VARIABLES RELATED TO THE INTENT TO PARTICIPATE IN
CONTINUING PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION

By

Gary Dean Waldon

A DISSERTATION

Sub mitted to
Michigan State University
in partial fulfillment of the requirements

for the degree of

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY

Department of Counseling, Educational Psychology and

Special Education
1 981!

Copyright by
GARY DEAN WALDON
1 98H

ABSTRACT

VARIABLES RELATED TO THE INTENT TO PARTICIPATE IN
CONTINUING PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION

BY

Gary D. Waldon

The purpose of this study was to examine the phenomenon of
participation in continuing professional education by studying a population of
educational technologists who were members of the Association for
Educational Communications and Technology. The study had three primary
goals (1) to examine correlations between demographic and personal
characteristics and the scores from the scales used in the study, (2) to
deta-mine if Fishbein's Expectancy-Value model was an effective means of
deter mining whether participants would take part in continuing professional
education and (3) to discover the personal, social and attitudinal
characta'istiw that separate participants fro m nonparticipants in continuing
professional education.

The study population consisted of m e m bers of the Association for
Education Communications and Technology listed in the 1981-1982
membership directory. A copy of the four scales, Attitude, Subjective
Social Norm, Subjective Personal Norm and Anticipated Circumstances was
mailed to a sample of 309 members of the population along with a letter of
instruction. Each scale was designed to measure a different aspect of a
profesionals belief system in order to determine the intent to participate in

continuing professional education.

2.

The results of the study are described below:

As age, the amount of time since the last degree was received, the
number of years in the present employment role and salary increase,
the scores on the Attitude Scale decrease.

As the level of education and amount of time spent as a student
increase, the scores on the Subjective Social Norm Scale increase.

As the length of time since the last degree was received and the
amount of salary increases, the scores on the Subjective Personal
Norm Scale decrease.

As the amount of time spent in curriculum or instructional
development increases, the scores on the Anticipated Circumstances
Scale increase.

Age, length of time since the last degree was received, length of time
spent in the present employment role and salary in the past calendar
year were negatively correlated with a respondents intent to
participate in continuing professional education.
The amount of time spent in research and the amount of time spent as
a student were correlated with intent to participate in continuing
professional education.

The p'oportion of variance explained by the expectancy-value scales
was 23 $ for the intent to participate in continuing professional
education within the next year and 17 % for the intent to participate
within the next three years.

Of the 101 participants classified in the discriminant function analysis,
96 or 95% were correctly classified as participants. Of the 37
nonparticipants, only 9 or 211 % were correctly clasified as
nonparticipants based upon their discriminant score.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Anyone who has undertaken a project such as a dissertation, especially
while working, knows the strength that is given by a sporse who supports,
prods and encourages when the flesh gets weak. Special thanks go to my
wife, Evelyn, who was the support I needed to get this task done.

Special thanks also go to my children, Erica and Renee, who will
no longer have to ask when I will be done with my dissertation. Their
concern and interest has kept my head out of the clouds. A

Special thanks also go to those prefeaionals who have helped me
co m plete the dissertation.

Dr. Castelle Gentry has been a valued counselor as I prepared
this research study. When I needed help on how to proceed, or what
changes needed to be made, he was willing to respond.

Dr. Larry Sarbaugh helped me in the preliminary stages of
the study. When I was p'eparing the initial questionnaires, his critique
helped me create a better product.

The members of my committee, Dr. Norman Bell, Dr. Raywin Huang
and Dr. Bruce Miles lave helped make tl'n's report possible. I appreciate
their help in redefining the study after an early, false start.

Final thanks go to those who took the extra time to complete the
survey instruments. Without their effort the study would not have been

possible.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page
LIST OF TABLES vi
LIST OF FIGURES vii
CHAPTER
I. STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM
IntrOduCtioneoeeeeeeeeeeooeeeeeeeeeeeeeeee 1
PrOblem StatementOOOOOOOOOOOCOOOOOOOOO0.00 1
Significance of the Proposed Research..... 3
Literature Support for the Research Need.. 5
Significance to the Present Study......... 9
ResearCh QueStionSeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeoe 9
Theoretical and Conceptual Foundations.... 10
Limitations Of the StudYOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO. 12
Chapter summarYOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO 13
II. REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE
IntPOductionOOOOOOO0.00000000IOOOOOOOOOOO. 1”
Adult Learning and Continuing
Professional Education............... in
The Need for Continuing Professional
EducationOOOO...OIOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO0.0. 19

Motivational Characteristics of
Participants......................... 21
Demographic Characteristics of
Participants......................... 23
Age of Participants.................. 2”
Participant's Level of Education..... 2”
Years Since Participant Received
Degree.......................... 25
Participant's Employment
Responsibilities................ 25
Participant's Length of Experience... 26
Participant's Salary in Current
Year............................ 26
Amount of Participation in
Recent Years.................... 26
The Expectation of Others................. 27
Reasons for Nonparticipation.............. 28
An Alternative Model of Participation..... 29
Attitude-Behavior Theories................ 3O
Fishbein's Expectancy-Value Model......... 34
Chapter Summary........................... 38

iii

III. RESEARCH DESIGN

Introduction..............................
Dependent and Independent Variables.......
Research Hypotheses.......................
Statistical Hypotheses....................
Description of the Survey Instruments.....
Reliability of the Survey Instruments.....
Description of the Study Population.......
Selection of the Sample...................
Random Selection Procedure................
Sample Stratification................
Data Analysis Procedures..................
Justification for Selection of the
Statistical Measures.................
Chapter Summary...........................

IV. DATA ANALYSIS

Introduction..............................
Respondent Characteristics................
Correlation Analysis......................
Multiple Regression Analysis..............
Discriminant Function Analysis............
Summary of Data Analysis..................
Chapter Summary...........................

V. CONCLUSIONS AND DISCUSSION OF THE RESULTS

Introduction..............................
Research Conclusions......................
Discussion of the Results.................
Correlation of Personal and
Professional Characteristics with the
Expectancy-Value Scales and Intent to
to Participate in Continuing
Professional Education...............
Multiple Regression Analysis to
Measure Respondent's Intent to
Participate in Continuing
Professional Education...............
Discriminant Analysis to Distinguish
Between Participants and
Nonparticipants in Continuing
Professional Education...............
Recommendations for Future Research.......
Chapter Summary...........................

GLOSSARY OF TERMSOOOOOOOO ........ OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO

APPENDIX A
Expectancy-Value Scales: Attitude, Subjective
Social Norm, Subjective Personal Norm and
Anticipated Circumstances......................

iv

61
61

67
8A

89
95

96
97
99

99

10”

105
106
107

109

111

APPENDIX B
Respondent Information Form....................

APPENDIX C
Cover Letter to Accompany the Questionnaire....

APPENDIX D
Power Analysis Computation.....................

LIST OF REFERENCES ......... .........................

116

117

118
121

TABLE
1.1

3.1
”.1
”.2

M.3

m

A.5

“.6

“07

LIST OF TABLES

Page

Comparison of Research Conducted on
Participation in Continuing Education..... 8

Survey Instrument Responses................. 55
Characteristics of Respondents.............. 62

Correlation Matrix of Participant
Characteristics with Expectancy-
Value Scales and Intent to
Participate............................. 69

Calculation of F Ratios Derived from the
Difference Between Regression Models.... 82

Multiple Regression Analysis for the
Intent to Participate in Continuing
Professional Education.................. 83

Discriminant Function Analysis for
Participation in Continuing
Professional Education.................. 86

Group Membership Classified by
Discriminant Function Analysis.......... 88

Summary of Correlation, Multiple

Regression and Discriminant Analysis
Hypotheses...D0.0000000000000000000.0.... 90

vi

LIST OF FIGURES

FIGURE Page
2.1 The Classic Model of Professional
Education. 0 O O O O O O O O O O O O I O O O O O O 0 O O 0 O O O O O O 18
2.2 An Emerging Model of Professional
Education. 0 O O O O O O I O O O O I O 0 O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 18

2.3 MOdified FiShbein MOdeIOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO 37

vii

CHAPTER ONE: STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

INTRODUCTION

This chapter describes the thesis problem and its significance to the
field of education and specifically to educational system development. The
need for the research will be analyzed along with the theoretical and
concepttal foundations of the study. The limitations of the study are also
described.

PROBLEM STATEMENT

As our society moves toward increased employment of professionals
(Schein, 1972), an interest in how to expand and improve the skills of
professionals has developed. As Queen (1979) said after surveying the
professions registered with the State of Pennsylvania:

Virtually every profesion we've investigated has indicated

support of som e kind of continuing education for it's

practitioners. Whether voluntary (r mandatory, continuing

education is viewed as a useful means of accomplishing a

number of professional goals. (p.211)

The desire for continuing professional education can be seen in surveys
of professionals in which the extent of participation in continuing education
is examined. In a study by Castle and Storey (1968), physicians spent, on
an average, 32 hours a month in continuing education of a total working
time of 212 hours. In another study by Brody and Stokes (1970), doctors
were observed to spend an average of 111 minutes each day in some form of

continuing education out of a total of 1150 minutes. In both of these cases,

the continuing education experiences were informal in nature, usually,
consisting of consultation with other doctors, reading journals, group
disctmion (r patient rounds. However, many other studies we a definition
of continuing professional education which is more formal in nature. These
studies med a definition similar to the one used in the present study, which
is:

Education opportunities available to a professional to be used

to update and supplement existing skills and knowledge.

Participation requires that an external source (such as an

organization or another qualified individual) m onitor the

learning of the professional in order to validate the

experience. (Waldon, 1982)

Harnisch (1981) studied veterinarians for their level of participation
and found that 811% had participated in some form of continuing education
within the last year. However, 11% had not participated in any form of
continuing education within the 3 years covered in the study. In a study of
judges, Catlin (1981) found that 76% of the respondents spent 7 or more
days in continuing education over a three-year period. Finally, Molenda
(1977) examined the continuing education needs of educational technologists
by asking them to indicate their interest in 15 topics that were expressed
needs of the population. He found that interest ranged fiom a low of 50%
to a high of 86% depending on the topic. The number expressing no
interest in the topics varied from 111% to 50%. One significant finding of
the study was that those with doctoral degrees and members in the higher
income brackets tended to express lower interest in continuing education.

Even though a ma‘jcrity of professionals participate or expres interest
in some form of continuing professional education, we know little about
what factors contribute to an individual's intent to participate. A variety
of studies rave been completed that examined stated reasons for

participation. (Catlin, 1981; Cervao, 1980; Harnisch, 1981) Other studies

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have examined factors that inhibit involve m ent in continuing education.
(Boshia', 1973; Carp, Peterson, 8: Roelfs, 1973; Castle 8: Storey, 1968; Dec,
1975; King, 1975) Still other studies have looked for orientations toward
learning. (Burgess, 1971; Houle, 1961; Sheffield, 19611)

The weakne$ of these studies has been tint participation has been
viewed as one-dim ensional. Little consideration has been given to the
variety of personal, social and environm ental influences described in the
literature that may co mbine to affect the intent to participate in continuing
profesnional education. The urn-dim ensional character of these studies
stands in contrast to the work of Boshier (1973) and Southern (1980) who
suggested that participation involves a mixture of personal, social and
environm ental influences. These influences include personal motivation to
participate, attitudes toward learning, beliefs about the efficacy of further
education, personal and group norms in addition to environm mtal conditions
which may enhance cr impede participation. Since these variables lave not
been studied together before, this study will examine the relative
contribution of personal, social and environmental influences on the intent
to participate in continuing professional education.

SIGNIFICANCE OF THE PROPOSED RESEARCH

The research studies cited in the peviom section suggest that
participation in continuing professional education is valued by a majority of
professionals. The poblem remains that beyond knowledge of a few
variables related to participation, we have little idea of how important each
variable is and how they work together to affect participation. The result is
that we do not know why individuals participate in one event and fail to
become involved in another. We lack knowledge whether participation

occurs became of the topic covered, the mode of delivery, values favoring
participation (r personal and reference group norms which may im pinge on
the decision to participate. The net effect is that we are unable to
determine what factors work together to encourage professional interest in
continuing education. The present study will attempt to alleviate this
weakness by examining personal, social and environmental influences for
their contribution to participation in continuing professional education.
Closelyrelatedtotheissieofparticipationisthep'ohlemof
nonparticipation. In the studies m entioned in the previous section,
nonparticipants constituted approidm ately 10-20 1 of the WW
. populations sampled. Although this percentage is small compared to those
who participate, it is incompatible with the needs of the profession as well
as society, especially where Irofessional skills are highly critical in nature,
suchasathoseofaphysiciamorwheretheeffectsofsldlldefieiencescan
have a impact on how people learn, such as with instructional technologists.
Thus some means mist be sought to determine the variety of reasons why a
minority of professionals fail to participate in continuing professional
education so that strategies can be developed to reduce barriers to
involvement. The present research study will attempt, in part, to alleviate
this weaknea by examining nonparticipants as well as participants to
determine if there are variables that distinguish the participation level of
the two groups. One of the expected outcomes of the research should be
better understanding of nonparticipants so that strategies can be developed

to improve participation.

LITERATURE SUPPORT FOR RESEARCH NEED

Research related to participation in adult education has evolved along
a variety of lines. A number of studies have examined participation in
terms of the personal and demographic characteristics of participants.
(Anderson a. Darkenwald, 1979; Carp, Peterson & Roelfs, 1973: National
Center for Education Statisties, 1978) Others have attempted to distinguish
between participants and nonparticipants in crder to determine what
encouraged (r discouraged participation. (Boshier, 1973; Castle 8: Storey,
1968; King, 1978) Others have attempted to examine motivations expressed
or implied by those taking part in adult education activities. (Burgess, 1971;
Houle, 1961; Sheffield, 1964) Still others have examined the stated reasons
for participation to determine how the reasons may apply <fifferentially
based upon demographic and personal characteristics (Catlin, 1981; Caves,
1981; Harnisch, 1981).

However, the problem remains that these studies have been one
dimensional in their analyses of variables related to participation when the
work of Boshier (1973) and Southern (1980) suggests tint participation
involves a variety of personal, social and environm ental influences that may
affect participation. In crder to solve the cfifficulty of discerning how
these variables are related to participation, Grotelueschen (1977) suggested
that Fishbein's expectancy-value model (1975) could be instrumental in
drawing the issue together. Using Fishbein's expectancy-value m odel,
Grotelueschen proposed that participation can be understood by examining
the relationship between behavior, intent, attitude and belief toward
participation in continuing professional education.

The basis for this model is Fishbein's idea that behavior is volitional,
and therefcre, should be pedictable fro m a person's intent to perform a

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given behavior. A person's intent, in turn, is a function of two factors
(1) the individual's attitude towards performing the behavior (measured in
the attitude scale) and (2) the individual's personal beliefs and those about
what others think he or she should do (which are measured by the
subjective social and personal norm scales).

Using these components, King (1975) and Perry, Gillespie 8: Lotz (1976)
found tint the model does effectively account for behavior through
measurement of behavioral intent. Their findings suggested that Fishbein's
model does incorporate the variety of variables related to behavioral intent.
Thus Fishbein's model should be tseful in examining the variables related to
participation in continuing profesional education by m easuring the
respondents intent to participate.

Using the model developed by Fishbein, Southern (1980) completed a
study of participants and nonparticipants in graduate education courses.
Using a population of 308 educators, she surveyed 200 persons who were
enrolled in graduate education courses at Texas Womens University. In
addition, she completed a survey among 108 educators from a local school
district who were not participating in any educational activities. The results
suggested that behavior toward participation in continuing professional
education een be estim ated by a study of an individual's intent to
participate. In addition a variety of characteristies were found to
distinguish between participants and nonparticipants including experience, job
statis, age and graduate hours taken. The Southern study is the only
research that has been conducted with a profefiional education population
using Fishbein's model. For this reason, the study is very important for the
methodological approach used during the study. In the following section the
Southern study will be examined for any weaknesses which may be overcome
in the present study.

The first apparent weakness of the Southern study was that the two
groups examined were selected on the basis of availability, not random
selection. Because participants and nonparticipants were used without
consideration for how the variables examined in the study were distributed
among the population, the results were not generalizable to the population
from which the samples were drawn.

A second apparent shortcoming of the study was the unstated
definition of nonparticipation. In Southern's study, non-participation was not
necessarily an indication of any pattern of nonparficipation over tim e, as
much as it was an example of either disinterest or inability to participate
at one point in time. If Southern had selected those who had not
participated we a span of time, such as three years, the case for
nonparticipation would have been stronger.

Finally, the study was limited to demographic variables and the
components of Fishbein's model. The strength of the outcome may have
been improved by including not only the components of the model but also
anticipated circumstances which Engel, Blackwell and Kollat (1978) have
suggested may impinge on the intent to participate.

The research described in this section along with the variables that
were examined in each study are reviewed in Table 1.1. By using Fishbein's
expectancy-value m Odel, it is felt that the de m ographic characteristies,
personal learning aientation and anticipated circumstances that may affect
partieipation will be examined comprehensively so that we will have a mae
complete understanding of which factors contribute to participation in
continuing professional education.

C3

Table 1.1
Comparison of Research Conducted on
Participation in Caitirming Education

 

Inoooragedl .
Personal! Discourageo Personal Deasons for Social,
Iesearon Desoaraphlo Parttotoatlon Motivation Participation Invlronseot
Studies Variables Variables Variables Variables Variables

 

Anderson a as:

Darkeneald.

