‘ \94 T{:A"!\\‘\‘ L V\ ‘ 30“,}, OVERDUE FINES: 25¢ per day per item RETURNING LIBRARY MATERIALS: P‘lace In book return to remove charge from circuhtion records Capyright by Janet Parent Sitter 1981 THE STUDENT TEACHING EXPERIENCE FROM THE PERSPECTIVE OF THE STUDENT TEACHER: A DESCRIPTIVE STUDY By Janet Parent Sitter A DISSERTATION Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY College of Education Department of Elementary and Special Education 1981 Janet Parent Sitter ABSTRACT THE STUDENT TEACHING EXPERIENCE FROM THE PERSPECTIVE OF THE STUDENT TEACHER: A DESCRIPTIVE STUDY by Janet Parent Sitter The purpose of this study was to examine and describe the student teaching experience from the perspective of the student teacher. Numerous. studies have been conducted on student teaching but few have investigated the experience from the perspective of the student teacher. A perspective is a combination of beliefs and behaviors composed of (a) definitions of various situations, (b) actions, and (c) criteria of judgement. This study described the beliefs and behaviors of five undergraduate senior interns engaged in student teaching over a period of 20 weeks. The interns' definitions of situations, their actions and criteria of judgements pro- vided evidence for describing the student teachers' perspective of the stu- dent teaching experience. This study was designed as an interrelationship of three variables: (1) the context of the event, (2) methodology, and (3) conceptual frame- work. The event studied was a 20 week internship in which the subjects, participants in the Towards Excellence in Elementary Education (EEE) pro- gram at Michigan State University, assumed increasing responsibility for the instruction and management of the classroom milieu to which they were assigned. All of the subjects were located in an elementary (Kr4) school and were supervised during their internship by the researcher in her role as clinic professor. Six interns also engaged in the EEE student teaching experience,who were not supervised by the researcher and who were located Janet Parent Sitter in elementary schools other than that of the subjects, served as informants for the study. Through the method of participant observation, interviewing and self report data, the researcher came to understand how these student teachers defined their student teaching experiences and how they constructed their actions. Five exploratory questions guided the study: (1) How does the student teacher perceive her role in the learning environment? (2) What does the student teacher identify as the goal of student teaching? (3) What actions or series of actions does the student teacher take to reach the goal? (4) What are the consequences for the student teacher of reach- ing her goal state? and (5) For the student teacher, what is the outcome of the student teaching experience? The study was based on the theory of symbolic interaction., In accord with this theory, in order to understand a subject's world, the researcher must discern her process of interpretation. A suitable way to do this is to observe the subject as she encounters situations and events, interprets these events, and constructs her social reality. Hence, the researcher participated actively through her role as clinic professor in the subjects' internship experiences. The researcher observed the interns in various situations, interviewed them formally anui informally, and took an active role in many classroom activities. Over the course of 20 weeks, extensive field notes were taken of observations and interviews, questionnaire data were collected and daily journal information was gathered for each of the five subjects. The case data were then analyzed on a weekly basis in order to discover patterns, relationships and indices of behavior which would direct further investigation. Through the process of linear Janet Parent Sitter and comparison' interpretations by the researcher the case data were organized into case records (i.e., a parsimonious condensation of the case data). Final analysis of the case records was completed following the field work. This ethnographic method allowed for proximity to the social situation of student teaching as it naturally occurred and enabled the researcher to describe and explain the student teachers' perspectives of the student teaching experience. Five major elements emerged as indicative of the interns' perspective of the student teaching experience. First, the role of the student teacher during the student teaching experience was perceived as that of a junior partner. Second, proving oneself became the goal toward which the student teacher directed her actions and behaviors. The attainment of the goal had both cognitive and affective dimensions and included attention to both in-classroom and beyond classroom con- cerns.' Third, reaching the goal consisted of a configuration of movements defined by the intern as four identifiable, interdependent objectives. To achieve the goal, the intern believed she had to (a) develop teaching proficiencies, (b) attain leadership/control, (c) modify personal propensities, and (d) acquire a teacher identity. The four objectives were present simultaneously and depended on one another for achievement of the goal. Fourth, consequences of reaching the goal via attainment of the objectives were cognitive and affective changes in the student teachers' knowledge, perceptions, attitudes and actions. Fifth, an outcome of the student teaching experience for the subjects was a readiness for autonomy that was evidenced by dissassociation with the junior partner role. Janet Parent Sitter When combined these student teaching elements represented the perspective of the student teacher. Consequently, the researcher concluded: (I) that the experiences of the subjects of this study do not support stage theory, (2) achieving the goal had both cognitive and affective dimensions that were of concern to the subjects, and (3) the process of analytic thinking and reflection that resulted from Clinic Professor intervention and intern participation in the study contributed to the personal and professional growth of the student teachers. DEDICATION T0 PERRY A true friend unbosoms freely, advises justly, assists readily, adventures boldly, takes all patiently defends courageously, and continues a friend unchangeably. William Penn ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This dissertation represents more than what is contained within these pages. It represents hard work, sacrifice, joys and disappointments and a good deal of loving support and guidance from many individuals. It is with my sincerest appreciation that I acknowledge the following people: Perry E. Lanier, chairman, mentor, friend who educated me with the hOpe of an optimist, the courage of a hero, the wisdom of a serpent, the gentleness of a dove, the patience of Job, the grace of God, and the per— sistence of the devil. Henrietta L. Barnes, committee member and teacher, who helped me in my struggle to become a person and provided support at the most critical times. Joyce G. Putnam, committee member and friend, who cared enough not to give up and who taught me the joys of being a learner. James E. Snoddy, committee member whose gentle guidance and belief in me was very important. Ted W; Ward, committee member who contributed his knowledge and expertise in producing an intellectually honest piece of research. The eleven EEE interns who participated in the study during one of the busiest times in their lives, who gave freely of their time and selves; the teaching profession is fortunate to have such warm, caring, open people in its ranks. Linda Klemens, Alice Jackson, and Jo Cornell who assisted in the manuscript preparation and did the typing; especially to Linda, a competent, caring patient woman who orchestrated the preparation and helped me meet all of the deadlines. iii Jack S. Hardy, my friend,who gave of his time, knowledge and expertise and in the process taught me to appreciate and to enjoy both junior high school and math. Susan B. Schicker, my friend, who substituted as mother for my chil- dren so often and who cared enough to listen to my troubles and problems even when she didn't understand what I was talking about. Gus and Rose Sitter, my in-laws, who gently and quietly supported and assisted me throughout my program; who, by taking the boys for the weekend; provided opportunities for me to study and write. Henry and Marion Parent, my parents, who loved me and taught me to believe in myself and to be all that I could be. RObin and Nicholas Sitter, my sons, who sacrificed so much and so often and didn't know it. Phillip Sitter, my husband and friend, who has been my emotional sup- port and has contributed so much to help me accomplish this goal. His love and encouragement, his willingness to let me be my own person is the best thing that has ever happened to me. iv TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF FIGURES O O O O I O O O O O O O O O O O O O 0 Chapter I. INTRODUCTION AND PURPOSE. . . . . . . . . . . . . Components of the Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The Context of the Event. . . . . . . . . . . . . A Methodology for Studying the Event. . . . . . . A Conceptual Framework. . . . . . . . . . . . . . An Overview of the Study. . . . . . . . . . . . . II 0 REVIEW OF Tm LITERATURE. O O O O O O 0 O O O O O 0 Studies on Preservice Education . . . . . . . . . The Impact of Student Teaching Experiences on the Student Teacher . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Self Concept and Personality Characteristics. Anxiety and Stress. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Attitudinal Changes in Student Teachers . . . . The Socialization of Student Teachers . . . . . Teaching as a Developmental Progression . . . . A Developmental Theory of Teachers. . . . . . . .The Application of Developmental Theories to Practice Descriptions of Practice Related to Development . . . Studies of Teaching/Student Teaching in Context . Ethonographic Research in Classrooms and Schools. Studies Which Used Ethnographic Techniques. . . Participant Observation Studies . . . . . . . . Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . III. THE PROCESS OF INQUIRY. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The Context of the Event Studies. . . . . . . . . . EEE: Towards Excellence in Elementary Education. The Internship Experience . . . . . . . . . . . The Clinic Professor Role . . . . . . . . . . V Page vi p—a GUI-‘k 10 12 13 13 14 17 21 24 28 29 34 37 40 46 47 56 61 64 65 66 67 68 Chapter IV. The Cooperating Teacher Role. . . . . . . . The Intern Role . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The Subjects. The Informants. . . . . . . . . . . . . . The Inside Informants . . . . . . . . . . . The Setting . Summary of the Event. . . . . . . . . . . . . The Methodology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Participant Observation . . . . . . . . . . . Procedural Questions/Data Acquisition . . . . Critical Issues in Descriptive, Non-Qualitative Summary of the Methodology. . . . . . . . . . The Conceptual Framework. . . . . . . . . . . . Background and Basic Assumptions. . . . . . . Summary of the Framework. . . . . . . . . . . THE FINDINGS. . The Student Teaching Experience Student Teacher: An Overview . . . . . . . . The Role: Junior Partner . . . . . . . . . . . The Case Records. . . . . . . . . . . . . A Description of the Role and An Alternative Interpretation The Goal: Proving Oneself . . . . . . . . . . . The Case Records. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A Description of the Coal and An Alternative Interpretation Oneself . . The Objectives. Objective A: Objective B: Objective C: Objective D: To Develop Teaching Proficiencies To Attain Leadership/Control. . To Modify Personal Propensities To Acquire a Teacher Identity . The Changes: Cognitive and Affective . . . . . Cognitive Changes Experience by the Subjects. Readiness for Autonomy. . . . . . . . . . . . . Summary .>. . OVERVIEW, CONCLUSIONS, IMPLICATIONS, SUMMARY. Overview . . . Vignettes of the Subjects . . . . . . . . . Summary Responses to the Exploratory Questions. vi Research. its Characteristics . of the Junior Partner its Characteristics . for the Data on Proving From the Perspective of page 69 69 7O 71 72 73 75 76 77 85 91 .94 . 95 96 99 100 104 111 112 115 119 . 121 122 123 126 129 133 143 148 160 172 174 183 185 188 188 189 198 Chapter Conclusions and Implications. . . . . . . . . . . Stages of Development/A Consolidation Period. . Cognitive and Affective Dimensions of the Goal. The Process of Analytic Thinking and Reflection Summary . APPENDICES . . A. DUTIES AND RESPONSIBILITIES OF THE CLINIC PROFESSOR . B. DUTIES AND RESPONSIBILITIES OF THE COOPERATING TEACHER. C. DEMOGRAPHIC DATA FOR THE PARTICIPANTS . D. BIBLIOGRAPHY . vii QUESTIONS THAT WERE ASKED ON THE WEEKLY QUESTIONNAIRES. Page 203 204 207 210 214 216 217 . 220 223 226 236 LIST OF FIGURES Figure Page 3.1 A Diagram of the Study's Heuristic. . . . . . . . . . . . . 65 3.2 Floor Plan, School A. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74 3.3 Classroom Floor Plan, School A . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75 4.1 A Diagram of Four Identifiable, Interdependent Objectives for Proving Oneself . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .108 4.2 A Schematic Diagram of the Student Teaching Experience From the Perspective of the Student Teacher. . . . . . . . . . .110 4.3 In Classroom, Cognitive Objective: To Develop Teaching Proficiencies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .133 4.4 Beyond Classroom, Cognitive Objective: To Attain Leadership/Control. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .145 4.5 In Classroom, Affective Objective: To Modify Personal Propensities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .149 4.6 Affective Beyond Classroom Objective: To Acquire a Teacher Identity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .161 viii CHAPTER ONE Introduction and Purpose Student teaching is widely viewed as one of the most important aspects of professional training for teachers. For instance, Conant (1963) cited student teaching as "The one indisputably essential element in professional education." John Dewey, as early as 1904, advocated some form of practice teaching in public school classrooms as being necessary to the development of teachers. Practitioners themselves, who have gone through this experience, rate student teaching as the most valuable aspect of their preservice professional preparation (Bennie, 1964; Hermanowicz, 1966). Student teaching is usually the culmination of a teacher preparation program and is undoubtedly the most common element of teacher education. The philosophy of student teaching has undergone a transformation in recent years. Historically student teaching was considered "practice ' a time for the education major to practice the methods and teaching;' techniques she had been taught in her professional courses. More recently, however, there is a trend to view student teaching as a developmental stage in the education of a teacher. It is a time for studying teaching. "No longer does she 'practice' what she has been taught, but she is encouraged to experiment, to probe, to inquire, and to learn for herself how the theory previously studied applies to real pupils in actual classrooms" (Bennie, 1966, p.2). This newer concept of student teaching recognizes that the college student does not learn all there is to know about teaching and how to teach during 1 2 this relatively short period of time. Rather, the development of a teacher is a process involving many years of teaching and studying teaching. The definition of student teaching most frequently found in the literature, is "the period of guided teaching when the student takes increasing responsibility for the work with a given group of learners over a period of consecutive weeks." For the student who assumes this increasing responsibility, it is often a compelling and personally demanding task. Glassberg and Sprinthall (1980) state that for the student engaged in this task, "the responsibility is substantial, the role demands are real, and the experience is rigorous." For the student teacher this practicum is often characterized by stress, pressure and great excitement (Caruso, 1977). Each student teaching experience is unique (unique to the individual; unique to the setting) and is usually an experience that few teachers forget. Researchers have studied student teaching frequently over the years, yet little is known about the experience from the perspective of the student teacher. Andrews states, "despite the enormous quantity of literature on student teaching, there are few careful analyses of the nature and value of the experience" (Howey, 1977, p.76). Glassberg and Sprinthall (1980) concur, for "the empirical data to support what is done in preservice training is minimal" (p.3). Critical reviews of the state of the field (e.g. Cope, 1970; Peck and Tucker, 1973; Fuller and Brown, 1975; Turner, 1975) state similar conclusions. A review of the research in this field leaves one with a great feeling of urgency to expediate the study of student teaching; given its ascribed importance in Teacher Education, it is alarming to find so little systematic research related to it. Discussion and descriptive reports are plentiful, but comprehensive basic 3 study of the processes involved is lacking. Studies of what really happens to the student teacher are vital. (Davies and Amersheck, 1384,1969) This study was designed to investigate the student teaching experience from the perspective of the student teacher. We need to know more about what really happens to the student teacher; how she makes sense of what happens to her; how her actions and reactions relate to this sense-making process. How does she perceive her student teaching experience? (In this study all of the participants were female). Becker, et. a1. (1962) define perspective as: I a coordinated set of ideas and actions a person uses in dealing with some problematic situation...These thoughts and actions are coordinated in the sense that the actions flow from the beliefs and the beliefs justify the actions (p.34). Describing this 'coordinated set of ideas and actions' used by the student teacher to make sense of what happens to and around her was the purpose of the study. Shibutani (1967) further expands the definition of perspective as: ...an ordered view of one's world-what is taken for granted about the attributes of various objects, events, and human nature. It is an order of things remembered and things expected as well as things actually perceived, an organized conception of what is plausible and what is possible; it constitutes the matrix through which one perceives his environment. The fact that men have such ordered perspectives enables them to conceive of their ever changing world as relatively stable, orderly, and predictable. As Reigler puts it, one's perspective is an outline scheme, which running ahead of experience, defines and guides it (p.161). By describing the student teaching experience from the perspective of the student teacher, the researcher attempted not to, "tell it like it was," but to, "tell it like it felt to be in it;" that is, as it phenomonologically was (Stenhouse, 1979). Learning more about what happens to a student teacher during 4 the course of her experience, investigating how she makes sense of the things that happen to and around her, studying how she reacts to the things that happen, may enable researchers to better understand the nature of the experience. Increasing our understanding of the nature of the experience, as perceived by the student teacher, may assist teacher educators in creating educational programs that help student teachers achieve positive personal and professional growth. Components of the Study The mode of studying the student teaching experience from the perspective of the student teacher was to observe the behavior of the participants as they naturally occured and to attempt to discover the meaning that these behaviors had for the participants. This study was designed as an interrelationship of three components: (1) the context of the event studied, (2) a methodology suitable for studying the event, and (3) a conceptual scheme that provides a theoretical frame- work for viewing the event. Each of the components will be briefly discussed in this section. The Context of the Event In this study the event of student teaching was examined in the context in which it naturally occured. As Doyle (1979) points out, "In the final analysis, classroom knowledge can only be gained by experience as a teacher in the classroom environment. Research is needed therefore, on the complex processes of learning to be a teacher in the classroom" (p.15). The student teaching experience of five undergraduate students at Michigan State University was studied. Observations and interviews 5 immediately following the observations were made in the field (i.e. the actual classroom setting). Additional data in the form of journals and questionnaires were collected. The five subjects provided the core data for the study. To insure validity and to provide further insights into student teaching, data were collected, via questionnaires, from six additional undergraduate interns during their student teaching experiences. All of the participants (the five subjects plus the six informants) were volunteers from the Towards Excellence in Elementary Education (EEE) program, an alternative teacher preparation program at Michigan State University. During the time of data collection, the participants were engaged in a twenty-week experience called an internship in which they (the interns) assumed increasing responsibility for the instructional design, instruction and management of the children and the classroom milieu to which they were assigned. The interns were supervised on a regular basis by a university specialist called a clinic professor. The five subjects were supervised by the researcher in the role of clinic professor; the six informants were supervised by three other clinic professors. A Methodology for Studying the Event The research tools employed by anthropologists, namely those of ethnography, are useful in looking more carefully at the world of the student teacher. Ethnographers are concerned with understanding and describing an existing social phenomena. In the words of Koehler (1979) the intention of this type of research is to "understand or produce knowledge about a phenomenon...with an aim of theory develop— ment to be used in understanding what is happening, and/or how or why things happen the way they do" (p. 9 ). Participant observation is 6 a field strategy used by ehtnographers to "record the ongoing experiences of those observed, through their symbolic world...such a strategy implies a commitment-either conscious or unconscious-by the observer to basic principles of symbolic interactionism (Denzin, 1977, p.135). According to Blumer: (1967) Insofar as sociologists or students of human society are concerned with the behavior of acting units, the position of symbolic interaction requires the student to catch the process of interpretation through which they construct their actions. This process is not to be caught merely by turning to conditions which are antecedent to the process. Such antecedent conditions are helpful in understanding the process insofar as they enter into it, but...they do not constitute the process merely by inferring its nature from the overt action which is its product. To catch the process the student must take the role of the acting unit whose behavior he is studying. Since the interpretation is being made by the acting unit in terms of objects de- signated and appraised, meaning acquired, and decisions made, the process has to be seen from the standpoint of the acting unit (p.161). To understand the student teaching experience from the perspective of the student teacher it was necessary to understand this process of interpretation. Actively participating in the lives of the participants was an adequate means of capturing this process. Participant observation is a complex blending of methodolo- gical techniques: subjects are interviewed, documents and self report data are analyzed, informants are found, and direct observations of ongoing events in the form of field notes are made. The participant observer, as Geer (1964) points out: ...is at once reporter, interviewer and scientist. On the scene, he gets the story of an event by questioning partici- pants about what is happening and why. He fills out the story by asking people about their relation to the event, their reactions, opinions and its significance. As interviewer he encourages the informant to tell his story...as scientist, he seeks answers to questions by setting up hypothesis and 7 collecting data with which to answer them (p.383). As clinic professor the researcher was able to actively participate on a daily basis in the internship experience of the five subjects. Field notes were collected by observing the subjects in the setting and informally and formally interviewing them to discover "their relation to the event, their reactions, opinions and its significance" (Geer, 1964, p.383). To assist the researcher in understanding the perspective of the subjects further, the interns kept a daily journal of what happened to them, their feelings and thoughts about what happened as well as their actions based on what happened to them. Interviews were extended in the form of weekly questionnaires in which all of the participants (the five subjects and the six informants) commented on the events that occurred, their reactions, Opinions and the significance of the event. As the field notes were collected and analyzed, new insights were gained that focused further observations and interviews. The new insights formed the basis for the questions asked on the weekly question- naires. Journal data was searched for supportive/nonsupportive evidence of the insights. This process often led to more specific questions which renewed the analysis procedure. Gradually, tentative hypotheses were formed that further directed data collection and analysis. Becker (1969) explains the inquiry process as a concurrent enactment of data collection and data analysis. It is an interactive, cumulative and cyclical process as patterns, relationships and indices of behavior are discovered. As the patterns of behavior and relationships emerge the data sources are again checked for supportive/nonsupportive evidence. Wolcott (1977) contends that the strength of this method of inquiry lies "in its triangulation, obtaining information in many 8 ways rather than solely on one." Based on this process of cross checking: (1) matching consistency with the meaning and purpose of the subjects (Erickson, 1978) and (2) triangulation of data; the tentative hypotheses were revised and subjected to further testing. In final form, the hypotheses were not of a casual nature but, as is typical of this type of inquiry process, included "propositional sets of an all—inclusive nature...developed so that the total arena of behavior under analysis [could] be incorporated in an explanatory network" (Denzin, 1977, p.185). An explanatory network, also referred to as a descriptive model, is a representation of a process or system. As such, the model provides a descriptive account of the patterns and relationships within the system or process. For this study, the model developed presents a descriptive representation of the student teacher's perceptions of her student teaching experience. A Conceptual Framework This study was based on the theory of symbolic interaction as laid out by Meltzer, Petras, Reynolds and Blumer. They define symbolic interaction as a process of interpretation. In the conceptual scheme of symbolic interaction, as a person encounters elements of his environment, he interprets and gives meaning to them. He judges the suitability of his actions and makes decisions based on his judgement he then constructs his actions based on the decision. Blumer, (1967) further explains this process of interpretation: Whatever the action in which he is engaged, the individual proceeds by pointing out to himself the divergent things which have to be taken into account in the course of his action. He has to note what he wants to do and how he is to do it, he has to take account of the demands, the expectations, the prohibitions, and the threats as they may arise in the situation in which he is acting. His action is built up step by step through a process of such 9 self indication. The human individual pieces together and guides his action by taking account of different things and interpreting their significance for his prospective action (p.141). This concept: the interaction of an individual consists of meeting a series of situations in which he must act and that his action is based on what he takes into account, how he assesses and interprets what he takes into account and what kind of action he devises as a result, formed the basis for three areas of inquiry for this research. The inquiry began by focusing on what the student teacher takes into account while engaged in student teaching. Symbolic interactionists believe that the things an individual takes into account include his wishes and desires, his goals and objectives, the available means for attaining their achievement, the actions and anticipated actions of others, his image of himself and the likely result of a given course of action. The focus of this line of inquiry was on the actions and events that had meaning for the student teacher. Secondly, attention was directed at the interpretive process in which the student teacher made meaning of the things that happened to her. This process of assigning meaning is based on two distinct concepts, (1) "worlds" exist for human beings and are composed of "objects" and (2) each human being possesses a "self" which allows him to be an object to himself. The meaning that an object has for a person as well as the view that a person has of himself is formed through the social process of interaction with others. Looking at how the student teacher assigns meaning to objects and how the student teacher views herself as object focused this area of inquiry. 10 A third area of inquiry looked at how the student teacher formed her actions based on her interpretations. A tenet of symbolic inter- action is that a person's conduct is formed and possibly altered by the process of indication and interpretation. The focus here was on describing and analyzing the actions of the student teacher that occured as a result of her interpretive process. An Overview of the Study To understand the student teaching experience from the perspec- tive of the student teacher we need to answer some basic questions. What does it mean to be a student teacher? What is the role/task of the student teacher in the learning environment? What are the dimensions of the task? To answer these questions, literature was reviewed on (1) what is known about student teaching and its impact on an individual, (2) current research that views professional preparation and the continuing education of teachers as a developmental progression, and (3) field methodology as a strategy for doing research in schools. The review is presented in Chapter Two of this dissertation, Review of the Literature. The three components of the study: the context of the event, the methodology, and the conceptual framework are detailed in Chapter Three, Methods and Procedures. The process of inquiry is presented and discussed including a description of the participants, the EEE program, the setting, the methods of data collection and analysis procedures. In Chapter Four the findings of the research are presented and discussed. After the introduction, in which a visual representation of the model is presented, a narrative description and explanation of the _~_.—-w-_._ _ 11 elements contained in the model is given. The Chapter concludes with a brief summary of the findings. The findings of the inquiry presented in Chapter Four become the basis for the summary and conclusions discussed in Chapter Five. Implications of the findings and suggestions for practice and further research are presented. The expected outcomes of this study were three-fold. First, the study will increase our understanding of the complex process involved in learning to be a teacher in a classroom. Second, this research will contribute to a need for descriptive data on teaching and may demonstrate the usefulness of ethnographic approaches, such as participant observation in the field of education. Third, this research will contribute to that body of knowledge on student teaching that assists teacher educators in assigning preservice programs that promote personal and professional growth in its neophyte teachers. CHAPTER TWO Review of the Literature This study was conducted to describe and explain the student teaching experience from the perspective of the student teacher using the participant observation method. The review of the literature, was, therefore drawn from and arranged into two major categories. The first category, studies of preservice education, reviews three areas of literature: (1) what is presently known about the impact of student teaching experiences on student teachers, (2) studies that view teaching (student teaching) as a developmental progression and (3) studies that examine student teaching in the context in which it occurs. The second category deals with studies in schools which use ethnographic strategies and techniques in varying degrees, particularly those of participant observation. Participant observation requires the researcher to become a member of a social situation over time in order to describe and explain that social situation from the viewpoint of the members under study. Hence, the studies in this section include those in which student teachers, teachers or admin- istrators were observed or interviewed in their classrooms and schools. They are studies which display the strengths and problems of ethnographic techniques. Furthermore, they demonstrate the usefulness of ethnography in classrooms for certain types of questions. Thus, both categories in the review serve to acquaint the reader with studies on preservice education, particularly those that report an 12 13 impact on the student teacher and those that look at the process of becoming a teacher in the context in which it occurs. Given the purpose of this study, these categories seem both necessary and sufficient for the literature review. Studies on Preservice Education The literature reported under this first category has been arranged into three sections: (1) what is presently known about the impact of student teaching experiences on student teachers, (2) research studies that view teaching (student teaching) as a develOpmental process and (3) studies that examine student teaching in the context in which it occurs. The first set of studies reviewed, address the issue of the impact of student teaching experiences on student teachers and investigated such variables as (a) self concept and personality characteristics, (b) anxiety and stress, (c) attitudinal changes in student teachers and (d) the socialization of student teachers. The second group of studies reviewed under the category of preservice education are those which view teaching as a developmental progression. This literature has been arranged into three subsections according to approach or conception of teacher development. The three sub- sections are: (a) a develOpmental theory of teachers, (b) the application of developmental theories to practice, and (c) descriptions of practice related to develOpment. In the third and final section of this category, studies that examine student teaching within the naturally occuring context are presented. The Impact of Student Teaching Experiences on the Student Teacher In reviewing the literature from the past decade on student teaching and internship, one notes three sets of intersecting literature. 