteristics. The research questions are detailed in Chapter Three. figgkground of the Problem As the primary vehicle for upward social mobility, education is valued in Africa for its ability to enhance social status, amass wealth, and gain personal power (Kenya Development Plan, 1979-1983). In Kenya, even as educational services are becoming available to more peoples, the demand and expectations for its benefits rise faster than the ability to meet these academic aspirations (Hughes and Gituro Wahome, 1985; Kinyanjui, 1981, Sifuna, 1980). While private religious and secular educational organizations help fill the gap, they still fall short of meeting public educational aspirations (Abreu, 1982). Higher education consumes the largest per student proportion of the Kenyan educational budget (Kenya Development Plan, 1974-78) and reflects Kenyan values of preparing a well-educated class of men and women for leadership positions (Bigsten, 1984). The 342 of the total national budget spent on fomal education (Sessional Paper Number One: Economic Management for Renewed Growth, 1986; Sifuna, 1980, p. 128) to prepare Kenya's future community, business, and educational leaders outweighs the national development investment placed in the citizenry at large. During the 1970's, Kenyan educational expenditures grew at a faster rate than the total public expenditure, public revenue, or national income (Kirui, 1977, p.2). A significant proportion of international development aid from religious and other organizations is also targeted for higher education (Berman, 1975; Abreu, 1982). Official Ekpectations for Educational Systems African countries rely heavily on their educational systems to perform a number of formidable tasks. Included are charges to promote 6 national unity, seek economic and social justice, and encourage rural development. At the same time, education is expected to also produce high-level manpower resources for national business and infrastructure needs (Ominde report, 1964-65; Kenya Development Plan, 1984-88; Thompson, 1971; Kwapong, 1973). Most importantly, education is expected to develop strong national leaders who will help "liberate the African man from the mentality of slavery and colonialism by making him aware of himself as an equal member of the human race" (Nyerere, 1975, p.15). Many African universities were founded during a period of great optimism as national independence approached. Amply funded, they reflected the high hopes and respect of the people. Kwapong (1973) observes the universities were credited with almost magical qualities and near miraculous powers for providing quick solutions to the many problems of independence. With considerable optimism government officials, educational administrators and curricular planners designed programs to encourage student interest and commitment to national development goals. Major aims for offering students educational opportunities included prepar- ing some youth for political leadership roles, providing others the knowledge and skills to promote national development, and, at the same time, assuring a reserve of skilled labor and management to help Kenya reduce its commercial dependency on external sources. Kenyan students entering the University of Nairobi attend a three month induction course "meant to prepare them to play an effective part in the country's development (Daily Nation, Aug. 24, 1985)." Ethiopia and Tanzania share these concerns and require their university students to 7 participate in rural development projects as well. The emphasis in each of these programs is to introduce values and attitudes that it is assumed the students lack or possess in insuffi- cient quantities. President Moi's messages to University of Nairobi students summarize these concerns: You are fortunate to have access to university education which has eluded many of your fellow countrymen. Take this as a challenge and strive to succeed so that one day you may yourself help other Kenyans to improve their lot. (Daily Nation, Aug. 24, 1985). He [President Moi] advised students to utilize their time in school well in order to equip themselves with the necessary education and skills that will enable them to participate fully in nation building when they leave their institutions of learning (Standard, Nov. 28, 1985, p.1). The extent to which Kenyan students already share these concerns is unknown. Yet, because Kenya has made itself dependent upon students' free choice to pursue careers, national development trends will be influenced by student academic motives. A better understanding of student motives can help educational planners assess current trends and adjust curricula to help guide students in terms of national development goals. value of the Study The study provides descriptive data to replace previous speculation and unexamined assumptions about university student academic motives. Such data are useful to educational planners assessing current trends and planning curricula to promote institu- tional and national development goals. Educational administrators, curriculum specialists, and academic scholars gain practical data for 8 educational decisions, curriculum assessment, and insight for future research. The majority of previous academic motivation research has been conducted in the West and based upon Western models of motivation theory. To date, motivation theory is primarily based on Western focused assumptions and research studies. The pioneer research of Atkinson, McClelland, and Ball, for example, has yet to be examined for its applicability to African educational contexts. Studies by Somerset (1971) in Kenya, Amalaha (1974) in Nigeria, Psacharopoulos and Sanyal (1980) in Tanzania, and Bardouille (1981) in Zambia appear to be the sole investigations that include an examination of academic motives in Africa. Academic motivation research is especially important at the university level where students pursue their personal interests while also under the guidance and financial sponsorship of public and private institutions. Unexamined assumptions about educational motives cannot be relied upon for educational planning and evaluation activities. The assumptions need to be explored and provision made for previously unnoticed motives. While educational planners most clearly stand to benefit from the study, students and their educa- tional sponsors also benefit from the research. Educational sponsors committed to providing meaningful aid and direction to students benefit from data on academic motives for their own planning and evaluation work. An understanding of academic motives helps facilitate communication between students and their supporters about the intended use of educational funds. Little is known about what factors motivate university students 9 to persist once their initial enthusiasm wanes and the end goal of graduation is still far from sight. Students at these stages are still psychologically distant from their goal of a degree and need to draw on their motivational reserves to continue the efforts (de Charms and Muir, 1978, p.94). Previous motivation studies have limited their investigation to students entering and/or exiting their degree programs (Bardouille, 1981; Lacy, 1978). In order to better understand the motivation to pursue higher education studies, it is important that the research population be reporting from a "now" perspective. Students about to graduate tend to report their motives through selective memories which may be affected by employment concern for the near future (Bardouille, 1984). The examination of the educational motives of beginning and intermediate students in the present study points to the value of continued research in this area. Bypassed Population A largely bypassed population in African university research is that of students in privately sponsored universities and university colleges. In Kenya, private educational organizations are playing increasingly major roles in determining the nature and direction of Kenyan education (Kenyatta, 1953, Sifuna, 1976, Fafunwa and Aisiku, 1982, Abreu, 1982). They have also provided many students a "second opportunity" for studies after unsuccessful bids to enter government- sponsored institutions. Students attending private degree granting institutions represent a growing percentage of the total number of Kenyan university students. Insight is needed into the academic motivation of students at these private university institutions. 10 Overview of the Study The research is a descriptive study of the academic motivational factors and influences reported by students in Kenyan university degree programs. The target population of this study comprises all beginning and intermediate students in arts and social science degree programs at each public and private university level institution in Kenya. The sample of 96 students participating in the preliminary questionnaire development exercises and 1,022 students participating in the final study was drawn from the two public and eleven of the twelve private university institutions that offer arts and social science degree programs in Kenya. The research instrument was compiled from the responses of Kenyan university students to a preliminary open-ended questionnaire about why students pursue a university degree in Kenya and who or what types of influences affect student academic motivation. Additional prelimi- nary studies to investigate categories of academic motivational factors and influences led to the development of a Likert-type questionnaire in which students were asked to rate how strongly they agreed or disagreed with the 33 motivational factors and 15 influences identified in results from the open-ended questionnaire. Supplemen- tary small group interviews of 36 beginning and 40 intermediate students were conducted at eight institutions to help clarify and further explore these motivational factors and influences. The analysis of the data focuses on the responses of students from both public and private institutions with reference to six perspectives. Each is described below. I? (r 11 Beginning and Intermediate Students. At these separate stages of their studies, beginning and intermediate students differ markedly in their academic experience while sharing the reality of being psycho- logically, if not actually, distant from their goal of completing the longed for degree (DeCharms and Muir, 1978, p.94). In each case, the motivation to continue their studies must be an enduring motivation. While the beginning students necessarily draw primarily on their ideal aspirations for a degree, intermediate students have aspirations tempered by the experience of several terms of university studies. The study seeks to compare the type of motivational factors identified by each group. Male and Female Students. Beginning in colonial days and continuing today, formal education has primarily been directed toward male citizens (Sheffield, 1973, pp.19 & 75). Little is written about Kenyan women in education. A survey of nine books on African educ- ation, five of which were specifically about Kenyan education, revealed only one book discussing female education. Individual analyses of women's and men's academic motivational factors may give insight into unique perspectives on the meaning of obtaining a degree in Kenya today. Continuous and Hen-Continuous Students. Students whose univer- sity studies begin within two years of completing their secondary education are considered continuous students in this study. Accord- ingly, students whose.formal education was interrupted for more than two years after completing their secondary studies are considered non- continuous students. Since 1982 when the universities were closed due to student unrest, students have had a two year waiting period before 12 they are informed by the government of their acceptance to the public university. Such individuals are considered continuous students for their intentions and expectations to continue their studies as soon as notified of their acceptance. The perspectives of students with previously continuous or inter- rupted studies prior to entering their degree studies may provide particularly helpful information about the rapidly growing number of older students in private educational institutions. It is not known whether differences exist in motivational factors between students who did not experience delays and students who began school late or dropped out of the process for two or more years due to financial, academic, marriage, pregnancy, or other reasons. Previous studies show that students who do not experience delays almost certainly had special advantages in their favor (Foster, 1980; Charlick, 1978). These include private tutoring, having literate parents, attending the best schools (Hanson, 1971; Kirui, 1982), and excellent nutrition (Amalaha, 1974). It may also be that factors of maturity and outside work or unemployment experience have a different influence on the educational motives of returning students. In Kenya, returning students often do so after an absence of at least five or even ten or more years. Father's Fbrmal Education. A comparison of the types of academic motivational factors cited by students whose fathers had different educational backgrounds may give insight into the role of the fathers' own education on the academic motivation of their children. Four levels of completed formal education are considered: primary, secon- dary, college diploma (similar to a two year associate of arts diploma 13 in the United States), or university degree studies. Mother's Fbrmal Education. The same analysis is made on the basis of the mothers' previous formal education. Specific studies of the influence mothers have on their children's academic motivation in Kenya are not found, but Kenyan novels (Mwangi, 1973; Thiong'o, 1965, 1968) emphasize mothers' educational aspirations and efforts to facilitate their children's formal education. Citizenship. A large number of Non-Kenyan Africans study in Kenya today, especially in the private university level institutions. Many come from nearby countries where university education oppor- tunities are almost