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This is to certify that the
thesis entitled
A STUDY IN AFFECTIVE SENSITIVITY:
THE USE OF VALUE ORIENTED LITERATURE
AT THE COMMUNITY COLLEGE LEVEL

presented by
Hadley J. Kigar
has been accepted towards fulfillment

of the requirements for

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY degeein Curriculum & Instruction

;zfii32222aL

Major professor

Date 5’”, 7/749

0-7639

A STUDY IN AFFECTIVE SENSITIVITY:
THE USE OF VALUE ORIENTED LITERATURE
AT THE COMMUNITY COLLEGE LEVEL

By

Hadley J. Kigar

A DISSERTATION

Submitted to
Michigan State University
in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY

Department of Curriculum and Instruction
College of Education

1978

8&9" *

 

ABSTRACT
A STUDY IN AFFECTIVE SENSITIVITY:

THE USE OF VALUE ORIENTED LITERATURE
AT THE COMMUNITY COLLEGE LEVEL

By

Hadley J. Kigar

The purpose of this study was to examine selected
affective elements related to Self—Actualization and to
assess and analyze any modificaton resulting from treatment
involving exposure to value oriented literature.

The underlying assumptions were (1) that community
college students who study a selected corpus of value
oriented literature would increase their affective sensi-
tivity in at least two areas: Time Competence and Inner-
Directedness, (2) that community college students who were
exposed to creative—axiological literature would reflect
a higher level of gain than those exposed to philosophical
essays only or to a mixture of philosophical and creative-
axiological materials, (3) that affective sensitivity would
not be affected by type of class—-regular on—campus, off—
campus extension class, or on—campus weekend college class.

Two methods of analysis were used in the design: a

‘ ' -' -u - . '.--- .
_.Sv_1=:."'l.- .-'~.

Hadley J. Kigar

statistical study of Analysis of Variance, based on a
computer program designed by Jeremy Finn; an analysis of
students' written responses to selections read based on a
modification of a Semantic Differential Scheme designed by
Osgood, Suci, and Tannenbaum. The ANOVA portion utilized the
basic pretest——treatment——posttest design using the Personal
Orientation Inventory developed by Dr. Everett Shostrom.
Students' written responses were rated on a 7—point Likert-
type scale ranging from (1) No Response/Complete Rejection,
to (7) Complete Understanding and Internalization of the
value inherent in the selection.

Five sections of a second semester community college
English class participated in the three—week study (N=75).
During this time students were required to study selected
readings based on random assignment to one of three
treatment groups. In addition, they were asked to respond
in writing to each selection studied.

An Analysis of Variance indicated that none of the
six null hypotheses predicated on the general research
assumptions reached the .05 level of confidence demanded
in this study. There was a general and positive increase
in gain scores, however. An analysis of written responses
indicated that students who studied creative—axiological
literature tended to rank higher on the value awareness

scale than those who studied philosophical essays.

'5 .‘-'. 1 .".-.'

Hadley J. Kigar

One primary conclusion must be considered: individual
study apart from peer interaction, teacher facilitation, and
class involvement seems to have limited effect on modifying

affective sensitivity.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This writer owes a debt of gratitude to all who
contributed directly and/or indirectly to this project.

To Dr. Richard Gardner, Chairman of the guidance
committee, a special thanks is rendered for his encourage-
ment, guidance, and support.

Grateful acknowledgement is made to Dr. Ben
Bohnhorst, Dr. Howard Hickey, and Dr. John Suehr for their
advice and assistance as committee members.

Appreciation is also extended to those working
behind the scenes-—the typists, the research consultants,
the computer technicians, the secretaries-—who contributed

much to this endeavor.

ii

 

Chapter

II.

III.

IV.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

INTRODUCTION

Background of Problem.
Rationale. . .

The Problem. . .
Assumptions and Limitations.
Hypotheses .

Definitions of Terms
Organization of the Study.

REVIEW OF RELATED RESERACH AND LITERATURE.

Introduction .

General Goals of Affective Programming . .

Specific Objectives of Affective Programming

Studies and Experimentation in Affective
Domain

Studies and Experimentation with the P. O. I.

METHODOLOGY OR PROCEDURES.

Introduction

Nature of Study .

Statistical Analysis . . . . . . . . .
Analysis of Students' Written Responses.

ANALYSIS OF DATA .
Null Hypotheses. .
Examination of Hypotheses.
Examination of Written Responses

SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS.

Summary.
Conclusions. .
Recommendations.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

APPENDICES

page

Appendix A:
Appendix B:
Appendix C:

iv

Reading Assignments for Each Group.
The P.O.I. Scales . .
Answer Sheet Used

page
100
103
106

 

Table

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.10

.11

.12

.13

LIST OF TABLES

Treatment and Group Size

Distribution as per Class and Treatment.
Gain Scores for Time Competence.

Gain Scores for Inner—Directedness

Standard Deviation for Time Competence

Standard Deviation for Inner—Directedness.

Time Competence Factor Based on
Treatment A/B.

Inner-Directedness Factor Based on
Treatment A/B.

Time Competence Factor Based on
Treatment B/C.

Inner-Directedness Factor Based on
Treatment B/C.
Time Competence Factor Based on Class
A/Others . . . . . . . . . . . .
Inner—Directedness Factor Based on Class
4/Others

Time Competence Factor Based on Class
4/5.

Inner—Directedness Factor Based on Class
4/5

Time Competence Factor Based on Class
3/1 & 2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

 

page

61
66
71
72
73
73

75

75

76

76

77

77

78

79

79

Table
4.14

4.15
4.16
4.17

Vi

Inner- Directedness Factor Based on
Class 3/1 & . . . . .

Time Competence Factor Based on Class 1/2.

Inner—Directedness Based on Class 1/2.

Student Responses (Written) to
Treatment A. . . .

Student Responses (Written) to
Treatment B. . . . . . .

 

page

80
8O
81

83

83

CHAPTER'I
INTRODUCTION

To introduce one to the affective domain is to
introduce one to such statements as nebulous, devoid of
clarity, difficult if not impossible to measure, internal
and thus not ascertainable, vague.

And yet, the vast majority of professional educators,
administrators, counselors, and related personnel include
affect in the traditional tripartite classification of the
educational sphere: cognitive domain, psychomotor domain,
affective domain. Also, each spokesman hastens to add that
more work must be done in this area, additional instruments
of measurement and assessment must be developed, subsequent
research must attempt to isolate factors, facets, and vari—
ables associated with the domain.

The subject has received much attention in recent
years because of the great impetus to feel, to become aware,
to actualize, to experience-—concepts which come out of the
human growth/potential, gestalt, awareness movement. Many
thousands of Americans are turning to the nee—transcendental
interest in that which is anti—materialistic. It would
appear that industrialization, bureaucracy, deterministic,
computer—based identity and all other impersonalizing

forces in our society which negate individuality, feelings,

emotions, and personal volition have come under close
scrutiny and have been found wanting.

The rallying cry of many contemporary critics of
American education seems to belie a total dissatisfaction
with the assembly line education devoid of consideration
for individuality, uniqueness, feelings, emotions and
humanism. Also, the command, "Back to the basics!!" seems
to be a mandate not only for'the traditional Reading, Writ-
ing, Arithmetic emphasis, but it also calls for a return to
such basic constructs as selfereliance, pride in individual
accomplishments, and a value reorientation with an emphasis
on learning whereby the individual will be better able to
cope and change in an ever—changing and more demanding
society.

Brown addressed this contemporary dilemma in
education:

Although there is obvious conflict and disagreement as
to the method and goals and degree of formality, most
people would admit that some educational process is
vital (l) for survival and (2) for the enhancement of
living.

There is one crucial polarity in the process of
Western civilization that is of directly relevant
concern: the dehumanizing versus the humanizing society.
This polarity is manifested in almost all dimensions of
our existence: economic, political, social, and
educational.

We stand with those who would make education and liv—
ing more human. To be sure, we hold this position
because of a strong emotional and philosophical commit-
ment to individuals. We see each individual as a
unique human being with enormous potential. It is
because of this potential that our position has also a
sound practical base. Economically, the potential of

man has barely surfaced. His political potential has
just been scratched. And his potential as a social
being seems to have developed only slightly beyond the
primitive.

How, then can a society transmute potentiality into
actuality?l

The transmutation process i§ primarily_an educational

 

 

~ 2
process.

I. BACKGROUND OF PROBLEM

Institutions which heretofore were charged with the
responsibility of inculcating youth in the ways of the
world, particularly the subtle, covert, cultural mannerisms
and general attitudes regarding the individual and his
social embeddedness were modified, lost their effective-
ness, or were replaced by a new and different attitude
and/or ethic. The family, once admonished to train up
the child in the way he should go, began to change.3 Forces
inside and outside of the nuclear arrangement began subtly,
if not surreptitiously, to undermine the interaction between
parents, children, authority and the individual's responsi—

bility. Economic forces, social issues, modification of

 

lGeorge Isaac Brown, Human Teaching For Human Learn—
ing (New York: The Viking Press, 1971), p. xi-xii.

2"Transmutation: to change from one form, nature,
substance, or state into another," American Heritage
Dictionary (New York: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1973).

 

 

3James 5. Coleman, "Equality of Educational Oppor—
tunity" A Publication of the National Center for Education
Statistics, Washington: U.S. Government Printing Office,
Catalog No. FS 5. 238:38001, 1966, pp. 185-92.

 

formerly unquestioned relationships, and the related atti—

tude of liberation of the times also called up license and
thus the effectiveness, cohesiveness and concern began to
wane.

The institution of the church or organized religion
came under attack both overtly and covertly. Social
psychologists and theologians would cite several factors
for the decline of religious influence:4 1. scientific
-—cause and effect explanations proffered by scientists,
technologists, deterministic philosophers in an essentially
industrial oriented society; 2. an ever—increasing
dissatisfaction with the conventional, traditional,
orthodox attitude prescribed by established religion which
(occasionally) fosters rebellion, albeit ofttimes without
full understanding of the rejection. Here too would be
included a resurgent attitude of humanism and humanistic
substitution.

The Toffleresque syndrome, better known as ”future
shock," has contributed greatly to the instability of the
current flux of concepts. The pervasive malaise of
acceleration, change, modification, rebuilding, removing,

was and is bound to affect the young person in today's

4Karl Jaspers, "Is Science Evil?” The Conscious
Reader (New York: Macmillan Publishing Co., Inc., 1974),
pp. 725—31.

society.5 The young person "can't go home again"—-because

it is not there, or it has been changed beyond recognition,

 

or it is too far away, and who really cares anyhow?
(Implicit in the above is the existential dilemma.)

Coupled with the acceleration and change just cited,
is the ever—increasing rate of mobility which severs the
continuity of family life (moving away from parents, grand-
parents, and kinfolks), breaks friendships among people,

pulls apart emotional relationships between adolescents

 

and adults, and the like.6 Obviously, several of such moves
will affect the emotions and might well discourage future
emotional considerations.

Another phenomenon to be reckoned with is the per-
meating distrust of and a growing dissatisfaction with the
efficacy of the instruments of state on the national
scene.

What does one believe in? Our nation's leaders?

The sacred documents which insure equality for all (when
some are more equal than others)? The prevailing attitudes

of international bribery and legalized extortion? Is this a

 

5Buckminister Fuller, "Report on the 'Geosocial
Revolution,'" Saturday Review, L (September 16, 1967), 32.

6Alvin Toffler, Future Shock (New York: Random House,
Inc., 1971), p. 107, gt passim.

 

 

 

way of life sanctioned and fostered by our society? What
does one admire and respect? To whom is one willing to
commit himself? What cause is worth fighting for?

Since it is quite obvious that the ideal model for
emulation is not from without, many social commentators
(psychiatrists, educators, sociologists) admonish individuals
to look within for stability and purpose.7’ 8’ 9

Needless to say, the task facing educators with
humanistic leanings is awesome indeed. But it certainly is
not beyond the scope of dedicated theorists, teachers,
facilitators committed to the task.

The aforementioned are only a few of the factors
which have contributed to the dilemma of affective over-
sight. Nor are these elements mutually exclusive. One may-
be no more important than the other; yet collectively they
appear to establish a barrier which urgently needs to be overcome.

It will be noted that the foregoing material smacks
of ambiguity and nebulousness. In one sense this is true.

In another sense, it can be no other way. There is a great

7William Glasser, Schools Without Failure (New York:
Harper and Row, 1975), pp. 1— 28.

8Eric Fromm, Man for Himself (Greenwich, Connecticut:
Fawcett World Library, 195? ), pp. 18— 32.

 

9Mary Catherine Bateson, Our Own Metaphor: A
Personal Account pf g Conference_ 93 the Effects gf— Con—

scious Pur ose 93 Human Adaptation (New York: Alfred
KDOPf. 19725. p.272, gt oassim.

 

deal of difficulty involved when dealing with emotions,

feelings, attitudes, dispositions, aesthetic sensibilities,

and acceptance of rejection.

Several concomitant factors are readily apparent:

l.

2.

3.

10.

.Affective elements are highly personal.

Affective elements are subject to change.

Affective elements are not necessarily consis—
tent over time and place.

Affective elements are more frequently relegated
to the domain of psychology rather than
education.

Affective elements are extremely difficult to
measure objectively. '

Affective elements are almost impossible to
isolate discretely.

Affective elements are of only incidental inter-
est to most educators.

Affective elements are sometimes regarded as
"not quite as important" as more observable
and factual concerns.

Affective elements comprise such a murky area
that professional interest is limited.