14 First, the bulk of the material in this area seems to be dominated by articles and reports describing current practices, expressing opinions or theoretical ideas and advocating points of view. Secondly, in examining the literature on student teaching (as in almost any area of educational research) it is apparent that quantitative research has been the dominant methodology employed. As Rist (1977) explained, "We are not dealing with a situation of parity among the various research methodologies. Quantitative research is £hg_dominant methodology in educational research. It is more widely taught, published, accepted, and rewarded in educational circles than any other approach" (p. 42). Third, research studies on the current impact of student teaching within the past decade generally conclude that the process produces negative outcomes. Upon reviewing the literature for their study on a developmental approach to student teaching, Glassberg and Sprinthall (1980) noted, "Results [of research studies] indicate a multiplicity of concrete and clearly negative findings - student teachers become more authoritarian, rigid, impersonal, restrictive, arbitrary, bureaucratic, and custodial by the end of their student teaching experience" (p. 31). Self Concept and Personality Characteristics. Studies were selected for this section in which the student teachers' perceptions of themselves, other teachers, or teaching in general were altered by their student teaching experiences. These studies are pre- dominantly quantitative and emphasize a need for a more intensive research and development effort (Howey, 1977). Several studies have examined changes in the self concepts of student teachers. They are primarily based on two premises. The first premise suggests that while the student teacher enters the field with a self concept already 15 established, she faces an entirely different context in which she must see herself. "This is a new world, a new environment, in which she has little or no assurance that her past perceptions of herself will remain compatible" (Dumas, 1969). The second premise views self-concept as a primary determinant of behavior. In an attempt to understand some of the changes that occur during student teaching, Donald Lantz (1964) assessed the self-concept and perceptions of others of 36 female student teachers. Because he believed that the outcomes of the student teaching experience had been evaluated only in terms of skill development and rarely had the psychological outcomes for the student been examined, he posed two basic questions for his research: To what extent did changes occur in the subjects' self-concept during her student teaching experience? To what extent did changes occur in her concepts of other elementary teachers and the ideal elementary teacher? Lantz defined the term self as those attitudes and feelings a person holds about himself. "This use of the word has been termed the "self-as-object" definition. The self-theorist states that the self-concept gives continuity and consistency to an individual's behavior" (p. 200). (Lantz's conceptualization of "self-as-object" is similar to the theory of symbolic interaction as used in this study). Using a pre-posttest design, Lantz administered a modified Interpersonal Check List (ICL) on which the subjects were to rate themselves, most other elementary teachers and the ideal elementary teacher. The results suggested that the subjects self and other perceptions were altered by their student teaching experience; "their basic values do not seem to change but they do seem to feel a need for greater harmony of ideas" (p. 202). The student teachers l6 perceived themselves as being more trustful and accepting of their interpersonal behavior, and they seemed to have gained insights into and an appreciation of themselves. They viewed other teachers as being more trustful and the ideal teacher as being trusting and somewhat more normal and realistic than they did before student teaching. Lantz concluded that if self-concept and concepts of others are important determinants in teacher behavior, then we, as teacher educators must place students in student-teaching situations where they can not only gain the necessary skills and understanding but also in nonthreatening situations where their self-concepts and concept of others may be able to change. On the other hand, walberg (1968), in a study of 77 female student teachers both at elementary and secondary levels found that significant declines in the self-rating of the student teachers occurred during their practice teaching. He hypothesized that conflict between personality needs (to establish rapport with children) and role demands (to establish authority and discipline in the professional role of teacher during practice teaching) brings about feelings of abnegation and depreciation of self during practice teaching. Using a one group pretest-posttest design walberg administered a questionnaire to the subjects, student teachers in Chicago public schools. Analysis of the data showed that the hypothesis was supported: significant declines in self-ratings occurred during practice teaching. Walberg interpreted the findings in terms of the theory that a conflict between personality needs and role demands lowers self-concept. Finally, Dumas (1969), in an investigation of 94 student teachers from various majors in secondary education, found that canly English majors showed any gain in self-concept. Dumas 17 administered a pre-posttest using the Fiedler Interpersonal Perception scale and a brief questionnaire designed to assess the nature of the student teaching experience. Based on the findings, Dumas concluded: (1) Student teaching under the conditions described herein tends generally to be associated with a a more positive view of self by student teachers. (2) Conclusion one is largely dependent upon the tendency of student teachers in English to improve self-perceptions substantially. Student teachers in no other subject discipline showed a significant improvement of self—perception during student teaching. (3) Student teaching under the conditions described herein tends to be associated with a more negative view of self by student teachers in physical education. (4) Student teaching which involves responsibility for one or more sections of "slow learners," grouped by ability, tends to be associated with self—concept change in a positive direction. (5) Presence of cooperating teachers a majority of the time during student teaching tends to be associated with an improving self-concept by student teachers; as conversely, the absence of cooperating teachers a majority of the time tends to be associated with negligible or negative changes in self- perception. (p. 278) Based on the inconsistent findings of the three studies it is difficult to draw any clear conclusions; however, student teaching does not, apparently have uniformly good effects on self concept development. In addition to the inconsistent findings, many of the studies done in this area investigated different dimensions of the variable of self concept. Anxiety and Stress. Anxiety and/or stress is another variable which has received considerable attention in the literature. Several researchers (e.g., Thompson, 1963; Sorenson and Halpert, 1974; and Coates and Thorensen, 1976) have shown that there is considerable 18 anxiety associated with the student teaching experience. Thompson (1963) defined anxiety as a mixture of fear, apprehension and hope referred to future. In hypothesizing that student teachers experience a variety of anxieties prior to and during internship and that these experiences are as normally distributed as are other psychological traits, he sought answers to the following questions: (1) What are the specific kinds of anxieties experienced by student teachers? (2) Do they, in fact, represent a normally distributed pattern? (3) Do elementary school student teachers experience more/less anxieties than secondary school student teachers? (4) Do male student teachers show more or less anxiety than female student teachers? (5) What are the sources of anxiety experienced? Thompson administered a thirty-five question checklist to each of 125 student teachers near the end of their internship experience. He reported, four significant findings. First, the original hypothesis that the distribution of anxieties among student teachers would be represented by a normal curve distribution was not borne out by the data. Secondly, both female groups (elementary and secondary) experienced more anxieties than the male group, the greatest number being experienced by the female elementary school group. The data also showed that more anxieties originate in what had been heard or imagined by the student than from any other source. A fourth finding was that more anxiety occurs prior to the student teaching internship than during the actual experience. From this, Thompson concluded: A better understanding of this problem by the professional staff in teacher—preparing institutions is clearly indicated. Inasmuch as anxiety has the effect of reducing mental efficiency and classroom performance, it is to the advantage of all concerned - students, faculty members, and supervising 19 teachers alike to become aware of the problem and to try to coordinate their efforts in the direction of reducing the amount of anxiety experienced by students in the teacher preparation program (p. 439). Sorenson and Halpert (1968) attributed anxiety of student teachers to the conflict in beliefs about teacher role between student teacher and cooperating teacher, especially when one was subordinate to the other. Their investigation of 248 student teachers at UCLA had two purposes. The researchers wanted to explore the proposition that teacher candidates who see themselves as having beliefs about teaching which are different from those of their supervising teachers are likely to experience discomfort. Secondly, they were attempting to provide information about the manifestations of the discomfort and to generate hypotheses about how it arises and what might be done to reduce it (similar to Thompson). The researchers administered a 125 item questionnaire to the subjects: included were 104 elementary and 143 secondary student teachers, the majority (181) being women. The results indicated that approximately 70 percent of the subjects reported that they had experienced considerable psychological discomfort at the beginning of their assignment. Twenty per cent of the subjects reported that they still experienced a good deal of discomfort at the end. It is interesting to note that the candidates who reported the most discomfort at the end of their student teaching assignment were more likely to report that they were planning pg£_to become teachers. The discomforts experienced by the student teachers were categorized by Sorenson and Halpert into those related to "stress" and those related to "uncertainty." Stress discomfort was characterized by symptoms of physical discomfort and irritability— "increased fatigue, 20 changes in eating habits, increased nervous manifestations such as smoking or nail biting, loss of sleep,.arguments with roommates and family, difficulties with studies, and feelings of being unable to ¢0P3"(P- 30). A second form of discomfort, "uncertainty," was reflected in feelings of personal inadequacy and uncertainty about the teacher role. "The candidate feared he was not capable of becoming a teacher, was not doing a good job in student teaching. He said that he had lost self-confidence, felt a lack of specific techniques to guide him in the classroom, believed that he could never do as well as his supervising teacher, saw himself as inadequately prepared to teach the subject he was assigned to teach, and was unclear about what is expected of him in the classroom" (p. 30). Sorenson and Halpert concluded from the findings that: For some prospective teachers, practice teaching is an exhilarating and joyful, if challenging experience which results in feelings of great achievement, personal growth, and satisfaction. For others it is a frightening, frustrating, and depressing time, resulting in feelings either of failure and personal in- adequacy or of great anger, or both. Whether practice teaching turns out to be a satiSfying or disappointing experience depends, it appears, on neither the particular student traits nor the particular kind of setting but rather on the interaction between a student teacher and the personnel in the school where he does his student teaching" (p. 32) * (emphasis added). Sorenson and Halpert, like Thompson view the implications of their findings in terms of teacher educators: "If it is true that differences in teacher role expectations cause anxiety and inter- personal conflict, and if a means can be developed for predicting which teachers, school administrators, and pupils find themselves * This conclusion is inconsistent with the findings of some studies reported later on socialization of student teachers. 21 in conflict with which types of school personnel while getting on well with others, it may be possible eventually to improve our methods of selecting training and placing teachers, and of scheduling students into courses as well" (p. 28). Finally, in reviewing the literature on anxiety in student teachers, Coates and Thorensen (1976) found that student teachers reported that relationships with their master teachers and college supervisors were a major source of tension. In addition, beginning teachers' self reported anxieties and concerns also centered around (a) their ability to maintain discipline in the classroom, (b) students' liking of them, (c) their knowledge of subject matter, (d) what to do in case they make mistakes or run out of materials, and (e) how to relate personally to other faculty members, the school system, and parents (p. 164). Coates and Thorensen suggest that it may be that problems anticipated are greater than those actually experienced (as the findings of Campbell & Williamson, 1974, suggest). As with the literature reported on self-concept change, the inconsistent findings in this area make it difficult to draw any clear conclusions. Two themes seem to be present in all of the studies, however. While the research shows that there is considerable anxiety associated with the student teaching experience, this psychological discomfort seems to be related more to the anticipation of the experience than to the experience itself. Also, the amounts of anxiety reported by the student teachers seem to interact with the organizational climate of the school and with similarities in attributes between cooperating and student teachers. Attitudinal Changes in Student Teachers. There have been many studies conducted investigating the impact of the student teaching 22 experience on different attitudinal variables by the end of their practicum experience. While decrements are not universally reported, it is clear that the student teaching experience does not have uniformly good effects on the attitudes and personalities of student teachers. For example, Shapiro and Shiflet (1974) reported that student teachers experienced a loss of connectedness, general feelings of trust and positive affection for others. In this study, a teacher training program was conducted at the Graduate School of Education, University of California Santa Barbara for 70 elementary student teachers in "awareness training." The subjects were arbitrarily assigned to one of three groups: (a) a pre-and posttest experimental group which received thirty 3-hour sessions plus two weekend gestalt awareness sessions as a component of the regular training program; (b) a pre-and posttested control group not receiving awareness training; and (c) a second, similar, control group which was posttested only. As previously stated, a statistically significant decrease in "connectedness" was found for both experimental and control groups. The evidence indicated that the observed changes were due to the experiences indigenous to the teacher training program and not to statistical manipulation. As the loss of connectedness was not an intentional outcome of the teacher training program, the researchers conducted clinical interviews with ten former students in the program to determine what might account for the results. The most frequently mentioned factors were work overload, shattered illusions about teaching, irrelevant academic work, competition, and vulnerability to the 23 c00perating teachers (p. 148). Shapiro and Shiflet upon reflection of the findings, suggested a program of periodic attitude testing before, during, and after teacher training and several years into the teaching experience in order to investigate the shifts in connectedness (trust) experienced by the subjects of the study. For, "if loss in connectedness turns out to be merely a stage in the development of a teacher, then no significant changes in teacher training would be indicated. If, on the other hand, loss of trust appears as a dysfunctional concomittant to teacher preparation as now commonly constituted, then the training experiences should be restructured to eliminate aspects which unnecessarily diminish the capacity of the beginning teacher to engage with others in realistic and appropriate levels of trust" (p. 148). Other researchers have attempted to look at how the consistency of student teachers' ideas are affected by their student teaching experience. Newsome, Gentry and Stephens (1965) found significant losses in the consistency of student teachers' educational ideas for secondary but not elementary student teachers. On the other hand, Weinstock and Peccolo (1970) failed to find any loss of consistency for either secondary or elementary student teachers. Numerous other attitudinal variables have been investigated in relation to student teaching. Walberg et a1. (1968), for example found that student teachers became more controlling and less pupil- centered by the end of the student teaching experience. Jacobs (1968) reported that student teachers moved away from more liberal and democratic points of view to more rigid and formalized attitudes. 24 Johnson (1969) found significant changes in dogmatism scores (the degree of open-closed mindedness within a belief system) of student teachers as a result of their student teaching experiences. Finally, Horowitz (1968) investigating the relationship between student teacher and cooperating teacher on the assumption that conflict between these individuals affects the extent to which the student teaching experience is profitable found that student teachers become more nomothetic (that is, concerned more with the expectations of others than with personal needs) by the end of their student teaching experience. In summary, these studies seem to show that many attitudes of student teachers do change by the end of the experience, but because of the inconsistency of the results, clear conclusions about the desirability of these changes can not be drawn. It can be concluded, however, that student teaching does not have uniformly positive effects on student teacher attitudes and personalities. The Socialization of Student Teachers. Many of the studies thus far reported seem to suggest that the impact of the student teaching experience on attitudes and self concepts is mediated by factors in the surrounding learning milieu (e.g. cooperating teachers and school climate). The cooperating teacher seems to have the greatest influence on the student teacher. ‘McAulay (1960) studied the influence of three first-grade cooperating teachers upon their six student teachers. Through observations of this very limited sample, McAulay concluded that "student teachers seem to be greatly influenced by the cooperating teacher..." (p. 83). and used methods and materials learned in student teaching in their own classroom work and neglected those presented in university method courses. In a study to investigate 25 the extent to which supervising teachers determine the attitudes and performances of the student teacher's they supervise. Price (1961) found that considerable changes occured in student teacher's attitudes during the student teaching experience and that there was a tendency for their attitudes to change in the direction of the attitudes held by their respective cooperating teachers. Price writes "probably one of the most significant conclusions of the study was that the correlation between cooperating teachers and student teachers class— room teaching performances indicated that student teachers seem to acquire many of the teaching practices of their cooperating teachers during the internship experience " (p. 474). He believed that the findings should reinforce the belief that only the best available I teachers should be used in student teaching programs. A study by Schueler, Gold, and Metzel (1962) was conducted to ascertain the feasibility of improving student teaching through television-Kinescope observations of student teacher behavior. As in the above studies, the results supported the notion that student teachers were strongly influenced by their cooperating teachers. In addition, the findings indicated that the student teachers were not strongly influenced by their college supervisors. In none of the above studies was the influence of the student teacher on the cooperating teacher investigated and/or reported. Nor was the regression of extreme scores toward the mean given as a plausible rival hypothesis. In a study by Yee (1969) however, these hypothesis were investigated. Yee hypothesized that cooperating teachers are a significant source of influence in student teaching, therefore, he wished to determine the direction of the casual influence. Yee administered a pre-post 26 MTAI (Minnesota Teachers Attitude Inventory) test to 124 student teachers engaged in the student teaching experience. In addition their cooperating teachers and college supervisors (12) were pre and posttested using the MTAI. The results showed that a shift in attitude did occur and that this shift went in the direction of a more positive relationship toward the end of the student teaching experience. The cooperating teacher more often exerted the predominant influence and most of the congruent influence was exerted by the cooperating teacher. That is, the student teachers shifted their attitudes to approximate more closely the attitudes of the cooperating teachers. Yee concluded that the attitudes of student teachers toward children generally reflect the predominant influence of their cooperating teacher. In a like study investigating the influence of student teachers on their cooperating teachers, Rosenfeld (1969) found that cooperating teachers working with more Open-minded student teachers were more likely to have a positive change in attitude toward their pupils; and those working with the more dogmatic student teachers, a negative change. There are several other studies that suggest pressures towards conformity. For example, Uchuyama and Lindgren (1971) found that student teachers were closer to their supervisory teachers' perceptions of an "ideal teacher" at the end of their student teaching experience than were other students just entering the program, Seperson and Joyce (1973) also found evidence to support the contention that the cooperating teacher substantially influenced the behavior of the student teacher. An interesting 27 finding from their study indicates that the influence of the cooperating teacher was felt during the very early weeks of student teaching rather than as the result of a slow and cumulative impact. In a study mentioned earlier, Horowitz (1968), found that student teachers became more nomothetic by the end of their experience, ie. more like their cooperating teachers. While the cooperating teacher has been identified as a powerful socializing agent, the setting may also be influential in the teaching styles and behaviors of student teachers. Freibus (1977) found a number of agents within the setting that were important to the socialization of the student teachers. The findings indicated that while the cooperating teacher and college supervisor were the most significant socialization agents, other teachers at the site, professors at the training institution, pupils, principals, non-student friends, relatives, peers and student teachers themselves all played roles in the socializing process. While the interdependence between cooperating teachers and student teachers has proven to be a fruitful area for research, studies concerned with the relationship between the university supervisor have shown that the university supervisor has little or no effect on the attitudes and behaviors of the student teachers. For example, Morris (1974) found that among 96 student teachers there were no significant differences in classroom performance and no significant differences in adjustment to student teaching between student_teachers who had a university supervisor and those who did not. The results of this study support the assertion by Schuler and Gold (1965) that the college supervisor has little or no identifiable effect on the student teacher. 28 Given that the university supervisor usually plays a significant role in the evaluation of the student teacher's performance, it seems reasonable to suspect that the supervisor has some influence but that the methods employed for its study were not the appropriate ones for its detection. Freibus (1977) and Tabachneck et al. lend support to this conjecture. Teaching_as a Developmental Progression There is a recent trend within the educational community by researchers (Fuller, 1975; Witherell and Erickson, 1978; Ryan, 1979) and practitioners (Katz, 1972; Apelman, 1977) alike to view teachers and teacher education in terms of professional growth and development. This shift in thinking about professional learning and improvement is in marked contrast to the previously dominant rhetoric on competency- based training. There is presently little agreement within the educational community on a clear definition of "teacher development"; teacher educators use the term to mean different things; researchers look at teacher development in various ways. In their explanation of why they chose the title "staff development" for their book, Staff devel- ppment: new demands, new realities, new perspectivesp rather than inservice or teacher education training, Lieberman and Miller (1979) provide some basic notions as to what development means. "By develOpment, we mean a rejection of notions of training and an acceptance of notions of growth--often in a nonlinear and nonrational way" (p. ix). While presently there is no unified perspective to guide research and practice, teacher development can be seen as a move toward a more comprehensive view of teacher learning. 29 In their recent (1980) review of the literature on teacher development, Feiman and Floden identified three approaches or conceptions of teacher development. The first approach, characterized by the work of the late Frances Fuller and her colleagues at the University of Texas attempts to construct a developmental theory of teachers. The second conception (Witherell and Erickson, 1978; Glassberg and Sprinthall, 1980) attempts to apply existing developmental theories to practice. The third approach to teacher development (Ryan, 1979; Apelman, 1978) consists of descriptions of practice and efforts to justify them in developmental terms. "A.developmental theory of teachers. The work of Frances Fuller on teacher/student teacher concerns is probably the most widely known example of an empirically constructed theory of teacher development. Fuller in noting the inconsistency between what preservice teachers get in their education courses and what they say they need, set out to discover "what [student] teachers are concerned about and whether their concerns can be conceptualized in some useful way" (1969, p. 208). Her assumption was if similarities in teacher's concerns over time could be conceptualized then teacher educators could more appropriately choose course content and experiences for them. Over a ten-year period Fuller (1969, 1972, 1974) and her colleagues (Fuller, Peck, Brown, White, & Garrad, 1967 and Fuller and Brown, 1975) posited, refined and modified a "develOpmental conceptualization" based on expressed concerns of those individuals engaged in teaching. Fuller (1974) stated that prospective teachers have common concerns that occur in a fairly regular sequence. Very generally, the sequence 30 is one from early concern about self to concern about pupils. She characterized the young, inexperienced education student as being primarily concerned about self, not usually concerned about teaching at all. "They are more likely to be concerned about their own feelings, and about their problems with friends, room- mates, grades and decisions about drugs and sex" (p. 113). At the second stage in the developmental sequence concerns about the teaching task predominate, though they are not mature concerns. They are still not concerned about what pupils learn. "She wonders about her own teaching performance; how she looks and sounds, about her command of subject matter, about what to do if she doesn't know the answer to a child's question and to avoid the embarrassment of appearing to be inadequate" (p. 113). Stage three concerns, concerns about impact on students, are rare among even experienced teachers, Fuller believed. "When teachers do become concerned about pupil gain and about their influence on this gain they ask themselves, '13 the class really learning what I'm trying to teach them?‘ They may even ask more mature questions. 'What does Joe need? What is he concerned about? How do things look to Jimmy? What was the effect on him of what happened yesterday? Do I need to change what I do? Do they need me to change what I am?'" (p. 114). Teachers at this stage look differently from their colleagues. They are realistic. They seek information not just about the class content for today, but they have intellectual curiosity beyond the needs of the moment. They actively seek information about what others think and feel about them. They are sensitive to nonverbal behavior and interpret it accurately. They are aware of their behavior as it is seen by others and are realistic about their own shortcomings. These teachers with stage three concerns tend to be oriented toward reality; they seek truth: truth about self, about others 31 and about the world around them. They are committed and self-satisfied. They are intrinsically motivated and controlled. Stage three teachers are competent. They can teach what they have learned and what they have become. They get to know their pupils deeply as persons. They are skillful in assessing pupils' feelings, their knowledge and their skills and competencies both formally through diagnostic instruments and informally in daily contact with them. They help children become self-sustaining learners by modeling the qualities, attitudes and skills which they themselves have acquired, in much the same way that they acquired them (Fuller, 1974). These stage three teachers tend to be self-actualized (Maslow), autonomous (Loevinger), principled (Kohlberg), integrated people functioning at a full formal operational intellectual level (Piaget). When Fuller et a1. (1967) used the term "stage", they referred to a cluster of concerns. While they were unclear as to whether these were clusters of concerns or "stages" Fuller and Brown (1975) detailed what these clusters of concerns were not: Whether these really are "stages" or only clusters, whether they are distinct or overlapping; and whether teachers teach differently or are differientially effective in different stages, has not been established. These stages, if such they are, have been described mainly in terms of what the teacher is concerned about rather than what he is actually accomplishing. However, there seems to be little doubt that the labels describe clusters of concerns and consequently provide a useful means of describing the experience of learning to teach (p. 37). Katz (1972) draws on her experiences with preschool teachers to extend Fuller's teacher concerns model. She says, "Preschool teachers can generally be counted on to talk about developmental needs and stages when they discuss children." Therefore, she writes, "It may also be meaningful to think of teachers themselves 32 as having developmental sequences in their_professional growth" (p. 50). Katz identified four developmental stages through which teachers pass, though she believes that individual teachers vary greatly in the length of time spent in each stage. Stage 1 : Survival. During stage 1 the teacher's main concern is whether she can survive. This stage is characterized by feelings of anxiety and inadequacies as the teacher faces the realities of the classroom. A teacher in this stage needs support, understanding, comfort and guidance. "She needs instruction in specific skills and insight into the complex causes of behavior - all of which must be provided on the classroom site" (p. 51). Stage 2 : Consolidation. During stage 2, the teacher has already accepted the fact that she can survive. Now she is ready to consolidate her successes in the first stage and to discriminate the tasks and skills to be mastered next. This second stage is characterized by more discriminate observations of children. At this stage, teachers need information about specific children or about children who pose problems, "Opportunities to share feelings with other teachers at the same stage of development may reduce some of the inadequacy and frustration the beginning teacher feels" (p. 52). Stage 3 : Renewal. During this stage teachers begin to expand their view of their own practices as well as teaching in general. The third stage is characterized by an increasing desire on the part of the teachers to know more. "Teacher's find it rewarding to meet colleagues from various programs on both formal and informal occasions... During this period they may be ready to take a close look at their own classroom teaching through video-tape recording... Perhaps it is at this stage that the teachers' center has the _ greatest potential value " (p. 52). Stage 4 : Maturity. At stage 4, maturity, the teacher has come to terms with herself. This stage is characterized by a more meaningful search for insight, perspective, and realism than previously sought. Teachers at stage 4 need "an opportunity to participate in conferences and seminars, and perhaps to work toward a degree " (p. 53). Caruso (1977) proposed a conceptual model of "phases" through which student teachers pass which affect the development of both their personal and professional identities. His six phase 33 conceptualization is based on the research already discussed. Caruso's six phases are: Phase I : Anxiety/Euphoria Phase II: Confusion/Clarity Phase III:Competence/Inadequacy Phase IV: Criticism/New Awareness Phase V: More Confidence/Greater Inadequacy Phase VI: Loss/Relief As can be seen by the titles of the phases student teachers engaged in the process of student teaching experience many conflicting and ambivalent feelings- joy, fear, love, guilt, frustration, and anger. Caruso is careful to state that the phases of student teaching are not mutually exclusive but continually overlap; a spiraling effect occurs and repeating patterns of feelings develop during the course of the preservice experience. These feelings, Caruso believes, are brought about by ...the concurrent development of a personal and professional identity, the timing and sequence of training experiences, the ambiguity of the role of the student teacher, the development of personality and role conflicts with others, unfamiliarity with the school context, and the adventure and uncertainty always associated with the unknown (p. 63). It is clear that Fuller's work has had a strong influence on a». number of subsequent studies. While collectively these studies present a view of teaching as an ongoing learning process in which new insights into teaching and learning are developed and new competencies are achieved over time, many questions remain unanswered. For example, addressing concerns of teachers may make them feel more comfortable and make them feel that their educational experiences are more relevant. However, there is little research to support the 34 linkage between the concerns and the attainment of desirable educational outcomes. Stage theory also suggests that the higher stages are more desirable but no justification for the superiority of the later stages of development yet exists. Also lacking are empirical studies that look at what accounts for the shifts or progressions through the stages; how do the transitions from.one stage/phase to another occur? While studies relating to stage/ phase theory serve as a basis for teacher education programs, as yet the question about the role of teacher education as a means for enhancing the developmental process is unanswered. The Application of Developmental Theories to Practice. The studies reported in this subsection draw on the theories and ideas inherent in developmental psychology. Bijou (1976) defines developmental psychology as: ...the study of progressive changes in interactions between a biologically changing organism (maturing and aging) and sequential changes in environmental events through a series of life periods (p. 39). Teacher development is viewed as a form of adult development; characteristics describing effective adult functioning are assumed to be applicable to effective teachers and teaching. As Feiman and Floden (1980) point out, "The view of learning associated with developmental theories is said to have important implications for an understanding of how teachers learn and the conditions that support professional growth. Thus, developmental theories would provide both ends and means for teacher educators" (p. 229). In 1938, John Dewey claimed that true education is development, and that develOpment can be the aim of education. The philosophical