A $TUDY OF THE EFFECT OF GROUP CQUNSEHNG QN THE ANTKSOCIAL ATTETUDES AND ANTISOCEAL BEHAVIOR ‘ OF PRESON iNMATES Thesis gov fin Degree 95 pk. D. MICEESAE‘! STR’EE UNEVERSETY Wilfred Grenfell Sawyier 1964 jHESlS IlilmllllllllHllIHllii ll u‘lllllfli 3 1293 00076 8642 JUKARY Michigan State University This is to certify that the thesis entitled A STUDY OF THE EFFECT OF ,GROUP COUNSELING ON THE ANTISOCIAL ATTITUDES AND ANTISOCIAL BEHAVIOR OF PRISON INMATES presented by Wilfred Grenfell Sawyier has been accepted towards fulfillment of the requirements for 4/2215” M410; profess Date May 19, 1964 0-169 W m 0- g 2000 Q?” ABSTRACT A STUDY or THE EFFECT or GROUP COUNSELING ON THE ANTISOCIAL Arrrrunss AND ANTISOCIAL BEHAVIOR or PRISON INNArEs by Wilfred Grenfell Sawyier Objectives This study is an investigation of the effect of organized group counseling, comparing groups led by pro- fessional leaders and volunteer leaders recruited from the outside community, on inmates at the Michigan Reformatory at Ionia. Its major purpose was to evaluate the impact of fifteen weeks of this counseling on the antisocial atti- tudes and behavior of a group of inmates. in attempt was made to answer these questions: 1; Will exposure to an organized group counseling pro- gram led by volunteer leaders from the outside com- munity for fifteen weeks reduce the antisocial themes of inmates as measured by seven selected cards of the Thematic Apperception Test signifi- cantly more than those not so exposed? 1 Wilfred Grenfell Sawyier 2. Will exposure to group counseling conducted by volunteers yield antisocial behavior scores, se- cured by qualified judges evaluating block and work reports of block officers and work supervisors, significantly lower than those of inmates not so exposed? 3. Will the antisocial themes and antisocial behavior of those exposed to group counseling by profession- als be significantly lower than those of the pla- cebo and control groups? The Sample The sample consisted of one hundred and thirteen new inmates of the Michigan Reformatory at Ionia who had not previously been committed to the state penal system. They were randomly divided into four groups. The four groups were found to have no significant differences in the antisocial score on the pre-test, their IQ, age, and the length of time between their arrival, and their first testing. Methgdglogx Subjects were assigned to four different treatments: group counseling by volunteers, group counseling by pro- fessionals, a placebo group receiving mental health films, and a control group. These treatments were effected for fifteen weeks. Both pre-test and post-test was given to each inmate, Wilfred Grenfell Sawyier using cards 17 BM, 18 BM, 8 BM, 13 MF, 3 BM, 14, and 20 of Murray's Thematic Apperception Test. The protocols thus obtained were scored by a scale especially designed for antisocial attitude. In addition, block and work re- ports were evaluated by qualified judges on a specially designed instrument, antisocial behavior scores assigned, and a rank-order determined. The group means were compared on both antisocial themes and antisocial behavior rank. The antisocial theme scores from the TAT protocols were analyzed by the analysis of variance, and the antisocial behavior ranks were ana- lyzed by median test and the chi square technique. Engines 1. There was no significant difference between the groups in antisocial attitudes after treatment. 2. There was no significant difference between the groups in antisocial behavior after treatment. A STUDY OF THE EFFECT OF GROUP COUNSELING ON THE ANTISOCIAL ATTITUDES AND ANTISOCIAL BEHAVIOR OF PRISON INMATES By Wilfred Grenfell Sawyier A THESIS Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY College of Education Department of Guidance and Personnel Services 1964 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The writer wishes to express his sincere apprecia- tion to Dr. Norman Kagan and Dr. John Jordan, both of whom have acted as advisors at various stages of this re- search, and to Dr. G. Marian Kinget and Dr. Ernest Melby, members of the committee. He is also indebted to Dr. Ernest L. V. Shelley, Director of Treatment of the Michigan Department of Cor- rections, and Dr. Donald Thurston, Director of Treatment at the Michigan Reformatory at Icnia, both of whom have generously given of their time and help. The cooperation of Mr. Gus Harrison, Director of the Michigan Department of Corrections, and Mr. Edward Colbert, warden at the Michigan Reformatory, is also appreciated. Many people at the Michigan Reformatory have helped in ways too numerous to mention. Those to whom the writer is especially indebted include Dr. Monroe Price, Dr. Leo Mann, Mr. Joe McAlary, and Mr. William Weideman. The work of the twelve group counseling leaders from the community is also appreciated. ii Wilfred Grenfell Sawyier Candidate for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy Date of Examination: May 19, 1964 Dissertation: A Study of the Effect of Group Counseling on the Antisocial Attitudes and Antisocial Be- havior of Prison Inmates Outline of Studies: Major area - Guidance and Personnel Services Minor area - Psychology. Professional Education Biographical Items: Birthdate - May 6, 1925, Chicago, Illinois Undergraduate Studies: University of Illinois- Champaign, Illinois; University of Dubuque Dubuque , Iowa Graduate Studies: McCormick Theological Seminary Chicago, Ill. " 3.1)., 1949; University of Chicago Chicago, Ill. - 1949-1952 Michigan State University East Lansing, Mich., 1959-1954 Experience: Marlboro Presbyterian Church, Chicago, Ill. Pastor, 1949-1953 Westminster Foundation, Ohio State University Columbus, Ohio a Director, 1953-1955 Village Presbyterian Church, Nbrthbrock, Ill. Associate Pastor, 1955-1958 Ionia State Hospital, Ionia,Mich. Chaplain, 1962-1964 First Presbyterian Church, Ionia, Mich. Pastor, 1958' .Membership held in Presbytery of Grand River, United Pres- byterian Church in the U.S.A., National Presbyterian Health and Welfare Association, Academy of Religion and Mental Health, Christian Association for Psychological Studies. 111 “win J .‘U'E? 3% Dedicated to My wife, Iva, and my children, Edward, Paul and Marian, for their support and forebearance, and to my parents, my friends, and the congregation of The First Presbyterian Church of Ionia for their encouragement. iv TABLE 0! Chapter I THE PROBLEM . . Purpose . . . Definitions . Delimitations . Basic Assumptions Basic Hypotheses. The Need for the Stud Incidence of the Prob an Organization of this Thesis .‘.... CONTENTS . .r. . II A.REVIEW OF.RILLTED LITERATURE . Group MethOdB o o o o o o '. 0 Group Counseling with Offenders. Group Counseling by the untrained. Research with the Thematic Apperception . co odronoo o ... . Summary 0 o o o o o o o o o o o a o o 0 III The Setting 0 o The Sample . . Counselors . . The Instrument . O . . The Administration of the Instrument o o4co RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY _..... 0 .ID. 0 o cebo o e cc 0 The Scoring of the Instrument . . . . Instrument for Antisocial Behavior Ranking Administration of the Instrument Grouping . . . . . . .. . . . . . . ~IV RESULESOF TEEflBTUDYL.. o o c o o c e V ,CONCLUSIONS, DISCUSSION, IHPLICATIOEB, AND SUMMARY 0 c o o o}. c o o o 0 Conclusions 0 o o o c c o c i o 0 Discussion . . . . O . Implications for Future Research Summary 0 o o c o o o o o o c c 0 831.3023]: BIBLIOGRAPHY . . . . . . . . . . ..... . ....... ......... enable. 9 ...... ......... 0 d' ....... . . . . . ..... 0.... c ..1. m ..... in m c: m .........-. . h) a d—Q-fi GRnCMOHD (DCh¢WflUHO-“”‘ Table 1. 2. 3.. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. LIST OF TABLES SiZGOfgrouPSoooooooooooocoo Statistical analysis of randomization Percentage of non-white members Sample size after treatment . Analysis of new sample size . Summary of scores . . . . . . Post-test.analysis . .~. . . . Chi square analysis . . . . . Comparison of pre-test and postvtest vi Page 33 34 35 36 37 37 38 39 4O LIST OF APPENDICES APPENDIX PAGE THEMATIC APPERCEPTION TEST PICTURES USED . . . . 58 MENTAL HEALTH FILMS SHOWN TO PLACEBO GROUP . . . 66 INFORMATION REQUESTED ON BLOCK AND WORK REPORTS . 67 INSTRUMENT USED BY JUDGES IN RATING . . . . . . . 68 SAMPLETESTPROTOCOL ..............69 ISUQU'JID vii Chapter I THE PROBLEM Purpose The purpose of this study is to investigate the al- tering of antisocial attitudes and behavior by the use of group methods, in the rehabilitation of criminal offenders. The needs of society require that methods of rehabilita- tion of criminals be studied and improved. The tradition- al methods of psychotherapy and individual treatment are too expensive and the properly trained staff for them is too scarce to meet the growing number of criminal offen- ders. Group counseling, led by trained leaders or by vol- unteer leaders from the community, is one method of rehabi- litation which is economical and able to treat large num- bers. If it proved effective it would be a feasible aid in the rehabilitation of criminal offenders. Definitions For the purpose of this study, the following terms are defined: Antisocial attitude - an inmate's score on the Thematic Apperception Test, representing expression in the sto- ries of themes of committing, contemplating, planning, or feeling like committing a criminal act. Antisocial behavior - the ratings assigned to inmates by guar s and work superviors as judged and ranked by qualified judges. 2 Professional counselor - one who has been hired on a salary basis by the Department of Corrections and who has experience in group counseling. Iolgnteer counselor - people who have been recruited from the outside community to lead group counseling, usually with no formal training in counseling. Significance - statistical significance will be deter- mine at the .05 level of significance. Delimitations The research is limited to a study of the altering of antisocial attitudes and behavior and group counseling in a maximum security correctional institution. This was done to evaluate a particular program already in process in this type of institution. The population includes only those who had been re- cently committed to the state penal system for the first time. This was done in order to replicate as closely as possible the population of a recent and similar study (Shelley, 1959). The duration of the treatment was set at fifteen weeks, as this represents the usual period of time spent in each volunteer group counseling series, and too many of the sample would be lost over a longer period, due to parole and transfer. There was no attempt to select or evaluate the volun- teer group leaders nor to standardize group procedures, as this is the general procedure which was being evaluated. The group counseling was evaluated only in terms of its effect on antisocial attitudes and behavior, as defined in this study. No attempt was made to study long-term changes. 