III. I ‘il’ IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII Illlllllllllllllllll‘glll ~ ammooaw ————‘ —-——‘ ”I _——_; This is to certify that the thesis entitled UTILIZATION OF CHEESE WHEY PERMEATE IN CANNED BEANS AND PLUMS presented by Michael J. Saylock has been accepted towards fulfillment of the requirements for _l_4-_S-__degree in____¢__F00d 5 ience (“F/Md CC’QW 3 r Mujox professor Date 8/4/80 0-7339 gem; F1145 : 25¢ per day per item RETUMIN LIBRARY MATERIALS: I: 5 V ‘ ‘ {[flm \\\\‘Ai \ x , , Place in book return to move ‘ ' “I," charge from circulation record mmmnm UTILIZATION OF CHEESE WHEY PERMEATE IN CANNED BEANS AND PLUMS By Michael J. Saylock A THESIS Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of MASTER OF SCIENCE Department of Food Science and Human Nutrition 1980 ABSTRACT UTILIZATION OF CHEESE WHEY PERMEATE IN CANNED BEANS AND PLUMS By Michael J. Saylock Navy and kidney beans were hydrated in water, then canned in appropriate brines: control, permeate, and lactose-hydrolyzed permeate. Analyses of color, texture, total solids, ash and sensory evaluation were subsequently performed. Hunter Color Difference and Kramer Shear results indicated a general darkening in color and an increased firmness in the treated beans. A significant increase in total solids was observed in the treated samples. Sensory tests indicated that treated beans had significantly lower preference than control and commercial samples. Plums were canned in a control sugar syrup and in 5, l0, l5, 20, 25% replacements of sucrose with lactose- hydrolyzed permeate (HP), or crystalline glucose-galactose (66). HP plums were generally darker, but resembled in texture the control samples. Sensory tests showed the plums canned in permeate were similar in acceptance as compared to the control samples. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The author wishes to express his appreciation and gratitude to Dr. Ramesh C. Chandan and Dr. Mark A. Uebersax for their encouragement, aid, and guidance in developing this research project. Sincere thanks are expressed to Dr. John N. Allen of the Dept. of Marketing and Transportation for his advice and effort in reading this manuscript. The author also expresses his gratitude to his father, for his aid and encouragement during the course of this study. The author wishes to thank Sandra J. Chapman for her assistance and encouragement throughout the period of graduate study. . Appreciation is extended to the Food Science Department for financial support that made this project possible. ii TABLE OF CONTENTS Page LIST OF TABLES. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v LIST OF FIGURES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vii INTRODUCTION. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 LITERATURE REVIEW . 4 Methods of Concentrating or Fractionating Whey. 6 1. Concentration . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 2. Drying. . . . . . . 6 3. Lactose Crystallization . . . 7 4. Demineralization. . . . . . . . 8 5. Protein Precipitation . . . . . lO 6. Gel Filtration. . ll 7. Reverse Osmosis (R0)/Ultrafiltration (UF). . . . . . . . . 12 Utilization of Whey Solids in Foods . . . . . . . 15 Utilization of Whey Components. . . . . . . l8 EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25 Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25 Obtaining the Permeate. . . . . . . . . . . . 25 Hydrolysis of the Permeate. . . . . . . . . . 28 Bean Preparation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28 Plum and Syrup Preparation. . . . . . . . . . 29 Analytical Procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 l. Drained Weight. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32 2. pH. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32 3. Total Protein . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32 4. Total Solids. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33 5. Ash . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34 6. Color Difference. . . . . . . . . . . . . 34 7. Shear Force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35 8. Minerals. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37 9. Sensory Evaluation. . . . . . . . . . . . 39 10. Statistical Analyses. . . . . . . . . . . 43 Page RESULTS AND DISCUSSION. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44 1. Analysis of Whey and Its Products . . . . . . . 44 2. Navy Beans. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44 3. Kidney Beans. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Sl 4. Plums . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66 LIST OF REFERENCES. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69 iv Table '10 LIST OF TABLES Dry solids in cheese whey. . . . . . . Estimated U.S. fluid whey and whey solids produc- tion and quantity of whey solids "further processed" . . . . . . . . . . . . . Typical composition of uncolored cheddar cheese whey and UF permeate . . . . . . . . . . . . Typical composition of navy beans (solid bean and bean sauce), canned in whey permeate or lactose hydrolyzed whey permeate. as compared to an untreated control. . . . . . . . . . . . Ash content and elemental analysis of treated navy beans (solid bean and bean sauce), canned in permeates compared with untreated (control) samples. . . . . . . . . . . . . . Mean shear compression force, color coordinate, and preference scores with Tukey separations for navy beans (p$0.0l). . . . . . . . . . . . . . Typical composition of kidney beans (solid bean and bean sauce) treated with whey permeate or lactose hydrolyzed whey permeate, as compared to an untreated control . . . . . . . . . . . . Ash content and elemental analysis of treated kidney beans (solid bean and bean sauce), canned in permeates compared with untreated (control) samples................... Mean shear compression force, color coordinate, and preference scores with Tukey separations for kidney beans (pSO.Ol). . . . . . . . . . . Typical composition of canned plums (solid plum), treated with sucrose replacement levels of 5, lO, l5, 20, 25% hydrolyzed whey permeate (HP), or crystalline glucose-galactose (66), as com- pared to an untreated control. . . . . . . . . V Page 5 TB 45 46 48 50 52 54 55 58 Table ll 12 13 14 Typical composition of canned plums (plum syrup). treated with sucrose replacement levels of 5, lO, 15, 20, 25% hydrolyzed whey permeate (HP) (Jr crystalline glucose- galactose (66), as compared to an untreated control. . . . . . . . Ash content and elemental analysis of untreated (control) plums (solid and syrup), compared with treated samples. . . . . . . . . . . Mean shear compression force and color coordi- nate values with Tukey separations for canned plums (p‘0.01). . . . . . . . . . . . . Mean color, flavor, texture, general accepta- bility and overall preference with Tukey separations for sucrose replacement HP and GG plums, as compared to an untreated control (pSO.Ol). vi Page 59 6O 62 64 LIST OF FIGURES Figure l Schematic diagram of related RO/UF processes. 2 Schematic diagram (Hi Abcor Ultrafiltration System. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 Hunterlab L.a.b. opponent color solid . . 4 Sample form of questionnaire presented to untrained panel to evaluate sweetness, tender- ness and color. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 Sample form of questionnaire presented to un- trained panel to evaluate preference between separate groups of canned navy beans and kidney beans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 Samplefbrm of questionnaire presented to un- trained panel to evaluate color, flavor, texture, acceptability, and preference of canned plums. . . . . . . . . . . Page l3 26 36 4o 41 42 INTRODUCTION Whey, the greenish-yellow liquid produced from the manufacture of cheese has been a thorn in the side of the dairy industry for quite some time. With stiffer governmen— tal restrictions on waste disposal, researchers have been saddled with the problem of changing whey from an economic and environmental liability into a profitable end product. Whey contains approximately half of the solids of whole milk, depending on the variety of cheese being made. The amount of annual whey surplus has been estimated (Lough, 1974) at 36 billion pounds (2.4 billion pounds of solids), which translates to 1.7 billion pounds of lactose (Hargrove et al., 1976). With the availability of whey expected to keep increasing, new technologies will be needed to utilize whey solids for human consumption. These solids can be a valuable addition to the functional properties of various foods, as well as a source of valuable nutrients. Histori- cally though, whey has been used for animal feed, or dumped down the drain to contribute to the problems of waste dispo- sal. Such disposal of whey causes pollution problems due to its high biological oxygen demand (8.0.0.), and an imbalance between nitrogen and carbon. Typically, one liter of