tenets of Dewey, Piaget (cognitive development), Kohlberg (moral 35 development), Loevenger (ego development), Hunt (conceptual development), and Tapp and Levine (legal reasoning development) served as a framework for studying the relationship between teachers' conceptions of teaching and human development and their teaching behavior. Witherell (1978) examined the relationships between five teachers' conceptions of teaching and human development and their patterns of teaching behaviors. Through an analysis of the data from the five case studies it became apparent that there existed a wide range of both thinking and behavior among the five teachers. However, three major hypotheses emanated from the analysis: (1) The values and beliefs held by teachers are linked to (and by) their actions and behavior. (2) Teacher beliefs and behaviors are associated with differences in developmental stages. (3) Teachers more advanced in development and behavior demonstrate greater complexity and commitment to the individual in areas such as a. analytic self reflection: the capacity to interpret their teaching practices, their students' behavior and development, and events in the classroom. b. philosophy of education: beliefs about what the goals of education should be c. constructs relating to children: the capacity to take the child's perspective d. ggneration and use of varieties of data in teaching,and e. understandings and practices relating to rules, authorityA and moral development. While case studies are hard to summarize, this research appears to support the underlying assumption that teachers at higher stages of development are more effective than their colleagues at lower stages - it should be noted that this was the major assumption upon 36 which the research was built. Witherell and Erickson concluded that: The enhancement of student learning and development no doubt rests with the improvement of teacher effectiveness. It is our contention that the improvement of teaching is dependent on a more versatile and complex conception of the role of the teacher - one that views the teacher as potentially growing and changing, as a colleague in class- room research, and as an important source of knowledge in the field of human development (p. 237). A study conducted by Glassberg and Sprinthall (1980) was built on the theories of cognitive development. The researchers asked the question, "If teachers at higher developmental levels are more effective in managing classrooms, can we create an educational program designed to promote such development?" (p. 35). They designed and implemented a student teaching Curriculum that applied this conception to practice. An experimental curriculum that consisted of a develOpmental approach toward supervision was initiated for three groups of undergraduates at a large public university who were engaged in the process of student teaching. Through a weekly seminar in which the major experience was structured role-taking, the student teachers learned how to analyze and process both their own teaching and that of their peers. Three pre/posttests were administered to measure psychological development. Loevinger and Wessler's (1970)_ sentence completion test attempted to measure the ego development stage; Rist's (1974) defining issues test measured the ethical stage of the student teachers, and Rotter's Internal-External.Locus of Control Scale gave an estimate of the individual's perception of the relationship between behavior and events which followed. The results showed that the experimental group improved on all three measures. "The findings clearly support the contention that a 37 developmentally based supervision seminar for student teachers has a positive psychological impact" (p. 37). While the study was with a small sample and must be replicated before its results can be validated, the researchers believe that "we can make a general case that role-taking, peer supervision, and the gradual peer leadership evolution appear a promising method of producing positive psychological development" (p. 57). Cognitive-develOpmental theories may offer a possible framework for thinking about teacher development. They cannot, howevery'help a teacher educator decide when and/or how to intervene, which is a pedagogical issue. The third and last identified approach to teacher development includes studies by practitioners who use a developmental framework. Descriptions of Practice Related to Development. This third approach to teacher development views the teacher as being the center of the educative process. As a thoughtful decision maker the teacher can meet the needs of particular children in particular situations. In the set of studies reported here, professional growth is defined in terms of increased responsibility for educational decision making. Two sets of ideas underlie this approach: (1) the teacher is viewed as a person with the potential for profes- sional growth and (2) professional growth can be enhanced by an environment that can support continued learning and change. Apelman (1978) in her work with teachers as an advisor at the Moutain View Center in Boulder, Colorado views advising as a way of helping teachers take final responsibility for their curriculum. In order to set goals for inservice education that 38 meets the needs of most teachers, Apelman believes that we must first learn to differentiate among the needs of teachers. In her role as advisor, Apelman has identified three stages of development for the teachers at the center; each stage requiring a different kind of help. In the beginning stage the main concerns of teachers are about classroom management and organization (consistent with the findings of Coates and Thoresen (1976). Teachers need practical help at this stage which could conceivably be provided by many experienced teachers if they were released to do this kind of advisory work. Teachers in the beginning stage (be it a first or second year teacher or an experienced teacher attempting a new approach) need time to visit other classrooms and have "official" time to talk with their colleagues. At the second stage, "how" questions are directed toward the ideas, materials and activities to which teachers have been introduced at the Center. These ' "second-stage" teachers are not struggling with issues of survival but asking for help in integrating the materials into their programs. Advisors working with teachers at this stage must be able to work within the existing structure of their classrooms and adapt to the individual teacher's personal style. Teachers at stage three are comfortable in their role. They are looking to extend themselves, to develop their own curriculum. They are searching for ways to elicit greater depth and diversity and more continuity in children's work. When teachers have experienced learning in some depth at their own level, when they have solid knowledge of both child development and subject matter and use it as the 39 basis for their planning, they are ready to extend children's learning and to build their own curriculum (p. 24). This developmental pattern is similar to both the clusters of concerns identified by Fuller and the developmental stages described by Katz. Kevin Ryan (1979) also suggests staff development be organized in terms of stages of teaching. He draws on the work of Fuller, Smith and others that speak to life or age related stages in reporting the findings of three interview studies conducted in central Ohio. Each of the three studies focussed on how the individual perceived his or her professional experiences. Ryan reports the findings in terms of what they suggest for staff development. As reported by Fuller, the three studies reviewed by Ryan suggest that first year teachers are moving through survival needs and concerns to mastery needs and concerns. They need help in planning, time management, classroom control, working with parents and in getting into contact with their teaching colleagues. First year teachers need highly focussed, highly specific skills for in-service. Second year teachers are more comfortable and more socialized. They are capable of giving and receiving friendship from experienced colleagues and are more realistic about themselves and about teaching as a career. Though they realize they have inadequacies there is little sense of impending crisis. Rather they more systematically and quietly attack their inadequacies than they could during their first year. The second year teacher has moved from survival concerns to interest in techniques. Inservice needs for second year teachers 40 should focus on the craft of teaching. University courses of the advanced methods variety or which expose them to new curricular ideas which they can use in their classrooms are appropriate at this stage. Middle-aged teachers or "career teachers" are individuals who must change and adjust to new demands both from students and from the times. They approach a time of crisis as they come close to the possibility of retirement. Inservice programs for these teachers should be not so much aimed at learning a new professional skill but learning how to deal with aging, helping them put their careers into perspective and assisting in their preparation for the next stage of their personal and professional lives. As reported by Ryan, the results of the Ohio studies suggest different career stages in the lives of teachers and the need for different types of in-service and staff development at each of the different stages. In the Ohio studies and in the Apelman study, development was viewed as an active, self-regulating process. Also included was the general idea of positive environmental conditions thought necessary to support it. The literature reported under this approach, like that of the other two approaches had little to say about what the process of development is actually like. Studies of Teaching/Student Teaching in Context Many of the studies just reviewed, particularly those related to the impact of the student teaching experience on student teachers show that the impact of the experience on attitudes is mediated by factors in the surrounding learning milieu (e.g. cooperating 41 teachers and school climate). It seems reasonable to conclude that more consistent results in this area will only occur if studies take the surrounding environment into account and do not investigate attitude changes in isolation. Walter Doyle, in discussing the importance of learning within the context in which one will teach says: In the final analysis, classroom knowledge can only be gained by experience as a teacher in the classroom environment. Research is needed therefore, on the complex processes of learning to be a teacher in the classroom. My own experience in studying induction suggests that the feedback beginning teachers receive is very important in helping them acquire classroom knowledge. Such feedback needs to be keyed to the demands of the classroom environment. That is, feedback must be based on classroom knowledge. In addition, there is a clear possibility of developmental processes involved in learning to be a teacher (Doyle, 1979, p. 15). In a three-year study of secondary teachers, beginning with student teachers, Doyle (1979) attempted to build a "descriptive theory of classrooms." In the context of research on teacher education, Doyle believed his study was distinctive in three respects: (1) it was a study of "how teachers learned to teach in classrooms rather than how they were taught to teach by deliberate, planned interventions. Such a focus placed special emphasis on the natural processes of becoming a teacher " (p.l) (emphasis added); (2) the study was based on a naturalistic methodology (qualitative) and (3) the inquiry was directed to explicate the event structure of classrooms and to build a general conceptual scheme for interpreting classroom phenomena. Doyle attempted to map (over three years) the way in which 58 student teachers learned to cope with the demands of the classroom environment. Through observations he expected to build a descriptive theory of classrooms rather than map classroom observations on 42 to existing conceptions derived from psychology or sociology. The findings revealed that teaching in classrooms is a challenging task that requires specialized knowledge and skills focused on the particular demands of the setting in which teachers work. The enviornmental demands of meeting groups of students for designated periods of time, conducting activities that include all students and are educative, and gaining the cooperation of the students who vary in their abilities and inclinations give rise to at least five distinctive features of the classroom environment: (a) multidimensionality: classrooms served a variety of purposes and contained a variety of events and processes (b) simultaneity: many events occured at the same time (c) immediacy: the ability to monitor the group and to respond to the immediacy of events (d) unpredictability : the occurance of multiple events and internal/external interruptions (e) history: Doyle chose these terms in order to suggest that classrooms are crowded with people, activities, and interruptions; "many events take place at the same time; and there is little time available for a teacher to reflect before acting or even to anticipate the direction of events" (p. 5). Through his research, Doyle developed a grounded theory of classroom environments that has implications for both preservice and inservice education. Beginning teachers need to acquire classroom knowledge, that is, an understanding of possibilities and consequences in classrooms, if they are to cope successfully with the demands of the environment and be able to use teaching methods (p.10). 43 The feedback given to inservice teachers as well as innovations of new teaching methods and content are usually given with little attention to classroom demands (compare with Apelman's second stage). Inservice efforts to change curriculum must be seen from the perspective of the classroom. The results of Doyle's study have more to do with how to think about teacher education than how to conduct research in this area. The basic problem of teaching and teacher education, as seen by Doyle, is the need to find ways to translate knowledge ("schema") that teachers possess into strategies ("scripts") that are compatible with the complexity of the classroom. He proposes a need for additional research on both classroom knowledge (e.g. naturalistic studies of teacher planning and how effective "scripts" are selected) and on teaching classroom understandings (e.g. visual displays of "scripts" to accompany verbal descriptions and conceptual frameworks presently comprising teacher education). He emphasized the need for more research on the complex processes of learning to be a teacher in the classroom. Fenstermacher (1979), also concerned about the influences of context on teaching and teacher education takes a slightly different, more philosophical view of the nature of context than Doyle. Fenstermacher is concerned with the nature and influence of the environment as it relates to the inductive stage of teacher education, for to him, this is the most formative stage where the influence of the workplace is brought to bear. Fenstermacher discusses specific examples of what he calls "institutional characteristics of schooling" which appear worthy of investigation as powerful influences on the beginning teacher. He includes power and authority patterns, 44 reward structures, technical language systems and symbols and organizational structures and relationships as characteristics of schooling. As a point of differentiation from Doyle, Fenstermacher is interested in how these contextual factors "influence" intentions of teachers as well as how teacher education does (or does not) influence these intentions. He hypothesizes that teachers have "intentions in storage" - that is, formulated elsewhere but discovered unuseable in practice, and "intentions in use"- i.e. what the teacher has to do as a result of the realities of induction. Fenstermacher maintains that "teacher education shares responsibilities for understanding how institutional features may be altered to facilitate the conversion of a teacher's new know- ledge or skill to intentions in use" Doyle and Fenstermacher are both concerned with the nature of the context and how it influences teachers and teachers-in-the- becoming. A number of studies related to the socialization of teachers and student teachers (Eddy, 1969; Iannoccone, 1963; Hoy and Rees, 1977; Roberts and Blakemanship, 1970) are also closely related to this concern. Elizabeth Eddy (1969) was interested in the relationship between teacher performance and the official as well as covert socialization of beginning teachers by those who had preceeded them. Her research question,"How"does one make the transition from student to teacher?" was asked with the purpose of providing a greater understanding of the social relationships within the school which deeply affect new teachers and their teaching performance. Eddy studied the socialization experiences of thirteen elementary and nine junior high school teachers from September, 1962 45 to January, 1963 who were in their first year of teaching in urban "slum" schools. The primary sources of data were weekly tape recorded reports made individually by the subjects at the college from which they had graduated. From the results of her study, Eddy concluded: (1) Upon entering the slum school, new teachers are inducted into an educational system that inhibits the learning process for most of the pupils in the school. (2) New teachers are quickly socialized into activities and ways of thinking which perpetuate the dichotomy which exists in all schools between the adult professional and the child-pupil clientele. (3) Both the formal preparation for teaching and the formal curriculum prescribed by the school emphasize the role of the teacher as one who transmits knowledge and academic skills to pupils. (4) The experience of trying to implement a curriculum among pupils to whom it has little meaning is a frustrating one. (5) Experiences of failure are common among beginning teachers, particularly among those who are unable to gain control of their pupils in ways that satisfy themselves and administrators. (6) The induction of new teachers into the school in ways which inhibit or even prohibit the establishment of significant learning processes in the classroom means that teachers are often rejected by many of their pupils and their parents. Eddy concludes that the present educational crisis in which teachers find themselves in relationship to the urban poor is not of their own making nor one which would be resolved easily. What is urgently needed she believes is "a new organization combining human and technological resources in both the teacher training centers and the schools which can incorporate a diversity of persons, including teachers, pupils, and parents, to work out solutions to common problems in local situations. 46 The research reported in this section emphasized the importance of context for teaching and teacher education, both in the class- room and in the school environment. For as Howey (1977) states: Desired improvement in the preparation and renewal of not only teachers but all educational personnel is inextricably interwoven and directly related to the improvement of schooling. Training, both pre-and in-service cannot continue to be treated as an enterprise fundamentally divorced from schooling itself (p. 28). Attention to context is of primary importance in the studies reviewed in the next section. It is one of the variables that underscores the rationale for naturalistic classroom studies. Ethnographic Research in Classrooms and Schools The present study was conducted to describe and explain the student teaching experience from the perspective of the student teacher using an ethnographic technique called participant observation. Participant observation is a field strategy that requires the researcher to become a member of a social situation over time in order to describe and explain that social situation from the viewpoint of the members under study. As Bruyn (1966) points out: Unlike the traditional empiricist, the participant observer must view a culture just as the people he is studying view it...This means he sees goals and interests of people in the same way that people see them, not as functions or experimental causes as would the traditional empiricist... it means that he sees people in the concrete reality in which they present themselves in daily experiences (p. 26). The studies reviewed in this section are either ethnographies or use ethnographic techniques to look at the behavior of people as that behavior occurs in its natural setting. This literature was divided into two subsections. The first subsection includes research which used ethnographic techniques to study the behavior of student teachers, teachers or administrators in schools and 47 classrooms. These studies were predominantly descriptive and emphasized the teacher and contextual variables as crucial elements in the process of teaching. The second subsection consists of participant observation literature. In these studies, field researchers described or explained diverse social interactions through an analysis of group or individual perspectives in classrooms as well as other settings. Thus, both subsections serve to acquaint the reader with ethnographic studies in schools, and ethnographic studies which deal with perspectives. Given the purpose of this study, these categories seemed most appropriate. Studies Which Used Ethnographic Techniques There are but a few studies that have explored the process of student teaching from an ethnographic perspective. There are some (e.g. Iannaccone, 1963; Iannaccone and Button, 1964; and Friebus, 1977) however, which use ethnographic techniques to study student teaching. They will be reported here. Iannaccone (1963) and Iannaccone and Button (1964) conducted a large scale study to describe the process of student teaching at four midwestern institutions. The first part of the study employed the pre-posttest design typically employed by experimentalists. The second part of ‘ the study, the one reported here, used ethnographic techniques to describe the process of student teaching. While self reports from student teachers' logs were the primary sources of data for this section, other techniques were utilized as well: We observed student teachers in their cooperating schools, interviewed them, attended to the weekly meeting of student 48 teachers on campus and joined them in drinking coffee before and after those meetings. We also talked with and listened to college supervisors of student teachers and cooperating teachers. We think these experiences helped us see what was in the logs and what they were experiencing (p. 30). Iannaconne and Button employed three conceptual frameworks to analyze the logs. Van Gennep's (1960) model of the "Rites of Passage" was utilized in characterizing student teaching as a transitional state between separation from adolescence and incorporation into the world of work. In addition, Chappies' and Arensberg's (1940) framework of "interaction sets" was used to describe the characteristic patterns of interpersonal relations revealed in the logs and Becker's (1961) framework for "perspectives" was employed to view changes as the student teachers progressed through their experience. Employing Van Gennep's model of the rites of passage, Iannaccone and Button viewed student teaching as a transitional state. The nature of student teaching as a transitional state and its function in the making of a teacher became the focus for the analysis. Three questions emerged from this transition frame- work: Do student teachers change their ideas and actions toward the specific problematic situations arising from the classroom context? (similar to questions raised by Doyle, 1979). If so, what are the forces or pressures to which they respond? What is the nature of the changes? (p. 74). To answer these questions the notion of interaction sets was used to describe the characteristic patterns of interpersonal relations revealed in the logs. Three distinct interaction sets emerged to provide a framework for describing a student teacher's 49 progress through the experience: (1) "the observer set"- in which the cooperating teacher teaches, student teacher observes (2) "the teaching set"- in which the student teacher teaches (3) "the dyad"- in which the cooperating teacher is super- ordinate, the student teacher is subordinate. The observer set dominates the first period of student teaching. The student teacher gradually assumes more and more teaching responsibility as s/he moves through the experience. The latter part of the experience is characterized by the teaching set. The cooperating teacher-student teacher dyad serves to coordinate the actions in the other two sets. Finally, Iannaccone and Button utilized the concept of "perspectives" (Becker et. a1, 1961) and were particularly concerned with how student teachers' perceptions changed as they progressed through the experience from the observer set to the teaching set. One of the most significant findings from this research was the detection of a common pattern of changes in perspectives by student teachers as they moved from the observer to the teaching set. Specifically, the social distance which initially characterized the dyads gradually decreased and the suggestions and evaluations made by the cooperating teachers tended to change the student teachers' perspectives on teaching. For example, aspects of this change that emerged from the logs are worthy of note. First, expressed concerns for individual children gradually began to disappear from the logs and "getting the class through the lesson on time" became the primary goal of student teachers by the end of their experience. Secondly, "it works" became the 50 primary criterion for accepting or rejecting teaching procedures, even for accepting some that student teachers had previously rejected as violations of what they had learned at the university. Also, student teachers not only began to use teaching techniques that they had previously seen and rejected, but they began to justify them as well. A third aspect of the change in student teacher perspectives that emerged from the logs was a lowering of expectations for children. Some children were defined as "behavior problems," others as "slow learners" and goals were modified into a few precise and predetermined types of pupil behaviors. This helped the student get through the lesson on time. Iannaccone (1963) and Iannaccone and Button (1964) attempted to describe the process of student teaching through the analysis of the changing patterns in student teacher perspectives as students moved from the observer set to the teaching set. Iannaccone stated the most important finding of his study: In the final analysis, it is this new basis for accepting or rejecting proposed teaching procedures which may be the most significant product of student teaching. Does it work to solve the immediate problem at hand? (p. 80) It is obvious that some of the findings of this study conflict with the goals and expressed purposes of most teacher education I programs. Another study on student teaching that employed ethnographic techniques was conducted by Tabachneck, Popkewitz and Zeichner (1978). The purpose of the study was to analyze the impact of a student teaching program on the professional perspectives of 12 student teachers at a large midwestern university. The researchers 51 attempted to explore the student teachers developing beliefs about teaching, about themselves as teachers and about a teacher education program as a help or hindrance in moving them towards the kinds of teachers they would like to become. This study was also concerned with how students acted when they were in student teaching roles. The beliefs and actions of the student teachers were used as the basis for inferences about the degree to which programmatic assumptions were met regarding the relationship of planned experiences to outcomes, both anticipated and unanticipated. As the researchers were interested in the correspondence between student teachers' beliefs and actions (e.g., how student assigned meaning to their beliefs by acting on them; how they gave meaning to their actions after they occurred) the researchers adopted a form of "field study" to explore these concerns. In the present study, we decided that a conventional psychometric model which guides most educational research was inadequate to the task of illuminating the complex interactions we wished to study...This model assumes that one can stipulate and therefore know in advance of its happening, what will take place in the process part of the model. It is just these actions and interactions in the process part of the model which we must treat as problematic in order to understand the impact of a teacher education program upon students (p. 3). Data was collected over two semesters by a team of six researchers using a variety of methods (e.g. observations, interviews, surveys). Each student was observed while teaching and was interviewed before and after each observation. The student teachers were also observed in their weekly on campus seminars, in university orientation sessions, and in conferences with their 52 university supervisor and cooperating teacher. Using Glasser and Straus' (1967) "constant comparative method" the content analysis revolved around three major themes. First, the activities, interactions, and sentiments associated with student teachers' experiences in schools were discussed utilizing the concept of "work" (Popkewitz and Wehlage,l977). Secondly, an attempt was made to assess the role of the university in giving shape to that "work". Thirdly, the researchers explored student teachers' perceptions of "the problems of teaching" and- the interaction of these perceptions with the work student teachers did in schools and the discussions that took place in university seminars and conferences. Some of the findings from this study .were summarized by Tabachnick et.al. as follows: (1) Student teaching involved a very limited range of activities and interactions. When teaching occurred, it was typically concerned with narrowly specific short—term skills or in carrying out routine testing or management procedures. (2) Student teachers had little control over their classroom activities (i.e., in deciding what, how, or when to teach). Why something was taught was taken for granted and not questioned by student teachers. (3) The student teachers defined the most significant problem of teaching as discipline, defined as controlling others. Keeping children busy and doing things that would insure. that the children moved through the lesson on time and in a quiet and orderly fashion became ends in themselves rather than means toward some specified educational purpose. (4) The student teachers seemed to develop a high degree of technical proficiency; however, they applied criteria of pupil success which were almost entirely utilitarian, separating their every day activities from their ideals by maintaining a distance between theory and practice. (5) The university within the studied context tended to legitimate technique as the most important concern of teaching. Emphasis upon getting along with established authority in order to get a job tended to discourage 53 experimentation and the creation of alternatives to existing curriculum and practice (p. 39). These results are consistent with the findings of the previous study (Iannoccone and Button, 1964) and clearly indicate that what happens in the student teaching experience is often in conflict with the expressed purposes of most teacher education programs. While program descriptions emphasize experimentation and reflection, these two studies seem to indicate that student teaching, in reality, is very close to Dewey's (1904) definition of an apprenticeship. Tabachnick et.al. concluded their study with a statement directed at those who uncritically praise the benefits of student teaching: There is no justification in our results for the naive notion that practical school experience must be useful in introducing students to a wide range of teaching abilities. Nor can it be taken for granted that the time spent in classrooms will illuminate for students relationships between what teachers do and purposes and consequences of teaching...Proposals which "solve" problems of teacher education by scheduling more student time in classrooms rest upon the apparently untenable assumption that more time spent in that way will automatically make better teachers (p. 39). The last study reported in this section and referred to earlier (Friebus, 1977) looked at the agents of socialization in student teaching to determine the range of individuals involved in the socialization of student teachers and the specific areas in which they exert influence. Criticizing the experimental research on student teaching socialization (e.g. Hoy, 1967, 1968, 1969; Boy and Rees, 1977; Roberts and Blakemanship, 1970) for its exclusive emphasis on the measurement of outcomes rather than on " the reflexive nature of the socialization process that contributed to those outcomes" (p. 264). Freibus proposed an image of socialization 54 as an "ongoing negotiated reality" which allows for the student teacher to act as an active agent in the process. Through a series of six semi-structured interviews with 19 student teachers several areas of socialization activity were examined. (1) Coaching - a collection of activities involving someone who guides and advises the trainee; provides routines, schedules, encounters with new activities and challenges to old identities. (2) Legitimation - someone sanctioning in some manner a trainee's claim to a professional identity. (3) Success and Failure - the people whom the trainees used as a reference to gain a sense of whether they were being successful or not with respect to classroom presentations. (4) Interaction with Peers - the role of peers in the socialization process A content analysis of the data revealed that from the perspective of student teachers there were a wide variety of persons involved in the socialization process. These people were both professional and nonprofessionals and assumed positions of prominence depending upon the specific socialization area involved contrary to the findings of the experimental studies mentioned earlier, socialization agents were not limited to those persons most directly responsible for the direction of the student teaching experience, i.e. the c00perating teachers. While cooperating teachers did play major roles in several of the areas of socialization, for some students and in specific areas for all students, other persons exerted a more powerful influence. For example, pupils played major roles as socializing agents, especially with regard to a student teacher's development of a sense of success or failure. The university supervisor 55, played an important role with regard to coaching and was seen as influential in providing suggestions and ideas about what to do in specific situations. Principals, other teachers, college professors and persons in lateral roles (e.g. spouses, serious boyfriends) also were seen by the students as contributing to the socialization process. At least three significant findings were reported. First, the student teachers functioned as active contributors in their own socialization. The degree to which some respondents referred to themselves as their source of legitimation is an indication that the trainees did not act as mere objects to be manipulated and programmed. The trainees function as active contributors to their own socialization (p. 267). Secondly, the student teachers did not develop and utilize a strong peer culture. This area of investigation included the least number of references. In terms of the amount of peer contact that did occur two principal functions were served for the trainees. The first was that peer contact acted as a progress indicator where the trainees could get a sense of "whether they were more or less competent, overworked or underworked, or ahead or behind schedule " (p. 268) by comparing themselves to their fellow student teachers. The second use of the peer group was as a source of support and comfort. A third significant finding was related to the role of pupils in the socialization process. Pupils played a part in almost every facet of student teaching under consideration. The pupils were not passive entities to be manipulated by student teachers, but rather they played an active role in the movement of the trainees to the role of teacher (p. 267). Finally, consistent with the findings of Tabachnick et a1. there 56 was almost total agreement among student teachers related to their lack of authority in the classroom. A major limitation of this study was the failure to use observations of student teachers to support and supplement the interview