non-existent. Because it is more difficult for non-Kenyans to obtain admission to a Kenyan degree institution, the study asks whether there may be differences in the academic motiva- tional factors between Kenyan and non-Kenyan students. Specific information about the research questions, target population, instrumentation, and procedures are further discussed in Chapter Three. The data gathered from the questionnaires and inter- views are analyzed in Chapter Four. In Chapter Five, conclusions, implications and recommendations are offered based on the findings of the study. Delimitations of the Study The population of the study consists of arts and social science students in first degree programs. Because this study is not con- cerned with assessing the strengths of various types of academic motives, arts and social science students are considered the most appropriate cross section representation of the total university 14 student population. In addition to representing the majority of university students in Kenya, arts and social science students provide a wider spectrum of student motives than would a study of majors in specialized fields. A study by Hicks (reported in Andor, 1983, p. 1409) suggest that students in arts and social science majors would report fewer exclusively prestige motives than if all majors were studied. Psacharopoulos and Sanyal (1980) found that students studying the occupation of their first choice do so primarily for prestige motives, and that the majority of arts and social science majors originally had a different preference for their majors. A second delimitation to the study is that the emphasis of this research is to provide an overview of student academic motivation at two levels of a study program at one point in time. While a longi- tudinal study could in the future provide useful data about what happens to students' motives over time, it is not the focus of the present study. . Finally, the study is focused solely on students' personal reports about their academic motives. Psychological measures such as the Thematic Apperception Test from which potential motives might be deduced have not been used. The appropriateness of administering instruments developed in the West for African educational research is not established nor deemed appropriate for understanding African academic motivation. 15 Assumptions of the Study It is assumed in this study that, to the extent that free choice of a university educational institution is possible in Kenya, people who attend different institutions may have different kinds of motives. Although Psacharopoulos and Sanyal's study of Tanzania (1980) found that choice of universities was primarily oriented to the prestige institution (University of Dar-es-Salaam), the assumption of this study is that the motives of some students may not be oriented primarily toward prestige factors. It may be that some students have stronger pulls to study under a particular professor, attend the same campus as siblings or friends, or study a subject that is especially appealing and not readily available at all institutions. A second assumption of the study is that student cohorts at the same stage (e.g. beginning or intermediate stage) of their educational programs are more homogeneous in terms of motivation than are groups of students across various stages in their educational programs. Finally, it is assumed that the academic motives identified by the arts and social science students in the study are representative of academic motives of Kenyan university students in general. Students in the arts and social science programs constitute the majority of student populations (Student Statistics, University of Nairobi Calendar 1984-85, p. 31; Spaulding et al., 1976). They also represent the population least prepared for specific employment opportunities upon graduation (Hughes and Gituro Wahome, 1985; Bigsten, 1984). With less direct vocational applicability of their education than for science and technology majors, this population prOVides a wider range of educational motivation than would be 16 expected of students in highly technical fields. Evidence to this effect was found in the 1980 Tanzanian study by Psacharopoulos and Sanyal where only 462 of the students in arts and social sciences were studying in the major of their first choice, while 892 of the engineering students were in their first choice fields. It is assumed that the highly pragmatic motives typical of students in engineering and other technical fields are represented among those arts and social science students for whom an arts program is a second or third choice. The study of arts and social science students provides greater opportunities to identify the less-pragmatic motives of students who may enjoy the discipline of languages, literature, philosophy, or religious studies, for example, for their own sake or for more altruistic service-oriented motives. Limitations of the Study The research is limited to a study of the academic motives reported by students in response to questionnaire and small group interview methods of inquiry. The study cannot guarantee that the motives reported by students are necessarily those operational motives in effect at the time of the investigation. This study is limited to an examination of arts and social science students in Kenyan university level institutions offering bachelor degrees. While, for the reasons discussed in the delimita- tions and assumptions sections above, the academic motivation of these students is most likely typical of the academic motivation of students found throughout the universities, it cannot be assumed that this population is representative of Kenyan university students in general. 17 Ideally, all institutions in the study would have degree programs of the same length. University degrees in Kenya, however, are currently completed in either three or four years depending on whether a given institution is influenced by the academic traditions of Europe or the United States. Students at the three year institutions will have had 1 1/2 years of studies while students at four year institu- tions will have completed two years of their programs at the time of the investigation. The same differences will exist for each group in the amount of time remaining before they finish their degrees. This difference of approximately three months each way may potentially influence the results. Definition of Terms The following definitions apply for the terms used in this study: Metivation. Although the term is often used in the context of changing the values, attitudes, and behaviors of others (Beard and Senior, 1980), this sense of the term is not used in the study. Instead, the psychological definition of motivation as "the process of arousing, sustaining, and directing behavior" (Ball, 1982, p. 1256) is used from the perspective of students' reports of who or what helps them arouse, sustain, and direct their own behavior in obtaining a university level degree. Motive. An impulse or drive which arouses and supports an activity. Motives may be conscious or unconscious, intrinsic or extrinsic (Page and Thomas, 1977, p. 226). 18 32.252 Chapter One has presented an overview of the research problem and the questions addressed in the study about the factors and influences that motivate students to study for university degrees in Kenya. In Chapter Two, precedent literature and research about academic motiva- tion are presented in two sections: 1) research about academic motivation in Africa and the perspectives of Africans about education in general, and 2) review of previous research on academic motivation- al factors and influences. CHAPTER TWO PRECEDEIT LITERATURE The research questions of this study require reflection on the African perspectives of two major elements: 1) African attitudes toward higher education, and 2) a review of accepted concepts of academic motivation. Recent interest in the study of academic motivation has been sparked by the challenge of educators like Freire (1980) and Botkin et a1. (1979) to reevaluate long standing assumptions about students and the process of education. Specifically, Long (1982) and Biggs (1982) in the United States, Carpenter and Western (1982) in Australia, and Kozeki (1984) in Britain and Hungary have explored academic motivation from the perspectives of students themselves. Research into African student academic motivation is the focus of the next section. The subject has been addressed by African educators as well as the general public. African Academic Motivation Studies and Perspectives Writers have speculated about student motives for pursuing an education (Court, 1976a; Fafunwa and Aisiku, 1982; Foster, 1980; Ponsioen, 1972; Sheffield, 1973), but specific research designed to assess university student motives is still lacking. Foster (1980) observes that far less research is conducted on African university 19 20 education than primary and secondary schools even though the support of one higher education student in a developing country is equivalent to the support of 12 secondary students or 88 primary school students (Psacharopoulos and Sanyal, 1981, p. 24). Of the 15 university education research projects Foster identified as principal studies before 1980, only three date from 1975 or later, and none focused on East Africa. Since then, Court (1980, 1985), Hughes (1985), Hughes and Wahome (1985), and Bigsten and Collier (1980) have conducted university education research in Kenya, but the issue of academic motivation from a student perspective remains unexamined. Bardouille (1981) in Zambia, and Pscharopoulos and Sanyal (1980) in Tanzania provide insight into academic motives of university students through their studies of career expectations and educational cost benefit analyses. Studies focusing specifically on academic motives and educational aspirations have been conducted in Kenya by Somerset (1971) and in Nigeria by Amalaha (1974), but among secondary rather than university students. Bardouille's 1981 study of university students examined the motivation factors of 579 University of Zambia graduates. The research focused on relationships between the students' socioeconomic backgrounds, career choices, occupational expectations, intended employment sectors, and expected earnings upon completion of their 'degrees. He additionally examined the students' assessment of the relevancy of their study programs to their career goals. Findings from the study suggest that students overwhelmingly perceive their university training as a key to achieving higher income, social status, and vocational prestige. Bardouille also learned that 21 students view attaining a university degree primarily as a stepping stone to still further education. A cost benefit analysis of higher education in developing countries conducted by Psacharopoulos and Sanyal in 1980 included an examination of university student aspirations. The motives identified among the African students at the University of Dar es Salaam were those of seeking qualifications for professional careers, aspiring for urban life, and desiring better material and employment benefits. The two secondary school studies also considered academic motives but to a lesser extent than the Bardouille research. Amalaha's 1974 dissertation approaches the subject in a study of Form Five Nigerian secondary students. The investigation examined how student academic aspirations may be influenced by factors of religion, parents' education, location of schools, and availability of food. Somerset examined aspirations from a different perspective. He conducted research on the aspirations and expectations for further education and training of 1,253 Form Four pupils in 24 Kenyan secondary schools. Rather than examine motivation r se, the study focused on the relationship between student aspirations for higher education and three factors: the type of school attended, the quality of previous educational experience, and the students' performance on their school certificate examination. The primary findings of the 1969 study were that students tend to have very realistic perceptions of their future educational prospects, that such prospects are largely determined by students' socioeconomic backgrounds and by the type and quality of schools attended. Of specific interest to this research in terms of motivational persistence is the finding that students' personal 22 motivation for further education influences their chances for obtain- ing it (1971, p. 5). While the Amalaha and Somerset studies of secondary students offer helpful insight to an understanding of academic motivation in the 1970's, the Bardouille study appears to be the key contributing research into academic motivation for African university education. As a first study, it has done much to demonstrate the nature of Zambian students' motives and their relationship to national develop- ment aspirations. Public Educational Expectations Education is one of the most sought after commodities in Kenya today. It is generally accepted that, without formal education, a person has little hope for social or economic opportunities in life. Kaviti Munyao is a watchman and an ex-soldier. Kaviti believes the pay could have been better, but shrugs philoso- phically; "If you want better pay, you ought to have a better education." Without that, one can go this far and no more (Sunday Nation, December 7, 1986, p. 14). Since independence, popular demand for education has pressured the government to consistently assign 35 to 40 percent of the national budget to the Ministry of Education (Kirui, 1982, p.1, Thompson, 1981). The demand for educational opportunities is such that the whole government budget could be taken over by education in a matter of 10-15 years if it attempted to meet educational needs, even at the 1976 rate of population growth (Kirui, 1982, p.3). The demands of population pressure on all educational insti- tutions is alarming. In Nairobi, where the greatest number of schools are located, parents are known to queue all night for primary school application forms for their children. In 1985, over 10,000 children 23 in Nairobi alone