3 7 The form used by the judges to rate and rank the 'jblOck and work reports in terms of antisocial behavior was a pilot project, there being no standardized instrument available and appropriate. ‘ The antisocial attitudes were obtained on a modifi- cation of the TAT which had proved to have predictive validity for.parolesuCCess (Shelley, 1959). The writer administered all the tests. Pesis_essserii22s Two basic assumptions :are made: 1. Attitudes and behavior can be changed or modified. 2. Rehabilitation of the criminal is directly related to a reduction in antisocial attitudes and behavior. Besi2_flzsainssss‘ Because group counseling by volunteer and-profes» sional leaders gives an opportunity to alter behavior and encourages social awareness, and because ". . . criminals ity is social in nature and therefore Can be modified in individual cases only if the Criminal's relations with socialgroups are mOdified"(Smith and Bassin, 1961, p.81), it is hypothesized: ‘ 1..Inmates who have been in group counseling will show a significantly lower score in antisocial attitudes ‘ than these in other treatment groups. 2. Inmates who have been in grOup counseling will show a Significantly lower rank in antisocial behavior than those in other treatment groups. The null hypotheses to be tested are:‘ 1. There is no Significant difference between groups ' in antisOcial attitudes after treatment.‘ A 2. There is no significant difference between groups in antisocial behavior after treatment. Wor the S tudy Crime is a growing problem in our society and we know so little about effective treatment of the criminal, es- pecially in terms of the great number of offenders and the small number of staff available for treatment. The economic as well as personal cost of crime in our nation is great. The National Commission of Law Ob- servance and Enforcement suggested that a minimum of items to be considered in counting the economic cost of crime would include expenditures required for all correctional institutions and probation and parole, expenditures made by private citizens for protection and insurance against crime, losses resulting from commercialized crime and racketeering, and indirect lesses from removal of law officers and prisoners from the work force (Korn and Mo- Corkle, 19599 P014). The Federal Bureau of Investigation states: "In 1962, 2,048,370 serious crimes reported, a 6 per- cent rise over 1961. Crime in past 5 years increased four times faster than population. Four serious crimes per minute recorded on the crime clock"(Federal Bureau of Investigation, 1963, p.1). "During the calendar year 1962, arrests of persons under 18 years of age rose 9 percent over 1961 . . . The upward trend in arrests for young people continued in both property offenses as well as crimes against the person"(Ibid., p.18). Mbst criminals are young and in the second and third de- cades of life. In 1962 those under 25 years of age repre- 5 sented only 45.5% of the nation's population but were rem sponsible for 90% of the automObile thefts. Most criminals are native born and white, but Negroes represent 10% of the United States population, and commit 30% of the crimes. Of special importanCe to this study is the fact that most cri» minals are recidivists, some 60% of those in prisons having been imprisoned before and a larger percentage having been arrested before. Improved treatment methods which would lead to rehabilitation and lowered recidivism are needed. In spite of the need for treatment, the corrections systems are still predominately custody-centered. The in» mate is expected to.conform to the rules of the institution, not necessarily to be rehabilitated to conform to society. Society demands punishment rather than treatment for the criminal, not only) because it'wants the law obeyed or de- mand retribution, but also because the offender acts out. antisocial impulses which others would like toact out. “UhconsciouSly they identify with the criminal because of their own latent anti-social tendencies and somehow unconsciously demand and accept the punishment to re- lieve their own guilt feelings”(Abrahamsen, 1960, p.3). The growing emphasis on treatment rather than punishment is a recognition of thepointOf view expressed by McNa~ mara: .. * "Society.produces the criminal; no one contends that criminality is inherent in any individual.- The res- ' pcnsibility, therefore, for the criminality is a social, not an individual, responsibility . . . Therapy, not punishment, is the_answer to criminality"(McNamara, 1955, p.733). ' ~ ‘ . In spite of the need for treatment for offenders, "Systematic efforts to measure or evaluate the effects of 6 the treatment and rehabilitation of Offenders have been disappointingly uncommon"(National Council on Crime and Delinquency, 1962, p.46). The treatments have not been subjected to rigorous scientific analysis to deliniate the variables and to describe not only "what happened," but also "why it happened." Therapy is viewed as an art rather than a science and there has been resistance to ob- jective evaluation. Further, treatment involves all of the problems of any study of behavioral change with its many variables and the difficulties of longitudinal studies. In summary, there is a need for treatment which is effec- tive in its rehabilitation of inmates, capable of dealing with the large numbers of offenders, and economical in operation. Incidence of tne Pngblen This problem first came to the writer's attention through the work of the Michigan Department of Corrections. This Department has sought to be oriented to treatment, and in 1954 a new venture was started at Camp Brighton for youthful offenders. In this study group counseling played a significant part. Shelley(1959), Director of Treatment for the Michigan Department of Corrections, studied the effect of this organized group counseling on the antisocial attitudes of inmates at Camp Brighton as related to parole success. Another camp setting where no group counseling took place served as a control. Using seven cards of Mur- :ray‘s Thematic Apperception Test, he compared pre-test and 3post-test scores for both groups and validated this with a 7 predictive validity scheme using parole success as the criterion. He found that the group with organized counsel- ing made a significantly greater reduction in antisocial scores than the group not so exposed, and those who had the greatest reduction in antisocial scores had a higher. rate of parole success than those making little or no re- duction. From this beginning in Camp Brighton, where college professors and students supplemented the professional staff, group counseling spread to Southern Michigan Prison in Jackson and to other state institutions. When Camp Pugsley, a probation recovery camp, was opened in 1956, there were not enough professional staff persons and there were no colleges nearby to provide help, so volunteers from the community in Traverse City were recruited to lead the group counseling. The Michigan Training Unit, begin- ning in 1957, continued this pattern by enlisting men from the Ionia community to lead in group counseling with the inmates. These men were bankers, businessmen, government employees, teachers, and men from other walks of life who were recruited from the community and who agreed to give two hours a week for leading group counseling and for training. In 1960 groups led by volunteers began meeting in Marquette Prison, in the Michigan Reformatory at Ionia, and in some of the northern camps of the Lower Peninsula. Today the volunteer group counseling programs are conducted in most of the major institutions and camps of the Michigan Department of Corrections. It has also been tried experi- 8 mentally with probationers and county jail inmates. These volunteer group counselors receive orientation help and have one hour of discussion with the professional staff after each hour of group counseling with the inmates. Yet, with this experience in group counseling by volunteer leaders, the only attempt to evaluate how effec- tive it might be was that by Shelley (1959). There has been no research on group counseling led by volunteers in a maximum security correctional intitution such as the Michigan Reformatory. Therefore, in cooperation with the Michigan Department of Corrections, the present study was undertaken to evaluate the relative effectiveness of these presumably therapeutic procedures. zat on f th Thes s Chapte; I contains a discussion of the problem of the relationship between group counseling by volunteer. leaders recruited from the community, and the rehabi- litation of inmates of a maximum security correctional institution. Definitions and delimitations for the study are given, as are basic assumptions and hypo- theses. The need for the study and the incidence of the problem are presented. Chapter II contains a review of the literature perti- nent to this study. Studies of group counseling in correctional settings and the Thematic Apperception Test are reviewed. Chapter II; contains the reserach design and the methodo ogy of the study. Qhaptep IV contains the results of this study in terms of appropriate statistical tests of the null hypo- theses. Chapter V contains a summary, conclusions, and a dis- cussion of the implications of this study for furture research. Chapter II A REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE Ggpup Methods In the rehabilitation of large numbers of offenders with small staffs effective group methods of treatment have been sought. Although the history of group methods goes back to the early part of this century (Corsini, 1955; Kelsey, 1960), group counseling doesn't make any signifi- cant appearance until the advent of world War II. At that time there was a need for treatment of great numbers in the military. At first group