data. This research does, however, represent a different perspective on student teacher socialization than the experimental studies reported in the first part of this literature review. While in those studies (e.g. McAuley, 1960; Price, 1961; Seperson and Joyce, 1973) the cooperating teacher was assumed to be the major contributor to the process, Freibus refines and extends this view by including the roles of the pupils and of the student teachers themselves as socializing agents. Participants Observation Studies. As early as 185Santhropologists developed the method of participant observation and this method has been associated with that discipline ever since (Bruyn, p.9). The anthropologist became a member of a group or a society by living in the society for a considerable length of time carefully observing its organization and social life. These observations were recorded in field notes which were then analyzed. Social science researchers and more recently educational researchers have made use of this method when information is sought concerning the structural character- istics of behavior, roles in social settings, group life and/or human interactions. The types of interactions that have been studied vary widely. Whyte's study, Street Corner Society (1943) of the social structure of an Italian slum is recognized as a classic study in sociology. In order to examine the structure and leadership of 57 informal "gangs", Whyte learned the Italian language, lived with an Italian family for eighteen months in order to under- stand the everyday family life in the community and participated in social and political activities in the area. He analyzed the relationship among the racketeers, politicians, and businessmen and how they served to keep the social system operative. During the study Whyte was very conscious of his own role as participant observer and tried to avoid influencing the normal life and activities of the area. The life of this street corner society was not readily (or easily) understood by outsiders. As he participated in the life of the "corner boys" over a period of nearly four years, he was able to explain the social structure as reasonable and understandable given the context of life in this Boston slum. As Whyte was able to make life in the street corner society understandable, Becker, Geer, Hughes, and Strauss, (Boys in White, 1961) made the lives of medical students understandable. The- researchers studied medical students over a period of a year in order to understand, from the perspective of the students what their life was like. The researchers attended classes with the students, followed them from class to laboratory to hospital ward. They sat in on discussions, oral exams, and casually conversed with' the groups. The researchers went on rounds with the students, observed examinations and even attended surgery and deliveries. As an extension of the participant observation method, Becker, et a1. interviewed the medical students formally and informally. Three categories emerged from the data: (1) group perspectives, (2) student culture, and (3) student actions in the institutional setting. From the field notes and interviews a set of prevailing 58 perspectives were discovered and labeled as: (a) the long range perspectives: "the best of all professions:" (b) the initial perspectives: "an effort to learn it all", (c) the provisional perspectives: "You can't do it all;" and (d) the final perspective: "What they want us to know." This rich description and explanation of what happens to medical students as they move through medical school suggests that as students become institutionalized and lose much of their idealism their long range perspective becomes tranformed by the school experience into a more professional and specific perspective. Boys in White served as a model for Freibus's study mentioned earlier. Ethnographers have found classrooms and schools rich I environments for conducting participant observation studies in order to understand the behavior of children, teachers, student teachers and administrators as it occured in its natural setting (e.g. Jackson, Life in Classrooms; Smith and Geoffrey, The Complexities of an Urban Classroom; Lortie, Schoolteacher; WOlcott, The Man in The Principal's Office). Using a method much like Becker et al. Cusick (Inside High Schoolsz 1973) studied the student groups in a high school in order to describe and explain the behavior of some high school students and how their behavior affects the entire school as an organization. To understand the behavior of high school students from their perspective Cusick became a high school senior for six months. He attended classes, ate in the cafeteria and participated in formal and informal gatherings and social activities. Through observations and interviews with key informants, Cusick reported that some consistent and definite patterns of behavior were present. These patterns 59 indicated that while the students' formal small groups had little to do with the academic nature of school, they had a strong affect on other aspects of the school organization. The socio-cultural characteristics of the organization produced certain intended and unintended effects which contributed to the development of a student perspective. The student perspective was one of noninvolvement with the productive structure of the organization which often produced minimal compliance to that structure. Cusick further illustrated that the student groupness was a natural, unrecognized consequence of the school's basic organizational structure (p. 205). While Cusick studied a small group of adolescents in a school setting, Florio (Learning How to Go to School: An Ethnography of Interaction in a Kindergarten-First Grade Classroom) studied twenty-four kindergarten and first grade children in a Boston slum school. She used ethnographic techniques (participant observation‘ and video tape analysis) to discover and describe the important aspects of the interactional competence acquired by children as they learn how to go to school. The study was derived from two year's investigation of daily life in a kindergarten/first grade classroom. From an analysis of her observations, field notes, interviews and video tapes Florio concludes that a series of contexts for interaction comprise the day in the classroom studied. Two different kinds of activity were identified: whole class, single-focus activity which is directed by the teacher; and more loosely organized multi-focus activity in which the children initiate activity outside the direct supervision of the teacher. Florio concluded that being 60: socially competent for the children entailed knowing what context one was in and what behavior was appropriate to the context. By analysis of one multi-focused activity labeled "worktime" she identified four contexts for interaction from which it was comprised, getting ready, focused time, wind up, and clean up. Each of these contexts was found to make its own unique behavioral demands and change between the contexts was signalled by the teacher. Recognition of contextual shifts was an important part of interactional competence. By providing a differentiated view of both the act of teaching and classroom activity, Florio's study provides insights into questions of both 'teacher style“ and classroom 'tasks'. As such it has implications for both pre—and inservice teachers. Employing the teacher in the process of inquiry (through the analysis of video tape) it suggests an ethnographic means for him/her to reflect upon 'the teaching and learning that occurs in his/her classroom. (Another ethnographic study using participant observation to understand and describe classroom life was done for a doctoral dissertation by Valerie Janesick in 1977 ("An Ethnographic Study of a Teacher's Classroom Perspective"). The purpose of Janesick's study was to describe and explain a sixth grade teacher's classroom perspective. Using the method of participant observation and interviewing, Janesick studied the actions and statements of one classroom teacher over a period of seven months. Through analysis of the teacher's definitions of situations, his actions and criteria of judgements, Janesick described his perspective as one of creating an effective group and maintaining it in order to achieve his classroom goals. Based on the theory of symbolic interaction, four exploratory 61 questions were asked by the researcher: (1) What elements constitute this teacher's classroom perspective? (2) Which variables outside and inside the classroom influence the classroom perspective? (3) What are the assumptions that this teacher makes about students, learning and classrooms which support the classroom perspective? (4) How does this teacher synthesize the various types of information about student behavior and background into his perspective? (p. 1). Five major elements emerged as indicating the teacher's classroom perspective: (1) maintaining a strong sense of groupness, (2) focusing on respect and cooperation as major classroom goals, (3) planning and organizing the events of the school day, (4) remaining the leader of the group, and (5) displaying a style of teaching which reinforced the class goals of respect and cooperation. "This style was characterized by individualism, independence in thought and action, pride in teaching, courtesy, humor, personal relationships with students, and desire for organization and order (p. i, ii). When these elements were combined they contributed to an effective classroom group. Janesick concludes that if one wants to be a successful teacher, one must develop an effective group then the classroom remains singular, not easily manipulated or affected by outside forces. Summary Given the literally hundreds of studies done on student teaching we still do not know much about the impact of this experience on prospective teachers. Does it really provide a qualitative difference in teacher product? From the review of the literature, it can be 62 concluded that student teaching is neither all beneficial in its effects (as the many testimonials and clamor for increased field experience would lead us to believe) nor is it merely training new people into the patterns of old. Instead, student teaching seems to be a complicated set of both positive and negative consequences that are frequently subtle in nature and embedded in the process itself (Zeichner, 1978). In addition, though there have been numerous studies conducted on the experience, few have actually looked at the student teaching experience as it evolved over a period of time or at the experience as perceived by the student teachers them- selves. A few researchers have examined the process of student teaching (i.e. have considered the situation as a "whole") rather than just its outcomes (i.e. the analysis of factors in the situation in terms of which outcomes are parsimoniously predicted) and seem to have uncovered some consistent patterns of beliefs and actions which often contradict the expressed goals and objectives of most teacher education programs. Yee (1968) believes that the failure to know for sure what really matters in student teaching explains why very little empirical research has been conducted to explain hp!_it affects the candidate in his professional development. He says, "until much greater knowledge is sought and found concerning what variables really matter and how they affect behavior, systematic improvements in student teaching programs will be unlikely" (p. 96). The intent of this study is to find out from the perspective of the student teacher what really matters in the student teaching experience to her and to explain how it affects her behavior and professional 63 development. Perhaps when we understand the student teacher's perceptions of the student teaching experience we will be better able to provide better congruence between the event and the expressed purposes of the event as described by teacher education programs. CHAPTER THREE The Process of Inquiry The purpose of this study was to describe and explain the student teaching experience from the perspective of the student teacher. Though a considerable amount is known about the programs and instruction involved in educating the student teacher, relatively little is known about what really happens to her. In- formation is needed about the nature and process involved in learning to teach. Answers to questions such as, "What is it like to be a student teacher? What happens to a student teacher during her student teaching experience? How does she make sense of the things that happen to and around her?" are needed. One way of investigating the student teacher's perceptions of her experience is to record the behaviors of the participant as they naturally occur and then to determine the meaning of those behaviors for the participant. The methods and process of inquiry will be presented in the following order: 1. The Context of the Event Studied - The event was a twenty week student teaching experience of five undergraduate students at Michigan State University. 2. The Methodology - Participant observation, an ethnographic technique, used to gather data about a social event, was the method of data acquisition. 3. A Conceptual Scheme - Symbolic interaction was used as the organizational framework for viewing the event and the data collected within it. 64 Heuristically, this can be represented as: CONCEPTUAL SCHEME -METHODOLOGY Symbolic interactionism Participant Observation I A \ I EVENT Student Teaching FIGURE 3.1 A Diagram of the Study's Heuristic The Context of the Event Studied Student teaching is one of the most universally accepted practices in teacher education. While the terminology sometimes varies and terms like "clinical experiences," "direct experiences," and "field experi- ences" are used, the definition of student teaching remains the same. "Student teaching is a period of guided teaching, during which a college student assumes increasing responsibility for directing the learning of a group or groups of learners over a period of consecutive weeks." The "student teacher" is a college student assigned to a student teaching experience, however, the term is frequently used to refer to any college student preparing to teach. The student teaching experience examined in this study was a twenty week "internship experience" offered as part of the Towards Excellence in Elementary Education (EEE) Program at Michigan State 65 66 University. In the following section, the EEE Program, the participants of this study, and the field setting in which the data was collected will be described. EEE: Towards Excellence in Elementary Education The EEE program, offered by Michigan State University, in affiliation with the Lansing School District, is a three year teacher education program (students completing the program receive the B.A. degree in elementary education) that emphasizes three under- lying schemas for guiding decisions of practice: consistent use of the instructional design and instructional processes of assessment, goal and objective setting, developing teaching strategies, and evaluation across curricular areas; the application of Piaget's notions of ' growth and development; and a classroom management model built around the constructs of creating, maintaining and restoring optimal learning conditions. The program involves students in public school teaching, community activities, interpersonal communication skill development and integrated coursework. The courses integrate content teaching methods and university supervised field experiences (Barnes & Putnam, 1978). Students in the EEE program have pre-internship experiences that include university liberal arts courses, foundations of teaching courses and unified content, methods and teaching experiences. First year pre-interns (usually sophomore level students) are assigned to elementary classrooms for eight hours a week (two half days). While there, they complete field assignments from on-campus courses, assist teachers and confer with their cooperating teacher and university supervisor. Second year pre-interns (usually junior level students) spend approximately twelve hours (three half days) in elementary 67 classrooms during their first two academic terms and sixteen hours (four half days) during their third term. The second year pre-interns complete program requirements, plan and direct instruction, assist and confer with their cooperating teachers and university supervisors. The aim of the pre-internship experience, like that stated by John Dewey in 1904, is to provide pre-interns with the opportunity to validate the content and knowledge that they are learning in preparation for their internship experience. The Internship Experience. This study focused on the curriculum component of the third year of the EEE program referred to as internship. The senior year internship is designed to provide what Dewey labeled the apprenticeship experience. It allows for the practice of integrating teaching competencies, developing self evaluation and responsibility and the improvement of teaching skills. The interns are assigned to elementary classrooms approximately sixteen hours (four half days) per week for one academic term and thirty—six hours (four and a half days) a week for their second term. The remaining half day of the school week is scheduled for planning: using school-based resources, writing unit plans, preparing schedules, meeting with school support staff, making planned observations (Barnes & Putnam, 1979). During this second term the intern is expected to assume responsibility for both the instructional design and instruction of the learners in the classroom. The internship experience requires the cooperation and participation of three distinct educator roles: a university supervisor called a clinic professor [CP]; a classroom teacher called a cooperatipg teacher [CT]; and a student teacher called 68 an intern. The Clinic Professor Role. A university supervisor, in teacher preparation programs, is usually a regular university staff member who has as all or part of his/her assigned work load, the supervision of activities of student teachers and the relationships and conditions under which they carry on their work (Davies & Amershek, 1969). In the EEE program, the clinic professor spends from one to four hours per week with each intern depending on her respective needs, and assignment. During this time the clinic professor provides interns with field instruction, feedback, demonstration teaching and support and guidance in planning objectives and strategies. In addition to the instruction responsibilities Clinic Professors also have the following administrative responsibilities: 1. answering or finding an appropriate resource person to answer questions concerning undergraduate programs, 2. communication with classroom teachers concerning the teacher's personal concerns about individual children or teaching practice, 3. managing changes in undergraduate schedules due to changes in public school calendar or changes in individual class- room programs, 4. maintaining communication links with school principals, 5. providing socialization opportunities for teachers and, 6. maintaining communication links between the EEE program director, university instructors and the students. (A brief list of additional duties and responsibilities of clinic professors appears in Appendix A). The role and responsibility of the clinic professor require a 69 more extensive and active involvement on the part of the field instructor than is typically expected of university supervisors. It is assumed, in the EEE program, that the clinic professor will take a proactive role in shaping the learning and behavior of the interns. It is also an assumption that the active involvement and interventions of the clinic professor will significantly affect the growth and development of the interns. In this study, the researcher served as a clinic professor for the EEE program. This dual role, i.e. researcher and clinic professor, is explored in greater detail in the methodology section of this chapter. The Cooperating Teacher Role. The cooperating teacher is the- regular teacher of school pupils who helps direct the work of the student teacher with these same pupils (Davies and Amershek, 1969). In the EEE program, the cooperating teacher volunteers to accept an intern in his/her room to work with the children for whom s/he is responsible. The cooperating teacher provides assistance and support to the intern, however, the primary supervisory and evaluation responsibilities are carried out by the clinic professor. A full description of the duties and responsibilities of a cooperating teacher in the EEE program is contained in Appendix B. The Intern Role. An intern in the EEE program is a third year student (usually at senior level) who is engaged in a student teaching experience. The intern has had two years experience in elementary classrooms and has completed at least 80% of her university course work requirements for the Bachelor degree. The intern is assigned to a classroom of a cooperating teacher and to a EEE clinic professor 70 throughout her internship experience. In this study, the purpose was to describe and analyze the internship experience from the perspective of the interns. Seventeen interns from the EEE program volunteered to participate in the study. Eleven of them subsequently participated in the investigation- five as subjects and six as informants. The Subjects. The five interns who served as subjects were assigned to the clinic professor who was also the principal investigator of this study (the clinic professor had two interns who did not participate). As subjects, the five interns agreed to be observed and extensively interviewed, to provide the researcher with a written record of their experiences (daily journal), and to complete and return weekly questionnaires submitted by the investigator. Each of the five subjects (interns) were assigned to a cooperating teacher in school Arbriefly described later. Further, each subject was white, female and in her early to mid-twenties. Other information about the individual subjects that possibly had a significant influence on their perceptions of student teaching was their respective residences, grade level, classroom assignments and classroom organiza- tional structures during the twenty weeks. The following depicts this information for the subjects, each identified by a pseudonym: (TE) TERESA DANID: married and pregnant during her internship experience; living in her own home with spouse, internship experience in 3rd/4th grade self-contained classroom. (SA) SALLY TRIOHA:single, living in an on campus dormitory; internship experience in lst grade self-contained classroom. (SU) SUZANNE ELHAR'rgfi single,living in an off-campus appartment with three roommates; internship experience in 4th grade self-contained . classroom identified by the school district as a mainstreamed room. (ME) MELODY SAZINE: single, living in an off-campus rented house 71 with five roommates; internship experience in 4th grade self- contained classroom. In the fifteenth week of her internship, the cooperating teacher retired and was replaced by a permanent substitute. (MA) MARY_MORGAN: engaged; living in an on-campus university dormitory; internship experience in 2nd/3rd grade self- contained classroom. Each of the five subjects was familiar with the researcher prior to the beginning of her internship experience. Two of the subjects, Teresa and Sally, were supervised during their pggyinternship (sophomore and junior years, respectively) by the researcher as clinic professor. Further, the subjects were members of a three week seminar led by the researcher on content issues related to student teaching during September, 1979. Thus, before entry into the field setting, each subject had an established relationship with the researcher. In her role as clinic professor, the researcher was not an "objective," uninvolved observer. Rather, it was her responsibility to assume an active part in the internship experiences of the subjects. In addition, she was responsible for evaluating the progress and behavior of the interns. Upon her determination and recommendation, the intern either passed or failed her internship. Given this responsibility, the researcher needed to monitor this phenomenon as well as to ascertain the validity of the data being collected by, from and on the subjects. The Informants. To monitor the effects of being clinic professor to the subjects and possible effects of the school environment (all five subjects were assigned to the same building), six senior interns were selected as informants from those who had earlier volunteered to participate in the study. Of the six informants, only one was 72 assigned to school A; three were in school B; two in school C. Each of the informants had a clinic professor other than the investigator. The informants, like the subjects, were white females in their early twenties. Further, each was in an elementary (Kr6) classroom and each classroom was self-contained except for some modified departmentalization in the two sixth grade classes. The informants (by pseudonym) were: (NA) Nadine Brock, (JO) Joy Harris, (CA) Carin Parnell, (PA) Pam Tumah, (ME) Meg Velentini, and (TO) Toni Vedlak. Hence, the informants differed from the subjects in three ways: 1.) they were not supervised by the researcher as clinic professor; 2.) they were not located in school A (except Pam); and 3.) they were not interviewed on a regular basis, and did not keep a daily journal. However, the structure of their internship experience (including cooperating teacher, clinic professor, EEE Program re- quirements) was the same as that of the subjects. The Inside Informants. Two inside informants were selected because of the particularly-close relationship between each of them and the researcher. Joy Harris, during her sophomore and junior preinternship, had been supervised by the researcher. Carin Parnell was a younger sister of the researcher. Carin and Joy met separately with the investigator on a bi-monthly basis to discuss their perceptions of their internships. These meetings were characterized by informal interviewing (usually over lunch) to check the validity of the data and the plausibility of the tentative interpretations of the researcher; except for this informal interviewing, the participation of Joy and Carin was identical to that of the other informants. More extensive demographic data on 73 the subjects and informants appears in Appendix C. The Setting. The participants were assigned to one of three Lansing K-6 elementary schools. Each was an urban school containing at least 30% minority students, due, in part, to the influence of a bussing plan adopted by the district in 1972. The setting for the subjects was School A, for the informants, schools B and C. Since field observations were not made of the informants, only School A is described. School A is a K-4 building located on the south side of Lansing in a middle to upper middle economic income neighborhood. Many of Lansing's administrators have children attending School A. Approximately 180 of its 400 children are bussed to the school from surrounding neighborhoods. The school was built in 1957 in a U shaped pattern and contains a grassy courtyard located between the wings. The school is surrounded by a large open area used as a playground. The interior of the school contains 13 classrooms, a number of resource rooms including one each for learning disabled children, gifted children, the FOCUS program and remedial reading and speech therapy. A representation of School A's floor plan is presented on page 74. playground lL LL * ire T resource ro?m* (9 speec * = classrooms @v classrooms of subjects FIGURE 3.2 Floor Plan, School A 74 r—“ . . ® * * 1 parking * * area i o o . H10 HIC F~S istorage i243 * closets ’5' rest E library ” rooms ide doors sym/ lunch teacher's lounge FOCUS ffice pp, room front doors 75 The classrooms were primarily self-contained and held an average of 25 pupils. They were well lit and ventilated and contained a bank of windows covering one wall. Each classroom has separate bathroom facilities for boys and girls plus a sink and a drinking fountain. Most of the classrooms had similar floor plans and were laid out like the one below: Ll ._'j [blackboard] BB bathroom seATeqs nopurn bathroom 41 TV ursnuno; Burxurip xurs <2) BB [blackboard] BB saAIaqs FIGURE 3.3 Classroom Floor Plan, School A Summary Of the Event. Five undergraduate interns from the EEE program at Michigan State University were studied in the context of their student teaching/internship experience. Six other interns provided additional information by responding to questionnaires about their experiences. The event, internship, and the subjects, interns, were studied in order to gain an understanding of what happens to a student as she student teaches/ I . ' . 76 The goal of the research was to not only study the event but to do so from the perspective of the participants. This goal imposed at least two requirements on the researcher. First she had to "get close to this life to know what was going on in it." The role of clinic professor enabled the researcher to freely observe and participate in the internship experiences of the subjects, as well as interact with the subjects in diverse and intense ways. Secondly, she had to choose a method suitable to the study of the event, i.e. one which fit the problem. Participant observation - a method to systematically describe and analyze the social world as it exists to those under study was selected. The Methodology The purpose of this study was to describe and analyze the student teaching experience from the perspective of the student teacher. In order to describe an event (i.e. student teaching) from the perspective of the participants in the event (i.e. the student teachers) the researcher must: actively participate in the life of the observed over a period of time and must be able to build an understanding of both the inner and outer perspectives of human behavior (Bruyn, 1976, p. 9). Participant observation is a field strategy used by ethnographers to (1) obtain a disciplined but stylistically faithful description of a social meaning (Bruyn, 1966), and (2) infer and explain the interpretations and sum of interpretations used by the subjects to construct their social world. Given the purpose of the study, participant observation was a uniquely appropriate method to use for data acquisition. This section describes: (l) participant observation as a field 77 strategy; (2) procedural questions of data acquisition; and (3) critical issues in descriptive research. The description of participant observation includes a discussion of the role of the participant observer, the similarities between it and the role of clinic professor, the dual role of researcher and clinic professor taken by the investigator and the assumptions and limitations that the dual role imposed on the research. The procedural questions discussed include what evidence was collected, how it was gathered and how the data were organized for analysis. The discussion of critical issues in descriptive research presents a comparison of quantitative/qualitative research objectives and issues of reliability and validity. The section concludes with a summary of the methodology. Participant Observation Participant observation is a field strategy for studying a social event as it naturally occurs. It is based on the assumption that the actions of participants in the event are best comprehended when observed on-the-spot in the natural, ongoing environment where the participants live and work. As a field strategy it employs a number of techniques for studying the event. Participant observation involves some amount of genuinely social interaction in the field with the subjects of the study, some direct observation of relevant events, some collection of documents and artifacts, and open-endedness in the directions the study takes (McCall and Simmons, 1969). Schwartz and Schwartz explain: The observer is in a face-to-face relationship with the observed, and, by participating with them in their natural life setting, he gathers data. Thus, the observer is part 78 of the context being observed, and be both modifies and is influenced by this context (McCall and Simmons, 1969, p. 91). Participant observation, then, is a process in which the observer's presence in a social situation is maintained for the purpose of scientific investigation. The Role of the Participant Observer. The function of the researcher engaged in participant observation is to observe as fully, intensively, and extensively as possible. To maximize the data collected from the observations, the researcher attempts to integrate her role with the other roles in the social situation by participating with the observed. The intention of this participation is to experience the life of the observed so that she can better . observe and understand it. The participant observer observes a social situation and by actively participating in that social situation maximizes her observations by experiencing what it feels like to be in the social situation. The role of participant observer is often similar to the role of the clinic professor. A participant observer observes a social situation as fully as possible so that she may describe the situation. She seeks to understand what is happening in the event. A clinic professor observes the situation (student teaching experience) as extensively as possible so that she may understand what is happening in the event. She then can provide assistance, guidance, suggestions and/or can intervene in the situation when she feels it is warranted. A participant observer attempts to take an active role in the on- going events in order to experience life as the participants do. A clinic professor has an active role in the situation, by definition. Her active participation includes shaping the learning experiences of 79 the participants (i.e. student teachers). To understand how the participants make sense of what happens to and around them, a participant observer interviews her subjects both formally and informally. A clinic professor conducts weekly formal conferences and numerous informal conferences with her student teachers in order to under- stand the meanings of events for the student teacher as well as to further direct the learning experiences for them. A clinic professor collects documents and evidence and analyzes this evidence in order to both document and assist the growth and development of the parti- cipants (i.e. student teachers) in the social situation (student teaching). Finally, a participant observer collects documents and evidence to help her understand, describe and analyze the social situation. She attempts to understand both the inner and outer perspectives of the participant's behavior in that social situation. Participant Observer/Clinic Professor. For this investigation the researcher assumed both roles-participant observer and clinic professor. Though similar roles, the purpose of each differed. As the clinic professor for the subjects of this study, entry into the field setting and relationship building with the subjects (two initial problems facing a participant observer) were easier. The subjects (interns) expected to be supervised on a regular basis by a clinic professor as they had been for their two previous years in the program. They also expected the clinic professor to take an active part in their internship experiences. Entry into the situation and building a relationship with the participant observer were accepted as part of clinic professor role. The subjects seldom distinguished the two roles in the social situation. 80 The tasks of the clinic professor and participant observer were similar enough for the assumption of this dual role not to have a strong impact on the subjects. To assess this impact, a question: "What influence (if any) do you think participating in this study has had on your experiences as a student teacher? Do you think it has influenced your teaching in any way? How?" (3-8/Q10/#10) was asked on a weekly questionnaire. The responses indicated that for the subjects being in the study and/or having the researcher as a clinic professor had either little or no effect or a positive effect on them and their teaching. The following comments from two of the subjects and one of the informants are typical responses. (SA/3-8/Q10) * This study has helped me to consciously think through a lot of things and situations that might otherwise have been passed over. I am more aware of the distinction between awareness and... (PA/3—8/Q10) Not really--it has caused me to consider past week's events and how they affected my teaching. (SU/3-8/Q10) I really like writing and thinking about these questionnaires. In a way, they've become my "guided journal." I haven't felt inhibited to write my feelings and frustrations down. I know that what I write will be kept confidential and also what I write or say won't be used "against" me. I'd almost like to see questionnaires of this sort continued. It's good feedback for C.P.'s to know. It does take me several hours for each questionnaire since I tend to write volumes. Usually, I'd write out questionnaires before lesson plans because (1) I enjoyed them more, (2) I got more out of them, and (3) sometimes I could incorporate some ideas into my lesson plans. So yes, this study has influenced my teaching. Actually, I found this question kind of difficult because in my mind, I've never really separated this study from Jan Sitter my clinic professor. I'm not sure what's being done for the study * in reporting data, the first code refers to the subject (ex. SA = 8311?). the second code refers to the date (ex. 3-8 - March 8th), the third code refers to the data source (Q10 - questionnaire number 10). This code is consistently used throughout this research when presenting data for display. 