TEACHER EDUCATION m THE mum iSLANDS f Thesis for the Degree of Ph. D. MlCHiGAN STATE UNIVERSITY KEVIN ALBERT COLLINS 1973 V:.« I." fl --.,4,' ’5' &-,4_ WNW"! (nu/1211mm"WEI: L 14;: FLESH" m 9,145. TEACHER EDUCATION IN THE RYUKYU ISLANDS presented by Kevin Albert Collins has been accepted towards fulfillment \ of the requirements for Ph'D' degree 1n wiIOSOPhical ll Foundations #12 53% 2 ’ Mfimmmmauu ‘ Date .5" / U ‘2.) 0-7639 ABSTRACT TEACHER EDUCATION IN THE RYUKYU ISLANDS BY Kevin Albert Collins Statement of the Problem Throughout their history the Ryukyu Islands have been subjected to administrative control from foreign pow- ers. Because this control has been accompanied by the introduction of an educational system designed to direct future growth in the Ryukyus towards objectives set by the foreign power, Ryukyuans have tended to look to outside sources for guidance in education. Examples of this pat- tern appear throughout the periods of Chinese, Japanese, and American administration in the Ryukyus. This study examines the develOpment of teacher education in the Ryukyus, with special emphasis on the developments which occurred between 1945 and 1970. During this period of American administration, Michigan State University was actively involved in teacher education in the Ryukyus. Methodology This is an historical, interpretive study of teacher education in the Ryukus. Factual data for the Kevin Albert Collins study have been selected from the following sources: 1. Reports of the Michigan State University Mission. The and discussed terns of life analyses were 1. 1. Reports of the United States Civil Administra— tion of the Ryukyus. Books, articles, and newspaper reports relat- ing to teacher education in the Ryukyus. Interviews with selected Ryukyuan educators and students. information from these sources was collated in relation to cultural and traditional pat- and education in the Ryukyus. Three final then followed: The developments in Ryukyuan teacher educa- tion were examined to determine whether they were the result of foreign influence. The influences were examined to determine whether they came from the United States, Japan, or both countries. The effectiveness of these influences in developing an improved level of teacher edu- cation was evaluated. Summary and Conclusions As a result of these influences there was a major re-orientation of the teacher education programme from subject centred to being student centred. Kevin Albert Collins 2. This re-orientation resulted in the introduc- tion of courses in Teaching Methods, Educational Psychology, Measurement and Evaluation, and Guidance and Counselling to help achieve the programme objective of developing teachers capable of meeting student needs. 3. The teacher education programme in the Ryukyus was re-structured to provide sufficient teachers trained in these methods for the schools. It was also necessary to re-train those already teaching in the schools. 4. These changes in teacher education were not a natural outgrowth of the pre—war teacher education in the Ryukyus, but were the result of foreign influences. 5. The developments in teacher education resulted from direct and indirect American influence, from direct Japanese influence, and from the efforts of Ryukyuan educa- tors at all levels of the educational system. 6. The developments resulting from these influ— ences resulted in more sensitive and effective teachers in the Ryukyuan schools. I?{(~'JII'I I'll‘ll {{[I’lfl-"i \‘(l ‘lt[[(| llI’llll f ill" TEACHER EDUCATION IN THE RYUKYU ISLANDS BY Kevin Albert Collins A THESIS Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY College of Education 1973 @ Copyright by KEVIN ALBERT COLLINS 1973 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS This study has been completed only because of the help and interest of many people. It is with pleasure that my debt to them is acknowledged. Dr. Carl H. Gross, who was chairman of the doctoral committee, and advisor for this study, not only provided help and guidance throughout the study, but also expended much time and effort in giving theoretical, methodological, and editorial advice. The other members of my committee, Dr. David Heenan, Dr. Iwao Ishino, and Dr. Samuel Moore, gave much appreciated support and criticism at various stages of the research. Mr. Miller Perry not only helped to find financial support for the research, but was also of great assistance in arranging Ryukyuan contacts to assist the writer for the duration of the study. While in Okinawa many people assisted in the pro- ject, but perhaps Dr. Gordon Warner, Director of Health, Education and Welfare at USCAR, and Dr. Yuji Yonemori, of the Faculty of Education at the University of the Ryukyus, deserve special mention. The former helped search the files at USCAR for material and provided an interpreter for some ii interviews. Dr. Yonemori helped arrange interviews and acted as interpreter on many occasions. Both men aided the author in selecting the Ryukyuan educators to be interviewed. Finally, it is with deep gratitude that the writer acknowledges his debt to his wife, Coralie, and to the chil— dren, Mark, Dianne, Alison, and Kim, all of whom have to some extent been victims of neglect during the course of the study. The help of his wife in both editing and construc- tive criticism were essential ingredients in the completion of this project. TABLE OF CONTENTS Page ACKNOWLEDGMENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ii LIST OF TABLES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vi Chapter I. INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . l The People . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 History and Early Development . . . . . . 5 Rationale 0 O O O O I O O O O O O O O O 0 16 Limitations of the Study . . . . . . . . . 18 Methodology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19 Collection of Data . . . . . . . . . . . . 21 Treatment of Data . . . . . . . . . . . . 22 Overview of Chapters . . . . . . . . . . . 23 II. TEACHER TRAINING IN THE RYUKYUS PRIOR TO 1945 O O O O O O O C O O O O I O 0 O O 25 III. TEACHER EDUCATION IN THE RYUKYUS: 1945 TO 1970 O O O O O O O O O I O I I O I 40 Japanese Post-War Teacher Education . . . 40 Ryukyuan Post—War Teacher Education . . . 47 Teacher Education at the University of the Ryukyus . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52 DeveIOpment of the Modern Teacher Education Programme at the University of the Ryukyus . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60 Student Teaching . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71 Growth of Course Offerings . . . . . . . . 74 In-Service Training for Teachers . . . . . 77 Other Agencies in Teacher Education in the Ryukyus . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84 IV. FOREIGN INFLUENCES ON RYUKYUAN TEACHER EDUCATION 0 O I O O O O O O O O O O O C C 92 Patterns of American and Japanese Influences on Ryukyuan Teacher Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94 iv Page American Influences on Teacher Education in the Ryukyus . . . . . . . . 99 Japanese Influences on Teacher Education in the Ryukyus . . . . . . . . 109 Summary of Foreign Influences on Ryukyuan Teacher Education . . . . . . . ll4 Evaluation of the Effectiveness of Foreign Influences . . . . . . . . . . . ll6 Influence of Ryukyuan Objectives on Their Teacher Education Programme . . . . . . 121 V. SUMMARY AND EVALUATION . . . . . . . . . . . 125 Evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130 Recommendations . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135 SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137 APPENDIX 0 O O O O O O I O C O O O O O O O O O . Q C 147 LIST OF TABLES Table Page 1. School Attendance in the Ryukyus: 1888 to 1907 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33 2. Teacher Education Routes at Shuri Normal School . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36 3. Teacher Education Curriculum . . . . . . . . 38 4. Enrollments in Four-Year and Two—Year courses, 1952—1968 0 o o o o o o o o o o 0 6S 5. Courses Available in Teacher Education Programmes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75 6. In-Service Correspondence Courses in Education in 1952 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80 7. Total Student Enrollment by Academic Year (as of April 1, 1969) . . . . . . . . . . . 83 vi CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION The Ryukyu archipelago stretches as an extended chain of islands 374 miles from the southernmost tip of Japan, southward to the island of Taiwan. Sources vary as to the number of islands in the chain, the reason being very vividly explained by Chamberlain in 1895: If we are to take early history as our standard, the Luchu islands begin at the very mouth of the Gulf of Kagoshima, in southern Japan. Are popular customs and physical features to be our guides? Then Luchu begins only at Amami—Oshima. Shall we follow modern Japanese administrative parlance? Then the northern half of the archipelago must be omitted altogether, because incorporated centuries with Japan proper, and there remain only Great Luchu and the Further Isles.l Glacken2 included Amami-gunto in his estimate of 105 islands, but stated that many of these are "little more than isolated rocks." Chamberlain3 felt that the Luchuans and Japanese were accurate in their estimation of 36 principal islands, lBasil Hall Chamberlain, "The Luchu Islands and Their Inhabitants," The Geographical Journal, V (April, 1895), 290. 2Clarence J. Glacken, The Great Luchu (Japan: Charles E. Tuttle Company, 1960), p. 13. 3Chamberlain, Op. cit., p. 291. Note: Additional material concerned with Ryukyuan history, religion, agriculture, etc. is available in both Japanese and English. These additional sources may be found in the bibliography of this study. if the entire archipelago were included, but as this study was concerned with the present situation, only those islands administered by the United States were considered. The group of islands referred to in modern days as the Ryukyus relates only to the three most southerly groups, that of Okinawa, Miyako, and Yaeyama. Control of the two more northerly groups was gained by the Constable of Satsuma in 1187, when the title of Lord of the Southern Islands was bestowed on him by the emperor.4 No specific islands were associated with this title, but with the continued renewal of the title it became accepted that Satsuma had jurisdiction over the 'Southern Islands,‘ or as they were sometimes referred to, 'The Twelve Southern Islands.‘ The Amami group was annexed by Japan following the invasion of Okinawa by Satsuma in 1609. With the reorgan- ization of the Japanese Empire in 1879, Okinawa and the more southerly islands were incorporated into the Okinawa Pre- fecture, while the islands north of Okinawa were adminis- tered as part of the Kagoshima Prefecture. At the conclu- sion of the war in 1945 the Amami Islands were included as part of the Ryukyu group and placed under the authority of the United States, remaining thus until December 25, 1953, when they reverted to Japanese control. Geologically, the Ryukyus are the peaks of a sub— merged mountain chain and act as a boundary between the East 4George H. Kerr, Okinawa: The History of an Island People (Vermont: Charles E. Tuttle Company, 1964), p. 58. China Sea and the Pacific Ocean. The islands are generally hilly with some mountainous sections, of which approximately 59 percent of the total land area is covered by forest and wild grass, and only 18 to 20 percent of the land is under cultivation. Okinawa is characterized by this type of topography, being divided into a mountainous northern region and a southern region which is generally low, hilly country. The northern region has a densely forested mountain ridge run- ning from northeast to southwest down the centre of the island, butting onto the sea to form steep cliffs in some places, and providing small coastal lowlands and alluvial valleys providing locations for villages and towns. Low hills separated by small valleys typify the southern region, with the most rugged hills in the area near Shuri. Over half the land area of the Ryukyus is comprised by the island of Okinawa which is approximately 67 miles long, and varies in width from 2-1/2 to 10 miles, with an overall area of 454 square miles. Miyako differs from the other islands, having in general a low and level relief. The most noticeable feature is a series of six parallel ridges, about 300 feet in height, which follow the northeast coastline. Little natural vege- tation remains on the island as a high percentage of its land (42 percent) is under cultivation. Ishigaki and Iriomote Islands conform more to the general topographical relief of the Ryukyu chain, being mountainous with narrow coastal terraces. The population of the Ryukyu Islands has grown from 965,000 in 1968 to an estimated one million in 1970, which when considered in relation to the total land area of 850 square miles, shows a population density of 1,170 persons per square mile. Of the 965,000 population in 1968, 30.8 percent of the labour force of 425,000 people were engaged in agricultural employment, together with forestry and fishing. The People Based on the findings of various artifacts in the Ryukyu Islands, and the general migration pattern in that region, it would appear that three routes were taken by people moving into the area. Some groups from northern Asia moved southward through the Japanese islands to Okinawa where prehistoric sites contain relics of the Jomon neolithic culture commonly found throughout eastern and northern Japan.5 Wanderers from this group probably mingled with those of Malay stock who came from Southeast Asia up through the Philippines or the China coast, set- tling on the more southerly islands of Miyako and Yaeyama. Others of Mongol origin moved to the Korean Peninsula and thence across the narrow strait of Kyushu. Some members 5Kerr, op. cit., p. 21. of the Caucasoid Ainu and Mongol stocks joined those of Malay origin in the Ryukyu Islands, following their migra- tion from Kyushu. Kerr6 indicates the existence of evidence of a prehistoric 'Yaeyama culture' which has a strong affinity with Indonesian and Melanesian cultures. These cultural remains are overlaid by strata which contain fragments of early Ming pottery. On the islands north of the Yaeyama group these ancient and cultural remains are mixed and overlaid with remains of Jomon cultures from Japan. The linguistic forms in use throughout the islands show a marked resemblance to the early language of the Japanese islands. These, combined with the similarity of the physical features of the Ryukyuans to those from South Kyushu indicate a common origin. History and Early Development The Ryukyu Islands from their early history, have been subject to outside influences and pressures, these having a marked effect on the cultural, political, economic, religious, and educational developments which have taken place over the decades. This View of Ryukyuan history has special significance for the present situation, insofar as the American influence on Okinawa is not a new way of life conditioning a static society, but rather a forceful intrusion upon a culture which has already undergone major 61bid., p. 26. changes of a similar nature in the past. In many ways the situation faced by the Ryukyu kingdom in the seventeenth century was not radically different from the new relationship they were forced to accept in 1945. For over two hundred years they had participated in a tributary relationship with China, in the process emulating many aspects of Chinese culture. Then in the early seventeenth century Satsuma forced the Ryukyuans to enter into a second relationship paralleling that with China, but fraught with heavier obli- gations. This dual arrangement lasted until 1872, when Japan proclaimed its responsibility for the Ryukyus and forced China to accept the changed situation. Although China attempted sporadically to re—establish claims to the Ryukyus over the ensuing 65 years, Japan consolidated its claims and proceeded with the Japanization of the new Okinawa Prefecture. With the defeat of Japan, the Ryukyu Islands were once again called upon to adopt a pattern of divided allegiance. Japan became the cultural home to be emulated in this relationship, while the day-by-day obligations of daily economic life and conduct were to be discharged to the United States. Prior to references in Chinese and Japanese records in the seventh century, little was known of the existence of the Ryukyu Islands or of the people who inhabited them.7 The two principal origin myths, handed down through the generations, were not committed to writing until the seventeenth century, by which time they began to reflect the various influences to which the culture had been sub- jected.8 Until the middle of the fourteenth century the social and administrative organization in the Ryukyus con- sisted of many kingdoms ruled by various petty Chieftains each trying to enlarge upon, or protect, his particular holding. These men ruled by virtue of their own personal qualities of leadership, or through astute political alli— ances with neighbouring groups. Gradually some of these smaller groups were organized into larger political units by the more powerful Chieftains, who, through their mili- tary or administrative prowess, were able to force or attract other groups to join them. The Ryukyus remained a patchwork of many small holdings or kingdoms, until Satto became King of Chuzan in 1349. From the early history of the Ryukyus until the seventeenth century the economic and cultural relations of the Ryukyus have been closer to China than to Japan, despite the nearer linguistic and racial ties with the 7Civil Affairs Handbook: Ryukyu (Loochoo) Islands (Washington: Office of the Chief of Naval Operations, Navy Department, November 15, 1944), p. 39. 