were denied admission to Standard One (equivalent to the first grade in American schools) for lack of schools and trained teachers (Odongo Odoyo, The Standard, Aug. 10, 1985). As is true throughout the African continent, university education in Kenya is perceived as an extremely important vehicle for job satisfaction and mobility (Hughes, 1985, p.5). Opportunities to reach this top of the pyramid become very scarce by the time students achieve potential university admission status. The select secondary students with admissible "A" level scores often begin their university studies with the burden of great expectations already placed on their shoulders. An article in the Kenyan Daily Nation discusses this phenomenon: The degree is perhaps the most fantasized feature of university education. According to some University of Nairobi students interviewed recently, their mere presence at the institution has led parents and other relatives into making contracts of various kinds in anticipation of "big money" as soon as the students graduate. Some parents even borrow money to start businesses expecting to finance the repayment with the son's "graduate" salary. Other have gone as far as organizing marriage with the backing of a "degree" that has not even been awarded (Charles Kimathi, The Daily Nation, Aug. 8, 1986). Educational Disillusionment There is increasing evidence that the long coveted degree is no longer perceived as an automatic guarantee of either a satisfactory job or employment itself (Hughes, 1985, pp.8 - 12; Patrick Ngugi, "Daily Nation," 22 Aug., 1985). Educational observers question the ability of education to meet growing pressure for increasing educa- tional opportunities, to eradicate poverty and injustice, or to meaningfully propel Kenya into world business sectors (Masenge, 1977). Disillusionment about the anticipated powers of education are 24 prominent themes in the works of Kenyan authors Thiong'o, Mwangi, and Mwaura. Social scientists raise questions of accountability regarding the large educational investments in the country as well (Hughes and Wahome, 1985; Wbrld Bank, 1975; Kwapong, 1973; Bigsten, 1984). Calls for reform and renewed dedication to the original goals reflect a growing concern about the ability of formal education to prepare students to meet economic, social, and developmental challenges facing the country (Court, 1976a and 1979; Hanson, 1971). Some observers suggest that university students today care more about degrees as a means to help facilitate an easy life of personal prestige, comfort, and security than to prepare them for national and Panafrican leader- ship responsibilities (Inades, 1984). Ironically, the increasing level of disenchantment is matched only by the continually increasing demands for more educational opportunities, especially at the university level. The fact remains that much of what has been and is still assumed about university students in Kenya is based on personal perspectives. In recent times, public perceptions are increasingly negative in the wake of student strikes and campus disturbances such as those at the University of Nairobi and Kenyatta University in 1986. Letters to the editors after stone throwing incidents at the University of Nairobi and Kenyatta University call students: people who are not ashamed of their greed, useless pests to society, hooligans, and people who delude themselves that they are some little tin-gods or budding 'commissars' who can enforce their whims on the regime and society (Daily Nation, Mar. 31, 1986, p.7). An editorial in the Kenyan Sunday Nation speculates about students at the University of Nairobi: "The educated tend to regard their . 25 education as a badge that relieves them of any obligation to soil their hands through manual work" (Johnstone Khejeri, Sept. 1, 1985). While speculation abounds, little information is available about what university students themselves identify as their personal educational aspirations and goals. African Literature and Media Reports African autobiographies, novels, poetry, and journalism provide additional insight into a variety of academic motives, especially from the perspectives of African students and their families. The drive of individuals and the influence of their families and ethnic communities to achieve an education and its expected benefits are major themes in novels by Achebe (1963, 1965), Mwaura (1972), and Ruhumbika (1969) as well as in the plays Kill Me Quick (Mwangi, 1973), and Mtawa Mweusi (Thiong'o, 1978). Motivation reported by students in autobiographies and the press often shows unashamed honesty: I maintained correspondence with my American contacts..., I was restless because I was constantly anxious to go to the U.S. for my higher education. I had one thing and one thing only in my mind -- that come what may, I would obtain a university degree. I did not think that any power on earth could ever stop me from pursuing this objective (Gatheru, 1965, p. 138). I kept dreaming of going to Makerere as I grew up. I did not know exactly what I would do there except that it was something to do with education (Rose Weruhiu, Member of Parliament, interview in Daily Nation, Sept. 19, 1985). Similarly, African students quite openly report having had motives to acquire missionary education in order to later establish separate, independent churches or to achieve other goals of upward social mobility (Berman, 1975). Other sources report students expressing a more altruistic motive 26 for desiring formal education. Peil (1977, p. 198) and wakatama (1979) note a number of students for whom an education meant greater opportunities to further develop personal interests, especially in terms of family and ethnic group development. The print media provides a forum for presenting the perspective of the Kenyan government and public about education as a key factor for national development. Two examples illustrate this perspective: He [President Moi] advised students to utilize their time in school well in order to equip themselves with the necessary education and skills that will enable them to participate fully in nation building when they leave their institutions of learning (Standard, Nov. 28, 1985, p.1). The new graduates are faced with a big challenge...to prove that they are indeed prepared to work hard in rural areas" (Editorial, Daily Nation, Dec. 9, 1985, p.6). Review of Previous Motivation Research The study of human motivation is probably as old as people's curiosity about human behavior. Plato is credited with the earliest cognitive motivation theory which considers the mind the primary source for causally determining human behavior. Socrates and Plato were both interested in learning about motives since "right knowing leads to right acting" (Ball, 1982, p. 1256). Abundant advice on Egg to motivate students toward a variety of specific ends is readily available in both African and Western educational literature (Andor, 1983; Beard, 1980; D'Souza, 1980). Most student motivation studies focus on the theory of motivation with the ultimate goal of developing techniques for motivating students toward predetermined goals (Ball, 1977; Fafunwa and Aisiku, 1982; Steinkamp and Maehr, 1984; Schroth, 1979). 27 In the past 40 years, motivation studies have taken a number of often confusing directions. Overviews of the field offer different paradigms and disagree about how to label the many factors of moti- vation. Kolesnik, for example, offers an overview of "Freudian, Adlerian, behavioral, cOgnitive, and humanistic theories" (1978, p.3). DeCharms and Muir (1978) refer to intrinsic motivation, attribution theory, equity theory, and achievement motivation as apparently four separate types of motivation. And Biggs' overview of the literature for his research (1982) compares categories of instrumental, intrin- sic, and achievement motives. Theoretical studies of motivation stem from the field of moti- vational psychology. Darwin's theory of the origin of human species heavily influenced the motivational studies of McDougall, Pavlov, Thorndike, and Freud in the early 20th century. Tolman took these early studies a step further by focusing on "purposive behavior" in man as well as in animals. Skinner, Lewin, Hull, and McClelland have since elaborated and expanded this primarily stimulus response physio- logical approach to motivation research. More recently, Maslow, McClelland, and Atkinson have investigated personality motivation while Bindra, Berlyn, Miller and Brown have concentrated on motivation as it relates to learning psychology. Until the 1960's, the study of human motivation concentrated heavily on primary motives, that is, biological drives for human behavior (e.g. hunger, thirst, sleep, shelter, and fear motives). While research continues on primary motives, interest in studying "secondary motives" has provided a new approach to motivational studies. Maslow is credited as the first theorist to reject the 28 popular Darwinian evolutionary conception of man in favor of a humanistic conception that views humans as different in principle from other species (Madsen, 1974, p. 290). While his hierarchy of needs acknowledges drives for physiological and safety purposes, it also includes human drives to meet affiliative, esteem and self actualization needs. Since Maslow first proposed his theory in 1954, interest in secondary drives has led theorists to identify factors of conditioned fear (Brown, 1961), deficit or aversive motivation (Brown and Farber, 1968), intrinsic and extrinsic motivation (Woodworth, 1958), and aggression, affiliation, achievement, power, curiosity, and dissonance reduction (primarily introduced by McClelland, Atkinson, and Birch). Figures 2-1, 2-2, and 2-3 present additional motivation factors, influences, and foci identified in recent studies that reflect these secondary motivation incentive perspectives. This incentive-oriented approach is the focus of the current examination of university student motivation factors for university degree studies. The Concept of Academic Motivation "Motivation" is a catch-all term to describe the direction and force behind an individual's behavior. Atkinson and Birch suggest that "the study of motivation is traditionally an analysis of the various factors which incite and direct an individual's action" (1979, p.6). Sloane and Jackson define motivation as "the extent to which certain stimulus objects or events affect the occurrence or nonoccur- rence of the behavior in question" (1974, p.5). Academic motivation includes the concept of achievement 29 motivation defined by Atkinson as the tendency to strive toward a goal when the given factors present are the motivation to succeed, the probability of success, and success incentives (Madsen, 1974, p. 271). The motive to succeed is subsequently defined as "a relatively general and stable characteristic of the person which is present in any behavior situation" (Madsen, 1974, p. 271). This definition is appropriate for the study to the extent that it describes the motivation of the target population to pursue and persist in university degree studies. In this study the term academic motivation does not limit its scope to achievement motivation alone since several other motivational factors such as power, affiliation and fear of failure have been identified in previous studies (see Figure 2-1). buruxeet paaetaJ-Iooqas oi uorieiuetxo antqtsod Kitmxoguoa aJnIre; prone on paeu “01391I133V 3311 30 Ken 131333 sanrdaeiqo auam ' -dotanep Ieuotqen auamenerqov Ienoxddv JBMOd sseoons enarqov sisalaiut 133123 Janoosta sdrqspuarz; {euos -13d esoto pttng sxzondau teuorssa;01d pue Ieroos pttna asleep 9 uteqqo 8:11 use: 10} 33U318;31d anteA 1911919“ isoxeiut otsutxiul soritunaioddo iuaontdma 131103 uorieotgrtenb {euotSSBJOJd snieas 'abriseld =dannms HOLDVJ NOILVAILON STUDIED BY: Twenty X 1974 1983 1983 1983 1983 1978 1980 1968 1981 1982 1980 of Ed. Evaluation, 1969 1982 Factors of Student Motivation Found in Motivation Research: motivational factors examined in fourteen previous motivational studies. PsachaIOpoulos and Sanyal, Overall, Schell in Quintanar, Mehta, Irvine in Andor, Hicks in Andor, Adam in Andor, Becher in Andor, deCharms and Muir, Meredith, Biggs, Bardouille, Reitzes and Mutran, Encvc. 197$ Figure 2-1. 31 m m c m m o H c c m u u o m H w 44 e s an F4 44 44 .-4 as Q. 0 44 Z O "-1 (D > to Otfl 0 C) a o 1H H U 0 :1 +1 01 E42 m in 0 mi :» m 44 u did u C) u u 13 o m =>:> H c I o .4 c .: H14 0 a) 44 .n to o :4 o [-0 124 -H H u—i u C «4 CU rd C>z m m a) :3 m u m a) STUDIED BY: 2. H 5: m m 4: o. a. a. E4 Cromer, 1976 X X Hicks in Andor, 1983 X Hooper, 1983 X X X Bigsten, 1984 X Gatheru, 1965 X Carpenter and Western, 1982 X X X Figure 2-2. Influences on Student Motivation: Eight types of motivational influences examined in six previous motivation works. 