counseling came from a need to save time, money, and personnel. Today Kelsey (1960) and Corsini (1955) are among those who indicate that group counseling might be the preferred therapy, especially in those problems which grow out of confused group relation- ships. Hahn and MacLean(1955), however still define coun- seling as a one-to-one process and Calia(1959) and Slavson (1943) consider group methods as adjuncts to individual therapy. Moreno(1951) states that in individual therapy the individual is the patient and in group therapy the group is the patient. Group methods have been used by different schools of psychotherapy, such as client-centered therapy (Hebbs, 1951), and psychoanalytic therapy (Slavson, 1943). V 10 G 0 e 1 nd s Group techniques have been used in many settings. with offenders, including an army post stockade (shulman, 1957). criminal offenders committed to a maximum security mental hospital (Olive, 1962), delinquents in school (Golda smith et al, 1959), and those on probation and parole (Bassin a Smith, 1959). Although a person's attitudes can be influenced by "reference groups" in which he might not even be a recognized member (Newcomb, 1950), or by participation in groups such as the YMCA (Buchard, Michaels, a. Katkov, 1948), the group methods with offenders with I which this study is concerned can only be accomplished in a formal membership group. ' Many methods of group work have been attempted with offenders. Corsini (1955) lists Wenty-five methods which have been called "group psychotherapy." Buchard, Michaela, i'Katkov (1948) list nine "major frames of reference" for group methods. Korn and McCorkle state: "rinally, there is highly suggestive evidence that the extent to which the individual conforms.to the requireu ments of a given group is significantly related not merely to the character of his involvement in that specific group but to the character and range of the totality of his group relationships" (Korn s McCorkle, 1959. p.340). In a 1950.survey sent to. 312 penal and correctional insti- tutions in this country to which 109 responded, 35% of the institutions were currently using some form of group thera- py, and 95 were planning it soon. or those with programs, some 41% had been in operation for one year.or less and there was a tendency to just rename old programs with cur- 11 rently popular names. The group grograms were administered as follows: 10% by psychiatrists, 23% by psychologists, 9% by psychiatric social workers, and 58% by others (teachers, occupational therapists, counselors, at al). The methods used were predominately lecture-discussion, with some 9% psychoanalytic, 9% repressive-inspirational, and 29% mis- cellaneous (music, athletics, et al). Sessions for the groups varied from twelve to seventy-two, and participants varied from eight to twenty inmates. Most of the programs were voluntary on the part of the inmate but there was no standard procedure. The problems in a prison setting and the "treatment- custody dilemma" (McCorkle, 1949), caused Taylor to state: "Against a background of aggression, bitterness, and rejection overlaid with distorted individual and group values, a therapeutic group may appear quite artifi- cial"(Taylor, 1961, p.180). But he further states that imprisonment without treatment seldom solves the problem (Taylor, 1961, p.186).d Treat- ment which bridges the gap between the administration and the inmates of a prison "may be a major contribution of group therapy or guided group interaction to penology" (McCorkle, 1949, p.37). In spite of the special problems in group methods in correctional settings, "criminals are people who can be reached" (O'Neil, 1959, P.490). One of the most important functions of a prison may be "resocialization" according to at least one criminolo- gist (Goltung, 1958). Although Shaw and McKay in their 12 study found 85% of juveniles taken into custody in Chicago had companions and the other 15% probably had companions on their first offense (quoted in Smith & Bassin, 1961, p.78), indicating that criminal behavior might well be conformity to a sub-culture, it is still true, by defini- tion, that criminals are non-conforming and antisocial concerning the larger society. According to O'Brien: "Treatment of the socially inadequate or socially maladjusted individual without consideration of the group as a socializing agent represents inadequate treatment" (O'Brien, 1950, p.165). Smith and Bassin (1961) concluded that rehabilitation of the offender must proceed by way of having him in contact with groups which emphasize the values of conforming and law-abiding behavior as well as keeping him apart from groups which emphasize values which are conducive to cri- minality. Odenwold concludes, "Group psychotherapy for reformatories should have first place in penal therapy" (Odenwold, 1961, p.51). In 1948 two psychologists and a psychiatrist wrote, ". . . one is struck with the paucity of reports dealing 'with the criteria for evaluating (group therapy"(Buchard, Michaela, & Katkov, 1948, p.257). Thirteen years later another group worker wrote, "Evaluation of therapy in quantitative terms is still far from satisfactory . . ."v (Taylor, 1961, p.185). Yet there has been a steady in- crease in research studies on group methods. In the 1962 issue of "Current Projects in the Prevention, Control, and Treatment of Crime and Delinquency," it is reported that 13 22.1% of all treatment in the current projects was on group counseling and therapy (Rational Council on Crime and De- linquency, 1962, p.38). Studies have been reported using group methods with parolees (Bassin & Smith, 1959). and delinquents (Gersten, 1952; Peder, 1961; Feder, 1962; Friedland, 1961; McCorkle, 1954; Philip & Piexotto, 1959), with beneficial results. Cohen, in a study involving thirty adult male inmates in a medium security institution who were given group therapy, reported that they showed im- provement over an eight month period as compared with in- mates of non-treatment oriented institutions: "An analysis of the findings indicates that the group studied for eight months . . . improved considerably. [There was a greater ability to accept oneself, a lesser degree of personal maladjustment, and a lower- ing of the potential toward crime and delinquency . . . it appears that the inmates attain the maximum benefit frgm43uch a program by eight months . . ." (Cohen, 1958, p. 5 . Another writer concluded from a study of group therapy in a prison setting as follows: "Concerning the group as a whole, the wing officer found them more amenable, more reliable, and less in- clined to look for trouble . . . new members stood out with their characteristics of bitterness and hostility toward society, while those with more time in the grogp)showed patience and understanding" (Taylor, 1961, p.1 0 . In another study,comparing the effects of group counseling and other treatment for eight months on inmates at a prison camp for youthful offenders with the effect on inmates of a non-treatment oriented prison camp for the same popula- tion, it was concluded that those in group counseling had a significant reduction in antisocial attitudes and also. 14 a greater parole success (Shelley and Johnson, 1961). A longitudinal study, which was begun in June, 1958 and is to be completed at the end of 1964, is know as "The Cali- fornia Study of Correctional Effectiveness." This study seeks to assess the effects of the department's extensive correctional group counseling program on inmates and pa- rolees (National Council on Crime and Delinquency, 1962, p.240). In Michigan, criminal sexual psychopaths (CSP's) are committed to the Department of Mental Health for treatment since Public Act 165 was passed in 1939. Most of these We are sent to the Ionia State Hospital for the Crimi- nally Insane for treatment, but the lack of space requires that some remain in the State Prison of Southern Michigan at Jackson. At Ionia, group therapy has been used as the main treatment method for "CSP's," while at Jackson this has been used less extensively. Olive (1962) studied parole violations among Michigan's "CSP's" as related to group therapy versus imprisonment. The mean time in group therapy for those in Jackson was 12.5 months, and for those in Ionia, 23.7 months. Although his study showed that those who had participated in group therapy had a rate of Parole violation siginificantly less at the .001 level than those who had not participated, he concludes, "The present data does not support the view that length of par- ticipation in group therapy, per se, is a significant fac- tor in every case" (Olive, 1962, p.35). Positive but non- systematic reports using group therapy with this same popu- 15 lation are also found in the literature (Cabeen and Coleman, 1962; Cruvant, Meltzen, & Tartaglino, 1950; Kivisto, 1952; Lieberman & Siegal, 1957; Yalom, 1961)- Grpup Counseling by the Untrained Hadley, in his book "Clinical and Counseling Psycho- logy, writes: "There is some confusion in the literature regarding the boundaries of group counseling. Some clinicians use the term only in relation to groups in which the director is a specially trained counselor working to- ward specific therapeutic aims. Others use it to in- clude any group brought together for the purpose of improving interpersonal relations.