1918

Ioehler,1913 as: ' as:
luresss,1!11 as:

Carp, Peterson In:
a Ioelfs,1913

Castle I Storey, as:
‘968

cetllo.1901

Cesvero.1901

Ionle,1961 .3;
Iarnlson.l901 as:
lln.,191l

letlonal Center for
Education Statistlos.
‘91! .
Ineftleld.1969 as:

leathers,1980 sax

SIGNIFICANCE TO THE PRESENT STUDY

 

The present study will improve on previom studies by examining a
variety of variables related to participation, including attitudes toward
participation, social and personal beliefs that m ay affect the choice to
participate and anticipated circu mstances which can interfere with the
intent to participate.

In addition, the study will use a random sample of the population.
Using the random sample, individuals will be located who have failed to
participate in continuing professional education over the last three years,
since this will be an indication of a pattern of noninvolve m ent.

These changes should increase our knowledge of variables that affect
participation and how they work together. With this information fixture
research can examine which variables are most likely to indicate
partieipation by members of a specific audience. Message strategies can
then be devised to meet the needs of such an audience so participation

could increase.

RESEAR CH QUESTIONS

 

The research questions which will be examined in this study are the

following:

1. What are the personal and profe$ional characteristics whic
correlate with a professionals intent to participate in continuing
professional education?

2. How effective is the modified Fishbein expectancy-value model in
predicting a nofesionals intent to participate in continuing
professional education?

‘lO

3. What are the personal and professional variables which distinguish
the professional who participates in continuing professional
education from the one who does not participate?

THEORETICAL AND CONCEPTUAL FOUNDATIONS

 

R esearch on participation in adult and continuing [Iofessional education
has utilized two basic approaches, descriptive and explanatory. The first
approach res involved descriptive studies which elicit the personal and
de m ographic characteristics of participants and nonparticipants. The
studies (Anderson & Darkenwald, 1979; Carp, Peterson and Roelfs, 1973;
National Center for Education Statistics, 1978) have improved our knowledge
of who the people are that participate in adult education activities, but the
studies have lacked the capability to explain why these people participate.
For this reason studies have been conducted to understand the reasons for
Participation.

The second approach to the study of participation in adult education
activities has been mae explanatory. The primary focus has been me of
answering the question "what are the reasons for participation or
nonparticipation in adult and continuing education activities"? From this
basic question a variety of theoretical perspectives have been used to guide
the studies. These models include Maslow's (19511) hierarchy of needs model,
the developmental stages work of Erikson (1950) and Havighurst (1953),
Houle's (1961) learning crientations model and Grotelueschen's (1977)
inbentionality m odel. It is the latter m odel of intentionality that will guide
the present study.

The aim ary reason for selecting Grotelueschen's intentionality m odel is
that it alone of all the models is concerned with predicting behavior. While

11

the descriptions of stated a“ unstated reasons for participation suggested by
theorists such as Maslow, Erikson, Havighurst and Houle are valuable in
understanding an individual's motives for learning, they are a necessary but
irisifficient answer to the problem of how to predict if a person will
actually participate. The model suggested by Grotelueschen is an
advancem ent over previous theories since it attem pts to predict
participation. For this reason, the intentionality model was selected to
guide this study.

Basing his m odel of intentionality on Fishbein's expectancy-value m odel
(1975), Gretelueschen proposed that participation in continuing professional
education can be explained by a study of an individual's intent to
participate in continuing pofessional education. The rationale for
Grotelueschen's model is based upon a person's intent to perform a specific
behavior, rather than the peson's attitude toward the behavior. The intent
is based upon the idea that a person develops beliefs about an act, in this
case participation in continuing profesional education, as a result of direct
expe-ience, inference and mediated information. Based upon these beliefs,
an individual develops a favorable or unfavorable attitude toward the act.
Thus a person's intent to perform a specific behavior is based upon the
person's belief that an object has certain attributes and his evaluation of
thcne attributes.

The model that has been poposed to determine intent is composed of
four elements: intent, attitude toward the act, subjective social norm and
subjective personal ncrm. They are combined into the following fcrmula:

A + SSN 4- SP N = I

"A" or attitude is estimated by multiplying the person's evaluation of
each of the consequences of an experience by the value placed on the
subjective probability tret the experience will lead to that consequence.

12

"SSN" or subjective social norm is estimated by multiplying the individual's
perceptions of each of the expectations of relevant referent persons by the
m otivational value of those beliefs. "SP N " or subjective personal norm is
estim ated by multiplying each of the individual's personal beliefs about
whether he (r she should behave in a certain way and the motivation to
comply with those beliefs. "I" or intent is approximately eqml to behavior,
and intent is the total of the sum mated poducts for attitude, subjective
social norm and subjective personal ncrm.

In co m bining the co m ponents of the intentionality m odel, Grotelneschen
felt that participation could be examined to answer the question of why
profesionals participate in continuing pofesional education. The present
study will pursue this question through the use of the intentionality model
adapted by Grotelueschen using Fishbein‘s expectancy-value m odel.

LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY

 

One of the primary reasons for the use of random selection procedures
is to increase the generalizability of the finding fiom a given study. Since
this study will use random sampling for members of the Amciation for
Educational Communications and Technology, the results will be
generalizable to the members who participated in the study.

Another limitation of the study is the definition of continuing
professional education. The definition used in this study em phasizee formal
learning, while much of what a pofesnional learns may be informal in
nature.

Finally, any survey research faces the difficulty of nonrespondents and
how they might rave differed from those who did respond. All attempts

were made to encourage members to respond, but it may be that those

13

profescionals who did not respond to the survey would have had different

perspectives from those who did respond.

CHAPTER SUMMARY

This chapter described the problem of participation in continuing
professional education and the significance of the research in understanding
the problem. The research need, research questions, theoretical and
conceptual foundations and limitations were also explained.

1‘4

CHAPTER 2: REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE

INTRODUCTION

 

In this chapter the literature related to adult learning and continuing
professional education, the need for continuing profesional education and
the research related to m otivational and de m ographic characteristics of
participants will be examined. Also examined will be the research related
to participant's perception of the expectations of others as it affects
participation in continuing p'ofessional education as well as reasons for
nonparticipation. Finally, the literature describing work on the relationstfip
between attitude and behavior will be examined for its impact on Fishbein's
expectancy-value theory which is the model used in this study.

ADULT LEARNING AND CONTINUING PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION

The role of education in altering the thoughts and pactices of people
is as old as writing. In the Old Testament, people were admonished to
teach their children p'operly so that they would grow up to be respected
members of society. Plato and Aristotle encouraged individuals to explore
new territories of knowledge throughout their lives. Comments, in the
17th century, suggested that education could be best served through the
development of individuals. In more recent years, Dewey suggested that
education and learning are lifelong proce$es. (1916) However, only in
recent years have these perspectives on education resulted in formal
definitions of how learning should take place throughout a person's lifetim e.
In this section, the literature on recent conceptualizations of adult learning
are examined for their relationships to continuing professional education.

15

The term adult education has been defined in a variety of ways.

 

Some definitions limit adult education to courses taken by adults in fcrmal
settings, sponsored by a recognized agency, with only part—time attendance
allowed. (National Center for Education Statistics, 1978) Other definitions
include learning options which are more informal in nature or recogm‘ze the
responsibility of the learner to me his or her own educational goals in
whatever form desired. (Delker, 1971-1) However, all these definitions are
based on three basic assumptions: (1) the participants are adults who are
beyond the normal school-leaving age, (2) the needs of adults are different
from those of school-age children and (3) adults bring to the learning
situation a variety of life experiences which are to be rsed as a resource in
any learning situation. (Dave, 1976)

As a result of adult education's emphasis on formal education patterns
and a desire on the part of educators to examine the implications of what
was being learned about adult development, interest. developed in expanding
the definition of adult education toward the concept of lifelong learning.
Although there are a plethcra of definitions of lifelong learning, the
following by Dave (1976) exemplifies the essential elements of lifelong
learning that distinguish it from adult education: .

Lifelong learning seeks to view education in its totality. It

covers formal, nonformal and informal patterns of education,

and attempts to integrate and articulate all structures and

stages of education along with the vertical (temporal) and

haizontal (spatial) dim ensions. It is also characterized by

flexibiltiy in time, place, content and techniques of learning

and hence calls for self-directed learm’ng, sharing of one's

enlighten m ent with others, and adopting varied learning styles

and strategies. (p. 35-36)

This definition points out a num ber of similarities and differences
between adult education and lifelong learning. These include:

1. Adult education centers on learning at only one stage in life, i.e.

adulthood, while lifelong learning views education as a series of

16

interconnected experiences wkn‘ch a person completes during a lifetime.
2. Lifelong learning rses a wide variety of formal and informal

environments, while adult education emphasizes formal education

environments.

3. Lifelong learning emphasizes that education should be coordinated with
other co m ponents of society in which learning occurs (horizontal
integration) and that learning should occur as needed throughout a
person's lifetim e (vertical integration). Adult education inclines to
isolated educational activities that are not integrated with earlier
experiences.

ll. Lifelong learning utilizes time, content, techniques and place more
flexibly than adult education.

5. Adult and lifelong learning advocates stress the im portahce of
self-directed learning, but because of the greater flexibility in lifelong
learning, the individual will require a greater degree of initiative in
resolving his or her educational needs.

These differences between adult and lifelong education have yet to be
fully bcrn out in educational practice. Much that might be called adult
education res elements of lifelong learning, while the reverse is also true.
However, efforts lave been made to apply the theory of lifelong learning to
many aspects of education.

Just as adult education has undergone a basic revision in its underiying
structure, continuing professional education has begun to utilize new models
in understanding the role of continuing education in professional
development. Houle (1980) suggested that in the past we have utilized a
model that emphasized an initial period of professional preparation
accompanied by occasional periods of retraining (Figure 2.1). The model
corresponds closely to those Lsed in adult education. Houle suggests that a

17

new model is emerging based upon the ideas of lifelong learning where a
pason's professional training will not be based upon a massive initial
experience and limited followup periods but will consist of a number of

interconnected learning experiences which emerge as need arises in a

person's professional life. (Figure 2.2) This model is an attempt to reorient

the professional to the need for continual learning to update, renew and
create skills.

Another educator who has attempted to change existing concepts of
continuing grofessional education is Grotelueschen (1980) who has suggested
that we must move away from research conducted with adult education
populations to development of theories and research methodologies which
reflect continuing professional education. His belief is based upon basic
differences he perceives between adult and continuing professional education
populatiore which include:

1. Professional participants are a m we ho m ogeneous group than adult
education participants primarily because of com mon professional
preparation.

2. The individual professional has less flexibility in choosing to participate
in educational activities because of mandated require m ents or desire to
save professional clients adequately.

3. The pofesnional participant not only benefits personally fro m the
training but also serves to benefit a secondary source, the client. In
adult education the only need is for the individual to be served
through the educational experience.

18

 

 

Certification
Selection\ oi Competence
i»
J
General Continuing Educanon
Education.
often with pedaliaed Induction
some emphasis Education
on the basic
content required
for specialization

Figure 2.1
‘ I
The Classic Model of meusional Education

 

 

 

 

Selection
1
- Continuing Education
General Pee-Senna
Education. sped.“ m— maintenance and
one“ with Educauon modernization
some ernphuis p - preparatory to change
on the basic I — Inducuon Into new
content re re: nsibilitie:
quired for r - ref
specialization
Figure 2.2

An Eme'ging Model of Professional Education

19

As a result of these developments in understanding the special needs
of professionals, research has been conducted to determine the unique
characteristics of professionals which may encourage the m to participate in
continuing profe$ional education. This study is one attempt to add to this
body of knowledge.

In summary, progress in adult education has led to interest in lifelong
learning and the special needs of professionals for further education. New
models have been 318ng that indicate how the need for continuing
profeflonal education is complementary, but distinct from those of adult

education.

THE NEED FOR CONTINUING PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION

Lindsay et aL, (1971i) suggested that three primary forces have
converged in recent years to spark interest in continuing professional
education. First, members of society have become increasingly critical of
the quality of service rendered by morefionals. Second, profesional
organizations have been under increasing treasure to either monitor the
competence of members of the [refession or lose control over the quality
asur-ance moses. Third, individual professionals have become more aware
that lifelong learning is a component of being a professional. All of these
pressures have combined to increase interest in continuing profeflonal
education.

The accountability movement, combined with an increasing number of
groups looldng for rrofessional recognition, has led to demands that a
profesion save the public mae competently. As Collens (1979) Suggested,

society is concerned that professions

20

...Render service that meets the highest standards of

competence and integrity and act with special concern for the

public interest.(p.236)

Collens states that this demand has arisen from the increased
complexity and regulation of our society. In addition, the consumer of
professional services ins broader avenues for registering concern about the
quality of service.

Became of public pressure many states have exerted pressure on
professional organizations to monitor the competence of members of the
profession. Bratton (1980) suggested that three methods are used to
measure the ability of a p'ofessional to maintain competence: (1) mandated
formal continuing education which requires a preset num bar of hours of
study over a specified span of time, (2) periodic review of competence
based upon examination, performance evaluation or other agreed upon
measures and (3) self-guided study, which relies on the individual's sense of
professionalism to im prove competence.

Once a profesional crganization approves one of these sh'ategies
Bretton indicates that the association is faced with the problem of _lr_I_o_w_
competwoies will be nought up to date. A variety of educational
alternatives become necwary to encourage the profefiional to upgrade
knowledge and skills. Thus the mfession takes on the role of purveyor of
education, either formally or informally.

Ultim stay, the need for continuing professional education falls on the
individual, whether the reason is mandated continuing education, the desire
to maintain competence as a profefiional or an individual's awarenem of the
shifting knowledge base underlying the profession. One attempt to define
the pace at which this knowledge changes has been suggested by Dubin
(197“) when he described the idea of "half-life". Half-er is defined as:

21

The period of time afte- completion of formal education when
approximately half of what the profesional has learned is no
longer applicable. (p.152)

Based on an analysis of the increasing number of abstracts published in
Psychological Abstracts from 1961 to 1970, as well as personal interviews,

 

Dubin suggested that the half-life of a psychologist averaged about 10 to 12
years. Lukasiewicz (1971) stated that the half-er of an engineering
student in 19110 was approximately 12 years; by 1970 the half-life had
shrunk to five years. Rosenow (1971) of the American College of
Physicians estimated the relf-life of a medical internists knowledge to be
five years.

The pace at which knowledge changes and what Knox (1979) has
suggested are personal and job-related demands to improve performance,
place we on the uofesional to become involved in some form of
educational activity. Thus the need for continuing profefiional education
becom es foctsed because of personal, professional and societal influences.

Societal pressures, profesional growth and personal interes: rave been
suggested as forces pushing for professional renewal. In addition, the pace
at which knowledge expands has created the need for further professional
education. Together, these forces supply the im petus for further continuing
profesulonal education.

MOTIVATIONAL CHARACTERISTICS OF PARTICIPANTS

A variety of approaches have been Lead to ascertain the m otivations
for participating in adult and continuing profeaional education. The m odels
of Maslow (19511), Erikson (1950) Havighmst (1953), Houle (1961) and
Boshier (1977) have occupied the prominent roles in the examination of
motives for participation in continuing education. It is Houle's (1961)

22

"learning orientations" study that has resulted in the largest body of
research related to adult and continuing professional education. These
studiesarethe basisfor muchoftheresearchthat willbereviewedinthis
section.

In his study, Houle interviewed 22 participants taking part in adult
continuing education activities and found that three orientations typified the
majority of those questioned. The individuals consisted of those who were
ggal-orien , who saw education as a means to attain personal goals;

 

activity- orientedJ who took part in order to be involved in experiences; and

 

learning- orientedJ who sought knowledge for its own sake.

Using Houle's typology, Sheffield (1964) surveyed 1153 participants who
attended 20 different adult conferences. He found five aientations
including: (1) the learning orientation, or seeking of knowledge for it's own
sake; (2) the desire for activity orientation, in which the participant finds
social cr interpasonal meaning fiom participation; (3) the personal goal
orientation, wm'ch includes those who are pursuing personal goals; (11) the
societal goal a'ientation, based on the desire to accomplish social or
com munity goals through participation; and (5) the introspective need
orientation, which is based on the desire to use course content to
introspectively examine personal goals.

Bur-gem (1971) collected data from 1,0116 adult education participants
who were asked to rate how influential each of 70 neviomly derived
reasons were in their decision to participate in an adult education activity.
Factor analysis was used to derive seven clusters or orientations toward
participation. The seven factors included the desire to know, the desire to
reachapasonalgoaLtiedesiretoreachasocialgoaLthedesiretoreach
a religom goal, the desire to take part in social activity, the desire to
escape and the desire to meet formal requirements. Two factors which

23

were hypothesized but did not emerge were desire to comply with general
social pm and the desire to study alone.

Morstain and Smart (19711) completed a study with a group of 645
adults enrolled for part-time coursework at a local college. Six factors
emerged from the analysis: (1) social relationships, (2) external expectations,
(3) social welfare, (ll) uofesional advancement, (5) escape/stimulation and
(6) cognitive interest. In analym’ng the data, they found that mae
im portance was placed on factors for profemional advance In ent, cognitive
interest and social welfare while less importance was attached to external
expectations, social relatiors and escape/stimulation dimensions of the scale.

The learning crientations work of Houle (1961), Sheffield (1964),
Burgess (1971) and Morstain and Smart (19711) have analyzed the variety of
reasons expresed by adult education participants. The studies have shown
how adult education participants may have a wide variety of reasons for
participation, including such needs as a need to seek mae knowledge in a
new field a" the need to socialize with people. The reasons for
participation vary based upon the specific needs of the individual.