8Chamberlain, 0p. cit., p. 304. latter.9 On several occasions the rulers of China sought to bring the island under their political control as well. Kublai Khan, in 1290, invited the ruler of the Ryukyus to pay tribute to him, and another envoy was sent in 1297 with a similar request. Both were refused, but in 1372, when submission was demanded of Satto by another Chinese mission, the Ryukyuans felt constrained to comply, and for many cen- turies paid regular tribute to the Chinese court. From this date Chinese customs and ideas began to pour into the islands. Chinese traders settled at Naha, where they were granted a concession, and Ryukyuan youths were sent in con- siderable numbers to China to study.10 The period was one of commercial prosperity and cultural advancement. Political pressure was also exerted from Japan through the prince of Satsuma. As a result, in 1451, the King of the Ryukyu Islands began to pay an annual tribute to Japan as well as to China, a practice which also contin- ued for centuries. During this period the Ryukyuan king- dom attempted to maintain a balance between the influences of the two stronger neighbouring powers. While engaged in this relationship, the Ryukyuans sought to capitalize on the situation by sending students to both countries, thus gaining from both cultures. Some students were selected to study Confucianism in China, 91bid. loIbid., p. 40. while others travelled to Japan to study the classics.11 These avenues of communication with Japan were widened in the middle of the eighteenth century when two missions, one of 168 and the other of 138 persons, were sent to Japan to study the new administrative reforms being undertaken in that country.12 The ability of Ryukyuan statesmen to maintain a neutral balance between Japan and China was dependent upon the existence of certain conditions, which as they changed, caused a change in the relationship between the Ryukyus and China or Japan. The balance of moral obligation felt towards China versus political and economic obligation to Satsuma had been neatly maintained through two centuries, but it could be preserved only under conditions of extreme isolation. That isolation came to an end in 1797.13 The years between 1797 and 1872 were characterized by more stringent demands made on the Ryukyus by Satsuma, and attempts by the rulers of the Ryukyu Islands to ignore these demands. During this period education in the Ryukyus grad— ually gained momentum. Sho On, who came to the throne in 1795, was himself a scholar of promise, and during his rule elementary schools for children of the gentry were estab- lished in several wards of Shuri, and an academy was founded 11Data of Ryukyu History: No. 9 Collection Cultural, Section 1 (Translation), 1945-1955 (Education Department of the Government of the Ryukyu Islands, 1965). lP'Kerr, 0p. cit., p. 200. 13Ibid., p. 227. 10 in the palace grounds. In 1801 a new school was created, the Byodogakko (equivalent Of a junior high school), which was available to graduates of the village elementary schools. The students were usually 15 to 16 years Of age, and while there was no definite period Of time in which to graduate, on the average students took from four to five years. Outstanding teachers, all of whom came from Kume, supervised the classes.14 Students who graduated from the Byodogakko were eligible tO enter another school, which was also estab— lished in 1801. This was the Kokugaku or National Academy, built beside the Ryutan Pond at Shuri Castle, and (equiva- lent Of college) was the highest type Of education avail- able in the Ryukyu Islands.15 With the establishment Of these two schools, there was a necessity for more graduates from elementary school, resulting in an order from Shuri Castle demanding that each Village finance an elementary school. However, due to the depressed state Of the econ- omy in the islands this order could not be implemented. Fourteen schools were set up in Shuri, six in Naha, and one at Tomari on the island Of Okinawa, while schools were Opened in Yaeyama and Miyako in 1846. Many Of the common citizenry, together with the sons Of rich farmers, attended these schools until 14Collection No. 9, 9p3 cit., p. 51. lségg;_gi£. See also Kerr, Op. cit., p. 243. 11 approximately 20 years Of age, then becoming servants in the homes of warriors or administrators. They had to be able to read, write, add, and use an abacus, sing and write poems. During their period Of employment they learned the polished manners Of the court, administrative procedures, and gen— erally completed their training. Upon returning to their homes they were given responsible positions, carrying the culture Of Shuri and Naha throughout the islands in the process. While Opportunities to gain an education were becoming more available, this was restricted to the male sex. Women were not Offered the choice Of attending the few existing schools, for they were expected to spend their days working in and around the home, and for this the home training received was sufficient. A description of the educational academies in Naha and Shuri was given by a French missionary priest, Furet, during his visit in 1858, while attempting to revive a Catholic Mission in Okinawa and Obtain a treaty for France. At Shuri a basic curriculum in Japanese studies prepared the Shuri gentry for lifetime work in the general administration. At Naha (Kume Village), the curriculum was Chinese, still devoted to the Chinese classics and dedicated to the preparation of men for the "China service."16 It was Obvious at this time that the strong influence Of Japan upon the economy and politics of the Ryukyus was reflected in the administrative appointments and in education l6Kerr, Op. cit., p. 346. 12 in general. Kerrl7 points out that the Shuri men enjoyed authority and relative economic wel—being, whereas the men from Kume lived in scholarly but happy indigence. Later that same year (1858) a successor to the pre— vious Lord Of Satsuma came into power and immediately reversed the policies Of his predecessor in the Ryukyus and banished a number Of prominent men from Okinawa. From this point until the dissolution Of the Han government of the Ryukyus by Tokyo and subsequent establishment of the Okinawa prefecture, Satsuma's treatment of the small king— dom became increasingly harsh and repressive. At last, provoked by the many attempts Of the Ryukyuans to retain some degree of autonomy, and by the repeated attempts of China to gain international backing for her claims to the Ryukyu Islands, Japan decided to remove the problem from the area Of public discussion by presenting the world with a fait accompli; the Ryukyu 'problem‘ would cease to exist. A Japanese mission embarked for Naha, and on March 27, 1879, presented a communique to Sho Tai announcing the abo— 1ition of the Okinawa Ken or prefecture. The claims of the Ryukyu kingdom to autonomy, fictitious or otherwise, were now non-existent. The Ryukyu Islands were part of the Japanese Empire. One of the major problems facing the new Japanese administration after the Meiji Restoration was that Of l7Loc. cit. 13 converting regional loyalties to loyalty for the central authority, and nowhere was this more conspicuous than in the Okinawa prefecture. Assimilation required the transfer Of loyalty from Shuri to Tokyo by all levels Of the popula— tion, together with the severance Of the cultural and edu— cational ties with China. Tokyo met this challenge through the field Of education. It did not take long to discover that the schools in the Ryukyus did not meet Japan‘s requirements. Village schools were quite inadequate; schools for the gentry Offered courses in Chinese classics and calligraphy; Shuri Academy Offered a combination Of Chinese classics and Japanese texts; while the Kume Village Academy concentrated on Chinese studies. Radical measures were needed to bring about the required changes and the Education Ministry in Tokyo did not hesitate. Funds were appropriated to support the two academies and to Open more schools to house the estimated 75,000 children Of school age. A normal school was established in Naha to supply teachers for the new schools and the first five men graduated in 1881. Stu- dents Of the normal school were used to bring about change by being required to wear Japanese clothes and accept Japanese customs and habits. They were also the medium for Spreading the Japanese language throughout the prefec- ture, together with the replacing Of Ryukyuan history, mythology, and tradition with the Japanese counterparts. l8Ibid., p. 415. 14 Because of their reluctance to become part of the new Japan, and because Of the differences in dress, customs, and speech, the Ryukyuans were treated as inferiors by people from the other prefectures. It was not until Japanese success in the Sino—Japanese war with the subse- quent acquisition Of Formosa, that the similarities between Okinawa and Japan became more apparent to the Japanese, through comparison with the newly acquired people. Unfor- tunately, although reduced in intensity, the social discrim— ination persisted until the end Of the Second World War. With the dying Of the echoes of exploding bombs and shells, the Ryukyu Islands were again faced with a foreign power to which they had to defer, and tO an economy, weak though it had been, now devastated by the war. In the 91- day campaign the southern section Of the island Of Okinawa was torn and battered by shells and bombs, resulting in the destruction Of Shuri Castle, temples, and nearly all the buildings (including schools) in this section. USCAR19 stated that 83.8 percent Of permanent school buildings existing before the war were totally destroyed and many Of the few remaining suffered great damage. Loss Of life was also exceedingly high during this bitterly fought battle. Estimates ranging from 90,000 tO 110,000 Japanese military personnel were killed during this period; Of this number less than 5,000 were conscripted 19The Ryukyu Islands: Facts and Figures (Office Of Public Affairs, USCAR, 1954), p. 43. 15 Okinawans.20 Civilian Okinawan losses have been estimated at over 62,000, of whom 20,000 were young men and women pressed into 'special service' organizations, and over 40,000 others who had sought safety within caves and tombs.21 As the war drew to an end refugee camps began to fill, for 90 percent Of the remaining population were homeless. Perhaps a more serious loss, and one which affected the recovery Of most areas Of the economy, was that of qual- ified personnel. Most Of the top administrators in the Ryukyus were Japanese who were repatriated after the war, while many Of the Ryukyuan administrators and trained per- sonnel had been killed in the fighting. Although the teach- ing ranks were also severely depleted, "they represented the elite among the civil population and consequently their ser- vices were in great demand by the military, civil adminis— tration, and construction contractors."22 As a result not only were there insufficient school buildings to house the school~age pOpulation, but the shortage Of trained teachers was extreme. To meet the requirements of reconstruction in the Ryukyu Islands, trained personnel in many fields were needed, and the schools, desperately short Of teachers, were expected to cope with these demands. Obviously teacher edu- cation programmes figured prominently in national priorities, 20Kerr, Op. cit., p. 5. ZlIbid., p. 466. 22Civil Affairs Activities: Ryukyu Islands, USCAR, Vol. I, NO. 1, December 31, 1952, p. 161. 16 not merely to meet quantitative, but also qualitative demands. In this study the development Of education and teacher education from the earliest records up until 1945 was examined, and the major influences which shaped the growth during this period were identified. Utilizing the prewar pattern as a framework for reference, a close exami— nation was made of developments in teacher education in the Ryukyus from 1945 to 1970. Developments and changes in the postwar period, why they came about, the processes involved in these changes, and the extent to which these develop- ments have gained acceptance, were studied. The degree Of influence exerted upon the teacher education programme by such sources as the Michigan State Advisory Team at the University of the Ryukyus, the Government of the Ryukyu Islands (GRI), Education Department (e.g. Summer Session courses), resource peOple from Japan, the scholarship pro— grammes in the U.S.A. and Japan, for Ryukyuan students, the Education Division of USCAR, and the Okinawan Teachers' Association was also examined. Rationale A major decision to undertake this study was based upon the general lack of information of the area. Not only has little been published pertaining to education in the Ryukyu Islands, but the field of teacher education has been almost completely neglected. A further factor which 17 increases the difficulties facing researchers in this field is that a large portion Of published material which relates to the area has been written by Japanese authors in their own language. An intensive search, conducted by the writer and library assistants in libraries at Michigan State University, the University Of the Ryukyus, the Education Department Of GRI, the National Institute for Educational Research in Japan, and the Ministry Of Education in Japan, yielded little information on this topic, and no one source had more than fragmentary material. The purpose Of this study was to compile the material relating to teacher edu- cation in the Ryukyu Islands, and through analysis and interpretation to determine why these particular develop— ments have taken place. Attention was also directed at the effect Of cul— tural influences on the postwar development of teacher edu- cation in the Ryukyus. Rarely does a country have the Opportunity to restructure its educational system along modern lines, intended to help the society meet its present and future needs, without being seriously hindered by tra- ditional influence in the form Of existing physical facili- ties, philOSOphy governing the training Of teachers, or the relationship between the type of education being Offered and the manpower requirements Of the economy. TO a great extent this Opportunity existed in the Ryukyus and an examination of the various developments which took place was extremely valuable in gaining an understanding Of these 18 factors. Included in these factors was the interplay between the powerful influences from Japan, the American Occupation Forces and Civil Administration, together with Ryukyuan determination to shape the system to meet specific requirements Of its own. Limitations Of the Study The effectiveness Of this study was limited by var- ious factors, the more important Of which have been listed below. 1. The writer was looking at teacher education in the Ryukyus from a background strongly influenced by Ameri- can ideas concerning teacher education. 2. NO attempt was made to discuss the chronological development of teacher education in the world, or to dis- cuss the influence Of these developments on Ryukyuan teacher education. The writer restricted himself to an examination Of the influences from the United States of America and Japan, as these countries reflected world trends. 3. As it is extremely difficult for a Westerner to provide a suitable model to determine the effect Of specific influences upon teacher education within the Ryukyuan cul- tural system, it was decided to use a simple model based on influences coming into the Ryukyus from outside the country, in conjunction with growth occurring in the Ryukyus. l9 4. It was not possible to visit schools to examine the results Of the developments in the teacher education programme. 5. Only a small sample Of Ryukyuan educators was selected to be interviewed. In this respect the writer followed advice from Dr. Gordon Warner of USCAR, and Dr. Yuji Yonemori of the University of the Ryukyus, both of whom helped in the selection Of interviewees. 6. The study was also limited due to the scarcity Of printed material pertaining to teacher education in the Ryukyus. 7. The criterion utilized for evaluating the effectiveness of the post-war programme to upgrade teacher education in the Ryukyus was based on the degree to which the programme reflected those developments in teacher educa- tion in Japan and the United States. Such programmes trained teachers who were student oriented rather than subject oriented. The evaluation was also based on whether those who were trained under this programme were felt to be effective teachers. Methodology The methods Of research used in this study are historical-analytical-interpretive. The techniques and methods of historical research have been described in var- ious ways by different authors. Garraghan, in his A Guide 20 to Historical Method,23 states that it can be defined as systematic principles and rules, designed to aid in gather- ing the source materials Of history, appraising them crit- ically, and presenting them as a synthesis of the results achieved. This definition does not differ greatly from Borg's outline24 Of the essential steps Of historical research, which he states are that Of defining the problem, gathering the data, and evaluating and synthesizing the data into an accurate account Of the subject investigated. The process Of defining the problem involves an analysis Of the complexity of the subject to be studied, the selection of the period Of time tO be studied, and a realis— tic appraisal Of the problem in terms of its eventual rele- vancy to a given subject area. Obviously, historical research is important in education. Outside the intrinsic value Of history, it is necessary to know and understand educational accomplishments and developments Of the past in order to gain a perspective Of the present and possibly future directions.25 While the historical aspect Of this study is impor— tant in its own right, the emphasis was on analysis and 23Gilbert Garraghan, A Guide to Historical Method (New York: Fordham University Press, 1946), p. 33. 24Walter R. Borg, Educational Research: An Introduc- tion (New York: David McKay CO., 1963), p. 189. 25Fred N. Kerlinger, Foundations of Behavioural Research (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Inc., 1965), p. 698. 