‘ The latter defini- tion describes our approach"(Hadley, 1958, p.227). While this definition would seem to include groups basi- cally untrained and without a formal leader, such as Alco- holics Anonymous and Recovery Incorporated, group counsel- ing or group therapy demands that there be a formal leader. These group leaders do not necessarily need extensive training or specific therapeutic orientation. In the field of mental health there has been experimentation in the training and utilization of non-professional workers. The National Institute of Mental Health, in its "Pilot Study in Training Mental Health Counselors," had as its objective "the exploration of one way to alleviate the shortage of trained workers in the mental health field and to fill some of the community's needs for low-cost psycho- therapy" (Rioch, 1962, p.1). This pilot study selected married women at the approximate age of forty to be trained for short-term psychotherapy. This was in line with one of the recommendations of the "Report of the Joint Com- 16 mission of Mental Health and Illness": "That nonmedical mental health workers with aptitude, sound training, practical experience, and demonstrable competence should be permitted to do general, short- term psychotherapy - namely, treating persons by objec- tive, permissive, nondirective techniques of listening to their troubles and helping them resolve these troubles in an individually insightful and socially useful way" (National Commission of Mental Health and Illness, 1961, PeX). In a study in the Minnesota State Prison, with twelve inmates in each group and each group meeting for one hour for twenty weeks, "the co-therapists were psychologists and social workers from the prison Training and Treatment Department who had little previous experience in group therapy" (Jacobson & Wirt, 1958, p.299). "The area of the qualifications of the therapist is a controversial one" (Olive, 1962, p.21), and the fact that a person is on a correctional staff may itself emphasize the traditional gulf between inmate and staff (Goltung 1958). One author states, "Success or failure in the application of group methods in any institutional setting is contingent upon the competence of the group leader" (O‘Brien, 1950, p.268). This point of view stresses the vital role of the leader but does not say, however, what or who constitutes a com- petent leader. Some writers stress not the leader but the ”permissive environment" (Bixby s McCorkle, 1951). In evaluating the work in "guided group interaction," a term used in the New Jersey correctional scene to designate group counseling, Clinard writes as follows: ". . . the success that has been encountered in efforts of this type may not be the result of psychiatric theory or of the therapist but of the group situation. 17 "It sets in operation group force directed toward socially acceptable goals . . ."(Clinard,1949,p.261). The use of people recruited from the community at large to lead group counseling is supported by such a statement as that of Chivast: ". . . it would seem quite clear that the basic task in treating the anti-social individual, regardless of what his diagnosis might be, is that of bringing his social activities into greater harmony with those of the community at large . . ."(Chivast, 1957, p.818). Smith and Bassin appear to agree with Chivast: "In prison work it has been recognized since the time of Maconochie at least, that the offender can best be trained for participation in law-abiding society by providing him with contacts with that society . . . its focus is the provision of positive contacts with groups that will transfer to the criminal the anticriminal values of the larger society" (Smith & Bassin, 1961, p.182). Of group counseling and particularly guided group inter- action, Vold asks: "Is it a technique that can be administered by ordi- nary individuals after suitable training, or is it a non-specific influence that depends for success on a particular personality?" (Vold, 1951, p.460) Scott reports on group counseling in Michigan in which volunteers recruited from the community were the leaders. The original program at Camp Brighton consisted of a "therapeutic community" among youthful offenders whose average stay was only eight months. Group counsel- ing was a part of the treatment. Once a week the groups of from eight to ten inmates were guided in a group coun- seling session by staff and community volunteers. "Dis- cussions are spontaneous and cover a wide variety of topics. The group session provides an opportunity for 18 men to discuss together the impact of various experiences upon them and the self-awareness that these have brought" (Scott, 1961, p.200). These group sessions are followed by an evaluation meeting, "because group leaders are not professionally trained, for the most part." The basic group series is for twelve weeks, and after this the in- mates have a choice of whether to continue or not in an advanced group. Confidentiality is stressed in both the group session and the informal evaluation and discussion afterwards by the leaders of the various groups. At first these were professionals, most of whom had graduate work in counseling and guidance and all of whom were Department of Corrections employees. But Scott states: "As time went on, it became evident that we would need to expand the program to include volunteer group leaders. Professionals were simply in short supply. At first we endeavored to recruit graduate students in relevant fields from nearby colleges and universities. These students presented a problem to the degree that they would change courses every quarter or semester and we would just get a man trained when we would lose him. Furthermore, these quarterly sessions did not correspond to the arrival and departure of inmates in the group. As time went on, therefore, we tended to turn to people in the community for assistance. We recruited farmers, laborers, professional people, businessmen, clergymen, and others who agreed to serve for a minimum of twelve weeks. We arranged for them to have several introductory sessions and to meet with a group a time or two to get their feet wet. The after-sessions for training purposes became a fixed procedure. They constituted a valuable training asset" (Scott, 1961, p.202). e ea c with e Themat c A erce tion Test Murray says in describing the TAT as a projective construction procedure: 19 "The'procedure is merely that Of presenting a series Of pictures to a subject and encouraging him to tell stories about them, invented on the spur of the moment. The fact that stories collected in this way often re- veal significant components of personality is dependent on the prevalence of two psychological tendencies: the tendency of people to interpret an ambiguous human situation in conformity with their past experiences and present wants, and the tendency of those who write stories to do likewise: draw on the fund of their experiences and express their sentiments and needs, whether conscious or unconscious" (Murray, 1943,p.1). That this procedure lends itself to unusual opportunity and limitation is indicated by the large amount of re- search on and with the TAT. The test lends itself to cus- tom-making in research, both as to the presentation and the scoring (Lesser, 1961). One validation study concludes, "There is no single correct way of employing the TAT inter- pretations“ (Henry & Farley, 1959. p.276). Research studies have used a single card (Levitt, Lubin, & Brady, 1962), a single variable (Purcell, 1956; Smith & Bassin, 1960), or various themes (Fisher & Shotwell, 1961; Murstein et al, 1961). One supplement to the "Journal of Clinical Psycho- logy" is given over to interpretive themes on the TAT, with references to some 177 studies (Lindzey et a1, 1959). The TAT has been used to evaluate group procedures. One study used a pre-test and post-test design to test brief psychotherapy with forty-three delinquent boys and had its own "Objective scoring system" (Philip and Piexotto, 1959). Other studies include one of fifteen delinquent boys (Weber, 1950), and one with institutionalized delin- quents in Colorado (National Council on Crime and Delin- quency, 1962, Project number 457). The Glueck studies 20 (1949) did not use the TAT nor did Murray himself in the California studies (Murray, Pilot Intensive Counseling Organization, 1959). The most relevant study for the present research is that of Shelley (1959), as the same seven cards of the TAT and the same scoring for the single variable, antisocial themes, was used. The youthful offenders in the two mini- mum security prison camps, in two groups of fifty each, 'were equated for age, IQ, offense, and criminal record. The projective type test was used rather than a paper and pencil test because it was felt that there wOuld be no reading difficulty contamination, the test would be non- threatening and unstructured, it would elicit more "depth" material, and it would be less susceptible to "faking." The TAT was chosen over other projectives because a pilot study on delinquents at the Boy's VOOational School had indicated that more useful material could be Obtained from this test than from the other projectives with this parti- cular group. Shelley found the pictures of the TAT are ideal for eliciting interpersonal attitudes and antisocial attitudes. In selecting the specific cards to be used, Shelley first administered the entire twenty cards to a group of fifty inmates, and these protocols were checked for antisocial themes. The frequency of these antisocial responses led to the selection of cards 3 BM, 8 BM, 13 MF,14, 17 BM,18 BM, and 20, which had elicited the most antisocial themes (See-Appendix A). His selection of these cards as eliciting antisocial themes agrees with other researchers 21 (Starr 1961; Hokanson & Gordon, 1958; Eron, 1950). Shelley gave directions almost verbatim from the TAT manual, but excluded the last references to time as the subjects were given as much time as they wanted. The scoring method was to give to each antisocial theme of murder, rape, suicide, armed robbery, and the like, two points, and to each anti- social theme Of drunkenness, stealing, imprisonment, and the like, one point. Each time a seperate theme was attri- buted to any character in any of the pictures it was ap- propriately scored. A total of these scores was computed for each individual and this total entered as the antiso- cial score for that individual. This same scheme was used for this present study. Summary Numerous writers have hypothesized and several studies have concluded that group counseling is a helpful method with criminal offenders. No studies were found in the usual reference works which do not find it of some benefit. Coun- selors with and without special training have been utilized as leaders. Many studies have used the Thematic Apperception Test, and one study(Shelley,1959) used it to study the ef- fect of group counseling on antisocial attitudes. NO studies were found in the usual reference works which attempt to compare group counseling led by both professional and volunteer leaders in a maximum security correctional insti- tution. Chapter III RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY The Settipg With the cooperation of the Michigan Department of Corrections, this study took place at the Michigan Refor- matory in Ionia. This institution, which functions pri- marily as the maximum