32 .moaespm conve>fipos msofi>onq m>wm :H emcfissxm Hoom canmmnmoeoe ocfiz «cowpemmemmemfin no amend .mnw chewam x x sass .cmummam x mama .ameoao x . omma .uoaaosz x x. x x sums .ecmamea x x x x omma .883 was moHoomonmnommm n1 .a H S ea .4 .a H S u o e a «a .4 e p. .u a N wm omHQDBm o 1 .L e "a 1 44 .6 VA 3 e a 4+ 1 u "a q_ r. V 1 u at o T: .a e o S I 1 r. r. «a .1 1 u o s o 44 - - 0 o e o as o r. a J p. .3 X a u 0 n 5 as o O s o .3 1 n 0 O o e o 0 Au m S q a. o n n. .a o I. P u 44 o o P r. I u o s u 33 For the purpose of the research, the concepts of achievement motivation as studied by Atkinson and Birch have been integrated with those of academic motivation presented in the studies of Moon and Doyle (1977) and Doyle and Moen (1978). Motivational Factors and Influences Motivation specialists not only differ in their interpretations of motivation, they also differ in their identification of motivation factors and influences. An examination of 14 studies shows 20 moti- vational factors ranging from personal prestige and power to concern for national development (see Figure 2-1). The question of who and what influences students' motives for an education has been addressed to some extent by educational observers. Six writers who comment on educational influences believe that parents have the greatest influence (see Figure 2-2). Bardouille, however, believes that parental influence is not as great as is that of the educational system itself (1981, p. 43). It is generally agreed that motivation cannot be measured directly (Schroth, 1974). One exception to this theory comes from recent findings in a study of power moti- vation by McClelland, Maddocks, and McAdams (1985). A positive cor- relation was discovered between individuals with strong motives for power (as determined by their performance on the Thematic Apperception and other motivation perception tests) and high levels of MHPG (3-methoxy-4-hydroxyphenylglycol, an index of brain norepinephrine turnover) in their urine. Individuals with high motivation for power show higher brain NE turnover when subjected to power motivation stimuli than individuals with average or low power motivation who are 34 presented the same motivational stimuli. This discovery appears to provide the first physiological test to measure both the presence and intensity of motivation. The researchers emphasize, however, that this test is applicable only for the empirical measurement of power motivation. It does not apply for the measurement of achievement, affiliation, intimacy, or the several other known forms of motivation (1985. p.8). While the McClelland, Maddocks, and Adams discovery provides encouraging news about the ability to measure power motivation directly, the majority of research on academic and other motivational factors continues to rely on measures requiring inference oriented interpretations. Most motivation studies follow a survey approach to identify factors that influence motivation toward particular behaviors. At least 35 instruments, mostly in the form of questionnaires and interviews, are used to examine motivation. One well known test, the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT), takes a less conspicuous form of inquiry by asking subjects to create stories about various pictures. A content analysis of the fantasized stories offers insight into individuals' patterns of hunger, sex, aggression, fear, affiliation, power, achievement, and other motivations (Madsen, 1974, p. 88). Winter, McClelland and Steward (1981) have used the TAT to study achievement motivation of college students and their maturity in adaptation to college life. Differing conceptions of motivation lead researchers to adopt, adapt, or otherwise devise their own research instruments. Figure 2-1 lists the educational motivational factors studied in 14 research 35 programs. While the several motivational factor categories identified in Figure 2-1 closely resemble one another ("better employment opportunities" and "professional qualifications"), shades of gray lead researchers to keep the distinctions. SEE The study of what motivates individuals to seek university education in Kenya is based on the observations and research of both African and Western educators. African novels as well as articles in the press and news magazines give further insight into current knowledge of the subject from the perspective of the Kenyan general public. It is generally believed that African university students study for a degree in order to achieve higher income, social status, and vocational prestige. The question of whether or not these assump- tions are appropriate in the case of Kenyan university students is the focus of this study. Chapter Three describes the research design and methodology of the study focusing on academic motivation from the perspectives of current Kenyan university students. CHAPTER THREE RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY The study investigates the motivational factors and influences reported by university level students as their reasons to pursue arts and social science degree programs in Kenya. Three research questions inquire about the academic motivation of students from both public and private university level institutions, students from public univer- sities only, and students of private university level institutions only. Six related sub-questions inquire about the perspectives of students according to specific characteristics within the group covered by each research question. Research Questions The following research questions and their sub-questions guide the investigation: Research Question One: What academic motivational factors and influences are claimed by public and private university students in Kenya as their reasons for studying for a degree? The six related questions to explore the academic motivation reported by specific subgroups of the university students follow: I-A. Is there a difference between the claims of beginning and intermediate students regarding their academic motivation? I-B. Is there a difference between the claims of male and female students regarding their academic motivation? I-C. Is there a difference between students who began their university program within two years of completing secondary school and students who began their programs after an absence of more than two years since completing secondary school regarding their academic motivation? 36 37 I-D. Can a difference in the academic motivation claimed by students be related to their fathers' previous education? I-E. Can a difference in the academic motivation claimed by students be related to their mothers' previous education? I-F. Is there a difference between the claims of Kenyan and non-Kenyan students about their academic motivation? Research Question Two: What academic motivational factors and influences are claimed by public university students in Kenya as their reasons for studying for a degree? Six related questions to explore the academic motivation reported by specific subgroups of the public university students follow: II-A. Is there a difference between the claims of beginning and intermediate public university students regarding their academic motivation? II-B.Is there a difference between the claims of male and female public university students regarding their academic motivation? II-C. Is there a difference between public university students who began their university program within two years of completing secondary school and public univer- sity students who began their programs after an absence of more than two years since completing secondary school regarding their academic motivation? II-D. Can a difference in the academic motivation claimed by public university students be related to their fathers' previous education? II-E. Can a difference in the academic motivation claimed by public university students be related to their mothers' previous education? II-F. Is there a difference between the claims of Kenyan and non-Kenyan public university students about their academic motivation? Research Question Three: What academic motivational factors and influences are claimed by private university level students in Kenya as their reasons for studying for a degree? Six related questions to explore the academic motivation reported by specific subgroups of the private university level students follow: 38 III-A. Is there a difference between the claims of beginning and intermediate private university level students regarding their academic motivation? III-B. Is there a difference between the claims of male and female private university level students regarding their academic motivation? III-C. Is there a difference between private university students who began their university program within two years of completing secondary school and private university students who began their programs after an absence of more than two years since completing secon- dary school regarding their academic motivation? III-D. Can a difference in the academic motivation claimed by private university level students be related to their fathers' previous education? III-E. Can a difference in the academic motivation claimed by private university level students be related to their mothers' previous education? III-F. Is there a difference between the claims of Kenyan and non-Kenyan private university level students about their academic motivation? The following sections on the research population and sample describe the specific parameters of the study. Pepglgtion The population for the study consists of full-time students who are beginning or midway through a degree program in the arts or social science fields at university level institutions in Kenya. Of the fourteen institutions offering arts and social science degrees in Kenya, two are public, non-sectarian government universities, eleven are private universities, university colleges, or colleges associated with Catholic or Protestant organizations, and one is a private, non- sectarian university. All twelve non-governmental institutions are now accredited or in the process of becoming accredited by expatriate university level organizations in Europe, Canada, or the United 39 States. Each is additionally seeking accreditation from the Kenyan government as required by a 1986 directive from President Daniel Arap Moi. Because Kenyan concepts of "university," "college," and "univer- sity college" differ somewhat from Western understandings of the terms, each is described below. A university is an educational institution accredited by either the Kenyan government or an external university accrediting associa- tion (e.g. North Central Accreditating Association). Entrance standards may vary between institutions, but the minimal requirement for the purposes of this study is that students have earned a School Certificate or General Certificate of Education from Form Four of a Kenyan secondary school or its equivalent. In this study, the term "university" is also used in a generic sense to refer to university level degree granting educational institutions. In Kenya, a college may refer to a branch of a Kenyan university or a degree granting university or college in the west that has a branch located in Kenya. It is this sense of the term that is used in this study. It should be noted, however, that the term "college" may also refer to a post secondary school offering primarily vocational training or lower division liberal arts studies. In this study, the participating colleges are branches of either Kenyan or Western university level degree granting institutions. Two exceptions are the Apostles of Jesus and Hekima colleges, currently in the process of seeking external as well as Kenyan accreditation for their educational programs. A university college is the term given a three or four year 40 degree granting institution that is a branch of a university offering first level (bachelor) degrees. Each of the fourteen institutions was included in the target population. One private religious university proved inaccessible, however, due to persistent difficulties with mail and long-distance telephone communication. The remaining thirteen institutions agreed to participate in the study. The single non-religiously affiliated private university was chosen for the pilot study. The remaining ten institutions were affiliated with Catholic, Protestant, or nondenominational Christian organizations. At the last moment, a.student strike at one school prevented it from participating in the study, reducing to nine the number of private religious institutions represented in the final study. Students who participated in the preliminary study or as members of the instrument validation panel were not included in the final study. A description of the government and private liberal arts degree granting institutions that participated in the research follows. Public Government Universities: 1. Kenyatta University. Formerly a college of the University of Nairobi in Kahawa, Kenyatta University is responsible for secondary and university teacher education as well as the majority of research on education in Kenya. The university offers separate undergraduate Bachelor of Education degrees in arts, science, and home economics faculties in addition to its Master of Education and Doctor of Philosophy degrees. In 1986, Kenyatta University had 2,341 undergraduate students of whom 386 students in Faculty of Arts studies 41 received Bachelor of Education degrees in geography, music, languages and linguistics, literature, fine arts, philosophy and religious studies, business education, and history. 2. University of Nairobi. After being a college of the University of East Africa since 1963, the University of Nairobi was established as a full university in 1970. The University of Nairobi has six colleges located on five campuses in and near the city of Nairobi. Its Faculty of Arts in the College of Humanities and Social Sciences is the largest faculty of the university with departments of economics, geography, government, history, linguistics and African languages, literature, philosophy, religious studies, and sociology. In 1986, the Faculty of Arts had 570 beginning, 465 intermediate, and 348 final year students in its three year program. Private Religious Universities: 1. Apostles of Jesus Major Seminagy. First established in Uganda in 1968, the Apostles of Jesus came to the Nairobi suburb of Langata in 1976 for the purpose of recruiting and educating Africans to become Catholic missionary priests or religious brothers. The seminary is currently seeking university accreditation for its two year novitiate and four year theology degree programs. Approximately 120 students are enrolled in the novitiate and theology programs. 2. Consolota Philosophicum. Also located in Langata, Consolata is a Catholic seminary offering bachelor of philosophy degrees through Urbania Seminary in Italy. Graduates from Consolata Seminary proceed to the Theological Centre for Religious and then the Catholic Higher Institute for East Africa for their final six years of graduate 42 priesthood studies. An estimated 80 students are currently enrolled in their three year program. 3. Daystar University Collegg. A non-denominational Christian liberal arts college located in Nairobi, Daystar offers a B.A. degree accredited through Messiah College in Grantham, Pennsylvania, and a M.A. degree accredited through Wheaton College in Wheaton, Illinois. Its four year undergraduate program which began in 1984 currently accommodates 136 students majoring in communication arts and business administration and management programs. 