DEMOGRAPHIC CHARACTERISTICS OF PARTICIPANTS

The study of participants "leaming orientations" was paralleled by an
interest. in the demographic characteristics of those who take part in adult
and continuing professional education. In the following section, the research
on demographic characteristics related to the variables in this study are
examined including age, level of formal education completed, length of time
since the last degree was received, nature of employment responsibilities,
length of experience in pesent employment role, salary in past calendar
year and amount of participation in continuing education in recent years.

2’4

AGE OF PARTICIPANTS:

A large number of saudies have used age as an independent variable
with less than clear results. Shorey (1969) in one of the earliest studies
with teachers found a negative correlation between age and participation in
continuing education activities Hall (197 3) also found that as age
increased, participation decreased fcr a sample of home economists.

Other studies with pharmacists (Bernardi, 19711) and six other
profesions (Schrader, 1973) have shown no correlation between age and
participation. In a recent study by Catlin (1981) using discriminant function
analysis techniques, age was not found to distinguish between participants
and nonparticipants.

Other research has shown that age is related to increased participation
in continuing pofessional education. Hanna (1978) found that older college
faculty were m (re inclined to attend pofessional activities than their
younger counterparts. Bell (1979) found age was ascciated with expreaed
interest in m andatory and elective continuing professional education.

The [resent study will contribute to this research by examining age in
two ways: (1) in a univariate linear regression with age as the independent
variable and intent to participate as the dependent variable; and (2)
including age as one of the variables entered into the discriminant function
analysis. By these means it will be pomible to indicate any correlation
between age and the intent to participate.

PARTICIPANT'S LEVEL OF EDUCATION:

Studies have been conducted which examined the effect of level of
education on participation. The studies with adult education populations
conducted by Boshier (1971), Mansfield (1976) and Morstain and Smart (1977)
indicate a positive correlation between higher-educational levels and
participation in continuing education.

25

Studies com pleted with professional audiences have had less clear
results. Shorey (1969) found that a teacher‘s educational level was
positively related to participation. However, Molenda (1977) found no
significant relationsm'p between education and participation for educational.
technologists. Southern (1980) found that as graduate credits accumulated
for teachers, participation decreased.

The resultsofthesestudies mggesdzlemthanclearguidelinesforthe
researcher. One pomible explanation of the outcomes may be that
professionals vary in their reasons for participation which become manifest
as their education level increases.

YEARS SINCE PARTICIPANT RECEIVED DEGREE:

This variable has received little attention in the research literature
whichissurprisingsincethis measure would appeartobeoneofthe most
direct indicators of the need for continuing education. However, Catlin
(1981) found that this variable failed to distinguish between participants and
nonparticipants using discriminant analysis techniques.

PARTICIPANT'S EMPLOYMENT RESPONSIBILITIES:

E m ploym ent responsibility is another characteristic which has been
used to describe participants. Mehl (1976) found that pastors with large
congregations attended more nofeaional meetings than did those with small
congregations, though this could have been a fimction of availability of
funds rather than desire for participation. Coopa‘ (1966) also found that
head nurses and nursing supervisors applied for m ore continuing education
conferences than staff muses. No relationship was found between job status
and participation fcr pharmacists in the study completed by Bernardi. (1971i)
However, Southern (1981) found that employment responsibilities failed to
distinguish between participant and nonparticipant teachers and supervisors.

26

PARTICIPANT'S LENGTH OF EXPERIENCE:

 

Shaey (1969) found a negative relationship between experience and
participation by teachers in Canada, while Southern (1981) found no
difference between participants and nonparticipants in their intent to
participate based upon their length of experience. She did find, however,
that nonparticipants with fewer than ten years experience expressed greater
intent to participate than those with more than ten years experience. Mehl
(1976) in a study of pastors found a negative correlation between expaience
and involve m ent in continuing education activities. Catlin (1981) found
nonsignificant results for the effect of length of experience on participation.
In general, the studies suggest that length of experience is inversely related
to participation, though the strength of the measure is not high.
PARTICIPANT'S SALARY IN CURRENT YEAR:

 

Few studies have measured salary in relation to participation, possibly
became of the sensitive nature of the data. Both Carter (1971) and
Schrader (1973) found that as the salary of school administrator increased,
participation increased. Pln'llips (1973) found that salary was a poor
discriminator between engineers who participated and those who did not.
Molenda (1977) in studying pofeenionals in educational technology found
nonsignificant results for salary and participation.

AMOUNT OF PARTICIPATION IN RECENT YEARS:

Catlin (1981) found that those who participated in continuing
professional education less than two days within the last year rated all
three factor scores—pofessional perspective, judicial competence and
collegial interaction lower on the "Reasons for Participation" scale used in
his study. He also found tint those who participated six days or less within
the last three years yielded lower scores on all three factors.

27

In summary, the variables age, level. of education completed, years
since the last degree was received, employment responsibilities, length of
experience, salary and amount of participation have received varying support
from the research studies examining the relation of these variables to
participation in continuing profe$ional education. This study will examine
these variables based upon an evaluation of the research reviewed in this
section.

THE EXPECTATIONS OF OTHERS

The research conducted to date, though focused on personal
orientations pedisposing a person to participate in continuing professional
education, has found that the influence of external premises may affect the
decision to participate. Burgess (1971) in testing Houle's typology found
that one of the derived factors, "the desire to comply with formal
requirements" was a stated reason for participation. Morstain and Smart
(1971:) found with an adult education sam pic that "external expectations"
was one of the six derived factors of the study. Berg (1973) surveyed 102
staff nurses and found that those who took part in educational activities
were more likely to be encouraged to participate by friends and relatives.
Bevis (197 5) studied three aspects of nursing—the professional, bureaucratic
and service components and found the service com ponent contributed
significantly to participation, with the other two components acting as
reinforcers. These studies suggest that involvem ent in educational
experiences is not based solely on personal orientations, but includes at
least som e co m ponent of external influence which affects participation.

ts

28

REASONS FOR NONPARTICIPATION

A variety of studies have attempted to determine the underlying
reasons for nonparticipation in adult and continuing pofesional education.
One of the largest studies was completed in 1972 by the Educational
Testing Service with 1011 million persons between the ages of 16 and 60
living in the United States. (Carp, Peterson & Roelfs, 19711) They found
tint nonparticipants had less time available, were les interested in seeking
a new job, had cfifficulty finding courses at convenient times and places,
held heavier job responsibilities and were mae tired of fa'mal instruction
than their participating counterparts. Boshier (197 3) proposed that course
dropout and nonparticipation are correlated. Based upon his research with
2,1136 participants in adult education courses in New Zealand, he found
dropout stem med fro m the "interaction of internal psychological and
external environmental variables" (p.256). He found tint participants
In anifested greater self-institution congruence than nonparticipants who
found the educational delivery syste m and its poceea difficult to
comprehend and interact with. In another study by Bevis (1975) with a group
of pofeaional nurses, three aspects of profeaional practice were
studied—profeenional, bureaucratic and service aspects. As peviously
described, the service component was most directly linked to participation
in educational activities, except where conflict arose between the
bureaucratic and service co m ponent, which resulted in reduced participation.

Finally, Dao (1975) in a study which attempted to determine the
reasons for nonparticipation in adult education found the following clisters
of reasons: (1) not enough time, (2) individual and personal problems, (3)
difficulty in succeeding in educational activities, (’4) violation of personal
social norms against continuing education, (5) negative feelings toward the

29

institution offering instruction, (6) negative Irior experiences in education,
(7) the outcomes of educational participation not being valued, (8)
indifference toward continuing education and (9) lack of awareness of
educational opportum’ty.

Though the research cited in this review may not reflect the
perspective of the pofessional, who by definition has attained at least some
measure of competency in education, some of the reasons for
nonparticipation cited may be exifibited by professionals.

The research studies indicate ttnt nonparticipation is a function of
both pasonal and social influences. The obstacles may vary item to little
time to participate to a conflict between the desire to serve others and the
bureacratic de mands of the crganization in which the service operates.
These studies suggest that research should look at both personal and social
influences that affect participation.

AN ALTERNATIVE MODEL OF PARTICIPATION:

Most of the studies to date inve focused on adult education
populations, using some form of Houle's typology. Grotelueschen (1980), who
was concerned about learning for professionals expressed the view that:

...ltisnotsirprisingtrntthisline ofresearohfailsto meet

the needs of research designed to build relevant theory and to

make contributions to the practice of continuing professional

education. (p.13)

He felt tint the studies examining Houle's typology were weak
because: (1) they were taken pimarily from adult, not professional
populations; (2) demographic characteristics which could be compared across
professions were not reported; and (3) the course offerings were too troad

compared to professional population needs.

30

Based upon the perceived weaknes of "learning orientations" research,
Grotelueschen sought a theoretical model which would apply to professional
populations. The outcome of his search was the expectancy-value theory of
Fishbein, which linked attitude and belief to a professionals intent to
participate. In the following section, the development of this theory will be
described.

ATTITU DE-BEHAVIOR THEO RIES

 

The role of attitude in explaining an individual's behavior has been a
center of concern fcr many years. A number of theories have been
developed to link attitude and behavior in a cause-effect relationship with
little succes In the following section a variety of attitude theories will
be examined for their im pact on the attitude-behavior controvasy and
Fishbein's expectancy-value model, which is used in this study.

That there is a direct link between a pason's attitude toward an
object and the individual's subsequent action toward the object has yet to
be poven satisfactorily. The research conducted by LaPierre (19311) and
Mirnrd (1952) suggests that behavior cannot be determined flom knowledge
of a pason's attitude toward an object. Studies by Nettler and Golding
(19%), DeFleur and Westie (1958), and Sherif and Hovland (1961) suggest
that behavior is a ftmction of attitude. However, the studies by Festinger
(1957) indicate tint attitude is most likely to conform to a person's
behavior, rather than the inverse. These outcomes suggest the cfifficulty in
predicting a person's behavior fro m knowledge of the individual‘s attitude.

A variety of reasons have been suggested for the inconcfltnive results.
Insko (1967) suggested the rroblems arise from lack of research on the
relation betweei attitude and behavior. He said:

31

The theories seem to have concentrated on the relation

between attitude (affection) and opinions (cognitions) and have

alm ost co m pletely neglected behavior (conation). (p.31-18)

Fishbein (1975) believes the inconclusive evidence arises from the Lee
of inappropriate psychometric measures with improperly defined variables.
After reviewing over 750 articles published between 1968 and 1970, he
found almost 500 different ways of conceptualizing attitude. Kiesler (1969)
smgefied thfl:the&atmnoomes ans Umeresflt of unng ghfinl assume
measures to explain behaviors tint are situationally specific. Engle (1978)
believes that too much empinsis is placed on a single variable, attitude,
which common sense would sugged: will not explain a complex behavioral
act. To alleviate these shortcomings a number of scientists have developed
modes Infidn muempt to emdtxme the remmkm.txmween summde and
behmdam

Dulany (1961) was one of the eariiest theorists to investigate the
remnmmilxtweenamufixde mmitnhaflhrin axohssofimrhm.comfihmnhmgand
comaxtlknnfing. Unngime cxmeptcf'uanmkxalnuenh Dunny<kwekmed
thefbnowfimgumoeh

BI = ((RHD)(A))w0 + (.(BH)(MC))w1

where BI = the subject's behavioral intent to respond
in a specific manner
RHD = the "hypothesis of the distribution of

reinforcement," or the subject's hypothesis
that a particular response will lead to a
specific outcome,

A = the affective value of reinforcement, or
the subject's evaluation (attitude) toward
the outcome,

BH

the subject's "behavioral hypothesis" or

32

what he or she anticipates should be done

in the situation,

MC = the subject's motivation to comply with the
expectations of the situations, and
wow1 = beta weights derived from the regression

equation.

The maxr exmdbmdmicf Dummya mama B.UEeamfifion<fi'bduwkr
hmem:asthe mos:dhectimficflorcx'usnwkr.thramflmom,uu:compomams
(RED) and (A) are basically equivalents of Fishbein's belief and attitude,
refinemwfly.

Rosenberg (1960) was another scientist who suggested tint beliefs and
adhmdesare Gamma hathe pfiflkfilecf bduwflr: Iksemxrg fiat ant
mummde wasixstenpmmuxlas'h.nflafimfly:flnbkaaflhofiyeresmxneixran
object" (p.321). He also held the view tint a subjects' beliefs about an
object's eapability to enhance or retard a given outcome affected the
:whxnua adefindon unuuo.the chest Thmsthe nuts an obkot was
findrumenhfl.in OMnmung panUyQW'\MMEn gmam.(artmxnemmmoefl and
bkmkhm:(ar pnwenfing negfiiwfly wmued gens)imn Imus fawxabuethe
person's attitude toward the object" (Fishbein, 1975,p.31). Rosenbe-g's model
usdtmbwedlxflow:

n
where A0 = attitude toward the object,
I1 = the probability the object (0) would
increase or decrease the possibility
of attaining the goal 1,
V1 = value importance, or the degree of

importance attached to value 1 and

n = the number of values

33

Rosenberg's model is very similar to the eariy version developed by
Fishbein, with the (I) component being equivalent to Fishbein's belief
component. However, Fishbein's extended model divides the belief component
into srbjective social and personal beliefs which makes Fishbein's model
more accountable than Rosenberg's for normative beliefs that may impinge
onzarmmsxflshuentto emrycum,anau$mxrtowaniaulchest.

The Subjective Expected Utility (SE U) model of behavicxal
decision theory (Edwards, 19511) is also linked to Fishbeins' model. In the
SEU model, the subject is viewed as developing strategies to reduce
«nqeeuxiloerand maxufize gun whenzutempdng aIneefimcamumxh Eami
auennmhe Shanng'tsarfumnmXIofiie sufieumn:pnflntflhy'UEm.qummc
mMnomes wfll fidknv a gumm.zmt, museums in the subpcuye venue
(utilities) pe‘ceived to occur with those outcomes. By sum ming across all
possible outcomes the "best." behavior alternative can be selected. The
moddibrfisflayeitnknn

SEU = £213P1U 1
where SEU = the subjective expected utility,
SP : the subjective probability that a
choice will lead to an outcome 1,
U = the subjective value or utility of
outcome 1, and
n = the number of relevant outcomes.

The SEU theory proposed that the expected utility, which corresponds
closely to Fishbein's attitude component, is the pimary predictor of
behavicr. How ever, Fishbein's m odel expands this concept to include
normative beliefs when predicting a person's intent to act in a particular

In anna'.

314

The research conducted by Dulany (1961), Rosenberg (1961) and
Edwards (1951!) has contributed to our understanding of the relation between
attitude and behavior. However, each of these models has been unable to
effectively pedict behavior based upon the elements of the model. Though
each model contributed additional elements to the puzzle of the relation
between attitude and behavior, they each failed to increase the ability to
predict behavior fiem knowledge of a person's attitudes. Became of this
weakne$, Fishbein's expectancy-value model offered hope became it was
able to more accurately predict behavior by examining a persons g_t_e_n_t_ to
behave in a particular manner. For this reason, Fishbein's model is
described more fully below.

FISHBEIN'S EXPECTAN CY—VALUE M ODEL

Themstoryofresearchmatiitudetheoryhasbeenbasedprimarily
upon the assumption that as attitude was changed, behavior would
correspondingly change. However, Fishbein (1967) in reviewing the research
stated:

After maethan70to75yearsofattitudereseareh,thereis

still little, if any, consistent evidence supporting the

hypothesis that knowledge of an individual's attitude toward

some object will allow one to pedict the way he will behave

with respect to that object. Indeed, what little evidence

there is to support any relationship between attitude and

behavior coma from studies that a person tends to bring his

attitude into line with his behavior rather than from studies

demonstrating that behavicr is a fimction of attitude. (p.147?)

Though there was less than complete agreement with Fishbein's
analysis, he proceeded to develop an early model that incorporated beliefs
as the building block in predicting behavior in order to overcome the
deficiencies of previom theories His view was that beliefs were related to

attitudes which in turn were appron'm ate predictors of behavior. The

35

earliest model consisted of two components: (1) belief which was defined as
tmelxobmmfityiiatznicmjxm QM§BOP(RES mmzrnve a mathmkr'aUTflnme,
amd(2)theafifemiweterm whhiuhxfiaflxfl wheUmr<m~nottheamnimde was
paddvew'ewflummd. The modeiappenedzxn

A = Z Biai
where A = attitude toward the object,
Bi = the ith belief about the object,
ai = the evaluation of the belief,
n = the total number of beliefs

kfier nemanillmascxmdwfied on the mode, Fkhban reWbed hm
theory. The primary alteration was the "attitude toward the object" was
rephwedtwrwmxflmnetomanithe1min. Thmlwastesaionlfislximftmau

...It really doesn’t make a lot of difference how much a

person likes a given product, or how good that product's

"brand image" is—if the consumer doesn't believe that buying

that product will lead to mcre "good consequences" and fewer

‘flmo emmeqmamed‘thMItmwhugsome Oaxr'pnthm,they wfll

tend to buy the other product. (Fishbein, 1967. 12.1477)

The sxmmd modfikemkm.hithe moma.waslie mmfifion<fi’compmmxms
to measure the personal and social norms governing behavior and the
motivations to comply with those norms. By addition of these norms,
Fishbein felt his model could mae accurately p'edict behavior. This the

model developed by Fishbein appeared as follows:

BeI = w1(A) + w2(SSN) + w3(SPN)
where B- = the behavior,
I = the intent to perform behavior B,
A = the attitude toward performing
behavior B,
SSN = the subjective social norm,

36

SPN

the subjective personal norm and
w1,w2,w3, = empirically determined weights

A major test of Fishbein's model was completed by Wilson, et al.
(1975) in which responses to a questionnaire were used to pedict which
brand of toothpaste a housewife would select as a ftee gift after
completing the survey. An average coefficient of determination or "R" of
0.672 was found between intent as measured by the responsee and the
actual toothpaste selected. King (1975) measured the intent of respondent's
to attend church and found a high correlation with actual attendance.
Southern (1980) in a study with teachers found that all three components of
Fishbein's m odel contributed to the intent to participate.