security facility for the younger offenders, dates from 1875. The inmate population at the time of the study was between 1300 and 1400, including those within the walls and those in the outside dormitory facilities. The outside dormitory facilities provide living accomodations for nearly all the inmates on trusty assignments on the farms and in ground maintenance. The Reformatory employs 275 persons, most of whOm are custo- dial officers working On three eight-hour shifts. An additional twenty-three persons work as supervisors or instructors for the Bureau of Prison Industries. About 300 inmates are employed in the furniture factory, the cotton garment factory, or the soap plant. Designed primarily for the young offender, most Of the inmates at the Reformatory are under the age of twenty- two. The average IQ (Army General Classification Test) is abOut ninety, or dull normal, and in general they are of sufficient intelligence to finish high school if they so 22 23 desired. Most of them are serving sentences for breaking and entering stores or dwellings or for various types of larceny and burglary. Although some are serving life sen- tences,.over.one—half are serving sentences having a mini- mum term of two years or less. Nearly all of the inmates come to the Reformatory from the Reception-Diagnostic Center which is operated close to, but seperate from, the State Prison of Southern Michigan in Jackson. This Center, opened in 1956, receives all new committments from the courts to the Michigan Corrections Commission. At the Center each new committment is given "a series of intelli- gence, aptitude and personality tests to determine the type of institutional program which will provide him with basic education, work skills and social values which will enable him to become a normal citizen upon his release" (Michigan Department of Corrections, Ionia, 1962, p.6). Most of the men transferred to the Reformatory are young men in need of and capable of benefiting from academic schooling or trade training. Most of the men coming to the Reformatory have been exposed to other correctional programs before their present sentence, having been on juvenile probation, having been institutionalized as a juvenile, having had adult probation, or, for some, having had adult institutionalization prior to their present pri- son sentence. "The population of the Michigan Reformatory is made up largely of those individuals who are not as amiable to treatment programs as are most first offenders. Many are rebellious, hostile, belligerent, and suspicious Of any authority figure. Yet, when sincere and kindly 24 "interest is shown in them, many respond with an eager desire to learn what is expected of them" (Michigan Department of Corrections, 1962, p.6). After arrival at the Reformatory, there is an Orien- tation program, both initially and on a continuing basis for some five weeks after admission. The initial orienta- tion is to acquaint the new inmates with the institution and its programs and objectives and is accomplished by talks, question and answer periods, and tours. Fbr five weeks following this, groups of from ten to twenty-five men are called together once a week for an hour, to assist in the adjustment and treatment process. Each inmate is asSigned to a counselor, there being three to five of them at the Reformatory. and is classified by a committee for initial assignment shortly after the orientation and the initial contact with the counselor. Some 13% of the total inmate population are involved in extended group counsel- ing with professional counselors, meeting weekly for one hour, and a growing number are involved in the group coun- seling with lay leaders from the community. Other parts of the inmate program include: a Vocational School, some 100 full-time academic students in elementary or secondary programs, recreation, music, hobbycraft, weekly movies, a library, a newspaper, radio earphones in each cell, tele- vision at appropriate group locations, a full-time Protes- tant Chaplain and a part-time Roman Catholic Chaplain, a twenty-bed hospital, and special groups such as Alcoholics Anonymous. Nearly 90% of all releases from Michigan's penal institutions are through parole, and the Reformatory 25 is no exception. Under’Michigan‘s indeterminate sentence law, the Parole Board, a full-time, five-member grOup. acm quires jurisdiction to grant releases on parole after the service of the;, minimum term of sentence, less good time .allOwances. First degree murder sentences can be altered only through a governor's commutation of sentence or para don, and others serving life sentences or sentences with long minimums may be considered after the serving Of‘ten calendar years, without any good time allowances. Before release there is a parole school for about thirty days covering many matters of social and personal living as ‘well as the usual indOctrination in the requirements of the parole. Although the Reformatory has its share of the tensions between custody and security on the one hand and treatment and rehabilitation on the other, it is, espe- cially in relationship to penal institutions in general, a ”modern" institution. ."A constantly amazing fact is that members of the staff who always have more than enOugh to do still seem to find the time to talk to an inmate who indie Oates a sincere interest and concern for his future.’ Thereare those who do not want help and there are 'those who are so severely damaged, emotionally, that 'we can't seem to help or don't know how to help. But those who are concerned and sincere find it is possible to have time serve them instead of just serving time" (Michigan Department of Corrections, Ionia, 19 2,p.18). W The subjects for this study were inmates from the Michigan_Reformatory at Ionia who had just been received or who had been there for only a short period of time. Because the research design called for four different 26 research groups of inmates and because there would be losses due to the shortness of confinement under the in- determinate sentence law as well as from regular attrition, 125 to 150 inmates were pre-tested. Therefore, beginning in June 1963, and continuing through July and August, every first offender inmate assigned to the Reformatory from Jackson was tested. Since it was desirable to have only first offenders, as Shelley did in his study, in order to obtain the desired number it was necessary to also test first offenders who had been committed in May and parts of April 1963. As used in this study, "first offender" re- fers to an individual having his first penal experience in the state prison system. He might have had arrest ex- perience previously, have been on probation from juvenile or adult courts for previous offenses, had some juvenile institutional experience, or had jail experience in city or county or military jails - it is extremely difficult to ascertain accurately how much of such experience an inmate has had. Appearance in the state penal system is easily verifiable, however, and therefore was used as the criter- ion. There was no note taken of the particular Offense for which an inmate had been committed, or any other vari- able - the total intake of "first offenders" for that period of time was tested. The number of inmates involved in this pre-testing was 152. Coggselgrs The professional counselors involved in this study 27 both were employed by the Michigan Reformatory. One was the Director of Treatment, with an Ed.D. degree, fifteen years with the Michigan Department of Corrections, and five years experience in group counseling. The other was the Director of Special Education, with a Ph.D. degree, eight years with the Michigan Department of Corrections, and four years experience in group counseling. The volunteer counselors recruited from the community 'were twelve in number. Their backgrounds were: mailman, businessman, attorney, two ministers, postmaster, school counselor, special education teacher, two maintenance men, maintenance man(retired), and court stenographer. The Ipstrumepp The instrument used for the pre-test and post-test was a modification of the Thematic Apperception Test. This consisted of seven of the pictures (3 BM, 8 BM, 13 MF, 14, 17 BM, 18 BM, and 20), chosen for the antisocial themes they elicit (See Appendix A). The Admigppratipn of the ngtmept The inmates were given no information except that they were to "see Mr. Sawyier to take a test." They were called from their assignments by way of the regular pro- cedure in the Reformatory and were each seen individually for up to one hour. The inmates were seated in a chair perpendicular to the desk, rather than directly facing the examiner, so they could concentrate on the picture and not on the examiner and his expression. Their name and inmate 28 number were first checked. The instructions of Murray ‘were then followed quite closely, in the following words: "Mr. , you know that imagination is one form of intelligence. I want to see you use your imagination to make up stories about some pictures I'm going to show you. When I show you the picture, use your imagi- nation to tell me what has happened, what is happening, what the characters are thinking and feeling and doing, and how the story might end." They were then given the pictures, one at a time, with up to eight minutes for them to respond to each picture. Their responses were recorded in notes as verbatim as possible. When it was necessary to stimulate their re- sponse further, parts of the introductory statement would be repeated. After they were finished, they were asked, "Is there anything else?" The pictures were presented in the order suggested by Shelley as follows: 17 BM, 18 BM, 8 BM, 13 ME, 3 BM, 14, and 20. After all seven of the pictures had been presented, the inmate was thanked and excused without further comment. If he questioned what was going on, he was merely told that "this is some re- search for the Department of Corrections." The post-test was administered in the same way, with the exception of the introduction: "Do you remember me from several months ago? At that time I suggested that imagination was one form of intelligence and asked you to make up stories about some pictures I showed you. I want you to do that again today, remembering that you are to use your imagination to tell me what has happened, what is happening, what the characters are thinking and feel- ing and doing, and how the story might end." The tests were all administered by the writer. 