21 interpretation Of the forces which were instrumental in the particular developments which evolved in teacher educa- tion in the Ryukyus. Collection of Data Material for this study was Obtained from various sources. Both primary and secondary sources were found in Michigan State University Library, the library at the Uni- versity Of the Ryukyus, and the library at the National Institute for Educational Research in Tokyo, much Of which required translation. Documents were made available by the Education Department Of the GRI, USCAR, the English language Institute, and the Okinawa Educational Training and Research Centre. Many of these documents were copied photographic- ally; others Obtained were actual copies or duplicates of letters or publications from the particular agency. Other sources utilized included articles and news items in Ryukyu newspapers, and material published by the Faculty Of Educa- tion at the University Of the Ryukyus. The data Obtained through these sources were supple— mented by interviews with those who had been instrumental in the early develOpments Of teacher education in the Ryukyus, together with those currently involved, including principals, University Of the Ryukyus Education faculty, students enrolled in teacher education programmes at the University of the Ryukyus, Officials from USCAR Education Department and the GRI Education Department, Michigan State University 22 Mission members, and Officials from the Okinawa Teachers' Association (OTA), English Language Institute, and other institutes connected with teacher education. Treatment of Data Despite the fact that a large proportion Of this study was Of a descriptive nature, emphasis was also focused on interpretation and explanation. Where possible, a greater depth of understanding Of the developments which tOOk place was achieved by the Observations and Opinions of those who participated in those developments, than would have been gained purely from newspaper articles and documents. TO achieve as high a level Of Objectivity as possible in interpreting the events which took place, information has been gathered from as wide a variety Of sources as possible, then examined and compared to determine the extent Of agreement or disagreement. TO summarize the process followed in this study, first the reason for conducting the study was presented in the rationale. This was followed by the statement Of the problem, and Of the limitations placed on the study by such factors as the nature Of the problem, the availability Of material, and the background Of the writer. It was then possible, within the context of these limitations, to dis— cuss the methodology employed in both the gathering and the interpreting Of the data. 23 Material relating to the development Of teacher education in the Ryukyus was Obtained from a variety of sources as previously described. The information from each source was then placed in chronological order for convenience and clarity, and the degree Of consensus existing between the different sources on the various points was determined. Through cross referencing from both American and Ryukyuan sources, all statements relating to innovations, course changes, policy decisions, and other similar topics were evaluated for reliability. Once the historical record Of the development Of teacher education in the Ryukyus had been completed in this manner, it was then possible to analyse these developments and determine the sources of influence responsible. Overview Of Chapters The first chapter presented a brief description of the Ryukyu Islands, together with a resume Of the historical develOpment from earliest records to the present day. An attempt was made in this section Of the study tO emphasize the pattern Of culture of the islands. The evolvement Of such a pattern has a bearing on the development of teacher education in the Ryukyus. The rationale for conducting this study, and the methodology employed were also dis- cussed in this chapter. In Chapter II the author examines the introduction Of teacher education into the Ryukyus, looking at the 24 development which occurred from the training Of scholars in China, to the programme followed at Shuri Normal School in 1945. I The third chapter presents the actual developments which have taken place in the Ryukyus since the end of the Second World War. Included in this chapter are the influ- ences Of American and Japanese educational philosophies and policies. The patterns Of influence from Japan and the United States are discussed in more depth in the fourth chapter. The views Of leading Ryukyuan educators, university fac— ulty members, school teachers, and students in relation tO the new programme Of teacher education are also discussed in this chapter. The fifth and final chapter summarizes the major developments which occurred in teacher education in the Ryukyus, and the contributions made by the various educa- tional agencies to these developments. The chapter concludes with an evaluation Of the programme. CHAPTER II TEACHER TRAINING IN THE RYUKYUS PRIOR TO 1945 The influence Of Chinese education provided the base for education in Okinawa and Japan during the early stages of development in these countries. Scholars who had been sent to China for protracted periods Of time, for the pur- pose Of studying Confucianism, then returned to their respective countries tO introduce this philosophy. Teaching by the Chinese scholars was conducted by working with one student at a time, while the others practiced their lessons in another room, awaiting their turn. Prints in many Chinese texts attest to the pervasiveness of this system Of teaching. Upon returning to their homes the Ryukyuan scholars followed a similar teaching method. Kimura explained the situation which existed in many Oriental countries quite clearly in the following statement: Not only in Japan, but also in other Oriental countries books dealing with how to learn or how tO perfect ourselves as human beings can easily be found, but the principles or methods to teach other people, have never been studied scientifically.l lToshio Kumura, The Development Of Modern Education and Teachers' Training in Japan (Japan: Japanese National Commission for UNESCO, 1961), P. 15. 25 26 Traditionally it was anticipated that teachers would evolve naturally from those who were learned. Since times immemorial, the notion that every occupation was hereditary was deeply rooted in the Japanese mind and in most cases teachers instructed their children at home or sometimes sent them to other teachers for education and brought them up to become their successors.2 Even in these cases, however, the trainee teachers were not given any training in methods Of teaching. Education, like many other institutions or aSpects Of life in the Ryukyu Islands, was influenced greatly by the philosophies followed in China or Japan, with the result that Ryukyuan educators not only pursued similar curricula, in the few schools which existed, but also utilized similar techniques to those employed by her power- ful neighbours. From 1392 when Satto first sent students to China to study Confucianism, and again in 1481, when Sho Shin expanded the programme to include scholars from the immigrant Chinese colony at Kume Mura, Chinese thought, customs, and technology were imported into the Ryukyus in many fields Of endeavour, including that Of education. Japanese policies and philosophies penetrated the Ryukyuan culture mainly through the introduction to the Ryukyus, in 1261, Of the Buddhist religion by Japanese priests, who also brought other aspects Of Japanese culture with them. Maedormari3 attributes a major influence on education to 21bid., p. 15. 3Maedormari, Op. cit. 27 these priests, insofar as from the middle Of the fifteenth century up through the Tokygawa period, they became polit- ical advisors to the king and had a significant influence on such education as did exist. The Japanese influence was supplemented by students who had been sent to Japan to study Japanese culture and government, and who, upon their return, were given important positions in the Ryukyuan court. As the demand for education gradually grew through- out the Ryukyu Islands, the teachers were drawn from scholars who had studied in China or Japan, with the majority coming from those trained in China. While the Ryukyus retained some semblance Of autonomy, this system was adequate in providing the schools with teachers sufficiently well qualified to meet the approval Of the governing body of the kingdom. With the Official annexation Of the islands by Japan in 1879 education was perceived by the Japanese gov- ernment as the major means for bringing Japanese language and cultdre to the Ryukyus, and to achieve this goal a large body Of trained teachers was required. This situation was not unique in the Ryukyus, however, as the Japanese government faced a similar posi- tion in its own major islands. With the introduction Of a new system Of education in Japan following the Meiji Restor— ation, the government had realized the great discrepancy which existed between the number Of teachers required to 4Collection NO. 9, op. cit., p. 46. 28 Operate in such a programme and the actual number Of teachers, trained or untrained, available at that time. The rapid expansion Of education in Japan was due to the new concept Of education for all, which included nobles, warriors, and common people. The government responded to the shortage Of teachers by establishing a normal school in Tokyo in 1872 and engag- ing an American teacher, Marion M. Scott, to teach the "method Of teaching in elementary schools."5 The demand for teachers was so great that within two years no less than 53 training schools had been established, 46 by the prefec— tures and seven by the national authorities.6 These included national schools in Osaka, Miyagi, Hiroshima, Nagasaki, and Niigata, which together with the prefectural normal schools, enrolled a total Of 5,072 pupils, of whom 74 were female.7 The teachers in these normal schools were graduates from the Tokyo Normal School trained by Scott. Many Of these schools were very imperfect, being Of very short courses, and only just giving pupils some idea Of the method Of teaching: as I have remarked before, in the Old days all elementary teaching was individual, so that class teaching which was now intro- duced, was something quite new.8 5Diaroku Kikuchi, Japanese Education (London: John Murray, 1909), p. 282. 6Hugh Keenlyside and A. F. Thomas, History Of Japanese Education and Present Educational System (Japan: Hokuseido Press, 1937), p. 241. 7Kikuchi, Op. cit., p. 282. 81bid. 29 By 1883 there were 80 normal schools, Of which only two were governmental with the remainder being transferred to the prefectures, but the lack Of uniformity and the deplorably low standards of some Of the institutions led to a demand for reform. This was answered in 1886 when the Department of Education completely reorganized the whole system of normal school education. The two government nor- mal schools in Tokyo were amalgamated into a single insti- tution known as the Higher Normal School. This institution had the responsibility Of preparing teachers for prefec- tural normal schools. Each prefecture was then ordered to organize and maintain one, and only one, normal school where the standards were to be raised uniformly and the length Of course standardized. As the Ryukyus since 1879 had been forced into the new status Of the Okinawan Prefec- ture, it tOO was subject to this reform and was obliged by the Imperial Ordinance on Normal Schools to establish and maintain a normal school. Prior to this, however, attempts had been made to bring Ryukyuan education into line with Japanese policies. In 1875 the Japanese Government had suggested that the Ryukyuan kingdom send six students to Japan to learn about the new educational system developing in that country and tO be trained as the new educational leaders.9 The plan did not prove sufficiently successful, however, and upon 9Collection NO. 9, op. cit., p. 52. 3O establishment Of the prefectural status, the Japanese Ministry Of Education sent their own Officers to the Ryukyus to take over all major positions in the educational system. Determined to weld the new prefecture into the Japanese nation as quickly as possible, the Japanese Min— ister Of Education, Tanaka, visited the islands in 1880 to survey the situation. To his dismay he found that an inter- preter was required as few people could speak Japanese, and the rest spoke only the Ryukyuan language.lo To correct this situation a Japanese Language School was established in 1880 to train interpreters and officials. In June Of the year 1880, a Normal School programme was inaugurated which Offered a short-term course in teacher education.ll Educational reforms in Japan, stimulated by the Imperial Ordinance in 1886, brought rapid progress in edu- cation generally, which was reflected in developments in teacher education. During 1886 and 1887 new buildings were established at Nishi Mura for a Normal School, other school facilities were improved, and an educational organization was set up both in the northern and southern sections Of the main island Of Okinawa. It was during this period that the Minister Of Education, Mori, came to Okinawa and found that the 4,854 students attending school represented only loAsao Maedormari, Educational History Of the Ryukyus (translation) (Okinawa: University Of the Ryukyus, Extension Department, 1952). 11 Collection NO. 9, op: cit., p. 53. 31 11 percent Of the boys and 1 percent of the girls Of school age. Of those attending, 1,800 were over 14 years Of age and some were married.12 In an attempt to hasten the inte- gration Of the Okinawa prefecture into the Japanese Empire, regulations were instituted to force the students tO adOpt Japanese standard school uniforms and to cease wearing tra— ditional Ryukyu clothing. The Normal School at Naha was chosen as the centre for the establishment Of government policy, particularly as all students attending this insti- tution were on government scholarships. TO a great extent the Japanese government relied upon the graduates from the Normal School to teach and spread the Japanese language and customs throughout the Ryukyu Islands. For this reason one Of the major subjects Of the short—term course was the Japanese language. Other courses in the programme included Japanese geography and history, mathe- matics, and a course called "Elementary Text Book," which dealt with reading and writing.13 The number of teachers trained in the Japanese lan- guage were few, however, and the teaching force grew slowly. Commencing with a graduating class Of five, in 1881, the total number of graduates for the six years up until 1886 had grown to 42, an extremely inadequate response to the 12Maedormari, Op. cit. 13Collection No. 9, Op. cit., p. 53. 32 desperate need.14 TO help overcome the immediate deficien- cies in the schools, many elementary schools had been estab- lished. As the Normal School gradually stabilized its curriculum and admissions procedures, at least ten students graduated each year. The formation Of a Women's Normal School in 1896 helped to meet the ever-present need for more qualified teachers and in 1898 the first ten graduates from this school had completed their program and were available to teach in the schools.15 In 1904 the Normal School for men shifted from Naha to Shuri, where it remained as the centre for teacher education in the Ryukyus until its destruction during the closing stages of World War II.16 With the increasing number of qualified teachers in the schools, a corresponding increase in school attendance followed. The actual increase in school attendance from 1888 to 1907, and the percentage of the school age, is shown in Table 1. It is quite apparent that the rapid increase in school population during this period necessitated a corres- ponding increase in the number Of teachers and in school facilities. However, according to statistics from one source, only a total Of 2,756 teachers had been trained by l4Junigichi Kingo, "Outline Of Educational History in Okinawa," in New Cultural History Of Okinawa, ed. by Tadayasu KinjO (Okinawa: Study Association Of Home Country Magazine, 1956). 15Collection NO. 9, O . cit., p. 53. l6 . . . KinjO, Op. Cit. 33 Table l.--SchOOl attendance in the Ryukyus: 1888 to 1907.a Number Of Percentage Of Year Students Attending Age Group 1888 5,523 7.77 1889 8,817 12.05 1890 10,758 14.18 1891 11,361 14.89 1892 12,387 17.29 1893 14,051 19.90 1894 16,192 22.04 1895 16,755 24.16 1896 22,150 31.15 1897 25,880 36.79 1898 28,631 41.55 1899 32,984 44.53 1900 35,537 52.79 1901 52,117 71.63 1902 54,185 78.24 1903 55,754 83.19 1904 55,384 84.44 1905 60,128 88.26 1906 59,749 90.08 1907 62,246 92.81 Boys 95.21 Girls 90.41 aCollection NO. 9, Op. cit., p. 55. 34 1930, so it would appear that the student-teacher ratio was reasonably large.17 Another source stated that in 1935, the elementary and higher elementary schools in the Okinawa Prefecture had 139 principals and 2,285 teachers, being a ratio Of one teacher (principals included) to 42.9 pupils.18 In general, two types of teacher training programmes were available at Shuri Normal School prior to 1945, although the records indicate that as the needs arose, short-term teacher training courses were initiated. Much Of the infor- mation concerning these courses was gained from Professor Asao Maedormari,19 who had attended Shuri Normal School as a student from 1927 to 1932. As he had been a faculty member from 1943 to 1945, and has been a member of the Education faculty at the University of the Ryukyus since its inception, Professor Maedormari has been in a position to Observe the changes in teacher education over a long period. His des- cription Of the programme at Shuri Normal School was sup- ;xmtedcn1all major points by the account given in the Ciyil Affairs Handbook by the Navy Department.20 The marked sim— ilarity in all respects Of the curriculum at Shuri Normal School to that described by Kikuchi and others, as existing in prefectures in Japan, demonstrates the efficiency with 17Collection No. 9, op. cit., p. 55. 18Civil Affairs Handbook, Op. cit., p. 160. 19Maedormari, Interview at the University Of the Ryukyus, Naha, Okinawa, July, 1970. 20 Civil Affairs Handbook, Op. cit., p. 169. 