The effectiveness of the expectancy-value model in predicting behavior
was also tested by Schwartz and Tessler. (1972) After administering a
questionnaire to 195 adults concerning their intent to be medical transplant
donors, they found personal normative beliefs, attitudes and social
normative beliefs contributed to the intent of respondent's to donate parts
of their bodies to medical science. The model accounted for approximately
50% of the variance in intent, which lent credibility to the model. but also
indicated significant variance which was unexplained by the model.

A review of studies completed in Great Britain and the United Stator
was completed by Ryan and Bonfield (1975) which also cast doubt on the
model's sufficiency to explain a person's intent to perform a
particular behavicr. The average correlation between intent and
behavicr was found to be 0.185 while the average multiple correlation
of the model's components was 0.62. Since this explained approximately
18% and 38% of the variance respectively, some doubt was expmed about
the adeqxncy of the model. Afte" analysing these results, Engle (1978)
suggested that one of the shortcomings of Fishbein's model is the exclusion

37

deco: newnemae emaedeoz
m.m mtsmam

   

  

moocmumasooflo
nonmawofipc¢

  

 

x Lofl>mnoo
wcwcgoocoo mseoz
Hmcomemm o>fiooonosm

 

 

 

 

x Lofi>msoo usoow
Lofi>msom :oflocoocH mmmfiaoo o>flpmagoz

 

x L0H>msoo
mcflcooocoo mELoz
amfloom o>fiooonosm

 

 

 

 

x LoH>mooo mo

x Lofl>msoo
oocmsaomcoo psoom mmofiaom

Upmzop GUDpHup<

 

 

 

 

 

38

of anticipated circumstances as a situational variable to enhance the
prediction of behavior. Engle felt that even though a person's belief
structme may be positive toward a particular behavior, that individual may
be aware of circumstances that are likely to interfere, which could alter
the intent to behave in a specific manner. Thus Fishbein's model would be
modified as shown in Figure 2.3. The present research will examine this
m odification of Fishbein's m odel to determine the contribution of each
com ponent to the variance in intent to participate in continuing profesional
education.

Fishbein's expectancy-value m odel has been used by researchers to
predict the intent of people to behave in a particular manner. The model
has been evaluated in a number of settings wm'ch are primarily consumer
product oriented. In each of these settings the model was effective. The
present study will examine the model in a new setting where the desire is
to examine professionals intent to participate in continuing professional

education.

CHAPTER SUMMARY

Witmn this chapter adult education, lifelong learning and continuing
professional education rave been defined and distinguished fro m each other.
Special emphasis was given to how continuing professional education is
derived from adult education and lifelong learning. The societal,
professional and personal pressures stre$ing renewal of professional sldlls
were also examined. Studies which have examined the "leaming
orientations" of participants in adult education were examined for their
impact on the present study. Research studies which have looked at
demographic characteristies of participants were also reviewed to determine

39

how strongly the variables were related to participation in continuing
professional education. The characteristies examined were age, level of
education, years since the last degree was received, employment
responsibilities, length of experience, salary and am ount of participation in
continuing professional education in recent years. The role of the
expectations of others on participation was also examined for its impact on
the profemional. The research which attempted to understand the reasons
why people do not participate in continuing education was also reviewed.
Finally, a review of of the relevant literature in the area of attitude
research and Fishbein's expectancy-value m odel was com pleted for it's
application to the present study.

llO

CHAPTER 3: RESEARCH DESIGN

INTRODUCTION

 

This chapter introduces the methods and procedures used in this study.
It includes the description of the dependent and independent variables and
the research and statistical hypotheses. Also included is a description of
the survey instrum ents, the reliability of the survey questionnaires,
description of the study population, sam ple selection procedures, data
analysis procedures and jstification for selection of the statistical

measures.

DEPENDENT AND INDEPENDENT VARIABLES

The purpose of this study is threefold: (1) to determine if there are
any de m ographic and personal characteristics which correlate with the
expectancy-value scales and the two measures of intent to participate in
continuing professional education; (2) to determine how effective Fishbein's
expectancy-value m odel is in predicting a professional's intent to participate
in continuing professional education; and (3) to discover if there are
personal and professional characteristies which can differentiate between
participants and nonparticipants in continuing profesional education
activities.

To meet these goals the dependent variables which will be examined
consist of the scores of the respondents on the Attitude, Subjective Socifl
Norm, Subjective Personal Norm and Anticipated Circumstances Scales
derived fhom the treatment. The independent variables include:

10.
11.
12.
13.
1’4.
15.
16.

Prior to the hypotheses for each section the research question to be

141

Age

Level of formal education completed

Length of time since the last degree was received
Nature of e m ploy m ent responsibilities

Amount of time spent in administration

Amount of time spent in teaching or training

Amount of time spent in curriculum or instructional design
Amount of time spent in library or information science
A mount of time spent in audio-visual production
Amount of time spent in research

Amount of time spent in consulting

Amount of time spent in sales or marketing

Amount of time spent as a student

Length of time in present employment role

Salary in the past calendar year

A m ount of participation in continuing pofeaional education

within the last three years.

RESEAR CH HYPOTHESES

 

answered is stated. The first research question is stated below:

Research Question:

which correlate with a professionals intent to participate in continuing

gofessional education?

W hat are the personal and gofessional characteristics

’42

Hypothesis 1: As the age of the respondent increases:

 

a.
b.
c.
d.

e.

f.

The score on the Attitude scale will decrease.

The score on the Subjective Social Norm scale will decrease.

The score on the Subjective Personal. Norm scale will decrease.
The score on the Anticipated Circumstances scale will decrease.
The intent to participate in continuing professional education
within the next year will decrease.

The intent to participate in continuing [rofessional education

within the next three years will decrease.

Hypothesis 2: As the level of formal education completed by the

 

respondent increases:

a.
b.
c.
d.

e.

f.

The score on the Attitude scale will decrease.

The score on the Subjective Social Norm scale will decrease.

The score on the Subjective Personal Norm scale will decrease.
The score on the Anticipated Circumstances scale will decrease.
The intent to participate in continuing profeaional education
within the next year will decrease.

The intent to participate in continuing pofessional education

within the next three years will decrease.

Hypothesis 3: As the length of time since the last degree was received

 

increasee

a.
b.
c.
d.

e.

The score on the Attitude scale will decrease.

The score on the Subjective Social Norm scale will decrease.

The some on the Subjective Personal Norm scale will decrease.
The score on the Anticipated Circumstances scale will decrease.
The intent to participate in continuing professional education
within the next year will decrease.

f.

’43

The intent to participate in continuing professional education
within the next three years will decrease.

iiyppthesis ll: As the amount of time spent in administration incream

 

a.
b.
c.
d.

e.

f.

 

The score on the Attitude scale will decrease.

The score on the Subjective Social Norm scale will decrease.

The score on the Subjective Personal Norm scale will decrease.
The scae on the Anticipated Circumstances scale will decrease.
The intent to participate in continuing professional education
within the next year will decrease.

The intent to participate in continuing professional education

within the next three years will decrease.

Hypothesis 5: As the amount of time spent in audiovisual production

 

increases:

a.
b.
c.
d.

e.

 

The score on the Attitude scale will decrease.

The score on the Subjective Social Norm scale will decrease.

The score on the Subjective Personal Norm scale will decrease.
The score on the Anticipated Circumstances scale will decrease.
The intent to participate in continuing professional education
within the next year will decrease.

The intent to participate in continuing professional education
within the next three years will decrease.

Mothesis 6: As the amount of time spent in consultation increases:

a.
b.
c.
d.

e.

 

The score on the Attitude scale wfll decrease.

The score on the Subjective Social Norm scale will decrease.

The score on the Subjective Personal Norm scale will decrease.
The scae on the Anticipated Circumstances scale will decrease.
The intent to participate in continuing professional education

within the next year will decrease.

 

f.

ill-l

The intent to participate in continuing professional education
within the next three years will decrease.

Hypothesis 7: As the amount of time went in sales promotion increases:

a.
b.
c.
d.

e.

The score on the Attitude scale will decrease.

The score on the Subjective Social Norm scale will decrease.

The score on the Subjective Personal Norm scale will decrease.
The some on the Anticipated Circumstances scale will decrease.
The intent to participate in continuing professional education
within the next year will decrease.

The intent to participate in continuing professional education
within the next three years will decrease.

Hypothesis 8: As the length of time a respondent has been i_n_ his or her

 

 

employment role increases:

a.
b.
c.
d.

e.

The scae on the Attitude scale will decrease.

The score on the Subjective Social Norm scale will decrease.

The score on the Subjective Personal Norm scale will decrease.
The score on the Anticipated Circumstances scale will decrease.
The intent to participate in continuing professional education
within the next year will decrease.

The intent to participate in continuing professional education
within the next three years will decrease.

Hypothesis 9: As the w in the past calendar year increases:

a.
b.
c.
d.

e.

The score on the Attitude scale will decrease.

The score on the Subjective Social Norm scale will decrease.

The score on the Subjective Personal Norm scale will decrease.
The score on the Anticipated Circumstances scale will decrease.
The intent to participate in continuing professional education
within the next year will decrease.

f.

H5

The intent to participate in continuing professional education
within the next three years will decrease.

Hypothesis 10: As the amount of time spent in teaching or training

 

increases:

a.
b.

C.

 

The score on the Attitude scale will increase.

The score on the Subjective Social Norm scale will increase.

The scae on the Subjective Personal Norm scale will increase.
The score on the Anticipated Circumstances scale will increase.
The intent to participate in continuing professional education
within the next year will increase.

The intent to participate in continuing professional education

within the next three years will increase

Hypothesis 11: As the amount of time spent in curriculum or instructional

 

 

development increases:

 

a.
b.
c.
d.

e.

f.

The sccre on the Attitude scale will increase.

The score on the Subjective Social Norm scale will increase.

The score on the Subjective Personal Norm scale will increase.
The score on the Anticipated Circumstances scale will increase.
The intent to participate in continuing profesional education
within the next year will increase.

The intent to participate in continuing professional education
within the next three years will increase.

Hypothesis 12: As the amount of time spent in library or information

service increases:

a.
b.
c.

d.

The some on the Attitude scale will increase.
The score on the Subjective Social Norm scale will increase.
The scae on the Subjective Personal Norm scale will increase.

The score on the Anticipated Circumstances scale will increase.

e.

‘46

The intent to participate in continuing professional education
within the next year will increase.
The intent to participate in continuing professional education

within the next three years will increase.

Hypothesis 13: As the amount of time spent in research increases:

 

a.
b.
c.
d.

e.

The score on the Attitude scale will increase.

The score on the Subjective Social Norm scale will increase.

The score on the Subjective Personal Norm scale will increase.
The some on the Anticipated Circumstances scale will increase.
The intent to participate in continuing professional education
within the next year will increase.

The intent to participate in continuing professional education
within the next three years will increase.

Hypothesis 11$: As the amount of time spent as a student increases:

 

a.
b.

C.

The score on the Attitude scale will increase.

The score on the Subjective Social Norm scale will increase.

The score on the Subjective Personal Norm scale will incresse.
The score on the Anticipated Circumstances scale will increase.
The intent to participate in continuing professional education
within the next year will increase.

The intent to participate in continuing professional education
within the next three years will increase.

Hypothesis 15: As the amount of time spent participating in continuing

professional education within the last three years increases:

a.
b.
c.

d.

The score on the Attitude scale will increase.

The score on the Subjective Social Norm scale will increase.
The score on the Subjective Personal Norm scale will increase.
The score on the Anticipated Circumstances scale will increase.

117

e. The intent to participate in continuing professional education
within the next year will increase.

f. The intent to participate in continuing professional education
within the next three years will increase.

Research Question: How effective is the modified Fishbein Expectancy-

 

Value model in predicting a professionals intent to participate in continuing

 

professional education?

 

Hypothesis 16: Four predictors, Attitude, Subjective Social Norm, Subjective
Personal Norm and Anticipated Circumstances, will together contribute
significantly to the variance of the predicted variables that measure
intent to participate in continuing pofessional education.

Research Question: What are the personal and profe$ional variables which

 

distinguish the profeaional who participates in continuing professional
education fio m the one who does not participate?

 

Hypothesis 17: There will be a significant difference between participants

 

and nonparticipants on the items representing personal and pofesuional
characteisties m easured on the Respondent Information form .

STATISTIC AL HY POTHESES

The following statistical hypotheses will be examined in this study:
Hypothesis 1: Age: pxy = O

Hypothesis 2: Level of formal education: p xy = 0

Hypothesis 3: Time dnce the last degree: pxy -_- o

118

Hypothesis 11: Time spent in administration: pxy = 0

Hypothesis 5: Time spent in audio-visual production: pxy : O

 

 

 

Hypothesis 6: Time spent in consultation: p xy = O
Hypothesis 7: Time spent in sales promotion: pxy .-. O
Hypothesis 8: Length of time in employment role: p = 0

xy
Hypothesis 9: Salary: p :0

 

 

 

 

 

 

xy
Hypothesis 10: Time spent in teaching or training: pxy = O

Hypothesis 11: Time spent in curriculum or instructional development: pxy=0
Hypothesis 12: Time spent in library or information service: pxy : O
Hypothesis 13: Time spent in research: pxy = 0

Hypothesis 111: Time spent as a student: pxy = O

 

Hypothesis 15: Tim e spent participating in continuing professional
ed ti : = 0
uca on pxy
Hypothesis 16: Intent to participate in continuing profesional education:
3 = B a 8 = o

1 2 3
Hmothesis 17: Participants and nonparticipants: l = 0

 

 

DESCRIPTION OF THE SURVEY INSTRUMENTS

 

The development of the survey instruments was completed in three
stages. In the pretest stage a stratified random sample of 50 respondents
was asked to respond to open-ended questions which elicited salient beliefs
of the respondents for the Attitude, Subjective Social Norm , Subjective
Personal Norm and Anticipated Circumstances Scales.

After the {retest was administered, the responses were tabulated and
compared with previom research using Fishbein's model. Using the
tabulated responses and a review of the literature, the survey instrument
questions were developed. The items were reviewed by profefiionals who

“9

commented on the face validity of the items. Once the items were
reviewed, a pilot study with 50 respondents was conducted to examine the
dummy<f“UmesxyeyinerumenuL

Upon completion of the pilot study, final revisions were made in the
questionnaire (Appendix A) and it was administered to a stratified random
sample of the population (N=5011). Two followup mailings were need to
hKTGfiEWUEBnfimnlerL

THE MEASUREMENT SCALES:

 

Four scales were reed as measures in the study. They are described
below:
The Attitude Toward Participation Scale focused on the consequences

 

that may occur as a result of participation in continuing professional
education. Using the expectancy-value model described by Fishbein (1980),
attitude is m easured using the following formula:

n
Attitude (A) = Z b.ei
i=1 1
where b = the professional's subjective
estimate of consequence i
occurring and
e = the value placed on a consequence
i by the professional and
n = the number of consequences listed

in the measuring instrument.

Thus each item on the scale is rated twice: first, for the value the
respondent places on the consequence; and secondly, for the likelihood of
the consequence actually occurring as a result of participation. The
consequence pation of the item is rated on a seven point Liker't Scale with
a six (6) being "high value" and zero (0) "no value." The likelihood portion

50

of the item is also rated on a seven point Likert Scale, with the values
ranging fiom a high of six (6) for "likely" through a score of zero (0) for
"unlikely." A score for each item is generated by multiplying the two
components of each item. These scores are then summed across all items
to(krWeaicompeauasmxeihrtheimxfiumedeb.

Participation in continuing professional education depends in part on a
peson's pe~ception of the expectations of other people and the importance
placed on those expectations. The Subjective Social Norm Scale was
defigmxl u) umasne 21 nxmmmkmvs pexepmon of tme emxmuumxs cf
Wagnfkemt<xmen¥ Unwed fimtkimnmXIhncmmfinuug;panesamxfl.emxemkm.
Therxekeisteseitmmntxeefiflknfingfbrmuku

n
SSN = 1:1 bimi
where b = the social normative belief (i.e., the

professional's belief that a reference
group or individual (i) thinks she
should or should not perform behavior
(b),
m = the motivational value attributed to
what referent (i) thinks and
n = the number of relevant referents
Each item on the Subjective Social Norm Scale has two components to
rake fin¢,tme nxmomhsm Hues unitefieithat'smmfihxum curre'tdew
participation in continuing professional education as im portant; and second,
‘UEenfimmmkmtrasthow nearest Us:emxmhflmxslcf'smmfihemtcmhes"
rue in the resonmams imxmt to penmfiQMe in oonmnmng panesmxed
ehuefitxn
The scoring for the first component of the item is based on a five
point Likert Scale with items ranging firom a plts two (+2) for "thinks I

51

should participate" to a minus two (-2) for "thinks I should not participate."
The second component is also rated on a five point Likert Scale ranging
from a four (11) for "very important" to zero (0) for "not important." A
total score for each item is derived by multiplying the two component
scores. These scores are then summed across all the items for a composite
semeefix'U%BSNQEefiyeikxmfl.Norm Sefle.

lh aoerto mhfimtnatheefflxm.d?any'EMmfihxmm<xhefl'who<fidrxt
affect the respondent's situation, each individual was requested to ignore
any items wm'ch did not apply. Opportunity was given to add persons a"
organizations that were omitted from the scale so the total-scale score
repmseued the influemx: of renxms immmamtfl in the lfie cf the
remxmdem;

Whedmr 21 pmfeskmal wfll pathfimne in cxndnmng panessmufl
enuenmxi demafls in pen: on an: unrnmems rxrmflxhxr at what a
pnfiesmxmms beers sunk!txrcxmcenflmgcmnmmMng ehmafion ami‘uiaa
huge enemtidithe panesnatfls wflhngmes hazumron‘uxse'uahns. The

Subjective Personal N orm Scale was designed to m easure the respondent's

 

personal beliefs about participation in continuing professional education and
the extent to which the respondent is willing to act on those beliefs. The
development of the scale was based upon the following model suggested by
Fishbein (1980):

n
SPN = 1:1 bimi
where SPN = the subjective personal norm,
b = the personal normative belief,
m = the motivation to comply with personal
normative belief i and
n = the number of personal normative

belief

52

Using this model. each item had two components: first, the normative
belief which was measured using a five point Likert Scale with a score
ranging from four (’4) for "high value" to zero (0) for "no value": second,
the motivation to comply with the normative belief, was measured ming a
five point Likert Scale where the scores ranged between four (11) for "very
willing" to zero (0) for "not willing." A total score for the Subjective
Personal Norm Scale was generated by determining the product of the two
components of each item and then summing across all the items.