29 Scoring the Instrument In scoring the tests, the method of Shelley was used. (Shelley, 1959, P.35). In this testing the attempt was made to elicit antisocial attitudes which are not necessarily directly related to the particular crime of the person or the mode of "acting out." The most violently antisocial themes are elicited from the most antisocial person, no matter what his offense category might be. Since this study dealt with antisocial themes and attitudes, and not with Offense categories and their correlation with antisocial attitudes, the following scoring was used: Thepe, scoped two pgints - these were generally assigned when any person in the stories is seen as committing, contemplating, planning, or feeling like committing any of these acts (generally against persons): murder, serious assualt(with or without weapon), fighting, escape from the law, rape, deviated sex act, shooting someone, suicide, armed robbery or holdup, threats against the person, arrest, prostitution, adultery. Theme, scored one point - these were generally assigned when any person in the stories is seen as committing, contemplating, planning, or feeling like committing any of these acts (generally not against persons): drunkenness, gambling stealing, dope, escape (not from the law), defrauding, court trial, parole, probation, imprisonment. When there is suggestion, but not specificity, of crime against the person in the following pictures and way, they are scored one point: 18 BM - grabbing, without details, 8 BM - shot, without details, 13 MF - finding girl half-dressed, without details, 3 BM - identifying object as gun or other weapon, 2O - "up to no good," without details. 30 Each time one Of the above was attributed to any character in any of the pictures it was scOred appropriately. Care ‘was taken that separate themes were scored and not merely escalation or repetition of the same theme (See Appendix E fOr sample of protocol). The total of these scores for each theme on the individual protocol was then computed and a total antisocial score assigned to that individual. In a few cases the inmates were so uncooperative and hos- tile that a reliable score could not be Obtained on either the pre-test or the post-test, and these scores were then automatically scored, "no change," and the pre-test score assigned. Pre-test scores were Obtained from 152 inmates, but in checking the records it was found that 26 of these 'would be released before the study was completed. The re- maining 126 were assigned to the four treatments. The test protocols for both the pre-test and post-test were given to the Director of Treatment of the Michigan Depart- ment of Corrections, E. L. V. Shelley, who had designed the scoring technique. He cheekedSeveryffourthrprotocOl; for accuracy of scoring and only minor disagreement was found. This procedure indicated that the scoring had not been unduly influenced by any bias of the experimentor. In the regular routine of the Reformatory, the morn- ing and afternoon custodial Officers on the cell blocks make out a report approximately every six months on each inmate. Those who supervise work assignments do the same. 31 These reports are placed in a file with other material for the Parole Board. Because these are used by the Board to help judge antisocial behavior as it might be displayed on release, these block reports were used as one of the cri- terion measures (see Appendix 0). Two block reports, by morning and afternoon officers, and a work report were ob- tained for each man in the study, after treatment. These reports were coded, identifying name and numbers of inmates were deleted, and they were given to three qualified men to judge. These three men routinely evaluate this material and were considered responsible judges. The Director of Classi- fication with fifteen years with the Department of Correcn tions, one counselor with a Master's Degree and one with a Bachelor's Degree, both with two years with the Reformatory, were the three judges. A specially designed instrument to rate and rank antisocial behavior was prepared with the help of the three judges, the Director of Treatment of the Departw ment of Corrections, the Director of Treatment of the Reformau tory, and others knowledgeable in the field (see Appendix D). Because the items dealt with behavior, the instrument had construct and content validity, but no measure of concurrent or predictive validity was obtained. Administrapipn of the Instrument The guards and superviors did not have to judge degree of antisocial behavior, they reported behavior for each man. The judges were the ones who decided how antisocial the be- 32 haviOr might be. The inmates were rated on five scales: attitude towards others, attitude towards authority, atti- tude towards choice of companions, attitude towards achieves ment of socially acceptable goals (especially work), and attitude towards responsibility. These scales were each rated on a continuum from zero to ten, with the larger score representing the greater antisocial behavior. The judges independently made judgments on the inmates, and the individual scale scores for each inmate for each judge were added to give a total score. The three judges scores were then averaged, and, as Cronback (1960) suggests, reliability was thereby increased. These average scores for each inmate were then rank ordered and a median test performed. Grouping The randomized groups design called for the inmates to be randomly assigned to four groups for the fifteen weeks of the study, extending from September through the middle of December 1963. One group was assigned to group counseling, meeting once each week, under the guidance of a professional counselor who was employed by the Michigan Reformatory. Another group was assigned to group counseling, again meeting once each week, but under the guidance of a volunteer lay-counselor from outside the employment of the Department of Corrections. A third group was assigned as the control group, with no special attention given to them. A fourth group was needed as a placebo group, and to check on 33 what is called the "Hawthorne Effect." This term refers to studies made at the Western Electric plant at Hawthorne, Illinois, in which the individual's awareness that he was participating in an experiment altered his performance and brings into serious question the validity of the whole ex- periment (Borg, 1962). In the present study the placebo group received some selected mental health films, without comment, on the same schedule as the groups in counseling (see Appendix B for list of films). The 126 inmates who had taken the pre- test and who would be present during the time of the study were randomly divided into four groups. This was done by the use of a table of random numbers. Table 1 - Size of groups Group Treatment Sample size Control None 32 Group counseling, 15 weeks group volunteer leaders counseling 32 Placebo 15 weeks mental health films 31 Group counseling, 15 weeks group professional leaders counseling 31 As indicated in Table 1, two groups had 32 inmate members and two had 31 inmate members. Table 2 - Statistical analysis of randomization 34 (200-3 d.f., F:- 8054') Source of Sum of d.f. Mean Square F Variation Squares Antisocial Score 39tween 5.445 3 1 .§%5 0077 ithin 2850,210 ,lgg 12. 2 2 55.715 125 IQ getwieen 1473.430 3 :9; .8E13 o 1.148 th n 522: 3110 ‘lgg 2 .1 1 52713. 7 125 Lapse of Time, Arrival to Testing 2532:?“ go‘ézigas 3 1222'323 ‘23“ n 2 . 20 021.500 I§5 Age n 1203,510 '12; 9. 2 123 .710 125 As indicated in Table 2, the groups were tested by analysis of variance to see if they differed significantly in pre-test antisocial scores, IQ, length of time between arrival at the Reformatory and time of pre-test, and age. NO significant differences were found for any of the vari- ables. 35 Table 3 - Percentage of non-white members Group Nonnwhite ContrOl C C O O O O O O O O C O O O O O O 62.5% Group counseling, vo unteer leaders . . . 65.6% Placebo e e e e e e e e e e e e e o e e e 58 e 0% Group counseling, professional leaders . . 54.8% As indicated in Table 3, the percentage of nonswhite members in the groups was within a 7.7% range. The treatment began after the division into the four groups. The results of the treatment are reported in the following chapter. Chapter IV RESULTS OF THE STUDY After the fifteen weeks of treatment, it was dies covered that an additional thirteen inmates had been trans- ferred from the Reformatory from the four groups. It was possible to postrtest and analyze, therefore, only the remaining sample, numbering 113. Table 4 a Sample size after treatment Group Number of Inmates Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28 Group counseli g, volunteer leaders . . . 30 Placebo C O O O O O O O O O I O O O O O O 30 Group counseling, professional leaders . . 25 As Table 4 indicates, two groups were left with 30 inmates, one with 28, and one with 25. This new sample size was then analyzed to see if there was any significant differences in the antisocial scores of the prewtest. The results of this analysis are shown in Table 5(p.37). Because there was still no significant difference between the groups on the main variable, prewtest antisocial scores, it was concluded that randomization had occured. Any sig— nificant differences between the groups after treatment could be assumed to come from the treatment itself, or at 36 37 least some experience after the pre-test. Table 5 - Analysis of new sample size Antisocial scores(pre-test) (200-3 d.f., F=8.54) Source of Sum of d.f. Mean Square F Variation Squares Between 6 1.520 3 4.51 .0002 Within 2 15.2 0 102 2 .5 2 77. 70 112 Table 6 is a summary of the scores for the pre-test and the post-test, and indicates that the range, mean, and median of the post-test scores were smaller. Table 6 - Summary of scores Pre-test Post-test Range 1 - 23 0 - 19 Mean 8.77 7.32 Median 16 g 7 The post-test scores were then analyzed to determine if there were any significant differences between the groups after treatment. The null hypothesis that "there is no significant difference between groups in antisocial attitudes after treatment" cannot be rejected, as the 38 analysis in Table 7.0n the page:below,findicates.. The groups which received group counseling by volunteers and by professionals made no reduction in their antisocial attitude scores which was significantly greater than the group which yiewed mental health films, or the control group. - Table 7 - Post-test analysis (200-3 d.f., F: 8.54), ===============F=============a=====================f===222= ‘ Source of ‘ Sum of d.f. Mean Square , F variation Squares . Between 2 22.508 L03. 