35 which the clause relating to normal schools in the Imperial Ordinance of 1886 was carried out. Students who wished to enter the teaching profes- sion could complete the regular course at Shuri Normal School by one Of two possible routes. As demonstrated in Table 2, the first route, or Ichibu, was based on eight years of elementary education, followed by a five—year programme at the normal school. The second route, or Nibu, was for students who had passed an entrance examination to the middle school level upon completion Of six years Of elementary edu- cation. The programme at the middle school was for a period of five years, after which those who wished to attend the Normal School sat for an entrance examination, enabling the successful candidates to attend Shuri Normal School for two years. While the structure Of the two paths Of the regular course would appear to be different, an examination Of the curriculum followed by students in both would indicate that the students had received almost identical training by the time Of their graduation. The students were in undiffer— entiated classes for the first six years Of elementary school, at which time those who wished could sit for entrance exam— inations to the middle school. Those who proved successful in these examinations commenced the five-year middle school programme, while those who failed would remain in the ele— mentary school programme for two more years. In this way they would complete the eight-year elementary programme with 36 Table 2.—-Teacher education routes at Shuri Normal School.a One year of Selected Subject Teaching Methods o ‘~ v’ ‘s‘ ‘,’ ‘ Year Ichibu Route Nibu Route 13' ‘- 1 5 years 2 years of lzu- f ._ Normal School 0 ( No fees ) llr~ Normal -~ Entrance Examination 10d SChOOl ~ a, 5 years of 9.-( NO fees -» “F Middle School ( Fees charged ) 8-- Entrance Examination «- 74- (db- .- 6-- 8 years -- Entrance Examination 5‘- Of db 1, P Elementary) - Education - ( NO fees 6 years Of Elementary Education )4»- «1r- ( NO fees ) -1 J. IL 4L a . . Source: Maedormari, InterView, Op. cit. 37 those who had not attempted the examination. At this stage the Normal School Offered an entrance examination for those desiring to join the teaching profession. Once admitted to Shuri Normal School, the students from the Ichibu, or first track, would work in a programme comprised Of general edu— cation courses and professional courses. The general edu~ cation courses included in this programme are listed in Table 3, with the curriculum from other Japanese prefectural Normal Schools for comparison. The major differences between the Ichibu and Nibu tracks were that those in the latter had completed the general education courses while in Middle School, and the professional courses were taken during their two-year Normal School programme. It should be noted that students with good grades from either track were eligible for a special one-year course for further subject specialization.21 In addition to the alternative programme in the regular course, short—term training courses were Offered when needed to overcome a specific shortage Of teachers. These programmes were from two to three months in duration following gradu- ation from eight years Of elementary school. Upon comple- tion Of this course, the graduate was certified to teach classes in the first six years Of elementary school. This, then, was the stage Of development Of teacher education in the Ryukyu Islands up until 1945. Growing away lepid, See also Kumura, Op. cit., p. 43. 38 Table 3.--Teacher education curriculum. b Shuri Normal Schoola Other Japanese Normal Schools A. General Education A. General Education Japanese Language Chinese Characters (Calligraphy) Mathematics Geography and History (a) European (b) Oriental (c) Japanese Natural Science Physics and Chemistry General Psychology Music Physical Education Ethics and Morals Philosophy Logic Art Industrial Art B. Professional Courses Educational Psychology Principles Of Education Teaching Methods History of Education Special Methods (Subjects) Practice Teaching Japanese Language Chinese Literature Mathematics Geography and History Natural Science Physics and Chemistry Music Physical Education Ethics and Morals Philosophy Logic Drawing Manual Work Pedagogy Law and Economics . c B. Professronal Courses Elements of Psychology and Logic Theory Of Education Principles Of Teaching Methods History of Education Elementary Education Methods Practice Teaching School Management Educational Laws and Regulations aMaedormari, Interview, Op. cit. bKikuchi, Op. cit., p. 285. chid., p. 289. 39 from the early concept prevalent in China and Japan, that teachers required no further training once they had estab- lished their claims to scholarship in a specific field of study, the curriculum for those wishing to enter the teach— ing profession gradually changed. By the Meiji Restoration the programme was strongly affected by American educational concepts through the influence Of such men as Scott and Murray. With the standardization of curriculum throughout the Japanese Empire these influences were also felt in the prefecture Of Okinawa. American influence on teacher educa- tion began gradually to be replaced by the German pedagogi- cal philosophy Of the Herbartian School, which was found to be more attuned to the spirit Of nationalism epitomized by the Imperial Rescript on Education.22 While the Offerings at the normal schools grew as the Empire became more pros- perous, Japanese education had “become too tightly cen- tralized and controlled, thus losing its vitality."23 The syllabus was modified occasionally to adjust to changing national needs, but did not generally keep pace with more progressive programmes in other countries, which placed more stress on helping the future teacher to learn more about the student and the learning process. 22Kumura, Op. cit., p. 35. 23Ibid., p. 39. CHAPTER III TEACHER EDUCATION IN THE RYUKYUS: 1945 to 1970 Japanese Post—War Teacher Education Following the acceptance of the conditions of the Potsdam Declaration by Emperor Hirohito, the Allied Powers occupied Japan to eliminate the militaristic forces and to aid the democratization process taking place in that coun- try. The Japanese began by reforming the government to bring it more under the control Of the people, and to remove the militaristically oriented personnel from the adminis- tration. Those who had been imprisoned, or deprived Of their positions for Opposing the war, were restored to their previous positions, and the establishment of such bodies as trade unions to protect the rights of their members was encouraged.1 Decisive action was taken to enforce a decen- tralized system under a central government, to introduce women's suffrage, to distribute land to tenants, to dissolve the Zaibatsu or financial combines, to extend compulSory education from six to nine years, and to establish a single track system Of education. In the field of education, an American team Of edu- cational experts was invited by General Headquarters Of lKumura, Op. cit., p. 49. 40 41 the Far East Command to study the educational system of Japan. This group worked with a counterpart commission of national educators, both groups having the aim of making specific recommendations felt to be necessary for the achievement Of overall reform in keeping with the spirit of democracy. As a result Of the investigation and discussions, a report, The Report Of the United States Education Mission to Japap,2 referred to generally as the Mission Report, was published on March 30, 1946. While many structural and cur- riculum changes were involved in the recommendations of this report, the author in this discussion will concern himself with those related to teacher education. From the outset, the Report established the connec- tion between teaching reforms and general educational reforms, since the reform of teaching and of the education Of teachers had the same goal as the reconstruction Of educa- tion in general.3 The stringency of the centralized con- trol exercised by the Japanese Ministry Of Education Of the Old regime caused teaching to become formal and stereotyped with teachers being told what to teach and how to teach it, and with inspectors appointed to ensure that the instruc- tions were followed explicitly. 2United States Education Mission to Japan, Report (Tokyo: Supreme Commander for the Allied Powers, March, 1946). 3Ibid., p. 33. 42 When reviewing the overall preparation Of teachers, the Report stated that the Faculty Of Education had special contributions to make in this preparation which was distinct from the general education Of the teacher. First, it should Offer work in the history Of education as re-written by competent scholars. This will enlighten the student regarding the development Of education at home and abroad. Second, the educational courses should include a thorough treatment of the psychological background Of education, including the learning process, individual differences, educational measurement, and, particularly, child development and child psychology. The treatment should include experimentation and Observation, not merely theoretical instruction. The colleges and universities responsible for edu- cating a large proportion Of teachers were singled out for special criticism due to the lack Of professional prepara- tion. The report recommended that a careful study of work in education in higher institutions should be conducted and that a commission be appointed for this task from uni- versity representatives, teachers, and other educational Officials. This group was to consider such points as the enlargement Of programmes for teacher preparation or school administration, including the provision for more emphasis on learning, child development, tests and measurements, the social foundations Of education, the curriculum, and admin- istrative problems.5 41bid., p. 43. 51bid., p. 46. 43 General agreement was found between both the Mission Report and another study for the Supreme Commander for the Allied Powers in 1952.6 In a searching analysis and critique Of teacher education programmes prior to the Allied Occupa- tion, it was found that many teachers in schools did not have certificates Of any kind, and even those teachers who were certificated had little training in professional education courses. There were in the teacher training institutions no courses in Educational Psychology or Methods of Teach- ing for example. There was a course of a kind in General Psychology, but seemingly little attempt had been made to apply psychological principles to the task Of teach- ing and guiding boys and girls. It was widely thought that a knowledge Of subject matter alone was suffi- cient preparation for teaching. There was little recognition Of the importance Of the psychology Of adolescence, and little thought Of applying any infor— mation about the adolescent to the problem Of guiding him toward satisfactory development. Neither was there any appreciable knowledge or training with respect to special guidance techniques and programs. In fact, almost the total emphasis was upon textbook materials, and the training Of the pupil to serve the purposes of the Empire. Although some training on a limited scale had been Offered in general librarianship, no provisions were made for training Of school librarians or guidance personnel.8 As normal schools in all the prefectures were subject to the 6Post-War Developments in Japanese Education, VOl. I: Education in Japan 1945-1952 (Tokyo: Supreme Com- mander for the Allied Powers, Civil Information and Educa- tion Section, April, 1952). 7Ibid., p. 202. 8Loc. cit. 44 same regulations, these criticisms applied euqally to Shuri Normal School in Okinawa Prefecture. In response to these acknowledged weaknesses in their teacher education programme, Japanese educators pro- vided both emergency training measures and long-range programees. New certification requirements were stipulated and in-service programmes and re-education measures were instituted. Professional material was compiled, printed, and distributed to teachers and institutions in the form of professional journal articles, pamphlets, and textbooks. Other publications complementing these developments came in the form Of bulletins or syllabi prepared especially for professors in teacher training institutions. The syllabi contained plans for the organization Of university courses in professional subjects for secondary and elementary school trainee teachers.9 Reviewing the developments which grew out of the criticisms levelled by Japanese and American educational experts at the teacher education prior to the Allied Occu— pation, several features became apparent. While previously the system was characterized by formality and stereotyped rigidity, the freedom allowed under the new regime fostered rapid changes in educational philosophy, structure, and cur- riculum. Many Of these developments were initiated by Japanese educators, with others resulting from American 9Ibid., p. 231. 45 suggestions and the ever—increasing influx Of professional material from American and other foreign sources. Signif- icant developments occurred, indicating a major change in the policies and philosophy guiding the teacher education programme. While these were basically curricular changes, they also entailed changes Of methodology, both in teacher training and in public school classrooms. By these changes it was anticipated that the emphasis in the programme would move away from the earlier basis Of teacher training in Japan, that a knowledge Of subject matter was sufficient preparation for teaching. Educators in Japan were already aware Of the need for reform in this area, and they were fortunate in having a team of prominent American educators to work with their own qualified personnel to bring about the desired changes. Between the publication Of the Mission Report in 1946, and the arrival of a follow-up mission in 1950, American edu— cators representing every facet Of education worked daily with the government Officials, administrators, and teachers to implement policies recommended by the Education Mission.lo In addition tO this full-time staff, numerous other special- ists came for periods ranging from One week to nine months to aid in workshops, round table discussions, and in the Institute for Educational Leadership, which afforded post- graduate training for more than 4,000 leaders in loCivil Affairs Activities, 1952, op. cit., p. 152. 46 administration, supervision, finance, and instruction in each curriculum at all educational levels.11 Japanese educators trained in these courses carried out similar programmes in their respective prefectures. The result was that an understanding of the educational reforms and the new edu- cational philosophy, based on democratic precepts, was dis— seminated throughout Japan. This process Of change was not realized to the same extent in the Ryukyus, as there had not been a comparable staff Of educators to work with the Ryukyuans in the years immediately following the end of the war in 1945. While each Military Government included an Information and Educa- tion Officer, "these individuals were sometimes men who had little or no training in education, and who generally had so many other assignments on the team that they had little or no time to confer with the Ryukyuans except to gather data needed for their reports to Headquarters."12 During this early post-war period, educators were brought in occasionally on temporary duty from the United States Head- quarters in Japan, and two consultants visited the Ryukyus tO make surveys and recommendations. It was not until after USCAR had become established, that trained educational per- sonnel from the United States were able to make a concerted llLoc. cit. 12Ibid., p. 155. See also Gordon Warner, "History of Postwar Education in the Ryukyu Islands," Part VI, Shurei NO Hikari, Vol. III, April, 1968. 47 effort to help modernize education in the Ryukyus. The lack of personnel was accentuated by a shortage Of teach- ers generally, and Of well-qualified Ryukyuan teacher edu— cators in particular. The difficult situation was height- ened by the wartime destruction of the only tertiary institution in the Ryukyus, Shuri Normal School. Ryukyuan Post-War Teacher Education With the cessation Of hostilities in the Ryukyus, and the gradual re-establishment of economic and social life, one Of the first priorities Of the administration was the establishment of a school system to reorganize the educa- tion of the school-age children in the Islands, and tO intro- duce a more modern and democratic concept Of education. The teacher shortage resulting from the war created further difficulties, in that not only was it imperative to train a large number of teachers in the shortest time possible, but it was also necessary to introduce more modern methods Of teacher education into the Ryukyus. As it was not possible tO meet both needs at the same time under the existing con- ditions in the Islands, the emphasis was placed upon supply- ing as many trained, or partially trained, personnel to staff the schools in the shortest possible period of time. In an attempt to meet this need for teachers, courses in teacher training were established to train tem- porary teachers at the two newly established training institutions, the Okinawa Bunkyo Gakko and the Okinawa 48 Foreign Language School.13 On January 10, 1946, the Okinawa Bunkyo Gakko (or Okinawa Normal School) was established at Gushikawa village, offering courses similar to those fol- lowed previously at Shuri Normal School. The period Of training required for certification from these courses was originally six months. This was changed to a one-year programme in 1948,14 and by 1952 had been extended to two years. i The Okinawa Foreign Language School also opened in 1946, accepting 35 men and 35 women for a course lasting six months. Graduates served as teachers of English in junior and senior high schools, or worked as interpreters or translators for the United States forces.15 The Bunkyo Gakko was patterned after the pre—war normal schools,16 and was open to similar criticisms as those levelled at the Japanese institutions, since all were subject to the same regulations and standards set by the Japanese Ministry of Education. As will become apparent in later discussion, the emphasis in the programme was placed 13Education Report: Progress and Future Of Okinawan Education (translation), Education Department of GRI, June, 1965, p. 114. 14The 1951-52 Report Of the Michigan State College Mission to the Universipy of the Ryukyus, M.S.C. Mission, September, 1952, p. 27. lsHistory Of Data from the Ryukyus: Collection #3, 1945-1955 (translation), Education Department Of GRI, July 14, 1958, p. 311. 16Civil Affairs Activities, 1952, op. cit., p. 162. 