4. East Africa School of Theology (EAST). An Assemblies of God college located in Nairobi since 1979, EAST offers two year diploma and four year degree programs in Bible and theology. The degree program is an affiliate of the International Correspondence Institute of Brussels, Belgium. An estimated 73 EAST students are currently enrolled in the degree program. 5. Hekima Collegg. A Jesuit school of theology that opened in 1984 in the Nairobi suburb of Langata, Hekima is currently seeking affilia- tion with St. Thomas Aquinas College in Nairobi for its degree program. Hekima College has approximately 45 students in its three year program. 6. Pan African Christian Collegg_(§é§§). Located twelve kilometers from Nairobi in Ruaraka, PACC is a college of the Assemblies of God and the Canadian Assemblies of God denominations. Its Bachelor of Theology Program, accredited through the International Correspondence Institute of Brussels, has an enrollment of 64 students in its four year program. 7. St. Paul's United Theological College. Located in Limuru thirty 43 kilometers north of Nairobi, St Paul's College prepares Anglican, Presbyterian, Reformed, and Methodist students for the pastorate and other church related careers. St. Paul's is perhaps the oldest continuing college in Kenya having been founded in 1903. The college is affiliated with the Accrediting Council for Theological Education in Africa and has 37 students in its three year Bachelor of Divinity studies program. 8. St. Thomas Aquinas Seminary. A near neighbor to the other Catholic seminaries in Langata, St. Thomas Aquinas is affiliated with Urbania University in Rome. The seminary offers both diploma and Bachelor of Theology degree programs for a combined total of 250 students studying for the priesthood. .9. Scott Theological College. Located sixty-five kilometers south- east of Nairobi, Scott College prepares men and women of the African Inland Church for pastoral, teaching, evangelism and mission profes- sions. The college was begun in 1962 and has earned accreditation from both the Accrediting Council for Theological Education in Africa and the Ontario Bible College of Canada. A total of 25 students are enrolled in the four year Bachelor of Theology program. 10. United States International University (USIU). A pilot study of the instrument and interview protocol was conducted at the USIU, an institution that met all the criteria for participation in the final research, but differed from the remaining private universities for its non-sectarian philosophy. Located in suburban Nairobi, the USIU is a branch of the United States International University based in San Diego, California. Its 253 students study for degrees in psychology, sociology, anthropology, international relations, business, manage- 44 ment, and organizational development. A total of 11 students took part in the preliminary open-ended questionnaire and interviews, and an additional 48 students participated in the pilot study. 6.9212 University students from thirteen arts and social science degree granting institutions in Kenya participated in preliminary, pilot, and the final questionnaire exercises. Participants in the study were enrolled in a university-level degree program as full-time beginning or intermediate students in arts or social science programs. The specific characteristics of the research sample are described below. Degree Students. The term is restricted to students who are enrolled in a three or four year course of studies in a university level program. The degrees sought by students in this study are Bachelor of Arts, Divinity, Education (in arts or social science subjects), Philosophy, or Theology. The term "degree" is distin- guished from the term "diploma" in Kenya for being the goal earned after completing a three or four year academic program of university level courses and experiences leading to a bachelor degree. It is awarded through either a Kenyan university or an external university offering a residential degree program in Kenya. A "diploma" in Kenya is the reward offered for a much more limited, often a two year, course of post-secondary vocational training or liberal arts studies. Several institutions participating in the study offer both diploma and undergraduate degree programs. Arts and Social Science Degree Students. Participants in the study are enrolled in academic programs that lead to an undergraduate 45 degree in one of the following fields: economics, geography, govern- ment, history, linguistics, languages, literature, philosophy, religious studies, sociology (the ten departments of the University of Nairobi Faculty of Arts), communications, theology, divinity, or music (additional departments of the Faculty of Arts of Kenyatta University and the private religious institutions). Full-Time Beginning and Intermediate Students. Participants in the study are registered as full-time students according to the definition of "full-time students" at their university. Beginning students are in their first or second term of degree studies. Intermediate students are in their middle two terms of degree studies. The amount of their previous and remaining studies may vary among intermediate students from three year and intermediate students from four year institutions (see Limitations Section). Student Participant Demographic Infbrmation. A total of 1,022 students participated in the final study. The questionnaires from 222 students were omitted from the final study for failing to meet the prerequisite criteria of being either beginning or intermediate arts or social science degree students in full-time degree studies. The analysis of the data from the final questionnaire was therefore based on the findings of 800 students. Of those students, 36 beginning and 40 intermediate students from two public and six private institutions participated in small group follow-up interviews. By necessity, it was left to the discretion of the administrators of each institution to determine the size of the sample they wished to include in the research. In most cases, the decision was to include 46 as many students as possible given the normal restrictions of active university schedules. Information about the number of full-time students enrolled in arts and social science degree programs was not available from all institutions. Correspondingly, information about the numbers of total beginning and intermediate students enrolled in these programs was not available at all institutions, making it difficult to report the percentage of the population participating in the study. The specific sample from each institution participating in the final study is presented in Table 3-1. Table 3-1. Student Sample. and nine private universities in Kenya. Participating students from two public Institution: Total [a] Yrs of Bgn. Intmed. Unspecified TOTAL ' Population Program Students Students Students [b] STUDENTS Kenyatta U. 2,341 [c] 3 145 53 9 207 University 5,667 [d] 3 161 123 3 287 of Nairobi Apostles of 92 est. 4 3 2 9 14 Jesus Consolata 80 est. 3 28 42 0 7O Daystar 130 4 8 12 12 32 EAST 70 est. 4 18 3O 9 57 Hekima 45 est. 3 1 9 2 12 PACC 64 4 17 38 O 55 St. Paul's 37 est. 3 15 12 O 27 St. Thomas 250 4 0 18 3 21 Aquinas Scott 40 est. 4 7 1O 1 18 [a] Population of total student body [b] Respondents who failed to indicate their year of studies [c] Source: 1986 Commencement Bulletin. social science degrees. [d] 1981 figure. Source: University of Nairobi Calendar, 1984-85 Of that number, 386 received arts and 47 The final nine items of the questionnaire asked for two categor- ies of demographic information. Items from the first category verified that respondents met-the criteria of being full-time stu- dents, either beginning or midway through their degree studies, and registered in arts or social science programs. The second category of questions gathered information necessary to report on the six perspec- tives of the sub-questions for each research question. Of the 800 students meeting the criteria for participating in the study, 494 were enrolled in public universities and 306 were enrolled in private institutions. The numbers of beginning and intermediate students at each type of institution are presented in Table 3-2. Table 3-2: Beginning and Intermediate Students in Public and Private Universities BEG. STDNTS. INTERMED. STDNTS. TOTAL PUBLIC UNIVERSITIES 306 (65%) 176 (372) 482 PRIVATE UNIVERSITIES 97 (36;) 173 (64;) 270 BOTH 403 (54%) 349 (46%) 752 No Response__;§§_ Total____§QQ_ The total sample of students was nearly one half beginning and one half intermediate students. In the public institutions, 26% more beginning than intermediate public university students participated in the study, and 281 more intermediate than beginning private university students participated in the research. 48 In Table 3-3, the numbers of male and female students from public and private institutions are listed. Table 3-3: Male and Female Students in Public and Private Universities MALE FEMALE TOTAL PUBLIC UNIVERSITIES 2 1 OZ) 192 (402)3 483 PRIVATE UNIVERSITIES 2 8 90%) 27 (102) 295 BOTH 4559 722) 221 (282) 780 No Response 22 Total 800 Nearly three fourths of the participating students were males. The small percentage of females (10%) in the private universities is largely due to the fact that the only degrees offered by the private institutions are primarily intended for men preparing for priesthood or the pastorate. In the public universities, where more degree options are available, female students tend to gravitate toward the arts and social science fields. The proportionally large number of participating female students (402) in the public university sample reflects this trend. The study compared the responses of students who began their degree studies within two years of completing their secondary edu- cation (continuous students) with the responses of students who began their studies after more than two years had elapsed since completing their secondary education (non-continuous students). Table 3-4 presents the numbers of each type of student. 49 Table 3-4: Continuous and Non-Continuous Students in Public and Private Universities CON'T STDNTS. NON-CON'T. STDNTS. TOTAL PUBLIC UNIVERSITIES 445 (92%) 38 (82) 483 PRIVATE UNIVERSITIES 162 572) 123 (432) 285 BOTH 607 i792) 161 (g1ij 768 No Response 32 Total 800 In the public universities, 922 of the students began their degree studies within two years of completing their secondary studies while only 572 of the private university students began their studies within that time period. In Kenya, students rarely have an oppor- tunity to attend public universities if they are not invited to do so within the first two years of finishing their secondary studies. Private religious degree institutions, however, tend to accept and often prefer admitting individuals who have already gained experience as lay leaders and pastors in their home churches. The study examined the data from the perspective of the amount of formal education completed by the students' parents. Table 3-5 lists the numbers of fathers who completed primary, secondary, college diploma, and university degree education. Table 3-5: Previous Education Completed by Fathers of Students in Public and Private Universities PRIMARY SECOND. COLLEGE UNIV. TOTAL DIPLOMA DEGREE PUBLIC UNIVERSITIES 198 52 1 8 33%) 6 1 Z 8% PRIVATE UNIVERSITIES 123 522 4 27% 39 17% 10 (4% 236 BOTH 321 (472) 212 (31%) 103 (15%) 44 (6%) 680 No Response 120 Total ___8_@ 50 More than three fourths of the fathers of both public and private school students completed less education than their children had obtained. The fathers of public university students generally ob- tained more schooling than the fathers of private university students. The large "no response" number (119) was because the questionnaire failed to provide a "no education completed" option for fathers who either did not attend school or did not complete primary education studies. Several students indicated their fathers did not complete primary school. Information about the amount of formal education completed by mothers of the students is listed in Table 3-6. Table 3-6: Previous Education Completed by Mothers of Students in Public and Private Universities PRIMARY SECOND. COLLEGE UNIV. TOTAL _ DIPLOMA DEGREE PUBLIC UNIVERSITIES 297 (702) 83 (2027 36 (8;) 9 (2%) 425 PRIVATE UNIVERSITIES 163 577Z§ 28 5132) 18 (9%) 3 (1%) 212 BOTH 4 O 722 111 182) 54 (82) 12 (22) 637 No Response__;y§3 Total 800 Ninety percent of the mothers of both public and private school students completed less education than their children had already obtained. Among the remaining 10% of the mothers, most received a college diploma rather than a university degree. The large "no response" figure (163) was due to the fact that several mothers had not completed primary education and no provision had been made to allow for that on the questionnaire. 