A professional's intent to participate in continuing professional
education ean be strong, but circumstances may interfere as suggested by
Engle. (1978) The Anticipated Circumstances Scale was created to measure
the profesionals pe‘ception of circumstances that might impinge on the
intent to participate in continuing trofessional education. Using the
responses suggested by the respondents during the pre—test, the scale items
were developed ming a five point Likert Scale. The score for each item
ranged fiom a zero (0) on the "likely" to prevent participation portion of
the scale, to a four (11) for the "unlikely" end of the scale. By summing
across all items a composite score for the scale was computed.

The Respondent Information Form was developed to measure personal
and profesional characteristics of the respondents. Items for the
instrument were generated by reviewing previous studies to determine the
items used as measures of personal and profesional characteristies. Based
upon this analysis and consideration of the research hypotheses, items were
generated and administered to respondents as part of the pilot study.
Respondents were requested to suggest changes which would improve the
clarity of the items. Based upon the respondent's suggestions, revisions were
made in the instrument and it was administered with the scales during the
final study.

53

RELIABILITY OF THE SURVEY INSTRUMENTS

Kimble (1978) stated that "reliability refers to the extent to which a
test or other measure performs consistently" (p.186). The statistical
measure coefficient alpha fiom the "Reliability" program of the Statistical
Package for the Social Sciences was used to analyze the reliability of the

 

four scales. The coefficient alpha is "a m easure of the internal consistency
of responses of each item of a scale acme respondents. It is determined
for scales where respondents may receive a different numerical. score on an
item." (Mose 8: Kalton, 1972, p.35“) The reliability in each scale is
computed by the formula as given by Magrnsson (1966). For this study the
reliability measures for each scale were compute as follows:

Coefficient Alpha

 

Attitude Scale: .8903

Subjective Social Norm Scale: .8850
Subjective Personal Norm Scale: .9161
Anticipated Circumstances Scale: .8210

DESCRIPTION OF THE STUDY POPULATION

The population for this study consisted of members of the Association
for Educational Communications and Technology listed in the membership
directory as of January 1982. The population was selected because there
are currently no mandatory require m ents for continuing professional
education which could alte the outcome of this study.

The goal of the Association for Educational Com munications and

Technology is the application of technology to educational proble ms. The

511

membership of the organization demonstrates the diverse ways in which this
goal is applied. Members include librarians, teachers, administrators of
media sevices, media specialists, media producers, consultants, instructional
developers and students. Their employment roles can be found in a wide
variety of setting including public school systems, com munity colleges,
universities, governm ent and non-profit agencies and business and industry.

SELECTION OF THE SAMPLE

 

The size of the sample was selected using Cohen's (1975) power
analysis procedure. Using the procedure, it was determined that 25
respondents would be required for each strata in the multiple regression
analysis. In eder to compensate for the likelihood a portion of the survey
instruments would not be returned, a sample of 503 respondents was med
for the study. 309 returns were received from the respondents. 13 returns
were excluded from data analysis because they were incorrectly completed,
resulting in 296 responses useable for data analysis. Table 3.1 summarizes
the response pattern.

The purpose of Cohen's power analysis is to determine the sample size
for the study that would reduce the likelihood of Type Ii errors. Since the
minimum return rate of 25% for each strata was received, the power of the
test as determined by the strata size was at least 0.80 for each strata.
This indicates that there is a 20% likelihood of accepting a null hypothesis
when in fact there is a difference. The corresponding Type I error was
prespecified as 0.05. This represents a 1 in 20 chance of rejecting the null
hypothesis when it is correct.

55

Table 3.1
Survey Instrument Responses

 

% of

#sent # of Usable Usable

survey responses responses responses
K-12 119 100 95 79
Junior/Community 39 32 26 67
College/University 136 100 99 72
Business/Industry N7 37 36 76
Student 60 5 5 8
Other M2 35 35 83
None 60 0 0 0

 

Totals 503 309 296 58$

56

RANDOM SELECTION PROCEDURE

 

The random selection of respondents occurred in four stages. First,
organizational m emberships and individuals ftom foreign countries were
omitted fiom the membership list. This procedure was carried out in order
to facilitate the return of questionnaires, since it was difficult to include
foreign postage in the return envelopes. The removal of organizations
reflected the need to solicit the perspective of individuals, not
organizations. Once organizations and foreign me m berships were re m oved
f‘rom the directory, a stratified sample of 50” respondents was randomly
selected fiom the membership list. Following this initial sampling additional
selections were made from the remaining names in the directory for the
pre-tesd: (n=50) and the pilot study (11:50). This procedure, recommended by
Babbie (197 3), reduces the possibility of contaminating the sample by
sending the survey to the same person mcre than once, and yet allows
selection from the same population pool.

SA MPLE STR ATIFICATION:

 

The stratified random sample consisted of six strata:

1. Kindegarten-T welfth grade (including Ad ministrators)
2. Junior/Community College

3. College/ U niversity
ll. Business/Industry
5. Student
6. Other
7

. None

57

The "other" category was included as a separate strata so all members
of the association could be included in the sample. A small number of
agociation members are employed in positions where there are few other
professionals, na m ely military positions, non-profit organizations, regional
media centers, governm ent organizations, public libraries and state
departments of education. Since this group represented an important
minority of the population, they were sampled as a separate strata.

The membership directory also included members who failed to
indicate any employment category. In order to incorporate these people,
the study was originally designed to sample this group as a separate strata.
However, the respondents from this group all indicated an employment
category on their returned questionnaires so they were incorporated into the
other strata.

In spite of two attempts to encourage completion of the survey
instruments, only five questionnaires were gable as data somoes fcr the
student strata. Since this was too few for statistical analysis, the student
strata was omitted ftom data analysis. The reason for the low return rate
is unclear, but two possibilities are suggested. The first possibility is that
students are so involved in their pesent education that they lack interest in
examining their future educational needs. The second alternative is that
the members sampled for the student strata are no longe in school. Most
members of AECT hold a Masters degree which commonly takes one year to
complete. It may be possible that in the time between development of the
membership directory and administration of the survey instruments members
moved fl'om student to employee status. Based upon examination of the
questionnaires the second alternative appears to be most compatible with
the data.

58

DATA ANALYSIS PROCEDURES

Upon receipt of the survey instruments from the respondents, the data
was coded and submitted to the computer at Michigan State University. A
variety of data analysis procedures were used for each of the research
hypotheses. This section describes the analysis procedures used:
Hypothesis 1-15: These hypotheses required the Lee of Pearson Product

 

Moment Correlations to determine the correlation between the
independent variable and the score for the scales and the intent to
participate in continuing profesm‘onal education.

Hypothesis 16: This hypothesis utilized the multiple regregion technique to

 

detemine the amount of variance each scale contributed toward the
intent to participate in continuing professional education.

Hypothesis 17: This hypothesis required the use of discriminant function
analysis procedures. This technique is used to distinguish between the
two groups, participants and non—participants, using data from each
scale and the R espondent Inform ation form .

JUSTIFICATION FOR SELECTION OF THE STATISTICAL MEASURES

Three statistical procedures were used for the study, Pearson Product
Moment Correlation, Multiple Regression and Discriminant Function Analysis.
The procedures are described below.

Pearson Product Moment Correlations were teed as a measure of
agociation indicating the arength of the linear relationship between two
variables. This measure was med to determine the linear relationship
between the dependent variables intent to participate, Attitude, Subjective

59

Social Norm, Subfictive Personal Norm and Anticipated Circumstances scales
and the independent variables m easured on the R espondent Information form .

"M ultiple regression is a general statistical technique through which
one ean analyze the relationship between a dependent or criterion variable
and a set of independent or predictor variables." (Kim, 1975, p.321) Using
this method, the best linear equation can be found that will predict the
criterion variable. By Lsing the procedure, the relationship between the
dependent variable intent to participate in continuing professional education
and the independent variables m easured on the Attitude, Subjective Social
Norm, Subjective Personal Norm and Anticipated Circumstances scales can
be detemined.

Discriminant Function Analysis was used to compare participants and
nonparticipants. Since the goal of discriminant analysis is to statistically
combine discriminating variables in such a way as to force the variables to
be as statistically distinct as possible, this procedure will be teed to
detemine which variables best distinguish between the two groups.

CHAPTER SUMMARY

This chapter introduced the research methods and procedures used in
this study. The variables examined in the study were listed Lsing research
and statistical hypotheses. The hypotheses were grouped by m ethod of data
analysis which consisted of Pearson Product Moment Correlation, Multiple
Regression Analysis and Discriminant Analysis. The four scales. Attitude,
Subjective Social Norm , Subjective Personal Norm and Anticipated
Circumstances, were described along with the reliability of the instruments.
The study population which consisted of members of the Asociation for
Educational Co m munications and Technology was described in conjunction

60

with the sample selection procedure. The final section of the chapter
explained the data analysis procedures and the justification for the
statistical measures that were used.

61

CHAPTER FOUR: DATA ANALYSIS

INTRODUCTION

 

This chapter contains the analysis of responses completed by the
members of the Asociation for Educational Com munication and Technology.
The chapter is divided into five sections. The first section reports the
de m ographic and profesional characteristics of the respondents. The second
section exa mines the hypotheses describing the independent variables
measured by the expectancy-value scales. It also discusses the two measures
of intent to participate in continm'ng profegional education for their
correlation with the dependent measures examined in the Respondent
Information form. The third section presents hypotheses utilizing multiple
regregion analysis to m easure the intent to participate in continuing
professional education. The fourth section contains the results of the
discriminant mnction analysis which differentiates between participants and
nonparticipants. The final section summarizes the results for all the
research hypotheses.

RESPONDENT CHARACTERISTICS

Respondents were requested to provide information about their
professional life by completing the Respondent Information form . A total
of 296 responses were usable for data analysis. Table 11.1 shows the
summary data for each variable listed in this section.

The majeity of the respondents (69%) were between the ages of 31
and 50, and had completed a Master's degree (56$). Forty-six pecent
spent 50 hours e less in the years 1979 through 1981 on any type of

   

62

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63

 

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64

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65

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66

continuing profeeIional education examined in this study. The primary place
of employment was in public school education, either kindergarten through
twelfth grade (32%) or college or university (33%). Twenty-four percent of
the respondents spent more than fifty pecent of their time in
administration, while 15% spent fifty percent or more of their time
teaching e training. A majority of the respondents (70%) have been in
their {resent employment role ten years or less. The highest percentage
of responses were in the salary ranges $20,000-$2ll,999 (19%) and
$25,000-$29,999 (21%).

The respondent data was also examined to develop a profile of the
average respondent from this survey. The average respondent
was forty-two years old, held a masters degree plus additional credit hours
and received the last degree in 1972. The respondent participated in an
average of forty one hours of continuing profesional education each of the
last three years, was employed in public schools in either kindergarten-
twelfth grade education e college e university, maintained the existing
employment role for the last eight years and attained a salary in the range
of $25,000—$29,999. The average respondent spent the following percentages
of time in variors employment responsibilities:

Administration 36%
Teaching/Training 21%
Curriculum/Instructional Development 11%
Library/Information Service 10%
Audiovisual Production 10%
Research 3%
Consultation 6%
Sales Promotion/Marketing 1%

Student 1%

67

CORRELATION ANALYSIS

In tln’s section the correlation between the variables are examined
using the Pearson Product Moment Correlation technique. The variables are
the two m easures of intent to participate in continuing profesional
education measured in the Respondent Information form and the scores from
the expectancy-value scales. The variables are the following measures which
are listed in the Respondent Information fem:

Age

Level. of formal education completed

Length of time since the last degree was received

Amount of time spent in administration

A m ount of time spent in audio-visual production

Amount of time spent in consultation

Amount of time spent in sales promotion

Length of time the respondent has been in present employment role
Salary in the past calendar year

Amount of time spent in teaching/training

A m ount of time spent in cmriculum/instructional developm ent
Amount of time spent in library/information science

Amount of time spent in research

Amount of time spent as a student

A m cunt of tim e spent participating in continuing rrof’egional education
within the last three years

68

The research question to be answered in this section is:
Research Question: What are the personal and profegional characteristics

 

which correlate with a profegionals intent to participate in continuing
professional education?

 

The hypotheses to be examined in this section are:

Hypothesis 1: As the age of the respondent increases:

 

a. The score on the Attitude scale will decrease.

b. The score on the Subjective Social Norm scale will decrease.

c. The score on the Subjective Personal Norm scale will decrease.

d. The score on the Anticipated Circumstances scale will decrease.

e. The intent to participate in continuing professional education within the
next year will decrease.

f. The intent to participate in continuing professional education within the
next three years will decrease.

Because of the large numbe of correlations (90) which increases the
likelihood of finding significant correlations, the scores were corrected for
attenuation as indicated in Table 11.2.

Three variables, Attitude (P -.- >-.1‘491), intent to participate in
continuing professional education within . the next year (P = >-.1780)
intent to participate in continuing professional education within the
next three years (P = > -.2669) were significantly correlated with age. The
direction of the correlation indicates that as the age of the respondent
increases, the some on the Attitude scale and the the two measm'es of
intent to participate in continuing professional education will decrease.

9
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71

Hypothesis 2: As the level of formal education completed increases:

a. The score on the Attitude scale will decrease.

b. The score on the Subjective Social Norm seale will decrease.

c. The score on the Subjective Personal Norm scale will decrease.

d. The score on the Anticipated Circumstances scale will decrease.

e. The intent to participate in continuing profemional education within the
next year will decrease.

f. The intent to participate in continuing profegional education within the
next three years will decrease.

Two variables, Subjective Social Norm (P => .11465) and Subjective
Personal Norm (P =>.1086) were significantly carelated with the level of
formal education co m pleted. The direction of the correlation indicates that
as the level of formal education increases, the score on the Subjective
Social Norm and Subjective Personal Norm scales will increase.

Hypothesis 3: As the length of time since the last degree was received

 

increases:

a. The score on the Attitude scale will decrease.

b. The score on the Subjective Social Norm scale will decrease.

c. The score on the Subjective Personal Norm scale will decrease.

d. The score on the Anticipated Circumstances scale will decrease.

e. The intent to participate in continuing professional education within the
next year will decrease.

f. The intent to participate in continuing professional education within the
next three years will decrease.

Four variables were found to correlate significantly with the length of
time since the lag: degree was received. The four variables were Attitude
(P =>.-1518), Subjective Personal Norm (P =>—.1168), and the measures of
intent to participate in continuing professional education within the next

72

year (P =>-.1553) and the next three years (P =>-.2021). The direction of

the correlation indicates that as the length of time since the last degree

was received increases, the scores on the Attitude and Subjective Personal

Norm scales and the two measures of intent to participate in continuing

professional education will decrease.

Hypothesis ll: As the amount of time spent in administration increases:

a.
b.
c.
d.

e.

The score on the Attitude scale will decrease.

The score on the Subjective Social Norm scale will decrease.

The score on the Subjective Personal Norm scale will decrease.

The score on the Anticipated Circumstances scale will decrease.

The intent to participate in continuing professional education within the
next year will decrease.

The intent to participate in continuing professional education within the
next three years will decrease.

No statistically sigrfificant correlations were found at the .05 level

between the independent measures and the amount of time spent in

ad ministration.

Hypothesis 5: As the amount of time spent in audiovisual production

increases:

a. The score on the Attitude scale will decrease.

b. The score on the Subjective Social Norm scale will decrease.

c. The score on the Subjective Personal Norm scale will decrease.

d. The score on the Anticipated Circumstances scale will decrease.

e. The intent to participate in continuing professional education within the
next year will decrease.

f. The intent to participate in continuing professional education within the

next three years will decrease.

73

A significant correlation was found betw een the intent to participate

in continuing professional education within the next three years and the

amount of time spent in audiovisual production. (P :>—.1086) The direction

of the correlation indicates that as the amount of time spent in audiovisual

production increases, the intent to participate in continuing professional

education will decrease.

Hypothesis 6: As the amount of time spent in consultation increases:

a.
b.
c.
d.

e.

The score on the Attitude scale will decrease.

The sccre on the Subjective Social Norm scale will decrease.