Affective elements are extremely difficult to

assess (grade) for the average teacher.

ll. Affective elements are quintessentially private,
and too much emphasis constitutes a violation
of privacy.

12. Affective elements are highly subjective and can
be subject to either conscious or unconscious

. . . l 11
exploitat1on, manipulatlon, control. 0’

Yet this domain is a very legitimate concern for

professional educators at every level of the spectrum.
II. RATIONALE

Brown's "transmutation process" cited above poses a
multifold challenge to the professional educator individ-
ually, as well as to the profession of education collec-
tively. Implicit in his injunction is the concept of pro—
cess. It is well known that major changes in educational
theory and philosophy do not come about quickly. Rather,
the general concern needs to be considered; the specific
goals need to be clarified; the actual objectives need to

be formulated; the concomitant methods of implementation

10H. H. McAshan, The Goals Approach t9 Performance
Ob ectives (Philadelphia: W. B. Saunders Company, 1974),
pp- 155—70.

 

11David R. Krathwohl, Benjamin s. Bloom, and Bertram
B. Masia, Taxonom 9f Educational gbjectives-—Handbook ll:
Affective Domain New York: David McKay Company, Inc.,
1963)! pp' 16—19'

 

need to be established and agreed upon. These are the com—
ponents of the process.

This study is a part of this process. The fundamen—
tal rationale for this investigation is to attempt:

to isolate, for investigation, selected affective
elements;

to modify, by means of experimental design, the
intensity and awareness of these elements;

to measure reliably the effect of treatments on
selected elements;

to posit fruitful considerations for those educators
interested in the domain of affect.

Since comparatively little has been done in the way
of gathering "hard data” in this area, particularly at the
post—secondary level of learning, perhaps a serious attempt
to alleviate the nebulous nature of affect may be considered
worth the effort. Long range benefits might well manifest
themselves in curriculum modifications, textbook selection
policies and development, and general education theory which
proposes to humanize learning.

The concern in general calls for a fresh look
at all aspects of education in an attempt to prepare indi-
viduals to function fully in a collective society which has

little concern for humanistic elements. The question is:

 

10

How can we provide meaningful learning activities in the
schools which will facilitate individual appraisal and
inner directedness in an attempt to allow persons, who
happen to be students, to clarify their values and to
actualize portions of their uniqueness? This obviously is

the concern of the affective domain.
III. THE PROBLEM

The purposes of this study were

1. To select affective characteristics for investi—
gation. Two such characteristics were
selected for this study:

Timg Competence——This factor applies to the per—
son who lives primarily in the present with
full awareness, contact, and full feeling
reactivity without undo regard for the past
and its related regrets, resentments, or
feelings of guilt.

Inner—Directedness——This factor applies to the

 

individual who is characteristically "self"
oriented as compared to "other" oriented.
The inner—directed individual is guided

primarily by internalized principles and

11

motivations rather than by peer pressure or
12

other external forces.

2. To identify an instructional strategy which
focuses attention on these characteristics,
and could conceivably modify them.

3. To implement these strategies with a sample of
community college students enrolled in
Kellogg Community College, Battle Creek,
Michigan.

4. To determine whether the implemented strategies
impacted the sample in the selected affective
elements at the .05 level of confidence as
measured by the Personal Orientation
Inventory.

5. To analyze written responses in terms of affective
sensitivity based on Likert-type scale.

6. To posit considerations for educators interested

in the domain of affect.
IV. ASSUMPTIONS AND LIMITATIONS

It was assumed that the population of community
college students used for this experiment was representative
of most community college populations in the Midwest, and

that major differences of environment, education, or economic

 

12Everett L. Shostrom, "Manual: Personal Orientation
Inventory" (Educational and Industrial Testing Service, San
Diego, California), p. 6.

12

status which may have existed were so slight as not to

contaminate the design and the results of this study.

It was assumed that students would participate
honestly and willingly in this experiment and thus would be

responsive and unbiased to a realistic degree.

Limitations of the study included the unknown..
students' attitude toward class, treatment, teacher, time,

and long range considerations.

The three-week time factor must be considered in the
overall design. Of primary significance is the limiting
effect of individualized approach to the treatment: each
student progressed at his own rate, in class or out of
class, and was unaffected by peer interrelationships or

teacher intervention and/or facilitation.

Although the Personal Orientation Inventory included
a total of 12 scales, only two were used for this study-—
Time Competence and Inner—Directedness. It was felt that
the other scales had too few items to warrant their use or
that there was too much overlapping of questions and

scales.

13

V. HYPOTHESES

The working hypotheses for this study, presented in
broad research form, are as follows:

1. Community college students who receive eXposure
to a selected corpus of printed material will
increase their affective sensitivity in at
least two areas—-Time Competence and Inner-
Directedness--as measured by the POI.

2. Community college-students who are exposed only to
creative-axiological literature willreflect
a higher level of gain as measured by the POI
than those exposed either to only philosophical—
expository literature or a mixture of
creative-axiological and philosophical—
expository literature.

3. Students, because of placement in particular
classes, will reflect no appreciable differ-
ence in affective sensibility.

The working hypotheses will be translated into test—
able form (Null hypothesis form) and will be tested statis-
tically using the Multivariate Analysis of Variance designed
by Jeremy Finn available at The Michigan State University
Computer Center. The null hypotheses to be analyzed are:

1. There will be no significant difference in mean
scores for Time Competence or Inner—Directed-
ness factors when Treatment A is compared to
Treatment B.

2. There will be no significant difference in mean
scores for Time Competence or Inner—Directed—

ness factors when Treatment B is compared to

Treatment C.

1L»

3. There will be no significant difference in mean
scores for Time Competence and InneréDirected—
ness between Class Four and all Other Classes.

A. .There will be no significant difference in mean
scores for Time Competence and Inner-Directed-
ness between Class Four and Class Five.

5. There will be no significant difference in mean
scores for Time Competence and Inner—Directed—
ness between Class Three and Classes One and
Two.

6. There will be no significant difference in mean
scores for Time Competence and Inner—Directed-
ness between Class One and Class Two.

The hypotheses were tested on a total population
sample of 75 students at Kellogg Community College, Battle
Creek, Michigan. Students were randomly assigned to one of
three treatment groups within each of the five classes used
in the study. The classes represented the three primary
offerings of the community college—-regu1ar on-campus
classes; off—campus, evening college; weekend college
offerings on Saturday and Sunday.

Before treatment was administered, the l50—item Per—
sonal Orientation Inventory created by Shostrom was given.

The treatment consisted of a three—week, in-class

exposure to selected printed material.

 

 

 

15

Students were assigned a specific reading list of
printed material13 to be completed within the three—week
experimental period. In addition, students were asked to
respond in writing to each of the various selections assigned.
The written response activity served two primary purposes:

(1) Students were required to become more involved with the
readings, (2) The activity provided a source of data which
would later be studied for affective sensitivity.

At the conclusion of the third week, the POI was

given again to all participants.

VI. DEFINITIONS OF TERMS USED

Affective Domain. This domain of human learning

 

provides for those attributes usually excluded from the two
other domains——cognitive and psychomotor. Affective ele-
ments deal with emotions, motives, moral and aesthetic

14 Collectively they represent an individ—

sensibilities.
ual's value system, and they serve him in the decision
making process at every level.

Analysis 9: Variance. Analysis of variance is a
statistical tool which answers the question, Is the vari—

ability between groups large enough in comparison with the

variability within groups to justify the inference that the

 

13 O O O O I
See spec1f1c reading a881gnments as per group in
Appendix A.

14Krathwohl, 9p. cit., p. 7.

16

means of the populations from which the different groups

were sampled are not all the same?15

Covariance. The analysis of covariance is a statis-

 

tical technique which adjusts for initial differences on
pretest criteria. This technique assures that any initial
pretest differences which may be present (brought about

either by chance, or more likely, because of the inability

of the educational researcher to select subjects completely

16

at random) are provided statistical adjustment for analysis.

Creative-Axiological Literature. As used in this

 

study, the term ”creative—axiological” applies to creative
literature, short stories, excerpts from novels, plays,

poems which are designed to establish an imaginative-
vicarious identification on the part of the reader. Such
selections employ poetic uses of language to provide a comment
on the human condition.

Humanistic Education describes a philosophy and a

 

process of teaching and learning in which the unique needs
of the total person are considered paramount.

Philosophical-Expository Literature. As used in

 

this study, this term applies to printed material written
to present a philosophy, an attitude, an interpretation, an

extension or a particular vantage point. This material

 

15Stephen Isaac, Handbook 1g Research and Evaluation
(San Diego, California; Robert R. Knapp, 1971), p. 140.

16

 

Ibid., p. 141.

 

17

employs a mode which relies more on orderly argument and
persuasive logic than on symbolism and vivid imagery.

POI. Personal Orientation Inventory is a testing
instrument created by Shostrom designed to assess and mea-
sure elements of self—actualization.

Self-Actualization. Dr. Abraham Maslow defines

 

self—actualization as the process through which an individ—
ual "makes full use and exploitation of talent, capacities,
potentialities in his possession.” Such an individual
seems to be fulfilling himself and doing the best that he
17

is capable of doing.

Semantic Differential is a method for measuring the

 

meaning of concepts. This has been used by Osgood, Suci,
and Tannenbaum as an attitude scale, restricting its
focus to the affective domain or the evaluative dimension.l8

Values Clarification (also value clarification and

 

value-clarification) is an approach to teaching a process of

valuing--in school, in the home, or in any other setting
19

where value issues may be present.

 

17Frank Goble, The Third Force (new York: Pocket
Books, 1975), pp. 24—30.

 

18Isaac, 9p. cit., p. 102.

19Sidney B. Simon and Howard Kirschenbaum (eds.),
Readings in_Va1ues Clarification, 1973, p. 2.

18

VII. ORGANIZATION OF THE STUDY

Chapter I. Intoduction

 

,The introduction includes: a statement of the
problem in general; a statement of the specific problem
for this study; the background of the problem, including
historical and contemporary contexts; the purpose of the
investigation and study; the difficulties inherent in the
domain proper; questions to the considered; a definition
of terms in context; a statement of hypotheses; scope and
delimitations of the study; and, the organization of the
study.

Chapter II. Review 9: Related Research and Literature

 

 

This chapter is designed to acquaint the reader with
existing studies relative to what has been found, who has
done work, when and where latest research studies were com-
pleted, and what approaches were used involving research
methodology, instrumentation, and statistical analysis as it
relates to the affective domain, values clarification, and
self-actualization.

Chapter III. Methodology 9; Procedures

 

 

 

This chapter is designed to present the research
procedure used; selection of student population used for
the study; the assignment procedure; the nature of the
quasi-experimental research methodology; research design

citing specific independent and dependent variables with

 

a...“ ,r

19

operational statement of the research hypotheses in null

form in preparation for appropriate statistical analysis;
selection of instrumentation with consideration for
reliability, validity and workability; classroom procedures;
data collection and recording; data processing and analysis;
restatement of conceptual hypotheses in operational form
relative to instrumentation and experimental procedure; and a

summary of procedures.

 

Chapter IV. Findings (Analysis and Evaluation)

This chapter is designed to present the findings
of the study. Appropriate tables and charts will be used.
Primary consideration will be given to each hypothesis
posed. Factual information will be kept separate from
interpretation, inference, and evaluation. Clarification
of results will be given when necessary.

Chapter V. Summary, Conclusions, Recommendations

 

This chapter is designed to provide a brief summary
of the aforementioned; to review the continuity of the
entire investigation and study; and to evaluate general
and specific outcomes. Also recommendations for
implementation of findings or for additional research

will be noted. \

 

CHAPTER_II
REVIEW OF RELATED RESEARCH AND LITERATURE
I. INTRODUCTION

A review of the pertinent literature and related
research was made. Material and information relevant to the
purpose and design of this study are included herein. Three
primary sources were used in gathering material: Cumulative

Index 9: Jourgals pf Education, ERIC (Educational Resources

 

Information Center), and the International Abstracts pf

Doctoral Dissertations. In addition, selected books gleaned

 

from the disciplines of literature, psychology, counseling,
and education were consulted.

The following divisions are used for organizational
purposes in this chapter: General Goals of Affective
Programming, Specific Objectives of Affective Programming,
Studies and EXperimentation in the Affective Domain, Studies
and EXperimentation with the Personal Orientation Inventory.

When one begins a review of the literature for the
general topic of affective domain, he is quickly made aware

of one primary source—~Taxonomy pf Educational Objectives:

 

The Classification pf Educational Objectives by Krathwohl,

1

Bloom, and Masia. While this might not be regarded as the

 

1David R. Krathwohl, Benjamin S. Bloom, and Bertram
B. Masia, Taxonomy 2; Educational Objectives: The Classifi-
cation pf Educational Objectives——Handbook ll: Affective
Domain New York: David McKay Company, Inc.T_1963), pp.
16-19.

 

 

21

definitive statement on the subject, it is safe to say that
it is one frequently cited in educational research, major

studies, and journal articles.
II. GENERAL GOALS OF AFFECTIVE PROGRAMMING

Interest in affect has become widespread in the
1970's, according to Morse and Munger.2 To provide some
systematic overview of the entire field and to provide
educators with an up-to—date picture of what is happening
in mental health and education settings, Morse and Munger'
have compiled a document showing the various approaches to
affective education now being used throughout the country.
The work discusses 54 individual programs in the United
States.3

Each entry presents nomenclature as per program, a
brief description of program, additional comments, and in
many cases, goal statements for the program and sugges—
tions for implementation. The following composite is
designed to show similarities and common goals for the

majority of programs.)+

 

2Wm. C. Morse and Richard L. Munger, Helping Child—
ren and Youth with Feelings: Affective—Behavior Science
Education Resource for the Developing Self/School (Behav-
ioral Science Education Project, Ann Arbor, Michigan), p, 2,

pt passim.