51 The final criterion for data analysis centered on the students' country of citizenship. In Table 3-7, the numbers of Kenyan and non- Kenyan African students participating in the study are listed. Non- African students were not included in the study. Table 3-7: Citizenship of Students in Public and Private Universities KENYAN OTHER AFRICAN TOTAL PUBLIC UNIVERSITIES 436 (98g) 7 (2%) 443 PRIVATE UNIVERSITIES 186 (633) 109 (37g) 295 BOTH 622 (84%) 116 (262) 738 No Response 62 Total 800 Most student participants were Kenyan, especially in the public universities. Approximately one student in four of the private universities came from another African country. Overview of Instrument Desigp Questionnaires developed in Kenya were administered to beginning and intermediate level students in the above mentioned public univer- sities and private colleges and universities offering liberal arts degrees. The data were supplemented by small group interviews of 76 students (36 beginning and 40 intermediate students) at eight institu- tions. The intent of the research was to provide information about Kenyan student academic motivation for seeking and persisting in university degree studies from the perspectives of students them- selves. To help guarantee that the study be acceptable and relevant in a Kenyan context, African education researchers, university administra- tors, faculty, and government officials were consulted. The research proposal was presented at a seminar of the Kenya Bureau of Educational Research (BER), as well as to graduate research classes at Kenyatta 52 University and Daystar University College. The libraries, research- ers, educators, and administrators of the Kenya Institute of Develop- ment Studies, Kenyatta University, the University of Nairobi, and the Institute of African Studies were also consulted (see Appendix A). A proposal evaluation form to solicit critical review of the literature review and research design offered guidelines for feedback from the consultants (see Appendix B). Instrunentation Important criteria of the research were that the study be both representative of Kenyan students and useful for educational planning purposes. Western developed academic motivation research instruments were therefore inappropriate for Kenyan contexts where the meaning, process, and applications of university education differ greatly from those of Western cultures (Sifuna, 1980). To that end, the instrument was developed in Kenya using only motivational factors and influences identified by students themselves in preliminary open-ended question- naires and interviews. The questionnaire and interview format were developed in consul- tation with Kenyan university researchers, educators, and students of Kenyatta University, the Kenya Bureau of Educational Research, the University of Nairobi, and Daystar University College. The instrument design described below included administration of an open-ended questionnaire, validation of the instrument design, consultation from an instrument validation panel, construction of the final instrument and interview protocol, and a pilot study. Each phase of the instru- ment design procedure is described in the following sections. 53 Open-ended Questionnaire Development An open-ended questionnaire asked students to share their observations about the factors and influences they believe motivate fellow students to seek and persist in university degree studies (see Appendix C). The questionnaire was worded in the third person to encourage participants to share their motives freely without fear of being judged for frank responses. Twenty eight students from two public and two private degree granting institutions completed the questionnaire. From this group, nine students were interviewed to probe for additional information and clarification of their responses. A total of 187 motivational factors (including close repetitions) and 15 influences were identified by the students (see Appendix D). The motivational factors, categorized according to similarity of response, revealed eleven types of motivational considerations. In sequence of greatest to least number of similar responses, the eleven groupings of motivational considerations identified were: a. to assure prestige, respect, and social status b. to secure employment c. to assure upward professional mobility d. to develop self-confidence and sense personal achievement 9. to assure good paying jobs f. to satisfy academic curiosity g. to have a "comfortable life" h. to prepare for future graduate studies i. to serve others j. to gain professional knowledge and skills k. to develop general life skills When the influence factors were grouped according to similar responses, two categories of people-oriented and other than people- oriented influences were identified. The people-oriented influences were grouped into three sets: a. family - parents, brothers, other relatives, one's own self 54 b. educators - lecturers, former teachers and tutors c. others - fellow students, friends, people with a degree, employed people, older people, members of the community or society at large The other than people-oriented influences focused on personal observa- tions about the lifestyles of people who either had or did not have degrees, and concern for the needs of one's family, community, and nation (see Appendix D, numbers 4 and 5). Having assembled a list of the motivational factors and influences identified by students, the next stage of the instrumenta- tion process was to design the questionnaire and interview protocol. Questionnaire Design One condition for receiving permission to conduct research in the universities was that the process be as brief as possible to minimize the interruption to students and professors. It was determined that the use of Likert scales on the questionnaire could help meet that criterion. Because Likert scales are not common in Kenyan educational research, a preliminary study was designed to test the applicability of Likert scales for the questionnaire. Ten university students were asked to rate the degree of their agreement or disagreement on a Likert scale format to statements taken from the results of the above mentioned open-ended questionnaire. This preliminary questionnaire additionally included open-ended questions to solicit other motiva- tional and influence factors which may not have been identified on the previous open-ended questionnaire (see Appendix E). Following administration of the questionnaire, the students were interviewed as a group about their academic motivational factors and influences as well as their evaluation of the questionnaire format. Although the Likert scale items were not familiar to those 55 students, the preliminary study confirmed that they could be used if the subjects were allowed to check a box rather than be asked to circle the number of their response to each item. Combining Likert scale items with open-ended questions, however, caused time and concentration losses in completing the questionnaire. For that reason, open-ended questions on the final questionnaire were limited to three items to verify that participants were arts and social science students and to identify further influence factors. Questions soliciting further information were covered in the group interviews conducted after completing the questionnaire. The interview session of this preliminary study revealed that asking respondents to evaluate the academic motives of other students on the questionnaire did not necessarily guarantee they would speak more candidly about their own motives. Some respondents shared that, because they were studying for a religious profession, they considered public university students quite different from themselves. While they enjoyed talking about their own reasons for pursuing degree studies, they found it difficult to try to speak for public university students as well. For that reason, it was decided that the final questionnaire would ask students to write in the first person only. validation of the Academic Motivation Scale The procedure for identifying the academic motivational scales for use in the final instrument was developed in consultation with members of the Kenya Bureau of Educational Research. A validation panel was consulted to determine whether or not the eleven groupings made from the motivational factors identified in the open-ended questionnaire would be appropriate for use as motivational scales. 56 The panel consisted of six university education research profes- sors, a class of sixteen educational psychology graduate students, and ten arts and social science undergraduate students. Members of the panel were requested to participate in an academic motivation ques- tionnaire exercise (see Appendix F). Their first task was to examine each grouping of motivational factors and then describe the theme or themes they contained. Members were then asked to delete individual items not conforming to the theme(s) they identified in a grouping. Their further comments about why an item was inappropriate for a given set were solicited to help eliminate ambiguous items and also learn about potentially more appropriate category divisions. Having completed the above tasks, they were asked to write a title for each grouping of motivational factors. The purpose of this final task was to provide members an opportunity to review their assessment of each grouping and, in the process, authenticate or not each for use as an integrally related scale in the final questionnaire. The three diverse groups of people (professors, graduate students, and undergraduate students) were selected to assure a thorough examination of the potential scales from three representative perspectives of Kenyan education. It was decided that the validity of a scale would be rejected if two or more distinct themes were identi- fied for a given set of items or if the title assigned differed among three or more of the 32 panel members. A total of three items from each scale would be used in the final questionnaire. The members of the validation panel were asked to work in pairs in order to encourage discussion among themselves about the merits of the various classification sets. With an incentive offered of a ball 57 point pen and fifteen shillings (enough for a cup of tea and a small lunch), the undergraduate student respondents completed the task within 1 1/4 hours in one evening. The incentive for the graduate educational psychology students to participate was in the form of a class assignment which stipulated the students work in pairs to complete the exercise and return it the fol- lowing class session. Approximately half of the groups exceeded the minimal assignment writing extensively in the comments section. Incentive for the university education researchers was offered in the form of a 200 shilling gratuity (the hourly rate paid consultants for the University of Nairobi). Mention of the gratuity was not made until after an individual had the opportunity to accept or reject par- ticipation in the exercise. Although asked to work in pairs, sched- uling difficulties necessitated that the researchers complete the exercise independently within a period of three to six days. Results of the work by the three groups on the Questionnaire Formation Exercise are summarized in Figure 3-1. The first column lists the most representative title given each grouping (taken from the third question of the exercise). The next column lists the themes assigned each set in response to the second question. Columns three, four, and five indicate which respondents identified the themes indicated. A total of 28 of the 187 items were deleted from the pool for incompatibility with the other items. While the members acknowledged the remaining items as being grouped into appropriate sets, they did not always agree with the items themselves. 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Please read the following items and respond to the three questions at the end of this set. AFl people with a degree are paid more AM3 better paying jobs. There is a low pay without a degree since many people are after some form of work and will accept any payment CF2 better paying job. Only poor paying jobs (government sector and some firms) available without a degree AM4 to be well paid, jobs do not pay well without a degree CM4 having a good paying job BM2 to get a certificate to fetch a high price from prospective employers, to get a good and well paying job. AFS to have a chance of landing a better paying job AF3a hope for high incomes later in life. A degree gives more than 50% chance of getting a suitable job with suitable pay as compared to 'A' and '0' level drop-outs. The fruits reaped are higher pay BF2 monetary advantages CM3 to stand a chance of employment in good paying - companies AF4 to earn good money BF3 to get satisfactory income The following items are student responses to the ques- tion: "What would you say are three disadvantages that people without a university degree face in life." AM2 most non-university degree holders have casual jobs with less pay BFS no life satisfaction economically without a degree 186 AF3b lack of degree can mean frustration from lack of good jobs if employed at all, having a minimal salary that can hardly cater for one's needs Your help please. . . 1. In one or more statements describe the main theme or themes of the items in Set Two: Main theme(s): l. 2. 3. 2. Are there any items that do not fit with the themes you have written for this set? Code numbers: Any comments about these items? 3. What title generally describes this set of items? TITLE End of Set Two. Please continue with the next set. 187 SET THREE: The following items are the responses university stu- dents gave to the questions: 1) "Why do you think peo- ple want to study for a university degree?" and 2) "What influences students to want to enter a degree program?" Please read the following items and respond to the three questions at the end of this set. 8M5 prospects for the top jobs are a reality AMZa getting a better job, a good position BM4a positions held by graduates AF4 the more you learn and have knowledge the higher the post you get in a job AFl when they go out to work they are recognized to have ability to work as they have a degree AM3a for a greater guarantee of white collar jobs AM3b to have a higher stepping stone in numerous fields, mobility between different sectors of economy CMla it enables one to be a potential competitor for professional job opportunities 3M3 promotions come due to academic success. One is unable to acquire a meaningful position in any company without a degree. AFBa the benefits of better promotion chances AM4a to have flexibility in job market The following items are student responses to the ques- tion: "What would you say are three disadvantages that people without a university degree face in life?" AM4b limited choice in jobs BF3 one is disqualified from getting employment of choice without a degree . AM3c menial jobs with low job satisfaction, little choice of where to work due to lack of qualifi- cation AFZ less likely to get a good job without a degree CM4 people need good employment, they may never have a chance to utilize their talents without a degree BM2 CMlb AMZb BFl BF2 BM4b AFS AF3b You 1. End 188 low posts in management or administrative hier- archy without a degree no access to better employment opportunities difficult to get job promotions fewer chances for job promotion chances of job promotion are lower limited promotion chances _ difficult to get a job promotion and thus not be able to improve social-financial status younger rise to positions of authority merely because of their university degree, as opposed to years of experience at that job help please. . . In one or more statements describe the main theme or themes of the items in Set Three. Main theme(s): l. 2. 