The score on the Subjective Personal Norm scale will decrease.

The score on the Anticipated Circumstances scale will decrease.

The intent to participate in continuing profegional education within the
next year will decrease.

The intent to participate in continuing professional education within the
next three years will decrease.

No statistically significant correlations were found at the .05 level.

Hypothesis 7: As the amount of time spent in sales promotion increases:

a.
b.
c.
d.

e.

The score on the Attitude scale will decrease.

The score on the Subjective Social Norm scale will decrease.

The score on the Subjective Personal Norm scale will decrease.

The score on the Anticipated Circumstances scale will decrease.

The intent to participate in continuing professional education within the
next year will decrease.

The intent to participate in professional continuing education within the
next three years will decrease.

No statistically significant correlations were found at the .05 level.

7n

anothesis 8: As the length of time a respondent has been in his or her

 

employment role increases:

a. The some on the Attitude scale will decrease.

b. The score on the Subjective Social Norm scale will decrease.

c. The score on the Subjective Personal Norm scale will decrease.

d. The score on the Anticipated Circumstances scale will decrease.

e. The intent to participate in continuing professional education within the
next year will decrease.

f. The intent to participate in continuing profeaional education within the
next three years will decrease.

The length of time a respondent had been in an employment role was
significantly correlated with the Attitude score (P = >-.172ll), intent to
participate in continuing professional education within the next year (P =>
«11111) and intent to participate within the next three years (P =>-.1523)
The direction of the correlation indicates that as the length of time a
respondent has been in an employment role increases, the mass for the
Attitude scale, intent to participate in continuing professional education
within the next year and the intent to participate in continuing pofeenional
education within the next three years will decrease.

Hypothesis9: Asthesalaryinthe pastcalendaryearincreases:

a. The score on the Attitude scale will decrease.

b. The score on the Subjective Social Norm scale will decrease.

c. The score on the Subjective Personal Norm scale will decrease.

d. The score on the Anticipated Circumstances scale will decrease.

e. The intent to participate in continuing profegional education within the
next year will decrease.

f. The intent to participate in continuing profesional education within the

next three years will decrease.

75

Salary was significantly correlated with four measures, Attitude (P =>
«2180), Subjective Personal Norm (P => -.1196), intent to participate in
continuing profegional education within the next yesr (P => -.1037) and
intent to participate within the next three years. (P = >-.15311) The
direction of the correlation indicates that as salary increases, the scores on

each of the measures would decrease.

Hypothesis 10: As the amount of time spent in teaching or training increases:

a. The score on the Attitude scale will increase.

b. The score on the Subjective Social Norm scale will increase.

c. The score on the Subjective Personal Norm scale will increase.

d. The score on the Anticipated Circumstances scale will increase.

e. The intent to participate in continuing professional education within the
next year will increase.

f. The intent to participate in continuing uofessional education within the
next three years will increase.

The amount of time a respondent spent in teaching or training was
significantly correlated with two measures, Attitude (P => .1507) and
Subjective Personal Norm. (P => .1605) The direction of the correlation
indicates ttat as the pecentage of time spent in teaching or training
increases, the scaes from the Attitude and Subjective Personal Norm scales
will increase.

Hypothesis 11: As the amount of time spent in curriculum or instructional
development increases:

a. The scae on the Attitude scale will increase.

b. The score on the Subjective Social Norm scale will increase.

c. The score on the Subjective Pesonal Norm scale will increase.

d. The score on the Anticipated Circumstances scale will increase.

e.

76

The intent to participate in continuing prefeaional education within the
next year will increase.

The intent to participate in continuing professional education within the
next three years will increase.

The amount of time spent in curriculum or instructional development

was significantly correlated to one measure, Anticipated Circumstances. (P =>

.1596). The direction of the correlation indicates that as the the percentage

of tim e spent in curriculum or instructional developm ent increases, the

score on the Anticipated Circumstances scale will increase.

Hypothesis 12: As the amount of time spent in library or information service

mom

a. The some on the Attitude scale will increase.

b. The score on the Subjective Social Norm scale will increase.

c. The score on the Subjective Personal Norm scale will increase.

d. The score on the Anticipated Circumstances scale will increase.

e. The intent to participate in continuing professional education within the
next year will increase.

f. The intent to participate in continuing rrofessional education within the

next three years will increase.

No statistically significant correlations were found at the .05 level.

Hypothesis Q As the amount of time spentin research increases:

a.
b.
c.
d.

e.

The score on the Attitude scale will increase.

The score on the Subjective Social Norm scale will increase.

The score on the Subjective Personal Norm scale will increase.

The score on the Anticipated Circumstances scale will increase.

The intent to participate in continuing professional education within the

next year will increase.

77

f. The intent to participate in continuing profesional education within the
next three years will increase.

The percentage of time spent in research was significantly correlated
to intent to participate in continuing professional education within the next
three years. (P = >.1257) The direction of the correlation indicates that as
the percentage of tim e spent in research increases, the intent to participate
in continuing [rof'esional education within the next three years will also
increase.

Hypothesis 1'4: As the amount of time spent as a student increases:

 

a. The score on the Attitude scale will increase.

b. The score on the Subjective Social Norm scale will increase.

0. The score on the Subjective Personal Norm scale will increase.

d. The some on the Anticipated Circumstances scale will increase.

e. The intent to participate in continuing professional education within the
next year will increase.

f. The intent to participate in continuing pmfe$ional education within the
next three years will increase.

The percentage of time spent as a student was significantly correlated
with four variables, Attitude (P =>.111811), Subjective Social Norm (P =>
.210“), Subjective Personal Norm (P =>.1688) and intent to participate in
continuing mofessional education within the next year. (P = >.1008) The
direction of the correlation indicates that as the paeentage of time spent
as a student increases, the scores on the four variables will increase.
iiypothesis 15: As the amount of time spent participating in continuing
professional education within the last 3 years increases:

a. The scae on the Attitude scale will increase.
b. The score on the Subjective Social Norm scale will increase.
0. The some on the Subjective Personal Norm scale will increase.

78

d. The sccre on the Anticipated Circumstances scale will increase.

e. The intent to participate in continuing professional education within the
next year will increase.

f. The intent to participate in continuing profe$ional education within the
next three years will increase.

The am ount of participation in continuing profesional education within
the last three years was significantly correlated with four measures,
Attitude (P =>.1386), Subjective Personal Norm (P =>.1lll3), intent to
participate in continuing professional education within the next year (P 9
.1353) and the intent to participate in continuing prefefiional education
within the next three years. (P =>.107l-l) The direction of the correlation
indicates that as the am cunt of participation in continuing profesnional
education within the last three years increases, the scores on the four

dependent measures will increase.

MULTIPLE REGRESSION ANALYSIS

This section describes the data analysis in which the expectancy-value
scales were regressed on the dependent measures intent to participate in
continuing mofeaional education within the next year and within the next
three years. The dependent variables were measures from the Respondent
Infcrmation firm.

The Subjective Social Norm Scale was to be entered into the equation,
but because of to many missing values it was omitted from the analysis.
Since the instructions to the respondents for this scale indicated that they
should omit any items that were not appropriate to them, the responses had
a large numbe” of mmng items. However, the seales were not properly

79

coded to distinguish between those who purposely omitted an item and those
who missed the item for other reasons. The result was a large number of
mkekg;wfluei lflx*flfisreexmufiresefle wesouddedikom‘UEaamflmfls

To determine if there was any difference between the regresfion
equations based upon the strata and the equations based upon the full
sample wed in the study, the forward regression p'ocedure was teed to
calculate the run regression model, the full regression model plus dummy
variables consisting of the scaes from the strata and the run model plus
dum my variables and their interactions. By entering all of these variables
the the regxseon ammyfis fl: was pxeflne to mmermnmiif the shema
cemrflmmeismmfiixumm'tetheregmsSenznemwmi

The statistical program used to conduct the analysis was the forward
regression procedure from the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences.

 

Once the analysis was completed the F score for each step was computed
using the following formula:

(32 - k

2)
- 1)

2
y123 " R y12)/(k1

F:
(1-R2 -k

y123)/(N 1

where R2y123 = the larger of the two R2 scores.

R2y12 = the smaller of the two R2 scores.

k1 = the number of independent variables of the
larger R2.

k2 = the number of independent variables of the

smaller R2.

N : the total number of cases

80

Based upon the ealculation of F scores (Table ’43), the regression
eqtntions for the strata were not significant. Therefore the regresaon
equation used applies to all participants in the study (N = 296).

Once the regression equation was determined, it was used to measure
the intent of participants to participate in continuing professional education
within the next year and the next three years (Table lLil). The results are
described below:

INTENT TO PARTICIPATE IN CONTINUING PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION
WITHIN THE NEXT YEAR:

 

The three independent variables, Attitude, Subjective Personal Norm
and Anticipated Circumstances were entered into the data analysis.
Examination of the beta weights indicated that the variables Attitude (F =
9.966,p >.01) and Subjective Personal Norm (F = 15.586,p > .001) were
significant nedictors of intent to participate in continuing professional
education within the next year. The R square statistic (.2303) indicated
that approximately 23% of the total variance was explained by the two
variables. After the selection procedure, the regession equation used to
predict a persors score is:

Intent = -9.108 + .082 Attitude + .355 Subjective Personal Norm
INTENT TO PARTICIPATE IN CONTINUING PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION
WITHIN THE NEXT THREE YEARS:

The three independent variables, Attitude, Subjective Personal Norm
and Anticipated Circumstances were entered into the data analysis.
Examination of the beta weights indicated that the variables Attitude (F -.-
12.579,p> .001) and Subjective Personal Norm (F = 5.2110,p> .05) were
significant predictors of intent to participate in continuing professional
education witm'n the next three years. The R square statistic (.1672)
indicated that approximately 17% of the total variance was explained by

81

the two variables. After the selection uocedure, the regre$ion equation
used to predict a persons score is:
Intent = 27.587 : .079 Attitude + .177 Subjective Personal Norm

82

Table ”.3
Calculation of F Ratios Derived From The
Difference Between Regression Models

 

F

Intent to participate in CPE next year: Ratio

Difference between model 3 (Full model, dummy

variables & interactions) and model 2 (Full

model & dummy variables) = 0.9u8

Difference between model 2 (Full model & dummy

variables) and model 1 (Full model) = 1.7uoo
Intent to participate in CPE next three years:

Difference between model 3 (Full model, dummy

variables & interactions) and model 2 (Full model

& dummy variables) = 0.7800

Difference between model 2 (Full model & dummy

variables) and model 1 (Full model) = 1.7200

 

Dummy Variables:

Continuous Variables:

Full Regression Model:

X ><><>< NNNNNN
J: DUN-I OUT-th-d

*4

B
B
B

Kindergarten - Twelth grade
Junior/Community College
College/University
Business/Industry

Student

Other

Attitude Scale

Subjective Social Norm Scale

Subjective Personal Norm
Scale

Anticipated Circumstances
Scale

0 + B121 + B222 +
3Z3 + BHZM + B525 +
6264-6

2
N(01o€)

83

Table u.u
Multiple Regression Analysis for the Intent to Participate
in Continuing Professional Education

 

 

 

(N = 193)
Unstandardized
Regression 2

Variable Coefficient F R R
CPE Next Year1

Attitude .082 9.966** .4799 .2303

Subjective

Personal

Norm .355 15.586***

Anticipated

Circumstance .09” .116
CPE Next 3 Years1

Attitude .079 12.579*** .N089 .1672

Subjective

Personal

Norm .177 5.240’

Anticipated

Circumstances .056 .055
1 Degrees of freedom = 3 and 190 * p >.05

** p >.01
*** p >.001

81-1

DISCRIMIN ANT FUNCTION ANALYSIS

 

Inthissectionthegoalwastofindthe variableswhichbest
distinguish between participants and nonparticipants in continuing
professional education. To complete this task discriminant function analysis
was selected became this statistical procedure helps to "distinguish between
groups based upon a collection of discriminating variables that will measure
characteristics on which the groups are expected to differ"
(Klecka,1975,p.ll35).

The research question examined in this section was:

Research Question: What are the personal and professional variables which

 

distingm‘sh the profesional who participates in continuing professional
education fro m the one who does not participate?

 

The hypothesistobetestedinthissectionis:
Hypothesis 17: There will be a significant difference between participants
and nonparticipants on the items representing personal and professional
characteristics m easured on the Respondent Information fcrm .

 

The statistical analysis was completed in three stages ming the
computer program "Discriminant Function Analysis" from the Statistical
Package fcr the Social Sciences. First, the study sample was randomly

 

divided in half to use in generating the discriminant functions. Second, the
randomly drawn sample was med to generate the best discriminant functions
based upon the variables entered into the computer program. Third, the
discriminant functions derived in step two were used to classify the
remaining half of the sample which was drawn in step one. Based upon the
analysis the discriminant scores were developed which differentiated between
the participants and nonparticipants in continuing profesfional education.

85

The first stage consisted of drawing a random sample of one-half of

the asses available in the study. The sample that was drawn (N = 135) was

used to develop the discriminant function equation. The variables from the

Respondent Information form were entered into the computer analysis using

the "forward" procedure. This p'ocedure is used to determine which

variables contribute the largest discriminating ability based upon an F to

enter of .001. Because the Subjective Social Norm scale had large amomts

of missing values it was decided to not use the scores from the four scales

Attitude, Subjective Social Norm, Subjective Personal Norm and Anticipated

Circumstances. The variables entered into the analysis were:

1.

10.
11.
12.
13.
1’4.

Age.

Highest level of formal education.

Hours of continuing professional education within the last three
years.

Number of years since the last degree was received.
Primary place of employment.

1 of time spent in administration.

1 of time spent in teaching or training.

1 of time spent in curriculum or instructional development.
1 of time spent in library or infcrmation science.

1 of tim e spent in audiovisual production.

1 of time spent in research.

1 of time spent as a student.

Number of years in present employment role.

Salary in the last year.

86

Table ”.5
Disciminant Function Analysis for Participation in
Continuing Professional Education
(N = 135)

 

Stepwise Discriminant
Function Analysis

 

 

1 Standardized
Wilks Discriminant
Variable Lambda Coefficient
CPE last 3 years .927” .8600**
1 time in
Consultation .9091 .M130**
1 time in
Research .8906 .2714**
1 time in
Curriculum/ID .8787 -.3713**
Years since degree
was received .8711 .M569**
Years in
employment role .8597 -.3534**
1 time in
Library .8520 «25112"

 

1 Degrees of freedom = 1 and 133
'. =p>oo1

87

Afte' the computer program was completed, the following variables
remained (Table 11.5):

1. Age

2. 1 of time spent in consultation.

3. 1 of time spent in research.

ll. 1 of time spent in curriculum or instructional development.

5. Number of years since the last degree was received.

6. Number of years in present employment role.

7. 1 of time spent in library or information science.

The final stage of the discriminant function analysis consisted of
predicting a respondent's likelihood of being a participant or nonparticipant
based upon the respondent's discriminant secre (Table 11.6). The discriminant
score was derived by scoring the respondent's response to each variable
used in the discriminant function equation. Based upon the discriminant
scores, respondents were eategorized as participants or nonparticipants. The
statistically derived classification was then compared to the actual category
chosen by the respondent on the Respondent Information form. This
analysis was completed using the cases remaining (N = 138) after the initial
sample selection was made at the first stage of the analysis. Of the 138
participants in the analysis, 96 or 951 were correctly classified as
participants based upon their discriminant score. Of the 37 nonparticipants
in the sample, only 9 or 211.31 were correctly classified as nonparticipants
based upon their discriminant score. Sixteen respondents were molassified
between the two samples. Overall, 76.091 of the respondents were
correctly classified.

88

Table H.6
Group Membership Classified by
Discriminant Function Analysis

 

 

(N = 138)
Actual Group Predicted Group
Participants Nonparticipants
Participants
(N = 101) 96 5
(951) (51)
Nonparticipants
(N = 37) 28

9
(75.7%) (2u.3%)

 

89

SUMMARY OF DATA ANALYSIS

 

This section summarizes the results of the analysis of the four scales
and the Respondent Information form used to study the hypotheses examined
in this study. The results of the data analysis are listed in Table 11.7.