31bid., pp. 20—65.

”Ibid.

 

 

 

 

22

Confluent approach: Affective emphasis is usually

 

accomplished in conjunction with the existing
curriculum and/or program.

Planned training for leaders: Some type of
definite training for selected teachers,
educators, facilitators is usually a major
part of each program.

Facilitative ip Nature: Programs are designed for

 

maximum involvement of teacher and student.
Usually the program is open—ended and non-
prescriptive in nature.

Individual reSponses: Emphasis is placed on

 

individual response to the clarifying process.

Themes Similar: Basic themes, such as Human

 

Potential, Self-Esteem, Awareness, Personal
Growth, Moral Education and the like are
replete throughout the compilation.

Educational Level: Most programs discussed are

in conjunction with elementary school educa-
tion, teacher training, and human services
agencies (drug rehabilitation, adult self—
help program, services for aged, etc.).

Higher Education Programming: Very few programs

 

are cited which were designed for institutions

of higher learning——in which post secondary,

 

23

community college, liberal arts colleges,
or universities are discussed.
8. Humanistic Education: Most of the programs had
a definite "humanistic" learning orientation.
Another comprehensive statement as per the general
topic of affective programming is Stilwell's reference:
Barclay and his colleagues (Barclay, Barclay, Catterall,
Santoro, Stilwell and Tapp, 1973) have suggested that affec—
tive education might appropriately include skill develop-
ment in eight areas: self-competency, group interaction,
self-control, verbal skills, physical-energy level skills,
vocational awareness, cognitive—motivational, and attitude
toward school. The lack of skill in any one or more of
these areas defines student needs, suggests goal areas and
indicates possible strategies to gain needed skills.5
Morse and Munger also compiled a bibliography of
related materials in the field under the title Helping

Children and Youth with Feeling_.6 This document cites 157

 

books, 169 articles, and 28 periodicals dealing with the

affective domain. The final 35 pages of their work consist

 

5William E. Stilwell, "Recent Efforts in Planned
Intervention for Affective Education" (paper presented at
the Annual Meeting of American Educational Research Associ-
ation, Washington, D.C., March 30—April 3, 1975).

6Morse and Munger, 22- cit.

2L:

of ancillary sources, organizations and projects, strategies
and related activities for consideration. I

Another bibliography which provides an overview of
the interest and research in the affective domain is one
compiled by Richard w. Pratt.7 This search covers the
basic elements of affective education, including the inter—
relationships between learning, self-concept, career devel—
opment and Self-actualization (italics mine). Included
herein are 95 citations—~annotated articles and abstracts of
dissertations. I

Pratt's compilation was updated with the inclusion of
36 citations covering the period September 1975 through
August 1976. The same basic structure of annotated articles

and dissertation abstracts was preserved.
III. SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES OF AFFECTIVE PROGRAMMING

In an attempt to give some structure and objectivity
to the study in affective domain, Krathwohl, Bloom, and
Masia established an affective taxonomy. Their premise,
greatly generalized, is as follows:

If affective behavior can be identified, it can be

classified;

 

7Richard Pratt, "Psychological and Affective Educa-
tion Searchlight: Relevant Resources in High Interest
Areas," ERIC, December, 1975.

25

If it can be classified, it can be objectified (in

the form of behavioral objectives);
If it can be objectified, it can be qualified (made
a part of educational curriculum).8
The authors cited the following components as
elements comprising the affective continuum.9
Interests
Attitudes
Values
Appreciations
Adjustments
A more detailed development by Krathwohl and others
will help.
A. Interests: Ranging from simply being aware that
a given phenomenon exists through actual
behavior indicating that he is increasingly
willing to attend and respond to behavior
where he is expected avidly to seek and to
feel positively toward the phenomenon.
B. Attitudes: The involvement of the student who is

willing to grant that he has a positive

feeling about something when he is asked

 

8Krathwohl, 9p. cit., p. 24.

91bid., p. 26.

26

about it. He might even go out of his way to
express it and seek instances in which he can
communicate it to others.

C. Values: An extension of the attitudes and
interests. The behavior is better described
as a bundle of attitudes organized into an
attitude cluster or a value complex.

D. Appreciation: This term runs the gamut from a
person's being aware of a phenomenon, to being
able to perceive it, to verbalizing it; or it
may require only that the individual exper—
ience a pleasant feeling when he perceives
the phenomenon.

E. Adjustment: Included herein is an interrelation
of one aspect of the person with another in
such a way that within this organization some
kind of balancing may take place. It may refer
to social interaction between two persons,
one's whole outlook on life, or to the
internal balancing of self-concept and

self—ideal.lo

After much investigation and modification, the

authors developed a comprehensive organizational continuum

 

10Ibid.

27

of components.11 A corresponding point value scale was
developed to provide tangible assessment and measurement of
the specific components.

Krathwohl and others identify this dynamic phenomenon
as "internalization," whereby the learner comes to attend
'h) phenomena, ‘to respond to them, to value them, and to
conceptualize them. He organizes his values in a value
complex which comes to characterize his way of life.12

Perhaps the single movement in education which attempts
most consistently and explicitly to give tangible expression to
affective considerations is that of values clarification.l3

No definitive and totally agreed upon definition of
values per se exists. -One of the most succinct statements
of a value is Raths': "Values-—those elements that show how

14

a person has decided to use his life." This is further

complemented by Hunt and Metcalf’s observation:15
The critical test of a person's insights is

whether they provide him with a set of beliefs
about himself in relation to his social and

 

llIbid.

12Krathwohl, loc. cit.

13Sidney B. Simon and Howard Kirschenbaum (eds.),
Readings ip Values Clarification, 1973, pp. 2-3.

lb’Louis E. Raths, Merrill Harmin, and Sidney B.
Simon, Values and Teaching; Working with values in the
'Classroom (Columbus, Ohio:.Charles E. Merrill PubIIsHIHg
Co., 1966), p. 6.

15

 

Ibid.

 

28

physical environment which are extensive

in scope, dependable in action, and

compatible with one another.

Raths, a major proponent for the inclusion of value
clarifying components in public education, feels that the
recent emphasis on the emotional problems of youth leading
to the general life problems should be replaced with a

16 He contends that the

"value disturbance" exPlanation.
individual child's relationship to society can be graphi—
cally illustrated via a "clarity of relationship to social
continuumu;l7 One end of said continuum is labeled "Clear"
and the other end is labeled "Unclear." The clear relation-
ship signifies a positive, self—actualizing attitude toward
life and living, characterized by consistently purposeful
encounters with the forces and events and persons around

the individual. At the other end of the spectrum this is
not so. Rather, the individuals clustered here seem to
possess a common confusion in terms of relating their lives
to their surroundings. According to Raths, Harmin and

Simon, these people are much more inclined to be:

Apathetic: listless and uninterested, willing to let

 

the spinning world carry them along.

 

 

 

29

Flighty: interested in many things but only for
fleeting moments.

Very Uncertain: unable to make up their minds about

 

the many choices they face in their daily
existence.

Very Inconsistent: individuals with inconsistent and

 

incompatible patterns of behavior.

Drifters: behavior characterized by planless and

 

unenthusiastic drifting from one thing to
another.

Overconformers: with no clear plans or ideas of their

 

own, these people seek security by conforming.

Over dissenters: chronic, nagging and irrational

 

dissenters, continually opposing the majority
opinion.

Poseur or role players: persons who cover their lack

 

of clarity about what life is for by posturing
in some role.18
The philosophic underpinnings of the above and the
corresponding implications are quite simple if not
simplistic: many young people of this generation are not
being adequately prepared to function fully and freely in

our society. Do professional educators have an obligation

to alleviate (if possible) this dilemma?

 

l8Ibid., pp. 5-6-

30

Before definite progress can be made in this area,
problems in defining objective and realistic goals must be
overcome.

Krathwohl and others discovered at the beginning of
their work that there was a lack of clarity in the state—
ments of the objectives they found in the literature, that
it was difficult to find an ordering principle to facili—
tate identification and investigation, and that few of the
examiners at the college level were convinced that the
development of the affective domain would make much
difference in their work.19

McAshan has made a rather extensive review of the
problems related to studying affective objectives.20
McAshan states that evaluation to determine success in
' achieving goals in the affective domain involves a constant
search to find both overt and covert responses which
indicate either positive or negative feeling toward some
21

object or activity.

He cites five areas of consideration:

 

l9Krathwohl, pp. cit.

20H. H. McAshan, The Goals Approach 1p Performance
Objectives (Philadelphia: W. B. Saunders Company, 1974),
pp. 180—85.

21

 

 

Ibid.. p. 185.

4.

31

If affective goals are to be fulfilled and

evaluated, they must be clearly and specifi-

cally defined.

Unlike objectives in the cognitive domain, most

If

affective changes cannot be evaluated
immediately. That is, lowest levels can be
measured immediately; more complex levels may
take a lifetime to completely develop and
evaluate.

objectives are too general they have very
little value. However, if evaluation of
these same objectives becomes too specific,
it will become too restrictive unless the
objectives are broken down into several
distant goals and each goal has its own

unique evaluation component.

Overt measurable learner behaviors used in the

evaluation of affective objectives are hard

to observe.

Objectives are difficult to evaluate in that

 

22

 

little confidence is placed in many of the

learner responses which are available.22

Ibid., pp. 185—86.

32

Other researchers and educators have similar observa—
tions. Kibler, Barker and Miles indicate that the develop-
ment of behavioral objectives for the affective domain is
different from writing objectives based upon knowledge and
recall owing to the difficulty in observing and measuring
feelings and emotions.23

Ojemann stated that affective educational objectives
should bring changes in the learner and that these changes
are internal; thus, they cannot be seen. The only way to
determine if a learner has acquired a specified emotional
pattern is to observe his behavior in Specified situations.
He further pointed out that writers of behavioral objec-
tives tend to omit goals in the affective domain because
objectives in this area are harder to state in behavioral
terms.2u

Harrow stated, "One must always keep in mind that
behavior may be conceptualized as falling into one of three
learning domains, but in reality when observing a child's

behavior, it is usually a combination of all three." Also,

"A learner's behavior does not fall neatly into one of the

 

23Robert J. Kibler, Larry L. Barker, and David T.
Miles, Behavioral opjectives and Instruction (Boston: Allyn
and Bacon, Inc., 1970), p. 98.

2“Ralph H. Ojemann, "Should Educational Objectives
be Stated in Behavioral Terms?", Part II, Elementapy School
Journal, 68 (February, 1959), pp. 223-31.

 

33

three separate compartments of the learningdomains. The
learner behaves as an integrated whole and the behavioral
objective writer must isolate the particular behavior which
at the moment is the prime concern."25
Eisner indicated that some educational outcomes such

26 He cites Krathwohl's

as appreciation cannot be measured.
statement: "At all levels of the affective domain, affec-
tive objectives have a cognitive component." This would
mean that there is a relationship between the cognitive and
affective domains that prevents their being entirely
separate from each other.

Thus, by extension, feelings a learner has toward
obtaining knowledge will affect his achievement in this
area. The more knowledge a learner has about a subject,
(the more likely he is to appreciate or have a good feeling
toward it. Eiss and HarbeCk wrote: "In the present state
of our knowledge about the affective domain, it may not be
possible to suggest behaviors that invariably will serve
as indicators of the achievement of a given affective

objective, or to provide numerical values between evepy

 

 

25Anita J. Harrow, ,5 Taxonomy 9: the Psychomotor
Domain: A_Guide for Developipg Behavioral Objectives (New
York: David McKay Company, Inc., 197277p. 30.

26Eliott W. Eisner, "Educational Objectives: Help
or Hindrance?" School Review, 75 (Autumn, 1967), p. 254.

 

 

34

behavior and desired gpgls.... It is only in the psycho-
motor that the credibility gap is fairly close between
behavior and objective."27

Also, these two writers indicated that in the affec—
tive area the attempt to formulate measurable learner
objectives often results in objectives that are trivial and
often not representative of the goals that the teacher is
trying to achieve.

Hart points out that one difficulty associated with
assessment of affective elements has to do with students'
inability to identify and label feelings. Many affective
instruments call for individual response to adjective-based
questionnaires which might-well include words unfamiliar to
students. Also, students with limited vocabulary might well
have difficulty verbalizing such feelings as "irritated,"
"lonely," or "depressed."28

McAshan's observation provides a suitable summary

statement of this section:

The problem presented to the writer of
behavioral objectives in evaluation, regardless

 

. 27Albert P. Eiss and Mary Blatt Harbeck, Behavioral

Objectives ;p_the Affective Domain, National Science
Teacher's Association (Washington: National Educational
Association, 1969), p. 4.

28Gordon Hart, "Humanizing Schools Through Values
Clarification," College Student Journal, IX,
(February-March, 1975), pp. 82-85.

 

 

 

35

of the behavioral level he chooses to
change, is to determine an overt behavior
that will be an expression of something
the student chooses to do for himself.

A secondary problem in evaluation is to
plan and establish the appropriate situ-
ations that will permit the student oppor—
tunities to express himself and make
choices in a natural situation. The key
question in each observation becomes
whether or not the student is willing to
choose the behavior for himself rather
than his ability to perform the action.
The willingness to perform places the
objective in the Affective Domain.