whey has a B.O.D. of 50,000 mg., compared to one liter of efflu- ent from human population having a B.O.D. of 300 mg (Zall, 1979). This high B.O.D. level causes a severe reduction in valuable oxygen that is needed to sustain aquatic life, clean the water, and destroy dangerous bacteria. Up until recently cheese plants were large in number but fairly small in size. This made the collection of whey and subsequent condensing, drying, or fractionating processes a rather uneconomical venture. The large volume coupled with the low value of whey made it impractical to transportit long distances for further processing. Today with fewer but larger cheese plants, the cost for necessary processing equipment may be economically justified. Ultrafiltration methods are being used more and more for the utilization of whey in the food industry. Whey during Ultrafiltration becomes fractionated, yielding a protein concentrate (retentate), and a lactose product (permeate). The permeated fraction accounts for approxi— mately 90% of the whey volume, and contains approximately 85% lactose, 9% minerals, and 4% non-protein nitrogenous materials on a dry weight basis (Khorshid, 1974; Fenton-May et al., 1971). Most dairy product research in whey protein concen- trates has been related to studying them as additives in formulated foods. The work referred to in the literature is concerned with hydrolyzing the permeated fraction to produce alcohol, oil, single cell protein, and food grade syrups. This research project is a feasibility study to deter- mine whether the permeate can be used in the formulation of a brine or syrup in the canning industry. The whey permeate lactose, with and without hydrolysis, was investigated for its osmotic properties to evaluate its potential as a brine replacement in canned beans, and as a syrup replacement in canned plums. LITERATURE REVIEW In a world of food shortages, the dairy industry is faced with a burdensome surplus of whey solids. Far too much whey has been thrown away without regard to the environmental impact, or the economic potential for whey. However, anti- pollution legislation has stopped such practices as dumping in streamsor along sides of a country road, and the whey industry is accepting the fact that they have a consumable product. Table 1 shows the typical composition of Cottage and Cheddar cheese whey (McDonough, 1976). The data simply shows that most of the solids of whey is lactose. High- quality protein is the second main ingredient, along with small quantities of ash, fat, and lactic acid. Whey is rich in calcium, phosphorous, sodium, essential amino acids, and many vitamins (Cerbulis et al., 1972; Gillies, 1974). The benefits of these ingredients are nutritional however, and can best be realized by addition of whole whey or its fractions into foods. Thus, the recovery of intact whey solids, or a fractionation of them that will alter the ratio of ingredients in favor of lactose or protein, can be quite profitable. Table 1. Dry solids in cheese whey % Component Cgfigzg: EHggggr Whey Whey Protein 13.0 12.9 Lactose 66.5 73.5 Ash 10.2 8.0 Fat 0.1 0.9 Lactic Acid 8.6 2.3 McDonough, (1976). Methods of concentrating or fractionating whey The current practical systems for recovering all or part of the solids of whey are discussed below. The tech- niques of concentration, drying, and reverse osmosis recover all of the solids, while the other systems are fractionating techniques. 1. Concentration reduces the amount of water, thereby lowering shipping costs through reduced bulk, improved keeping quality, and providing a product more suitable for direct use in foods. The cost of removing a pound of water in an efficient evaporator is about one-tenth the cost of removing it in a spray dryer (Morris, 1947). This cost consideration has encouraged the development of more uses of whey and whey fractions in the concentrated form. One major development in this area has been to concentrate whey or whey fractions to 65-70% solids. This causes sufficient lactose crystallization to tie up the rest of the moisture, causing solidification into preformed blocks for use as animal "lick blocks" (McDonough, 1976). Juengst (1979) has reported that fermented ammoniated condensed whey can be an excellent source of non-protein nitrogen, crude protein, and an energy source for ruminants. 2. Drying gives maximum concentration, extends storage stability, and provides a product amenable to food incorpo- ration. There was no satisfactory method for drying whey until D.D. Peeples invented the hydrate drier in 1937. With this drier, food processors could convert sweet whey into a stable, nonhygroscopic, noncaking product. In this process, high solids whey concentrate is spray dried to a free moisture content of 12-l4%, causing lactose to take on a molecule of water and become crystallized. This causes whey solids to convert from a sticky, syrupy like material into a damp powder with good flow characteristics. Only recently, however, has the problem of drying acid Cottage cheese whey been overcome. The development by R.E. Meade of a dryer that combines spray drying, with through-flow continuous bed drying was instrumental in learning how to dry acid whey (Meade, 1973). The concen— trate is spray dried in the hot air chamber to 12-15% moisture. The particles fall to a continuous, porous, stainless-steel belt where lactose undergoes rapid crystal- lization. Crystallization of lactose before final drying is mandatory for drying acid whey (Young, 1970). The belt conveys the product to another chamber where the whey is further dried by dehumidified air that moves through the porous bed. 3. Lactose crystallization. In the production of lactose, there are two major processes in use today. In the first, the whey protein is chemically solubilized, allowing for higher concentration than normal. The concentrate is then cooled to allow the lactose to crystallize, which is then separated by centrifugation and air dried before packaging. This process provides a high yield with a single crystallization step (Thurlby and Sitnai, 1976). In a second, more widely used process, whey is concen- trated to somewhat lower levels without chemical solubili- zation of the protein. After cooling, the lactose crystals are removed by centrifugation and air dried as crude lactose. The crude lactose is refined by deoderizing and washing and filtering. Products that are quite pure are achieved by this method, but the yield is somewhat lower than the first process (Thurlby and Sitnai, 1976). 4. Demineralization is one of the biggest developments in whey processing. The minerals in whey make it distaste- ful, and they can have an adverse affect on the physical properties of some foods. The two most widely used demineralization processes for whey are ion exchange and electrodialysis. The ion-exchange process has been known for many years, but its application to whey is fairly recent. The princi- ple is that the whey is passed through two containers which are filled with special synthetic resins which have the ability to exchange ions. In the first container, the special synthetic resins change its hydrogen ions for cations in the whey. Here the positive ions of the salt are captured and acid is formed by the release of hydrogen ions. The whey is then passed over the anion exchanger where hydroxyl ions are exchanged for negative ions of the salt. When the mobile ions of the resins are completely replaced by other ions, the process discontinues and the resin must be regenerated. This is done by passing an acid (hydrochloric) solution through the cationic exchanger, and a basic solution (NaOH) through the anionic exchanger. There are several technical difficulties in ion exchange, including proper sanitation of the resin beds, disposal of regenerating solutions, the necessity of working at low solids concentration to prevent clogging of the resin beds, and a non-continuous process causing higher labor costs (Short and Doughty, 1977). Electrodialysis, a combination of electrolysis and dialysis, is the separation of electrolytes, under the influence of an electric potential through semi-permeable membranes. The driving force is an electric field between the anode (positively charged), and the cathode (nega- tively charged). Between the anode and cathode, a number of ion-selective membranes are placed which are permeable only to anions or cations. Every other membrane has a positive charge repelling positive ions and allowing nega- tive ions to pass, and in between there is a negatively charged membrane doing just the opposite. The principle is that the whey is pumped through every second space between 2 membranes, and a solution of NaCl (cleaning solution) is pumped through the compartments between the whey streams. The ions move from the whey lO stream into the ’cleaning' solution where they are retained, because they cannot move any further. Disposal of the 'cleaning' solution is no problem because it contains only minerals and acid, making the B.O.D. level small. This is an advantage because the membranes can be cleaned chemi- cally (Sammon, 1974). The Purity Cheese Company has developed a modification of electrodialysis which they call transport depletion (Sheder, 1972). A neutral membrane is used instead of the positively charged membrane. Protein molecules bounce off the neutral membrane and remain in the fluid while the minerals are removed. 