81 and what's being done for EEE. So, I've meshed them together and just consider everything important for my GP to know. The assumption on the part of the researcher of the dual role of clinic professor and participant observer influenced the nature of each of them. In addition, the dual role influenced the study, the internship experience and the interns themselves. * I influenced the subjects and their internship experiences as both a clinic professor and a participant observer. ‘A§_clinic professor, I actively participated and often intervened in the experiences of the interns. I shaped learning experiences for the students. In the EEE program a clinic professor is expected to exert influence on the interns and the internship experiences. The nature of this influence, however, often depends on the individual clinic professor's personality traits, characteristics, intelligence, perceptions of the role, personal and professional biases and committment to the job and to the program. A portion of the influence that I exert on my students is ostensibly determined by the manner in which I enact the role of clinic professor. In my case, this consists of such factors as: (a)? consistently holding students accountable for their words, actions and behaviors, (b) ' actively assisting students in attaining mastery of EEE goals and objectives, (c) expecting students to behave in a responsible, professional manner, and (d) actively assisting students in assuming personal and professional responsibility for their own behavior and learning. * To be as clear as possible the first person will be used in this section only to explain and describe the essence of these influences. 82 While these factors may not differ significantly from those of other clinic professors, my individual and professional uniqueness, as well as that of the students may result in differences in‘how I fulfill the responsibilities of a clinic professor. A clinic professor is expected by the EEE program, to influence the context of the event and the participants in the event. For this reason the nature of the influence was not directly investigated. 'Ag participant observer, I also influenced the event and the participants. The mere fact that an individual is participating in a research project, with the resulting attention may influence the individual. Schwartz and Schwartz state that in field studies, the presence of an observer: ' means that movements are made and orientations are developed toward him which would not otherwise have occured...Also, the fact that the role of observer has been established may alter the course of events, even when the observer is temporarily absent (McCall - Simmons, 1969, p. 94). In this study, the presence of an observer was mitigated by the acceptance on the part of the subjects, of the clinic professor. The subjects were familiar with the "extra attention" they received, and were familiar with being observed and interviewed on a regular basis. While the presence of the participant observer did influence the context of the event, the influence was marginal, (refer to Suzanne's comments, SU/3—8/Q10, p. 73). The two roles; clinic professor and participant observer, influenced each other. As a clinic professor, I did not remain a "passive" observer; that is interacting with the subjects as little as possible in order to remain detached and maintain professional distance from what was happening. The function of this "passive" type of participant observer is to observe as if from behind a one- 83 way mirror: Maintaining contact with the observed outside the role of the observer is viewed as an interference rather than an opportunity for gathering additional data. The investigator assumes that the more passive he is the less will he affect the situation and the greater will be his opportunity to observe events as they develop (McCall - Simmons, 1969, p. 96). This passive role was incompatible with the role of clinic professor. I was unable to remain emotionally detached; an outsider. Instead, I adopted an "active" participant observer role. This type of observer was compatible with the role of clinic professor as the "active" participant observer: ...maximizes his participation with the observed in order to gather data and attempts to integrate his role with the other roles in the social situation. His activity is accepted, both by himself and by the observed, as part of his role. His intention is to experience the life of the observed so that he can better observe and understand it. He attempts to share the life of the observed on a simply human level as well as on a planned role level and uses both these modes of participation for research purposes. My responsibilities as clinic professor influenced the type of participant observer I was. As a clinic professor I was unable to assume the "passive" participant observer role; I was unable to remain detached from the event to prohibit any influence on that event. Instead I assumed the "active" participant observer role, influencing the event and observing that influence. Being a participant observer also influenced me as a clinic professor. A participant observer assumes an "objective" view of a social situation. In seeking this objectivity, to make the familiar strange, I came to see and understand more of the situation in greater depth and from a different perspective than in my previous experiences as a clinic professor. In working to main- 84 tain professional distance, I was able to more quickly see problems and potential problems and consequently intervene from a preventative stance. Being a participant observer improved and extended my skills and insights as a clinic professor. Actively participating in the event as participant observer and clinic professor certainly influenced the context of the event and the participants in the event. This influence was Seen as appropriate for the study given the following: First, in clinical work where the subject is studied during a transition or change period, participation on the part of the clinician is used to both evoke change and to provide information. Participants with different biases will produce different changes, and presumably there is no way of telling which of these changes, if any, are "objective" or "true". However, I suggest that if the participants have been properly socialized; all the changes are "objective". They all represent possible lines of development of the subject and therefore reveal a partial truth about the system being studied. It must be remembered that the clinician, if he is properly socialized, does not produce changes at will on a passive patient. 'Instead, he works within the patient's world, helping to release and develop changes that are already beginning, or helping to bring latent forces to the surface (Hamilton, 1978, p.281) Secondly, this influence on the event can be checked for its compatibility with the subjects being studied. Again, 'Hamilton says: When the researcher's actions and responses are inappropriate from the standpoint of the subject, when they produce confusion and misunderstanding, the researcher is acting on premises that are different from those of the subject...if confusion and misunderstanding persist they show that a persistent bias of the researcher which is unacceptable to the subject is preventing him from understanding the subject. A clinician who is prevented from understanding his subject by inappropriate biases can still interact with him and produce changes, but he cannot explain or interpret the changes from the standpoint of the subject (1978, p. 282). (emphasis added) 85 As the purpose of this study was to describe the internship experience from the perspective of the interns it was necessary for the researcher to constantly check the compatibility of her perceptions with those of the subjects. Procedural Questions/Data Acquisition To describe and explain the student teaching experience as the student teacher perceives it to be, the researcher gathered data from and on each subject in three principal ways: (1) field notes, (2) daily journals and (3) questionnaire responses. Field Notes: Observations and Interviews. The researcher entered the field on the first day of the subjects' internship experience (October 8, 1979). In this context extensive field notes were taken to record the observable behavior exhibited by the subjects as they interacted with the learning environment. They were observed once a week for approximately sixty minutes. Midway through the internship experience the amount of time spent in the field was increased. The subjects were then observed two to three times per week for varying amounts of time and field notes taken. After each observation the field notes were reviewed, organized and tentatively analyzed. As the inquiry process proceeded, working hypotheses were generated to explain the behavior under I study. Relationships were identified which connected portions of the description with the explanation offered by the working hypotheses. This process continued through twenty weeks, ending on the last day of internship, March 12, 1980. The researcher wanted to understand and make sense of the behavior of the subjects and to understand how the subjects made sense of 86 their behavior. Since human action and behavior are context dependent, i.e., humans rely on context to understand the behavior and speech of others and to ensure that their own behavior is understood, the researcher needed to observe this behavior as it naturally occurred. Blumer (1969) called this idea, "respecting the empirical world," for: the empirical world--the social world consiSts of ongoing group life and one has to get close to this life to know what is going on in it (p. 32). Making field observations was a way of acquiring data that was in and of the empirical social world; as participant observer, the researcher could get close to the life under study and to the people involved in it. She observed the situations with which they subjects were faced, noted their problems, saw how they handled and resolved them, listened to their conversations and watched their lives as they moved through their internship. As clinic professor, the researcher scheduled a weekly half hour conference with each of the subjects. These conferences were held during the school day in one of the small resource rooms located in the building. The agenda for the conference frequently included feedback and supportive information, suggestions and alternatives for instruction or particular problems, questions and/or hunches that were derived from either observations or previous informal interviews. Time was provided for discussing problems or items of concern to the subjects. During the course of the study three of the conferences with each subject were audio—taped and three conferences with one subject were video- taped. In addition to the scheduled conference, informal conferences and interviews were conducted throughout the study. These informal 6’. 87 interviews occurred during or immediately following observations, during lunch or social events (parties, drinks) and during non-school related functions (e.g. athletic events, transportation). Frequent informal interviews, that took place almost entirely outside the school environment, were held with the inside informants. While field observations allowed the researcher to observe what the subjects were doing, interviewing helped her take into account the ways that the subjects understood what they were doing. As this study was concerned with introspective data as well as behavioral data, it was not enough to observe the action of the subjects; the meaning that the actions had for the subjects was also required. Specifically, the aim of the interview strategy was to discover, as succinctly stated by Schatzman and Strauss (1973): ...the expressed "15's" and "because's" of...subjects. The "is" reveals their designations of the things, people and events--the objectified content of these people's reality. The "because" reveals the presumed relations among all the designations, the why's and wherefore's, the causes, processes, and reasons-~in short, the very logic of their thinking about the context of their reality (p. 69). Interviews were used to (1) verify the observations and interpreta- tions made by the researcher, (2) determine the significance of the various elements to the subject, and (3) help the researcher understand the meaning of actions by and for the subjects. The interviews with the inside informants provided an additional check on the observations and interpretations of the researcher as well as a validity check on the information provided by the subjects. The data from these interviews was particularly helpful and frequently resulted in directional shifts in the study. Field observations were helpful in understanding the event; interviews were helpful in understanding the sense made of them by the 88 subjects. Schatzman and Strauss (1973) state: Either watching or listening is capable of generating ideas; when combined, however, one "feeds" upon the other and multiplies ideas not only about what is "there" (as substance) but also about additional or better Operations for exploring them (as method)...(p. 68). Journals and Other Written Sources of Data. Each of the subjects kept a journal in which she recorded the events of the day, her thoughts, feelings, reactions and concerns. This self report data provided information on the perceptions of the subjects; intro- spective data on what was happening to and around the student teacher. The journal also provided the subject with more anonymity in reporting what she was thinking and feeling. The journals were collected, copied, read and coded on a regular basis throughout the study. Insights gained from reading the journals were often incorporated as questions on the weekly questionnaires. Often written data sources included lesson plans, a variety of written and printed information like class handouts, dittOs, samples of projects, letters to parents, permission slips, documents of performance, university coursework requirements and personal notes. Historical data from initial EEE program interviews with the subjects during their freshman year, describing their philosophy of education, reasons for becoming teachers and strengths and weaknesses were also collected. This additional written information was used primarily to help the researcher understand what was going on in the event. Often discrepancies occurred between what was planned or organized and what was observed. These discrepancies, when discussed with the subjects in interviews, often provided data important to the understanding of the subject's perspective. 89 Questionnaires. During the second half of the twenty week internship (January-March) the participants were given questionnaires that asked them to reflect on their weekly experiences and the inter— pretations and meanings they assigned to these experiences. Questions were designed to elicit information about the concerns and problem areas of the participants. The questionnaires were distributed to both the subjects and the informants. Regarding the subjects, the questionnaires served as an extension of the interview strategy. Regarding the informants, the questionnaires were an economical way of collecting introspective data (i.e. self report data was collected on a larger population in a less time-consuming, less costly manner). During the initial stages of observation and interviews, the limitation of using subjects that were directly responsible to the clinic professor became a major concern. Also, by using subjects from one educational setting (School A), the effects of the environ- ment on the subjects could not be monitored. A way of contrdlling for these two variables was to collect data from interns who were in schools other than School A and who had clinic professors other than the researcher. The six informants included one intern teaching in School A but supervised by another clinic professor and five interns located in Schools B and C who were supervised by three other clinic professors. Thus, functions of the questionnaires were twofold. They provided a means for extending information gathered through interviews and secondly, they provided a validity check on the information that was being collected from the subjects of the study. A In ten weeks a total of sixty primary, or root, questions were asked. Typically, a primary question included one or more secondary 90 questions designed to elicit more detailed information from the participants about the area of primary concern. Among the questions, two were asked seven times, two were repeated three times and three were asked two times. The remainder of the questions were asked only once. A list of the questions given to the participants appears in Appendix D. Critical Issues in Descriptive, Non-Quantitative Research Because the purpose of the study and the essential emphasis of participant observation were compatible, this methodology was chosen for the research. Participant observation differs from the more familiar and more frequently employed experimental paradigm and has a number of issues inherent to it that need be addressed. Issues of reliability and validity, and subjective bias must be considered. Qualitative versus quantitative Research. The aim of the two paradigms--experimental and descriptive-~differ. The aim of an experimental design is to test hypotheses-~where subjects are frequently removed from their natural social settings and where to meet the assumptions of statistical tests, subjects are randomly assigned to different experimental treatments. The aim of participant observation is to generate hypotheses that ultimately lead to theory that is grounded in data (Glasser_and Strauss, 1967). The data is collected from close observation of a social phenomenon. This close examination of a social phenomenon in the pursuit of hypotheses and grounded theory does not preclude such an inquiry from meeting the requirements of science. Rather, 91 ...such direct examination permits the scholar to meet all of the basic requirements of an empirical science; to confront an empirical world that is available for observation and analysis; to raise abstract problems with regard to that world; to gather necessary data through careful and disciplined examination of that world; to unearth relations between categories of such data; to formulate propositions with regard to such relations; to weave such propositions into a theoretical scheme, and to test the problem, the data, the relations, the propositions and the theory by renewed examination of the empirical world (Blumer, 1969, p. 48). Another difference between the two paradigms, is that quantitative research does not involve the examination of situations as wholes (as does qualitative research), but rather the analysis of factors in the situation in terms of which the outcome may be parsimoniously predicted. This desciptive study is not concerned with predicting outcomes of the student teaching experience nor with isolated variables within that experience. Rather, descriptive studies are concerned with retrospective generalization; that is, mapping the range of experience and organizing of that experience in retrospect (Stenhouse, l9 ). Issues of reliability and validity. The focus of participant observation studies is on a valid representation of what is happening in a social event. The data collected must have validity. The issue of relaibility is not neglected, but the central tenet of this research is such that, "the structure of events described by the researcher converge with the structure of events held by participants in the event" (Magoon, 1977). To have validity the conclusions of this study must coincide with the intentions of the subjects as they constructed their actions and behaviors in the social setting. Bruyn states: "What the researcher says is reality in the minds of those he studies, 92 must be the reality in the same way that they conceive it" (p.255). Every part of the inquiry process is subject to the empirical world and has to be validated through such a test (Blumer, 1965). Homons suggested six criterion by which the researcher can insure that what he says is indeed a reasonable representation of the empirical world under study. He proposed the following: TIM§_- the more time an individual spends with a group, the more likely it is that he will obtain an accurate interpre- tation of the social meanings its members live by. PLACE - The closer the observer works geographically to the people he studies, the more accurate should be his interpretations. SOCIAL CIRCUMSTANCES - the more varied the status opportunities within which the observer can relate to his own subjects, and the more varied the activities he witnesses, the more likely the observer's interpretations will be true. LANGUAGE - the more familiar the observer is with the language of his subjects, the more accurate should be his interpretations. INTIMACY - the greater the degree of intimacy the observer achieves with his subjects, the more accurate will be his interpretations. CONSENSUS OF CONFIRMATION IN THE CONTEXT - the more the observer confirms the expressive meanings of the community, either directly or indirectly, the more accurate will be his interpre- tations of them. (Bruyn, 1976). These six criterion were attended to in structuring the procedures for data collection. The impact on the design of these indices has been implicitly referred to throughout this section. Attending to the indices does, however, raise another critical issue in non- "C 93 quantitative studies——that of subjective bias. Subjective bias does occur in participant observation studies. In fact, a controlled subjective bias is one of the chief advantages of this method. To understand a social event, the observer gets close to the data and develops concepts and categories from the data itself rather than from preconceived, prestructured, highly quantifiable sets of concepts and categories constructed a priori by the researcher using the experimental paradigm. Therefore, the researcher must rely on his own subjective judgment and intelligence to select and define problems, concepts and constructs to describe the social event. All the constructs of the researcher are subject to verification in the empirical world and evidence must be presented to support inferences. In the qualitative domain, then, bias might be labelel a controlled subjectivity. The participant observer is also subject to a general bias to which all researchers are subject; the bias of sharing the perspective and values of the times and the cultural milieu of the subjects. As Blumer said, ...The empirical social world, in short, is the world of everyday experience, the top layers of which we see in our lives and recognize in the lives of others. (p. 35) This does not imply, of course, that the participant observer disregards attending to his biases. Instead, as stated by Schwartz and Schwartz (1969), the observer must: (1) be motivated to look for his biases; (2) look for them actively and, having come upon a bias, explore its meaning and ramifications; and (3) look upon the uncovering of his biases as a continuous process of discovery-as an ongoing process to which there is no end. (p. 103) 'f. 94 Other problems that could mislead the participant observer include the possibilities that she may not be accepted and trusted, that reciprocity and mutual interchange may be blocked, and that the subjects might be using some kind of masking behavior (Tikunoff, Berliner and Rist, 1975). To account for this, the participant observer must establish a comfortable relationship with the subjects. Schwartz and Schwartz believe that: ...When the observed become convinced that the observer's attitude toward them is one of respect and interest in them as human beings as well as research subjects, they will feel less need for concealing, withholding or distorting data. (p. 95) The researcher, as clinic professor, was able to overcome many problems of this nature. Relationships with the subjects were built on mutual past interactions and experiences, familiarity with the EEE pro- gram the role of the clinic professor and the event. The tasks of the researcher were often similar to the tasks of the clinic professor, therefore, the subjects felt comfortable and relaxed with the inquiry process. Finally, as clinic professor, the researcher participated in the events and lives of the subjects which further strengthened the relationship between the two. Summaryyof the Methodology Participant observation is a method of inquiry that does not tell how a social phenomenon works nor imply a casual relationship between elements of the event; it is a method of inquiry used to describe a social phenomenon. Its intent is to produce a "thick" ethnographic description--a description which takes the liberty of trying to infer intentions behind behaviors and explain the significance of them. Data was acquired through the following techniques-~field 95 observations, interviews, questionnaires, journals and other written sources. Over seven hundred pages of notes, transcripts of interviews and written material were collected in the twenty weeks of the study. The intent of this research was to study the student teaching experience from the perspective of the student teacher. Both behavioral and introspective data were considered important in realizing this goal. To reach the goal, the researcher had to (1) get close to the life of the student teacher in order to understand what was happening in it, and (2) select a suitable methodology to study the event. A third requirement was also imposed on the realiza- tion of this goal: a suitable conceptual framework for viewing and interpreting the event and happenings had to be used. Symbolic interactionism refers to a process of interpretation in which human beings are viewed as rational and continually involved in giving meaning to their social world. As such, it was an appropriate framework for this inquiry. The Conceptual Framework "Symbolic interaction" was coined by Herbert Blumer in 1937 to explain a social psychological perspective and methodology. Essentially, symbolic interaction is an approach to studying human group life and human conduct. The theory of symbolic interaction I was used as the conceptual framework for viewing both the context of the event studied and the data that was collected. Since this frame— work is compatible with both the event observed and the method of data acquisition, it seemed reasonable to employ the precepts of symbolic interaction in studying the problem. 96 Background and Basic Assumptions The development of symbolic interactionism can be traced to a number of writers (Dewey, Thomas, Cooley, James) though the fundamental assumptions of this theory were laid out by George Herbert Mead during the period of 1893-1931. Herbert Blumer, a student of Mead's, refined the theory, developed his own space version, and added a methodological treatment. Given this brief history of the theory, it is necessary to examine its basic assumptions. Symbolic interactionism rests on three basic premises: (1) that human beings act toward things on the basis of the meanings that the things have for them, (2) that the meaning of such things is derived from, or arises out of, the social interaction that one has with others, and (3) that these meanings are handled in and modified through an interpretive process used by the person dealing with the things he encounters. Human society consists of individuals engaged in action.' Action consists of a multitude of activities that an individual performs as he comes into contact with situations which confront him. An individual engaged in action first assesses what is happening in the situation then responds in light of this assessment. Mead calls this process "interpre- tation," that is, assigning meaning to situations and to the actions of others. This process of assigning meaning is based on two distinct areas: (1) "worlds" exist for human beings and are composed of "objects," and (2) each human being possesses a "self" which allows him to be an object to himself. Objects can be physical (e.g. desk, chair, chalk) social 97 (e.g. teacher, student, principal) or abstract (e.g. honesty, creativity, intelligence). The nature of an object consists of the meaning it has for the person for whom it is an object. A person can also be an object to himself, that is, he can be an object of his own activities and can interact with himself. To be an object of his own actions, a person must take the position of others and view himself or act toward himself from that position. A person can act toward himself (e.g. be angry, encouraging, remind himself) and can guide his actions towards others on the basis of the kind of object that he is to himself. The meaning that an object has for a person as well as the view that a person has of himself is formed through the social process cf interaction with others. Objects, including self, are social creations. The meaning of objects is formed, learned and transmitted through a I process of indication by others. The self is formed through a process of interaction in which other people are defining a person to himself. In interacting with others, an individual assesses what each person is doing or about to do. His response is made in light of this inter- pretation process. Mead identified two ways of interacting with others: non—symbolic interaction and symbolic interaction. Non-symbolic inter- action refers to reflex action--S-R behavior. Symbolic interaction interjects the process of interpretation occurring between the stimulus and the response--S—I-R. Mead believed that interaction at the human level is predominantly symbolic and that interaction of this type is a formative process. 8 In the conceptual scheme of symbolic interaction, the activity of human beings consists of meeting a series of situations in which an individual (or group of individuals) act and that this action is based 98 on what they take into account, how they assess and interpret what they take into account, and what kind of action they devise as a result. An assumption of this study was that this process of interpretation does, in fact, exist. Looking at the things that have meaning for the subjects, looking at the interpretive process in which they make meaning of the things that happen to them, and looking at the action that occurs as a result of this process were objectives of this study. Symbolic inter- actionists believe that the things an individual takes into account include his wishes and desires, his goals and objectives, the available means for attaining their achievement, the actions and anticipated actions of others, his image of himself and the likely result of a given course of action. Describing and analyzing the things that the subject takes into account constituted the study's purpose. Symbolic interactionism also contends that a person's conduct is formed and possibly altered from this process of indication and interpretation. Describing how this looks for a student engaged in the student teaching experience was the goal of this research. The basic tenets of symbolic interaction fit the purpose, goal and objectives of this study. Methodologically this framework requires the researcher to go to the empirical world to catch the process of interpre— tation. According to Blumer, the position of symbolic interaction requires the researcher to place and immerse herself in the social situation under investigation. Blumer explains: The study of action would have to be made from the position of the actor. One would have to see the operating situation as the actor sees it. You have to define and interpret the objects as the actor interprets them (p. 542). The methodology, participant observation, allowed the researcher to do this. 99 Summary The research question, what is the student teacher's perception of the student teaching experience, was studied through the inter- action of an event, a methodology and a conceptual scheme. To understand student teaching it was necessary to observe the social event as it naturally occurred. To understand the social event it was necessary to become an active participant in it. To understand the student teacher's perceptions of student teaching, a conceptual framework that explained the interpretive process had to be employed. The social event of student teaching examined here was the intern- ship experience of five undergraduate students enrolled in the EEE program at Michigan State University. The internship consisted of a twenty—week experience in which the subjects assumed increasing responsibilities for directing the learning of a group of children. Participant observation was the methodology used to study the social event. The methods and techniques for data acquisition included field notes (observations and interviews), questionnaires, and journal data. Symbolic interaction, a way of looking at human behavior as well as a way of studying human behavior, was the conceptual scheme used as a framework for viewing the event and the data collected. This position describes the interpretive process that the student teacher engages in while functioning in the event. In Chapter 4 the data will be displayed and supportive evidence for its validity will be given. The analytic process for constructing a model of the student teaching experience from the perspective of the student teacher will be discussed. ‘fd CHAPTER FOUR The Findings The purpose of this study was to describe and analyze the student teaching experience from the perspective of the student teacher. It was designed to answer the questions: What is it like to be a student teacher? What happens to a student teacher during her student teaching experience? How does she make sense of the experiences that happen to and around her? The theory of symbolic interaction suggests that a person is constantly engaged in meeting a series of situations in which he must act. The action he takes is based on what he takes into account, how he assesses and interprets what he takes into account and what kind of action he devises as a result. This inquiry of the student teaching experience in the context of symbolic interaction, examined the situations encountered by the student teacher. The focus was on how she assessed and interpreted the situations encountered; then the researcher looked at the action she devised as a result of this interpretive process. Using an ethnographic technique, participant observation, the researcher studied the student teaching experiences of five under- graduate senior interns from the Towards Excellence in Elementary Education (EEE) program at Michigan State University. The subjects were placed in an urban elementary (K-4) school in a large Mid-Michigan city. The student teaching experience, called an internship, consisted of two consecutive ten—week terms during which the subjects were expected to assume increasing amounts of responsibility (depending on their skill and ability) for the instruction and management of 100 101 the classroom. Each subject had a different cooperating teacher (C.T.), but all were supervised by the same university clinic professor (C.P.), in this case, the researcher. Six additional interns volunteered to participate in the study and provided information in which they reflected and commented on their intern- ship experiences. These six interns (referred to in this study as informants) had student teaching assignments in three different elementary schools throughout the city and were supervised by university clinic professors other than the researcher. The evidence collected from the six informants was used as a validation check and augmentation of the data collected from/on the subjects. Data were gathered in three principal ways. In the field setting, the researcher observed and took notes on the situations/behavioral interpretations/actions of the subjects. Informal and formal inter- views were conducted to find out what sense the student teacher made of situations and events that occured to and around her. The observation and interview notes from the field were