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I; 41.1; cm. . .J This is to certify that the thesis entitled VILLAGE BASED TEACHER EDUCATION PROJECT FOR RURAL CANADIANS: A STUDY OF THE BRANDON UNIVERSITY NORTHERN TEACHER EDUCATION PROJECT presented by A. Rae McCombs has been accepted towards fulfillment of the requirements for Ph.D. degree in Comparative and International Education /" :4 V Major professor Date 32“.“? 51/979. 0-7 639 MSU LIBRARIES RETURNING MATERIALS: RIace in book drop to remove this checkout from your record. FINES wiII be charged if book is returned after the date stamped below. ' :4“th ‘ i A cm" U- V‘- VILLAGE BASED TEACHER EDUCATION PROJECT FOR RURAL CANADIANS: A STUDY OF THE BRANDON UNIVERSITY NORTHERN TEACHER EDUCATION PROJECT .By A. Rae McCombs A DISSERTATION Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fUIfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Department of Comparative and International Education 1979 ABSTRACT VILLAGE BASED TEACHER EDUCATION PROJECT FOR RURAL CANADIANS: A STUDY OF THE BRANDON UNIVERSITY NORTHERN TEACHER EDUCATION PROJECT By Arthur Rae McCombs The Brandon University Northern Teacher Education Project (B.U.N.T.E.P.) was established, using federal and provincial monies, in order to offer adults who previously had not had any real opportunity to pursue university level study, the opportunity to gain teacher certifi- cation. The purpose was to encourage and realistically assist peOple resident in northern communities to enter the teaching profession. The hope was that they could better obtain employment in isolated northern Nanitoban communities and Indian reserves which did not possess viable economic bases and break the vicious circle which had existed in Indian education until then. In short, Indian children were very unsuccessful in schools, very few Indians were qualified teachers and very few sought university admission or successfully gained qualifications and credentials. The writer's purpose in doing this research was to study the progress and development of the B.U.N.T.E.P. program as it was implemented on one Canadian Indian reservation, to examine the factors which appeared to impede or'assist the attainment of the program's goals and to examine those aspects of the program model which may be used to develop models for village based teacher education in other developing areas. Data for this research were obtained by participant observation during two years of residence and employment as the resident Center Coordinator'at an isolated Cree Indian reservation in northern Manitoba, Canada. This program was the first of its kind delivered to an isolated 1 2 Arthur Rae McCombs Canadian Indian reservation, as well as one of the first rural based teacher education programs. It is therefore of interest to those study- ing or employing methods of alternative post-secondary educational programs in isolated rural areas. Major findings: 1. The Brandon University Northern Teacher Education Project as a village based teacher education program was a viable format for pro- viding educational opportunity of high standard to adults living in an isolated, rural community. 2. The open entrance option to the University is a realistic entry point for adults but requires provision of special academic and personal support to overcome English language and general knowledge deficits. 3. Successful completion of the university teacher education program by the first local graduates and their immediate employment and teaching success was a strong inducement to others to join the program. A. The establishment of a mini-campus in the remote community is sound. The resident university professor, as Center Coordinator, supported by a well-equipped teaching center and special southern support staff, can provide a university presence in the remote community which is essential to the credibility and effective functioning of the program. 5. The teaching center, supplies, and professional development workshops helped maintain the essential support of the teachers and were an important assistance to the program. 6. The delivery of university courses of high standard to remote northern communities is possible by flying professors into the centers to deliver three credit hour courses in blocks of three to five weeks on an all-day basis. 7. Flexibility in course delivery was essential to the successful 3 Arthur Rae McCombs operation of the program. 8. The extended field experience component of 24-30 weeks provided adequate time for students to acquire requisite teaching skills. 9. The fostering of a special supportive learning environment in the Center and the provision of full support for first year students allowed apparently weak students, including those who considered leav- ing the program, to become strong confident teachers. 10. The concept of examining the local situation and generating special policies to address local problems is sound. The special policies regarding student support were essential. 11. Community involvement in the admission of individuals to teacher education was an important component in the B.U.N.T.E.P. pro- gram. 12. The local B.U.N.T.E.P. steering committee did not operate effectively. 13. The B.U.N.T.E.P. model for a teacher education program was successfully employed in a remote, developing area. Its basic features which appear particularly relevant for other developing areas are its: mission, program format, responsiveness to local conditions and provision of special compensating policies, the resident Center Coordinator and mini-campus concept, and local community involvement in all aspects of the program. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS It is a pleasure to express the writer's appreciation to the individuals and groups who have made this study possible. The writer is indebted to Dr. Carl H. Gross, Professor and Chairman Emeritus of the Department of Secondary Education and Curriculum in the College of Education at Michigan State University,fbr his continuing advice, support and welcome encouragement, not only for this project, but during my years of study under his guidance as chairman of my doctoral program. Dr. David Heenan, committee member who provided wise insights and generous support; Dr. August Benson and Dr. Robert McKinley, members of the doctoral committee, for their valuable advice, comments and encourage- ment. I am particularly grateful to the Cross Lake B.U.N.T.E.P. students who accepted the challenge of a university education program, worked diligently and succeeded. Deepest appreciation is directed to those Cross Lake residents who helped me and my family feel at home in their community and who were willing to teach me about themselves. Finally, I wish to thank my wife Anne, and our children, Brendan and Michelle, for their willingness to continue to accept unconventional challenges. ii TABLE OF CONTENTS Page LIST OF TABLES .................................................... vi LIST OF FIGURES ................................................... vii mfl.L mmwmnwonnuuuuuunnnuuuuuuuuno 1 THE VICIOUS CIRCLE ................................. 1 HISTORICAL BACKGROUND .............................. 2 Church Involvement .............................. ReSidential SChOOlS 0.000000000000000.00000000000 O\ (2" N Day Schools ..................................... Integrated Schools .............................. 9 Indian Control of Indian Education .............. 11 THE VICIOUS CIRCLE DIMINISHES ...................... 13 Continuing Problem .............................. 20 THE PROBLEM OF THIS STUDY .......................... 22 Methodology ..................................... 23 CHAP. II. EDUCATION OF NATIVE TEACHERS IN CANADA ................ 25 TRENDS ............................................. 25 Need for Indian Teachers ........................ 27 Recognition of Cultural Needs of Trainee ........ 29 Community-Based University ...................... 31 Specialized Educational Services ................ 33 Emphasis on Practical Experience ................ 34 Indian People Involvement ....................... 35 Open Admission Policy ........................... 36 iii CHAP. II. (CONTINUED) Page GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF THE B.U.N.T.E.P. PROGRAM ..... 38 Goals and Rationale .............................. 38 History of the Program ........................... 39 Community-Based Program .......................... 41 Course of Study .................................. 43 Distinguishing Features .......................... 41+ CHAP. III. THE COMMUNITY SEI‘TDIG .................................. 1+7 Cree Background .................................. 47 Cross Lake ....................................... 51 Location and Environment ......................... 53 Twenty Century Development 1900-1940 ............. 53 1940-1965: Increasing Influence of External AgGHCieS 000.00.000.00...coco-0.000000000000000 55 1965 - Present: Local Government Developments ... 56 Economic Background .............................. 59 Social Background - Group Divisions .............. 63 The Schools ...................................... 66 Programs and Practices ........................... 71 CHAP. IV. A VILLAGE BASED TEACHER EDUCATION PROGRAM IN OPERATION . 72 Basic Principles ................................. 72 Program Details - The Students ................... 74 Course Delivery .................................. 76 Learning Center .................................. 76 Field.Experience ................................. 81 Orientation of the Center Coordinator ............ 85 The Past ......................................... 86 Hog-r858 ....0.........OOOIOOOIO......OOOOII...... 87 iv CHAP. IV. (CONTINUED) Academic and Personal Support .................... Breadth of Counselling ........................... Support-Dependency Problem ....................... Obstruction ...................................... Self Analysis .................................... CHAP. V. PROGRAM FEATURES WHICH MAY BE USED TO DEVELOP AN IMPROVED MODEL ......................................... MiSSion I.....OOOOCOOOCOIOOOOOOI.0.00.000......... Analysis and Realistic Response to Local conditions I...IIO...IOOOOOIOOOOOOIIOOOOO0.00.. Summary o000.00.00.00ooooooooooocoooooooooococoo.- CHAP. VI. SUMMARIES, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS ............. BIBLIOGRAM I.0.....OOOOOOOIOOCCOOOOIOOOOIOOOOOO.....IOOOIIOOIOOOO. Page 89 89 9O 92 93 95 95 96 102 103 111 Table 1.1 1.2 1.3 4.1 4.2 LIST OF TABLES Enrollment of Registered Indians by Type of School ........ Educational Attainment by Mother Tongue and Age, 1971 ......OOOOOOOIIOOOIOIIOOO......IIOOOIOOIOIOOOOCO0.0 Population of Registered Indian Population ................ Grade Level Obtained IOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOIOOIOIOIOOOOOOOOOOOI Bachelor of Teaching Courses Delivered in Cross Lake ...... Page 75 77 Figure 1.1 3.1 3.2 3-3 LIST OF FIGURES Indian Linguistic Families in Canada ..................... Canadian Indian Tribes and Culture Areas ................. Area OccupiedbySwampy Cree ............................. Map of Manitoba .......................................... Map Of Cross Lake 0000000000000ocooooooooooooooooooooooooo Page 1 7 #8 1+9 52 54 CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION THE VICIOUS CIRCLE In 1972.Canadian Indians1 presented to the Minister of Indian Affairs and Northern Development a statement of the philosophy, goals, principles and directions which they felt must form the founda- tion of any school program for Indian children in Canada.2 In addition, considering the great need that existed for professional people in Indian communities, the National Indian Brotherhood stressed that every effort should be made to encourage and assist Indian students to succeed in post-secondary studies so they, not itinerants, could take 1 People of Indian ancestry in Canada fall into two main categories in their position vis-a-vis government. One group, the status Indians are registered by the Department of Indian and Northern Affairs and possess certain rights and are subject to some limitations set forth in the Indian Act. In western Canada, inclusion in the treaties came to be a mark of status: hence status Indians there are frequently referred to as treaty Indians. The government of Canada has assumed special respon- sibilities for education, health, welfare and economic development for Status Indians 0 Non-status Indians are people of Indian extraction who for varying ' reasons were not registered as Indians by the department and therefore hold a status no different from that of other Canadians. A particularly large group of non-status Indians are the Metis who form a distinct society with a group identity of their own. An historical definition of Metis includes only those of French-Indian ancestry while the modern definition includes anyone having any degree of Indian ancestry who is not a status or treaty Indian. In this study, the term Indian is used to indicate status or treaty Indians. The more encompassing term native, includes all people of Indian ancestry whether they are legally Indian or Metis. 