5. Proteingprecipitation. Dairy products are known for their high quality protein; therefore much emphasis has been placed on methods of concentration or recovering the protein fraction from whey. One method is to heat denature the protein in the whey and then recover it by a centrifu- gation or filtration technique. Variations include the use of a pH adjustment and/or the addition of chemicals such as AlCl3. FeCl3, CaClz, and Ca(OH)2 (Joly, 1965; Tanford, 1968). Hydrocolloids like carboxy methyl cellulose (CMC) have also been used to precipitate whey protein (Hill and Zadow, 1974). The CMC combines with the protein, but is not removed. The resulting product is highly viscous, which may or may not be desirable, depending on its use. ll Whey protein can also be separated by complexing with iron salts. The complex is called ferric-whey protein, and is useful for iron fortification of some foods (Amantea et al., 1974). None of these precipitation methods are advantageous because the proteins are denatured causing a lack of solu- bility and functionality. One method was developed to recover undenatured whey protein by precipitation with long-chain polyphosphates. When the pH is 5 or below, the protein molecules will com- plex with the polyphosphate, and can be removed by centrifu- gation (Weller, 1979). 6. Gel filtration is another fractionating process that is being used commercially. In this process, a cross~ linked dextran gel (Sephadex) that exists in the shape of beads is packed in a column. The Sephadex beads contain pores, and as the whey is passed through the bed, the pro- tein molecules remain in the flowing volume because they are too large to penetrate the gel particle. Smaller mole- cules, such as salts and lactose, penetrate the gel pores to varying extents and are eluted at a slower rate. Thus, molecules are eluted in order of decreasing molecular size, and the whey protein is effectively separated from smaller components (Knipschildt, 1977). The major process used in this country involves a series of unit operations. Whey is treated to remove 12 insoluble protein and fat, then one-half the lactose is removed by concentration and crystallization. Finally the product is gel filtered, concentrated, and dried (Lindquist and Williams, 1973). In another process, an ultrafiltra— tion procedure is combined with Sephadex gel filtration to produce a powder containing 90% protein (McDonough, 1976). The powder has excellent solubility and stability at a wide range of pH. 7. Reverse Osmosis (RQ)/Ultrafiltration (UF). The related RO/UF membrane processes have become major factors in the field of whey concentration and fractionation. As early as 1970 it was reported that significant advances were being made in the design of RO/UF systems (Webb, 1970). At this time, other studies were describing the commercial performance ofau1R0 system for whey concentration (McDonough, 1971; Peri and Dunkley, 1971), and the development of a two-stage process using R0 and UF for the fractionation and concentration of whey (Horton et al., 1970; Fenton-May 6t 61-. 1971). as seen in Figure 1. R0 and DE are pressure activated processes that separate components on the basis of molecular size and shape. While these terms are used interchangeably, the following distinc- tion should be made between these processes. RO is that process in which virtually all species except water are rejected by the membrane. The osmotic pressure of the feed stream in such a system will often be quite high. 13 Cheese Whey FLO. 9 Water 1..___ whey proteln. lactose, salts V U.F. -—> Permeate (lactose, salt) V Whey Proteln Concentrate Flame 1: Schematic dlagram of related RO/UF processes. 14 Consequently, in order to achieve adequate water flux rates through the membrane, such systems often utilize hydro- static operating pressures of 5883.6Kg/cm2(600 psi) or greater (Eriksson, 1974). On the other hand, the term Ultrafiltration refers to the process in which the membrane is permeable to relatively low molecular weight solutes and solvent (permeate), but is impermeable to higher molecular weight materials (retentate). The permeability and selectivity characteristics of these membranes can be controlled during the process so that they will retain only molecules above a certain molecular weight (Michaels, 1976). Thus, UF is a selectively fractionating process. In order to meet the stringent sanitary requirements of the food industry, most RO/UF equipment used in food pro- cessing is based on a configuration in which the membrane is cast on the inside of a porous tube (Michaels, 1976). This tube may vary in diameter from 1/2” to 2" (Resik et a1. 1971). It provides the necessary mechanical support to enable the membrane to withstand the stresses imposed by the hydrostatic pressure used in the process. One advantage of UF over other processes is that by varying the amounts of permeate removed, a wide variety of protein concentrates, ranging up to 60% protein can be obtained (McDonough, 1971). Higher levels can be obtained by simultaneously adding fresh water and concentrating by UF. 15 Utilization of Whey Solids in Foods Recognition is finally being given to the food value of whey and whey ingredients in human nutrition. As late as 1960, practically all of the whey produced was either dumped, or went into animal feed. As anti-pollution legis- lation was approved, research became involved with incor- porating whey solids in human food. For 1976, total production of fluid whey was estimated at 34.2 billion pounds, in which 2.2 billion pounds of whey solids were produced (Table 2). This shows a dramatic increase (21.7%) from 1972 when 28.1 billion pounds of fluid whey, and 1.8 billion pounds of whey solids were produced (Clark, 1979). Most whey is being used as a replacement for non-fat dry milk (NFDM). The growing use of whey solids corresponds to the fact that in recent years, whey has been elevated in status from a by-product or waste product, to one that should be used on its own merits. Some characteristics of its own favor its use over non-fat dry milk. An example is its ability to accentuate flavor. O'Connell (1974) was able to reduce both the sugar content, and the amount of chocolate liquor needed in candy bars. Whey accentuated the chocolate flavor so well, that less was needed. Whey also accentuates the flavor of a number of fruit flavored drinks (Nelson et al., 1972). 50 whereas casein in NFDM masks flavor, whey permits a reduction in flavor 16 .Amnmpv .xgmpu fim.om xo.oo am.om No.mm &~.mm muppom Amgz pcmpm>wzcm Page» \oop x ecspumwaces muwpom awn: Pouch ARV cmmmmuosa cmcpcam muwpom xmgz Peach mNN.~ mpm.F “wo.F wom.p omm.F . muwpom awn: ucmpm>w=cm page» mm~.¢m mom.m~ mfim.om men.w~ m¢P.wN corpusuoca xmsz Peach mum mum mmm mmm mom muwpom xmgz umumpsupmu oom.e eo~.¢ oeF.¢ mum.¢ 405.4 awn: evzpc empapsupau ppm you O¢o mom emu cowpuzcosa unease mmmppou xmgz maaauuwu< Nmm.F meo.p mP~._ Pum.F emm.~ muwpom awn: umumpzupmu mmo.om www.mm mme.m~ mop.¢~ www.mm awn: crap; umumpsu—mu smm.m pr.m nmm.~ mmm.~ mom.~ cowpuzuoca mmmmcu Aug: maxuuummzm 1. ~chzoa to acowppwsv onmr mumF mmmp mnmp enmfi muwpom Aug: do xpwucmza new cowuozuoca muwpom xogz new has: crap; .m.