combined and labeled field notes (EN). The field notes were the basic data source of the study (i.e. questions and patterns of behavior grew out of them) but additional data were also collected. Each subject kept a daily journal, (J) in which she recorded her thoughts, feelings and experiences during her internship. Further, data were collected via weekly questionnaires, (Q) which were distributed during the second term of the internship experience (January - March). The questions on the questionnaires required the subjects to comment and reflect on the experiences that they had during the previous week. (The informants also completed these weekly questionnaires). The evidence gathered from the journals and questionnaires often 102 supported the observations made by the researcher and/or confirmed information provided in the interviews. In addition, the self-report data both expanded on and provided new insights into what was learned in the field. The manner in which the subjects consistently interpreted the situations with which they were faced, evidenced by this triangulation of data, determined their perspective. As the data were collected and accumulated, the researcher was continually engaged in a process of selecting and ordering. Oppor- tunities for contact with the subjects and certain experiences were selected and ordered as was the information gathered from these contacts. The researcher chose to interview certain subjects at certain times, to observe certain occasions, to ask certain questions and to notice certain details. It was through this process of selecting and ordering that the data on each subject were collected and organized into case records for analysis. In compiling the case records, each of the subjects was regarded as a separate case, unique to itself. A case was viewed as an instance of a class, though unlike a sample, not representative of a class. The subjects of the study were instances of a class, that is, they were student teachers engaged in student teaching experiences. ANo attempt was made to determine whether (like a sample) the subjects were representative of the larger body of student teachers since predictive generalization (for which a sample is appropriate) was not a goal of this study. In organizing the data into the case records, the researcher engaged in a process of making interpretations and critiques of interpretations 103 of two types: linear and comparison. Linear interpretations were made in selecting which events to include in the case records and constituted the major interpretive element in this study. Events were selected that represented a commonality among all or most of the subjects. Events that shared a similar interpretation by the subjects were also included in the case records. The second type of inter- pretation made by the researcher, comparison interpretations, consisted of distinguishing categories of events or activities which were taken to have some identity and attempting to generalize about them. Each case was considered unique; categories of events/activities/inter- pretations within the case were identified. Following this, a search for commonalities of categories across the case records was made. .Thus, in analyzing the data the commonalities were categorized within the uniqueness of the case records grounded in the case data itself. By choosing to compile and organize the data into case records, the researcher attenuates and exposes to criticism her personal and professional biases. The intent of field studies, however, is not to produce objective data but to produce subjective data whose subjectivity is sufficiently controlled to allow critical scrutiny, that is, inter- subjectivity rather than objectivity. Such a treatment of the data by this researcher imposed a restriction on her subjectivity; to insure the internal coherence of the data the case records had to be validated by the subjects. For this study the validation was attained through follow-up interviews with the subjects. The case records were analyzed for the purpose of making retrospective generalizations: the organization of commonalities of interpretations and experiences across cases in retrospect. By doing so, the researcher attempted to map the range of experiences in order to 104 generalize within the uniqueness of the case records. The researcher drew together, categorized and labeled commonalities across case records to present a definition-by-exploration of the student teaching experience from the perspective of the subjects. The presentation of the findings of this investigation is organized into five sections. First a brief overview of the major findings is presented including a schematic diagram of the student teaching experience from the perspective of the student teacher. Next, each of the findings (represented as elements on the diagram) are described and discussed separately. Data from the case records are cited and quoted and subcategories are explored. Following each presentation of data is a discussion of an alternative interpretation for that particular finding. The chapter concludes with a summary description of the student teaching experience from the perspective of the student teacher and an overview of Chapter Five. 1 The Student Teaching_Experience From the Perspedtive of the Student Teacher: An Overview For the subjects of this study, being a student teacher meant being a junior member of the instructional team and/or the educational community. While she often performed the same or similar duties and responsibilities as her cooperating teacher, the intern felt that in the role of junior partner she was continually subordinate to the senior partners, i.e. the cooperating teacher and clinic professor. She believed that she was subject to their wishes, desires and demands. As such she was always being watched, analyzed and evaluated. In addition, as the junior partner, she felt that she was expected to have 105 problems and make mistakes that the senior partners didn't have or make. She believed that as the person of lower rank, she was often asked to perform duties and carry out tasks that were particularly disliked by the senior partner. Congruently, she was seldom asked to make (or partake in) significant decisions regarding children, curriculum and/or environmental conditions. By the end of her student teaching experience she had often assumed all or the majority of responsibilities of her cooperating teacher, and in many cases her performance matched or surpassed that of the senior partner, but she felt that she was never accorded equal status. For her, being a student teacher meant being a junior partner. Viewing her role as that of a junior partner influenced considerably the goal toward which she worked. Being the newer, and often younger member of the instructional team, the intern felt that she needed to prpye herself. She needed to prove to herself and to others that she possessed the skills/knowledge/techniques of the senior partners. To qualify for equal status she believed that she had to eliminate and/or overcome the problems and mistakes that she thought others were expecting from her. For the subjects of this study, proving oneself meant dealing with four identifiable but interdependent objectives. They were identifiable in the sense that each objective represented an entity (a definite objective) that the intern became consciously aware of and set about to achieve. They were interdependent in the sense that each of the objectives depended on the others, often overlapped with others and frequently occured concurrently. The objectives did not, in any of the case records, occur in a linear progression. The following analogy will clarify the inter- dependence. The objectives could be viewed as a picture with a shifting 106 perspective. At various times, depending on the perspective of the intern, some separate objectives assumed figure, others ground, while all remained part of the picture. From the perspective of the student teacher, the four objectives represented a series of movements by which she reached her goal: to prove herself. The actual movements by which she achieved her goal were not exactly the same on any two occasions nor did they represent a linear progression; the more the conditions varied, the more diverse were the movements. However, these four objectives represented definite, identifiable movements directed toward attainment of the goal. The four objectives were: Objective A: To Develop Teaching Proficiencies Objective B: To Attain Leadership/Control Objective C: To Modify Personal Propensities Objective D: To Acquire a Teacher Identity These objectives, like most human activity, dealt with both the cognitive and affective domains. Objectives A and B were concerned with cognitive aspects of reaching the goal state such as information, skill, technique, knowledge, learning, behavior. Objective C and D, on the other hand, were concerned with affective aspects of reaching the goal state; such as feelings, emotions, attitudes, self-beliefs. The two cognitive objectives (A and B) related to the intern's need to prove herself both in the classroom and beyond the classroom. Mastery of Objective A: To Develop Teaching Proficiencies, meant for the intern, demonstrating the knowledge and skills necessary for effective and successful instruction and classroom management. This cognitive concern was directed toward in-classroom behavior and performance. Mastery of Objective B: To Attain Leadership/control meant being recognized as 107 the leader, the person "in charge". While mastery of this objective was manifested within the classroom through intern behavior, the achievement of the objective was viewed by the student teacher in terms of the recognition which she attained from those beyond the classroom community (i.e. other teachers, administrators, parents, etc.). Like the cognitive objectives, the affective objectives (C and D) correlated with the intern's desire to prove herself in the classroom and beyond the classroom. For the intern, mastering objective C: Modifying Personal Propensities, meant altering her tendencies to act/react in a certain manner. She identified habits (talking too much/ too fast), characteristics (shyness, non-assertiveness) or traits (procrastination) that she felt interfered with her classroom performance. These propensities were tied to her self perceptions, attitudes and beliefs and until they were modified resulted in feelings of frustration, anxiety and fear. Objective D: Acquiring a Teacher Identify, also dealt with the intern's self-perceptions, beliefs and attitudes. Acquiring a teacher identity meant feeling like a teacher, thinking of herself as a teacher and more importantly for the intern, being treated like a teacher by significant others in the educational community beyond the immediate classroom environment. The behavior of the interns was goal directed. The movements by which she reached her goal were identified as a process of achieving four interdependent objectives: A) Developing Teaching Propensities: B) Attaining Leadership/Control; C) Modifying Personal Propensities and D) Acquiring a Teacher Identity. The objectives have been discussed in terms of their cognitive or affective nature and their in-classroom or beyond-classroom analogue. The objectives and their attributes are represented by a 2X2 design presented in Figure 4.1 108 (In-classroom) (Beyond-classroom) A. To develop B. To attain Teaching Leadership/ Cognitive Proficiencies Control C. To modify D. To acquire personal a teacher Affective propensities identity Figure 4.1: A diagram of four identifiable, interdependent objectives for proving oneself. Perceiving her role to be that of a junior partner, the student teacher's behavior was goal-directed; she believed she needed to prove herself, to herself and to others. The movements by which she reached her goal were identified as four interdependent, interactive objectives; two of which were cognitive and two affective. MOVement toward the goal resulted in changes in the intern's feelings, cognition and behavior. Changes in behavior usually correlated with changes in either affect or cognition, therefore only two categories were identified: cognitive changes or affective changes. Cognitive changes reflected changes in information, knowledge or learning and were characterized by statements such as: "I thought all boys and girls..."(SU/lO-8/J); "I was surprised that..."(TO/l-ll/QZ); and "I used to think I could change..." (SU/2-12/FN). Affective changes reflected changes in feelings, emotions or self perceptions and were characterized by comments like: "I feel like I'm ready to teach..."(SU/l-30/J); "I've learned that for me, it's 109 OK to make mistakes..."(JO/12—26/Ql); and "I am so discouraged and frustrated now..."(ME/l-3l/J). Changes in affect or cognition rarely occured independently; more often these changes were combined in varying degrees. Upon achieving her goal, the student teacher believed she was ready to become autonomous; to shed the junior partner/role and to "solo". In spite of her readiness, however, the junior partnership role was retained through the end of her internship experience. Once again, employing an analogy, readiness for autonomy can be likened to the launching of a spaceship. The junior partner role is similar to the booster rocket; it helps launch the mainship (the intern) into space (the teaching profession). Completing its function, the booster rocket drops back into the atmosphere where it burns out and disappears (shedding the junior partner role; gaining distance from student teaching). The main ship then continues upward entering space as a separate, complete entity (autonomy). In summary, from the perspective of the student teacher, the student teaching experience consisted in fulfilling a specified role akin to that assumed by junior partners in the business world. As a junior partner, the intern identified her goal as proving herself-to herself and to others. To accomplish the goal the intern attempted- to master four identifiable but interdependent objectives. Upon mastery, the intern believed she had accomplished her goal and ex- perienced changes in her behavior, thoughts, beliefs, expectations, and feelings regarding teaching. By accomplishing her goal the intern felt ready to jettison the junior partner role and to enter teaching as an independent and autonomous professionals A schematic diagram of this perspective is presented in Figure 4.2. mucoumua unooSum u>Hm mo o>auuuamuom one Scum oucowuoexm anemones amoroum use mo amuwmao owumaosum u~.¢ seamen Aoaom mosuemm seesaw Boom sowumumaom momv massacred mowcmmuau>wuuumm< muwcmoolo>auacwou zufluaopH nowuwmsoeoum Houusou\efi£muuvmoq mofiooofiommomm economy m Hmsommmm mo coaufiomooom masseuse anemone 0H .n mmapoz ca .0 seemed as .m ooao>on ca .4 ---tx...-....-...ox.:...-....--segn- mo>auomnoo mo>Huuonoo mo>fiuoohoo mu>auomnoo aooummmao vsomom Eooummmao sH aooummmao vsozum aooummmao sH mo>fiuoonoorw>wuuumm< mo>fiuoofioo_u>au«swoo Mammoso m>oum oeuamow one Hosanna woesswuoaom one 110 111 The Role:Junior Partner A partnership as defined by law is the relation subsisting between partners. A partner is one associated with another or others as a principal or a contributor of capitol in a business or joint venture, usually sharing its risks and profits. Junior partner- ship and junior partner are terms not recognized or defined by law. Junior partnership is an informal status and junior partner, an in- formal role commonly used in business. A junior partner is informally defined (usually by the partners) as a person of more recent appoint- ment or admission to an office or status; a person of lower rank or standing; a person who is subordinate (i.e. secondary or subject to or under the authority of a superior). The student teacher's perspective of her role in the educational community closely matched this informal definition of junior partner. In each of the experiences, the intern felt the "junior" member of the adult teaching community. She believed herself to be lower in rank or standing than either her cooperating teacher or her clinic professor and thereby subordinate or subject to their authority. (SA/2-28/Q8) "teacher fits right into [her] own little niche on [the] staff. Student teachers just aren't staff." (JO/12-26/Q1) "...Administration doesn't seem to care one way or another-whether we're there or not! Other teachers are friendly-say hi-but don't talk to you about school- type things. I feel as though they think we don't know enough about it to talk about it!" (JO/3-3/Q9) "...but I was in Detroit-which I told her [CT]; Anyway, all week I felt that she thought I was lying to her and had just called in for an extra day off. Made me feel rather uncomfortable." (ME/lO-3l/FN) "I don't feel I have the right to butt in and take over for [CT] ...it's not my place." 112 (CA/2-28/Q8) "I've been sick lately and consequently I haven't been able to do all the things I was expected to do, for example, get things ready for the next week and teach while the teacher was at camp. I've been worried that my teacher will not think I'm as responsible as I should be. She might not have as good an evaluation as she might have had otherwise. (emphasis added) Perceiving herself as a junior partner, the intern was associated with the senior partner and was engaged in a joint venture, the learning of the children. From her perspective, however, the joint venture was never truly a partnership. She functioned in the role of junior partner so that she could learn to be autonomous, i.e. could go it alone. In her view, by engaging in the internship experience she was seeking admission into the profession of teachers. Her role as junior partner was not seen by her as a collaborative relationship between herself and her cooperating teacher in order to enhance the learning of the pupils; rather, as junior partner, her role was to learn how to become an autonomous member of the profession. The Case Records. The perspective of the student teacher that her role in the learning environment was one of junior partner first emerged from the field notes (FN). In sorting and organizing the notes from field observations and interviews with the subjects the dominance that this notion had for the intern became apparent. Journal entries (J) and questionnaire data (Q) for each of the subjects were reviewed and the case records searched for commonalities. The case data contained a total of 117 statements reflecting the junior partner thought, belief and/or behavior. Examples were 113 identified and coded for each of the five subjects and from each of the three principal data sources. The available evidence from which the illustrated examples were selected areleARY; 10-8/FN, 10-15/J, ll-l/FN, 12-26/Ql, 1-3/FN, l-9/Q2, l-lS/J, l-l7/Q3, l-24/FN, 2—7/FN, 2-10/Q6, 3-3/Q9, 5-19/Q10; SUZANNE: lO-6/J, 10-8/FN, lO-8/J, lO-lS/J, lO-l8/J, lO-22/FN, lO-24/J, l—ll/Q3, l-l7/FN, l-25/Q4, l-30/J, 2-l/Q5, 2-l/FN, 2-21/Q7; m: lO-8/FN, lO-8/J, 10-15/3, 10-16/J, lO-31/FN, ll-ll/J, 1-lO/FN, l-lS/FN, l-l7/J, l-24/FN, 2-7/FN, 2-18/J, 2-21/FN, 2-21/Q7, 2-28/Q8, 3-3/J; TERESA: lO-30/J, 12-26/Ql, l-2/J, l-3/FN, l-lO/FN, l-l7/FN; m: lO-lO/FN, 10—18/FN, 11-12/J, ll-lB/J, 11-15/J, ll-26/J, ll—28/J, 12-26/Ql, l-2/J, l-4/J, l-8/FN, l-ll/QZ, 1-17/Q3, l-23/J, l-24/FN, l—28/J, 2-21/Q7, 2-28/Q8. The case data were augmented by the information provided by the informants. They also believed that they were functioning as junior partners. MEG: 12-26/Q1, l-l7/Q3, l-25/Q4; £93; 12-26/Q1, l-l7/Q3, l-24/Q4, 2-l/Q5, 2-28/Q8, 3-3/Q9; TQNI:H12-26/Ql, l-ll/Q2, l-l7/Q3; PAM: 12-26/Ql, l-ll/Q2, 245/05, 2-25/Q8; NAQLNE: 12-26/Q1, 1-ll/Q2, l-l7/Q3, 1-24/Q4, 2-1/05, 2-28/Q8; CARIN; 12-26/Ql, l-ll/QZ, 1-l7/Q3, l-25/Q4, 2-21/Q7, 3-8/QlO. To illustrate the triangulation of data available for the category of junior partner, selected examples from the case record for Suzanne are presented. This data has been arranged chronologically to provide the reader with a sense of the consistency and regularity with which this junior partner status prevailed throughout her internship experience. 112. SUZANNE: (10-8/J) "[CT] and I had just decided what I was going to do and not when or what type of things he_might be doing. So, not only did the kids wonder what was next, but so did I." (1048/FN) Observation: CT introduces Suzanne to class; says she is a student teacher and that she is here to help. (lO-8/FN) Observation: Suzanne finishes her lesson... she looks at CT (makes eye contact) CT says (aloud) "Good!" CT gets up, begins next lesson. (12-6/J) "Parent conferences have been going on and I've attended two conference times. [CTl] and [CT2] have really made me feel like I'm part of the teaching team. We all had input into the conferences. [CT ] would explain test scores, [CTZ] would show the report form, and I would demonstrate how the math program works and where each student was." (12-7/FN) "Conference: SU to CT "I feel that when you're in the room, I shouldn't say anything to the kids... as soon as you're gone I can do it but when you're here I leave it to you." (l-ll/Q3) "CT tries to write me a note every morning and, usually includes something I can work on." (2-12/FN) "I feel so anxious to get my own room, I really want to get my own room...If I were to have this room... I wouldn't have given them so much freedom...I don't think they can handle all of this freedom...they do so much better when there's structure...I keep thinking that when I have my room from the beginning... _ (2-21/Q7) "I feel that subs and new teachers are always welcome but that they tend to eat with the student teachers until they know the staff a little better." (2-28/Q8) "Student teaching you're learning and are expected to make mistakes. As a teacher, it's the situation you're in not something you are doing that is creating a problem. As a teacher you have a larger aura of respect. You're also earning your livelihood by teaching. I think that as a teacher I'll feel more confident and in control, I won't have someone else's classroom." (3-8/Q10) SU speaking about her CT's: "But, I enjoyed them both and have grown very much. They made me feel like I had a lot 115 to offer and I know they had faith that I could put a lot of things across." A Description of the Role and its Characteristics_ AS can be seen from the information quoted from Suzanne's case record, the role of junior partner was an important aspect of the student teaching experience for the intern. It contained a number of characteristics that contributed to the feeling of being a junior partner. When the student teacher first entered the classroom to meet children head on, to test ideas and theories, to gain additional knowledge and skills necessary for teaching, she had to establish her place in the learning environment. (CA/l-l7/Q3) "I told her [CP] of my concern about my role of a student teacher. She reassured me that I was prOper and checked things out with my CT." (MA/ll-l/FN) "I think it's different being a student than being the teacher...I mean, when you have your own classroom, this is your room...these are your supplies. This is still not mine." For the subjects of this study that meant functioning as a junior partner. Being the junior partner, the intern had to learn how to do what the senior partner(s) (i.e. the cooperating teacher) could and (usually) was doing. As the younger, less experienced person on the team, she was in the position of learner, a characteristic that contributed to the feeling of being a junior partner. (CA/l-l7/Q3) "I'm learning the responsibilities; it seems like I forget something each day..." (CA/l-25/Q4) "Honest, I feel like I'm learning so much and improving every day because I pick up on cues that I need to work on and I change." Being the person of lesser experience and status she was llnitially given minimal duties and responsibilities; often those not 116 favored by the senior partner(s). In the beginning phase of her internship the intern was comfortable with this position for it provided her with security as she struggled to acquire competence as a teacher. (MA/lO-lS/J) "I've been working with the slower group for English, Spelling and Reading..." (SU/lO-24/J) "I really have to make an effort to change the bulletin boards or decorate the room...[CTj]doesn't like doing bulletin boards and the task has come down to me." (TE/10-30/J) "Today I came into school in the morning to see that schedule in operation. The morning went so long. I think because I didn't do any instructing and everything was new." (SA/ll-26/J) "Today was a Conference Planning Day, [CT] was busy with report cards, so I busied myself with bulletin boards." (TO/12-26/Ql) "I pick up [the] children from [the] door and take them to the room. I handle lunch count, attendance and boardwork." *********************************9_¢*******************************‘k (SA/lO—lO/FN) Observation: CT asks Sally if she wants to do calendar today-Sally shakes her head no and does not interact with the children individually." (ME/10—15/J) "I received helpful feedback from [CT] about my discussion. I fe1t at ease, even though it wasn't one of my better lessons...I noticed that [CT] was jotting things down as I was teaching. I'm glad she is taking an interest and is trying to help." (TE/12-26/Q1) "I am not really responsible for things- when it really comes down to it, its the cooperating teacher that has to take the heat if something really goofs up." (SA/12-26/Q1) "I think the greatest difference between the two, is that as a student teacher you still have the cushion of the teacher being behind you and you don't have TOTAL responsibility for the children. More, yes, but still not the same as if it were your class right from the start." 117 As the intern gained confidence in herself, her skills and her ability to teach, the duties and responsibilities that were assigned to her increased in number and in complexity. During this period of greater responsibility, stronger feelings of confidence and competence, the student teacher began to express feelings of frustration at the limitations imposed by the junior partner role. Becoming increasingly skillful at teaching she got angry when reminded of her junior partner status by others in the environment. (TE/l-Z/J) "Today begins the first day of my full time teaching. The day was very long. I felt a little out of place as [CT] did all the teaching. I don't think she wants me to do even what I had done last term yet. I got the feeling that maybe she doesn't think I can handle it yet. I know that I do have to ease into full responsibility for the class, but our talk today made me think that it will take weeks to get into the meat of teaching." (MA/l-3/FN) "[CT] mothers me. She says things like 'bring your sweater and gym shoes' and 'Eating in the dorm is not all that nutritious-you need a home cooked meal'. It used to bother me a lot, doesn't bother me so much anymore." (SU/l-24/J) "...If I could have planned from the very beginning, I wouldn't have had...But, I guess I really don't feel like I have the liberty to change a lot of things-even though it's said that I do..." (SA/1-24/FN) "It tickled me today, someone called [CT] Miss Triola!" (NA/2-28/Q8) "I was not able to accomplish any real special project with the class due to the set up of the class and the fact that my teacher planned a play - my job- to watch the kids that weren't involved. This play took a lot of time away from the kids to do other things." ***********************************:‘ridciddn’n'c**:‘::‘n‘:.’::’c:’c:’:+****:‘:**a’c***** (SA/3-8/Q10) "I went to a building team meeting regarding one of my students as the classroom teacher. My CT was taking a final in a course she was auditing and couldn't be there. They were trying to get a social worker to go into the house to help the mother. The attitude I felt prevalent in the group was that I was just the student teacher..." 118 (JO/2-28/Q8) "The administration, i.e. the principal, just asked me today if I was a real student teacher (No-I'm a figment of his imagination). The secretary refers to me as [CT's] aide and the parents as 'teacher's helper...' it's frustrating when no one else looks upon you as a teacher and don't treat you as a colleague." (ME/2-28/Q8) "...parent's don't seem to think that a student teacher is someone to have conferences with when there's a problem automatically they go to the teacher." (MA/5-19/Q10)"I feel that my CT used me to take care of her class, make less work for herself and she really didn't care about me..." ' In spite of successfully fulfilling her duties and responsibilities, the intern believed her junior partner position was inevitable. Another characteristic of a junior partner is the limited input in significant decisions. (CA/2-21/Q7) "I have not had to fill out report cards although my advice was sought by my CT." (TO/1—17/Q3) "My cooperating teacher decides these things but I have the freedom to work within her decisions. For example, she says she wants a bulletin board on Canada, then I'm free to design it." Her perception of herself as a junior partner was that she was responsible to the senior partner (and to her clinic professor); she was held accountable for her actions and behaviors and was subject to the demands, desires and expectations of her cooperating teacher and clinic professor. This third characteristic is represented by the following examples: (NA/12-26/Ql) "Least of all I"ve enjoyed having to go by someone else's schedule and being pressured to do things a certain way." (TE/l-3/FN) Interview: TE to CP."I suppose you want to know what I'm going to be doing?‘ 119 (MA/2-lO/Q6) "She [CT] has had a great effect on my teaching now that I've conformed to her standards in order to get along. There are a few things I'd like the kids to do but she had already laid down the law the first day of school that prevents me from doing those things...Personal growth wise I feel stifled we are two different people and I'm sacrificing my 'true colors' so as not to offend her." (CA/2-28/Q8) "The greatest difference is you can't just go ahead and do something, a change or whatever you always have to check it out. That is either changing the room or anything." By the end of her internship experience the student teacher had assumed responsibility for all or most of the instructional design and instruction in the classroom. She frequently had more duties and responsibilities than her cooperating teacher. Yet, in her perspective, she retained her role as junior partner. Gradually she began to express feelings of acceptance of this role and attributed it to the nature of the teaching/learning situation; she eagerly looked forward to the day when she would become autonomous. (SU/2—lO/Q6) " I felt a commitment to continue with the math and reading program that my CTs use which I don't feel or know I won't use when I have my own classroom. Consequently, now I feel that I model more of their teaching style than I will when I have my own class. But, I know my style is very different and I have my own way of doing things which I think will come in my own room." (SU/2-l/Q5) "I can't wait for a classroom of my own. I've learned so much about organizing and structuring a classroom through my student teaching thus far." (SA/12-26/Ql) "After Fall term I learned that I will be very glad to have my own classroom." An Alternative Interpretation of the Junior Partner Role, The data used to support the junior partner role could be interpreted in light of an apprenticeship model. Speaking on the nature of apprenticeship as it relates to teachers, Dewey said, "... we may carry on the practical work with the object of giving ]20 teachers in training working command of the necessary tools of their profession, control of the techniques of class instruction and management; skill and proficiency in the work of teaching" (1904, p.24). Assuming this definition, the role of the partici- pants could be viewed as an apprenticeship. The interns were learning the practical skills of the profession. The apprenticeship model, however, suggests two ideas that did not hold true for the interns. First, an apprenticeship is a relationship between a master and his pupil. An apprentice works for the master in order to learn a trade as the master knows it, then to carry on the trade in the tradition of the master. In student teaching, and particularly in the EEE conceptualization of the intern- ship experience, the cooperating teacher is not viewed in the "master" role — teaching all she knows in order for the student (intern) to go into her own classroom and model the teaching style of the cooperating teacher. Rather than the master-disciple dyad, the re- lationship of the cooperating teacher, intern and university supervisor in this study was more a personal and professional team effort. (SA/12-26/Ql) "My relationship with my CT is both personal and professional. We have gotten together at each other's places several times to plan units or just discuss classroom problems and have had an even mixture of school and talk of personal concerns." (CA/12—26/Q1)"I feel I have an excellent relationship with my cooperating teacher. We are co-teachers. The children view us as a team. We share ideas and concerns." (SA/2-lO/Q6) "I have gone from a teacher-student relationship [with my CP] to a colleaguial relationship. It has greatly increased my confidence in myself and my ability as a teacher." Secondly, the apprenticeship model suggests a limited body of knowledge/skills/techniques of the trade which the master (who is truly a master of them all) imparts to the pupil. This was not true for 121 the participants of this study. In fact, one of the most startling revelations for the intern was the fact that her cooperating teacher and/or clinic professor did not know everything there was to know about teaching. (CA/12-26/Ql) " I also have learned that after 20 years of teaching, you still don't know everything." (TO/lO—ll/QZ) "This week was hard and [CT] and I mostly just talked about our feelings of frustration. We discussed new techniques and strategies and I found out that even though she's been teaching for 9 years she still experiences the same feelings as me." (ME/l-24/FN) "I thought your [CP] lesson was good, you got them motivated and your directions were clear..I was amazed to see, and it made me feel good to see that the kids that give me problems also gave you problems. But, you handled it effectively." (emphasis added) (SA/3-3/Q9) "That she [CP] has some of the same problems I do and when immediately dealing with them, doesn't always follow EEE to the tee. Made me feel good..." The role of a student teacher was viewed by the participants of this study as that of a junior partner. The relationship between teacher, intern and clinic professor was a partnership in the sense that they were collectively engaged in the enhancement of learning experiences for the children in the classroom and the learning experiences of the student teacher. It was a junior partnership in the sense that the intern felt, as the partner of lower rank or status (as a not-yet member of the profession), she was subordinate to the expectations of the other partners. The Goal:Proving Oneself Because the intern believed her role in the learning environment to be that of a junior partner, a person with less experience, less knowledge and less technical skill than the senior partner(s), she 122 identified her goal to be proving herself. In her perspective the role imposed the goal. As a person of lower standing, equality or status she had to prove that she was competent to be considered a teacher. So, for the subjects of this study, proving oneself meant that one had to demonstrate sufficient competency in the practical skills of instruction to convince others (and often herself) that she could teach. The Case Records. Like the junior partner concept, the goal of proving oneself first emerged from the field notes and was later supported in the journal and questionnaire data. The case records contained evidence of this perceived goal for each of the subjects from all three data sources. Forty-one supportive statements were identified and coded for the subjects and within each case record a triangulation of data supporting the perceived goal existed. The informants again validated this hypothesis and contributed a significant (twenty—two) number of illustrative examples. For most of the interns, the feeling that she had to prove herself was evident throughout her internship experience. To illustrate the predominance and duration of this feeling for the intern and to present a display of the triangulation of data that exist, the case record of Suzanne is quoted. (SU/lO-8/J) "This is it...My last year to be in someone else's classroom - - to try things and gain confidence in myself. (And that's exciting to think that next year I'll have a classroom of my own.)" (SU/l-lO/FN) "It gave me confidence, a lot of confidence, being alone (in the room) on Wednesday...gave me a chance to try things my way...I was in charge...didn't fall back on someone else... I had to do it...Yeah, Wednesdays were really important to me..." 123 (SU/3-8/Q10) "Student teaching was one of my more draining experiences. So many people are supervising and helping you --and at college and all through school the ratio was always 1:30 - now it's more like 30:1! Ha! Ha!" A Description of the Coal and its Characteristics. Feeling that she had to prove herself, for the intern, meant feeling that she had mastered the skills and techniques necessary to be considered competent to teach autonomously. To believe that she had reached her goal, she had to prove t2 herself and t2 others that she had attained this mastery. From her perspective, proving to herself was feeling accomplishment, "I did it!"; confidence, "I can do it!" and/or competence, "I really g3 capablel". Proving herself to others meant demonstrating her skills and abilities to not only the pupils, parents, her supervisors, other teachers and administrators but also those on the periphery of her experience; those who had little control or "power" over her. Proving to herself, An important aspect of the task of proving herself for the student teacher was to prove to herself that she was competent to teach. She felt that she had to prove to herself that she was able to manage the classroom, the children and the instruction. As she struggled to accomplish her goal she began to report feelings of greater confidence which were often coupled with statements relating to feelings of competence. The following excerpts illustrate this characteristic identified by the intern and were in response to a question asked on the first questionnaire: "What is the most important thing that happened to you this term (Oct. - Dec.)