IV. STUDIES AND EXPERIMENTATION IN AFFECTIVE DOMAIN

...there is a close parallel between the
development of affectivity and that of

the intellectual functions, since these are
two indissociable aspects of every action.
In all behaVior, the motives and energizing
dynamics reveal affectivity, while the tech—
niques and adjustment of the means employed
constitute the cognitive sensorimotor or
rational aspect. This is never a purely
intellectual action. Numerous emotions,
interests, values, impressions of harmony,
etc., intervene, for example, in solving a
mathematical problem. Likewise, there is
never a purely affective act, e.g., love
presupposes comprehension. Always and
everywhere, in object related behavior as
well as in interpersonal behavior, both
elements are involved because the one pre—
supposes the other.3

The above statement by Piaget well illustrates the

‘A

difficulty associated with pure research and experimentation

 

29McAshan, 22. cit., p. 174.

30Jean Piaget, Six ngchological Studies (New York:
Vintage Books, Sept. 1968), p. 33.

36

in the affective domain. Many articles have been written
recently, each commenting on the need for additional work,
new instrumentation for assessment, and implementation of
exciting programs with emphasis on affective elements.
The literature is replete with glowing statements such
as: know thyself better, become more human, ultimate
sharing, trust, discover yourself, and the like. However,
there are very few solid studies which set forth
definite results in terms of definable objectives and
affective elements. In a paper entitled, "Recent Efforts
in Planned Interventions for Affective Education," Stilwell
recaps the results of four studies carried out in urban,
parochial, and rural schools. He discusses major strategies
instrumentally used in each: (1) feedback through test
analysis, teacher attention, parental support; (2) social
contact exercise, teacher attention, video feedback; (3)
existential group work, teacher attention; and (4) social
contact exercise, process learning.

Stilwell cites three analyses used: ANOVA, Aptitude
X Treatment interaction (ATI) and gain scores. His observa-
tions, for the most part were typical of many such studies:
RESULTS: ...a pattern seemed to emerge such that the
interventions used resulted in lower gain scores for five

of seven variables. ...the boys appeared to develop a less

37

positive attitude toward school. On the other hand, the
interventions used in the study seemed to increase the
boys' interest in... ...for the girls no discernable
pattern emerged favoring any set of interventions. Study
1 appears to have had a strong effect... In Study 2 the
changes seem to be desirable?”'

No attempt is being madetmme.to discredit the
researcher's design or his contribution. In fact, it
should be noted that Stilwell and Barclay have been working
in this area for 18 years and that they have administered
the Barclay Classroom Climate Inventory to over 35,000
children.32

Stilwell did obtain a .05 level of significance in
one area of his overall study. This involved the Aptitude
X Treatment Interactions which compared regression slopes
obtained for pre— and posttreatment scale scores.33

Another major contributor to the professional
assessment literature of affective learning is Brown,
author of Human Teaching for Human Learning.

In an attempt to appraise the success of one

experiment in confluent education, Brown notes a "hard

 

31Stilwell, pp. cit., pp. 8—13.
32Ibid., p. 33.

33Ibid., p. 13.

38

data" study.34 He simply cites the results of a compara-
tive study using SCAT (verbal median) and STEP (reading
median) as a basis to illustrate differences, if any,
between those students who studied the material in the
traditional manner as compared to those who were exposed to

the confluent approach. The results were as follows:

Grades Traditional Confluent
As 39 210
B8 83 72
Cs 25 71
Ds 8 8

FS 10 2

The factual, objective test given to both groups was
almost identical.

In addition to the above, the teacher of this class
was convinced that better learning of cognitive material
took place: that there was a heightened motivation and
response to learning situations; that there was a greater
appreciation of self, nature, others, feelings; that there
was a definite lessening desire for drug use by some

students and for "mind blowing by others."35 The teacher.

 

3LIGeorge Isaac Brown, Human Teaching for Human
Learning (New York: The Viking Press, 1971). p. 196.

 

35Ibid., p. 199.

39

Mr. Robin Montz, based his conclusions on behavioral change
observed by himself and other staff members. i

To test effectiveness of value clarification tech-
niques with respect to attitudes toward science and biology,
affective behavior and achievement, Barman ran experiments
attempting to measure affective accretion.36 Evaluation of
the affective domain was accomplished via the Schwirian
Science Support Scale(Tri-S Scale) and the Affective
Domain Measuring Scale (ADMS), while the cognitive domain
was assessed by using the school's comprehensive Final
Examination.

A pretest—-posttest design was used for two groups
(N—78 eXperimental; N-77 control group). The eXperimental
group ku; exposed to Values Clarification lessons once a
week for 18 weeks in conjunction with regular classes in
general biology.

The author found that the Values Clarification exer-
cises aided significantly in a student's cognitive develop—
ment over an eighteen week period.

However, the study did not reflect a significant
difference in student attitude toward science when measured

by the Tri-S Scale. Similar results were noted with

 

36Charles Ray Barman,"The Influence of Value Clarifi-
cation Techniques on Achievements, Attitudes and Affective
Behavior in High School Biology"(unpublished dissertation,
University of Northern Colorado, 1974).

40

respect to student attitudes toward biology and affective
behavior when evaluated by the ADMS.

In response to the criticism that "most of the
research fails to lead anywhere or to permit useful gener-
alizations," Raths surveyed much of the existing research
of the 1960's dealing with observed behavior rather than
what people say they believe.37 Raths summarized 12
studies which he felt reflected the scientific approach.
Seven are cited here.

Klevan (1957) studied the effects of value clarifi-
cation techniques on a group of college students taking a
course in education. Changes in consistency of attitudes,
eXpressions of purposefulness, and expressions of friendli—
ness among class members were the prime considerations in
this study.38

Using the value—clarification method of discussion,
the class studied a series of issues in education with
critical thinking being a primary component. Klevan used
a paper—and-pencil before and after written response to

determine conflicts and inconsistencies. Using two

 

37Raths, Harmin, and Simon, pp. cit., p. 206.

38Albert Klevan, "An Investigation of a Methodology
for Value Clarification: Its Relationship to Consistency
in Thinking, Purposefulness and Human Relations" (unpub-
lished Ph.D. dissertation,. New York University, 1957).

 

41

comparison groups taught by different instructors, Klevan
gave the same before and after measures to all groups.

Klevan found that during the experimental period of
one term, students in the experimental class did develop
significantly more consistent attitudes and did express
more personal purpose than the students in the comparison
classes.

Simon (1958) did a study to see if selected students
with "non—value-based" behavior would change their behavior
if teachers with special values clarification training were
to work individually with these students. Simon found that
most teachers did not seem to use the techniques effectively
and consistently and that most children did not change their
behavior.39

Raths says that one of the most interesting aspects
of the study deals with materials developed to help
teachers work with values. Another ancillary benefit was
the revelation of the difficulties high school teachers had
40

in learning and using the theory.

 

:395idney B. Simon, "Value Clarification: Method—
ology and Tests of an Hypothesis in an In—Service Program
Relating to Behavioral Changes in Secondary School
Students" (unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, New York
University, 1958).

uoRaths, Harmin, and Simon, pp. cit., pp. 2—8.

 

42

In a parallel study of Simon's work, Brown applied
essentially the same design to an elementary school

#1 Unlike Simon's high school teachers, all but

setting.
one of the elementary school teachers did master techniques
of responding to students so as to clarify values. Her
results were much more positive: all experimental children
were reported to have improved markedly while none of the
control children so changed.

Jonas (1960), Machnits (1960), and Martin (1960)
conducted studies to test a theory developed by Raths. .Again
the setting was elementary school, again the design was to
identify students who appeared to be flighty, dissenters,'
poseurs, and the like, to subject them to value clarifi-
cation techniques and then to rate change in observable
behavior. Ratings were done not by the teachers involved
in the experiment proper, but by other teachers in the
system. Selected students were exposed to one value clarie
fying technique each day for a period of five months. The
findings of the three studies were similar in that the
behavior patterns of the children in the eXperimental groups

were reported by the other teachers to have improved

 

ulGeorgia J. Brown, "An Investigation of a Method-
ology for Value Clarification, Its Development, Demon-
stration, and Application for Teachers of the Elementary
School" (Ph.D. dissertation, New York University, 1960).

93

significantly. No such change was reported for the
comparison group.“2

According to Raths, Shields carried out a small
unpublished study in a philosophy of education course in a
Catholic college.”3 Twenty—eight students in the class
were exposed to a variety of values clarification experiences
over a ten-week period. He used class discussion to ask
clarifying questions; he assigned value sheets and wrote
clarifying responses in the margins of student reports that
were returned to students. As a control group, Shields
used-another class that he was teaching. With this group
he did not emphasize value clarification.

He used two approaches to measure change. He admin—
istered a personal rating sheet to all students before the
experiment proper was begun. This sheet included eight
variables, five presumed to be associated with value
clarity. The same instrument was administered at the end
of the ten-week experiment. Shields' findings were incon-
clusive. The growth of the eXperimental group was perhaps
slightly greater than that of the control group, but the

 

42Arthur H. Jonas and others, "A Study of the Rela—
tionship of Certain Behaviors of Children to Emotional
Needs, Values and Thinkin " (unpublished Ph.D. dissertation,
New York University, 1960 .

uBRaths, Harmin, and Simon, pp. cit., pp. 216-217.

44

unreliability of the instrument prevented any possibility
of the difference reaching statistical significance.

The second measurement was a rating of student
papersby a panel of three judges. The judges favored the
eXperimental group at the .01 level.

In a study of 23 professional educators enrolled in
a values education workshop, Enderle found statistical
significance in areas of moral maturity.u4 Educators were
randomly assigned to one of three groups: Group C, a
didactic group involving lecture about values theory and
research; Group D, a moral dilemma discussion group of type
eSpoused by Kohlberg; Group E, an eXperiential group,
patterned after T-grouP model. The groups met three hours
daily for one week.

IUJ. subjects were pretested and posttested on the
Moral Maturity Scale, a measure of moral development, and
the Personal Orientation Inventory.

An analysis of variance revealed a significant
difference at the .01 level of confidence for combined
groups from pretest to posttest measures on the Moral
Maturity Scale. A multiple correlational technique failed

to demonstrate a significant relationship between moral

 

uuGlenda Roth Enderle, "A Study of the Effects of
Didactic, Discussion, and Experimental Group Learnings on
Moral DevelOpment" (unpublished dissertation, Kent State
University, 1974).

45

maturity and self-actualization as measured by the pretest
of MMS and P01. Enderle concluded that all three groups
appeared to some extent to be effective in stimulating
moral development.

Phillips designed and implemented a study to evaluate
a growth/awareness group experience by determining the
effects of group interaction in terms of personality change
as measured by six scales of the California Psychological
Inventory.45 His two hypotheses were: (1) There would be
no difference between the experimental group, the informal
control group, and the uninformed control groups, (2) If
change occurred, the change would not be substantial over
a three-month period.

The treatment group was exposed to a combination of
exercises in sensory awareness, sensitivity training and
human relations training.

Analysis of the data revealed no significant differ-
ence between groups at the .05 level of confidence on any
of the six scales of the CPI when administered a second
time three months later.

In a study designed to assess the degree of depar-

ture from traditional sex roles toward a more autonomous

 

45Larry Phillips, ”A Growth/Awareness Group Experi-
ment: Assessment of Change in Personality Related to Social
Interaction” (unpublished dissertation, Ball State
University, 1975).

46

and self—actualizing life style, Hands developed a six-
week course of involvement using 52 women as an experimental
group with an equal number in a control group.46

Seven questionnaires administered in a pretest and
posttest manner were used. Hands noted that participants
tend ‘to be more aware of and sensitive to their own
feelings and reveal a diminished tendency to self-criticism.
They tend to be more satisfied with themselves and are more
apt to feel that their needs for personal fulfillment and
rewarding interpersonal relationships are being met.

She concluded that that course was largely successful
in reaching its objectives of modifying attitudes, feelings
and behaviors of women in more personal growth—oriented
direction.

Also, the experimental group showed significant
'changes in life style characterized by lessening commitment
to traditional female role functions and a more active
involvement in activities centering on education, community
work, personal growth groups and relationships with other
women.

Degree of importance attached to humanistic goals

was tested by Price in a study involving 256 community

46Sandra Lee Hands, "An Evaluation of a Course for
Women Directed Toward the Development of Self—Actualizing
Life Styles" (unpublished dissertation, University of
Texas, 1974).

47

47

residents, 60 teachers, and 100 high school students.
She found that all three groups placed humanistic goals
within the first six rank positions. Price also found that
self-actualization occurs only under favorable conditions
such as when experiences are relevant to the individual's
needs and interests, when there is a lack of threat to self
and there is respect from others toward a person's self—
actualization_and toward a person as a worthwhile individual.

In a study designed to measure a theory of values and
various outcomes of a value clarification process, Olson
hypothesized that (1) self—esteem would be raised, (2) there
would be a significant increase in subconsensual self, and
(3) that the experimental group would report that it chose,
identified with and prized and acted upon values signifi—
cantly more than the control group.”8 The first two hypo-
theses were not supported in terms of the statistical level
of significance demanded by the study. Also, only the
"choosing" factor was supported in hypothesis three.

Olson used three measuring devices when testing the

61 participants: Coopersmith's Self-Esteem Inventory;

 

“7Holly Price, "Humanistic Teaching: Community Accep-
tance and School Practice" (unpublished dissertation,
University of Wisconsin, 1974).

“BGerald Olson, "A Study of Theoretical Implications
and Outcomes of a Values-Clarification Process with a Group
of Ninth Grade Students" (unpublished dissertation,
University of California, 1974).