= umumswumm aummmmuoca Longest: .N mFDah 17 ingredients (Knipschildt, 1977). Webb (1970) was able to describe specific processes for the manufacture of whey drinks from prune and tomato juice. The baking industry is the largest user of edible whey in the U.S. for bakery products. Whey providing all of the attributes of milk except water absorption and protein con- tent. Therefore, whey is generally combined with other ingredients, such as soy flour, that compensate for those deficiencies. A number of other ingredients (egg white solids, calcium salts, etc.) are added to whey to give a larger variety of blends designed specifically for certain performance characteristics (Daniel, 1978). Whey is also used in other dairy products, especially ice cream. U.S. federal regulations permit the use of whey in ice cream up to 25% of the serum solids used (Bills, 1974). Leighton (1944) pioneered a set of recommended optimum substitutions of whey solids, depending on the % fat in the mix. Potter and Williams (1949) demonstrated that good quality sherbet could be made by using whey solids in place of other nonfat milk solids. Frazeur and Harring- ton (1967) showed that consumers could not distinguish between a controlled ice cream, and one where 25% of the serum solids was replaced with demineralized whey. Consumers could distinguish between ice creams where 25% of the serum solids was replaced with either an average or high quality whey, and the control and demineralized 18 samples. Arnold et al. (1976) showed that the use of up to 35% serum solids replacement with dried sweet whey was acceptable in ice cream mix formulations. Substitutions of up to 50%, using hydrolyzed whey concentrate from UF, have also been shown to be acceptable (Loewenstein et al., 1976). Another use is in cheese foods and spreads. The use of retentates from UF has been explored for quite some time (Kosikowski and Sood, 1979; Kosikowski and Covacevich, 1978). A method for making process cheese, supplemented with plain and enzyme-treated highly concentrated reten- tates has recently been developed (Kosikowski and Kumar, 1977). Ernstrom et a1. (1978) converted ultrafiltered whole milk retentates into curd as material for process cheeses. The making of natural cheese utilizing highly concen- trated retentates was introduced by Maubois and Mocquot (1975). Cottage cheese produced from UF retentate was shown to be acceptable (Mattews et al., 1976). Whey and modified whey blends are being used increas- ingly in cake mixes (Scanlon, 1974), sausage products (Lauck, 1975) and confectioneries (O'Connell, 1974). Utilization of Whey Components Whey protein (WP) has nutritional and functional proper- ties that make it unique. In determinations of protein quality, results have shown the nutritional superiority of 19 WP over casein. The Protein Efficiency Ratio (PER) for WP is 3.1-3.2 when casein is standardized at 2.5 (Wingerd et al., 1970). In practical terms, WP is ideal as a supple- ment to other foods of lower value. A combination of pro- teins from different sources has potential for improving the PER by having the amino acid profile of one protein complement the amino acid profile of another protein. Womack and Vaughan (1972) supplemented cereal grains with WP prepared by UF. Supplementation of up to 50% improved the PER drastically. In addition to nutritional benefits, WP has desirable functional properties. Undenatured protein prepared by UF and gel filtration retains excellent solubility, even in an acid environment. This property makes WP the nutrient of choice in the fortification of soft drinks (Knipschildt, 1977). WP concentrates are excellent foaming agents; under certain conditions, they produce excellent stable whips. Unfortunately, when the foams are subjected to heat they become very unstable. Thus, the whipping properties of WP have been found to be quite acceptable in dessert toppings, as reported by Gillies (1974). WP makes an excellent binder for meat products. Frank- furters containing WP were judged to have superior color, texture, and eating properties, to those frankfurters con- taining non-fat dry milk (Lauck, 1975). The lack of water 20 binding capacity of WP, accounts for low visCosity even in highly concentrated solutions, giving excellent gelation and emulsifying properties, which are similar to that of sodium caseinate (Lauck, 1975). Lactose is more than just a carbohydrate. It has physical and chemical properties that give it a distinct advantage over other sugars in certain foods and pharma— ceuticals. Lactose is recognized as an aid in absorption of calcium and phosphorus (Ali and Evans, 1973). Welch (1965) found that lactose could be used as a carrier for dispensing potent food flavors. Lee and Lillibridge (1976) were able to use lactose as a carrier of antibiotics. Because of its excellent tablet forming properties, lactose influences the characteristics of the tablet---its strength and ease of dissolving. Chambers and Ferretti (1979) have studied the use of whey/lactose in a binding system to manufacture iron ore and iron/steel pellets produced from iron fines captured in pollution control equipment. Lactose also contributes a number of improved qualities to baked goods (Ash, 1976; Guy, 1971). In such products, lactose can contribute to flavor, texture, appearance, shelf life, and toasting qualities. Improved tenderness in biscuits (Potter and Zaehringer, 1965) and doughnuts (Hoffstrand et al., 1965) has been attributed to lactose. Guy (1971) found that lactose not only improves the color and texture of the crust of many baked goods, it also 21 improves toasting qualities through participation in the Maillard reaction. Jelen and Breene (1973) used lactose to improve the texture in dill pickles. Since other sugars were fermented out, lactose improved the brittleness, hard- ness, and elasticity of the dill pickles. Since lactose is less sweet than sucrose, it can be added to foods such as icings, toppings, and fruit pie fillings to increase the total solids without exCessive sweetness (Jonas, 1973). At low concentrations, lactose is only about one-fourth as sweet as sucrose, but at higher levels it is about half as sweet (Pangborn, 1963). Thus, far more lactose can be used in foods without making them excessively sweet. Replacing 15-20% of the sucrose in icings and toppings with lactose, not only reduces the sweetness, but can improve texture and stability (Reger, 1958). Other workers (Randeria, 1966; Welch, 1965) have suggested similar replacements of sucrose by lactose in foods such as custard, fruit pies, and jams. Increasing the sugar solids without causing excessive sweetness can aid in improving texture, viscosity, and mouth feel. In cultured products lactose gives more body and smooth- ness and reduces the sharp acid flavor (Reger, 1958). Various proteins have been stabilized by the use of lactose. The casein system of milk remains stable due to the presence of lactose. Once the lactose is removed the casein is destabilized (Gerlsma, 1957). Studies with chocolate and 22 chocolate drinks have shown that lactose containing samples were preferred for homogeneity, texture, and aroma (Arnott and Bullock, 1963). Lactose does have its limitations in foods. It is not very soluble at room temperature, so crystallization can occur if too much is used, causing sandiness (Nickerson, 1956). The other limitation is the lactose-intolerance problem, found in individuals or species of animals that lack the enzyme necessary to handle large amounts of ingested lactose. These limitations are overcome by hydrolysis of lactose by acid or enzymes into its component monosaccharides, glu- cose and galactose, thereby increasing usefulness of lactose. Hydrolysis expands lactose possibilities in foods by markedly affecting relative sweetness, solubility, and crystallization (Bouvy, 1975; Holsinger and Guy, 1974). Hydrolysis of lactose can be by acid or by enzyme. The use of B-galactosidase, either in a batch process or as an immobilized enzyme has been studied carefully. Pitcher (1975) and Weetall (1976) studied operational parameters important to the function and scale-up of immobilized enzyme systems. Bouvy (1975) developed specific parameters (amount, time, temperature, pH, etc.) for the enzyme's use. Acid hydrolysis has been accomplished with strong mineral acids or with ion-exchange resins in the acid form. High temperatures are required in both cases (Coughlin and 23 Nickerson, 1975; Haggett, 1976). Guy and Edmondson (1978) developed a method for producing nearly colorless syrups by either acidic or enzymatic hydrolysis, followed by decolorization, ion exchange demineralization, and concen- tration. Kosikowski and Weirzbicki (1973) reported that glucose-galactose syrups prepared by acid hydrolysis have been suitable for blending to prepare swiss-style flavored yogurts, imitation maple syrups, fruit juices, and puddings. Holsinger (1978) reported that lactose-treated whey re- duced sandiness and permitted a 10% sucrose reduction in ice cream. Crystallization was reduced and browning enhanced in caramel manufacture. Hydrolyzed whey permeate obtained from UF, has recently been studied for human food use. Fenton-May et al. (1971) and Khorshid (1974) studied UF permeate to determine its nutritional composition. Palatable wines containing lO-12.5% alcohol were produced when yeasts were fermented with hydrolyzed whey permeate syrups and grape juice concentrates (Roland and Alm, 1975). Fermentation times can be reduced drastically when lactose hydrolyzed whey is used for wine production (O'Leary et al., 1977). Kosikowski and Gawel (1978) adapted lactose-fermenting yeasts to ferment concen- trated ultrafiltered Cottage cheese whey permeates to a high yield of alcohol, approximately 10% (v/v) ethanol in 15 days at 30°C. Cheese whey and UF permeate have been used as media for producing oil and single-cell protein 24 from strains of yeast. Fermentation of UF whey permeate has been much more successful, producing oil, reducing the chemical oxygen demand (COD) by 95%, and requiring the fewest additions of nutrients (Moon et al., 1978). MacBean (1976) has successfully hydrolyzed permeate with ion-exchange resins, and has studied the