2 National Indian Brotherhood, Indian Control 9: Indian Education (Ottawa: National Indian Brotherhood, 1972). 1 2 on the professional roles needed in their communities. The Indian people were responding also to the equally disturbing fact that an alarming proportion of Indian boys and girls were failing to complete secondary schooling. Extremely few trained, certified teachers were available to teach in even those schools where the majority of students were Indian children and the maternal language for most was neither English nor French, but an indigenous Indian language. At that time, little evidence existed to indicate that the situation would improve. Very few Indian people were successfully pursuing or complet- ing programs which would lead to the acquisition of the skills, attitudes and professional qualifications needed for acceptance into the teaching profession. Further, hardly any Indians, especially those from remote areas, were seeking admission to the universities and professional schools. The vicious circle had to be broken. HISTORICAL BACKGROUND A brief overview of Indian education in Canada provides an insight into some of the sources of this dismal state of affairs and the almost total absence of trained Indian teachers in Canada. Church Involvement In the period before the coming of the white man to this continent the Indian people, like most indigenous peoples, had their own tradi- tional education structure. Knowledge necessary for the survival of their people, culture, and traditions was developed and passed on from generation to generation. Education was informal, traditional and very practical. Knowledge transmission was mainly by word of mouth, by observation, by indirect instruction, by example and trial and error. 3 This traditional education was adaptive and sufficient for life as it existed before the coming of the white man.However, since the coming of the white man the traditional way of life of the indigenous in- habitants has been undermined. Canadians have worked to provide educa- tion for Indian children. The Christian churches were active in Indian education before confederation in 1867. For example, mission schools were actively operated by Roman Catholics in 1632 and the other faiths, Anglicans, Methodists and Presbyterians were involved in the nineteenth century. Exceptions to the church domination existed, but were few. In general, the education offered represented an education based on the traditions of the colonizers and there is considerable evidence to support the claim that the goals of the early colonizers in the education of the indigenous Indians were to "...Christianize, civilize and agrarianize" them.3 In 1847 for example, the Chief Superintendent of Education for Upper Canada, Dr. Egerton Ryerson, stressed the need for an industrial, domestic and religious education with particular importance given to the latter for .with him (the Indian child) nothing could be done to improve and elevate his character and conditions without the aid of religious feeling."4 The Indian was to be assimilated or absorbed into the dominant society and its culture. Schools offering some form of "industrial education" were generally church operated boarding schools. This usually meant children spent part of the day in 3 Leslie Guy, "Patterns in Native Education in Canada," Yearbook gfflggnadian Society for the Study of Education, I (1974): 8. 4 R. M. Connelly, "Missionaries and Indian Education," in The Canadian Superintendent 1965, The Education of Indian Children lg Canada (Toronto: Ryerson Press. 1963): 13. Lt the classroom and part of the day in agricultural or other labor in or around the church mission. Church controlled boarding or residential schools influenced Indian education for over 100 years and segregation of students, which they encouraged, became the rule rather than the exception. This combination of missionary devotion and.agricultural education was fully supported by the government of Canada. Residential Schools The segregation of the Indian child from his family and the main- stream of Canadian life was fostered by the notion that the stability and atmosphere of the residential school was needed to overcome the influence of the often nomadic life style of the Indian parents. In addition, segregation of the Indian people from white society was also fostered in the belief that the 'naive' Indian had to be protected from the harsh, evil white man's world and from the 'poor' influences of the Indian's home community and parents. Hence.even when the boarding school was in the child's home community, the child was expected to stay at these schools at least ten months of the year, speak only English, and was often permitted to visit home only once throughout the school year. The educational programs for Indian children, particularly in the years preceeding World War II, had a number of serious weaknesses and were quite ineffectual both as an instrument of integration into the mainstream of Canadian life or of independent economic emancipation. Hawthorne, in a 1960 survey of the Canadian Indian wrote: Reserves, according to the theory of the time were to be kept free from the influences of the modern industrial world. As a result, the system of education made available to Indians left a great deal to be desired. Few schools existed and the 5 level of education which was offered was low.5 The same author pointed out that there was no question of the Indian leaving the reserve. He was born to live and die there. His education, the little he did receive, was adequate to ensure his well-being within the limited confines of the reserve. 