? 124 (TO/12-26/Q1) "I took over the math class and it was a very positive experience. I have always felt rather insecure about teaching math because it is a weak area for me. I was able to make a lot of...This was very important to me because I felt that I can be an effective teacher-even in areas I'm not so confident in!" (PA/12-26/Ql) "My CT was ill and there were problems arranging for a sub-I ended up teaching "solo" all morning. Everything went smoothly [even reading—everything under control]. My feelings - I was elated!! Miss Tumah came through!" (CA/12-26/Ql) "The most important thing that happened to me this term was the day the teacher was absent and I took over for the morning. I was responsible for moving the children from center to center, explaining the centers, starting math period. Basically every direction and facilitation was of my hands. I felt good because I knew I could handle a class by myself." (NA/12-26/Ql) " The most important thing that happened to me was having to run the whole day by myself-with the CT out of the room. It was scary and frustrating, but I knew I had to handle any situation or problem that arose-and I did. It wasn't an easy day, but it gave me a feeling of accomplishment and confidence." Proving Herself to Others. Proving herself to others, for the intern, meant demonstrating her credibility for membership in the profession. She felt she needed to prove herself to those who were primary in her internship experience - the children, supervisors, other teachers and administrators. In addition, she often felt that she needed to prove herself to those she perceived as being secondary to her experience. These people included other EEE students, district coordinators and parents. The first set of statements reflect her desire to prove herself to those of primary importance to her. The second set of statements reflect her desire to prove herself to every- one with whom she comes in contact, no matter what their relationship to her or to her internship. 125 (TE/2-6/J) "...I can't help feeling that her (another teacher in the school) uncertainty reflects on me... Once again I feel that whatever happens tomorrow will reflect on me...Why do I always feel like I have to prove myself?" (ME/l-23/J) "Another thing is that I feel very pressured- mainly because it seems like everyone, including the principal, is keeping a hawk-eye on me. I'm continuously trying to prove myself and it's really getting to me." (SU/l-ll/QB) "Since I've been in charge of management I have had to prove myself to the students." (SU/3-8/Q10) "I mean all students test teachers but they test substitutes and student teachers several times." (ME/12-26/Ql) "Kids pick up on the student part and don't totally accept [her] as a "real" teacher." **********************************'1:**************************** (TE/1-23/J) "I'm both excited and nervous about clumps of sophomores coming out to visit next week. It's going to take some preparation to keep those little "rats" from goofing up and showing off." (TE/l—30/J) "They were g2 fantastic when the sophomores were in the room...Before they got there, I reminded my kids how we could "Show off" as a class...Something must have worked...At one point when things were going especially well I told the kids how wonderful they were... Cathy said, "I told you, you had no need to be uptight, Ms. D., we'd be good for you. (JO/12-26/Q1) "When I was doing the morning, the quadrant, teacher for our school came in unexpectedly, and watched for a few minutes. I was using rhythm instruments with the kids for the lst time. It was the best day I ever had and I was not really well planned-teaching off the top of my head. Quadrant teacher told [my] CT she was impressed. I was very excited and happy. Felt like I could do anything." (JO/3-3/Q9) "The plaster stuck-took too long to dry- kids were all over the place and I had plaster all over me! What's worse, there were parents in the room that day (of course). I was embarrassed and humiliated and frustrated." For the student teacher who perceived-her goal as having to prove herself to others the feeling of always being watched, judged and evaluated was ever present. The intern felt that these 126 significant others expected her to fail and therefore she needed to prove that she wouldn't. (SU/lO-18/J) "Sometimes I feel that other teachers judge the teacher on how well behaved the students are in the hall. [CT] is not that strict in the hall. I felt like I had to have the students very quiet or get nasty looks. This is such a conflict-especially for student teachers-You're being judged and evaluated all the time-The students test you, the teachers don't think you have enough authority or control, your prof's evaluate you and the parents moan when they find out their child has a student teacher. What pressure!" (TE/12-26/Ql) "Biggest difference [between being a teacher and a student teacher] is who you have to answer to-less people are concerned with a teacher than with a student teacher." (ME/l-24/FN) "I literally made myself sick, physically sick because of all the pressure I'm under, I mean, I'm being watched all of the time." An Alternative Interpretation for the Data on Proving Oneself. Instead of interpreting the data to mean, "the perceived goal of the subjects of this study was to prove oneself," one might interpret that goal to be, "learning all there is to know about teaching prior to entering the profession." There are two major arguments that would support this alternative interpretation. First, historically the goal of the student teacher has been defined by teacher educators as "practicing" what she has been taught and applying the theories that she has learned in her education courses in the context of an actual classroom. While this perspective has changed in recent years for student teachers, it is still employed by the EEE program as the goal of the preinternship (pre-student teaching) experience. As former preinterns the subjects of this study were familiar with this goal. More recently, however, the goal of student teaching has changed (as evidenced by the change in name 127 from practice teaching to student teaching. The goal of student teaching as now defined by teacher educators is to experiment, to probe, to inquire and to learn for oneself how the theory previously studied applies to real pupils in actual classrooms. Had the interns accepted this goal (which the evidence suggests that they did not) the inter- pretation that the goal of student teaching is to learn all there is to know about teaching prior to entering the profession would be valid. Secondly, the intern entered the classroom with a history of schooling as a pupil, an accumulation of professional courses and two years of part-time experience in actual classrooms. As a preintern she embraced the goal described in the preceding paragraph; she perceived her task as a learning task (i.e. she was to learn everything she could about teaching). For her, the EEE fieldwork component was another course required by the EEE program in the sense that she viewed the goal of her fieldwork in much the same way she did her university classwork. She was there to learn about math/reading/science, etc.; something she didn't know or had little knowledge of prior to taking the course. As she progressed through seven terms of course and fieldwork she built a knowledge base on how to teach. She was truly a "student" of teaching. However, as she began to prepare herself for her internship experience her perspective began to change. She no longer expressed the desire to learn all there is to know, or even to learn about; instead her comments reflected the perspective that now she had been taught how to teach, it was her task to go into the classroom and prove that she had learned; that she could do it. There were no longer any professional courses left in the EEE program for her to take, therefore she must know enough to teach. Her goal was to prove that she could. While the intern did not totally ignore or fi 128 reject the perspective of herself as a "student" of teaching during her internship experience, she expressed greater concern about proving to herself and to others that she could do what she had been taught. Thus, she moved from the perspective of "learning as much as I can during this experience" to a newer one, "proving that I can do what I have learned." The need to prove oneself during the student teaching experience was nurtured by at least two factors in the intern's perspective. First was her view of the professionals that surrounded her; Second was time. From the perspective of the student teacher, the university supervisor, the cooperating teacher, other teachers and the subject matter specialists in the school appeared to know everything there was to know about teaching. They seemed to do everything well. They had no problems, no insecurities. Teresa's comments about her cooperating teacher cogently illustrate this point. (TE/ll-Zl/J)"I never thought [CT] being there made any difference in how I taught until this week. I felt a lot freer and more at ease. I had a science lesson in which the experiment failed. .1 didn't worry too much about seeming stupid or incompetent. I could laugh and try again. The kids understood. I know [CT] would've understood too, but I suppose I still feel a need to impress her, after all-she really is a pro and I don't want to come across as being too amateur." (emphasis added) The intern believed that she had a lot to do in a limited amount of time so that when she became a teacher (i.e. was certified) then she too would know everything there was to know about teaching. This limited amount of time concerned the intern. She viewed it as a parameter of her experience and felt that time was "running out" for her. She viewed her internship experience as her last chance to learn all she needed to know before she became autonomous. She saw her internship experience as her last chance to prove to herself 129 and to others that she was competent to be certified as a teacher. (ME/lO-3l/FN) "...everyone expects me to act like a professional when I'm not a professional...I'll be a professional when I get my own class." From the perspective of the student teacher the goal of student teaching was, therefore, not to learn as much as possible about teaching prior to entering the profession, but rather to prove to herself and to others that she had mastered the skills and techniques necessary to be considered competent to teach. It was toward this goal that she worked. The Objectives Perceiving herself as a junior partner, the intern believed that she needed to prove herself-to herself and to others. She had to cope with the complexities of teaching to the extent that she was able to do a competent job of instruction. She had to cope with the complexities of changing her perspective of self to the extent that she was able to think of herself no longer as a student, but as a teacher and to behave the way she believed a teacher would behave. She had to prove to herself and to others that she had mastered the skills and techniques necessary for successful teaching within the classroom and she had to prove to herself and to others that she had the attributes and qualities of a teacher beyond the confines of the classroom. For the subjects of this study, proving oneself was a goal one had to reach cognitively and effectively. To master the goal, the intern had to prove herself both in and beyond the classroom environment. Cognitively, the intern identified areas within the classroom that she needed to deal with in order to be successful. To prove herself she had to demonstrate competency in instruction and management skills. With 130 time and experience she improved; in return she felt more confident and worked on more complex skills. As she learned, she changed as the following quote from one of the informants, Carin, cogently illustrates. (CA/1-25/Q4) "Honest, I feel like I'm learning so much and improving everyday because I pick up on cues that I need to work on and I change. I'm making and gaining materials all the time to enhance my program. I feel like I've waited so long to be a "real" teacher that it's about time to be one." The information relating to this aim of mastering teaching competencies was organized into a cognitive, in-classroom objective: to develop teaching proficiencies. To the intern proving herself meant that she had demonstrated her teaching proficiencies. . "I The expressed aims of the intern suggested a second cognitive area on which she concentrated. Much of this information was related to the intern's desire to attain leadership and/or control. She wanted to be "in charge"; entrusted with the responsibility, care and management of the classroom milieu. In actuality (as most subjects realized) she Eg§_"in charge" she did assume primary responsibility for the organization and management of the children and the classroom. What the intern assessed to be lacking was recognition beyond the classroom that she was the leader, the person in control. It was important to her that administrators, other teachers, parents, etc. confirmed her leadership and control by recognizing that she was the person in charge. Objective B: To Attain Leadership/Control, as defined by the intern, was a cognitive aim, important in the classroom certainly but beyond the classroom, imperative. Besides working on the practical skills of instruction, the intern also spent a great deal of time, thought and effort on emotional issues. She wanted to develop teaching proficiencies and she worked 131 very hard at attaining this objective. However. her success was often impeded by certain propensities. As she became aware of these habits, traits, characteristics that interfered with her success in the classroom she consciously set out to modify them. Two examples illustrate this objective, one from Mary's journal early in her internship experience, and one from a questionnaire response from Joy, an informant, during the 19th week of her student teaching experience. (MA/ll-l/J) "I need to "ask" more instead of assuming the answer is no. I have a problem with being shy and it's getting in the way. I really want to break out of my old habits but it's hard. Monday is a new day and another chance." (JO/3-3/Q9) "I feel that, due to my presence, the atmosphere is not as relaxed as it would be if I weren't there. [CT] is much more easy going than I; I get too uptight too easily." The fourth identified objective, also related to affective concerns, was the acquisition of a teacher identity; an objective that stretched beyond the confines of the classroom. For the intern who had spent 14-16 years of her life as a student, viewing education and learning from the perspective of a pupil it was often difficult, surprising and exciting to see the "old" through "new" eyes. She began to think of herself as a teacher, to see education and learning from the teacher's perspective and to feel like a teacher. In the beginning of her internship she was surprised and delighted that the children, her cooperating teacher and parents referred to her as a teacher, not a student helper, an aide, or a student teacher. More frequently her opinion, advice and suggestions were sought about pedagogical problems. She expressed feelings of amazement - (i.e. "Wow! He looks at me like a teacher!; "Mrs. T, you're asking 95?"). As others treated her as a teacher she began 132 to see herself in this role. She felt like a teacher, no more the student, but a "real teacher" (CA/l-25/Q4). Teresa speaks directly to this point in the following excerpt quoted from an interview about the 15th week of her internship experience. (TE/2-7/FN) Interview: "I never thought I'd really feel like a teacher...'This is Teresa being a teacher'...I feel like a teacher all of the time now...I'm not two people anymore- Teresa being a teacher and Teresa not being a teacher—now I'm only one...I've noticed this in dealing with adult friends... I say things like, 'You really should put your coat on,' 'Did you turn off the bathroom light?'...or even I've noticed, I was ‘ reading a story at my house to a group of children and I said .'Would someone like to go get my purse for me?'...the kids immediately raised their hands - without even thinking about it. I have these teacher behaviors..." These four objectives: A.) To Develop Teaching Proficiencies; B.) to Attain Leadership/Control; C.) To Modify Personal Propensities; and D.) To Acquire a Teacher Identity provided the framework for the student teaching experience of the subjects of this study. It was with these cognitive and affective aims in mind both in the class room and beyond the classroom that the intern worked toward accomplishing her goal - to prove herself. When she believed she had successfully mastered the objectives, she felt she had reached her goal and had successfully completed her student teaching experience. (MG/12-26/Ql) "...It was a feeling of acceptance by my CT and students through being given increasingly more responsi- bility and positive responses by the students both to the lessons and myself. It gave me the feeling of competence, success, gratification and satisfaction. I feel happy in the profession I have chosen and confident in my ability." (CA/l-25/Q4) "I'm excited with my performance as an intern, my placement, and my ability that I want to say, "enough of this prep! I'm ready!" 133 Objective A: To Develop Teaching Proficiencies Developing teaching proficiencies for the intern, meant gaining the necessary information, knowledge, skills and techniques to deal successfully with the complexities of subject matter, planning and implementing instruction and organizing and managing the class- room. This cognitive objective had certain identifiable characteristics associated with it that made it separate from the other objectives. Yet, it often interacted with and was dependent on characteristics of the other three objectives. For purpose of presentation, Objective A has been chosen for discussion first; this selection in no way connotates a linear progression of objectives beginning with A. Rather, Objective A is viewed as 'figure' for this section, while the other objectives remain 'ground'. Figure 4.3 illustrates this perspective. In Classroom Beyond Classroom A: To Develop Teaching Cognitive Profic encies B. Instruction Organization and Management plans executes ,// Affective children milieu Figure 4.3: In classroom, cognitive objective: To Develop Teaching Proficiencies 134 The Case Records. Developing teaching proficiencies was identified as an objective of the interns primarily from the in- formation collected through classroom observations and interviews. As a working hypothesis, this cognitive concern was developed into a tentative category and evidence from the field notes, journal entries and questionnaire responses was coded and organized. From the data gathered, two sub-categories emerged within this objective. In developing teaching proficiencies, the intern had to attend to two important tasks of teaching: 1) instruction and 2) organization and management. Developing teaching proficiencies in instruction, for the intern, meant developing skills in planning lessons and executing them successfully. Organizing and managing were skills related to the children and the classroom environment. Evidence supporting the aim and desire of developing teaching proficiencies was collected for each of the subjects from each of the data sources. The case records related to Objective A include:(MARY} 10-16/J, lO-l7/J, 10—18/J, lO-22/J, 10—24/J, lO—29/J, 10-30/J, ll-S/J, 12-26/Q1, l-9/J, l-9/Q2, l-lO/FN, l—ll/QZ, l-lS/J, l-l7/Q3, l-22/J, 12-24/Q4, 3-3/Q9; SUZANNE: lO—8/J, lO—24/J, ll-7/J, ll-lZ/J, ll-Zl/J, l-ll/J, l-ll/Q3, l-lS/J, l—24/J, l-24/Q4, l-30/J, 2-1/05, 2-7/FN, 2-14/J, 2-21/Q7, 3—3/Q9, 3-7/J, 3-8/Q10;_MELQQY: lO-8/J, lO—l6/J, lO-31/FN, 12-26/Ql, l-ll/Q2, l-lS/FN, 1-28/J, 2-1/Q5, 2-21/Q7;_I§§E§A: lO—22/FN, lO-23/J, lO-24/J, ll—l/J, 11-1/FN, 11- /J, 11-8/J, ll-lS/J, 12-26/Q1, l-2/J, l-3/FN, l-9/J, l-lO/FN, l-lO/J, l-l7/J, 1-17/FN, l-l8/J, l-21/J, l-22/J, l-23/J, l-30/J, 2-4/FN, 2-7/FN, 2-13/J, 2-14/J, 2-26/J, 2-27/J, 2-29/J, 3-7/J, 3-13/J;.§AL£X: ll-12/J, 11-13/J, ll-l4/J, ll-l4/J, ll-l9/J, ll-21/J, 11-27/J, ll-28/J, 12-26/FN, l-8/FN, 1-10/J, 1-ll/J, 135 l-l4/J, l-lS/J, 1—17/Q3, l-l7/J, 1—18/J, 1-23/J, 1—24/J, l-25/Q4, l-21/J, 1-29/J, l-29/FN, l-29/J, l-31/J, 2-l/J, 2-l/Q5, 2-14/J, 2-19/FN, 3-3/Q9:) Again, the information gathered from the informants validated this objective of the subjects: to develop teaching proficiencies. The data available from the questionnaire responses of the informants include: _Qg§: 12-26/Q1, l-ll/Q2, 1-17/Q3, l-25/Q4; g9}: 12-26/Ql, l-ll/QZ, l-l7/Q3, 1-24/Q4, 2-2l/Q7, 3-3/Q9, 3‘7/Q105.EQ§1‘ 12-26/Q1, l-ll/QZ, l-l7/Q3; NAQINE} 12-26/Ql, l-l7/Q3, l-25/Q4, 2-l/Q5, 2-21/Q7, 3-3/Q9, 3-9/QlO; .QARIN; 12-26/Q1, l-ll/Q2, l-l7/Q3, l-25/Q4, 2—l/QS, 2—21/Q7, 2-28/Q8, 3-8/Q10; PAM: 1-21/Q3, l—28/Q4, 2-5/Q5, 3-12/Q10.) A Description of the Objective. Developing teaching proficiencies and proving oneself were interrelated, cyclical tasks on which the intern worked during her student teaching experience. She worked at developing technical competence as a teacher. When she experienced success at instruction or organization/management her self-confidence grew which then resulted in her feeling that she had, in part, proven herself. Accomplishing this, the intern reported feeling more competent and more confident. Sally and Teresa's comments illustrate the cyclical nature of experiencing success and proving oneself. (SA/12-26/Ql) "The supervision of our work is beginning to feel more as if a colleague is observing and helping us through joint work or suggestions, to work toward a common goal. That leads to a good feeling that makes me feel as if I am totally free to test out my wings and take what EEE has given me and start to really form (concretely) my own teaching philosophy. The job can be whatever I make of it." (TE/3-l3/J) "I am no longer dependent on the encouragement and support of CP's, CT's and other students going through similar experiences with me...I know I can function well on my own..." There were two interrelated areas that the intern worked to 136 develop teaching proficiencies: 1.) instruction, and 2.) organization/ management. Technical skill in instruction included planning appropriate challenging lessons and the ability to successfully implement them in the classroom. Planning was of great concern to the intern and critical to develOping proficiency in instruction. When the intern believed that she had planned well she felt successful, that she was indeed developing the necessary teaching proficiencies. (NA/lO-l7/J) "The group was very ready to begin english and spelling today. The lesson I wrote up for english was suited (finally) to their level. I had always assessed too high for the group." (TE/lO-24/J) "Today's math went very well. For once I planned the correct amount of work for the group. Maybe I am learning them at last." (TE/3-7/FN) Interview: "Yeah, lesson plans...those first lesson plans...writing 20 minute lessons twice a week...now I can do lesson plans...I have the resources and the background... know where things can be found...I don't have to think about what comes next...don't have to research so much..." (NA/l-25/Q4) "Before I was just doing plans two or three days in advance and this showed me how much more valuable planning is when it's done way ahead of time-it gives you more flexibility. This made me feel more confident and sure of myself." (SA/2-l4/J) "No way did today seem like a Monday! I think I came to the conclusion as to why it went so well. I had lower expectations for a Monday morning, although I was well planned and very relaxed. I think I'm less relaxed when I am less well planned." (emphasis added) A question designed for the weekly questionnaires asked the participants to describe their most successful lesson during the week and to tell why they felt this lesson was more successful than others they taught. The responses contributed to a greater understanding of the importance of this aspect of the objective and its relationship to both the goal and the other objectives. Overwhelmingly, the interns attributed success to either good 137 planning or well executed lessons (38/69 responses). Various other responses were given that related indirectly to successful planning and implementation of instruction. Some interns felt their lesson was successful because either the children enjoyed it or there was high interest in the topic; the lesson was challenging and/or interesting to the students. (SU/l-ll/Q3) "I felt good about this because several students got really fired up about this and offered suggestions about backdrops and other play experiences." (MG/12-26/Ql) "The response to the game and their desire to play it during free time showed me they were having fun and learning." (SA/2-l/Q5) "The kids loved it!" (ME/2-21/Q7) "The kids liked the lesson, they were attentive and contributed well during review." (TO/12-26/Ql) "The children loved it (because of the materials I think). I felt it was successful because interest was so high and they picked up the idea so quickly." (JO/2-21/Q7) "It was successful and the kids smiled and giggled the whole time so I assume they enjoyed it." "Challenging" lessons were believed to be successful because the intern felt that the children worked hard and learned something. (CA/12-26/Q1) "I feel they enjoyed it and learned to follow directions, working together with a sense of "I can". (MG/l-ll/QZ) "I felt it was successful because they could apply the concept outside of the context of the literature lesson. I felt very qualified they were able to grasp and transfer the information I taught." (NA/3-8/Q10) "I felt it was successful because they learned the concept and had a good time." While competent planning and execution of lessons were the most frequent responses to this question, at least two interns mentioned that the lesson they were describing was successful because the intern, herself, enjoyed or was excited about it. 138 (JO/12-26/Q1) "...kids really wanted to do it. Also, I was having a lot of fun-rubbed off on the kids." (NA/2—l/Q5) "I think the students really enjoyed it... I know I enjoyed it." Giving clear directions was one strategy thought necessary for successful execution of a lesson. Providing variety within lessons was another important aspect, that the intern attributed to a successful lesson. (JO/l-ll/QZ) "I can tell that the directions were good because they did so well..." (TO/l-ll/Q2) "It went much better I think because I gave very clear directions and told them my expectations. The kids worked a lot better." (NA/l-17/Q3) "I felt this lesson was more successful than others because my directions were clear(I covered all bases) and the students knew just what to do because of the discussion period and the interaction that occured." *********in!*********************************************** (MA/12-26/Ql) "This was successful because it was a change of pace from usual lessons." (PA/l-ll/QZ) "The children enjoyed it. It was more successful probably because it was a fun way to use adjectives." (TO/l-l7/Q3) "I think this was enjoyable because I used something they really liked, to teach something that's usually a drag." It is interesting to note that the reason for successful lessons most frequently reported in the journal data differed from that reported on the questionnaires. While few questionnaires reflected this rationale, in the journals the interns most frequently ascribed success of lessons to the lack of behavior problems. (MA/lO-l8/J) "Art went well-the group finished their pumpkin peOple quietly. The class is more manageable now than they were in the past." (SA/l-23/J) "I was so pleased with their self-motivation and the 139 way they controlled themselves in small groups doing different things. The mood in the room was so good that I walked around smiling and observing all of the independent workers." As planning and implementing instruction were linked to the goal of proving oneself, this characteristic also related to another aspect of the objective. To develop teaching proficiencies the intern believed that she needed to acquire the ability to manage the children and organize and manage the classroom environment. For the subjects of this study, managing the classroom milieu meant successfully getting a group of learners through a lesson or series of lessons within a limited amount of time. It meant creating a classroom climate conducive to learning; maintaining this environment and restoring the climate constructively when necessary (Lanier, 1970). Each of the interns experi- enced different degrees of success in this area; some mastered the skills more quickly than others. Regardless of the speed or degree to which she attained mastery, when she experienced success , she began reporting feelings of great confidence and competence in her skills and abilities. (MA/ll-5/J) "My group is coming along great. The whole class as a group is working together better now. I give instructions and they can fulfill them..." (MA/l-lO/FN) "Things are terrific...I'm having a ball... mostly because of the way I'm handling the class...I'm getting more confident..." (MA/l—9/Q2) "[CT] told me I managed the class very well Monday... I felt good...because I realized it was alright to do what was comfortable for me." Some interns experienced smaller gains in this skill than others yet by the completion of the internship experience most (with the exception of Melody) believed herself to be successful in classroom management. When sharing their feelings the interns reported both the smaller and larger successes. 14o (MG/l-ll/QZ) "...I feel successful at the management aspect of my teaching..." (SA/l-l8/J) "The rest of the A.M. went very well. I am very comfortable and relaxed with our a.m. schedule and with my flexibility with my present unit. If we need a few more minutes, I can adjust my time accordingly." (CA/l-25/Q4) "...I felt good because of the ability I had to manage the class on my own." (SU/2-l/Q5) "I had the best day on Thursday. It was super! Everything flowed. I'm trying a point system and it's really working. They didn't need many reminders, etc. (a EEE pre- intern) said that she really noticed a difference." (NA/2-21/Q7) "I think the most important thing that happened was that everything ran as it should. This makes me feel confident that I will be a good teacher and have the ability to run a classroom effectively." (CA/2-28/Q8) "...I h0ped to accomplish my control, managing of the class and workload and I have." In analyzing the data, it became apparent that the successful management of individual or groups of children often depended on the relationship that existed between the intern and the children and/or individual children. To get more information about this potential correlation, a question for the weekly questionnaires was designed in which the interns were asked to describe the children with whom they had the lgggt difficulty. In many instances, the characteristics of the children described were similar. Children with whom the intern experienced the least difficulty were described as good workers (ME/12-26/Ql; MC/12-26/Ql) who always keep on top of their work (CA/l—25/Q7;SU/l—25/Q7; NA/12-26/Ql; NA/l-l7/Q3; SA/l-l7/Q3; MG/12-26/Ql; MG/1-25/Q7). These children work without bothering others (NA/l-l7/Q3; MA/l-l7/Q3; TO/l-l7/Q3), have little difficulty with the work (PA/12-26/Q1; MG/12-26/Ql; ME/12-26/Ql), enjoy and put effort into their assignments - frequently 141 with creative results (TO/l-l7/Q3; SU/l-ZS/Q7; JO/l-l7/Q3; JO/12-26/Ql). These students not only complete their assignments (CA/l-25/Q7; SA/l-25/Q4; MA/l-l7/Q3; TO/l-l7/Q3) but also hand them in on time (TO/1—17/Q3). They also have the ability to find and do independent activities when they are finished with their assignments (NA/12-26/Q1; NA/l-l7/Q3; NA/1-25/Q4; CA/l-ZS/Q4). The interns described these children as being "well adjusted to school" (TE/12-26/Ql; CA/12-26/Ql). For them, that meant that the children got to school on time (CA/l-ZS/Q4), were socially and/or academically successful (TE/12—26/Q1; NA/12/26/Q1; SU/l-ll/QZ; MG/l-l7/Q3), and were enthusiastic about learning (PA/12-26/Ql; CA/12-26/Ql; TE/12—26/Q1; JO/12-26/Ql; JO/l-l7/Q3). The interns had little difficulty with children who participated in class (NA/12-26/Q1; SA/12-26/Q1; CA/l-25/Q4; JO/l-25/Q5), frequently volunteered (SU/l—ll/QZ), listened to the teacher (PA/12-26/Q1; MA/12-26/Q1; NA/l-l7/Q3; CA/l-25/Q4; JO/l-24/Q5; MC/l-ZS/QS) and followed directions (PA/12-26/Ql; TO/l-l7/Q3; MC/l-l7/Q3; JO/l-24/Q5). The interns described the children with whom they had the least difficulty as being quiet (SA/12-26flQl; JO/12-26/Ql; TO/1-17/Q3), cheerful (JO/12-26/Q1; TO/l-l7/Q3), self assured (SA/12-26/Ql), responsible for themselves (SA/l—l7/Q3) and mature (SA/12—26/Ql; JO/1-17/Q3). These students were seen as being helpful (MA/12-26/Ql; SA/l-l7/Q3; TO/l-l7/Q3; SU/l-25/Q4) and cooperative (PA/12-26/Ql; MC/12-26/Q1; CA/l—ZS/Q4; MC/l-ZS/Q4; SU/l-25/Q4) with both adults and peers. The intern thought that these children were seldom behavior problems (MC/12-26/Ql; ME/12-26/Ql; NA/l-25/Q4). As Teresa succinctly stated, these children "are very easy to teach," (TE/12-26/Q1), 142 but seldom remembered, as Suzanne insightfully notes, "He's definitely one of the average students whose name I'll forget first." Upon recognition of this, she adds, "I want to make an effort to get to know him better" (SU/1-30/Q5). The questionnaire responses provided some insights into the varied perspectives of the interns regarding individual children; each intern viewed children in her own unique way. The field note and journal data provided additional ones. The following examples were chosen for quotation because they represented to the researcher the general (or typical) perspective that each of the cited interns had regarding children. (SA/l-lO/J) "Timmy pulled out of his gloomy, blue mood. He wanted to help me by cleaning up and I felt a strange close- ness and bond to Timmy." (MA/l—lS/J) "I'm having a terrific time enjoying the kids. I'm trying really hard to make them understand that I love them as people and want them as friends first and pupils second. I think they're getting the message because of a few letters I've gotten in my classroom mailbox." (TE/2-14/J) "Someone spilled red Kool-Aid all over Jim's desk. He is such a good natured kid, he just said, "don't worry about it: and went to work cleaning up the mess. I would love a whole world of Jim's!" (SU/3-7/J) "Things are really winding down. I'm going to miss the kids alot, I know. They've put up a "Say Something Nice" board. On it, Craig proposed to me...Dan has been hugging me alot lately and getting all teary-eyed." The intern believed that to prove herself she needed to develop teaching proficiencies. She had to acquire the necessary skills and techniques required for successful planning and implementing of instruction. In addition she had to become proficient at managing the classroom and the children in it. As she experienced success in instructional design and instruction and as she experienced success in classroom management she began to report feelings of competence 143- and confidence in herself. She began to believe (at