48

Kuhn and McPartland's Who Am I? Test; and Olson's
Valuing Process Inventory.

Kalunian found that students (note: primary
students) did eXperience a significantly greater increase
in positive self—concept for all three grade levels tested,
and did experience a significant reduction in test
anxiety.”9 He thus concludes that a Humanistic Education
Curriculum within the school curriculum can play an
important role in enhancing positive self-concept. A
confidence level of .05 was met.

Four criterion measures were administered: Self-
Appraisal Inventory, Test Anxiety Scale for Children,
Stanford Achievement Test and Minnesota Teacher Attitude
Inventory.

After an extensive review of affective instrumenta-
tion, McAshan concludes that whereas the validity and
reliability of many tests and rating scales used in the
past have been in serious doubt, this aspect has been
improving in recent years.50 One primary area of weakness

which still needs work is the issue of student response.

 

ugPeter J. Kalunian, "The Effects of a Humanistic
Education Curriculum on Attitude, Self— Concept, Anxiety
and Achievement Level of Primary School Children and
Teachers" (unpublished dissertation, Boston University,

1974)
cit., p. 187.

5OMcAshan, pp.

 

49

He notes that direct responses from students which might
supply valuable information are often not completely reli-

able because they are sometimes offered under duress or do

51

not represent an honest and complete response.

Even though study of the entire domain of affect has
serious shortcomings and many weakneSses, educators must not
be discouraged. Rather, they should accept the challenge
and move ahead. Phenix regards this as being more than
simply a challenge, to him it is an imperative—-A Moral
Imperative.

Americans are becoming increasingly aware
that material and technical approaches to these
(social and personal) issues do not suffice, that
without a moral basis and the morals that flow
from it, typical American practicalism and
activism prove impractical and stultifying.

What the morally concerned students are
asking is nothing less than a thorough moral
reconstruction of education itself. Most of
them would not couch their protests and their
aspirations in those terms; they would rather
use a term like "relevant," meaning an educa-
tion that will enable them to transform a world
that their consciences bid them reject in its
present form.

What can teachers, students, and admin-
istrators do together to contribute construc-
tively to the moral imperatives that are
grasping the present generation?

I am convinced that the present unrest
offers signal opportunity for the educative
enterprise and that we would do well to think
carefully and to act resolutely to avail our- 5
selves of the creative moment presented to us.

 

5llbid.

52Philip H. Phenix, "The Moral Imperative in Ameri-
can Education," Readings in Values Clarification, Sidney
B. Simon and Howard Kirschenbaum, editors (Minneapolis:
Winston Press, 1973), pp. 38— 39.

 

 

50

V. STUDIES AND EXPERIMENTATION WITH THE
PERSONAL ORIENTATION INVENTORY

The pertinent literature related to the domain of
affect contains many comments citing weaknesses and short-
comings of instrumentation designed to measure affective
sensitivity. Upon perusal of many articles and documents
of this nature, it was felt that additional consideration
concerning the selection ofthe Personal Orientation Inven—
tory was necessary for this study.

It should be noted that for the most part, materials
included herein were gleaned from a rather extensive manual
designed by Shostrom.

Additional qualification is necessary in that the
POI is not only an instrument for the educational setting.
Rather, the inventory has great versatility since it has
been used as an assessment instrument with such diverse
groups as: electronics company supervisors; student nurses;
service organization volunteers; college juniors and
seniors; entering college freshmen; high school students;
hospitalized psychiatric patients; delinquent males; alco-
holic males. Shostrom, in his manual, has cited means and
standard deviations in presenting the Profiles for the
selected reference groups noted above. This material was
used to establish norms cited for the instrument.

The Personal Orientation Inventory items
reflect significant value judgment problems

51

seen by therapists in private practice.

The items were based on observed value'
judgments of clinically troubled patients
seen by several therapists over a five— ,
year period. These items also were agreed
to be related to the research and theoretical
formulations of many writers in Humanistic,
Existential or Gestalt therapy. The latter
includes Maslow's concept of self-actualiza-
tion, Reisman's pp, p1. system of inner— and
other-directedness and May's pp. p1. nd
Perls' concepts of time orientation.

In addition, Shostrom repeatedly extends the func-
tion of the inventory to include the affective considera—
tion of emotions and values as illustrated in the following:

The work of Ellis has suggested that
psychotherapy can be viewed as a process
of critically examining the irrational ideas
and value orientations of the patient. As
Buhler has suggested, value orientations are
definite existential judgments. Following
Kluckhold, she states that these orienta-
tions symbolize the fact that the affective-
cognitive, or value, and strictly cognitive
(orientation) elements are blended. A value
orientation may be defined as a generalized
and organized conception, which influences
behavior and which is a conception of nature and
of man's place in it, or man's relation to
man, and of the desirable and nondesirable
as they may relate to man—environment and
inter—human relations.5

Ellis notes that much of what is called
emotion is nothing more or less than a cer-
tain kind, a biased, prejudiced, or strongly
evaluative kind of thought. Therefore, an

 

53Everett L. Shostrom, EITS Manual for the Personal
Orientation Inventory (San Diego, California: Educational
and Industrial Testing Service, 1966), p. 25.

 

5L’Ibid.

52

affectively loaded idea about life may be'
properly defined as a value. Items in the

POI were designed to reflect value orienta-
tions which are commonly held, and which

are considered to be significant to a person's
approach to living.

Validity

 

Shostrom, developer of the instrument and writer of
the corresponding manual has this to say regarding validity:

Perhaps the most important test of
validity, in the case of the POI, is that
it should discriminate between individuals
who have been observed in their life
behavior to have attained a relatively
high level of self-actualization from
those who have not so evidenced such
development. To test the POI's effective-
ness in making this discrimination, the
Inventory was administered to two groups,
one of "relatively self—actualized" and
the other of relatively "non—self—actualized"
adults. Persons in these two groups were
carefully selected, each being nominated
by practicing, certified clinical psycholo-
gists contacted through societies of clinical
psychologists. N's were 22 and 34
respectively. 6

Shostrom's findings indicate that the Inventory
significantly discriminates between clinically judgedsxfli¥
actualized and non—self—actualized groups of 11 of the 12

scales.57 Also, he notes that the means for the

 

55Ibid., p. 20.
561bid., p. 25.
57Ibid.

53

self—actualized group are above the normal adult group
means on 11 of the 12 scales, and the means for the non—
self—actualized group are below the norm means on all
scales. Shostrom's table shows the critical ratio between
self—actualized and non-self—actualized groups to be signi-
ficant at the .01 confidence level in 12sca1es and .05

confidence level for one scale (Freedom Reactivity).58

Concurrent Validity

 

A subsequent study designed to further test the,
sensitivity of the instrument in clinical settings was
conducted by Shostrom and Knapp.59 In this study, the
POI was administered to two groups of outpatients in
therapy; one a group of 37 beginning patients entering
therapy, the other a sample of 39 patients in advanced
states of psychotherapeutic progress.

Analysis of the P01 scores showed all 12 P01 scales
differentiated between the criterion groups at the .01
confidence level or higher.

Yet another study in a clinical setting involving
a criterion group is reported by Fox (1965a). The instru—
ment was given to a group of 100 hospitalized psychiatric

patients. The results were as follows:

 

58Ibid., p. 26.

591bid., p. 27.

54

All scales significantly differentiated
(beyond the .001 confidence level) the
hospital sample from the nominated self—
actualized sample and from the normal
adult sample. The hospitalized sample
was also lower on all scales than the
non—self—actualized sample. Differences
reaching statistical significance at the
.01 level were obtained for the major
scales of Time Competence and Inner-
Direction and in addition several of the
subscales significantly differentiated
the patient sample Srom the non-self—
actualized people.6

Several subsequent studies also have supported
the validity of POI as a measure of self—actualization.
The following citations are representative.

Shostrom establishes instrument validity by noting
several major studies conducted by Zaccaria and Weir (1966),
Gade and Weir (in press), Murry (1966) and Pearson (1966).61

Zaccaria and Weir studied seventy alcoholics and
their spouses participating in an alcoholic treatment
program. They found that all mean POI scores for this
sample to be significantly lower than the original vali-
dating, clinically nominated, self—actualized sample.
Further, all but one scale showed the experimental, treat-
ment sample to be significantly lower than the normal

adult sample reported by Shostrom.

 

60
61

Ibid.

 

Ibid., p. 28.

 

55

Gade and Weir, in a study using a pre- and posttest-
ing design, report significant differences in discrepancy
scores between a group of alcoholics having individual
therapy and a group not having individual therapy. All
pre—znmlposttest score changes for the individual therapy
group are in the direction of greater self—actualization.

Murry investigated the relationship of teacher
success in self-actualization as measured by the POI. In
her study, teacher success was measured by ratings of
"teacher concern for students" made by the teachers'
students. Ratings for 26 high school home economics
teachers were based on responses of 2,333 students. A
marked difference in self—actualization was found between
teachers with high ratings and those with low ratings with
the more successful teachers being more self—actualized.

Finally, Pearson, in a study designed to investie
gate the effects of a series of different processes used
in group guidance and their relationship to successful
college adjustment, found support for the hypothesis that
students exposed to a permissive, group—directed form of
guidance permitting interaction between students, under
the leadership of a counselor, would demonstrate a more
effective adjustment to college than students eXposed to

other methods.

56

Reliability

 

Shostrom established test—retest reliability coeffi-
cients for POI scales based on a sample of 48 undergraduate
college students. The inventory was administered twice, a
week apart, to the sample with the instructions that is was
part of the experiment to take the inventory twice.

Reliability coefficients for the major scales of
Time Competence and Inner-Direction are .71 and .84
respectively, and coefficients for the subscales obtained
in this study are at a level as high as that reported for

most personality measures.62

SUMMARY

A review of the literature indicates that there
has been a widespread interest recently in the affective
domain and that numerous institutions and agencies have
initiated programs with specific affective objectives.
It also appears that one primary weakness experienced most
frequently has to do with defining and evaluating objectives.
Most research data and experimentation results come
from researchers in the values clarification movement.
However, many of the studies are inconclusive and/or

statistically insignificant.

 

62Ibid., p. 31.

57

In the light of these findings, it was felt that
special attention must be given to the validity and
reliability of the instrument for this study. A rather
extensive review of POI material indicated that this

inventory would be satisfactory for this study.

 

 

CHAPTER III
METHODOLOGY 0R PROCEDURES

The purposes of this study were

1. To select affective characteristics for investi—
gation. Two such characteristics were
selected for this study:

Time Competence-~This factor applies to the per-

 

son who lives primarily in the present with
full awareness, contact, and full feeling
reactivity without undo regard for the past
and its related regrets, resentments, or
feelings of guilt.

Inner-Directedness——This factor applies to the

 

individual who is characteristically "self"
oriented as compared to "other" oriented.
The inner—directed individual is guided
primarily by internalized principles and
motivation rather than responding to peer
pressure or other external forces.1

2. To identify an instructional strategy which
focuses attention on these characteristics

and could conceivably modify them.

 

lEverett L. Shostrom, "Manual: Personal Orientation
Inventory" (Educational and Industrial Testing Service, San
Diego, California), p.

59

3. To implement these strategies with a sample of
community college students enrolled in
Kellogg Community College, Battle Creek,
Michigan.

4. To determine whether the implemented strategies
impacted the sample in the selected affective
elements at the .05 level of confidence as
measured by the Personal Orientation
Inventory.

5. To posit considerations for educators interested

in the domain of affect.

I. NATURE OF STUDY

The research methodology or approach will be defined
as a quasi—experimental investigation which is intended to
”approximate the conditions of the true experiment in a
setting which does not allow the control and/or manipulation

of all relevant variables."2

Sample

The sample was made up of community college students

who were enrolled in 5 classes of English 102, Reading and

 

2Stephen Isaac and William Michael, Handbook jg
Research and Evaluation (San Diego, California: Robert R.
Knapp, Publisher, 1971), p. 26.

 

60

Response, a second semester Freshman English class, The sample
provided a wide spectrum of cummunity college Students in that
three classes were regular 50-minute, on-campus, classes; one
was an on-campus Weekend College (Saturday morning) class.

The sizes of the classes ranged from 11 to 25.

In addition to the primary interest in assessing
change in affective sensitivity, there was an interest in
whether or not the type or time of the class played a
significant role. Said classes are described as follows:-

pp-campus classes reflected the "average" community
college composition——primarily 18-21 years of age, about
evenly mixed as per sex. Most students carried at least
12 hours of credit.

Evening class was held in.a high school in a nearby

 

small town and was composed of 11 people--lO women and one
young man. All were either employed full time or were
housewives. The average age was 30.

Weekend College class was composed of 6 men and 6

 

women with an average age of 33. All were part—time

students.

Assignment pp Treatment Groups

 

It was decided that a random selection approach for
treatment and assessment would be used. Students were randomly

assigned to one of three treatment groups: "A," "B," or

61

"C." Group "A“ was told to read and respond to Creative-
Axiological material only. Group "B" was told to read and
respond to Philosophical Essays only; Group "C" was told to
pick selections from either of the above. Each class had

all three groups. Table 3.1 shows the treatment and group size.

TABLE 3.1
TOTALS FOR ALL FIVE CLASSES

 

 

Group "A"
Creative-Axiological 28
Group I'B'I
Philosophical Essays 24
Group "C"

Mixture of Both . 23

 

To alleviate the possibility of contamination of
data, the instructor removed himself as much as possible
from the sphere of influence. To accomplish this end, the
instructor did not deal personally with the material under
consideration. Nor did students use class time for discus-
sion or analysis. Rather, class time, for three weeks, was
used by individual students to read separate assignments
and to respond in writing to the separate readings. No
biased or directional comments were made at any time by
the instructor (Why did you enjoy this selection? Does the
theme have a positive effect on you?). Students were

instructed not to discuss material outside of class.