0f the meagre education offered, Hawthorne presented a rather dismal picture: To be able to read, write and count, to know how to utilize and preserve the environment, to pos- sess some notion of hygiene, this was felt suffi- cient for life on the reserve. Acadegic knowledge as such was not considered important. The reserve and residential schools tended to maintain racial segregation and sought primarily to prepare Indian children for reserwa- tion life. The pattern followed by few white children was followed by many, perhaps most Indian children. The rather tragic state of affairs was related by an Oblate Father: The majority of Indian boys and girls entering our schools cannot reach more than grade 5 to 8 level in the eight to ten years that they attend school. The majority of them do not and cannot go into post-primary institutions (High School, Vocational, Technical Schools) and, as a result, are almost totally unfit to earn a decent living or be good citizens and parents, on or off the reserve, even- tually becoming a burden to society.7 5 Harry Hawthorne, ed., A Survey g: Contemporary Indians ig Canada, Vol. 2 (Ottawa: Indian Affairs Branch, 1967): 30. 6 Ibido 9 PP. 22‘230 7 Oblate Fathers, Residential Education for Indian Acculturation (Ottawa: Indian and Eskimo Welfare Commission, 1958): 16. Day.Schools Following the boarding school concept for Indian education came the idea of day schools located on the reserves. From 1945 until the late 19503 the federal government concentrated on building Indian day schools in the Indian communities and staffing them with lay teachers. Although a few of these schools offered high school level work, the majority still were mainly involved in elementary education. This direction in Indian education has provided the opportunity for many more Indian children to attend elementary schools as it overcame many previous problems and the misgivings parents had about sending their young children away to a strange, distant residential school for ten months of the year. In most cases, children could stay at home and still attend school. The problem of integratioh and success in high school still remained, however. The local or day schools located on the reserves still provided a protected environment for their Indian students. In most areas, secondary education was not available locally. This meant that to continue their education, most Indian children from rural areas had to face a situation not usually encountered by most other Canadian citizens. They had to integrate, often times alone, into an urban, alien society, particularly if they desired the prerequisites for post-secondary education. Children from the remote and more isolated reserves, needed to travel several hundred miles, be absent from their home communities for extended periods, up to ten months, and while they were still young, live in hostels, boarding homes or residential schools. In the schools they were 'newcomers' or 'outsiders': in the boarding homes or residential schools, they had to cope with a 'foreign' living environment. Faced with these odds, it is little wonder that so few Indian children pursued their education far beyond elementary school. 7 The enrollment of registered Indians in the different types of schools is shown in Table 1.1 and serves to highlight how very few have, until recently, pursued post-secondary education or attended secondary school. Table 1 o 1 Enrollment of Registered Indians by Type of School; School Elemen- Second- Univer- Teacher Voca- All year tary2 ary3 sity Training tional other1+ Total per cent number 1959 93.2 5.6 0.1 0.1 0.7 0.3 100.0 40,637 1960 92.3 6.4 0.1 - 0.8 0.4 100.0 42,124 1961 91.6 7.4 0.1 - 0.5 0.4 100.0 45,857 1962 90.7 8.0 0.1 — 0.5 0.7 100.0 48,035 1963 9003 801 001 " 009 0.6 100.0 50,394 1964 87.3 8.8 0.2 - 1.9 1.8 100.0 53,846 1965 86.1 9.0 0.2 - 2.2 2.5 100.0 57.720 1966 84.9 9.1 0.2 - 2.4 3.4 100.0 60,883 1967 82.2 9.3 0.2 - 3.0 5.3 100.0 64,049 1968 81.9 10.3 0.4 . 0.1 2.6 4.8 100.0 66,564 1969 76.5 10.3 0.4 0.1 3.3 9.4 100.0 75.509 1970 74.9 11.3 0.6 0.1 2.9 10.2 100.0 79,579 1971 73.8 11.6 0.6 0.1 3.2 10.7 100.0 83,325 1) The enrollment includes only students receiving some kind of aid from the Department of Indian Affairs and Northern Development. 2) Kindergarten to Grade 8 inclusive. 3 Grades 9 to 13 inclusive. 4 Includes nursing training, upgrading, special vocational and other miscellaneous courses. Source: Statistics Canada, Perspective Canada: A_Compendium ‘2; Social Statistics (Ottawa: Information Canada, 1974): 251. When compared to the rest of the Canadian population, the Indian 8 people have not been successful in the education system. Indeed, as Table 1.2 indicates, only 0.5 percent of Indian and Inuit8 people in the 15-19 year old range attained university standing, whereas almost ten times the percentage or 4.9 percent of other Canadians in the age bracket had achieved university standing. Similarly, whereas only 39 percent of Indians and Inuits in the same age bracket attained secondary school level, almost double or 76 percent of all Canadians had attained second- ary school level schooling in 1971. Nearly 80 percent of Indians attain- ed only elementary standing whereas less than 40 percent of Canadians as a whole stopped at the elementary level of schooling. Table 1.2 Educational Attainment by Mother Tongue and.Age, 1971a Indians and Inuit I All Canada 15-19 years 20 years 15-19 years 20 years and over and over per cent Elementary 58.7 79.5 12.8 36.8 Secondary 39.0 15.0 75.3 36.0 Post-secondary 1.8 3.8 7.0 15.4 univerSity 005 107 I+09 11.8 Totals 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 Number of persons 18,355 83,655 2,112,700 13,076,805 a Source: Statistics Canada, Perspective Canada: A Compendium g; Soci_al statistics (Ottawa: Information Canada, 19747: 251. 