mechanism and characteristics of the resin, and operational variables such as temperature and flow rate. These hydrolyzed syrups have been used to par- tially substitute for sucrose in canned peaches and pears (Tweedie and MacBean, 1978). Their results show that up to 50% of sucrose in the syrup of these canned fruits can be replaced with hydrolyzed lactose without reducing quality. EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES Materials Obtaining the permeate For this study, uncolored Cheddar cheese whey was ob- tained from the Michigan State University Dairy Plant. This type of cheese whey was selected because: 1) Cheddar cheese whey is the predominant form produced in the U.S.A., and 2) It was obtained as a byproduct from the cheese batch in which no color was added. Lack of added color was deemed advisable to prevent possible side effects in the final canned product. The uncolored Cheddar cheese whey was then ultrafiltered using an ABCOR 2-Tube through lO-Tube Sanitary Test Ultrafil- tration System (Figure 2). Ultrafiltration (UF) is the pro- cess of separating whole whey into its component parts, depending on their molecular weights. This is done by applying pressure to push the smaller molecular weight materials (lactose, minerals, salts, etc.) through a semi- permeable membrane physically arranged to maximize its surface area. The fraction filtered through the membrane (water, soluble sugars, minerals) is termed the permeate, and the fraction that is impermeable to the membrane (fats, 25 mm....=u .- + 0:5; 8.. 37 2) The element was attached to the transducer ring and the cell box with the weighed sample covered, was placed in the proper position. 3) Range was set at 10, thus full scale represented 136 kg = XKg force. 4) Recorder pen was set at zero. 5) The shear blades were passed through the sample and the resistance was recorded on chart paper. 6) Readings on each sample were obtained in dupli- cate. Calculations for 1b. force shear resistance per gram sample were made using the following formula: range peak height 1b. ring X 100 X __109f weight of samp1e = lb. force/g Navy bean results were obtained from two peaks of bean deformation. The first peak shows the amount of force required for the proving ring to compress the bean's outer layer before it ruptures. The second peak is the force needed for the proving ring to compress and shear the internal portion of the bean. 8. Minerals The mineral content of navy beans, kidney beans, plums and their respective brines or syrups were analyzed using a direct reading spectrograph, or photoelectric spectro- meter "Quantograph" manufactured by Applied Research 38 Laboratories, Inc. maintained in the Horticulture Dept. of Michigan State University. The basic operational principle of this unit is that of an emission spectrograph as des- cribed by Kenworthy (1960). Samples were analyzed for P, Na, Ca, and Mg. Sample preparation for mineral analyses involved the ashing of 0.5 9 samples (dry matter) overnight at 530°C. The ash was then dissolved in the ashing crucible with 5 m1 of HCl-Co-Li-K solution. The HCl-Co-Li-K solution was prepared by dissolving 142.6 ml HN03, 34.07 9 KCl, 38.22 g LiCl, and 2.02 g CoC12 in one liter of distilled water. A portion of the ash solution was transferred to a porcelain boat with a medicine dropper. This ash solution was used directly in the excitation process by use of a revolving disc electrode. The amount transferred is not critical, but should be sufficient to provide a good contact between the revolving disc electrode and the solution. Also, it is necessary to provide enough solution to prevent complete evaporation during the excitations. Excitation was accomplished by the use of an interrup- ted arc discharge that produces a uni-directional spark— like condition. Values were read in a recording chart to the nearest half division. A computer program was used to express ppm or percentage on a dry basis. The results in this study are expressed as mg/100 g of fresh weight. 39 9. Sensory evaluation Sensory analyses were made by a consumer panel to determine both difference and preference among treatments. The untrained panel consisted of a random sampling of people working and/or passing through the MSU Food Science Building. All samples were served in segregated panel booths, where each panelist was provided with comfortable seating, proper lighting, water for oral rinsing, and enough space for samples and for the score card. A triangle difference test was used to evaluate treatment differences for navy beans. A sample form is shown in Figure 4. Three sets of 3 samples each were presented individually to the panelist at one sitting. Panelists were instructed that two of the three samples were identical and one was different. They were instructed to identify the odd sample. In addition, they were instructed to indicate the sample possessing the greater degree of sweetness, tenderness, as well as better color. Preference testing was done to determine directly which sample(s) the panelist liked or disliked. Included in the experimental samples of beans was a commercial brand. A simple seven point hedonic scale was used for all attri- butes ranging from 7 equals very dark color, very strong flavor, very firm/dense texture, very acceptable, and like extremely. A sample form is shown in Figures 5 (for beans) and 6 (for plums). 4o TRIANGLE TEST PRODUCT: CANNED NAVY BEANS In each set, two of the samples are identical, one is the odd or different sample. Test to determine the odd sample. If you are not sure, take a guess. Answer the specific attribute questions about the sample in each set. SET NUMBER 1 Samples Presented: Different/Odd Sample Is: Which is sweeter? ........... odd sample( ). .paired sample é ) Which one do you prefer? ....... odd sample( ). .paired sample ) Which are more tender? ........ odd sample( ). .paired sample ( ) Which one do you prefer? ....... odd sample( ). .paired sample ( ) Which color do you prefer? ...... odd sample( ). .paired sample ( ) Comments, if any: SET NUMBER 2 Samples Presented: Different/Odd Sample Is: Which is sweeter? ........... odd sample( ). .paired sample ( ) Which one do you prefer? ....... odd sample( ). .paired sample ( ) Which are more tender? ........ odd sample( ). .paired sample ( ) Which one do you prefer? ....... odd sample( ). .paired sample ( ) Which color do you prefer? ...... odd sample( ). .paired sample ( ) Comments, if any SET NUMBER 3 Samples Presented: Different/Odd Sample Is: Which is sweeter? ........... odd sample( ). .paired sample( ) Which one do you prefer? ....... odd sample( ). .paired sample( ) Which are more tender? ........ odd sample( ). .paired sample( ) Which one do you prefer? ....... odd sample( ). .paired sample( ) Comments, if any Figure 4. Sample form of questionnaire presented to untrained panel to evaluate sweetness, tenderness, and color 41 TASTE TEST PRODUCT: CANNED BEANS Instructions: You will be given four servings of a food to eat, and you are asked to say about each how much you like it or dislike it. SHOW YOUR REACTION BY CHECKING ON THE SCALE CODE: CODE: CODE: CODE: Like Like Like Like extremely extremely extremely extremely Like Like Like Like ' moderately moderately moderately moderately Like Like Like Like slightly slightly slightly slightly Neither like Neither like Neither like Neither like nor dislike nor dislike nor dislike nor dislike Dislike Dislike Dislike Dislike slightly slightly slightly slightly Dislike Dislike Dislike Dislike moderately moderately moderately moderately Dislike Dislike Dislike Dislike extremely extremely extremely extremely Figure 5. Sample form of questionnaire presented to untrained panel to evaluate preference between separate groups of canned navy beans and kidney beans. 2.2.2. 35...”. mo 3:339... E; £022.23"... 6.5.3.3 . 38:: 3.38 32:2... 3 3:... 3555.... 3 3.53.... 932.633.... .2. F...» upntum .o 9.33.. M 39.5.5.8 9.22.. p 525.382.: .22. — b.3533 >...m> — 3.... 58> p ”Ea: .98.. — 332mg... 8:3:. N 2.3382... 69.. N 2255.8 6a... N 3.... .8... N 23— 6o... N 32...... 9:3... m 2.2582... 3.... n 2.2.3.8 3: n 2.... J.“ m 2.... .3” n .8: 9.: Han...“ c ,xwpnmaawwmuumwuwnm” v \Er. Logwwww e \acosum cwswnw“. e 2.2. chum.“ v .223: 9.: m 3.2...me .u? m 3.83.5: .u? m 39.: .w—m m .22. .2“ m 38226... S... c «23388 .3... 0 3.53.5... .3... .w 9.9;“ .3... o .93.... .3... o 38.853 9.: A o—auugouun :2. A 3.53.5: .22. 5 2.9.: f? n .22. :2. 5 8.5.89... :22... 3:35.682 :35... 83...: .83: L28 .3375: 55 .63.. ~25 5 333.. 9.83. .3323: gone .8 033 9.3.... “.59. N 3539...... 93 3 @5288 39.3 .33 .3 3:289... 29.26 use 322338.. $59.3 .233» .593: £39.. 32:2.“ 3:039:52: 43 10. Statistica] analyses Means and standard deviatimuswere computed for a1] data. One way anaiysis of variance and Tukey separations were performed according to Senter (1976), using a Texas Instruments SR-40 e1ectronic calcuiator. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 1. Analysis of Whey and Its Products Uncolored Cheddar cheese whey and its by-product ultra- filtered whey permeate (deproteinated whey) were analyzed for total solids, total protein, ash and pH (Table 3). Mean values for total solids, protein, ash and pH in the whey were 6.57%. 0.70%, 0.60% and 6.15 respectively. Upon fractionation in the UF system. the permeate retained 5.69% solids, 0.15% protein, 0.54% ash and a pH of 6.13. By calculation it can be seen that the permeate retained 83% of the total solids, 21% of the protein, and 90% of the ash while the pH value was about the same as that of whey. It was observed that the composition of the whey was similar to that reported by numerous other workers. The ultrafiltered whey permeate was similar in composition to that reported by Khorshid (1974). 2. Navy Beans The typical composition of canned navy beans (solid bean and bean sauce) treated with permeate brine or lac- tose hydrolyzed permeate brine, is compared with that of untreated control in Table 4. The levels of total solids and ash (solid bean) in treated samples ranged from 35.27- 44 45 .mgmmemgmn Fpm Lo; mcopumcwsgmpmu mpmuwpasv mo mmumgm>m mzu men paws» comm Low mumu mgha mp.m mp.o em.o om.o mp.o o~.o mm.m nm.o cum: N_.m om.m ¢m.o Pm.o ¢P.o mm.o mm.m mm.o u NF.o Np.m em.o oo.o up.o Fn.o F~.m em.m m mp.m mm.m em.o mm.o mp.o mm.o mm.m mm.o < mummEcwa mag: mummssma avg: mummsgma xmnz mammsgma awn: In x .;m< x .cwmpoca Papa» m .mvrpom quok mesh ampmmesma u: can awn: wmmmsu smuumzo coco—coca $0 cowupmonsou Fmanxh .m open» 46 .A—o.owav mucmgmwmwu ucmuwewcmwm o: muocwv mesapou cvguw: mgmuump mxv4m memo m sow mmaFm> :mmzm o u z .cmo\mmpaemm N x memo m Low mmspm> cmmzp - mpo.oaoo.m mmo.onem.m meo.onop.¢F Acmpmwepcsv Foapcou - mpo.onoo.m avo.onpm.op amo.ohow.mp mummEgmauumuxpogv»;-mmouum; - mPo.oamm.m a_o.oneu.op amo.ohpm.mp «paused; .uozmm :mmn mpc.oaw.oem - meo.onmm.m opo.one~.~m Aumpmogpcav Pocucou m_o.oam._em - nmo.ono~.e apo.oanm.mm mommeema-um~apoeua;-mmouumd mmo.onw.oem - a_o.onp_.q memo.onmm.mm mummsgma :mwn uwpom Amy .p: In & gm< N muwpom Peach gemspemgh metem Numcmmgo N p F I. Pogucou cmumwguca an op umgmasou mm .mummsgma awn: ume—oguzgummouump Lo mummEgma xmcz cw coccmu .Amumzw coma can name twpomv mcmmn >>mc mo comuwmoasou quvaz» .u open» 47 35.58%, and 4.11-4.26%, respectively. A significant dif- ference between all permeate treated samples (permeate and lactose hydrolyzed permeate) and the untreated sample (control) was detected for total solids and ash. The per- meate treated samples contained a significantly higher level of both solids and ash. This difference can be attributed to the permeate and lactose-hydrolyzed permeate brines having a higher solids and ash content than the untreated brine. The bean sauce obtained from treated samples averaged 15.21-15.86% solids and 10.24-10.91% ash. As in the case of the solid beans, both permeate treated samples exhibited a significantly higher level of both solids and ash. Mean values for the drained weight and pH of the beans and sauce were 340.9 g and 5.62 respectively, indicating there was no difference between the 3 treatments for these parameters. The ash and mineral content (P, Na, Ca and Mg) of the canned navy beans (solid bean and bean sauce) is shown in Table 5. Higher levels of ash and of most elements were observed in the samples treated with permeate and lactose- hydrolyzed permeate. Calcium levels in the treated solid bean samples were about 80% greater than the untreated control. Other elements, P (9.5%), Na (4.0%), and Mg (47%) also were at higher levels than the untreated control. Treated bean sauce samples also had higher levels of all elements analyzed. Phosphorous (24%), sodium (5%), 48 Nuz .ch\mmFasmm N x “cospomgu\cmu P Low mmapm> :mmzN mucmgmwmwc ucmuwmwcmwm o: muocmu magspou cwzuwz mgmupmp ox“; — mN¢.onme.mNP ppm.OHmm.ma awm.0Hom.mNm mmo.¢ume.mwN mmm.om¢m.m Aumpmmgucav Fogucou mammEgma omm.onNm.meF nmw.onpe.ump ppm.ouoN.mmm nNN.onoP.mmm nN¢.ohpm.oF cmuxpogva;ummoquA nmN.onmo.Ne_ aee.oamm.NmF nem.onoN.m¢m nm¢.0hNe.N¢m aNN.oneN.oP mummsgma muamm came mN¢.onmo.Ne m2.3.3.3 nNN.onom.owm mwN.0hom.m¢P mN¢.onma.m Acmummgucav Pogpcou muumsgmn amm.oan.em acs.ohmo.Pm an.OHoe.mmm aom.on-.emp nmo.onmN.e uw~zpoguagummopum4 noe.onoc.oo nNe.0Hmm.Nm .aNm.onNm.mmm nae.onmN.omF nme.ohpp.e mpmwsgma cums uwpom m oor\ms a: mu oz a “ma pcmsummcp N N N N N . . mmpasmm Apogpcoov umummsucz spwz umgmqsou mmummssma cw umccau .Amuzmm ammo new anon uwpomv memos a>mc umpmwgv mo mwmxpocm Foucmsmpm ucm ucmucou gm< .m «pack 49 calcium (58%) and magnesium (18%) levels were generally greater in the treated samples than in the untreated control. Because ultrafiltered whey permeate contains a rather high ash content, approximately 8-9% ash on a dry weight basis (Khorshid, 1974), this may account for the higher mineral content in the treated samples. Kramer Shear, Hunter Color and mean sensory preference scores are shown in Table 6. Kramer Shear results were obtained from two peaks of bean deformation. The first peak shows the amount of force required for the proving ring to compress the bean's outer layer before it ruptures. The second peak is the force needed for the proving ring to compress and shear the inside of the bean. It can be seen from Table 6 that the permeate and lactose hydrolyzed samples required a significantly greater amount of force (1.69 and 1.75, respectively) to rupture the bean's outer layer. The amount of force required to shear the bean inside was also significantly greater for the treated samples, with permeate needing 2.12 lb/g, lactose-hydro- lyzed permeate 2.29 lb/g, and the untreated control 1.51 1b/ 9. Significantly higher ash levels, especially Ca, are probably responsible for the greater degree of firmness in the treated samples. Mean color coordinate values for navy beans (Table 6) show that there was a significant difference between treated and untreated beans in 2 of the 3 coordinate 50 Table 6. Mean shear compression force, color coordinate, and preference scores with Tukey separations for navy beans (p50.01)1 Treatment Kramer Shear lblg lst Pk 2nd Pk Permeate 1.69:0.02b 2.12:0.03b Lactose-hydrolyzed 1.75:0.05b 2.29:0.04b permeate Control (untreated) Permeate Lactose-hydrolyzed permeate Control (untreated) Permeate Lactose-hydrolyzed permeate Control (untreated) Commercial sample 1.20:0.04a 1.51:0.03a Hunter Color Coordinate Values L 91 BL 50.42:0.72a 6.86:0.62b 18.70:O.72b 49.85:0.85a 6.60:0.70b 18.3010.85b 49.82:0.46a 1.99:0.45a 14.72i0.453 Preference Scores2 3.32:0.76b 3.36:0.72b 4.70:1.78a 4.52:1.63a v— 1Like letters within columns denote no significant difference 2'l=dislike extremely, 2=dislike moderately, 3=dislike slightly, 4=niether like nor dislike, 5=like slightly, 6=like moderately, 7=like extremely. 51 values. It was observed that while L values were similar (49.82—50.42), both treated samples had higher +aL values (6.62-6.86) and +bL values (18.30-18.70), than untreated samples (+aL = 1.99, +bL = 14.72). This shows that the treated beans had a significantly greater degree of redness (+aL value), as well as yellow color (+bL value). Triangle difference testing for the navy beans demon- strated that the panelists were able to distinguish the odd sample (28/30 correct decisions). Overall preference testing (Table 6) showed significantly higher mean scores for both the untreated control and a commercial brand. Mean scores were 4.70 for the control, 4.52 for the commer- cial sample, 3.32 for the permeate and 3.36 for the lactose- hydrolyzed permeate. Thus, control and commercial samples were judged between neither like/dislike and like slightly. All permeate treated samples were judged between dislike slightly and neither like/dislike. In general, all permeate treated samples were deemed less desirable than control and commercial samples. 3. Kidney Beans Canned kidney beans (solid bean and bean sauce) treated with permeate brine or lactose-hydrolyzed permeate brine were compared with the untreated control for their compo- sition (Table 7). Mean values for the total solids and ash (solid bean) ranged from 32.63-39.75%, and l.07-l.24%, respectively. The treated samples contained a significantly Apo.owav mucmgmmewc pcmowmwcmrm o: mpozmu mzszyoo cwspwz mgmume mxwgm memo m Low mmapm> :mmzN muz .cm0\mm~asmm N x mcmu m Lo» mmapm> :mmzp auo.oamc.m - awe. o+mp. 4P asc.ow~m.m Neapmaaocav .oapcou ago.OHoo.m - nee. o+Nm. mp neo.onmm.m_ apaaeama ua~apozu»;-amouua4 apo.onNo.m - amo. o+FP. mp omo.ohom.np apaaseaa ouzmm coma - apo.on~.mmm apo.ohuo.P mmo.onmo.~m wuaoamzpcav Peepeou - auo.oam.mmm awo.one~._ neo.onmn.mm mommsgma-uaNNPoguag-am080eb - amo.on¢.mmm nPo.owmo.P memo.onmm.mm muamsaaa :mmn cwpom E. 2. N18 NeaE ago _N gm< .N muwpom Payee Seasonagp aspen Fogucou umpmmguc: an op vwgmasoo mm .mummsgma xmsz vaapogua; amouump so mummssmq awn: saw: umummgu .Amuaom :mmn new :mma twpomv mammn xmcumx mo cowuwmoaeou P80maxh .N anMF 53 higher level of both solids and ash. The bean sauce averaged 9.92-19.55% solids and 14.16-15.69% ash. Both treated bean sauce samples had significantly greater levels of solids and ash. As in the case of the navy beans, this is probably caused by the permeate having rather high solids and ash contents. 