least in part) that she was proving her teaching proficiency to herself and to significant others. The mastery of this cognitive objective brought to the foreground one of the affective objectives: D.) To Acquire a Teacher Identity. These two objectives (like the others) were interdependent; as she developed her teaching proficiencies she began to feel like a teacher. The comments of Melody, Nadine and Suzanne illustrate this interdependence. (ME/l-ll/QZ) " This week I was alone in the room with a sub. It was a great experience and alot of hard work. The children listened well and worked well. I only ran into some problems on Thursday. It made me feel like I was the teacher and for the most part, it really boosted my confidence." (NA/l-l7/Q3) "The most important thing that happened to me this week was I took over the whole day and it went smoothly. The students did not do anything out of the ordinary but followed their daily routine. The big difference is that they listened to me solely without worrying where my CT was. I gave all instructions for the day and I felt the students didn't have any problems in confusion. Having a day run smoothly and effectively is a big boost to morale; I really felt like the teacher." (SU/3—8/Q10) "I've accomplished the task of feeling like I'm a teacher who "can." Objective B: To Attain Leadership/Control While working to develoP teaching proficiency in the classroom through successful manipulation of the variables of instruction and classroom management, the intern identified another aim; she wanted to attain leadership and/or control. As she grew more successful and confident in planning and carrying out her lessons, she began to believe that she was "in control" of the classroom and the situation. As she became a better classroom organizer and manager, she expressed a need to be recognized as "the leader." She wanted t2 lead and to 144 be tpg-lggd. The intern stated that she wanted to manage, direct, guide and conduct the affairs of the classroom organism; she wanted control. What seemed of greater importance to the intern was not what occured in the classroom but what occured beyond the classroom. The intern expressed a great desire and anxiousness to be recognized by others in the learning community as the leader. She longed to assume preeminence. Often she was the leader and/or assumed the leadership position within the classroom, however, to those outside the classroom the leadership position remained with the cooperating teacher. She believed that as she successfully developed and demonstrated teaching proficiencies she would attain the leadership/control position. Objective B: To Attain Leadership/Control, like Objective A, was concerned with cognitive aspects of reaching the goal state. Attainment of Objective B was dependent on the acquisition of new information, knowledge, learning, skill or techniques. Unlike Objective A, however, the attainment of leadership/control was most important to the intern, beyond the classroom. In this section, objective B is perceived as 'figure' and A, C and D as ground. Figure 4.4 illustrates this perspective, on the following page. WW. 145 In classroom Beyond classroom Co nitive B- To Attain g A Leadership/Control To Lead The Lead cond ct preem nence direct egulator Affective C. guide initiator D. Figure 4.4: Beyond classroom, cognitive objective: To Attain Leadership/Control The Case Record. The case records contain a number of supportive examples of the interns' aim to attain leadership/control. Evidence that could be coded for objective B was gathered from each of the sub- jects and for most (5/6) of the informants. Data were reported in the field notes, journal entries and questionnaire responses. The case data from which illustrative examples were selected for presentation are: The Subjects: ‘MARY: 10/17/J, ll-7/J, l-7/J, 1—8/J, l-lO/J, l-l7/FN; SUZANNE: 10-6/J, lO-8/J, lO—l8/J, ll—7/J, l-lO/FN, l-ll/Q3, l-17/FN, l-l8/J, l-24/J, 2-7/FN, 2-10/Q6, 2-12/FN, 2-14/J; MEEQQX: ll-ll/J, l—ll/J, l-lS/J, 2—l/Q5, 2-11/FN, 2-19/J, 3-12/FN; TERE§§:lO—18/FN, 10-23/J, 2-3/J, 2-7/J, 2-7/FN, 2-8/J; SAELX: 12-26/Ql, l-4/J, 1-11/J, l-lS/FN, l-Zl/J, l-24/FN, l-25/J, l—28/J, 2-4/FN, 2-14/J, 2-21/Q7, 2-21/FN, 2-28/J. 146 The Informants: MEG: l-ll/QZ; JOY: l-l7/Q3; NADINE: 2-10/Q6; l-ll/Q2; cum: 2-28/Q8; £531: 1-21/Q3. A Description of Objective B. To the intern being in a position of leadership meant being both in control and in charge. She wanted to assume the control (or custody) of the classroom. She wanted to be en- trusted with the care, management and responsibility of the children within that classroom. (MA/1—10/J) "...I'm finding the days going by fast since I am doing all the guiding of subjects in the class (except for cursive writing)." (MA/1-17/FN) Interview: "1 used to never think ahead to next week, but now I prepare ahead...I'm more organized, I know what I want to do...it's alot different...it's totally my class... it feels good." (MG/l-ll/QZ) "...I have felt increasingly more control over their behavior as they tested my authority the first few days and are now reSponding to me much the same way they responded to the C.T. I feel accepted as a teacher and not merely a student with no control." (NA/1-11/Q2) "...but I was also scared because I was not strong enough to hold them back. It was frightening because I was not in control of the situation." (SU/2-12/FN) Interview: I feel so anxious to get my own room,’” I really want my own room...if I were to have this room, I wouldn't have given them so much freedom...they do so much better when there's structure...I keep thinking that when I have my own room from the beginning..." While being in control was one characteristic of attaining leadership, the recognition of being in control by others was another very important aspect of this objective. The interns reported difficulty attaining this leadership recognition from the other adults with whom they worked (i.e. substitutes, aides, cooperating teachers, parents) and they felt dis- appointment and often resentment when this occurred. (TE/10-23/J) "The sub told me she never saw so many angry children...My future plan of action is to try to relax more and enjoy what's happening more. I've got to get the notion that I must be in total control out of my head." L47 (ME/11-11/J) "I'm feeling that I would be able to run the room as [CT] does - I can't wait to get my own room. The sub took over at times when I thought I was in control." (SU/1-24/J) "I've taken over the afternoon and I also think in my mind, I've taken over everything. I was thinking that I would tell [CT] and [aide] what I wanted them to do or where I needed them, etc. But, it doesn't seem to work that way. Everyone seems really comfortable working on what they've been working on and nobody wants to change. When the recognition did occur, the intern reported feeling wonderful (and often surprisedl). (SA/1-17/J) "Right after recess, [principal] came looking for [CT]. Joanne's dad was here about some problem... [principal] asked me to sit in and see if I could address the situation. It felt really neat." (MA/1-29/FN) Observation: "The secretary came over the P.A. System: "Mns. [CT’]? children were absolutely quiet. A few children looked up from their work; one boy said aloud, 'Miss M!'" (SA/1-31/J) "I got a call from Timmy's Dad asking where Timmy went when he went to Mrs. reading teacher . They are worried...I told him that...I pulled it off fairly well. the thing that thrills me is the call was specifically for me. And I handled it.I realize that a choice I had was to tell Mr.G. that I would have a better idea after talking to [reading teacher]. I handled it though! Phew!! (emphasis added) Teresa's comment in her journal following a week of independence (her CT was on jury duty and Teresa was left "in charge") cogently expresses the feeling of delight upon (TE/2-4/J) "It's fun being boss and having others ask me what to do." Attaining leadership/control was an important objective for the intern. It was a state interdependent with developing teaching pro~ ficiencies, modifying personal propensities and acquiring a teacher iden- tity. When others recognized her leadership, the intern reported feeling like a teacher; she believed that she was successfully moving toward her goal. 148 Objective C: To Modify Personal Propensities As the intern worked to develop teaching proficiencies and to attain leadership and control she concomitantly noticed personal habits, traits and/or characteristics that she believed impeded her progress or suc- cess. She sometimes attributed the difficulty she was having planning and carrying out instruction, managing the classroom and/or getting "in control" to her lack of patience, low tolerance level, shyness, inadequate feelings, insecurities, etc. Her personal tendencies to act or react in a certain manner, frequently interfered with her mastery of the objec- tives and impeded the accomplishment of her goal. Until she modified these propensities she believed she would not feel successful. - —~*~"*" Objective C: to Modify Personal Propensities was concerned with affective aspects of reaching the goal; aspects like feelings, self-per- ceptions, attitudes and beliefs. Modifying personal habits, traits or characteristics was an emotional experience for the intern. She reported, at various times, in varying degrees, feeling angry, sad, disappointed, anxious, worried, frustrated, disgusted with herself for her inability (perceived inability) to modify these identified tendencies. While the intern worked to modify her personal propensities she did so primarily in the context of the classroom. She was cognizant of the fact that her habits and traits interfered with her classroom performance and this was not necessarily congruent with her out-of—school behavior. For example, she perceived 'shyness' as a disability in terms of its effect on her success, shyness kept her from taking the initiative in matters that were important to her in the classroom. Objective C is represented here as 'figure' while the other objec- tives assume 'ground.' This change in perspective is illustrated in Figure 4.5. 149 In classroom Beyond Classroom Cognitive i C. To Modify Personal Propensities Traits Habits \. I D. Affective \Characteristics’ \ . , \ I \ , \ Teaching Figure 4.5. In classroom, affective objective To modify personal propensities The Case Records. The identification and labeling of Objective C: To Modify Personal Pr0pensities (as with the other objectives) first emerged from the field notes. Feelings of failure, inadequacy and personal inabilities were frequently stated and explored during both the formal and informal interviews. The intern often attributed instruction, manage- ment and interpersonal relationship problems to personal traits, habits and "faults." Instructional problems were attributed to misassessment of children, poor time management, lack of creativity, general lack of knowledge in either the scope or sequence of content. Interpersonal relationship problems, the intern attributed to her own shyness, lack of ambition, hyperactivity, aggressiveness, lack of committment, etc. In 15C either case, when problems occured, the intern's propensity was to blame herself for something she "should have known" or something she "should be able to do." The data compiled from the journals and questionnaires also supported this aim of the intern to modify personal propensities. Description of the Objective. Modifying personal habits, traits, and/or characteristics was often a difficult task for the intern. Deal- ing with the resulting feelings of inadequacy, frustration, disappoint- ment, anger or depression when lessons failed or management problems reoccured consumed much of the intern's time and attention. Difficul- ties in establishing and/or maintaining relationships with cooperating teachers, the university clinic professor, other teachers, the children or administrators resulted in great emotional tension and unrest. Upon reflection of the problem, its cause or perceived cause and the feelings that resulted from the problem, the intern identified possible courses of action in which to overcome the problem. In most cases the act of re- flection aided the intern in successfully modifying her propensities that interfered with attainment of the other three objectives. A few illustrative examples of the intern's process of reflection follow. (SU/10-18/J) "Overall I didn't feel very good about the day. I'm a perfectionist and I like to feel competent. I feel like I just made it though the day with a 2.0. Not good enough. I want a 4.0" (SU/2-7/FN) "I'm so frustrated...there's so much I'd like to try to do or to do differently...like individualized with no group work...I sent a kid to the office and I thought I'd never do that...I think I'm pretty patient but sometimes I'm not as patient as I thought I was." (SU/3-8/Q10) "The incident with Mike is still the "worst" (thing that has happened to me) in my mind. I had to deal with alot of inadequate teaching feelings at that time. It was the final blow. But, I did overcome [it] and come back the next day although it took alot of strength from within me to do so." 151 (MA/ll-l/FN) Observation: Mary cried during the conference. When asked why she was crying she said it was because she attributes this non—approach behavior to being shy and that she is always working on it. When she hears that she is not doing well she feels that she has had a setback and it hurts. (ME/1-28/FN) "I thought about our talk yesterday. I wasn't acting very responsible at the time. Well, it's time to make amends." (TE/2-7/FN) "I felt incompetent after school and it wasn't even my fault...(she describes an incident with a child missing the bus because of a quarrel with another child, says, "he wasn't hurt but he missed the bus ..." the principal said, "Oh, John, you missed the bus!") I can't even get the kids to the bus on time...I felt responsible for it...it's my job to get the kids to the bus on time..." One particular area in which personal habits or characteristics impeded the intern's progress was the implementation of instruction. The intern was upset when lessons did not go as planned; when she forgot things or misassessed the children or lacked creativity or enthusiasm. Some typical comments of this type from all three data sources are pre— sented below. (SU/10-8/J) "I wasn't thrilled with the way I executed or facilitated them...it seems like I didn't say half the things I had intended to say (my mind drew a blank)." (SA/11-13/J) "I could have done a little more inspiring a presentation. It needed more student participation." (NA/3-3/Q9) "The worst thing is when I didn't teach a lesson as I planned, I got nervous and forgot to follow it and lost the kids. But, the worst part was I didn't stop and regroup or get on track, I just left it as it was and let it run. I felt like a real failure and that I'cinever be able to get it together as a teacher." (TE/10-29/J) "Today I learned a lesson in over estimating what a third grader is capable of or how explicit instruction needs to be. I assumed that the children understood the concept when they didn't." (NA/ZijQS) "The most problems I have in planning lessons are making ones that don't run over the time I have planned or only take half of the time." (ME/10-24/J) "That dictionary unit is starting to bug me. 152 I'm thinking that I need to be more creative than just using ditto worksheets - I know that can get boring." (TE/11—1/FN) Interview:"Just functioning...nothing special going on...can handle the class ok...plan things that work... mediocre! What I'm doing is mediocre...I want to do something super?’ (JO/2—21/Q7) "I just don't know where to go with them as they know beginning and ending sounds, vowel sounds, color words...other things I try seem too hard." (ME/2-7/FN) "I'm almost through the science unit on air pres- sure, temperature, wind...I have rain and clouds to go through... after this point, I have a few weeks left and I know I have to still do science so I have to think of something to do..." To gain further insight into the description and importance of this objective for the intern, a question was designed for the weekly ques- tionnaires that asked the participants to describe their least success- ful lesson for the week and to give the reason for its lack of success. The data gathered in this way augmented the interpretation made earlier. Lack of success was most frequently attributed to poor instruction on the part of the intern. TERESA: 12—26/Q1; SUZANNE: 1-4/Q2; MELODY: 2-1/Q5, 1-17/03, 3-31/Q7; SALLY; 12—26/Q1, 1-17/Q3, 2-1/Q5, 3-8/Q10; NADINE; 12-26/Q1, 2-1/05, 3-3/Q9;_§AM3 12-26/Q1; J93; 12-26/Q1, 1-11/Q2, 3-7/Q10; ceging 12-26/Q1, 1-25/Q4, 2-l/Q5, 3-8/Q10. (CA/1-25/Q4) "...I do not think I communicated that purpose well or completely...I just did not process it well. Also I really had no clear way of evaluating the purpose." (JO/l-ll/QZ) "I...I was very unprepared. I simply could not get to it...I didn't have specific strategies in mind and felt sort of panicky." (PA/12-26/Q1) "The kids were bored-I should have been more prepared and ready with fun activities." (MC/1-17/Q3) "I felt the lesson was unsuccessful because I didn't give enough explanation which led to difficulty playing the game. The approach I took didn't quite fulfill my objective and the children lacked understanding of what the game attempted to do." 153 (NA/2-1/Q5) "My directions were unclear, they became very frustrated and the whole lesson turned out to be a struggle for both me and the kids." A few interns reported that their lesson was unsuccessful because of equipment failure, lack of materials, the weather, etc. While the intern experienced strong feelings or emotions about the incident gener- ally she did not own responsibility for this type of failure. Teresa and Sue's comments are of this sort. (FE/12-26/Q1) "...the blue powder changes to yellow - well, it's supposed to change to yellow - nothing happened... we waited some more and still nothing...the kids started to giggle...I pulled out the manual to see if I really did the right thing. I did. Started all over again. After 10 minutes, it finally changed color. Kids were so off the wall by this time. Should have given them a break. Hard to get them back in control of what they were doing. I ended up getting angry and frustrated. Finally called the whole thing off. A major failure." (SU/l-25/Q4) "...I went down to the gym after lunch and set it up for relay races...When I took the class down, somebody had taken everything away!" A second major area in which personal idiosyncracies and propen- sities caused problems for the interns was classroom management. WOrking with large groups and the variables connected with managing such groups resulted in some failures or perceived failures for the intern. (SU/1—11/Q3) "...I had a hard time getting their attention outside - - unfortunately I didn't have a whistle - - as they were lined up outside a fight broke out between four boys which I learned had been brewing..." (SU/3-8/Q10) "...dress rehearsal Wed. afternoon was a disaster. Chaotic would be a better word. It was the first time we were all together...but it was not the first time some students decided not to cooperate..." (MA/l-24/Q4) "I don't feel the students were uninterested- just wanted to see how much they could get away with - I feel it was more unsuccessful than other lessons because it took more time to get them on task and to stay there!" (MA/12-26/Q1) "...Once they began, the water started to fly -- literally. Only a few peOple were deliberately 154 making messes but the others did make a mess too. Four people at a time would stick their arms in the tank at the same time not realizing what would happen." (NA/1-l7/Q3) "...The students were restless and talky. I also felt like they had to be perfectly silent. I myself got hung up too much on the management of the class and got uptight I didn't allow myself to relax so the lesson was not enjoyable for either the students or myself." Classroom management presented frequent problems for the intern and re- sulted in feelings of inadequacy and failure. To give the reader a brief overview of the impact that this skill had on the intern's feelings and emotions, examples for the case records for each subject is quoted. SALLY: (SA/11-12/J) "Calendar went kind of slow today. Took 'til almost 9:30. How can I help them keep their hands to themselves and yet enjoy calendar with friends? (SA/l-IO/J) "I need to brush up on my individual student behaviors. I find I can stop the behaviors that are target behaviors, but for a whole week now, I have done no constructive rechanneling of behavior." (SA/1-15/FN) Observation: You kids have been terrible today, acting like animals. I've had 3 fights...running...Do we run in the room? No, of course not!"...now go back to your seats and get busy..." (SA/1-25/Q4) "The fact that I don't have the methods by which to channel a behavior to a more constant acceptable form - When Valerie, Denny, Andrew,...act up in their unique, individual ways, I can stOp them, but cannot divert a behavior or reconstruct a behavior." MARX} (MA/10-8/FN) Interview: (CP: what was going on in your head during that group?) "feelings of helplessness... didn't know what to do...I wanted to strangle Eron, wanted to smack him...just didn't know what to do." (MA/10-24/J) ,"[CT] was out of the room for more than half an hour. The group went wild when I cued the helpers to do their jobs and the others to get their coats. It was total chaos! I felt at a loss as to what to do. I actually had to physically handle some of the kids to have them sit down." (MA/1-17/FN) Observation: Did something happen when I was out of the room? You're acting totally different from when we came in from recess and I don't understand...I have something planned that you showed me that you liked before... 155 and you are stopping me from doing it... K, I want everyone to put their heads down, Angel, please turn off the lights... I want everyone to put their heads down...EVERYONE!... Trent and Paul, you too!" MELODY: (ME/1-31/J) "During the time that I was in the room alone I found it very challenging to say the least. Peter, Dan, Phillip, Ken, Sandra were constantly giving me problems, Peter especially! His behavior was intollerable." (ME/2-7/FN) Interview: "It's been a bad week...management... after all that yelling and screaming...they're really testing me...when I was just beginning to love the room...Behavior problems with five boys and Sandra...I feel that they don't respect me...I've never been left in the room so much... never...it's normal for them to take advantage...they're not going to get away with anything..." (ME/2ull/FN) Observation: "I feel that when I teach I like to be listened to, not laughed at...do you think we can ' continue on now without any interruptions?" (ME/2-28/Q8) "Behaviorally, Peter is the only boy that I see should not be in a normal classroom. He needs to be in a correction institution." SUZANNE: (SU/l-ll/Q3) "...I separated the boys and the class 'EUIEfEd’right down...I kept the four boys behind and we had a pow-wow. I think alot of things got resolved...Boy this was an experience, though! I was really frustrated a lot, just trying things until I found things that worked." (SU/1—24/J) "Afternoon recess really gets confusing. Trying to do a lesson after recess is almost impossible. It seems like an awful lot of problems from recess continue in the room. This is really frustrating." (SU/2-11/Q5) "I really felt like a martyr on Thursday after a.m. recess. I was really frustrated. We were working on a. practice letter writing lesson. They were quiet during instruction, but were obnoxious while they were writing. The little verbal fights that started during recess carried over. I was so frustrated that I gave them a lecture-double barrel style..." (SU/2-7/FN) Interview: "This classroom is really frustrating, sometimes...the afternoon is coming along better...usually during spelling is when things get to me the most...also when we have a substitute there...that's bad...if the kids know a sub is coming in...that's bad...if there's a sub, forget it!9 156 (SU/2-12/FN) Observation: "I don't want to hear any talking until I'm finished explaining directions...This is really taking a long time to get going...I can't speak over these voices...I'm getting really frustrated..." It is interesting to note here that not one piece of evidence was found that suggested Teresa experienced difficulty in this area. Manag- ing large groups presented personal problems for the intern and so did dealing with individual children. When the intern had difficulty with an individual child she often felt very unhappy, inadequate and person— ally responsible. Frustration and anger were two other emotions the intern reported, followed by guilt for experiencing these feelings. When asked to describe on the weeekly questionnaires the children with whom they had the most difficulty, the interns described similar characteristics. This description was corrob rated by the information collected from the informants. The intern reported difficulty with children who were not "well adjusted" to school. Children not well adjusted were perceived to be less mature physically (TE/12-25/Q1), not able to handle group situations well. ~ (TE/12-26/Q1; CA/12-26/Q1, 1-17/Q3, NA/12-26/Q1, 1-17/Q3; SA/12-26/Ql, 1-17/Q3; SU/1-25/Q4, 3-3/Q9) and had difficulty getting along with their peers (CA/12-26/Q1; NA/12-26/Q1; SA/3-3/Q9; SU/1-25/Q4, 3-3/Q9; MG/12- 26/Q1, 1-17/Q3; JO/12-26/Q1). These children were described as disruptive. They disrupted other students and kept them from finishing their work (CA/12-26/Q1; NA/12-26/Q1, 1—17/Q3; TO/1-17/Q3; SA/1-17/Q3; MG/1025/Q4), disrupted the teacher especially during direct instruction (CA/1-25/Q4; NA/12-26/Q1, 1-17/Q3, 1-25/Q4, 3-3/Q9; ME/12-26/Q1; JO/1-17/Q3, 3-3/Q9; MA/l-24/Q4) and generally disregarded classroom rules and procedures (CA/12-26/Q1, 1-17/Q3, J0/1-24/Q4). 157 The children with whom the intern had difficulty were usually below the other students academically (NA/12-26/Ql; SU/1-25/Q4; MA/l- 17/Q3). These children often found assignments frustrating (NA/12-26/Q1; JO/12-26/Q1; MA/1~24-Q4) and did not/would not/could not complete them (CA/1—25/Q4; NA/12-26/Q1; TO/l-17/QB; SU/1-25/Q4, 3-3/Q9). The interns viewed these student misbehaviors as the child's way to get attention (CA/1-17/Q3; SA/12-26/Q1; JO/12-26/Ql; 1-23/Q4). Difficult children were described as being either in constant motion (TE/12-26/Q1) or quiet and withdrawn (TE/12-26/Q1; SU/3-3/Q9). Those in constant motion misbehaved both verbally and physically. By verbally, the intern meant that the children were loud (TO/12-26/Q1; JO/1-17/Q3, 12-26/Q1, 1-24/Q4, 3-3/Q9), boisterous (ME/12-26/Q1, impertinent (TO/12-26/Q1), obstinate (SA/1- 17/Q3, 1-25/Q4; JO/l-l7/Q3), sarcastic (J0/3-3/Q9), swore (JO/12-26/Q1) or made other indescribable, disruptive noises (JO/3-3/Q9). Physically disruptive children were impusive (SA/12-26/Q1) had difficulty staying in their seat (SA/1-17/Q3; SU/1-25/Q4; JO/3-3/Q9; MA/1f17/Q3, 3-3/Q9), sitting down (JO/3-3/Q9) or sitting still (JO/12-26/Q1, 3-3/Q9). Those that were viewed as quiet and withdrawn exhibited the following behaviors: they doodled a lot, were uptight or showed no emotion (TE/12-26/Q1), fiddled with pencils, stared straight ahead (CA/1-25/Q4) were sullen (TO/12-26/Q1) moody and/or testy (SA/1-17/Q3). These children sulked (SA/1-25/Q4), were listless (MA/12-26/Q1), refused to look or listen, mumbled (JO/l-17/Q3O and/or were just not interested in what was hap- pening (JO/lO-24/Q4)in the room. The intern reported her surprise at having difficulty with students who were academically high (NA/12-26/Q1, 1-17/Q3; ME/12-26/Q1) who displayed all or part of the behaviors already mentioned. 158 In addition to the questionnaire responses, evidence that the intern felt personal failure due to some propensity of hers in dealing with children she identified as behavior problems was extracted from both the journals and the field notes. The following excerpts are quoted from the subjects' case records. SALLY. MELODY (SA/11-21/J) "From my group—the saving grace, I hate to say it, was that Valerie was absent for days 3-5; all the days for smooth group interaction. It's too bad in the respect that it would have helped Valerie tremendously with her problems of working in a group (touching)." (SA/1-15/FN) Observation: "Andrew is your book up front? Who could count how many times I had to ask where you should be? (A: "5") At least...shou1d I have to ask you 5 times? Can all of you hear?" ‘ (SA/1-30/J) "I also separated Donny during WRR because he was choosing not to work..." (SA/2-21/FN) Interview: "Did I tell you we had a confronta- tion with Andrew's Mom...he threatened me...I called his mom and she came in...he was entirely different with her...so docile...sounds like he doesn't do any of the things he does in school at home...he says she whips him...she was very co- operative...today he was just as bad so I said I would call his Mom...when it came time to do it, he started to cry." (ME/1-31/J) "[Peter's]:behavior was uncontrollable and intolerable. I had one day where Peter threw everything off my desk, threw chairs and yelled back at me in a fit of anger. He also pushed a desk at me. That was it. I had [principal] call his mother. She came from.work to pick him up. Peter was suspended for the rest of the day." (ME/2—7/FN) Interview: "Peter is the biggest problem...if I could get him to listen to me...that's my main goal." (ME/2-11/FN) Observation: "If you think you are so smart, Peter, you come up here and teach..."Peter says 'OK'-strolls up to the front of the room, children are laughing, ME is. sitting in a student's desk, legs crossed, right leg tap- ping the floor quietly." SUZANNE (SU/10-18/J) "Donny was my biggest problem during testing. He refused to finish his test. I didn't want to get into a power struggle but I was at a loss as to what to do." 159 (SU/Z-lZ/FN) Interview: "What can I do with Mike?... he goes around hitting the other kids, destroying their property...he's so bad right now I just let him walk around the room...I do remove him from the classroom but [principal] just sends him.back...so does the counselor...I don't know what he needs...I don't know how to help him..." (SU/2-28/J) "It's taken me awhile to write about Mike and I really felt that was a major blow. I feel like I'm ‘trying to adjust to being a teacher, etc. without all the hassles I've been getting from.Mike and I hated school after that day. I could have cried for hours - I just felt that the whole situation was unfair. The "why me" syndrome..." As the intern reflected on her management problems as she related them to her own personal habits, traits and/or characteristics she began to work on modifying her personal propensities. In conjunction with developing teaching proficiencies, attaining leadership and/or control and acquiring a teacher identity, the intern worked on modifying the personal propensities that she identified as hindering her progress in mastering the other objectives. Collective attaining for the intern, re- sulted in feelings of accomplishment; she had reached her goal by proving herself. Teresa's last journal entry powerfully illustrates this point. (TE/3-13/J) "I feel a great sense of aCcomplishment in having completed EEE, but at the same time, I don't want it to end... I used to feel a sort of vindicativeness for a public school system that first humiliated me into silence, and then gave up on me. I no longer feel that. .I understand so well how that can happen...and understanding hpy_is a pre- requisite for change. I know how it happens, and I know how to make it NEVER happen. I will be always mindful of my actions and their consequences...I make this promise to myself... the day I decided to become a teacher, I told Matthew that I would be the best teacher ever. He said he believed that I would and hoped that I would never get beaten down and put into a mold. I know npg_that I will be the best (Best is not relative to others, but only to me). This change is like all others (so far) I have experienced. It is both an ending and a beginning. It's great. I am not confused; I know clearly where I am going." (TE/3-13/J) "I have been provided with good sound tools, and have been taught to use them well. I am grateful to all my teachers (the children have been some of the best) for that." 160 Objective D: To Acquire a Teacher Identity A second affective objective identified by the intern was to ac- quire a teacher identity. Entering the field setting, beginning the "official" student teaching experience, the intern was excited about be- coming a teacher, in her view, a future event. Being a student for approximately sixteen years she began her internship still thinking of herself as a "student" or as a teacher's helper. When the children or other adults referred to her as "teacher" she expressed feelings of great surprise, delight and sometimes confusion. As she experienced increasing success in mastering the other objectives she began to report feeling like a teacher. "Feeling like a teacher",she began to shift her perspective of the children and the classroom. She began to report situations and events from a teacher's perspective as opposed to the children's per- spective. While her internal identity as teacher increased so did her desire to be recognized externally as one. It was important to the in- tern to be recognized by adults outside the immediate classroom environ- ment as a teacher. She gained confidence, determination, perseverence and stamina when she felt others viewed her as a teacher. She expressed feelings of joy, satisfaction, pride and selfdworth as this teacher iden- tity developed within her. Acquiring a teacher identity was concerned with affective aspects of attaining the goal state for the intern. The aspects of this objec- tive were primarily related to self—perceptions, attitudes and beliefs and resulted in various combinations of feelings and emotions (ie. sur- prise/delight). The internalization of a teacher identity was a critical attribute of this objective and represented movement toward the goal. However, more crucial than an internal identity for the intern was the external development of a teacher identity; the intern wanted to be 161 recognized and considered by others in the profession as a teacher. Therefore, the direction of this objective was aimed primarily beyond the classroom. The relationship of Objective D to the other objectives is shown in Figure 4.6. In Classroom Beyond Classroom Cognitive A' 3' D. To Acquire a Teacher Identity Affective C. Belonging Self Worth Competence Figure 4.6 Affective beyond classroom objective: to acquire a teacher identity The Case Records. This objective emerged primarily from in- formal interviews withthe interns and through their journal entries. In fact, the journals provided the biggest source of information relating to feeling like a teacher; it was one situation that the intern en- joyed reflecting on and she did so frequently. A questionnaire question was prepared with the intention of exploring this issue further. The question asked "Has anything happened recently that made you feel like a teacher? If so, please describe in detail" (12-26/Ql). This ques- tion was asked again near the completion of the intern's experience 162 (3-3/Q9). In addition two questions that were repeated on each weekly questionnaire elicited a great deal of evidence to support the existence of this objective. The first of the two asked the intern to describe the most important thing that happened to her during the past week. The second question asked the intern if anything had happened during the week that surprised her. overwhelmingly the interns responded to these two questions in terms of acquiring a teacher identity and the feelings and emotions that gaining a teacher identity had for them. Data was gathered and coded for each of the subjects from each of the data sources. This information was validated and augmented by the questionnaire re- sponses of the informants. A Description of the Objective. For the intern, acquiring a teacher identity was both an internal and an external process that happened con- currently. Internally the student teacher began to shift her perspective from student to teacher. She began to see situations and events from a teacher's point of view versus that of student view. As she gained skill and mastery in developing teaching proficiencies she felt more legitimate (and accurate) in referring to herself as a teacher. With the change in perspective and self-confidence came a change in behavior; she began to acquire what she termed more "teacher behaviors." Extern- ally this embryonic identity was reinforced and with each reinforcement grew stronger. Her desire to be recognized as a teacher by others grew in proportion with the amount of reinforcement she received until she reached a point of convergence. When the strength of her internal iden- tity reache