3??? 1.3588 Vithin ~ +5352_ . .’ 2 5 9 90 112 ' The 113 scores on the Judges rating of antisocial behavior were then rank-ordered and a median score of 22.33 was determined. The range of scores was from 3.66 to 44. A median test was then ran on the data after a dichotomy was determined, with scores above the median being assigned a "plus" and scores strand below the median being assigned a "minus."- 0 With a chi square of 7.815 required for significance with three degrees of freedom, Table 8 (p.39) shows that ‘we must accept the null hypothesis that "there is no sig- nificant difference between groups in antisocial behavior . after treatment.” 39 Table 8 - Chi square analysis Group Plus Minus Observed Total Expected=14.07 Exp.=15.929 Placebo Observed=15 Obs.=15 30 Counseling, Exp. =14.07 EXP.:15.929 volunteer Counseling, Exp. 211.725 Exp.=13.274 professional Obs. =10 Obs.=15 25' Exp., =13.132 Exp.=14.867 Control Obs. =14 Obs.=14. 28 53 60 113 x2 = _ 2 fixpecteé x2 = .7024} With 3 d.f. a x2 of 7.815 would be required for significance. Although not significant, the placebo group had the greatest reduction of antisocial attitude scores'and the lowest mean of antisocial attitude scores after treat- ment. The volunteer counseling group had the next greatest reduction and the next lowest mean of antisocial attitude scores after treatment. The professional counseling group ‘followed in rank and the control group had the least reduc- tion in antisocial attitude scores and the highest mean of 40 these scores after treatment. Further, the antisocial be- havior means were ranked in the same order, with the pla- cebo group having the lowest and the control group the highest mean score. Table 9 indicates this trend. Table 9 '.. Comparison airmpreetgst and .postg-test‘changes *1 I f . EuEges Group Dre-test Post-test Kean Rating Mean Kean Reduction Kean ‘1 ‘Placebo . 8.966‘ 7.033 1.9336 21.729 Counseling .,' w .. .. .. .. volunteer ' 8.700 7.166 . A1.534. 21.739 Counseling, . . . m >Pr°teaflional . 8.760 70400 1.350 22v63° ,controi _ 8.678. 7.750 .928 1.23.066 .fi , 7. The implication of these results will be discussed in the final chapter. Chapter V CONCLUSIONS, DISCUSSION, IMPLICATIONS, AND SUMMARY Conclusions It was hypothesized that, because group counseling by volunteer and professional leaders gives an opportunity to alter behavior and encourages social awareness, inmates who had been in group counseling would show significantly lower scores in antisocial attitudes and significantly lower rank in antisocial behavior. This research did not support these hypotheses. Group cOunseling, as defined and evaluated in this study, made no significant differ- ence in the selected aspects of the attitudes and behavior of inmates. Discussion Group counseling has been widely used in correctional institutions. Yet treatment programs for the rehabilita- tion of criminal offenders must be based on more that just a desire and faith that an understanding and tolerant ap- proach will be automatically met by a positive response on the part of the inmate. They need to be studied so that ‘we can predict under what circumstances certain results can be expected to occur and to be able to scientifically verify this as much as possible. 41 42 In looking at the instruments used, perhaps some re- finements might add to their effectiveness. In the anti- social stories and themes on the TAT, account might have been taken of the suggested difference in social class re- sponse (Riessman & Miller, 1958; Korchin, Mitchell, &Melt- zogg, 1950), or story length (McBroyer, 1959; Lindzey & Silberman, 1959). Projectives are strong in face validity, in developing rapport between the subject and examiner, and in preventing faking. They are weak in standardiza- tion, norms, reliability, and validity (Anastasi, 1961). Perhaps a more objective scoring such as Philip and Pie- xotto (1959) employed might have eliminated the possi— bility of scorer bias. Because the judges rating sheet was designed specifically for the current study, predic- tive validity and scorer reliability tests should be made to further determine its usefulness. Another variable than antisocial attitudes and behavior could have been used to test the effectiveness of group counseling. Perhaps a personality measure such as self-acceptance or self-esteem might have been able to discriminate between the groups. The term "antisocial" in one sense, oversimplifies the distinction between the offender and the non-offender. Non-offenders display antisocial attitudes and behavior (Smith & Bassin, 1961, p.77), and the criminal is not antisocial twenty-four hours in every day (Ibid., p.79). The offender can be actually conforming to the criminal sub-culture by his 43 acts (Ibid., p. 79). In other group counseling research, Philip and Pie- xotto (1959) used a simpler and objective scoring system, as well as a different personality variable such as did Bassin and Smith (1959). Gersten (1952) used a number of criteria for evaluation and both Feder (1961) and Fried- land (1961) made global judgments about behavior change instead of using one variable. Fifteen weeks of treatment may have been insufficient to produce the changes that would discriminate between the treatment groups. It may well be that it takes a longer period of time in group counseling to develop the rapport and freedom of expression which would alter antisocial attitudes and behavior significantly. It may also be that the initial impact of the mental health films in the non- threatening and non-structured atmosphere of the placebo group would diminish with time. Shelley (1959), whose study was similar to this research, tested the inmates involvement in group counseling for no less than six and no more'than nine months. A study of six months to a year *with the same basic design might provide a better test for the effectiveness of the treatments. The population for this study and that of Shelley's is similar in many ways but differs in certain important areas. Shelley's inmates were all under twenty-one years of age, none were murderers, sex offenders, or drug addicts, and all had "brief and minor" criminal experience. In this 44 study some of the inmates were in their late twenties and a few in their thirties, and their crimes were more serious crimes. The setting in Shelley's study was a minimum security prison camp, with a relatively short incarcera- tion, and a total treatment milieu. This study was set in a maximum security institution, with relatively long incar- ceration, and a cuStody-centered environment. Further, Shelley's successful results in terms of group counseling were obtained with testing as more a part of the normal intake procedure than was possible in this study. He se- lected only those with a score of three or more on the pre- test for inclusion in the study, and he had only two groups, one with group counseling and one without group counseling. Each group was in a separate camp and equated by inspection rather than by statistical analysis. Corsini wrote, "It should be of interest to discover what would happen if unwilling prisoners were to be forced into psychotherapy" (Corsini, 1954, p.168). He goes on to suggest that the ones who least want group therapy might be the ones who most need it and that there may be good precedent for violating the individual's desire in this. But the fact that this study was done on "unwilling" in- mates might be a source of variable contamination. The inmates who were pre-tested were randomly assigned to the four groups and had no personal choice about it. Some of the leaders involved in this study at the Reformatory in- dicated that there was considerable resistance on the part 45 of some inmates. Groups were held at a time which did not interfere with work but did interfere with free time. While this design was necessary in this research and per- haps desireable in some instances, it might have biased the results in that the control had nothing demanded of it, and the placebo group provided a less threatening environment than the counseling groups. Shelley's inmates had a choice as to whether they stayed in this treatment- centered atmosphere or not, and a;l,inmates were involved in the same treatment. In view of the pressures against treatment among the inmates at the Reformatory and the effect this would have upon attendance and attentiveness in group counseling, this lack of inmate choice might well be the crucial factor. Personality factors in both the inmates and the leaders of the volunteer groups are another possible source of variable contamination. There was no attempt made to select the leaders recruited from the community, either by their occupation or their personality. It may well make a great deal of difference whether a leader is a minister or a shop foreman, or whether he is a defensive or a secure person. Perhaps some of the inmates only put on a facade in the group counseling session and were seeking to mani- pulate the leader rather than to make a genuine effort to share in the group process. Resentment at being assigned to group treatment without asking for it could show itself in covert as well as overt ways. 46 The more effective control of other variables might have made the results clearer. The Reformatory is a maxi- mum security institution. As such it tends to place cus- tody first, prison industry second, and treatment third in priority. Thus, though the cooperation of the officials was excellent, the attitudes of the inmates and the guards concerning treatment might be reflected in the results. Although this is more difficult to determine, it might have been possible to control more effectively whether or not the professional and volunteer counselors knew who within their groups were subjects for this study. Further, it would have been possible to better control how much per- sonal counseling or involvement in other group life the subjects for this study experienced. That a man was in one of the treatment groups did not mean that he did not see a counselor or take part in Alcoholics Anonymous or receive other personal or group influence that the other subjects did not have. Other studies of group counseling have generally assessed the results as favorable, althought few studies have had an adequate research design. The verbalizations of both inmates and group leaders, whether professional or volunteer, give a generally favorable opinion of the value of group counseling. It is clear from this study, however, that much more extensive and careful research of group counseling is needed to establish if this beneficial effect is to be gained, and under what conditions. 