49 on textbook learning in the subject areas, with little or no mention Of teaching methods, the psychology of learning and the learner, testing and evaluation, or counselling Of students. With the establishment Of the University Of the Ryukyus at Shuri in 1950, the Normal School at Gushikawa was closed, but as the university did not then include a teacher training programme, each guntO (group of islands) established its own teacher training school.17 Okinawa Gunto established four of these temporary training schools Of two classes each at Nago, Koza, Itoman, and Maehara, respectively, "at which were given [sic] six— months courses by the calendar, but which consisted of but four and one-half months of actual attendance."18 These schools accepted high school graduates and teachers who had been assistant teachers on emergency certificates. Short— term refresher courses for pre-war trained teachers were also provided, on completion of which certificates were awarded. In some Of these courses, when American personnel were available to assist, an understanding Of Educational Psychology, General Teaching Methods, and the Principles of Education was reached, but generally the short courses Offered only a review Of the subject content of the 17Michigan State College Report, 1951-52, Op. cit., 18Civil Affairs Activities, 1952, op. cit., p. 162. 50 elementary and secondary school curricula.19 A loosely organized system Of Observation Of teaching and practice teaching was attempted, but in many cases the teacher who supervised the work was as poorly prepared as the student taking the course, so that the gain to the student was very limited. Each school enrolled from 70 to 100 students and suffered from over-crowded classes, little or no equipment, an inadequately trained teaching staff, and too short a period Of time for training. At this stage, efforts from outside sources were being made to help educators in the Ryukyus Offer a programme in teacher education comparable to those available in Japan and the United States. In 1951, Michigan State College signed a contract with the United States Department Of the Army, agreeing to furnish assis- tance to the University of the Ryukyus. By September, 1952, the Michigan State College Mission had arrived in Okinawa and began working closely, and on a continuing basis, with Ryukyuan teaching and administrative staff. The evaluation by the Mission members of the teach- ing methods used in the Ryukyus echoed the comments on Japanese teacher education made by the Education Mission to Japan in 1946. The old truism that teachers teach as they have been taught is true in the Orient. The customary pro- cedure is largely Of the lecture type, and the teacher usually occupies such a high status position with regard to the class that the student regards him with an 19Loc. cit. 51 attitude resembling awe and which certainly discourages the student from any tendencies toward individual thinking, levity, or even participation. Classes tend to be extremely formal, and student participation restricted to a slight bow and perhaps a unison greet— ing when the teacher walks into the room. The pre-war Japanese concept of the role of the teacher is still present in the island schools, and the university.20 Earlier references to the Gunto Normal School Offer- ings Of Educational Psychology, General Teaching Methods, and Principles Of Education were predicated upon American per— sonnel being available to Offer guidance and assistance. Other references to the need for the inclusion of courses in Educational Psychology, and Counselling and Guidance,21 and for the courses in Child Growth and DevelOpment, Eval- uation and Measurement, Educational Psychology, and Teaching Methods to be included for teacher certification require- ments22 indicated the close similarity between the pre—war Ryukyuan and Japanese programmes. The situation which the Education members23 Of the Michigan State College Mission faced in 1952 was complicated by several problems. The first Of these was to train a large number Of new teachers to meet the urgent needs of the school system in the Ryukyus, while attempting to up-grade and modernize the teacher education programme. The 20Michigan State College Repprt, 1951-52, Op. cit., p. 20. 21Civil Affairs Activities, Op3 cit., p. 171. 22 Ibid.p pp. 172-73. 23The term 'Education member' follows the usage of this phrase in the Michigan State University Quarterly Reports. 52 second problem was to re-educate uncertificated teachers and Older teachers, who had received their training under the pre-war Japanese training programme. This problem was aggravated by a critical shortage Of teachers, thus making it impossible to take uncertificated teachers out Of the schools for any appreciable period Of time. In cooperation with the Education Department Of GRI, the University Of the Ryukyus, the Education Department Of USCAR, and other edu- cators, the Mission members attempted to overcome these problems. Teacher Education at the University of the Ryukyus The University of the Ryukyus was given responsi- bility for the pre-service training Of teachers by the Central Government Education Department, with the expecta- tion that it would both modernize the programme and prepare sufficient teachers for the needs Of the schools.24 This task was quite complex, however, as many minor problems had to be solved before the major difficulties could be overcome. Specifically, solutions would have to be found to the following problems: 1. Where would the university Obtain sufficient faculty to staff its teacher education programme? 2. Would it be possible to train the faculty mem- bers in the more modern techniques and philosophies Of 4Gordon Warner, "History of Post-War Education in the Ryukyu Islands," Part XI, Shuri NO Hikari, Vol. 117, October, 1968, p. 16. ' V 53 teacher training, without interfering with the pre— service preparation Of teachers? 3. Would it be possible to provide an adequate and worthwhile student teaching experience with the extreme shortage of suitable schools, and lack of qualified and experienced supervising teachers? The Education Department of the GRI accepted the responsi- bility for the in-service training of the partially quali- fied teachers in the schools, and for providing adequate retraining programmes for teachers who had received their training during the pre-war period.25 A partial solution to the problem Of Obtaining qual- ified faculty for the University programme was provided by the presence Of the Mission members, who not only helped lighten the teaching load Of the Ryukyuan faculty members, but also provided qualified personnel to teach the courses in Measurement and Evaluation, Educational Psychology, Guidance, and Teaching Methods. In the first semester of their term in the Ryukyus, the Michigan State College Mis- sion members taught courses in their areas Of specialization, with Dr. Edward Pfau, the Education member, teaching classes in American Methods Of Teaching and Evaluation, American School Administration and Supervision, and Elementary School Evaluation.26 The overall contributions of the Michigan 25Michigan State College Report, 1951-52, Op. cit., 26Ibid., p. 20. 54 State University Mission27 to the teacher education pro- gramme in the Ryukyus is discussed in more detail at a later stage, with attention now being focused on additional methods utilized to overcome the shortage Of qualified faculty. One Of the methods used to provide the Ryukyuan faculty members with experience in these new fields in teacher education was that of departmental conferences, discussions, and seminars. The philosophy and Objectives Of the new courses were discussed during these sessions, until a greater understanding was achieved. Thus the con- ferences became training sessions, for in many cases the problems involved were foreign to the staff members con— cerned.28 Mission members felt that the most lasting influence would be exerted in the realm Of exchange Of ideas and information, between the specific departments that they represented and the local department members working with them. Because Of the importance the Mission attached to this form of training, it tended to persist throughout the entire period Of contact between Michigan State University and the University Of the Ryukyus. The discussions ranged widely in nature, including not only specific discussions 27Michigan State College was changed, by act Of the Michigan State Legislature, to Michigan State University as Of July 1, 1955. 28Michigan State College Report, 1951-52, op. cit., p. 32. 55 related to the new courses, but also such general subjects as administration in higher education.29 A more long—term approach, but one which Offered more effective and enduring results, was that Of sending faculty members to Japan and to the United States to pursue graduate studies. With only a small nucleus of trained personnel available tO teach in the university programme, the absence of these faculty members caused a severe strain on the ability Of the university to meet its commitment for the pre-service training of teachers. In one example quoted during the first year Of the Mission's involvement in the programme, it was found that the "development of this phase Of the program was handicapped by the fact that Mr. Taira, head Of the Education Department, was in the States for three months as a National Leader, and Mr. Yona- mine, psychologist, has been at Michigan State College all year."30 Other faculty members followed Mr. Yonamine, some going to American universities and others attending Japanese institutions. In 1953, the Education member stated that he had worked closely with the administration in developing a long- term programme Of upgrading its staff by sending faculty members to Japanese and American universities and colleges 29The Quarterly Report Of the Michigan State College Mission to the University Of the Ryukyus: October 1- December 31, 1953, MSC Mission, 1953, p. 16. 30 . Michigan State College Report, 1951-52, Op. Cit., 56 for further study. During the following year, 12 or more staff members received leaves Of absence for study, six in Japanese universities and the remainder in the United States.31 Dr. Raymond Hatch, in his terminal report as Chief Of Party for the Michigan State University Mission, summar- ized the developments in faculty training and qualifications. The staff at the University Of the Ryukyus has made very significant professional progress since the organ- ization Of the first faculty in 1950. Graduate degrees were barely visible among the 44 staff members of the first faculty. Today the staff members hold twelve doctoral degrees and 36 masters degrees for a total Of forty—eight graduate degrees. In addition, there are many other young staff members hopeful Of com- pleting another graduate degree from among the total of 169 regular staff members.32 Of the 12 members Of the Education Faculty at the University Of the Ryukyus in the 1970-71 academic year, only two had completed doctoral degrees, although several other members were in the final stages Of doctoral programmes and others were in the process Of commencing such a programme.33 While this may appear to be a small percentage Of the fac— ulty to have completed graduate studies, within the context Of the university community at the University Of the Ryukyus, 3lThe Quarterly Report Of the Michigan State Col- lege Mission tO the University Of the Ryukyus: January 1- March 31, 1954, MSC Mission, 1954, p. 21. 32Michigan State Universipy Group at the University Of the Ryukyus: Fourth Quarter Report, 1962, MSU Mission, January, 1963, p. 6. 33Interview with Dr. Yuji Yonemori, Faculty of Education, University of the Ryukyus, Okinawa, August 4, 1970. 57 it represents a higher percentage Of doctorates than the all-university percentage. Unfortunately the figures do not reflect the fact that three Faculty Of Education members holding doctorate degrees had resigned in the preceding three years, thus lowering the academic status Of that department. In 1953 the Education member from the Michigan State College Mission went to Japan to recruit two Japanese pro- fessors tO teach at the University Of the Ryukyus, thus partially filling the vacancies created by several faculty on leave for study purposes.34 This practice was repeated periodically, allowing the influence Of Japanese professors to be felt in the Ryukyuan teacher education programme. These faculty members from Japanese universities were care- fully selected On the basis Of qualifications and experi- ence with the more modern concepts of teacher education. Those selected were then brought to the Ryukyus to help in the upgrading and re-education of the teachers in the schools. Opportunity for the exchange Of ideas, in seminars and discussions with Japanese professors, was available through the Education Department Of GRI sponsored in-service training sessions, which were Offered in the summer Of each year. It had become apparent early in the existence Of the University Of the Ryukyus that the number Of applicants 34 Michigan State College Report, October, 1953, Op. cit., p. 15. 58 seeking admission to the various departments far exceeded the number of students that could be accepted. To increase the Opportunities for higher education for the Ryukyuan students, scholarships were inaugurated to assist students to attend universities in the United States and in Japan. The United States Congress established a scholarship fund (Project 456) within the appropriation entitled "GARIOA“ (Government and Relief in Occupied Areas), to provide "those supplies and services necessary to the prevention Of star— vation, disease, and unrest among the citizens Of U.S. occupied countries throughout the world."35 The GARIOA student scholarship programme which began by sending 54 Ryukyuan students to the United States for one year Of study in the 1950-51 school year was responsible for providing many graduates trained in social and economic fields, including trained teachers to staff the growing University Of the Ryukyus and the senior high schools.36 Of the 1,081 students sent to either CONUS (Continental U.S.A.) or Hawaii, up to and including the year 1970, at least 181 were pursuing degrees in education.37 Scholarship funds were also available for students wishing to pursue their studies in Japanese universities 35Civil Affairs Activities, 1952, Op. cit., p. l. 36Civil Affairs Activities in the Ryukyu Islands (Report for Period Ending June 30, 1954), USCAR, Vol. II, NO. 1, 1954, p. 98. 37Ryukyu Islands Facts Book: 1969, USCAR, Okinawa, October, 1969, pp. 19—27. 59 and special training schools. With the possibility Of even— tual reversion Of the islands to Japan it was necessary to base as much Of the programme on Japanese certification standards as was possible.38 In 1949, the first group Of 63 students was sent to Japan, and by 1953, a total Of 455 students had benefited from this programme.39 The financial support was supplied by USCAR between 1949 and 1952, but at the end Of this period the responsibility was transferred to GRI. As GRI was no longer able to support such a pro— gramme, it appealed successfully to the Japanese government for financial assistance, and thus this programme was retained. Since March, 1951, privately financed students from the Ryukyus were also allowed to attend Japanese institutions for higher education upon the condition that they passed the entrance examination Of that particular university. In 1964 alone, 3,190 privately sponsored stu— dents were studying in Japan.40 These, then, were the major methods implemented to overcome the shortage Of trained faculty at the University of the Ryukyus. The contributions Of Michigan State Col- lege Mission members and the Japanese university personnel 38Michigan State College Report, 1951-52, Op. cit., p. 32. 39Education Department Of GRI, Education Report: Progress and the Future Propsects Of Okinawan Education (translation), June, 1965, p. 129. 40Ibid., p. 130; confirmed by Mr. Ahagon, Ex—Director Of GRI Education Department and Scholarship Programme. 6O helped tO overcome the immediate deficiencies Of the pro— gramme. As the number Of faculty members Of the University Of the Ryukyus with graduate degrees increased, benefits to the university and students were Of a more permanent nature. The number and quality Of personnel available for university positions also increased, thus obviating one Of the major problems faced by the university in its early years Of operation. By 1970 the staffing situation at the University of the Ryukyus had changed significantly from the situation in the early 1950's. From a faculty Of 44 members with few graduate degrees, the university staff in 1970 consisted Of 242 full—time faculty, with 75 holding doctoral degrees, 102 with masters degrees, and 72 with bachelors degrees.41 Development Of the Modern Teacher Education Programme at the University Of the Ryukyus Being a prefecture Of Japan up until 1945, Okinawa was subject to the same regulations, laws, and standards as the other prefectures throughout the major islands Of Japan. This uniformity was demonstrated in the teacher education programme at Shuri Normal School. As demon- strated previously, the curriculum was lacking in courses which emphasized the learner and the learning environment. 41Civil Administration Of the Ryukyu Islands: Report for Period 1 July, I969—307June, I970, Vol. XVIII, HIgh’Commissioner of the Ryukyu ISlands, Okinawa, 1970, p. 193. 