8 The Inuit were previously referred to as Eskimos. Inuit live mainly in the far'hinterland of Northern Canada. They are declared to be Indian for the purposes of the British North America Act. Although a federal responsibility, the Indian acts excludes them from its operation and they are dealt with separately by the federal government. Integrated Schools The practice of mixing Indian and non-Indian students wherever possible in provincial schools rather than assigning Indians to segre- gated schools occurred as a result of several significant factors. First, the end of World War II marked a turning point in the position of Indian society in Canada. As the Indian communities had become less isolated both government and public became more aware that the Indian had not been assimilated into the mainstream of Canadian life and that the old educational strategies simply helped to perpetuate the Indian people's isolation. In addition, the Canadian Indian population was continuing to grow at a rapid rate of about two percent per annum. Table 1.3 indicates the population trend. Table 1 o 3 Population of Registered Indian Populationa Year Number Year Number 1881 108 .547 - 1954 151 .558 1911 105,611 1959 179,126 1924 104,894 1963 204,796 1929 108,012 1968 237.490 1934 112.510 1973 270,494 1939 118.378 1974 276.436 1944 125,686 a Source: Canada Handbooks. These are people registered as Indians (status and treaty) under the provisions of the Indian Act of Canada. Briefly, those entitled to be registered are persons who were considered Indians or members of an Indian Band on May 26, 1874, or descendants through the male line of the above. A new approach to Indian education evolved after 1945. Government policy from 1948 until 1969 encouraged approaches aimed at bringing the Indian 10 child into the Provincial systems of education and by 1972. over 42,000, or sixty percent of all Indian pupils in Canada, were attending Provincial schools. Although this meant that the involvement of churches in Indian education continued its diminution and that,generally speaking, the integrated schools provided a higher standard of teaching than what was formally available to Indian children, problems remained. The Indian people were not satisfied with the forced school integration programs as the school drop-out rate had not been lowered significantly. Indeed, the drop-out problem still meant that 97 Percent of the 72,000 Indian children who entered Canadian schools would drop out before receiving a high school diploma. An additional problem arose when the Federal government proposed integrating federally supported Indian schools into the provincial school system and establishing new provincial school districts in areas where reservation schools were not nearby non-Indian schools. Federal support would continue, but the Federal government would be removed from direct responsibility for Indian education. As it was, the pro- vincial educational authorities had no jurisdiction over these schools which were often run for the Federal government by religious groups. Federal government responsibility for education on reservations was usually recognized in treaty agreements as well as in the Indian Act. Many Indian people argued that if the Federal government backed out of its treaty agreements to maintain schools for Indian children, then perhaps it would back out of other agreements with Indians. Why, they asked, could not the Indian schools be improved without integration?9 9 John Eisenberg and Harold Troper, Native Survival (Toronto: Ontario Institute for Studies in Education, 1973): B5. 11 In the eyes of the Indian people integrated schools were not work- ing and when the Federal government suggested that all provincial services for Indian people be provided by provincial agencies, the reaction was overwhelmingly negative. This paved the way for the present focus of Indian education -- Indian control of Indian education. Indian Contrgl‘gf Indian Education The White Paper, "Statement of the Government of Canada on Indian Policy, 1969," which set out the Government's proposals for revision of the Indian Act, did much to stimulate the Indian demand for self- determination. In 1969, the same year as it detached Indian education from the churches, the Government proposed that all services for Indian peoples should be provided through the same agencies which served the majority of citizens. In education, it proposed turning over Indian education to the Provinces, but by 1970 isolated cases of protests against integration had sprung up10 and by 1970 the Government gave in to Indian pressure and protests and announced that in Alberta, where a strong protest was staged, that the operation of the Blue Quills school in Alberta would be transferred to local Indians and not integrated into the provincial school system. The National Indian Brotherhood also rejected the proposal of Provincial government control of Indian education and, in 1972: Presented a policy statement on education entitled Indian Control 2: Indian Education, in which it demanded that Indian people be given direct control over the education of their children.11 On May 25, 1973, a significant turning point in Indian 10 John Eisenberg and Harold Troper, Native Survival (Toronto: The Ontario Institute for Studies in Education, 1973): 64-75. 11 National Indian Brotherhood, Indian Contrgl‘g§_lndian Education (Ottawa: National Indian Brotherhood, 1972). 12 education was reached when the Minister of Indian Affairs officially announced that the education policy of the National Indian Brotherhood would be the education policy of the Government and his Department. What is the policy? The Indian position on Indian education was based on the principles of local control of education and parental responsibility in the schooling of Indian children. It maintained that more power for making decisions affecting the education of Indian children should be given to local Band Councils so that they and not government agencies have a say in the education of their children. Educational programs needed to be wide ranging and stress local language, history, and culture. More opportunities had to be made for Indian people to prepare as teachers, and educational facilities had to be provided which adequately met the needs of the local population. Sixty- two of the some 565 Indian Bands in Canada now have some form of local control of education. Of