3. Are there any items that do not fit with the themes you have written for this set? Code numbers: Any comments about these items? What title generally describes Set Three? TITLE of Set Three. Please continue with the next set. 189 SET FOUR: The following items are the responses university stu- dents gave to the questions: 1) "Why do you think peo- ple want to study for a university degree?" and 2) "What influences students to want to enter a degree program?" Please read the following items and respond to the three questions at the end of this set. AFS a better standard of living BF2 to get a comfortable standard of life AM4a to have a comfortable standard of living AM3 to better one's life style in job and standard of living AMl a better life CM3 high standard of living influences one to study for a degree AM2a people with university degrees get a lot of ben- efits in their jobs, i.e. more fringe benefits. AMZb looking for a better life, poverty motivates people to seek a degree BM4 material possessions of graduates BMl to get a better and more secure life The following items are student responses to the ques- tion: "What would you say are three disadvantages that people without a university degree face in life?" AM4b people without a degree have a lower standard of living AF4 people without a degree have to cut down leisure time and start working hard. 190 Your help please. . . 1. In one or more statements describe the main theme or themes of this set of items. Main theme(s): l. 2. 3. Are there any items that do not fit with the themes you have written for this set? Code numbers: Any comments about these items? What title generally describes this set of items? TITLE End of Set Four. Please continue with the next set. 191 SET FIVE: The following items are the responses university stu- dents gave to the questions: 1) "Why do you think peo- ple want to study for a university degree?" and 2) "What influences students to want to enter a degree program?" Please read the following items and respond to the three questions at the end of this set. BF6a to enhance one's area of specialization for the benefit of many BF6b the desire to serve society with high credibil- ity BM2 to gain knowledge to serve the nation well BMSa desire to serve God at the highest level of skills Bush to become more efficient in one's field and ser- vice for God BF3 to set up a good home BFSc to help one's family and community in the area they study CMl to be looked upon as an immediate representative of one's people, a means of identifying capable representatives of the community CM4 to be in a position to develop your own people and the country at large. Your help please. . . 1. In one or more statements describe the main theme or themes of this set of items. Main theme(s): l. 2. 3. 192 2. Are there any items that do not fit with the themes you have written for this set? Code numbers: Any comments about these items? 3. What title generally describes this set of items? TITLE End of Set Five. Please continue with the next set. 193 SET SIX: The following items are the responses university stu- dents gave to the questions: 1) "Why do you think peo- ple want to study for a university degree?" and 2) "What influences students to want to enter a degree program?" Please read the following items and respond to the three questions at the end of this set. AM4 CF2 BM4a AMla AFB CMlc Eula BMZa EMBa CM2a BF3a AM2 AF4 BFl BF3b CMla AM6a CMlb BF6a BM4b AF2 one's desire for a good social status status in society, satisfies one's age (status) to have a higher status in society it is a matter of status benefits of social status and community respect, to have a degree education to one's name because of professional status, to identify one- self with professional initials after his/her name for prestige for prestige, a graduate is respected by those who know him for prestige prestige, it's a sign of success for prestige, African people feel they have arrived when they get this degree a degree holds a lot of prestige, education has a lot of value and prestige, it helps me become something you are more respectable to gain the respect in society society looks at you with respect for high social position a person with a degree is more readily accepted socially, people would envy a person with a degree to hold one's head high in society the need for greater recognition with higher level education to earn recognition in academic circles one reads articles on accomplishments of edu- cated, admires them, wants to be famous like them BFZa BFSa AFSa AFSb BMS BFGb BFGC AFla 194 society associates degree holders with success to be more professional than secondary students boost for social esteem, everyone wants to feel better educated thus able to keep social friends it makes one's parents feel important, that they have achieved something one knows what the elites are and do a degree has greater credibility even if specialized, one will not be recognized without a degree in Kenya it shows one is highly educated The following items are responses to the question: "What would you say are three disadvantages that people without a university degree face in life?" BMZb AFSC AFlb 8M4 CM3b BFSb CMZb BMBb AM6b BMlb AMlb BF2b usually not respected in society regardless of intelligence not able to gain respect when education seems to be the most important thing in life smart and clever people without a degree are not recognized as much as those with a degree don't command public respect they tend to be looked down upon by high ranking members of society no life satisfaction socially without a degree cannot achieve professional status lack opportunities for social status looked upon with contempt considered inferior overlooked by society they never know if they can achieve society's high standards Your help please. . . 1. In one or more statements describe the main theme or themes of this set of items. Main theme(s): l. 2. 3. 195 2. Are there any items that do not fit with the themes you have written for this set? Code numbers: Any comments about these items? 3. What title generally describes this set of items? TITLE End of Set Six. Please continue with the next set. 196 SET SEVEN: The following items are the responses university stu- dents gave to the questions: 1) "Why do you think peo- ple want to study for a university degree?" and 2) "What influences students to want to enter a degree program?" Please read the following items and respond to the three questions at the end of this set. AMS to gain concrete knowledge in one's major field BF6 to advance knowledge in one's area, to be spe- cialists, it's the highest recognized level of education for any occupation AMl it's a matter of career CM4 to gain professional skills CM3 one acquires professional skills AFS the attraction of being able to advance knowl- edge in a particular field Your help please. . . 1. In one or more statements describe the main theme or themes of this set of items. Main theme(s): 1. 2. 3. 2. Are there any items that do not fit with the themes you have written for this set? Code numbers: Any comments about these items? 197 3. What title generally describes this set of items? TITLE End of Set Seven. Please continue with the next set. 198 SET EIGHT: The following items are the responses university stu- dents gave to the questions: 1) "Why do you think peo- ple want to study for a university degree?" and 2) "What influences students to want to enter a degree program?” Please read the following items and respond to the three questions at the end of this set. BFS interest in studying one area, to get satisfac- tion because of working according to one's interests AFB a more intensive study of subjects of particular interest CF2 know more of your area of interest (course) BF4 to get higher academic education, it's an oppor- tunity for further learning CFl to further one's education BF2 opportunity for further training CM4 higher chance of furthering your education 8M3 more opportunities for further education BFl employers more likely to offer a degree person further training BF3 to go for MA Your help please. . . 1. In one or more statements describe the main theme or themes of this set of items. Main theme(s): 1. 2. 3. 199 2. Are there any items that do not fit with the themes you have written for this set? Code numbers: Any comments about these items? 3. What title generally describes this set of items? TITLE ' End of Set Eight. Please continue with the next set. 200 SET NINE: The following items are the responses university stu- dents gave to the questions: 1) "Why do you think peo- ple want to study for a university degree?" and 2) "What influences students to want to enter a degree program?" Please read the following items and respond to the three questions at the end of this set. CFl AFl BM2 AF4 AFS AFB AF2 CM2 BF3 BMSa BMSb BF2 CMl CF2 BM4 some study for knowledge or even leisure people want to learn more, acquire more knowl- edge, they are interested in studies to gain knowledge the knowledge a degree contains, you learn a lot about different things some people just want to increase knowledge con- cerning various fields to gain broader insight into certain general aspects of life even if one intends to be a housewife, a degree makes one knowledgeable in an area of interest to satisfy a need for higher education, general acquisition and storage of knowledge to study for the sake of it to be more conversant with and subdue the aca- demic world without a degree, one lacks knowledge and becomes inefficient challenges of learning personal ambition in the academic field what they enjoy doing or learning. People with- out a degree may not be confident with their knowledge. They don't study and know the sub- ject of their interest (e.g. history, psychol- ogy, sociology) people without a degree are uninformed, communi- cation becomes difficult 201 Your help please. . . 1. In one or more statements describe the main theme or themes of this set of items. Main theme(s): 1. 2. 3. 2. Are there any items that do not fit with the themes you have written for this set? Code numbers: Any comments about these items? 3. What title generally describes this set of items? TITLE End of Set Nine. Please continue with the next set. 202 SET TEN: The following items are the responses university stu- dents gave to the questions: 1) "Why do you think peo- ple want to study for a university degree?" and 2) "What influences students to want to enter a degree program?" Please read the following items and respond to the three questions at the end of this set. AM4 to attain one's self potential CM3 to achieve an ambition BF3a for the sake of meeting future partners who are intelligent CMZa sense of professionalism and achievement AF2 it gives one a sense of accomplishment/sense of security BFZa it gives confidence of face life The following items are responses to the question: "What would you say are three disadvantages that people without a university degree face in life?" CM2b they feel inadequate, incompetent, and unknowl- edgeable CM2c have an inferiority complex wherever a univer- sity man is around CF2 ignorant to some extent, not satisfied with what they have achieved, feel inferior in the company of graduates BMS become shy when faced with those who have degrees CMl always conscious of being classified as academic dwarfs AM6 may think of self as a failure if one's friends have degrees and he does not CM4 always feel that the lack of university educa- tion is partly the reason for failures in life BF2b feel they have not made it in life AMl some feel they are failures in life BF3b frustrated from people in society looking down on them AF4 a lot of stress 203 Your help please. . . In one or more statements describe the main theme 1. or themes of this set of items. Main theme(s): 1. 2. 3. 2. Are there any items that do not fit with the themes you have written for this set? Code numbers: Any comments about these items? 3. What title generally describes this set of items? TITLE End of Set Ten. Please continue with the next set. 204 SET ELEVEN: The following items are the responses university stu- dents gave to the questions: 1) "Why do you think peo- ple want to study for a university degree?" and 2) "What influences students to want to enter a degree program?" Please read the following items and respond to the three questions at the end of this set. CFl non-degree holders lack a broader and mature way of looking at things e.g. political issues. Narrow mindedness AF2a people without a degree are not fully developed mentally BF4 people without a degree are short sighted, they lack general understanding of world views CMl they lack skills necessary in day to day activi- ties (family maintenance, business skills, medi- cal knowledge) CM3 they make some mistakes in life due to lack of knowledge or skills AF2b they are less equipped to face life's handicaps Your help please. . . 1. In one or more statements describe the main theme or themes of this set of items. Main theme(s): 1. 2. 3. 205 2. Are there any items that do not fit with the themes you have written for this set? Code numbers: Any comments about these items? 