62

Corpus Bi Material

The reading material was selected from approximately
250 pages of the section entitled, "The Examined Life-—
Science/Humanism and Personal Values," included in the text—

book The Conscious Reader (edited by Shrodes, Finestone and

 

 

Shugrue)-
An equal number of pages (100) was assigned to each

3

participant for individual reading and response.

Selection.p£ pp Instrument

 

 

It is well known that instruments which purport to
measure subjective components and factors of personality——
and specifically those which test self—actualization-—are
not numerous. Many are of questionable reliability and
dubious validity. The Personal Orientation Inventory by
Dr. Everett L. Shostrom was selected. Several critical
factors were considered in this decision. One of the most
important was the fact that Dr. Abraham Maslow and Dr.
Frederick Perls, both internationally known in the study of
self—actualization, awareness and human potential, assisted
in the development of the instrument.

Another major issue was that this instrument has

been used in over 12? studies ranging from individual

 

3Specific selections and authors are listed in
Appendix A.

63

therapeutic sessions to screening batteries for business and
industry. Thus the popularity, usability, and serviceability
was felt to be established to an adequate extent. Also,
the Personal Orientation Inventory was selected because it
attempts to measure items which were regarded as salient.
The inventory is an 8—page, self report, non-projec-
tive test which takes between 30 and 40 minutes to complete.
The POI consists of 150, two-choice comparative
value and behavior judgments. The items are scored twice:
first, for two basic scores of personal orientation-~Inner-
Directed support (127 items) and Time Competence (23 items);
secondly, for 10 subscales,4 each of which measures a con-

ceptionally important element of self-actualization.

Time Factor

 

Since a portion of the research project provided for
a concentrated effort to effect change in affective sensi-
tivity, a three-week period was selected. It should be
noted that even though three weeks proved only nine hours
of in-class treatment, it was assumed that at least 15
additional hours were necessary to successfully complete the

entire assignment.

Pretest
Before students were assigned to specific groups for

treatment, the POI was administered. Students had been

 

See appendix B for subscales.

64

asked to take part in an experiment which would complement
the final theme or section of study. Students were told
that they would be required to read and respond to selected
readings for a three-week period. No specifics as per
intent, variables, significance and the like were discussed.
Since the classes had discussed other themes and selections
for most of the semester, it was felt that this approach

simply was a variation in dealing with the material.

Treatment

 

Students were asked to read carefully the assigned
material and to respond in writing to each selection read.
No specific format for response was given. Students were
simply asked to respond in any way they felt appropriate
to the ideas set forth in selections. No discussions were
carried on in class. The students also were asked not to

discuss their responses among themselves.

Posttest

At the end of the three-week period, after each
student had completed the assigned readings, students were
posttested. The same form of this instrument was used as

no variations to original instrument were available.

Preparation for Analysis

 

The answer sheets (form MSU.OS.102) were collected

and checked for completeness and proper identification.

65

Students were asked to use the first six digits of their
Social Security numbers as a means of identification. They
were assured that these numbers would be used only for
matching purposes and that at no time would names and
numbers be paired.

Once the Pretest score sheets and the Posttest score
sheets were arranged in order, the data were taken to the
Scoring Office at Michigan State University for transfer to

IBM computer cards.

Computer Program

 

After consulting with personnel from the Office of
Research Consultation, a computer program which would yield
the necessary statistical data was selected. Key cardsfor
the specific program were hand punched and prepared for
computer run. An initial test run was conducted; several
”bugs" were found. After these errors had been corrected,

the entire program was run.
11. STATISTICAL ANALYSIS

A 3 X 5 factoral design was developed to provide a
framework for comparison, analysis of mean score relation-
ships, and establishment of main effects. The design

illustrated in Table 3.2 involves 15 group means.

 

66

TABLE 3.2
DISTRIBUTION AS PER CLASS AND TREATMENT

 

 

 

Class
1 2 3 4 5 Totals
Treatment A 8 7 5 4 4 N 28
Treatment B 6 7 4 3 4 N 24
Treatment C - 7 6 3 3 4 N 23
Totals N 21 ,N 20 N 12 N 10 N 12

Total subjects in study—~75

The variables for this study were Independent (1)
Class, (2) Treatment; Dependent (1) Time Competence, (2)
Inner-Directedness.

The analysis of variance statistical approach is
designed to establish the variability between groups with
the variability within groups to justify the inference that
the means of the populations from which the different groups
were sampled are not all the same. In other words, this
technique is expected to yield data to establish statis-
tically significant differences between or among groups.
This result is called the F-ratio.

F = Between Group Variances
Within Group Variance

III. ANALYSIS OF STUDENTS' WRITTEN RESPONSES

A seven-point Likert-type scale, modified from a

67

Semantic Differential Design was constructed to aid in
assessing students' written responses.5 After the responses
were read and studied for word frequency and value aware-
ness, general tendencies were observed and noted. Based
on these observations, specific ”signals" ("I enjoyed,”

"I learned," etc.) were established as qualifying criteria
in an attempt to objectify the process of classification.
The scale provided four responses ranged from (1) No
response/Complete rejection, to (7) Integration of concept
in world view. All Treatment A and Treatment B responses
were rated on this scale.

A. l . 2 . 3 . 4 . 5 . 6 . 7

 

Student's response characterized by

Level 1: No response at all. Complete rejection--"This
was stupid." Fewer than five words.

Level 2: Selection generally unclear; student didn't under-
stand; not meaningful or relevant. Very short
entries frequently characterized by "Boring."

Level 3: Limited response to content. Some appreciation
noted or implied. Frequently merely a restatement
of author's statements or ideas. OK, but.

Level 4: Student understood basic intent and basic content.
Generally agreed or disagreed with specifics in
selection. Willingness to respond to primary

thought.

 

5Issac and Michael, pp. cit., p. 102.

Level 5:

Level 6:

Level 7:

68

Student had good understanding of primary intent
of selection. Student could cite issue proper--
racial, pride in self, dignity of person. Usually
had 2—3 definite signals such as ”I enjoyed,”

"I appreciated."

Student had awareness of larger message and/or value.
Responses were generally longer, 40-65 words.
Frequently included ”I can identify,” "I believe,”
"I, too, have felt.”

Student applied value to self. He reflected

a new awareness or growth factor. Response was
extended, 50—75 words, including personal

application to world view.

SUMMARY

Chapter III was developed to present in detail the

nature and design of this investigation. Particular

attention was given to selection of sample, treatment,

instrumentation, and mode of analysis for open ended written

responses and inventory scores.

The results of the above, reflected in terms of statis—

tical data, are presented in Chapter IV: Analysis of Data.

CHAPTER IV
ANALYSIS OF DATA

The purpose of this study was to (1) identify a
treatment which would attempt to isolate and modify two
specific aspects of affect--Time Competence and Inner-
Directedness, (2) select five classes (different classes of
community populations) of college students and implement
the treatment based on inherent properties of creative—
axiological literature as compared to expository-essay
literature, (3) determine if significant differences in
affective sensitivity as measured by the P01 accrued
between or among the three experimental—treatment groups
reaching an acceptable confidence level of .05.

The underlying assumption for this study was that
students who study a prescribed corpus of axiological—
creative literature will increase their affective sensi-
tivity in the area of self—actualization as measured by two
scales on the P01 (Time Competence and Inner-Directedness)
to a greater extent than those who study philosophical
essays, or those who study a combination of philosophical
essays and axiological literature. Also, there was an
interest in determining whether or not placement in class

had any significance.

70

To determine differences, a comprehensive program of

Analysis of Variance was used. The general hypotheses cited

above were translated into working test hypotheses and are

here presented in null form.

I. NULL HYPOTHESES

There will be no significant difference in mean
scores for Time Competence or Inner-Directed—
ness factors when Treatment A is compared to
Treatment B.

There will be no significant difference in mean
scores for Time Competence or Inner—Directed-
ness factors when Treatment B is compared to
Treatment C.

There will be no significant difference in mean
'scores for Time Competence and Inner-Directed-
ness between Class 4 and all Other Classes.

There will be no significant difference in mean
scores for Time Competence and Inner-Directed—
ness between Class 4 and Class 5.

There will be no significant difference in mean
scores for Time Competence and Inner-Directed-
ness between Class 3 and Classes 1 and 2.

There will be no significant difference in mean
scores for Time Competence and Inner—Directed-

ness factors between Class 1 and Class 2.

71

Multivariate Test

A two-way multivariate test of analysis of variance
was run on the mean scores for each dependent variable. It
was decided that an alpha level (probability level) of .05
would be used to establish statistical significance.

Pretest and posttest means were generated for each
cell with respect to Time Competence and are presented in
Gain scores for each cell are also

Table 4.1 below.

presented.

TABLE 4.1
PRETEST, POSTTEST, GAIN SCORES FOR TIME COMPETENCE

 

 

 

Treatment Class
1 4 5
Treatment A:
Pretest 15.13 15.43 15.40 15.00 10.75
Posttest 16.00 15.86 16.40 15.00 13.50
Gain Scores + .87 + .43 +1.00 1 0 +2.75
Treatment B:
Pretest 15.67 13.71 17.50 17.67 15.50
Posttest 15.50 16.00 18.00 19.67 16.00
Gain Scores - .17 +2.29 + .50 +2.00 + .50
Treatment C:
Pretest 18.57 16.17 14.00 14.00 16.50
Posttest 18.14 17.67 17.33 15.67 16.50
Gain Scores — .43 +1.50 +3.33 +1.67 1 O

 

72

Pretest and posttest means were generated for each
cell with respect to Inner-Directedness and are presented

in Table 4.2. Gain scores are also presented.

TABLE 4.2

PRETEST, POSTTEST, GAIN SCORES FOR INNER—DIRECTEDNESS

 

 

 

Treatment Claps 2 3 4 5
Treatment A: -
Pretest 77.75 79.86 78.20 82.50 68.50
Posttest 79.39 85.00 86.00 87.25 70.75

Gain Scores +1.50 +5.14 +7.80 +4.75 +2.25
Treatment B:

Pretest 79.34 74.47 89.00 85.00 76.25

Posttest 82.50 74.71 94.25 90.67 87.00

Gain Scores +3.16 + .24 +5.25 +5.67 +lO.75
Treatment C:

Pretest 89.57 88.83 80.33 77.00 78.25

Posttest 88.43 92.34 83.00 84.00 83.00

Gain Scores -l.14 +3.51 +2.67 +7.00 +4.75

 

Standard Deviation

 

Since this study is descriptive in nature, any data
that will contribute to the total design is considered

significant. The following tables depict the standard

 

 

 

73

deviation scores for both variables-~Time Competence and

Inner—Directedness.

TABLE 4.3
STANDARD DEVIATION FOR TIME CONEPETENCE

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Treatment Class
1 2 3 4 5

Treatment A:

Pretest 3.87 3.31 2.99 3.56 1.71

Posttest 1.85 3.93 3.21 3.74 4.43

Gain Scores —2.02 +.62 +.22 +.l8 +2.72
Treatment B:

Pretest 3.61 3.04 .578 3.06 2.38

Posttest 3.67 2.65 2.16 1.53 3.74

Gain Scores +.66 -.39 +1.58 —l.53 +1.36
Treatment C:

Pretest 1.13 3.31 1.73 2.65 1.73

Posttest 1.77 .816 .577 3.21 3.32

Gain Scores +.64 -2.49 -l.16 +.56 -l.59

TABLE 4.4
STANDARD DEVIATION FOR INNER DIRECTEDNESS
Treatment * Class
1 2 3 4 5

Treatment A: ‘

Pretest 8.70 11.74 12.72 9.04 11.47

 

74

TABLE 4.4 (continued)
Posttest . 13.58 14.79 14.18 11.79 18.26
Gain Scores +4.88 +2.98 +1.46 +2.75 +6.79

Treatment B:

-Pretest 9.09 12.25 3.74 7.94 7.09
Posttest 12.05 16.07 11.62 7.64 8.29
Gain Scores +2.96 +3.82 +7.88 -.O3 +1.20

Treatment C:

Pretest 8.70 8.42 10.69 6.56 7.50
Posttest 7.68 7.76 8.19 20.22 11.11
Gain Scores -1.02 —.66 —2.5 +13.66 +3.61

II. EXAMINATION OF HYPOTHESES

fiypothesis ;

There will be no significant difference in mean
scores for Time Competence or Inner-Directedness factors
when Treatment A is compared to Treatment B at the .05 level
of significance. .

The results of the test scores were tested by the
statistical technique of Multivariate Analysis of Variance.
If the analysis of this data yielded an F ratio which would
occur by chance less than 5 times in 100 (P<:.O5), it was
considered statistically significant.

The following two tables, 4.5 and 4.6, reflect the
results of the Two—Way Analysis of Variance. Table 4.5

indicates the Time Competence results while Table 4.6

indicates the Inner-Directedness results.

75

TABLE 4.5
TIME COMPETENCE FACTOR BASED ON TREATMENT

 

Source of
Variation df MS F P

Treatment A
compared to 1 5.2384 1.0317 .3140
Treatment B

 

Legend: df = Degrees of freedom

MS = Mean Square
F = F ratio

P = Probability
*-

Statistically significant
This legend will apply to all subsequent tables in this

section.