these, three are in Manitoba. In short, local control of Indian education was an indication that the Indian people were dissatisfied with the existing system and its record of failure. They saw local control of education as a way of creating for their children a school environment that was more conducive to learning, of involving the community more in its own education, and in general, of improving the education system serving them. This improvement has included the development of language programs to enable initial literacy to be established in indigenous languages, with English or French becoming the language of instruction by grade four. It also has emphasized the need for school personnel to be cul- turally sensitive and appropriate, and the curriculum to be more in keeping with the local knowledge base of the children. Such an educa- tional focus created problems associated with shortage of qualified 13 staff especially at the elementary level where the maternal language was often employed and local people were needed to teach and develop curri— culum materials. Indian teachers, curriculum specialists and leaders were an essential element in the development of Indian control of Indian education. The problem of the shortage of qualified staff was being solved by means of various innovative programs for Indian teachers and para-professionals. The emphasis of many of these programs was on the teacher's interdependence with the community. This study examines one such community-based program, the BrandonUniversity Northern Teacher Education Project (B.U.N.T.E.P.) in the province of Manitoba. THE VICIOUS CIRCLE DIMINISHES In keeping with the Federal Government's announced intention to accept the National Indian Brotherhood's policy statement as the educa- tional policy of the Department of Indian Affairs and Northern Develop- ment, the quantity and quality of Indian teachers had to be sharply increased. This meant that the Federal Government had to take initiatives to provide opportunities for Indian peOple to prepare as teachers and school personnel. As the National Indian Brotherhood pointed out, efforts in this direction required experimental approaches and flexible structures to accommodate the native person who had talent and interest, but lacked minimum academic qualifications. In addition, because of the importance of such educational efforts to the Indian community, these training programs needed to be developed in collaboration with the Indian people and their representatives.12 The lack of local Indian teachers was so great that for the most 17' Ibid., p. 18. 14 part, teachers for the rural schools were recruited from all parts of Canada, particularly the Maritimes, despite a grave unemployment situa- tion in many of the Indian communities. In 0ntario,for example, of the 340 teachers employed in 1974 in Federal schools, only 47 were of Indian descent.13 In the Northwest Territories, no more than a handful of native northerners had obtained a teaching diploma in spite of the fact that they were able to do it completely free of cost.14 Indeed, one of the most striking features of Indian education in Canada was the degree of underrepresentation by the native people in post- secondary institutions. The situation is now improving15 but the past record has been poor. In British Columbia, if persons of Native Indian ancestry were represented in the teaching force in proportion to their numbers in the total population, there would have been in the 1973-74 school year, one thousand. There were in fact about 25.16 When the first students from the newly developed British Columblan Native Teacher Education Program graduate, the number of certified Indian teachers in the province will have tripled. A similar pattern is evident in other provinces. As late 13 "How a Special Two-Year Program Helps to Increase the Supply of Indian Teachers," Learning Resources, 2 (November, 1974): 14. 14Doug Brown, Rosalee Tizya and Eric Gourdean, "Apprentice Teachers: An Experiment in Apprentice Teacher Training in Northern Canada," in Doug Brown et. al. Man in the North Technical Papers. Education in the Canadian North 1971-72‘Tfiontreal: The Arctic Institute of North America, 1973)- 15 waiter o. Kupsch and Maryse Caillol, The University and the Canadian North: Inventogy 2; Classes, Research and Special Prgjects (Ottawa: Association of Universities and Colleges of Canada, 1973). 16 W. C. Thomas and R. G. McIntosh, Return Home, Watch Your Family: A Review 9: the Native Indian Teacher Education Program gt the University 2f British Columbia (Edmonton, Alberta: Department of Indian Affairs, 1977): 9. 15 as 1972, in Alberta, through its regular program, the University of Calgary had graduated only one teacher of Indian ancestry despite the fact that there were more than 40 schools in Alberta with substantial Indian pupil enrollment.17 The pattern was similar in Manitoba. Before 1965 there were only three graduate trained teachers18 and six years later, when the registered Indian population was over 43,000, this figure had increased to only seven.“19 By 1977 there was a total of 82 certified Indian teacher education graduates registered.20 If persons of registered treaty Indian status were represented in the teaching force in Manitoba in proportion to their numbers in the total population, there would have been more than 500 Indian teachers in the classrooms. On this basis, it can be said that in the area of Indian teacher educa- tion in Canada there was, as late as the 1970s, considerable catching up to be done. The educational implications of the vast shortage of trained Indian teachers gained considerable importance when the language problem was considered. Many Indian children began their schooling in a language other than their maternal language. Since the maternal language of many was an indigenous language, they lacked language facility in English or French as they entered school, and they were at a considerable disadvan- tage in their early years of schooling. Also, because a child learned 17 Ian R. Brooks and Evelyn Moore, The Indian Students University Program Services (I.§_.U._Ij.§_.) Second Evaluation RLeport, 1973174 (Calgary University: Faculty of Education, 1974): 6. 