61 The Ryukyuan faculty members had been trained under a content— oriented programme and thus had little knowledge Of or eXperience in these new fields. This was revealed in the teaching methods they employed with their own classes, in which they relied almost entirely on the lecture situation, where the pupil was expected to play a passive role in the learning process.42 The use of small group discussions as a teaching technique was not attempted, and with inadequate library facilities and textbook shortages it was not pos- sible to utilize individual library projects in the learning situation. As textbooks and materials were extremely dif- ficult to Obtain from Japan, the teachers in the schools and the university were encouraged to consider the lecture tech— nique as not only necessary, but also sufficient.43 The general lack Of training not only reduced the effectiveness of the teachers when working with their classes, but also severely restricted the value Of the student teaching experience for the trainee teachers. Stu- dent teaching suffered also from poor scheduling, resulting in both insufficient time devoted to work in the public school, and causing the students to be in attendance at the- schools at differing times each day. This did not allow 42Michigan State College Report, 1951—52, Op. cit., 43Loc cit. 62 for continuity with the same classes for planning, teaching, and evaluation purposes.44 The development Of the teacher training programme was based on the revision Of the entire programme Of studies at the university. When the 1951—52 academic year commenced, the university established two—year teacher training courses for elementary teacher trainees, and junior high school trainees, together with four—year programmes for junior and senior high school trainees who wished to complete degrees. The two-year training programme for elementary teachers was planned to include some requirements Of the four—year degree programme, thus facilitating the completion of the degree by the student at some future date. As this programme and that Of the Central Govern- ment Department Of Education developed concurrently, it was possible to begin the new programme with the commencement Of the new school year in April Of 1952. Education Depart— ment Officials Of GRI estimated that the teacher require- ment for the Ryukyus would be met if a single teacher training programme could graduate the following number Of teacher trainees each year: Elementary School teachers . . . . 180 Junior High School teachers . . . . 100 Senior High School teachers . . . . 2045 44Michigan State College Report, "The Quarterly Report Of the Michigan State College Mission tO the Univer— sity Of the Ryukyus," 15 September, 1952 to 31 December, 1952, p. 19. 45Michigan State College Report, 1951—52, Op. cit., p. 28. 63 Elementary teacher trainees were required to take the same courses in General Education as students planning to complete a four-year programme, together with profes— sional courses designed to prepare them for their teaching positions. Upon completion Of the two—year programme the trainees were granted a teaching certificate valid for a definite period Of time, after which time it was hoped that the supply Of teachers in the Ryukyus would make it pos- sible to require additional training before the certifi- cates would be renewed. The four—year training programme met Japanese certification requirements, and yet was also similar to American training programmes.46 "Leading Ryukyuan educators are anticipating the day when all elemen- tary teachers will be required to complete a four-year per- iod Of training beyond high school before being certified to teach."47 The first year Of the two—year elementary teacher training programme saw 205 students enrolled. Approxi- mately 130 Of these were at the Shuri campus, while the remainder were enrolled at Amami Oshima, a small centre established in 1952. Thirty prospective teachers had enrolled for a one-year programme at this centre, together with 48 other trainees enrolled in the first year Of the two-year programme. The one—year programme ended in March, 46Ibid. 47Ibid. 64 1953, and was not re—Offered; instead 50 more students began the first year Of the two—year programme.48 Forty students completed the two—year teacher train— ing programme for junior high school trainees, and entered the teaching field in April, 1952. Sixty—eight additional trainees completed a similar program in March, 1953, with 22 graduates Of the four—year programme entering the senior high schools. This represented 75 percent Of the teachers needed for junior and senior high schools,49 and on this basis it was possible to close the two—year programme after the 1954 graduation. As shown in Table 4, the two—year elementary school teacher training programme continued to Operate in conjunc— tion with the four-year programme until 1960, when the supply Of teachers for the elementary schools in the Ryukyus could be met by the four-year programme alone.50 While the structure Of the pre—service teacher edu- cation programme was developing and adjusting to the chang- ing needs Of the Ryukyuan education system, the curriculum changes deemed necessary were slowly being implemented. TO supplement these courses in a practical manner, Edward 48Michigan State College Report, September, 1952- December, 1952, Op. cit., p. 16. 49Michigan State College Report, 1951—52, Op. cit., p. 29. OHachiro Kaminuma, “Essay on Okinawa Education: Reversion to Japan and Educational Problems“ (translation), NAMPO DOHO YENGO KAI, Japan, 1966, p. 117. Pfau, 65 the Education Mission member, wrote a bulletin on practical testing procedures, designed to help teachers improve their own tests. This bulletin was then trans— lated into Japanese, published and distributed to all Of the schools in the islands. 51 Table 5.--Enrollments in four-year and two~year courses, 1952-1968.a Students in Students in Year Four—Year Course Two—Year Course 1952 -- 18 1953 26 74 1954 122 162 1955 93 130 1956 162 62 1957 253 30 1958 409 14 1959 446 13 1960 471 11 1961 451 -- 1962 497 -- 1963 570 -- 1964 555 -- 1965 578 -- 1966 532 -- 1967 605 -- 1968 651 -- Total 6,421 514 aUniversity Of the Ryukyus: General Information 1968-1969, Office of Administration, University Of the Ryukyus, September, 1968, p. 9. 51Michigan State College Report, 1951-52, Op. cit., 66 Testing procedures were generally not understood, and the emphasis in the courses was placed on scientific principles of testing usable by the individual classroom teacher. An example of this problem was the situation con- fronting the gunto government education departments last summer when they administered the Tanaka adaption of the Binet intelligence test to all fourth grade pupils in the islands. The results were disappointing, for the officials concluded that all Ryukyuan pupils were inferior to Japanese pupils . . . . When the test was examined later, this member of the Mission found several test items that obviously lacked curricular validity. The conclusions were based on the use of Japanese test norms, but no one seemed to be aware of the dangers involved in this process. The teaching methods courses were also taught by the Mission members in the first few years until the Ryukyuan faculty had upgraded their knowledge and ability in this area. To give substance to a course of this nature the Mission members attempted to include as many of the varying techniques discussion attempt to success of in their own teaching as was possible. Various techniques were employed in their classes, in an encourage the students to participate, but the these techniques was limited by the fact that "not only must the discussion process be encouraged, but it must be actually taught, and the technique is so new to the pupils that they often Spend considerable time attempting to understand what we are trying to do. "53 While problems were 521bid., p. 31. 53Ibid., p. 21. 67 experienced in the use of discussion techniques during aca- demic and professional courses, in a more practical situa- tion progress became apparent. Response from the students increased when the topics were related to qualifications of teachers, classroom management, unit planning, evaluation procedures, and general teaching methods.54 A factor which may have hindered participation gen- erally was the need to use interpreters in the sections taught by the Mission members. While this learning envi- ronment did not encourage students to participate in dis— cussion, it did have the result of helping to train the Ryukyuan faculty members who cooperated in the course with the Mission member.55 As more faculty members became qual— ified to teach the new courses, the Mission member for edu- cation accepted only those students with sufficient facility in English to participate without the use of an interpreter. The new teaching methods were strange to the students at first, and time was needed for the new techniques to gain acceptance. Many students felt that the methods used, though interesting and pleasant, did not constitute real education.56 54Michigan State College Report, September, 1952- December, 1952, op. cit., p. 19. SSIbid., p. 11. 56Michigan State College Report, 1951-52, op. cit., p. 20. 68 The use of audio-visual aids in classroom teaching at the university had been restricted to the use of a single blackboard on an easel at the front of the room. This dis- couraged student participation in such courses as mathe- matics and limited them to teacher performances.57 A recom— mendation was made by the Mission member to establish an Audio-Visual Aids Department, and for the introduction of classes on how to use such devices. By 1953 this recom— mendation had been adopted and a new member appointed to the Education Department at the University in this field. A new course, Audio-Visual Methods and Materials, was also introduced.58 In the intervening period, Mission members deliberately used such aids as the flannel graph, charts, and graphs to demonstrate techniques which could be utilized to increase teaching effectiveness without expensive equipment or special courses.59 The effectiveness of this programme was demonstrated during a visit to the Kin High School by Mission members and faculty of the Education Department of the University. The school staff and students used various 57Ibid., p. 22. 58The Quarterly_Repprt of the Michiggn State College to the University of the Ryukyus (1 October 1953-31 December 1953), MSC Mission, 1953, p. 15. 59Michigan State College Report, 1951-52, op. cit., p. 21. 69 audio-visual techniques in classroom teaching, both with and without complex equipment.60 Recommendations were also made in specific fields of study, such as in the teaching of social studies, chem- istry, and physics. The Mission member for social science suggested a greater versatility of teaching methods be adopted, including such experiences as field trips, visiting speakers, class discussions, panels, debates, observation, and reports from agencies working in the social science fields.61 It was also recommended that science classes should include laboratory courses, and not be purely theoret- ical in sc0pe. These recommendations were adopted during the following years as the finance and facilities became available. Another area of consideration was that of increased emphasis on the individual use of the library resources, rather than relying solely on lecture notes. Little use had been made of the university library due to both lack of books in the Japanese language and an inadequate indexing system. Improvements took place soon after the arrival of the Mission, with financial aid being given by American sources for the purchase of books, and library personnel being sent over with the Mission to help re-organize the 60The Annual Summary of the Michigan State College Mission to the University of the Ryukyus (15 September 1952- 15 June 1953), p. 12. 61Michigan State College Report, 1951, op. cit., p. 58. 70 library. With more books available in the library, Mission members introduced the use of reserved book shelves, and set an example to the faculty members by setting aside books for required class reading. Guidance and Counselling was not introduced into the pre-service programme until the arrival of Dr. Roland Pierson as a Mission member in 1960. As no texts in Japanese were available, it had been necessary to have the lecture material translated into Japanese so that it could be made available to the students. Other problems, such as the grading of examination papers, were overcome with the help of Dr. Toshio Akamine, who served as assistant and interpreter for the classes.62 This was followed by six workshops for high school counsellors, which were planned and conducted jointly by Pierson and Akamine, and involved approximately 50 people from all 16 high schools in the Ryukyus. The following year, Dr. Shimei Nashiro, a faculty member who was educated at Washington State University, took over the responsibility for counselling, and continued in that position to this date.63 The acceptance of these courses by the Ryukyuans was attested to by the use made of the skills incorporated in the courses. Research conducted by students and faculty, 62Michigan State University Advisory Group at the University of the Ryukyus: Second Quarter Report, 1960, Okinawa, p. 14. 63Interview with Dr. Yuji Yonemoni, University of the Ryukyus, July, 1970. 71 related to such topics as Attitude Development, and a series of articles on the "Study of Child and Adolescent Psychology in Okinawa"64 indicated the interest which had developed in these areas following the introduction of such subjects into the Ryukyus. Student Teaching The Mission was also able to contribute to the development of the student teaching experience. The teach— ing techniques employed by the student teachers varied from being imitative of those of the supervising teacher, to being antithetical to those of the teacher. An example of the teacher-pupil relationship in the classroom might be brought quickly to mind by the following case. A trainee teacher from one of the first classes in American Methods of Teach- ing and Evaluation taught by a Mission member was engaged in her practice teaching experience in a junior high school home economics class. To increase pupil participation in a lesson devoted to biscuit baking, she had divided the class into groups of five students, and despite the unfavourable response of the supervising teacher to the increase of pupil participation, had managed to obtain sufficient equipment for each group. The lesson proceeded along lines compatible with modern teaching methods, with students who had never broken an egg, or mixed in flour, doing so, thus involving 64Michigan State University Advisory Group at the University of the Ryukyus: Fourth Quarter Report, 1958, Okinawa, p. 6. 72 direct and practical learning. The significant point of this example was that the teacher responded negatively to the concept of student participation, particularly in a learning situation which was so closely linked to a prac— tical outcome.65 Developments in the student teaching programme were closely associated with the courses in methods, evaluation, and psychology, and reflected the techniques and concepts incorporated in these courses. Regular seminars were held for student teachers, involving small group discussions of such topics as general and specific teaching methods, unit planning, classroom management, evaluation procedures, and the use of improved instructional materials.66 Resource materials related to teaching, obtained from Japanese university publications, and American sources were compiled by the education Mission member and published under the title, "A Guide for Student Teachers at the Uni- versity of_the Ryukyus."67 Conferences with the supervising teachers, school principals, and personnel from the educa— tion department of GRI and the university were held at fre- quent intervals, during which ideas for improving the experience were discussed and solutions to the problems 65Michigan State College Report, 1951—52, op. cit., p. 31. 66Michigan State College Report, September, 1952- December, 1952, op. cit., p. 19. 67Michigan State College Annual Report, September, 1952-June, 1953' QB. Cite, pa 7. 73 sought. One result of these conferences was the develop- ment of a new student teacher rating scale, which was found to be far more satisfactory to all groups.68 The overall result of this cooperative effort was that it became possible in 1954 for Mr. Roy Alexander, Education member of the Mission, to make the following statement which indicated the develOpment which had occurred in this area of the programme. The overall impression regarding the program (Practice Teaching) was excellent. The Practice Teaching Program showed the results of a carefully determined plan which apparently has been several years in the making. Conferences intended to improve both University-Public School relationships and pro— grams were held with the administration and supervising teachers at each school visited. Lectures concerning educational philoSOphy, teaching methodology and teach— ing problems were given to student teachers at each school. Discussions were conducted regarding specific problems which student teachers eXperienced. 9 A movement to establish laboratory schools attached to the university gained momentum in 1955, causing financial and staffing factors to be seriously considered by GRI and USCAR. A thorough investigation by Dr. Raymond Hatch, the Chief of Party of the Mission during this period, resulted in a recommendation that this concept be dropped on both financial and educational grounds. He argued that the schools would provide an artificial experience not typical 68Michigan State College Repprt, October 1953- December, 1953, op. cit., p. 15. 69Quarterly Report of the Michigan State College Mission to the University of the Ryukyus: 1 July 1954- 30 Sepgember 1954, MSC Mission, 1954, p. 9. 74 of the classroom situation in the regular schools, and that the $100,000 requested for the laboratory schools could be more effectively used in overcoming the critical classroom shortage in existing schools in Naha. The schools involved, being in close proximity to the university, were ideally located for observation and student teaching, and also pro— vided a typical school environment.70 As a result of Hatch's recommendation, the laboratory school concept was drOpped, and student teaching was conducted at various schools in and around Naha. AGrowth of Course Offerings The extent to which course offerings in teacher education at the University of the Ryukyus have grown, in both diversity and intensity from the curriculum stipulated at Shuri Normal School, is indicated in Table 5. The courses in General Education appear to be quite similar in each of the three selected periods, whereas the growth in the professional course offerings has tended to follow the recommendations made by the Mission members in their original evaluation of the Ryukyuan programme of teacher education. The expansion appears mostly in such areas as Guidance, Educational Psychology, Measurement and Evaluation, and Teaching Methods, with possibly the largest development of courses in the latter area. 70Michigan State University Advisory Group at the University of the Ryukyus: First Quarter Report, 1962, MSU Mission, April, 1962, p. 12. 