0n the average, drained weight and pH of the beans and sauce were 339.0 and 5.62 respec- tively. The treatments were similar to control for these parameters. The ash and mineral content (P, Na, Ca and Mg) of the canned kidney beans (solid bean and bean sauce) is shown in Table 8. Higher levels of ash and of most elements was observed in the samples treated with permeate and lactose hydrolyzed permeate. Calcium levels in the treated solid bean samples were 2-fold greater than the untreated control. Phosphorous, sodium and magnesium levels were observed to be similar to that of the untreated control. Kidney bean sauce levels of P, Na, Ca and Mg were increased by 22, 8, 13 and 75% respectively, in relation to the juice obtained from untreated (control) samples. Kramer Shear, Hunter Color and mean preference scores are shown in Table 9. Kramer Shear results show a signifi- cant difference between treated and untreated samples. Permeate brined beans (2.16 lb/g) and lactose-hydrolyzed permeate brined beans (2.60 lb/g), were significantly firmer than untreated beans (1.46 lb/g). This increased 54 an .ch\mmpasmm N x ucmspmmgpxcmu P sow mmapm> comzN .mucogm$$wu ucmuwmwcmwm o: muocmu mcsspou cpzpwz mgmuump mxwg P mN¢.oHNN.mm mFN.onNm.FNN mNN.onm¢.pvp mmN.owoN.mom ape.onmp.ep “umpmmgucav Fogpcou mammExma nNN.ono¢.mo nem.owom.mom nom.onpN.cmF nm¢.onoN.NNo nmm.ownm.m— umNAPoguazlomouumA nee.owNm.mo amo.onmp.¢om nmm.onmm.omp nmm.ouNm.mmm ncN.opr.¢_ mammssmm muamm,:mwa mNN.ohom.emp mNN.OHmm.moF mmm.onNN.0N MNN.onm._om oON.oHNo.F Aumpmmgucav Posucou mummsgma mmm.onmo.mmp nme.owop.mmN ape.owmm.mN mNm.owNp.mmN mnp.oweN.F umNNPogva;-mmouum4 mm¢.onpp.mmp nom.onmp.NNN mmN.onmN.mN mm¢.onpe.NmN mNF.onmo.— mummesma coma uwpom m oo—\ms a “av acmEpmmsp No: N3 Nmz N Ngm< mmFaEmm apogucouv cmamwsuca new: umgmasoo mwummsgma cw umccmu .Amuzmm coma can cwmn uwpomv memos zmcuwx vmammgu we mwmzpmco Pmucmsmpm new mucmucou nm< .m anmh Table 9. 55 Mean shear compression force, color coordinate, and preference scores with Tukey separations for kidney beans (p50.01) '— Treatment Kramer Shear lb/g Permeate 2.16:0.15b Lactose hydrolyzed 2.60:0.20b permeate Control (untreated) Permeate Lactose hydrolyzed permeate Control (untreated) Permeate Lactose hydrolyzed permeate Control (untreated) Commercial sample 1.46i0.12a Hunter Color Coordinate Values L at 21 28.4li0.65b 10.70i0.24a 8.3010.42a 28.83i0.77b 10.8510.77a 8.15:0.78a 26.52¢0.38a 10.70:0.65a 7.95:0.42a Preference Scores2 2.40:0.68b 2.00:0.73b 3.45:1.026 3.26:0.82a 1 difference. Like letters within columns denote no Significant 2 l=dislike extremely, 2=dislike moderately, 3=dislike slightly, 4=neither like nor dislike, 5=like slightly, 6=like moderately, 7=like extremely 56 firmness level in the treated beans can also be attributed to a rather high ash content, especially the calcium level (Table 8) of the permeate. Mean color coordinate values for kidney beans (Table 9), show +aL coordinate values ranging from 10.70-10.85, +bL values from 7.95-8.30, and L values from 26.5—28.8. Hunter +aL and +bL values for all three treatments were similar. Both treated samples were observed to have significantly different L values than the untreated control. The higher L values for the treated samples indicate that those kidney beans were lighter in color than the control beans. Overall preference testing (Table 9) showed significant- 1y higher mean scores for both the untreated control and a commercial sample. Mean scores were 3.45 for the control, 3.26 for the commercial sample, 2.40 for the permeate, and 2.00 for the lactose-hydrolyzed permeate. Thus, control and commercial samples were judged between dislike slightly and neither like/dislike. All permeate treated samples were judged between dislike moderately and dislike slightly. Twenty-three percent of the panelists indicated that the treated beans were firmer. In general, all samples were deemed something less than desirable. 4. Plums The typical composition of canned plums (solid plum and plum syrup) treated with sucrose replacement levels of 5, 10, l5, 20 and 25% lactose-hydrolyzed permeate (HP), or crystalline glucose-galactose (68), as compared to an 57 untreated control is shown inlabdes.lo and 1]. It can be seen from the Table that the total solids (27.5%) and ash (0.48-0.49%) for the solid plums were similar in composi- tion. Drained weight values (284.5 g) were also similar. Plum syrup composition is shown in Table 11. Total solids for all plum syrup samples ranged from 12.46-12.49%,and ash contents ranged from 0.10-0.ll%. Values for plum syrup pH ranged from 3.58-3.62, with one exception, that of 25% 66 replacement with a pH of 3.34. The ash and mineral contentsof the canned plums (solid plum and plum syrup) are shown in Table 12. Generally, higher levels of P, Na, Ca and Mg were observed in the HP samples of the solid plums than in the control and GG sam- ples. HP samples had phosphorous levels of 3.19-3.32 mg/ 100 g,Na (11.66-12.82 mg/100 9), Ca (11.35-12.43 mg/100 g) and Mg levels from 5.21-6.14 mg/100 9. Control plums had levels of 3.05 mg/100 g for P, 11.12 mg/100 g for Na, 11.04 mg/100 g for Ca, and 5.10 mg/100 g for Mg. Plum syrup samples had similar overall results to those found in the solid plums. Thus, generally the HP syrup had higher levels of P, Na, Ca and Mg than the control and 66 samples. HP samples had phosphorous levels ranging from 10.26-10.42 mg/100 g, sodium levels from 1.17-1.30 mg/100 9, calcium levels from 9.01-9.05 mg/100 g, and magnesium ranging from 3.97-4.05 mg/100 9. Control plum syrup had levels of 10.15 mg/100 g for phosphorous, 1.01 mg/100 g for 58 Table 10. T pical composition of canned plums (solid plum) , treated with sucrose replacement levels of 5, 10, 15, 20, 25% hydrolyzed whey permeate (HP) or crystalline glucose- galactose (66), as compared to an untreated control. Total2 Ash2 Drained3 Treatment Solids % % wt. Control 27.53:0.03a 0.49:0.01a 284.510.04a 5% HP 27.53:0.02a 0.49+0.04a 284.5:0.04a 10% HP 27.54:0.02a 0.49+0.02a 285.0:0.03a 15% HP 27.52:0.02a 0.49+0.01a 285.0:0.04a 20% HP 27.51:0.04a 0.49+0.01a 284.2:0.04a 25% HP 27.51:0.03a 0.49+0.01a 274.010.04a 5% GB 27.53:0.02a 0.29:0.02a 284.5:0.03a 10% 66 27.53:0.01a 0.29:0.01a 285.0:0.02a 15% CG 27.54:0.01a 0.29:0.02a 284.2:0.02a 20% GB 27.52:0.04a 0.29:0.02a 284.510.02a 25% GB 27.54:0.05a 0.28:0.02a 284.0:0.03a 1Like letters within columns denote no significant dif- ference. 2Mean values of 2 cans x 3 samples/can, N=6 3Mean values of two cans 59 Table 11. Typical composition of canned plums (plum syrup), treated with sucrose replacement levels of 5, 10, 15, 20, 25% hydrolyzed whey permeate (HP), or crystalline glucose-galactpse (66), as compared to an untreated control 2 Treatment 5;?Egl Ash2 pH3 % % Control 12.47:0.04a 0.10:0.01a 3.60:0.03a 5% HP 12.47¢0.04a 0.11:0.01a 3.59:0.04a 10% HP 12.48¢0.03a 0.11:0.02a 3.60:0.05a 15% HP 12.48¢0.04a 0.1110.01a 3.6010.02a 20% HP 12.4810.04a 0.11:0.01a 3.58¢0.03a 25% HP 12.49¢0.03a 0.11:0.01a 3.59:0.02a 5% GB 12.47¢0.03a 0.10:0.01a 3.61:0.03a 10% CG 12.47¢0.03a 0.10:0.02a 3.60:0.02a 15% CG 12.47¢0.02a 0.10:0.01a 3.60:0.03a 20% GB 12.4610.03a 0.10¢0.02a 3.62:0.03a 25% GB 12.46¢0.03a 0.10:0.01a 3.34i0.02b 1 Like letters within columns denote no significant dif- ference 2Mean values of 2 cans x 3 samples/can, N=6 3Mean values of two cans 60 en: .cmo\mm—gsmm e x acosumwgu\:mu _ so» mos—m> :usz wocwkmuiru unworkvcmpm O: ouccwt mcEzpou 22.31:. mkwvuwp wxwdp amo.ow~o.¢ amm.on_w.m aep.onpo.P amp.oa~p.c. a~o.onmpop.o aw umu mmo.onoo.¢ ac~.oaom.m aom.ow~o._ amp.onmo.oP amc.cnopop.o am new “mo.onmm.m www.camm.m ~N_.on~°.p am~.oamc.o_ aeo.cw~_op.c aw um_ aeo.on~o.e am_.onku.m ae~.oamo._ up..onu_.o_ aeo.oa~pop.o we go, moo.onoo.¢ aow.owm~.w ups.onmo.o “NF.on._.c_ a~o.on._op.o ow um aNo.on~o.¢ aom.onmo.m aN~.onom._ am~.o«~¢.op aeo.onoop..o a: “mu moo.oa~o.e pm..cnmo.a au..ona~., amp.owwm.c. amc.oaoepp.c a: new aec.onmo.¢ nmm.ow~o.a nom.on¢~.~ app.onm~.c_ amo.oamm._.o a: um. who.oaoo.e amp.oapc.m aP..on-.. ac~.onm~.op emo.cnm~_P.o a: no. auo.onka.m nNN.cnpo.m a.~.ow~.._ ao~.oao~.o~ amo.on~_P..o a: an amo.onom.m map.oncm.m ae_.onpo._ ah..oam_.o. aNo.cwopop.o ,poaucou a:LAm sapq ”44.0“...m ape.owmo.Fp amk.cnm~.sp akc.camo.m aeo.cnpcme.o ow “mm acm.oamo.m aoo.oamo.Pp >m~.onp~.__ amo.onmo.m aeo.onmmae.o we now aom.onop.m am~.onmc.._ amm.ono_._P a...onmc.m amo.oammme.o we um. aom.on¢_.m amm.onop.pp ~NN.ono_.Fp mko.owoo.m amo.onmmme.o aw ao— aee.on~_.m a~8.onoo.9. a_m.onNP.Fp am_.on~o.m amo.cn~mme.o we um am~.owep.o nom.cn~¢.mp ase.on~m.~P nop.oacm.m amo.oncmm¢.c a: amN nmk.onma.m amN.oaPm.~_ nm~.onkm.~P noo.ow~m.n amo.cnm~¢¢.c a: acu ap~.ono~.m nm~.onmm._. nNN.one~.