90

Table “.7

Summary of Correlation, Multiple Regression

and Discriminant Analysis Hypotheses

 

 

 

Hypo- Dependent Independent Results of
Thesis Variable Variable Data Analysis
1 Age Attitude Sign. **
SSN N.S.
SPN N.S.
AC N.S.
Intent-next year Sign. ***
Intent-next 3 years Sign. ***
2 Level of formal
education Attitude N.S.
SSN Sign. **
SPN Sign. **
AC N.S.
Intent-next year N.S.
Intent-next 3 years N.S.
3 Length of time
since degree was
received Attitude Sign. '9
SSN N.S.
SPN Sign. *
AC N.S.
Intent-next year Sign. **
Intent-next 3 years Sign. **'
A Amount of time
spent in
administration Attitude N.S.
SSN N.S.
SPN N.S.
AC N.S.
Intent—next year N.S.
Intent-next 3 years N.S.
’=p >.05
u=p >.01

"'=p > .001

Table ”.7 (cont'd)

 

 

Hypo- Dependent Independent Results of
Thesis Variable Variable Data Analysis
5 Amount of time
spent in audio-
visual production Attitude N.S.
SSN N.S.
SPN N.S.
AC N.S.
Intent-next year N.S.
Intent-next 3 years Sign. *
6 Amount of time
spent in
consultation Attitude N.S.
SSN N.S.
SPN N.S.
AC N.S.
Intent-next year N.S.
Intent-next 3 years N.S.
7 Amount of time
spent in sales/
marketing Attitude N.S.
SSN N.S.
SPN N.S.
AC N.S.
Intent-next year N.S.
Intent-next 3 years N.S.
8 Length of time in
employment role Attitude Sign.u
SSN N.S.
SPN N.S.
AC N.S.
Intent-next year Sign.“
Intent-next 3 years Sign.**

 

'zp >.05
’*=p >.01
*‘*=p>-.001

92

Table ”.7 (cont'd)

 

 

 

Hypo- Dependent Independent Results of
Thesis Variable Variable Data Analysis
9 Salary in past
year Attitude Sign.**'
SSN N.S.
SPN Sign.’
AC N.S.
Intent-next year Sign.“
Intent-next 3 years Sign.'*
10 Amount of time in
teaching/training Attitude Sign.**
SSN N.S.
SPN Sign.u
AC N.S.
Intent-next year N.S.
Intent-next 3 years N.S.
11 Amount of time in
curriculum/
instructional
development Attitude N.S.
SSN N.S.
SPN N.S.
AC Sign.**
Intent-next year N.S.
Intent-next 3 years N.S.
12 Amount of time in
library/information
service Attitude N.S.
SSN N.S.
SPN N.S.
AC N.S.
Intent-next year N.S.
Intent-next 3 years N.S.
‘=p >.05
‘*=p > .01

"'=p > . 001

93

Table ”.7 (cont'd)

 

 

Hypo- Dependent Independent Results of
Thesis Variable Variable Data Analysis
13 Amount of time in
research Attitude N.S.
SSN N.S.
SPN N.S.
AC N.S.
Intent-next year N.S.
Intent-next 3 years Sign.“
1” Amount of time as
a student Attitude Sign.““
SSN Sign.“““
SPN Sign.““
AC N.S.
Intent-next year Sign.“
Intent-next 3 years N.S.
15 Amount of time spent

participating in
CPE within last 3

 

years Attitude Sign.“
SSN Sign.
SPN Sign.“
AC N.S.
Intent-next year Sign.“
Intent-next 3 years Sign.“
16 Intent to
participate in CPE
next year
CPE-next year Attitude Sign.““
SPN Sign.“““
AC N.S
*:p > .05
““=p > .01

“““zp > .001

9”

Table ”.7 (cont'd)

 

 

Hypo- Dependent Independent Results of

Thesis Variable Variable Data Analysis

16 CPE-next 3 years Attitude Sign.“““
SPN Sign.“
AC N.S.

17 Participants/non

participants Age N.S.

Level of Education N.S.
When degree was
received Sign.““
Hours of CPE taken
last 3 years Sign.““
Employment category N.S.
Administration N.S.
Teaching N.S.
Curriculum Sign.““
Library Sign.““
AV Production N.S.
Research Sign.““
Consultation Sign.““
Sales N.S.
Student N.S.
Years employment Sign.““
Salary N.S.

 

95

CHAPTER SUMMARY

This chapter has [resented the anaflysis of the data collected from
membas of the A$ociation for Educational Communications and Technology.
Using correlation analysis, the relationship was examined between the
respondent's personal and professional characteristics, the
expectancy-value seales and the intent to participate in continuing
professional education. M ultiple regression was wed in another section as
the means to describe the relationship between the scaes on the
expectancy-value scales and the participant's intent to participate in
continuing professional education within the next year and the next three
years. The next section utilized discriminant analysis techniques to analyze
variables that were able to divide respondents into either of two categories,
participant (r nonparticipant, based upon their em pirically derived
discriminant score. The final section summarized the results of the
research by listing each hypothesis examined in the study and the outcome
based upon the statistical analysis.

96

CHAPTER FIVE: CONCLUSIONS AND DISCUSSION OF THE RESULTS

INTRODUCTION

 

This research study was begun in order to examine a variety of
questions about the nature of participation in continuing professional
education. Three primary issues were examined. The first was whether
there were any carelations between selected personal and professional
characteristics of the respondent's and their scores on the expectancy-value
scales in addition to two measures of intent to participate in continuing
professional education. The second goal was to examine the effectivenesn
of Fishbein's expectancy-value m odel in predicting whether a professional
will participate in continuing pofessional education. The third issue
centered around whether there are variables which could be used to
distingm'sh between participants and nonparticipants in continuing
professional education.

To examine these issues, members of the Association for Educational
Communication and Technology were randomly sampled to detemine how
they would score on the variables examined in the study. Three statistical
measures were used to examine the data: correlation analysis, multiple
regreaion analysis and discriminant mnction analysis. The results of the
data analysis were described in the last chapter.

This final chapter will summarize and review the outcomes of the
study. The disctssion of the results is divided into three sections based
upon the statistical measure used. The final portion of the chapter will
include recom m endatiors fcr further research.

97

RESEARCH CONCLUSIONS

The following conclusions are based on a review of the data described
in chapter four:

1. The respondent's scores on the Attitude scale were positively correlated
with the amount of time spent participating in continuing nofessional
education within the last three years, the amount of time spent in
teaching or training and the amount of time spent as a student.

2. The respondent's scores on the Attitude scale were negatively
correlated with the age of the respondent, the length of time since
the last degree was received, the number of years in the present
employment role and salary in the past calendar year.

3. The respondent's scores on the Subjective Social. Norm scale were
positively correlated with the level of education completed by the
respondent and the amount of time spent as a student.

”. The respondent's scaes on the Subjective Personal Norm scale were
positively correlated with the level of education com pleted by the
respondent, the am ount of participation in continuing profeaional
education within the last three years, the amount of time spent in
teaching or training and the amount of time spent as a student.

5. The respondent's scaes on the Subjective Personal Norm scale were
negatively correlated with the number of years since the last degree
was received and the respondent's salary in the past calendar year.

6. The respondent's scores on the Anticipated Ciroumstances scale were
positively correlated with the amount of time spent in curriculum or
instructional development.

7. The respondent's intent to participate in continuing pofesnional
education within the next year were positively correlated with the

10.

11.

12.

13.

98

amount of tim e spent participating in continuing profe$ional education
within the last three years and the amount of time spent as a student.
The respondent's intent to participate in continuing professional
education within the next year were negatively correlated with the age
of the respondent, the level of education co m pleted, the num ber of
years in the misting employment role and the salary in the past
calendar year.

The respondent's intent to participate in continuing p'ofessional
education within the next three years were positively correlated with
the num ber of hours spent participating in continuing professional
education within the last three years and the amount of time spent in
research.

The respondent's intent to participate in continuing nofesnional
education within the next three years were negatively correlated with
the age of the respondent, the length of time since the last degree
was received, the amount of time spent in audiovisual production and
the number of years in the present employment role.

The variables Attitude and Subjective Personal Norm were significant
predictors of a respondent's intent to participate in continuing
profesmonal education within the next year.

The variables Attitude and Subjective Personal Norm were significant
predictors of a respondent's intent to participate in continuing
professional education within the next three years.

Seven personal and {rofessional variables were able to significantly
differentiate between participants and nonparticipants using the
discriminant analysis procedure. They included the number of
continuing p'ofesnional education hours participated in within the last

three years, the amount of years since the last degree was received,

99

the amount of time spent in curriculum a" instructional development,
the amount of time spent in consultation, the amount of time spent in
research, the amount of time spent in litxary or information service
and the length of time a person has been in the eidsting employment
role.

20. Using the discriminant analysis technique, the ability to correctly
identify respondent's who fl participate in continuing professional
education is much greater than the ability to predict those respondents

who will not participate.

DISCUSSION OF THE RESULTS

The discussion of the results that emerged ftom the research study
will be examined in three sections, based upon the statistical technique
used. The first section presents the discussion of the carelation
hypotheses.

CORRELATION OF PERSONAL AND PROFESSIONAL

CHARACTERISTICS WITH THE EXPECTANCY-VALUE SCALES AND

INTENT TO PARTICIPATE IN CONTINUING PROFESSIONAL
EDUCATION

Expectancy-Value Scales:

The Attitude scale was developed to measure a respondent's views on
the consequences that might result fro m participation in continuing
profesnional education. Each item on the scale is rated on two criteria; (1)
the value the respondent places on the item, and (2) how likely the item is
to occur if participation would take place.

100

The results of this study suggest. that as age, the amount of time
since the last degree was received, the number of years in the present
employment role and salary increase, the score on the Attitude scale will
decrease. The exact reasons for the results are not clear. However, it
may be that the attitudes expressed in this scale are ones that develop as a
result of length of time in the trofession. The variables with a negative
correlation with the Attitude scale are pimarily functions of longevity in a
professional role. It would appear that as a person spends more time in a
job, some type of shift may occur in the thinking of the professional which
reduces the need and desire for participation in continuing [tofessional
education. Further research is needed to examine if this shift in attitude
occurs with other professional populations, and if so, why.

The Subjective Personal Norm scale was developed to measure a
respondent's beliefs about continuing profefiional education and how willing
the nofesuionalistoactonthose beliefs. Sincetheresultsofthisscale
closely mirror the outcomes from the Attitude scale, it is likely that
participation is again linked to longevity in an employment role. A
respondent could place high value on a particular belief, but be unwilling or
unable to respond to the belief because of impediments placed in front of
the person as a result of increased demands placed upon the respondent.
Thus the score on the Subjective Personal Norm scale would be reduced.

Only two items were significant for the Subjective Social Norm scale.
The level of education completed and amount of time spent as a student
are the only measures that were significant, but inversely related to the
Subjective Social Ncrm score. Since this scale measures a respondent's
perception of the expectations of others and how important their views are,
it appears that more study should be done concerning why these two
variables of all the others were the only ones to correlate with the scale.

101

Future research should examine how strongly respondent's are affected by
the concerns emed (r implied by persons significant to the professional.

The results from the Anticipated Circumstances scale indicate that as
a person increases the amount of time spent in curriculum or instructional
development, the some on the Anticipated Circumstance scale will increase.
This implies that those respondents who had high scores on this seale were
aware of how circumstances may affect their participation level. Further
research needs to be done to determine if this variable, or another may
have differential influence on a persons participation. A factor analysis
would help to determine the underlying components of how different
employment roles may vary in terms of what circumstances affect
participation.

Profesnional Characteristics:

Those hypotheses that dealt with a respondent's trofeaional
characteristics and how they affect a person's intent to participate in
continuing pofessional education were largely confirmed by the results of
the research. The variables age, length of time since the last degree was
received, length of time spent in the pesent employment role and salary in
the past ealendar year were negatively carelated with a respondent‘s intent
to participate in continuing profesaonal education.

There are a variety of possibilities to explain the results. First, the
type of continuing education pursued by respondent's with these pofessional
characteristies may be different in nature from those pursued by the other
respondent's. More emphasis may be given to education in the form of
reading (1' informal profesional contacts. Since this study emphasized
formal educational learning, the educational activities of respondent's with
these characteristics may not have been properly represented.

Another possibility is that the characteristics of age, length of time in

 

102

an employment role and the other variables are actually measures of job
involvement. As a person increases in age it is very likely that the level
of em ploym ent responsibility will increase. As responsibilities increase, the
amount of tim e available for participation in continuing education is likely
to decrease. Thus intent to participate may be decreased.

A third alternative is that as a respondent spends time in a specific
employment role, the knowledge and skills necessary to complete the tasks
for that job may be acquired. Although sporadic training may be needed,
there would be less impetus to pursue continuing education on a regular
basis. The intent to participate in continuing rrofeaional education would
be reduced.

These results suggest that further study needs to be made of how job
involvement and employment responsibilites affect intent to participate. By
focusing on those variables that are related to longevity in a job, it may be
posible to discover why participation in continuing p'ofessional education
appears to decrease over time.

E m ploym ent R esjonsibilities

 

The variables related to em ploym ent responsibilities yielded few
signifieant results. Only two variables, amount of time spent in research
and amount of time spent as a student, were correlated with intent to
participate in continuing professional. education. The correlation, though
significant and positive, was not large.

Since oneofthe goalsforthisresearch wastoassistthose who would
market continuing education [rograms to nonparticipants, the outcomes
related to employm ent responsibilities were not encouraging. These variables
would have been relatively easy groupings on wm'ch to target a message for
continuing education. The reasons for the outcomes are not clear, but they

103

may be related to the p'ofesional characteristic correlations described
earlier.

If the profesional characteristics of age, length of time in an
employment role and the other characteristics are important feath'es of
reduced participation in formal education opportunities, then it is likely that
these characteristies are randomly distributed across all the employment
responsibilities. However, upon examination of the respondent's
characteristics (Table ”.1), the young age of the respondent's and their
limited time in their job stands out. It appears that became the
respondents have not held their employment position fa" a long time, many
of the features of employment longevity may have not had time to surface.
If the same survey was completed in another ten years, the results may be
stronger because of the relationship between length of time in a job and
e m ploym ent responsibility.

Attitude-Behavior Correlation:

 

Hypothesis 15 was concerned with the relationship between behavior
and attitude. By m easuring a respondent's intent to participate in
continuing professional education and the actual level of participation, the
role of attitude and behavior could be compared. The results indicate that
there is a significant, positive correlation between the two factors.
However, the strength of the correlation is not high enough to draw any
firm conclisions other than that a correlation exists. Further analysis is
needed to examine the variables that may increase the correlation between
these two variables.

10”

MULTIPLE REGRESSION ANALYSIS TO MEASURE RESPONDENT'S
INTENT TO PARTICIPATE IN CONTINUING PROFESSIONAL

 

EDUCATION

 

Because the Subjective Social Norm scale was omitted fiom analysis it
was not possible to examine all elements of Fishbein's expectancy-value
model. However, two of the three components of the model were able to
predict the intent to participate in continuing p'ofessional education. The
R square scores indicate that the Attitude and Subjective Personal Norm
seales were able explain approximately 231 of the variance in the intent to
participate within the next year and 171 of the variance in the intent to
participate within the next three years.

With the missing scale it was not possible to determine if Fishbein's
model could have been mae effective. However, based upon the sccres
from the existing scales it would appear that the addition of another scale
may not have made a large difference in the overall variance accounted
for.

At least two reasons may exist for the outcomes reported in this
study. First, the instruments used to measure the respondent's Attitude,
Subjective Social Norm , Subjective Personal Norm and Anticipated
Circumstances scores may not have reflected the norms held by the
population ftom which the sample was selected. Though this is possible,
specialcare wastakeninereating the instrumentstouseasampleofthe
respondent's 01:50) to generate the instrument items. The items were also
verified by a second sample of the population (n=50) who commented on the
applicability and clarity of the items. These steps were taken prior to
conducting the final sample of the population. These precautions should
have minimized the posfibility of non-representative test items.

105

Another possibility is that the model still does not account for all the
variables that affect a person's behavior. One of the goals of adding the
Anticipated Circumstances scale was to expand the model to include
situations which may im pinge on a respondent's intent to participate in
continuing education. Based upon the results it is clear that the scale was
not an im portant contributor to the prediction of intent.

How the expectancy-value model can be improved is unclear, fa“ the
thnst of the model has been to incorporate those variables which would
combine the multitude of variables which are likely to affect a pesons
behavicr. Consideration needs to be given to other variables which may
need to be added to the model to increase its precision.

DISCRIMINANT ANALYSIS TO DISTINGUIBH BETWEEN PARTICIPANTS
AND NONPARTICIPANTS IN CONTINUING PROFESSIONAL
EDUCATION

 

One of the goals of this study was to distinguish between participants
and nonparticipants so that educational program developers could reach out
to those professionals who would normally participate minimally in
educational activities. The goal of reaching the nonparticipant was only
partially achieved. The discriminant function analysis was very effective in
categorizing those who were participants, but was marginally effective with
nonparticipants (Table ”-7).

It appears that nonparticipation still has not yielded its roots. Previom
research res failed to elucidate the reasons for nonparticipation and this
study had similar results. The [resent study found that the strongest
contributors to the cfiscriminant sccre was the amount of peviors
participation in continuing pofe$ional education. This would support the

106

adage that people continue doing what they have always done in the past.
The poblem remains that this omits those who have not participated in the
Past-

In future research, consideration should be given to the correlation
between past participation and future participation. In addition, further
study may be needed in how different types of anticipated circumstances
may affect a persons intent to participate in continuing professional
education. In the latter case, a factor analysis may be used on the existing
Anticipated Ciroumstances scale to determine if different types of

respondent's yield different scores.

RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH

A number of recommendations have already been made for further
research. In this section the recommendations will be restated and
additional suggestions m ade.

1. Research needs to be done on the relationship between job involvement
and participation in continuing profesional education. The focus should
be on variables related to length of time in a job, to determine each
variables im pact on participation.

2. A followup survey of the profession would be valuable to see if the
asociation membership changes in any significant manner. Because of
the large number of members who entered the marketplace during the
baby boom era of the 1960's, it is likely that the membership in AECT
will shift to older members over time, which may result in fewer
me mbers participating in continuing education activities.

3. Further research is needed using the Anticipated Circumstances scale.

Though the seals was generally ineffective as a predictor of intent to

107

participate in continuing pofesional education, further research should
examine how different employment characteristics affect the score on
the scale, possibly using factor analysis.

”. Further research is needed with Fishbein's expectancy-value m odel.
The results of this study suggest the model does not account for the
diversity of variables that affect participation. C onsideration should
be given to other variables that may enhance the model as well as
testing the m odel on another professional population.

5. Nonparticipation by professionals in continuing education needs
additional research. The variables that affect nonparticipation are not
yet clear. Further research needs to be completed to examine the
roots of nonparticipation.

CHAPTER SUMMARY

This study was begun to analyze three basic questions:

1 . What are the personal and p'ofesional characteristics which correlate
with a profesionals intent to participate in continuing professional
education?