75 Table 5.--Courses available in teacher education programmes. Shuri Normal School University of University of (Pre-1945) Ryukyus 1955 Ryukyus 1959 General Education General Education General Education Japanese Language (Four-Year Programme) Chinese Characters 1. Students during the course of Mathematics the four years shall take a min- Geography & History imum of two credits in each of (a) European at least three specialized areas (b) Oriental from the following: (c) Japanese (a) Japanese Literature Natural Science (b) Social Science (including Physics Sociology, Law, Political Chemistry Science, Economics, History, General Psychology Geography, Mathematics) Music (c) Natural Science Physical Education (d) Music Ethics and Morals (e) Art and Handicrafts PhiloSOphy (f) Home Economics Logic (9) Physical Education Art 2. In addition to the above—mentioned Industrial Arts requirements for the certificate, students shall take a minimum of 20 credits in advanced courses in a subject field. Note: Most of the above courses could be taken at middle school level, thus reducing the normal school train- ing to two years. Table 5.—-Continued. 76 Shuri Normal School Pre-1945 University of Ryukyus 1955 University of Ryukyus 1959 Prof. Courses Educ. Psychology Principles of Educ. Teaching Methods History of Educ. Special Methods Practice Teaching Prof. Courses Principles of Educ. Educ. Methods El. School Curric. Jr. & Sr. High Cur. Guidance in Learning Guidance Audio-Visual Educ. Educ. Philosophy Hist. of West. Ed. Hist. of Jap. Ed. Hist. of Ryuk. Ed.‘ Educ. Sociology Educ. Admin. Educ. Library Science Pre-School Educ. Educ. of Handicapped Children Special Teach. Meth. Practice Teaching Educ. Psychology Elem. School Eval. Sec. School Eval. Mental Hygiene Psy. of Learning Psychology of School Subjects Exp. in Educ. Psy. Research Meth. Prof. Courses All of the courses in the previous column plus the following courses: School Management Seminar in Educ. I Seminar in Educ. II Comparative Educ. Vocational Guidance Psychology of Per— sonality Educ. Psychology Educ. Psychology Seminar II Educ. Psychology Indep. Study I Educ. Psychology Indep. Study II 15 courses in Special Teaching Methods in the Secondary Schools 9 courses in Teach- ing Materials for Elementary School Tests & Measurements TeachersC Educ. Statistics Advanced Educ. Psy. DevelOpmental Psy. Child Growth & Dev. a I I I 0 Maedormari interView, op. c1t. bQuarterly_Repprt of the Michigan State University Mission to the University of the Ryukyus: 1 April 1955- 30 June 1955, MSU Mission, 1955, p. 27. cThe University of the Ryukyus: Catalog 1958—59, University of the Ryukyus, Mar, 1958, pp. 147—55. 77 The professional course offerings in the teacher education programme showed further developments by 1970, indicating the flexible nature of this programme and the willingness of the faculty and the administration to adapt and develOp the programme as the situation demanded. The 1970 University Catalog showed that the following courses had been added to the curriculum: Moral Education Educational Law Educational Finance Adult Education School Library Fundamentals School Library Materials School Library Organization of Material Administration of School Library Reading Guidance Seminar in Educational Philosophy I Seminar in History of Education I Seminar in Educational Methodology I and II Seminar in Educational Administration I and II Seminar in Comparative Education I and II Seminar in Educational Sociology I and II A Student Research Project or Minor Thesis71 In—Service Training for Teachers While the University of the Ryukyus was engaged in the pre-service training of teachers, the Education Depart- ment of GRI was faced with the re-education of those teach- ers with certificates awarded by Shuri Normal School, or pre—war Japanese universities, and of completing the train— ing of those who had received only partial training before being sent into the schools during teacher shortages. Some of these teachers were upgraded by sending them to Japan 71The Universipy of the Ryukyus: Catalog 1970, The University of the Ryukyus, 1970, pp. 91 and 108-11. 78 for short periods of training in the new methods. As early as 1950, 12 teachers had been sent to Japan by the United States Military Government to attend a short-course institute sponsored by the Japanese Ministry of Education. They studied the theory and practical application of the new education system, and upon their return to the Ryukyus held study meetings to transmit their new knowledge to other teachers.72 In 1952 a permanent programme of sending teachers to Japan for short courses was established, with 50 teachers being sent each year, with the period of training befng either six or twelve months. This number was increased to 70 teachers a year in 1961. Through their experiences in Japanese schools and colleges, the Ryukyuan teachers were able to help raise the standard of teaching in their own schools. From 1952 to 1964, a total of 630 teachers studied under this programme.73 Effective though this type of programme was to the teachers it reached, only a very small percentage of the teachers desiring qualification, or requalification for teaching certificates was able to take advantage of this system. Consequently, an overall in-service programme was designed to meet the needs of the majority of the teachers 2"Twenty Years of Progress in Education," 02- cit., p. 32. 3Progress and Future Prospects of Okinawan Educa- tion, Op. cit., p. 116. 79 in the following ways: 1. Extension courses during vacation periods offered by the university at centres in Okinawa and other islands. This would also include night courses where desirable or feasible. 2. Regular summer session programmes offering a var- iety of courses. 3. A programme of correspondence courses intended for those teachers unable to attend courses in person. In 1952 the In-Service Teacher Training Committee, composed of representatives from the Department of Educa- tion of GRI, the University Department of Education, the Department of Education of USCAR, and the education members of the Michigan State University Mission, held regular meetings as they prepared a detailed programme of in-service training.74 The first stage of this plan was to train the instructors of the GRI Teacher Training Institute. In this initial programme, 16 Teacher Training Institute teachers and graduates, and 17 employees of the GRI Department of Education, were enrolled.75 Two Japanese professors from the Education Department of the Tokyo University of Educa— tion were engaged. These courses included Educational Psy— chology, Child Psychology, Adolescent Psychology, Evaluation, Principles of Education, General Teaching Methods, and Special Teaching Methods. Those who completed these classes and seminars were appointed to the GRI Education Department as instructors for the GRI section of the summer programme. 74Michigan State College Repprt, September 1952- December 1952, op. cit., p. 4. 75Michigan State College Report, Annual Report September 1952-June 1953, cp. cit., p. 4. 80 Upon the completion of the summer programme, half of these instructors returned to their duties at the Institutes, while the remainder took positions as teacher consultants, operat- ing out of the District School Superintendents‘ offices. These instructors were augmented by 14 additional Japanese professors, who taught courses in the outlying islands. The funds for the contracts of the 14 Japanese professors were made available by USCAR.76 The University develOped and offered nine corres— pondence courses in education to in—service teachers in 1952, as part of the combined programme to up—grade teachers. The following courses were offered to the 413 teachers who enrolled:77 Table 6.——In-service correspondence courses in education in 1952. Courses Offered Number of Students Guidance and Learning Activities 35 Educational Psychology 57 Curriculum 33 Teaching Methods of Japanese 18 Guidance for Elementary Teachers 53 Educational Sociology 43 School Administration 53 Principles of Ed. for Elem. Teachers 62 Child Psychology 59 Total 413 76Michigan State College Report, January 1953- March 1953, op. cit., p. 18. 77Michigan State College Report, September 1952- December 1952, op. cit., p. 9. 81 Teachers also had the opportunity of attending extension courses, organized cooperatively by the Univer- sity, the Education Department of GRI, and the Mission members. The university staff members were given assistance in planning the courses, after which they assumed the major responsibility for demonstrations and lectures. During these courses, objective tests, demonstrations, discussion methods, reference materials, and new types of visual aids were used for the first time.78 From this period, in-service courses were offered on a regular basis, with the attendance gradually increasing as the programme spread to other centres. In 1953, summer sessions were conducted, both on and off campus, with a total of 2,059 teachers enrolled; 1,485 attending the ten off-campus centres, and 574 at the on— campus programme. Course offerings included both academic areas and professional studies, enabling teachers to com- plete certification requirements, and to be brought up to date on the latest teaching techniques and research.79 In the early years of the programme (1952-1956), however, the emphasis was placed upon professional courses in education. An indication of the reaction of the Ryukyuan teach- ers to this programme was gained by an evaluation conference, 78Ibid., p. 8. 79Quarterly Report of the Michigan State College Mission to the University_of the Ryukyus: 16 June-30 Septem- ber, 1953, MSC Mission, 1953, p. 9. 82 held upon the completion of the 1953 summer session. The Japanese professors involved in the programme discussed the various aspects of the summer session, and their comments are summarized below: 1. Ryukyuan teachers were most eager to learn of new methods of teaching now being used in Japan and the United States. 2. School officials were very cooperative in arranging board and housing at the island centres, indicating the value they placed on such a programme. 3. Several of the professors gave lectures, without Extension Department credit, to principals, con- sultants, and superintendents in the subjects of school administration and educational evaluation. 4. The general consensus regarding the entire summer experience was that it accomplished its purpose of upgrading many teachers “in dire need of profes— sional advancement."80 While the role of the University Extension Depart- ment in the organization and administration of the In- Service Summer Sessions grew, so also did the number of teachers in the programme. This required a similar growth in faculty. In 1956, the number of teachers who registered for classes in this programme had grown to 6,159, attending 140 classes at 13 centres. To c0pe with this number it had become necessary to employ 84 professors, not all of them Ryukyuan faculty. Twenty professors from Japanese univer- sities had been brought over for the summer session under USCAR contracts, with ten other Japanese professors hired on a longer—term basis by the University of the Ryukyus. 801bid., p. 17. 83 Fifty-four Ryukyuan faculty members completed the teaching staff for the programme.81 With the cessation of the two—year programme of teacher education after 1960, the number of teachers requir- ing in-service courses to complete certification requirements drOpped rapidly. As will be seen in the following table, the total number of people enrolled in night school, cor- respondence courses, and extension courses offered through- out the year, including those offered by the English Language Centre, had reached a peak in 1955, and then declined steadily. By 1969 only 1,702 had registered. Table 7.--Total student enrollment by academic year (as of April 1, 1969).a Year Full Time Part Time 1954 1,258 10,764 1955 1,485 13,721 1956 1,719 13,456 1957 1,918 12,085 1958 2,011 10,487 1959 2,158 6,926 1960 2,233 5,908 1961 2,356 2,469 1962 2,484 3,307 1963 2,465 2,306 1964 2,672 1,550 1965 2,832 1,637 1966 3,157 2,071 1967 3,607 2,255 1968 3,977 1,918 1969 4,330 1,702 aRyukyu Islands Fact Book, 1969, op. cit., pp. 19-20. 81Quarterlprepgort of the Michigan State University Mission to the University of the Ryukyus, 1956, MSU Mission, 1956, p. 2. l July-30 Seppember, 84 As the necessity for providing in-service courses for teacher certification purposes became less urgent, the in-service programme began to show a different emphasis, that of improving classroom teaching techniques. This aspect of teacher performance was mentioned in 1970, when a compar- ison was being attempted between the quality of education in Japan and that of the Ryukyus. Commenting on the claims made by critics, USCAR stated that the major needs for the Ryukyuan educational system today were to improve the qual- ity of teacher performance in the classroom, and to increase the opportunity for more students to enter high school.82 The Ryukyuan Education Research Institute Centre was estab- lished in January, 1969, to remove the cause of this criti— cism, by helping to bridge the gap between the level of student achievement in Japan and in Okinawa.83 The contri- bution of this centre and the English Language Centre will be discussed in greater detail in the following section. Other Agencies in Teacher Education in the Ryukyus The English Language Centre The English Language Centre is an agency of USCAR, established by High Commissioner Proclamation, Number 19, on March 18, 1963, to promote the teaching of English in 82Civil Administration of the Ryukyu Islands, 1 July 1969-30 June 1970, op. cit., p. 188. 83Interview with Mr. Fukuyama, Teacher Consultant at the Ryukyuan Education Research Institute Centre, at the Centre on August 5, 1970. 85 the Ryukyu Islands, and to contribute toward the improvement of the English-speaking ability of the Ryukyuan people.84 The centre has also made other contributions to the educa- tional system of the Ryukyus, including the provision of professional consultative services for teachers, students, and the general public. The teaching staff in 1970 con— sisted of ten Ryukyuans, all with master's degrees from American universities, in the fields of either linguistics, or the teaching of English as a foreign language, and 11 American part-time teachers who were primarily responsible for conducting oral English Conversation classes.85 Due to an increased demand for English instruction from educational, governmental, and professional groups, the Centre was obliged to eXpand its programmes in order to meet the needs of an average of 690 students per month. There are several significant programmes offered at the Centre for teachers and students. One of the most important of these is the in—service ten—month course for junior and senior high school English teachers, which empha— sizes the teaching of English as a foreign language. Other programmes at the Centre include a semi-intensive seminar for prospective teachers of English, and courses to meet specific needs of students or faculty from the local uni- versities or colleges. The courses offered at this Centre 84See Appendix. 85Civil Administration of the Ryukyu Islands, 1970, op. cit., p. 197. 86 are listed below: Audio—Oral Drill Language Laboratory Work Advanced English Conversation Speech English Pronunciation Advanced English Reading Advanced English Grammar and Composition Contrastive Study of Japanese and English Practice Teaching Teaching English as a Foreign Language English Linguistics Analysis and Evaluation of Teaching Materials Speech Clinic 86 Forum and Activity The participating teachers are selected by the Dis— trict and Local School Boards and recommended to the Educa- tion Department of GRI. The five positions available for senior high school teachers were selected from the 25 to 30 applicants recommended by GRI, and the 30 positions for junior high school teachers were selected in a similar man- ner. The emphasis is on spoken English, with some work still being done in the grammar—translation method. Approx- imately 100 teachers have been trained by the Centre and are now teaching in Ryukyuan schools.87 As the Centre is supported entirely by United States appropriated funds, and is thus under the jurisdic— tion of USCAR, its future may be in some doubt after the reversion of the Ryukyus to Japan in 1972. 86Bulletin and Course Announcements for the In- Service Teachers' Seminar, 1970-1971, English Language Centre, Naha, Okinawa, p. 5. 87Interview with Mr. Toguchi, Director of the English Language Centre, at the Centre, Naha, Okinawa, August 4, 1970. 87 Ryukyuan Education Research Institute Centre The Ryukyuan Education Research Institute Centre provides in-service training for teachers from elementary, junior and senior high schools, in an attempt to improve the quality of teaching in the classroom by concentration on teaching methods and curriculum. Three types of pro— grammes have been established to achieve this goal: 1. A conference or meeting lasting two or three days, for teachers recommended by the six Boards of Educa- tion in the Ryukyus. 2. Regular meetings after school, once or twice a week, for a period of six months. This programme is available only to those teachers in the vicinity of the Centre. 