3. What title generally describes this set of items? TITLE Thank you for your help! APPENDIX 0 SAMPLE COVER LETTER TO INSTITUTIONS APPENDIX G 23 June, 1986 Rev. 0. E. Joseph Kenya Highlands Bible College Box 123 Kericho Dear Reverend Joseph, Ken Shingledecker has kindly written on my behalf to intro— duce me and the study I am conducting on student academic expectations and aspirations in Kenyan university level institutions. I would appreciate the opportunity to share with you about the study and its relevance to Kenya Highlands Bible College. The intent of the work is to help learn more about how students describe their personal educational aspirations and expectations. Such information can be helpful for designing and assessing curriculum and career guidance programme planning. The study does not require extensive time or energy commit— ments on the part of Kenya Highlands Bible College. In fact, its student questionnaires and the 10 student inter- views can be all conducted in one day. If your college would like to explore other areas related to the study, you may wish to have someone work with me to in- corporate related questions into the questionnaire. That questionnaire would then be used solely at KHBC. In addi- tion to receiving a copy of the final overall report, your college will also receive a summary of the findings from its own campus e The data from each institution will be kept in total confidence. The names of the participating institutions will be mentioned in the final report, but all data will be reported only in terms of Kenya-wide findings for all public and all private institutions. P.O.Box 44400 NA‘ROB'. KENYA _ " .#l..l“: up... Tar-’5’, Phone — 723002/3/4 . y W" Tolex - 22615 woacon ‘ ' I EL W1 " Nd 1'111 . 1‘1 Gui,é 1." '1' n v ‘ . it 1'57“": . . t '\ (’:F""{&TL%‘I u JG: \I . £11 W J ___.—II- 55—;1 207 I am sending a c0py of the complete research proposal for you or someone you might wish to designate to review and make appropriate recommendations for KHBC involvement in the study. I look forward to hearing from you. Meanwhile, thank you sincerely for considering your participation in the study. Sincerely, ojwfl. Lynn D. Joesting Research Fellow / Lecturer APPENDIX H OVERVIEW OF RESEARCH PROJECT APPENDIX H An Overview of the Research Project: "Academic Motivation of Kenyan First Degree Students.” The purpose of the Study is to identify academic motivation reported by students in Kenyan public and private university level institutions. (Proposal, p.1). The Value of the Study is that it provides data about Kenyan student academic motivation factors not currently available to educational planners. The majority of academic motivation research has been conducted in the U.S. and Europe. It is based on Western educational assumptions and theoretical models. These Western-based assumptions about student academic motivation may or may not be appropriate for Kenyan educational contexts. Academic motivation research is especially important at the university level in Kenya where adult students make adult decisions about personal goals while still under the the guidance and financial sponsorship of university institutions. An understanding of factors affecting student motivation can help educators plan and evaluate their educational programs. (Proposal, pp-1 - A). The Research Question asks what factors and influences motivate Kenyan university level students to pursue degree studies. The Population consists of beginning and intermediate students of all public and private university level institutions in Kenya offering arts and social science degrees. (Proposal, pp. 14 — 16). The Methodology is to administer a questionnaire to beginning and intermediate students followed by student interviews at each institution. The questionnaire examined educational motivation and influence categories Kenyan students themselves identified as significant for their Kenyan context. A panel of Kenyan research experts reviewed the proposal, procedures, and research instrument for cultural and academic appropriateness. (Proposal, pp. 17 -19). The Final Report is presented in terms of overall findings for all public and all private degree granting educational institutions. Each institution will receive a copy of the final report and also a summary of the data collected at its own campus. All data from individual institutions will be kept in absolute confidence. (Proposal, pp. 19 - 20). 208 APPENDIX I ACADEMIC INTEREST SURVEY STUDENT COVER LETTER APPENDIX I ACADEMIC INTEREST SURVEY Greetings. I would like to be sure that you understand the purpose of this study, its procedures, and the amount of time it will require if you choose to participate. Please note the following: 1. The study is authorized by the Kenyan Government and has the approval of this institution. 2. The purpose of this research is to allow university students to report their personal reasons for wanting a degree education. It will help faculty and educational planners to better understand what students say is important to them about their degree studies. 3. The study is to help fulfill requirements for the Ph.D. dissertation of Ms. Lynn Joesting at Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan. 4. Your decision to participate in the study is entirely voluntary and will in no way affect your grades. You are free to decline to participate or discontinue participation at any time, without penalty. 5. The questionnaire will take approximately 15-20 minutes to complete. 6. Your answers will be kept confidential and you will remain anonymous. Do not put your name on the questionnaire. At no time will another student, faculty member, or administrator have access to read your completed questionnaire. 7. A report of the responses from this institution as well as a summary report of all institutions included in the research will be available for you to read through the dean's office. Copies of the final dissertation will also be given to the Institute of Development Studies, University of Nairobi, and the Bureau of Educational Research, Kenyatta University for your reading interest. Your return of the completed instrument constitutes your informed consent to voluntarily participate in this study. Thank you for your participation. Because this study will be used when making university curriculum and educational resource decision, your participation will help students who follow you in future years. 209 APPENDIX J FINAL QUESTIONNAIRE: ACADEMIC INTEREST SURVEY APPENDIX J W113 mm @361}?me Thank you for taxing time to complete thls questionnaire. This study seeks to lino Out whet 'JnlyErSIly studznts say about various aspects of their education. Your responses w: it help mowers better understand what students hope to obtain from their degree programmes. Direct ions: For each of the lollc-xmg statements place a tlck (J) in the box that test descr its; how strongly you agree or alums; «uh the reason glven (or optalnlng a degree P lease be sure to respond to every statement. strongly neutral strongly disagree disagree agree agree Exgmglg. I enjoy eating nyama choma O U U D U 00OOOO0.0.0.000...00.00.00.000.000I... strongly neutral strongly disagree disagree agree agree In my opinion, to have a decree will... . l. Develop skills (or daily life. 0 0 Cl 0 D 2. Increase my professional abilities. U D D 0 Cl 3. Sattly my dcslre (or knowledge ln general. 0 D D U D 4. Help me wve my country. 0 O D D D 5 Prepare me (or graduate studies. 0 0 O O O 6. Assure prestige. D E] Cl 0 Cl 7. Develop ebllltles to serve my people. Cl 0 O D O 8. Increase my status in society. U D 0 O O 9. Increase opportunities for employment. [3 U U U D :0. Provio: professional specialization. D U 0 0 0 ll. Help arureeo'ndpoyinglob. 0 D D O U l 2. Assure a comlortoble standard of living. 0 U U U D 13. Pro/toe opportunities (or further educauon. 0 U U 0 0 l4. Allow me to learn for the joy of H. D D O D 0 l6. Give personal satisfaction. Cl (3 D U Cl 16. Provide an escape lrom poverty. 0 U U O 0 l7. Lead to MA or Ph.D. studles. D 0 0 O O 16. Asslst to competing for employment. 0 O D D 0 19. Lead to monetary advantages. 0 U D D D 20. Enhance my probability of employment. Cl 0 Cl 0 D 21. Assure m9 respect in society. 0 Cl 0 O D 22. Help me serveGod U D O U D 23. Provide concrete kmladg: to my field 0 D D O D 24. Give me confidence to face life. Cl Cl 0 D Cl 25. Help me earn good money. 0 D D O U 26. Help me azhieve a higher post in my profession. 0 E] El D B 27. Help assure the llle- style I dastre. U O O D D 28. Expand my academic development. U E] 0 fl 0 29. Help secure management positions. Cl 0 D O O 30. Expand my world view. D 0 El 0 D 3 l. Ewlp me for laptop llle dllllcultles. U D O C U 32. Give me a some of accomplishment. D U D O C 33. Otter stepping stones to job promotions. D {3 D C3 :1 210 211 Dilih‘i'cfii people influence how we make decisions Please tick (J) the D which best describes how strongly the following people have influenced your decision to study for a degree. no little some much great influence influence influence influenm influence 34. Parents - D U U D 0 3S. Brothersorsisters D U D G D 36. Other relatives 0 0 U 0 D 37. Friends D O D D D 38. Teachersorheadmaeters U 0 U 0 D 39. Reiiqiomnlea'hrs Cl 0 0 U D 40. Community laacbrs D _D D U U 41. Professional ample D D D D D 42. Myself 0 D D D U 43. Others (please describe) In addition to people, we are also influenced by various factors and events in life. Please tick if) the C] that best describes how much the following factors have influenced your own decision to stuh' for a darn. no little some much great influence influence influence influence influence 44. Seeing how people with dagreee live. 0 0 Cl 0 0 45. Seeing how people without chgrees live. 0 U U 0 Cl 46. What i know about the value of a degree. 0 U D D D _17. The needs of my family. 0 O D 0 U 48. The needs of my mmmunity. U 0 Cl 0 Cl 49. The needs of my country. 0 D D 0 0 50. Other (please describe) Thank you for sharing your views. in this last section please tell us a bit about yourself. . Are you male or female? (i) Cl male (2) El female 52. Areyou a full-time or part-time student? (l) 0 full-time (2) Cl part-time an 1,; . What is the area of your specialization? C" «i Whatyeer student areyou? ft) Dist (2) 0an (3i 03rd (4) D 4th (5) Other: (‘1 (,1 Bettye-en the time you began primary school and when you started your degree studies, how many years did you not attend school? (1)0 zero. missed noyears (2)0 missed less than 2 years (3) Cl missed 2 or more years 56. What type of secondary school did you attend? , fii UCovernment (2) OOo/ernment assisted t3) DHerambee (til DPrivaic 57. How much education didyour father complete? . . fl) 0 Primary school (2)0 Secondary school (3) 0 College Diploma t4) 0 Universfly more: 58. i’ow much eiucation did your mother complete? _ (l) 0 Primary schcnl (2) 0 Secondary school (3) 0 College Diploma (4) U UniverSIty more: so AreyouaKenynncitizL-n? (lines (2i0no APPENDIX K STUDENT INTERVIEW PROTOCOL APPENDIX K Seven small groups of 36 beginning students and eight small groups of 40 intermediate students were conducted upon completion of the questionnaires at eight of the participating institutions. The interviews were designed to take approximately twenty minutes but often lasted thirty minutes or longer due to student interest in expressing their observations. Five questions guided the interview process: 1. You may have noticed in the questionnaire a number of basic reasons for wanting a degree given by the students who helped to write it. What themes can you recall from those statements? 2. When responding to the questionnaire, did you have a chance to express your own interests and reasons for pursuing a degree? What else might you add to it? 3. Please share what it is you believe you will gain from having a degree. 4. Once you complete your degree, how closely related do you believe your future employment will be to your field of studies? 5. [time permiting] How important do you believe the following reasons are for most students wanting to earn a degree? : future job opportunities, . prestige and social status concerns, : professional and personal knowledge bases, : desire to be of service to others, . self-confidence and other personal development interests. APPENDIX L OTHER INFLUENCES: RESPONSES TO ITEMS 43 AND SO OF THE FINAL QUESTIONNAIRE APPENDIX L "OTHER INFLUENCES." RESPONSES TO OPEN-ENDED QUESTIONS #43 AND #50 ON THE FINAL QUESTIONNAIRE. There were 248 responses to the open-ended questions, #43 and #50 of the final questionnaire. The types of responses are listed below, grouped according to similarity of response. Service to Others (108 responses): Desire to help family, friends, community, country, Africa, world, the poor, the church, God. Breakdown of responses: 30 public university students, 78 private university students. Personal Needs (59 responses): The fairly ambiguous term "personal needs" was used by 20 public university and 5 private university students. It has been interpreted to indicate a desire to meet personal goals. This group also includes responses of personal ambition, desire to be happy, ego concerns, personal development, self-esteem, self- actualization,, be a better communicator. Breakdown of responses: 49 public university students, 10 private university students. Better Life (31 responses): Desire to have a comfortable standard of living, increased job opportunities, wealth, an escape from poverty; concern about a rapidly changing world. Breakdown of responses: 26 public university students, 5 private university students. Personal Satisfaction (30 responses): Desire to increase one's knowledge, to have answer to one's questions, need to explore life, taking advantage of an educational opportunity. Breakdown of responses: 17 public university students, 13 private university students. Personal Power (20 responses): Desire for influence over others, prestige, status, revenge on others, edge on competition with others, domination over others. Breakdown of responses: 13 public university students, 7 private university students. The rank orders for the responses of public and private students are indicated below: Rank: APublic Univ. Students Private Univ. Students First Personal Needs Service to Others Second Service to Others Personal Satisfaction Third Better Life Personal Needs Fourth Personal Satisfaction Personal Power Fifth Personal Power Better Life 213 BIBLIOGRAPHY Abreu, Elsa. The Role of Self-Help in the Development of EducationAin Kenya: 1900-1973. Nairobi: Kenya Literature Bureau, 1982. 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