TABLE 4.6

INNER-DIRECTEDNESS FACTOR BASED ON TREATMENT

 

 

Source of

 

Variation df MS F P

Treatment A
compared to 1 15.8124 .2770 .6007
Treatment B

 

Examination of the above tables, representing Time
Competence and Inner-Directedness respectively, indicate
that the Probability factor did not approach the .05 level
of significance demanded for this study. Thus, the null

hypothesis cannot be rejected.

76

Hypothesis,§

 

There will be no significant difference in mean
scores for Time Competence or Inner—Directedness factors
when Treatment B is compared to Treatment C at the .05 level
of significance.

Test score results were subjected to the Multivariate
Analysis of Variance technique to ascertain statistical
differences. An F ratio which would occur by chance fewer
than 5 times in 100 (P<<}05) was chosen for determination
of statistical significance.

The following two tables, Tables 4.7 and 4.8 reflect

the results of this analysis. Time Competence results are

given first; Inner—Directedness results are given second.

TABLE 4.7
TIME COMPETENCE FACTOR BASED ON TREATMENT

 

 

Source of
Variation df MS F P

 

Treatment B
compared to l .4796 .0954 .7597
Treatment C

 

TABLE 4.8
INNER-DIRECTEDNESS FACTOR BASED ON TREATMENT

 

Source of
Variation df MS F P

 

Treatment B
compared to 1 34.5744 .6057 .4396
Treatment C

 

 

77

Examination of the above two tables, 4.7 and 4.8,
representing Time Competence and Inner—Directedness respec—
tively, reveals that the probability factor did not approach
the criteria for this study (P<:.O5). Consequently,

null hypothesis number two cannot be rejected.

Hypothesis 3

There will be no significant difference in mean
scores for Time Competence or Inner-Directedness factors
between Class 4 and all Other Classes.

This hypothesis was tested statistically by the
Multivariate Analysis Of Variance program created by Jeremy
Finn. A level of confidence of P<:.O5 was selected to
indicate statistical significance.

Tables 4.9 and 4.10 presented below reveal the

analysis Of mean score data.

TABLE 4.9

TIME COMPETENCE FACTOR BASED ON CLASS ASSIGNMENT

 

 

Source of

 

Variation df MS F P
Class 4
compared to 1 1.2488 .2459 .6218

all Other Classes

 

TABLE 4.10
INNER-DIRECTEDNESS FACTOR BASED ON CLASS ASSIGNMENT

 

 

Source of

 

Variation df MS F P
Class 4
compared to 1 7.1808 .1258 .7242

all Other Classes

 

78

Examination Of the data presented in Tables 4.9 and
4.10 indicates that the level of confidence established at
P<:.05 for this study was not met. Therefore, the null

hypothesis cannot be rejected.

Hypothesis 3

There will be no significant difference in mean
scores for Time Competence and Inner—Directedness between
Class 4 and Class 5.

A Two—Way Analysis of Variance, a part of Finn's
Multivariate Analysis of Variance, was conducted to deter-
mine statistical significance of the mean score data. It
was determined that the hypothesis would be accepted or
rejected on the basis of a P<::O5 level of confidence.

The following tables, Tables 4.11 and 4.12, indicate

the results Of the statistical analysis. Each factor is

presented separately.

TABLE 4.11
TIME COMPETENCE FACTOR BASED ON CLASS ASSIGNMENT

 

 

Source of

 

Variation df MS F P
Class 4
compared to 1 .2538 .0500 .8239

Class 5

 

79

TABLE 4.12

INNER—DIRECTEDNESS FACTOR BASED ON CLASS ASSIGNMENT

 

 

Source of

 

Variation df MS F P__
Class 4 ,

compared to 1 159.2812 2.7902 .1002
Class 5

 

Examination of the data presented in Tables 4.11 and
4.12 indicates that the probability level demanded for this
study was not met. Therefore, the null hypothesis cannot

be rejected.

Hypothesis 5

 

There will be no significant difference in mean
scores for Time Competence and Inner—Directedness between
Class 3 and Classes 1 and 2.

The statistical significance Of test scores was
determined by the Multivariate Analysis of Variance. The
P<:.O5 level Of confidenCe was selected to determine
significance.

A Two-Way Analysis Of Variance yielded the following
data as presented in Tables 4.13 and 4.14.

TABLE 4.13
TIME COMPETENCE FACTOR BASED ON CLASS ASSIGNMENT

 

 

Source Of

 

Variation df MS F P
Class 3
compared to 1 4.0239 .7925 .3770

Classes 1 and 2

 

80

TABLE 4.14
INNER—DIRECTEDNESS FACTOR BASED ON CLASS ASSIGNMENT

 

 

Source of

 

Variation df MS F P
Class 3
compared to 1 121.7990 2.1336 .1495

Classes 1 and 2

The level of confidence demanded for this study was
not met, as seen by examination of the data in tables 4.13
and 4.14. Because the P<:.O5 level was not met, the null

hypothesis cannot be rejected.

Hypothesis.p

There will be no significant difference in mean
scores for Time Competence or Inner-Directedness factors
between Class 1 and Class 2.

The Multivariate Analysis of Variance was used to
determine Statistical significance of test scores. To be
considered statistically significant, a probability level
of .05 was necessary.

Tables 4.15 and 4.16 indicate the results of the

Two—Way Analysis of Variance.

TABLE 4.15
TIME COMPETENCE FACTOR BASED ON CLASS ASSIGNMENT

 

 

TSource of

 

Variation df MS F P
Class 1
compared to 1 5.7329 1.1291 .2924

Class 2

 

81

TABLE 4.16

INNER-DIRECTEDNESS BASED ON CLASS ASSIGNMENT

 

 

Source of

 

Variation df MS F P
Class 1
compared to 1 37.3020 .6534 .4222
Class 2

 

Examination of the two tables above, Tables 4.15 and
4.16, indicates that the P<:305 level of confidence was not
met. Thus, the null hypothesis cited above cannot be

rejected.
III. EXAMINATION OF WRITTEN RESPONSES

A classification scheme, based on Krathwohl's Taxonomy
of Affective Objectives and Osgood's Semantic Differential
Design for'Affective Sensitivity, was used to study general
tendencies in students' responses and to assess specific
differences in terms of response to and awareness of value
content of the various selections. The scheme represents
an arrangement of classifications from loweSt level of
internalization to the highest level. All Treatment A and
Treatment B responses were rated on this scale. Treatment
C responses were reviewed to ascertain any pattern that might
be apparent regarding students' choices of selection.

General ObServations

 

After analysis of all of the responses for Treatment A

 

82

and Treatment B, several general observations were made.

1. Treatment A responses were generally more
positive in tone.

2. Treatment A responses indicated more interest
in "attending to the task."

3. Treatment A responses reflected a more
personalized contact. There were more
personal pronouns (I, me, mine) used.

4. Treatment B responses tended to reflect more
comprehension difficulty.

5. Treatment B responses tended to reflect more
frequent use of ”it, they, society."

6. Treat B responses tended to reflect an
attitude of simply "going through the
motions." ("The author said," ”The story
stated....”)

7. A review of Treatment C responses indicated that
there was no discernable pattern relating
to the students' choice of material other
than the fact that there were 153 essay
selections chosen and 131 creative-axiological

selections chosen.

Tabulation and Classification

 

Each Treatment A and Treatment B response entry was

rated on the Likert—type scale designed for this study, and

83

the items were tabulated. There was a total of 390

responses for Treatment A participants and a total of 225
responses for Treatment B participants. The large difference
was due to the fact that Treatment A selections were usually
shorter than other selections. Table 4.17 shows the

distribution according to treatment and rank on the scale.

TABLE 4.17
DISTRIBUTION BY TREATMENT AND RANK

 

 

R-l R-2 R-3 R-4 R-S R-6 R-7

 

Treatment A 5 67 98 148 59 13 0

Treatment B 4 4O 7O 88 22 l O

 

To facilitate the process of comparing the results of
the tabulations, response totals were translated into

percentages for each rank. Table 4.18 gives these figures.

TABLE 4.18
PERCENTAGES FOR EACH RANK ON SCALE

 

 

R—l R-2 R-3 R-4 R-S R-6 R-7

 

Treatment 1.28 17.17 25.12 37.95 15.12 3.33 O
A

Treatment 1.7 17.77 31.11 39.11 9.77 .44 0
B

 

 

84

A comparison of the percentages:fixms that (1) There
was almost no difference between treatments at either end
of the scale, (2) There was very little difference between
treatments at the second level, (3) Some differences were
observed in the middle to upper range of the scale.

It can be noted that at level four, Treatment B
responses reflected a slightly higher percentage than
Treatment A responses. However, at level five (representing
a higher degree of value awareness and internalization)
Treatment A responses indicated a higher rate of frequency
than did Treatment B responses. The data seemed to suggest
that students exposed to creative-axiological literature
were more inclined to identify the values implicit in
the selections and to regard these values as being more

significant to them personally.
SUMMARY

Chapter IV was designed to present the data generated
by the statistical analysis of variance program and the
analysis of written responses submitted by students. Included
in this chapter are standard deviations scores for all
variables in the study and the statistical results of each
test of the null hypotheses. The level of confidence
established for this study, .05, was not met in any of the

tests; therefore, the null hypotheses were not rejected.

 

 

85

Student responses were analyzed via a seven—point Likert-
type scale of affective awareness which provided some slight
indications that Treatment A persons may have tended to
score higher at the upper two levels of the continuum of
internalization, and Treatment B persons scored higher
at the middle levels.

The significance of this study and a discussion of
conclusions and recommendations are presented in the

following chapter.

CHAPTER V
SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, RECOMMENDATIONS

The purpose of this study was to examine selected
affective elements related to Self—Actualization and to
ascertain to what degree, if any, such elements could be
controlled or modified by treatment or class assignment.
Data were gathered to determine to what extent cell mean
scores could be modified after exposure to one of three

treatments in conjunction with placement in one of three

 

different class arrangements.
The independent variables and a brief explanation

are as follows:

Treatments

 

A. Students exposed to creative axiological
literature only.

B. Students exposed to philosophical literature only.

C. Students exposed to a mixture of axiological and

philosophical literature.

Classes
Classes one, two, and three were regular on-campus \
day classes composed of the "typical" community college

student population.

 

87

Class Four was an Off—campus, Monday evening class
composed Of 90% housewives and/Or working women.

Class Five was an on-campus, Saturday morning (Week—
end College) class composed of primarily Older students
(average age--mid 303).

The dependent variables under consideration were
Time Competence and Inner—Directedness as reflected in the
Personal Orientation Inventory developed by Shostrom.

The eXperimental design was a two-way analysis of

variance computed after an analysis of covariance was

 

conducted to allow for any initial difference in pretest
scores which could have been created because of faulty
randomization.

The mode of eXperimentation—-pretest—treatment—
posttest-—was conducted to provide data regarding gain
scores and variability for specific cell means. The
general conclusions drawn were that there was not suffi—
cient statistical evidence to reject the null hypotheses.

Although a comparison of average cell mean scores for
both Time Competence and Inner-Directedness show a slight
gain after treatment, this difference was not significant
at the .05 level Of confidence demanded by this eXperi- V
mental design. Therefore, the null hypotheses are not

rejected.

88

Average cell mean for Time Competence:
Pretest 14.342
Posttest 15.352
Gain Score + 1.01

Average cell mean for Inner—Directedness:
Pretest 77.368
Posttest 81.65

Gain Score + 4.28
I. SUMMARY

1. Simply stated, neither treatment nor class
placement had any significant effect on
Time Competence as measured by the P01.

2. Neither treatment nor class placement had
any significant effect on Inner—Direct-
edness scores as measured by the P01.

3. Analysis of differences between pretest and
posttest scores indicate a general propensity
toward increase, but scores do not indicate
significant gain at the .05 level of
confidence.

4. An analysis of students' written responses based
on a modification of Krathwohl's Taxonomy
of Affective Objectives and Osgood's Semantic
Differential system designed for assessment

of affective attitudes indicated that students

 

89

responding to Treatment A selections tended
to identify more readily the values inherent
in the selections and that they ranked higher
at the upper levels of internalization

represented on the rating scale.
11. CONCLUSIONS

Because of the tenuous nature of study in the affec-
tive domain, consideration must be given to any possibility,
reason, or factor that might directly or indirectly affect
the outcome. The following comments, although not scien-
tifically verifiable, were considerations entertained by
student participants and researcher:

1. Students indicated some dissatisfaction with the
instrument used because of the limited number
of response options. The POI allowed for
only a one-or—the-other response, i.e., "I
am” or ”I am not," "I do" or "I do not."
Several students felt that a 5-point Likert
response would have provided for more
meaningful responses.

2. Only one form of the POI was available.
Respondents might well have tried to answer
posttest questions in the same manner as they
answered pretest questions. To some it was

a ”psych-out—the—test" activity.

 

3.

7.

90

The experiment was conducted at the end of the

In

It

It

A final, rather candid observation must be made;

school year (Spring 1977). Although there was
no real way of knowing, one might assume that
the commitment to the task was rather mini—

mal. In addition, since the researcher

desired to avoid contamination of data by not
discussing material and/or students'
interpretation of material, a degree of

control or motivation was sacrificed.

like manner, since aversive control (negative
control) was minimal, it is possible that

some students simply went through the motions
of the experiment, knowing that the results

of their endeavor would not affect their grades.
would appear that the treatment per se was not
strong enough to bring about a significant
difference. Possibly a larger corpus of
material or a modified approach to responses
would make a difference.

should be noted that any attempt to differentiate
between creative literature as opposed to
philosophical essays on the basis of axiological
properties is tenuous indeed. All good writing
must meet definite criteria if it is to be so

classified.