47 Group counseling was developed by and has been tradi- tionally used with those who have middle class educational background and experience, including the ability of intro- spection. It may well be that it is not effective with those from a lower socio-economic background such as pre- dominate at a maximum security correctional institution. m licati s f r ture Research There were two trends which should merit further re- search. There has been a general feeling that just the passage of time in imprisonment will not decrease hostility (Bennett & Rudoff, 1960). In this study all four treatment groups showed a reduction in mean antisocial score. The effect of the passage of a period of time on antisocial attitudes and behavior might be a subject for research. As indicated in Table 9(P.40), the reduction of antisocial attitude scores and mean scores for both instruments after treatment, followed the same rank order. Further research of this design might indicate whether or not these trends had substantial meaning. A closer replication of Shelley's study (1959) in terms of length of treatment might be important since this study and his do not support the same conclusions. A study could be undertaken using leaders recruited from the community for group counseling who represented particular occupational groups or certain personality variables. Are certain leaders, by background and person- ality, more therapeutic than others? 48 Another study could include, in both volunteer and group counseling, only those who choose it for themselves. Further studies could be carried on using the same basic reserach design, but using a population from a medium security, treatment-oriented institution or using inmates who were not new admissions. Summary One hundred and twenty-six inmates of the Michigan Reformatory at Ionia, who had not previously been in the state penal system, were given a test consisting of seven cards of theThematic Apperception Test shortly after their arrival. These protocols were scored for antisocial attitudes and the inmates were randomly assigned to four different treatments: group counseling with volunteer leaders recruited from the community, group counseling with professional leaders, a placebo group who viewed mental health films, and a control group. After fifteen weeks of treatment, the 113 inmates who had notbeen trans- ferred were again tested with the modification of the TAT. In addition, block and work reports on each inmate were judged, scored and rank-ordered for antisocial behavior. 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Journal of Nervous and Mental Diseases, 1961, 132, 158-1700 APPENDIX.A * THEMATIC APPERCEPTION TEST PICTURES USED (In order of testing) *The permission of the Harvard University Press to repro- duce these pictures for this thesis is gratefully acknow- ledged. Although deliberately meant to be indistinct, the original cards are clearer than the reproductions. 58 aw“- L4. ”baggy ft - ' ~ '1' A. I g; t . 5‘5 Iggy: 61 W. . M (J. ~ I: If, an » ‘4 62 r. A ”a", pm h .. I". ;, ‘ -., . )1 :‘w - [ A "yr-r . L 211‘“ 1“, 63 r - ,. .J .4 Ir.‘ Ihl‘ll’gyJi'!‘ 3 BM ,m" ,{W/fl 64 65 2O 1..,_,;, i-f'Y- APPENDIX B MENTAL HEALTH FILMS SHOWN TO PLACEBO GROUP (In order of showing) M Date of Showing "Anger at Work" "Mr. Finley's Feelings" 9/9/63 "The High Wall" 9/23/63 "The Cage" 9/30/53 "The Dropout" 9/30/63 "Youth and the Law" 10/7/63 "The Quiet One" 10/14/63 "Roots of Happiness" 10/21/63 "Bitter Welcome" 10/18/63 "Being Different" "Hard Brought Up" 11 /4/63 "Emotional Health" "He Acts His Age" 11/11/63 * 1"Family Affair" 11 /18/63 "Pathological Anxiety" 11/25/63 "The Bright Side" 12/2/63 "Facing Reality" "The Hickory Stick" 12/9/63 "Head of the House" 12/16/63 66 APPENDIX C INFORMATION REQUESTED ON BLOCK AND WORK REPORTS hlock hepopp How, in general, does he get along in the Block? Type of associates in Block? Willing to accept discipline? Criticism? Inmate s attitude: Remarks from your observation: Any noticeable effort toward self-improvement: Length of time in the Block? Signed: Date: This form is to be returned to the Classification Depart- ment upon completion. We invite your remarks and recom- mendation. Use reverse side if necessary. Woph hepoyt 1. What does he do on your assignment? 2. What type of training has he received and how long? 3. What specific skills acquired? 4. In terms of skill, how well does he handle the job? 5. Is he dependable? Stable? Cooperative? 6. State freely your impressions of this individual: 7. Has incarceration been beneficial to this individual: Signed: Title: Date: Length of observation: We invite your re- marks and recommendations - use reverse side if necessary. See reverse side for suggestions in filling our this form. It is important that this form be completed and returned to the Classification Department - NOW! 67 APPENDIX D INSTRUMENT USED BY JUDGES IN RATING Inmate # Judge ti-S cial Att tudes (Based on reports by block captains and work supervisors, and jud ed by number and not name by three qualified judges. $22§§§y,Please put mark on continuum by global judgment or each question. 1/ Attipude Towahds Qpheho 10 9 8 7 6 5 a 4 3' 2 1 O Hestile Satisfactory Helpful 2/ ud Au h r 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 Hostile Satisfactory Helpful 3/ Attitude iowards Choico o; Cohphhioho 1O 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 O Chooses Worst Satisfactory Chooses Best Companions Companions A tude T w rds Ac ievement 4/ ciall cce able G als Es so 11 W 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 Completely Satisfactory Highly Negative Motivated 5/ Atpitude gowaydo hospohsihility 1O 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 Needs Close Satisfactory Trusted by Supervision Himself 68 hhtisocial §core APPENDIX E SAMPLE TEST PROTOCOL fraziasi Card 11 BE "This is something like a Roman story. A man is trying to gain entrance to a castle. He sees someone and discovers that he's caught. He's thinking how to get out. Or he might be t et w d at eed . He lived happily ever after." Card BM "This is a drama of some sort - he's ghhggog or hiiio_, Someone is trying to take him away to hide the body. He's either dead or asleep. If the person trying to take him away is a criminal, he is discoveped by the police." Capd 8 BE "This reminds me of a gohgster role. two buddies were together in a holdup and one was wounded. The other one tries to get to the doctor's office. From the expression, he has a little fear and revenge in his heart - he wanted 69 2,1 2,2 70 to get even. The doctor is concerned about saving the patient. The other fellow in the background - maybe he's one of the accomplices in crimes. He's making sure that the doctor doesn't do anything wrong. The outcome? In the end they get copthzed by the police, killed or sent po ppisoh." Card 1} MP "This puts me in mind of a story in a magazine. This man gains entrance to a house by talking. The lady lets him in, he molests her, and hills her. He's a Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde, and can't re- member. After things come to him he turns himself in for help. From the way he's standing he's in a state of awe, just coming to his senses. He realized that the best thing to do was to seek medical help." Cord 1 BM "This is little boy - that could be scissors on the floor. He's at home and cutting things out and it's getting late. He's exhausted and he's laid his head on a chair and went to sleep. His mother makes him go to bed." Ed. mm 0 p. m H Total - 20 71 Cahg 14 "It seems like he's standing in the win- dow admiring the scenery. He's thinking how'wonderful it is to be alive and wishing it could go on forever. I couldn't put an ending on it. He's just admiring the view and grateful to be alive." Cahd 20 "This is possibly a gangsteh. The po- lice have been looking for him for a long time, and have been unable to find him. It's late at night on a corner in the park. He received a message that he's supposed to meet someone there - setting him up for the police. After this the police come and gap hih. Pos- sibly he's try to escape and he'd possi- bly die." Post-test Card 11 BM "He's in a gym climbing a rope and try- ing to keep in physical condition. From his expression, someone is alongside him on a rope and he's amazed. He might try harder to match the other person." 72 Card 18 BM "This puts me in mind of a ophhh'with someone rolling him. He takes him in an alley to take his money. He's passed out or he's in pain. In the background are three hands. They get his money and Bull up. 11 Card 8 Bh "This fellow on the operating table was hurt in an accident - possibly a hunting accident. They are working to save him. This in front is a closeup of the man on the table. He comes out of it all right.” Card 1: MP "This is possibly early in the morning and he got out of bed and gets ready for work. He's trying to decide whether to go or to take it easy. The woman, no doubt, is his wife and she's asleep. The outcome is that he decided to go to wor . Chhd 3 BM "This is a young boy or girl sitting and doing work or playing at bedtime. He's exhausted and falls asleep. His mother or father wakes him up and sends him to bed. 11 73 Aptisocial Copd 14 Score "Possibly this is a man who just got home from work or an all night party. He's a fellow who believes in fresh air and he gets fresh air before he lays down." Card 20 "This fellow just got off work, and he's tired. It's cold and dreary outside. He's waiting at the bus stop or for someone to take him home. Whoever he's waiting on eventually comes." Total - 3 9U C?“ 1st '1 “(3%". RS 0&5. all-e MICHIan STnTE UNIV. LIBRQRIES WIWIIWIIHIIWWII)1|“WIVWWIWI 31293000768642