~P aao.oaom.m aeo.onhpm¢.o a: um. nem.onoe.m nmm.onpm.pp amm.onmo.~p ae..onm~.m amononm_aeuc a: nap ~m¢.oa_~.m a_¢.owmm... amm.onmo._P a...onm_.m amo cheese 9 a: um aPN.onop.m amm.oneo._P ae¢.on~_.pp ako.camo.m amo.oa_mme.c .oauzou Essa esPOm a oop\ms N . No: N89 N82 Na Ngm< acmsaumsh pmmpaEmm uwummga gu—z cmgmqscu .AnsgAm can vaomv asapa aposucouv umuowgpcs mo m'mapmco Faucmsmpm can ucmacoo gm< .N— m—am» 61 sodium, 8.80 mg/100 9 calcium and 3.96 mg/100 g for mag- nesium. 66 samples had values of 10.05-10.12 mg/100 g phosphorous, 0.99-1.02 mg/100 g sodium, 8.75-8.83 mg/100 g, and 3.95-4.06 mg/100 9 magnesium. It may be concluded that all permeate-containing samples had comparable levels of ash and minerals. Kramer Shear and Hunter Color mean values are shown in Table 13. Mean Kramer Shear values for all 3 treatments were similar, ranging from 0.98-1.05 1b/g force product. Part of the reason for this was that the plums prior to canning had been frozen, causing some textural (cellular) damage. Color coordinate values (also in Table 13) for the solid plums had +aL values ranging from 8.75-9.10 for all 3 treatments. Twenty five percent 66 had a +bL value of 4.25, which was significantly higher than all of the other values (2.80-3.10). Control and GG plums had L values that were significantly higher (17.45-17.65) than HP plums (12.45-12.90). Generally, these data show that the HP plums were lighter in color, and that the 25% GB plums had a greater amount of yellow in them. Plum syrup color values show that HP treated plums had L, +aL, and +bL values of 7.80-8.25, 6.60-6.90, and 1.05-1.15, respec- tively. These three values were significantly higher than either the control (3.52 L, 5.20 aL, 0.45 bL)’ or 66 (3.35- 3.60 L, 5.22-5.45 aL, 0.40-0.50 bL) samples, indicating that the HP plum syrup had greater white, red, and yellow 62 P 1f r P r P n u z .couxmopasom n x :ou n no mos—o> coozN oucmguuuwu «cauvpvcm—m o: ouocmv mcaapcu :«gu—x msouaop gap—ENm. nmc.c«om.o ump.cmoc.v umh.o«cm.¢ am—.chN.¢ u¢~.c«co.m an—.Ofim¢.h~ omo.cmoc.— mu nmN asc.6wcm.c QON.O+mvwm a@N.oHco.n ao—.cnoo.n QNN.OHOQ.Q amu.cflcm.s— aec.c+~c.p mm NON anc.cnov.° nmN.O«cm.m acm.o«Nm.M oo—.o«N—.m uO—.owcw.m am—.o«mc.~— a—O.OHNG.— mu «m— noc.cflov.c ncN.o«~N.m a~¢.c«mn.m aac.cnmm.w o¢—.cwcm.m anv.ouom.sp oNc.ofioc.p mu flop avo.c«°m.o asp.c«mn.m awm.cfloo.n s—~.o«co.~ a—n.c«om.m a—N.o«mv.~— amo.cfioo.p we um oON.c«m—.— umm.o«mm.m amn.c«mc.m asc.c«cc.n ch~.6fima.m oh—.cum¢.~— c~0.°«mo.~ a: umm nm—.o«c—q— umm.cwmm.o aev.5wmm.m omcccuoc.n am—.onopwm aNN.o«°m.N— ovo.o«op.— a: RON aNM.O«Np.p so~.°«°m.o umc.¢«0~.m umc.°«oc.n «Op.owom.a omm.o«om.~p aco.c«~c.— a: amp omP.OHm—.— cow.cuom.o a—c.c«cm.h s—~.c«mo.~ aQN.c«mo.o om—.cumm.w— a—o.cwmo.— a: flop ac~.o«mc.p UQN.O«mh.u ¢N¢.o«m—.w QOP.OflOQ.N now.cwma.m am—.OHOG.N— uNo.ona.o as am R‘OHQULflcav a__.oam..o aa..c«o~.m amm.c“~m.m amo.o«o_.m u¢P.camN.m a_~.oflom.k_ .No.camo.o .ozugou 4| 41 I I a a 4 am am 4 a\a_ magxm 23—; Ea—L vw—om “US—fl, OHQC’VLOOU LOPOU 508332 800‘” LUECLX NHCUeaflflhh A_o.ouav asap; VOCCCU LO‘ mccwflflhflflflm hflxah EHFZ Wm=Pfl> oaflngLOOU LOPOU UCQ UULOV =°vmm0L%EOU LQOZW =00: oMP NFDM? 63 values. Plum syrup at 25% 66 had L (4.30) and +aL (4,00) values that were significantly different than all of the other samples. Thus, this particular plum syrup was less red than all the others, and lighter in color than the control but darker than the HP plum syrup. Color, flavor, texture, general acceptability and overall preference mean values are shown in Table 14. Color scores for 5, 15 and 25% HP were 5.12, 5.03, and 5.27, respectively. Control, 5 and 15% 66 had mean color scores ranging from 4.16-4.22, and plums at 25% 66 had a score of 3.37. It can be seen that the HP plums were rated significantly higher (darker) than the control, 5 and 15% 66. which in turn were rated significantly higher than 25% GB for color. Flavor mean values for control, 5, 15, and 25% HP and 5% GB ranged from 3.96-4.26, with 15 and 25% GB having scores of 5.58 and 5.33. This shows that the 15 and 25% CG plums were considered by the panelists to have a stronger flavor, while the other treatments were considered more mild. Textural scores for all treatments were similar, ranging from 3.04-3.60. Acceptability scores for all plum treatments (6.37-6.63), except 25% 66 (4.05), were similar. Overall preference ratings for the control, 5, 15, 25% HP and 5% GB plums ranged from 5.12 to 5.40. Plums at 15 and 25% 66 had significantly lower preference scores of 4.05 and 3.97. In general, plums canned in permeate containing syrups were quite acceptable (judged 64 mucmswwmwu pcmuwwpcmwm o: muocmv mcszpou cwcpwz memopap awa o xpmsmgaxm mxwpun .uqmuom Agm>un mmcmn\sgwm xgm>uu mcogum Agm>uu xgmu agm>us .uoe mxmp m .unmuuo .v9_uo mmcmu\5;wm .cosuo mcogum .voEum xgau .uoEuo .upm mxwp m .uamuom .upmum mmcmu\scw» .p-mnm acogum .upmum xgmu .upmum axwpmwc .uamuuacz atom upws unmPP \wxwp gmsuwwcuc \.uamuom cmzpwmcue \ngw gmzpwmcue \mcogpm gmcuwmcue \xsan gmguwmcu¢ .upm mxmpmwuum .pamuumc: .apmum Asmse\umom .ppmnm upws .upmum usurp .upmum .uoe mxwpmwuuN .pamoumc: .co=uN Acm=s\umom .uoEuN apps .uoEuN usurp .uoEuN .smguxm mxvpmpuupm .uamuoacz xsm>upexsmzs\u$om agm>u~m apps asw>uFN ugmwp >Lm>upp nmm.ow~m.m amm.owmo.e mom.onme.m npm.owmm.m unm.onnm.m um NmN mem.onmo.e mmn.ownm.o mmm.oueo.m nmm.onmm.m mmm.owop.¢ aw Nm_ mmm.oan.m mum.onpN.m mNN.ome.m mmm.onN_.e mmm.OH—N.¢ me am m_m.owNF.m mmm.ohme.o mom.ohpN.m mmm.onmm.m nom.onNN.m a: NmN mme.ow¢m.m mmm.onmm.c mmn.onoo.m mmm.onmN.e amu.onmo.m 8: amp mmo.onN¢.m mmu.onme.o mmm.onwp.m omu.ono_.e nmN.o«Np.m a: «m ope.onoe.m mom.onee.m mmm.onNm.m mnm.oneo.e mmem.onNN.¢ Focpcoo mucmgmmmgm auwp_nmuqmou< . mg: xm o>m o o cos a m Fpmcm>o e —mgmcmu m a b N» Fm F; F u u u ugh Apo.ouav Pocpcou umummgpca an op umgmano mm .msapa we ucm a: pcmemumpamg mmogusm com mcowumsmamm amxah new: mocmcm$mga —_mgm>o can xpwpwnmuamuum Fmgmcmm .wczuxm» .go>m—m .sopou com: .ep mpnmh 65 between like slightly and like moderately). SUMMARY AND DISCUSSION In summary, navy and kidney beans were hydrated in water, then canned in appropriate brines: control, permeate, and lactose hydrolyzed permeate. Analyses of color, tex- ture, total solids, ash and sensory preference were sub- sequently performed. The following were the findings: 1. Beans processed with whey permeate were signifi- cantly firmer than control samples. Firming action may be due to increased levels of Ca and Mg cations which form firm metal-pectin complexes within the cellular matrix of the bean. 2. Beans processed with whey permeate were generally darker in appearance than control samples. Hunter +aL (increased redness) and +bL(increased yellowness) values increased in all permeate treated samples. White navy beans showed a greater color difference from control sam- ples than did dark kidney type beans. Darkening may be due to greater oxidation due to permeate minerals, or due to increased Maillard type browning. It appears likely that the off color may be readily masked in a tomato based SdUCE. 66 67 3. Increased total solids and particularly increased mineral content are delivered through the use of whey per- meate which may have a beneficial nutritional value and serve as a means of economic utilization of whey permeate. 4. Hedonic sensory ratings for navy and kidney beans canned with whey permeate were significantly lower than control samples or a commercial check sample. Plums were canned in a control sugar syrup, and in 5, 10, 15, 20, 25% sucrose replacements of lactose hydrolyzed permeate (HP) or crystalline glucose-galactose (GB). The following were the findings: 1. Plums processed with whey permeate were not sig- nificantly firmer than control samples. 2. Plums (both solid and syrup) processed with lactose hydrolyzed permeate were generally darker in appearance than control or 66 samples. Hunter L values were lower (darker, blacker) in HP samples than control or 66 samples. The darkening may be due to greater oxidation due to per- meate minerals. 3. Total solids and particularly increased mineral content are delivered through the use of whey permeate which may enhance nutritional value, reduce calories, and serve as a means of economic utilization of whey permeate. 4. Hedonic sensory ratings for plums canned in per- meate containing syrups were not significantly lower than control samples. In fact, HP plums were judged quite 68 acceptable. In conclusion, this work demonstrates that processing foods with whey permeate is feasible. However further work is required to optimize formulations and applications. LIST OF REFERENCES LIST OF REFERENCES Ali, R. and J.L. Evans. 1973. Lactose and calcium meta- bolism: A review. J. Agric. Univ. P.R. 57:149-153. Amantea, G.F., C.M. Kason, S. Nakai, D.B. Bragg and 0.8. Emmons. 1974. Preparation of ferric whey protein by heating. Canadian Inst. Food Sci. Techn. J. 7(3): 199-202. Arnold, R.G., T.A. Evans and C.L. 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