18 Indian and Northern Affairs, The Indian and Inuit Graduate Register, 1922 (Ottawa: Indian and Northern Affairs, 1978): 2o-23. 19 Ibido, PP. 20-23. 20 Ibid. 16 to express himself freely and clearly in the early grades, one of the most important factors was use of the maternal language. In many cases, there were few full-time qualified native teachers at these crucial levels. A major force behind the drive to increase the quantity of Indian teachers was the desire to fill this language gap. The problem, however, did not have an easy solution. Canada has ten distinct Indian linguistic groups: six of them are in the present confines of British Columbia: Algonkian, Athabaskan, Iroquoian, Sioux, Kootenayan, Salishan, Wakashaw, Tsimshian, Haida, Tlinkit. The last six are in British Columbia. These would be mutually unintelligible and therefore would create a barrier to the mobility of Indian teachers wishing to instruct in the maternal language. The Algonkian language had the largest number of speakers of any linguistic group in Canada and included the following dialects: Cree, Ojibwa, Algonkian, Naskapi, Malecite, Micmac, Blackfoot, Piegan, Blood, Gros Ventres. Within this group of dialects the Cree and Ojibwa (called Saulteaux in Manitoba and Saskatchewan, and Chippewa in the United States) were numerically the largest and would provide for considerable mobility for teachers wish- ing tp instruct in their maternal language if the maternal language was still used by the children. Figure 1.1 indicates the Indian linguistic families in Canada. When Manitoba, the province under consideration in this study, is considered it is seen that there are four main Indian languages spoken. Cree and Ojibwa (Saulteaux) predominate, while Siouan and Chipewyan are limited to the southwestern corner and northeastern corner of the province respectively. For a Cree speaking teacher, who wished to teach children whose maternal language was Cree, considerable mobility would exist. In the southern part of the province, however, acculturation Figure 101 Indian Linguistic Families in Canada \ . \rgoqjemm \. \\\\\\\‘S ALGONKIAN =_—_—-' ESKIMOAN ( V :ZégézyArwAPAswa \j L,,// Source: D. Bruce Sealey, "Algonkian LinguistiCS," in D. Bruce Sealey and Verna Kirtness, Indian Without Tipis (Agincourt, Ontario: The Book Society of Canada, 19745: 75. 18 has progressed more rapidly than in the northern part of the province and fewer children would have an Indian maternal language making the necessity for bilingual teachers less acute. In the northern part of the Province, however, Cree is very much the maternal language. Many Indian people and educators of Indian children believed that the Indian teacher would be better able to assess and respond to the needs of an Indian child. This view was based on the assumption that the similarities in language and cultural background between teacher and child would improve communications and foster greater mutual understanding and learning. This view found some support in the litera- ture which suggested that the personality characteristics of the teacher, her attitudes toward her students, and her knowledge of them and their background were all related to her teaching effectiveness. Swift, for example, found that in nursery and primary school the most important variable in the effectiveness of the program is the personality and behavior of the teacher.21 Hawthorne, while referring to the Canadian Indian child, wrote "...we are of the opinion that the most essential requirements (in a teacher of Indian pupils) are a concern for and a sensitivity to the individual child and his needs, and an ability to meet these needs which vary so from pupil to pupil."22 One of the most important factors in developing good rapport between teacher and child would surely be the ability on the part of the teacher to use the maternal language of the beginning school children. It would be ideal 21 Joan w. Swift, "Effects of Early Group Experience: The Nursery School and Day Nursery," in M. L. and L. W. Hoffman, eds., Review 9: Child Development Research (New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 1964). 22 H. B. Hawthorne, C. S. Belshaw, and S. M. Jamieson, The Indians 9f British Columbia (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1958): 307. 19 to be able to show conclusively that native bilingual teachers in the classroom would increase school achievement. Barbara Burnaby commented: ...the actual relationship between the presence of the Native bilinguals in Canadian Native schools and changes in school achievement or the child's sense of identity cannot be ascertained from the data we have at present.23 The essential point for our purposes was that many people thought having Native teachers helped and their utilization in bilingual programs was seen as a good development in the involvement of local people in their own educational system. Verna J. Kirtness stressed: It is too early to speculate about its (the Manitoba Bilingual Program) long range value. We believe it will be positive. It has succeeded in making the native child feel better about himself, his home, and his community. This positive attitude will help many on the road to success. The strength of this approach lies in the involvements of native teachers, the native community and the use of community based materials and resources. Over the past decade, a growing public awareness of both the inade- quacies and the inequities of the education system for Indian people in Canada has developed. The challenge of the next decade will be whether or not our education system can effectively respond to the education needs of the Indian people on an equitable basis. A dramatic change in the numbers of Indians pursuing higher education has already taken place. Whereas in 1959-60 only 99 Indians were attending universities, 23 Barbara Burnaby, "language in Native Education," in Merrill Swain, ed., Bilingualism in Canadian Education, in Yearbook of the Canadian Society for the Study of Education (Toronto: Ontario Insti- tute for Studies in Education, 1976): 76. 24 Verna J. Kirtness, Manitoba Native Bilingual Program (Ottawa: Indian and Northern Affairs, 1976): 21. 