 

 

91

namely that the instructor's ”pet theory" is
not always received or perceived in like
manner by the student.

III. RECOMMENDATIONS AND CONSIDERATIONS

FOR FURTHER RESEARCH

This study indicates that individual study_of liter—
ature avails little in terms of increased Time Competence
and Inner-Directedness Scores. However, this does not
negate the fact that literature studied in conjunction with
group dynamics, teacher led or student led discussion,
biblio-therapeutic underpinnings might well prove bene-
ficial. Thus, the following questions might by considered
for further research.

1. Does milieu or atmosphere make a significant
difference in individual response to
axiological literature?

2. Would a value clarification approach using liter-
ature as a focal point have a measurable
effect on affective sensibility?

3. Does length of exposure affect the affective
outcome of experiments; for example, a week—
end marathon as compared to a 3-week period?

4. Does teacher/facilitator involvement contribute
appreciably to the outcome of the experiment?

5. Would instrumentation designed with the liter—
ature perspective in mind be a more valid and

reliable indicator?

92

6. Would the experiment for this study be more
appropriate for upper level college students--
students who might have a better under-
standing of creative literature?

7. Would concomitant activities such as group
discussion questions or individual clarifica-
tion projects contribute measurably to
outcome?

8. Would planned objectives, including affective

outcomes, given to participants before study

 

be helpful in raising scores?
9. Would in-service training for teachers
contribute in any way to affective responses

as per literature.
SUMMARY

It is obvious that the study of printed material
(whether creative axiological literature or philosophical
essays) apart from the facilitative and motivational involve-
ment of the teacher and/or students accomplishes little in
terms of increasing affective sensitivity; also, it is
quite apparent that the majority of students will not progress .
far on the affective awareness conthmmm.unless there is a
concurrent emphasis on structure and on dynamic learning
activities. Such emphasis is definitely necessary to insure

positive purpose and clarification of the valuing process.

93

Another primary deduction is that the element of time
and the intensity of exposure must receive the utmost
consideration. Thus, one must conclude that teacher involve-
ment combined with student interaction and a definite
strategy stressing process and time are crucial factors in

any study of affective elements.

 

'BIBLIOGRAPHY

 

95

BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. Books

American Heritage Dictionary. New York: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 1973.

Bateson, Mary Catherine. Our Own Metaphor: A Personal
Account of a Conference on the Effects of Conscious
Purpose on Human Adaptation. New York. Alfred Knopf,

1972.

Brown, George Isaac. Human Teaching for Human Learning.
New York: The Viking Press, 1971.

 

 

Eiss, Albert F. and Mary Blatt Harbeck. Behavioral Objec-
tives ip the Affective Domain, National Science
Teacher's Association. Washington: National Educational
Association, 1969.

Frankl, Viktor. Man's Search for Meaning. Boston: Pocket
Book, 1973.

Frick, Willard B. Humanistic Psychology: Interviews with
Maslow, Murphy, and Rogers. Columbus, Ohio: Charles
E. Merrill Publishing Company, 1971.

 

 

Fromm, Eric. Man for Himself. Greenwich, Connecticut:
Fawcett World Library, 1947.

 

Glasser, William. Schools Without Failure. New York:
Harper and Row, 1975.

Goble, Frank. The Third Force. New York: Pocket Book.

 

Harrow, Anita J. A_Taxonomy pf the Ppychomotor Domain: A
Guide for Developing Behavioral Objectives. New York:
David McKay Company, Inc., 1972.

 

 

Holsinger, Rosemary, Camille Jordan, and Leon Levenson.
The Creative Encounter. Glenview, Illinois: Scott,
Foresman and Company, 1971.

 

Isaac, Stephen. Handbook in Research and Evaluation. San
Diego, California: Robert R. Knapp. 1971.

 

 

Kibler, Robert J., Larry L. Barker, and David T. Miles.
Behavioral Objectives and Instruction. Boston: Allyn
and Bacon, Inc., 1970.

 

96

Krathwohl, David R., Benjamin S. Bloom, and Bertram B.
Masia. Taxonomy Lf Educational Objectives-—Handbook 11:

Affective Domain. —New York: David McKay Company, Inc.
1961* O

 

May, Rollo. Man's Search for Himseli. New York: Dell
Publishing Company, 1953.

 

McAshan, H. H. The Goals Approach to Performance Objectives.
Philadelphia. W. B. Saunders Company, 1974.

 

 

Perls, Fritz. The Gestalt Approach and Eye Witness to
Therapy. New York. Bantam Books, Inc. , 1976.

 

Pervin, Lawrence A. Personality: Theory, Assessment, and
Research. New York: John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1970.

 

 

 

Piaget, Jean. Six Epychological Studipp. New York: Vintage
Books, 1978.

 

 

Raths, Louis E., Merrill Harmin, and Sidney B. Simon.
Values and Teaching; Worki_g with Values in the
Classroom. Columbus, Ohio: Charles E. Merrill Pub—
lishing Co., 1966.

 

Rogers, Carl R. On BecOming a Person. Boston: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 1961.

Rychlak, Joseph F. Introduction to Personality and Psycho—
therapy. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1973.

 

Schmuck, Richard A. and Patricia A. Schumuck. Group
Processes Lp the Classroom, 2nd ed. Eugene, Oregon:
Wm. C. Brown Company Publishers, 1975.

Simon, Sidney, B. and Howard Kirschenbaum (eds.). Readings
22 Values Clarification. Minneapolis: Winston Press,

1973-

Stevens, John 0. Awareness: EXploring, Experimenting,
Experiencing. New York: Bantam Books, Inc., 1973.

 

 

Swensen, Clifford H. Jr. Introduction to Interpersonal
Relations. Glenview, Illlnois: Scott, Foresman and
Company, 1973.

 

 

Toffler, Alvin. Future Shock. New York: Random House, Inc.,

1971.

 

 

97

II. Essays and Articles in Collection

Jaspers, Karl. "Is Science Evil?"

The Conscious Reader.
New York: Macmillan Publishing Co., Inc., 197 .
Phenix, Philip H.

"The Moral Imperative in American
Education," Readings ip Ealues Clarification.

Sidney
B. Simon and Howard Kirschenbaum (eds.). Minneapolis:
Winston Press, 1973, pp. 38—48.

Ill. Periodicals

Fuller, Buckminister. "Report on the 'Geosocial Revolution,'"
Saturday Review, L, September 16, 1967.

Hart, Gordon.

 

"Humanizing Schools Through Values ClarifiCa—
tion," Collgge Student Journal, IX, February—March,
1975-

Ojemann, Ralph H. ‘"Should Educational Objectives be Stated
in Behavioral Terms?" Part II, Elementapy School
Journal, 68, February, 1959.

Pratt, Richard.

"Psychological and Affective Education
Searchlight: Relevant Resources in High Interest Areas,"
ERIC, December, 1975.

IV. Unpublished Materials
Barman, Charles Ray. "The Influence of Value Clarification
Techniques on Achievements, Attitudes, and Affective

Behavior in High School Biology." Unpublished disser—
tation, University of Northern Colorado, 1974.
Brown, Georgia J.

"An Investigation of a Methodology for
Value Clarification, Its Development, Demonstration,
and Application for Teachers of the Elementary School."

Unpublished Ph. D. dissertation, New York University,
1960.
Enderle, Glenda Roth.

"A Study of the Effects of Didactic,
Discussion, and Experimental Group Learnings on Moral
Development."

Unpublished dissertation, Kent State
University, 197G.

 

98

Hands, Sandra Lee. "An Evaluation of a Course for Women
Directed Toward the Development of Self—Actualizing
Life Styles." Unpublished dissertation, University of
Texas, 1974.

Jonas, Arthur H. and others. "A Study of the Relationship
of Certain Behaviors of Children to Emotional Needs,
Values and Thinking." Unpublished Ph. D. dissertation,
New York University, 1960.

Kalunian, Peter J. "The Effects of a Humanistic Education
Curriculum on Attitude, Self-Concept, Anxiety and
Achievement Level of Primary School Children and
Teachers." Unpublished dissertation, Boston University,

1974.

Klevan, Albert. "An Investigation of a Methodology for
Value Clarification: Its Relationship to Consistency
in Thinking, Purposefulness and Human Relations."
Unpublished Ph. D. dissertation, New York University,

1958.

Olson, Gerald. "A Study of Theoretical Implications and
Outcomes of a Values-Clarification Process with a Group
of Ninth Grade Students." Unpublished dissertation,
University of California, 1974.

 

Phillips, Larry. "A Growth/Awareness Group Experiment:
Assessment of Change in Personality Related to Social
Interaction." Unpublished dissertation, Ball State
University, 1975.

Price, Holly. "Humanistic Teaching: Community Acceptance
and School Practice." Unpublished dissertation, Univer—
sity of Wisconsin, 1974.

Simon, Sidney B. "Value Clarification: Methodology and
Tests of an Hypothesis in an In—Service Program Relating
to Behavioral Changes in Secondary School Students."
Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, New York University,

1958.

Stilwell, William E. "Recent Efforts in Planned Interven—
tion for Affective Education."‘ Paper presented at the
Annual Meeting of American Education Research Associ—
ation. Washington, D.C., March 30—April 3, 1975.

99

V. Other

Colman, James S. "Equality of Educational Opportunity."
A Publication of the National Center for Education
Statistics. Washington: U.S. Government Printing
Office, Catalog No. Fs 5. 238:38001, 1966.

Shostrom, Everett L. EITS Manual for the Personal Orienta—
tion Inventory. San Diego, California: Educational and
Industrial Testing Service, 1966.

 

 

APPENDIX A

READING ASSIGNMENTS FOR EACH GROUP

 

101

I. GROUP "A"

E. M. Forster, "The Machine Stops."

Aldous Huxley, "Conditioning the Children," from Brave New
World.

 

Donald Barthelme, "Report," from Unspeakable Practicgg,
Unnatural Acts.

Walt Whitman, "When I Heard the Learn'd Astronomer."
Anton Chekov, "The Bet."

Walter V. Tilburg Clark, "The Portable Phonograph."
Eugene Ionesco, "Rhinoceros."

E. B. White, "The Second Tree from the Corner."
William Blake, "Proverbs of Hell."

Langston Hughes, "Theme for English B."

Marianne Moore, "The Mind is an Enchanting Thing."
Theodore Roethke, "The Waking,"

John Updike, "A & P."

E. B. White, "The Door."

Ray Bradbury, "Sun and Shadow."
II. GROUP "B"

Jacob Bronowski, "The Reach of Imagination."

Sir Francis Bacon, "Idols of the Mind," from The New Organon.

 

 

Mark Twain, "To the Person Sitting in Darkness."
Bertrand Russell, "If We Are to Survive This Dark Time-—."

Karl Jaspers, "Is Science Evil?"

 

 

102

Loren Eiseley, "The Illusion of the Two Cultures."‘
Susan Sontag, "One Culture and the New Sensibility."

Theodore Roszak, "Science: A Technocratic Trap," from Where
the Wasteland Ends.

Stephen Tonsor, "Science, Technology, and the Cultural
Revolution."

_—_———-

Mpgp.
Leon Eisenberg, "The Hpmgp Nature of Human Nature."
Konrad Lorenz, "Prologue in the Sea," from.gp Aggression.
B. F. Skinner, "The Control of Human Behavior." (Abstract):

Noam Chomsky, "The Case Against B. F. Skinner," from For
Reasons pf State.

Henry Miller, "Big Sur and the Good Life," from Big Sur and
the Oranges pf Hieronymus Bosch.

 

 

Henry David Thoreau, "Conclusion," from Walden.

Thomas Merton, "Rain and Rhinoceros," from Raids pp the
Unspeakable.

 

Albert Camus, "Beyond Nihilism," from The Rebel.

Abraham Maslow, "Psychological Data and Human Values," from
Toward a Psychology pf Being.

Rollo May, "The Man Who Was Put in a Cage," from Psychology
and the Human Dilemma.

 

 

Benjamin DeMott, "Looking Back on the Seventies."

Joyce Carol Oates, "New Heaven and Earth."

 

APPENDIX B
THE POI SCALES

 

Scales
Np. pi Items Number
I. Ratio Scores
23 1/2
127 3/4
II. Sub—Scales
26 5
32 6
23 7
18 8

The POI Scales

Symbol

TI/TC

O/I

SAV

Ex

Fr

104

Descriptigp

 

TIME RATIO: Time
Incompetence/Time
Competence——measures
degree to which one
is "present"
oriented.

SUPPORT RATIO: Other/
Inner——measures
whether reactivity
orientation is
basically toward
others or self.

SELF-ACTUALIZATION
VALUE: Measures .
affirmation of a
primary value of
self—actualizing
people.

EXISTENTIALITY:
Measures ability to
situationally or
existentially react
without rigid
adherence to
principles.

FEELING REACTIVITY:
Measures sensitivity
of responsiveness to
one's own needs and
feelings.

SPONTANEITY:
Measures freedom to
react spontaneously
or to be oneself.

16

26

16

10

ll

RELIABILITY COEFFICIENTS

TC
I
SAV
Ex

Fr

Sr
Sa

Nc

Sr

Sa

No

.71
.85
.74
.85
.69
.81
.75
.80
.66
.72
.55
.75

105

SELF—REGARD:
Measures affirma-
tion of self because
of worth or strength.

SELF’ACCEPTANCE:
Measures affirma-
tion or acceptance
of self in spite of
weaknesses or
deficiencies.

NATURE OF MAN:
Measures degree of
the constructive
view of the nature
of man, masculinity,
femininity.

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