2. How effective is the modified Fishbein expectancy-value m odel in
predicting a professionals intent to participate in continuing
professional edueation?

3. What are the personal and [rofeaional variables which distinguish the
professional who participates in continuing pofemional education fro m
the one who does not participate?

Using three statistical methods, correlation, regression and discriminant
function analysis, the questions have been examined for a sample of

 

 

108

members item the Association for Educational Communications and
Technology. The results indicated that there are personal and Irofessional
characteristics that correlate with the intent to participate in continuing
professional education. The also show ed that Fishbein's expectancy-value
model is partially successful in explaining the variance related to intent to
participate in continuing pofessional education. Finally, the study was able
to generate variables which were effective at classifying those who were
participants, but was less successful with nonparticipants.

The study was an attempt to analyze a phenomenon which is beginning
to be examined in mcxe depth. The issues of participation and
nonparticipation in continuing pofessional education are issues that are not
likelytodisappearinthenearfuture. The hopeisthatthisstudyhas
contributed to the body of knowledge which exa mines the pheno m enon.

109

GLOSSARY OF TER MS

Adult Education: Any process by which men and women, either alone or in

 

groups, try to improve themselves by increasing their knowledge, skills
or attitudes. (Good, 1973)

Attitude: A learned disposition to respond in a consistently favcrable or
unfavaable manner with respect to the concept of professional
continuing education. (Fishbein, 1975)

§_e1_i_e_f_: Hypotheses related to a profesional's subjective personal norms and
subjective social norms and the p'ofessional's m otivations to co m ply
with these hypotheses (Fishbein, 1975)

Consequence: The attributes of a behavior as perceived by an individual.

 

(Fishbein, 1975)
gentinuing Professional Education: Educational opportunities available to a

 

professional to be used to update and supplement existing skills and
knowledge. Participation requires that an external source (such as an
organization a- another qualified individual) monitor the learning of the
professional in order to validate the experience. (Waldon, 198”)

Evaluation: A term Lsed to incorporate ratings on each semantic

 

differential seals, the products obtained by multiplying the ratings of
the two scales for each item, and/or the summation of the total
products for each section. (Fishbein, 1975)

\It‘itent: A measure dependent on the sum of' an individual's attitude toward
a behavior (such as participation in continuing professional education)
and the personal and social norms regarding this behavior. (Fishbein,
1975)

 

,» ~ 7 t ‘ V‘
‘1 I _ ‘ll' "7“ I
c .-"
a-‘ “ ff
_ . , MRLIILELUCvQ

 

_ A.
‘ ‘ v. ‘ ,..- 1
N ‘ F" ' \ ..] 1.1 4 ‘I .. s,
. - I ,' " ‘ .
. _. -\I
-7" ‘} ‘ r I
l)" ‘1 l ‘ L“ x I
I , (
c v ’ \ i. ’I) j
. -, A v I? '- ' t “1‘" 1- . {J
r. . '1 n A: A ...a‘ 7“.'
1“ I. ~
,v 1“."
l'~ r "

 

110

Nonparticipant: A professional who has not taken part in any continuing
professional education within the last three years. (Waldon, 198”)

Ove't Behavior: Actual participation in some form of continuing education
over time. (Southern, 1980)

Subjective Personal Norm: The individuals belief about whether he or she
should behave in a certain way, such as participating in continuing
profesional education, and the m otivation of the individual to com ply
with this personal belief. (Fishbein, 1975)

4‘-

"'l

APPENDIX A

EXPECTANCY-VALUE SCALES: ATTITUDE, SUBJECTIVE SOCIAL NORM,
SUBJECTIVE PERSONAL NORM AND ANTICIPATED CIRCUMSTANCES

A_TTlTUDE swig:

111

I

Respondent I:

In the following section we focus on different consequences that night result

froa participation in continuing professional education.

first indicate the value you place on the consequence: second please indicate how
likely you think it would be for the consequence to occur if you were to participate
in continuing professional education.

Answer by placing an X on the line that represents your view on the two scales for

each consequence.
you should place your

in the aiddlc space.

Continuing professional education will:

1.
2.
3
4

0° ‘4 0H til
I O O

10.

11.'

12.
13.
l 14.
1s.

16.
17.
18.

19. '

20.

Allow a to interact with professional colleagues.

Help as increase my professional knowlcdga.
brave qy professional skills and techniques.

Hake as work over-tine to cowlata other
responsibilities.

as too expansive for cc to afford.

Give ae emotional and psychological support.
Help inn-ave ny future mloynent prospects.
"prove w cffccttvancss as a professional.

Hclp as get a salary increase.

Allow n to have practical cxpcricnccs.

Increase ay Job satisfaction.

Sttculatc u to use diffcrant approaches at work.
Enhance qy personal growth.

Increase qy anthustasa at work.

Help my mloycr recognize w desire to tut-ova
the quality of qy work.

Disrupt qy work schedule.

Challenga ny. intallcctual abilities.
Help a get a proaction.

Help break the aonotony of ny work.

Increase av professional visibility.

Likely

High Value
Likely
High Value
Likely
High Value
Likely
High Value
Liklly
High Value
lecly
High Jaiac
Liklly
High Value
-‘NC‘;

qtgn {also
thely
High Value
Likely
High Value
Ltkaly
High Value
Likely
High Value
Likely
High Value
Likely
High Value
Lihely
High Value
Likely

consider the questions to be neutral on the scale. then

For each of the consequences

ND V010.
Unlikely

to Value
Jnllkaly

awafsc
;nl‘kc’,
In Value
Unlikely

In Value
Unliklly
No Vai.c
:nl‘kafy
no :a’.c

-n"a¢'j

Unlikely
to :al.c
:nl‘ka‘y
to false
;nT‘qal,
to :a’.c
-"‘k.7!
to Jat.c
Uflflsfi1y

Unltsaiy
NO Vila.
Unlikely

112

Respondent I:

SOCIAL HORN SCALE: I

Participation in continuing professional education depends in part on a person's
perception of the expectations of other people and the importance placed on those
expectations. Types of people who eight hold such expectations for you as a
professional are given in each set of items below.

Do not couplete items inappropriate for your situation. There hay be other
reference parson(s) not listed who nay affect your participation in continuing
professional education. For this purpose an extra set of items is included at the
end of the scale for you to fill in and rate.

For each set of ite-s below, place an x on the appropriate line.

9

m Imdiate Sugrvisor: ‘
n s s u participate _____ Thinks I should not participate

In general. how iwortant is it to you what your inediate supervisor thinks about
your participation in continuing professional education?

Very Inortant _____ Hot Inortant
Educational Technol rs at institution c an :
Think I should participate _____ Think I should not participate

In general. how inortant is it to you what your peers at your institution]
comany think about your participation in continuing professional education?

Very Inortant _____ Hot Important

Educational Technolggy peers at other institutions/cganies:
Think I should participate _____ Think I should not participate

In general. how ieportant is it to you what peers at other institutions/
manies think about your participation in professional continuing education? .

Very Imortant _____ Hot Inortant

 

gt‘her col leagues at g institutioan:
Think I should participate _____Think I should not participate

In general. how iwortant is it to you what other colleagues at your institution/
many think about your participation in continuing professional education?

Vary Inortant _____ Hot Inortant
mm: , .
Thinks I should participate _____ Thinks I should not participate

In general. how inortant is it to you what your spouse thinks about your
participation in continuing professional education?

Very Iqaortant _ _ _ _ __ Hot Inortant

113

Respondent I:

_1_, mm: . ’
Think I should participate-________ Think I should not participate

In general. how important is it that you participate in continuing professional
education?

Very Important _____ Hot Important
5! Family: . '
Thinks I should participate Thinks I should not participate

In general. how important is it to you what your family thinks about your
participation in continuing professional education?

 

Very Important _____ Hot Important
5y Professional OrganizationgAECT}:
Thinks I should participate _____ Thinks I should not participate

In general. how important is it to you what AECT thinks about your participation
in continuing professional education?

Very Important Hot Important

Former or Present Instructors:
Think I should participate Think I should not participate

In general. how important is it to you what your former or present instructors
think about your participation in continuing professional education?

Very Important Hot Important

Professional Clients:
Think I should participate Think I should not participate

In general. how important is it to you what your professional clients think about
your participation in continuing professional education?

Very Important _____ Hot Important
mm:
Think I should participate Think I should not participate

In general. how important is it to you what your students think about
your participation in continuing professional education?

Very Important Hot Important

J 0
Think I should participate _____ Think I should not participate

In general. how important is it to you what thinks
about your participation in continuing professional Education?

Very Important Hot Ilportant

111:

PERSONAL NORM SCALE: 1

Respondent I:

Hhether a professional wnll participate in continuing professional education depends -
in part on his or her perceptions of what he or she should do and to what extent the

professional is wnlling to act on those beliefs.

For each item below. mark an x on the appropriate line.

00

 

1.1
1.2

2.1
2.2

3.1
3.2

4.1
4.2

5.1
5.2

6.1

6.2

7.1
7.2

8.1
8.2

9.1
9.2

10.1
10.2

   

rsonall believe ou should artici ate in continuin

e ucat on:

Throughout your professional life?
To what extent are you willing to ggt_on this belief?’

To maintain contact with other professionals?
To what extent are you willing to ggt_on this belief?

To maintain your conpetence as a professional?
To what extent are you willing to g§§_on this belief?

Because it is important to be continually learning?
To what extent are you willing to as; on this belief?

In order to advance the profession?
To what extent are you willing to ggt_on this belief?

To keep up with changing knowledge and technology?
To what extent are you willing to agt,on this belief?

To advance the state of the art?
To what extent are you willing to as; on this belief?

In order for you to advance in the profession?
To what extent are you willing to as; on this belief?

To work with other professionals on common problems?
To what extent are you willing to gg§_on this belief?

To contribute your knowledge to other professionals?
To what extent are you willing to gg§_on this belief?

rofessional

High

Very 'zct
Hi'n '.:
¥.". — _ _ — — .’.‘.

“:ary ‘ac'.

.‘t."; _ — — — — .‘I...‘
Hi h to

Very . 2::
H1?” a:
v.‘“ — — - — — .g.‘.

Very ::

““I‘W — — _ — _ “. "
I" h 2;

v. w — -- _ — '3...
Very 2::
“‘11‘” _ _ an-w — n “f..‘.'

iii-h .c
'lery .ct

hire 1:
Very Sc:
d111‘vn; -—_—h.‘..."-

”1?" , ‘60

Va ua ___________ (al..
Very '.:°.
Hilling __ _ __ _ _ .1"...

09;.

..‘. — - — — — - U.

-ll5

ANTICIPATED CIRCUMSTANCES SCALE:
4:1?

Respondent I:

A variety of circumstances might impinge on a professional's intention to participate

in continuing professional education activities.
that might affect your intention to participate.

an x on the line that represents your view of how likely that circumstance is to
prevent you from participating in continuing professional education.

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6

\i
m

11.

12.

13.

1‘.
15.

16.

I am too busy to attend.

It is too expensive to attend.

The available options are inappropriate.to my needs.
Family responsibilities limit my involvement.

Available courses or seminars are too far away.

Hy employer does not encourage participation in
continuing professional education.

I have no desire to attend.
The available options are too theoretical.
The available options are not theoretical enough.

The courses have too narrow a focus. given the
complexity of the problems I face. .

The available options are not relevant to my
career goals.

The available options are too focused on media/
production skills.

There are no clear nnetary benefits for
participating.

Hy employer does not reimburse me for participating.

Available opportunities are irrelevant to my
job needs. '

I lack adequate transportation.

Likely _______

1.13.1, _____

Likely______

Like1y __.______

Likely ______

Below are a variety of circumstances
Please rate each reason by placing

Inlikel;
.‘z‘slf;
v'. “...'
JnIikely

.nlike’y

Jhlikeiy

-itely '.Z:

Like'2/ _ _ _ _ _

Likely _____
Likely _____
Likely _____
Likely _____

Likely _____

LikeTy ______

Likely ______

thihefj
-flt‘QQ.3

Jni‘eefy

.hi‘eeig

;nl:ke?;

Unlikei;

Jniikeiy

O C
.“s‘<e ;

Unlikei)

APPENDIX B

RESPONDENT INFORMATION FORM

116

RESPONDENT INFORMATION FORM: .
This form is designed to obtain descriptive data which will improve our knowledge

about participation in continuing professional education.
only an x on the appropriate line.

I

Respondent 1:

Host responses require

Others require you to write a short response.

All responses wdll be kept confidential. Thank you for your assistance.

1.

2.

years. 7.

Your age?

Ihat is the highest level of formal
education you have completed?

High School

Associate degree

Bachelor's degree

Haster's degree

Doctor's degree(Ph.D.HD)
r

(specify) 8.

Hhan did you receive your last
degree? (year).

List the number of clock hours spent
in continuing professional education
(full time or part time) in recent .
years. To estimate time. use the
following conversion factors:

I quarter hour-10 clock hours

I semester hour-Is clock hours

HOURS SPENT
Full-time 1 Part-time
1900
1979

1978

 

 

How likely are you to attend any
continuing professional education
activity:

Hithin the next year S Likelihood

Hithin the next 3 years i Likelihood

Yes. I would like to receive a
copy of the results of this survey

Hhich of the following represents
your primary place of employment?

K912(including administration)

Junior/Community College
College/University
Business/Industry
Student

Other

 

Clapecifi)

List the percentage(i) of time you
spend in the follownng employment
responsibilities(100: total):

Administration
Teaching/Training
Curriculum/Instructional
Development
Library/Information Service
Audiovisual Production
_ Research
_ Consultation
Sales Promoti on/Harketing

Student

How many years have you been in
your present employment role?
years.

 

For the past calendar year. indicate
approximately what has been your
total cash compensation?

Under $10,000
’IOam ’ 1‘.”9
315.000 " 19.999
320.000 - 24.999
325.000 - 29.999
330.000 " ”9999
__ $35,000 - 39.999
“0,000 . “.999
—_ s45.000 - 49.999
350.000 and over

APPENDIX C

COVER LETTER TO ACCOMPANY QUESTIONNAIRE

117

MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY

 

I
mam-Immune WW°W'~O
”MTV—Ill“.

”3.1982

Dear AECT “er.

In conjunction with the Continuing Education Conittee of the Association for
Educational Co-unications and Technology. a study is being conducted to examine
participation in continuing professional education. Using a model enbloyed in
consumer research. this study will help to understand the reasons why members of
AECT participate in continuing professional education.

An inoortant part of this study is an examination of professionals who do not
regularly participate in continuing professional education. Therefore if you have
not participated in any continuing education activities over the last few years
we would especially encourage your participation. .

In order to facilitate a cormnon understanding of what continuing professional
education is. the following definition is offered for guidance of this study:

Educational opportunities available to a professional to be used

to update and supplement existi skills and knowledge. Participation
requires that an external source such as an organization or another
qualified individual) monitor the learning of the professional in
order to validate the experience.

Thus courses. workshops. seminars and self-study materials which are monitored

by an instructor or organization(univarsity. business. AECT. etc.) will be included
in the definition while the reading of books and Journals as well as informal
conversations with professional colleagues will be excluded.

Please return the questionnaire as quickly as possible. A stuoed. addressed
envelope is enclosed to make the return easy. He will not bother you with any
more questionnaires. but will send you a sunary of the results if you indicate
your interest on the questionnaire.

”1;: 113.01.. WK“?

Cary Haldon Jerrold In
Project Di rector Chairperson
Continuing Education Couittee

Whamww“

APPENDIX D

POWER ANALYSIS COMPUTATION

118

POWER ANALYSIS COMPUTATION

Cohen's power analysis procedure is pa‘formed Lrior to a study to

identify the type It aror tolerated for the study. A type II error is is the

probability of accepting a hypothesis when it is in fact, false. By

specifying the procedure, the level of type II error is not only indicated,

but the researcher can we power analysis to determine the sample size

needed for a given level of power. Below, the procedure for selecting the

power and sample size are described for the present study.

There are four factors involved in power analysis:

The significance criteria; a .

"This is the familiar criterion for rejecting the null hypothesis and
equals the probability of a type I error." (Cohen, l983,p.l)

The population "effect" size, (gam ma).

 

This is the general measure of the degree to which the null hypothesis
is false. Power, as used in this rrocedure, increases as gamma, the
degree to which H o is false, increases.

Power, or 1- g .

Power is the probability of rejecting H o for a given significance
criterion.

The sample size, N.

The size of a sample directly affects the accuracy of the other
factors in power analysis. If all factors are equal, error decreases and
power increases as N increases. This factor was the primary reason
for ming power analysis. By specifying the first three factors the
sample size fcr the research can be determined.

119

Modifications of these basic factors allow the sample size to be
determined for a specific statistical procedure. For this study the
procedure for the multiple regression analysis was the basis for the
selection of the sample size.

Cohen's sample size rrocedure for multiple regression requires that the
following values be prespecified:

U, or the number of variables examined, equals 5.

R2

was estimated at .110. In this case, it is equivalent to the effect
size, gamma.

a, or the possibility of Type I error was set 0.05

Power was set at .80

Based upon these values the following calculation was done using the power

analysis procedure:
N = L(1-R2) + u +1
R2

N : 12.83(.60) + 5 + 1

.140
N:7_.'_7_0_+6
J40
N=19+6

N = 25 respondents needed for each strata

This number of respondents was the minimum needed for the values
Specified. Because the number of respondents in each strata varied in the

120

study population, the power of the results varied also. However, based upon
this procedure the results will attain this minimum level of significance.

121

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