20 this number had increased to 298 by 1969-70.25 In 1976-77 school year there were 3.577 Indian students attending universities, affiliated training colleges, nurse and teacher training programs.26 Although this latter figure included those attending teacher training colleges and nursing training and was,therefore,not strictly comparable to the previous years figures, it does mark a significant increase in higher education attendance and indicates a notable change in attitude toward higher learning. This surge of interest has influenced the educa- tion of Indian teachers in Canada. A variety of sources have fostered the provision of teacher preparation and related programs for people expecting to work in educational settings with large populations of students of native ancestry. As well there has been a pronounced in- crease in the number of new programs across Canada aimed at training Indian teachers. Continuinngroblem Regardless, however, of either the character or magnitude of education's response to this challenge, the next decade will surely impose new demands and problems.' Already some 62 Indian Bands manage the schools on reserves and others have taken over control of the school systems in their communities.27 This will place new demands for native educational personnel. With almost equal certainty, the Indian population growth rate will continue to be Canada's highest at two 25 Verna J. Kirtness, "Education of Indian and Metis," in Bruce Sealey and Verna J. Kirtness, Indians Without Tipis (Agincourt, Ontario: The Book Society of Canada, 1974): 147. 26 Indian and Northern Affairs, Annual Report 1976e22 (Ottawa: Indian and Northern Affairs, 1977): 29. 27 Ibid. 21 percent per annum28 and will tax the ability of schools of education to prepare adequate numbers of Indian teachers. Finally, it is possible that the rising expectations of Indian people will add a new and significant dimension to Canada's Indian educational needs. In response to the challenge, any reordering of the present system of education for Indian peOple must include attention to the major problem of numbers and distribution of educational manpower. Quantita- tively there is a need for more teachers, educational administrators and planners. Likewise, there is a need to pursue the effective use of less traditional education personnel such as teacher aides, local home-school coordinators and trained community developers. Beyond this, there is the continuing problem of a disproportionate concentration of good teachers in urban versus rural areas and the tendency for urban drift to occur once advanced training is received. Canadian universities have launched into new teacher training pro- grams in order to cope with the quantitative aspects of the teacher shortage. Such programs may generate adequate numbers of Indian teachers, but attention must also be given to the equitable distribution of educa- tional manpower. The only way the present system of teacher preparation could affect distribution of educational manpower would be to create a significant excess of teachers in urlan centers in the hope that economic pressures would drive some of the better teachers to rural areas. This may happen to some degree as teacher surpluses develoP, but it is unlikely to result in teachers, administrators and planners making their careers in rural isolated places. If these Observations are 28 Ibid. 22 correct, it follows that any resolution of the Indian education problem demands new approaches to these underlying manpower problems. In look- ing for such new approaches it is neither apprOpriate nor feasible to suggest acute or radical changes in the present system of teacher education at universities, but it is appropriate to expect the present system to be expanded by the addition of new educational programs specifically designed to meet the problem. It is this manpower consider- ation which led to the formation of the teacher preparation program under study in this work, the Brandon University Northern Teacher Education Project (B.U.N.T.E.P. ). THE PROBLEM OF THIS STUDY This study addressed the general concern for equitable educational services for rural Indian communities by studying the progress and development of an educational program designed to meet the problem of a shortage of trained Indian teachers in rural areas. The program was a community-based teacher-training program which attempted to complement the present system of teacher training and to significantly alleviate the certified Indian teacher manpower problem, both in terms of numbers and distribution. At the same time, the program had the potential to have a far-reaching impact on the education system of the communities served by such programs. The problem of this study was threefold: first to study how the program progressed and developed from September 1976 to August 1978 in one community: second, to study what factors appeared to impede or assist the attainment of the program's goals: third, to examine those aspects of the program model which may be used to develop models for village based teacher education prOgrams in other developing areas. 23 Methodology Information for this study was obtained over a period of two years while the writer lived in a northern Cree Indian reserva- tion in Manitoba. Written materials were gathered about the program but the bulk of the data was collected by participant observation. The researcher spent two years, with his family, as resident center coor- dinator in the village, both as a member of the community and a member of a team delivering the community-based teacher education program. The position of Center Coordinator required that an identifiable role be filled but provided the writer with the opportunity to legitimately discuss school, education and community topics in an open and non- threatening way. The family residence was about one mile away from the teachers' trailer accommodation complex, often called locally the "teachers' compound." This separation added to the stress of living but reduced the identification with the teachers as a group and allowed for more constant contact with local neighbors on a non-professional basis. Remaining in the position as<3enter