3. Long-term training for a period of six months. The thirty teachers selected live at the Centre and attend classes seven days a week. Half of the group are required to study counselling, and upon their return to their schools become consultants. The remainder of the group are selected to study in their subject areas. At the conclusion of the course no examination is required, but a certificate is awarded if all of the requirements of the course are met. The teacher then returns to his or her school to teach, and, it is hoped, influence other teachers.8 Studies are being conducted to modernize teaching methods in various subject areas, to make guidance and counselling programmes more effective, and to develop a programme utilizing the findings, in order to bridge the alleged gap in scholarship between Japan and the Ryukyus. Currently, specific research projects include Curriculum for Mentally Retarded Children, Kindergarten Education, Technical Counselling, School Management, Senior High School 88Interview with Mr. Fukyuama, op. cit. 88 Student Guidance Systems, and Moral Education. Results of these research projects are disseminated throughout the Ryukyus. Other Universities and Colleges Opportunities for higher education have increased rapidly in the Ryukyus since the pre—war period. Prior to the end of the Second World War, the only institution offer- ing any form of tertiary education in the Ryukyus was Shuri Normal School. This necessitated those students seeking further training in any areas, other than elementary school teacher training, leaving the Ryukyus. Many developments have occurred since that time, and by 1970 three universi— ties and five junior colleges were providing higher educa- tion for Ryukyuan students. The University of the Ryukyus was the first uni- versity established after the war, and is the only one supported by public funds. In 1967, a junior college was attached to this university to give working youths the opportunity to continue their education. Enrollment in the junior college in April, 1968, was 398. The Okinawa Uni- versity and Kokusai University are private institutions with attached junior colleges. The other two private junior colleges are the Okinawa Women's Junior College and the Okinawa Christian College. The registration at the junior colleges, in the five years from 1966 to 1970, has grown 89 from 1,090 to 2,806 students, while the combined enrollment at the universities has risen from 4,840 to 7,037 students. Although the responsibility for the teacher educa— tion programme was taken over by the University of the Ryukyus, the private universities also offered some courses in teacher education. For example, Okinawa University offers courses to the approximately 230 students in educa— tion who wish to teach at elementary, junior or senior high schools. The professional education courses available to students at this university in 1970 were: Educational Principles Educational Psychology Educational Methods and Guidance Adolescent Psychology Teaching Methods in the Field Practice Teaching Study of Moral Education Educational History Educational Philosophy90 Students from the private institutions may complete their certification requirements by attending night school and summer session courses offered by the University of the Ryukyus. With several institutions offering similar courses in teacher education programmes, it became apparent that differences in standards and course content could make it extremely difficult, on the basis of equality of training, 89Civil Administration of the Ryukyu Islands 1970, op. cit., p. 191. OOkinawa University Directory, Okinawa University, Naha, Okinawa. 89 90 to grant certificates. To overcome this problem, and to give the school boards some system for evaluating the grad- uates for employment, the Education Department of GRI established a Teacher Candidate Examination in 1964, which graduates from all universities must write before certi- fication would be granted. While this examination tests only theoretical knowledge of the content in the various courses, the school boards and the Education Department of GRI are satisfied that it identifies the quality of teach— ers.91 In the teacher education programme in the Ryukyus since 1945, several developments appear to have signifi— cance. Through the cooperation of American, Japanese, and Ryukyuan educators, visible advances have been made in the curriculum, duration of training, and re—training of edu- cation faculty and school personnel. The establishment of the University of the Ryukyus, the initiation of the four-year degree programme, and extensive in-service programmes for up-grading previously certified teachers, combined with an emphasis on profes- sional education courses, have resulted in major structural and methodological changes in Ryukyuan education. The central theme of these changes has been emphasis on the learner and the learning environment. This influence, 1Interview with Teacher Consultant of the Educa— tion Department of GRI, Naha, Okinawa, August 4, 1970. 91 American in origin, has been transmitted primarily through Japanese educators in the re-establishment of Ryukyuan education. CHAPTER IV FOREIGN INFLUENCES ON RYUKYUAN TEACHER EDUCATION While the discussion of the previous chapter des- cribed the developments which occurred in teacher education from 1945 to 1970, little attempt was made to isolate the influences or to determine their source. In this chapter the author examined these influences, their sources, and evaluated the effectiveness of the programme in achieving the objective of upgrading teacher education in the Ryukyus. Influences on teacher education in the Ryukyus were categorized as being of either direct or indirect American influence, or of being direct Japanese influence. Infor— mation on the nature, source, and effectiveness of the influences was obtained from the reports of the American agencies in the Ryukyus, articles in Ryukyuan newspapers, magazines and educational journals, and from comments and statements made by selected Ryukyuan and American educators. The selection of the Ryukyuan educators was made with the aid of Dr. Gordon Warner, Director of Health, Education and Welfare for USCAR, and Dr. Yonemori of the Faculty of Education at the University of the Ryukyus. Selection was based on the knowledge and experience of 92 93 that person in specific aspects of teacher education in the Ryukyus. The following list has been included to give some indication of the Specific backgrounds of those being interviewed. Mr. Masaru Agarie, Education Department of GRI. Mr. Choji Ahagon, ex-Director of the Education Depart— ment of GRI, and currently Director of the Scholarship Programme to Japan. Dr. Genshu Asato, ex-Head of Adult Education Division, ex-President of the University of the Ryukyus. Dr. Hikonori Asato, Professor of Education at Showa Women's College, Tokyo, a native of the Ryukyus. Mr. Itsuo Fukuyama, Teacher Consultant at the Ryukyuan Education Research Institute Centre. Mr. Choryo Itoshu, Chairman of the Elementary Schools Principals Association of the Ryukyus. Mr. Seiki Kyan, President of the Okinawa Teachers Association. Professor Asao Maedormari, Faculty of Education at the University of the Ryukyus, ex-student and faculty mem- ber at Shuri Normal School. Professor Satoshi Shimabukuro, Assistant Professor of Educational Administration at the University of the Ryukyus. Mr. Seijun Toguchi, Director of the English Language Centre. Mr. Chobyo Yara, Chief Executive of the Government of the Ryukyus, ex-President of the Okinawa Teachers Association, former teacher and principal. Dr. Yuji Yonemori, Chairman of Educational Foundations at the University of the Ryukyus. A teacher consultant from GRI, and eight final year students from the Education Faculty of the University of the Ryukyus. 94 The initial step was to determine whether teacher education in the Ryukyus had shifted its emphasis due to the various foreign influences, or whether any developments which may have occurred would have come about without such influences. The second step entailed determining whether the influence came from the United States, Japan, or both countries. This step was achieved by examining the influ— ences from both countries in turn and evaluating their effectiveness. Information from the sources mentioned in the preceding paragraphs was examined to determine the degree of consensus which existed between the various groups when discussing teacher education. Patterns of American and Japanepe Influences on Ryukyuan Teacher Education The readiness with which the Ryukyuans accepted some foreign influences, while they passively yet firmly resisted others, has been demonstrated throughout Ryukyuan history. When the study of Confucianism was introduced from China, it was readily adOpted by the Ryukyuan court, and accepted by the peOple of this small kingdom. However, later attempts at influence by foreign sources, such as visits by missionaries from France and England, or the American attempts to establish trading relations, were strongly resisted by the polite, but firmly insistent, inhabitants of the Ryukyu Islands. 95 The official Japanese annexation of the Ryukyu Islands in 1879 was accompanied by a reluctance on the part of the Ryukyuan people to surrender their own language, culture, and customs, and adopt those of their new suzerain. To overcome this obstacle to the rapid blending of the new prefecture into the Empire, the Japanese Government worked through the Ryukyuan schools. As a first step in 1875, the Japanese Government suggested that Ryukyuan students be sent to study the educational system of Japan in order that they might help develop this new system in the Ryukyus. When this did not prove as effective as was hoped, the Japanese Minister of Education visited the island to con- duct a survey of the situation and found that only a very small minority spoke Japanese. Shortly after hisvisit, a Japanese Language School was established to train inter- preters and officials. Later that same year, the Normal School opened its doors for several short—term courses in order to provide the urgently needed teachers for the grow- ing school system. Then a new teacher training institution, Shuri Normal School, was established, coordinating teacher education throughout the Ryukyus. At this institution the policies and philosophies of the occupying country were presented and diffused through the schools. Curricula and teaching techniques were imported from Japan and incor— porated into all levels of the educational system. There is a parallel between the approach taken by the Japanese in the 1880's and that followed by the American 96 occupation in the 1940's and 1950‘s. In a pattern of action virtually duplicating the policies followed by the Japanese, the United States Civil Administration of the Ryukyu Islands sent Ryukyuan teachers and students to Japan and the United States for further education. An English Language Institute was established, as was a temporary teacher training centre, the Okinawa Bunkyo Gakko. This latter institution was superseded by the University of the Ryukyus. Short—term teacher training courses were established at the Bunkyo Gakko, and later at the University, to be phased out as the extreme urgency of the teacher shortage eased. The Univer— sity of the Ryukyus assumed a central role in pre-service and in-service teacher education programmes in the Ryukyus, as had Shuri Normal School under Japanese control. With the establishment of the American-influenced teacher training programme at the University of the Ryukyus, the programme changed from one of subject orientation to one emphasizing student needs. The programme was lengthened to four years to include new courses designed to make the teacher more aware of the learning situation. Methods courses for each school subject were also introduced to help improve the quality of teaching available to the students, and greater emphasis was placed on the student teaching experience. The nature of these changes in the teacher education programme indicates a change in philoSOphy, rather than a gradual evolution from the pre-war programme at Shuri Normal 97 School. DevelOpments which occurred subsequent to the arrival of the Michigan State College Mission and that of the Japanese faculty members led to the assumption that the basic changes which occurred after 1945 were attributable to foreign influences rather than a natural growth from the pre-war Ryukyuan programme. A major difference in the pattern of influence which did not show the similarity of pattern discussed previously was the nature of the relationship between Japan and its Okinawa Prefecture, and that which existed between USCAR and GRI. Where the Japanese administration had demanded changes of the Okinawa Prefecture, USCAR tended to work more in an advisory capacity. This did not mean that USCAR did not have this same power to demand change, but that with the establishment of GRI it preferred an advisory role. When USCAR was established in 1950, it was given the prerogative of making final decisions in civil policy matters.1 Prior to this date all final decisions were the prerogative of the United States Military Government of the Ryukyus, which had been established by proclamation in 1945.2 Thus both the Military Government and USCAR had the power to enforce decisions within the military and lGordon Warner, "History of Postwar Education in the Ryukyu Islands," Part IV, Shurei No Hikari, Volume 109, February, 1968, p. 11. - 2Warner, Shurei No Hikari, Part XI, op. cit., p. 15. 98 civil framework in UizRyukyus. As will be seen, USCAR did not always choose to use this power. Such was the case in the field of teacher education in the Ryukyus, where American educators from USCAR and the Michigan State College Mission tended to work primarily in an advisory capacity. Late in January, 1952, officials of the Provis— ional Central Government Education Department, officials of the University of the Ryukyus, a representative of the Civil Information and Education Department of the United States Civil Administration, and this Michigan State College Mission member to the University of the Ryukyus, met at the Provisional Central Government Education Department to consider a teacher training program for the entire Ryukyu chain of islands. . . . The elementary teacher training program is neither American nor Japanese, but was planned with Japanese certifica— tion requirements in mind and consists of many compro— mises between what was possible and what was considered desirable. Further examples of this relationship appear in other Reports from the Mission, including such statements as ". . . much time has been spent in conference with the Educationist of USCAR, GRI Education Department officials, and the University officials in the development of certi~ fication regulations,"4 and mention in articles from differ— . . . 5 . . ent sources, of Similar cooperation. Thus, while earlier 3Michigan State College Report, l951el952, op. cit., p. 28. 4Michigan State College Report, October 1, 1953 to December 31, 1953, op. cit., p. 16. 5Warner, Shurei No Hikari, Part XI, 0 . cit., p. 15. See also"Twenty Years of Progress in Education, op. cit., p. 30. 99 decisions by USCAR were apparently less democratic,6 it would appear that following the establishment of GRI a dif— ferent relationship developed, one based on cooperation rather than enforcement. American Influences on Teacher Education in the Ryukyus When the American forces first occupied the Ryukyus in 1945, little or no attempt was made to help reorganize or restructure education in the islands as had been done in Japan. The early reports appearing in the Civil Affairs Activities7 attest to this lack of interest and concern, a fact which was substantiated by Dr. Gordon Warner, the Director of Health, Education and Welfare for USCAR.8 However, the concern felt by some education—connected mem« bers of the United States personnel soon brought about an increased awareness of the urgent educational needs of the Ryukyus.9 6”Twenty Years of Progress in Education,” op. cit-; pp. 31-32. 7CiVil Affairs Activities, 1952, op. cit., p. 162. See also Horace King, "An Analysis of Educational— Administrative-Cultural Aspects of the Relationship Between the University of the Ryukyus and Michigan State University" (unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Michigan State University, 1962), p. 52. 8Interview with Dr. Gordon Warner, Director of Health, Education and Welfare, USCAR, at the Education Department, USCAR, Okinawa, July 28, 1970. 9"Twenty Years of Progress in Education," op. Cit-r p. 27. 100 AS the nature and the extent of the difficulties facing the Ryukyuans in organizing and developing a compre— hensive and effective educational system became apparent, American financial and technical aid were made available. With this aid, and later with assistance from the Japanese Government, schools and teacher-training institutions were established and the first university in the Ryukyus was built. Financial assistance also took the form of scholar— ships for students and faculty members to gain higher qual— ifications. Aid to the Ryukyus was also channelled through various agencies, such as the Michigan State University Mission. The Michigan State University Mission in the Ryukyus influenced programme developments which differed markedly from the pre—war system of teacher education. The Mission introduced courses in teaching methods and demonstrated the use of these methods in their own classes. Mission members also acted in an advisory capacity concerning administrative and curricular developments in the programme for pre— service and in-service training. The University of the Ryukyus incorporated these changes into its teacher educa— tion curriculum, using Mission personnel and Japanese pro— fessors trained in the courses, until Ryukyuan faculty members became qualified. It was generally accepted by both American and Ryukyuan educators that methods in teaching had been influenced by American techniques introduced into the 101 Ryukyus.lO Newspaper reports attest to this. A report in the Ryukyu Shimpo published in October, 1955, said that the . . . University is adopting the educational techniques of universities in Japan and the United States. . . . Moreover, the Michigan State University, which is co~0perating with the Ryukyu University for the future development of the latter, is dispatching Six professors who will be engaged in educational guidance at the University of the Ryukyus."ll This was followed several months later by a comment in the Okinawa Times that the "Japanese system, just like our own, has been revolutionized after the war and a new system, adopted."12 The new developments were brought in by the Michigan State University Mission, by Japanese professors from the American—influenced Japanese universities, and by students and faculty trained in the United States. Dr. Iwao Ishino, a member of the Anthropology Department at Michigan State University, and Chief of Party for the Mission in 1964, reported that the influence of the Mission members on the dissemination of the new teaching techniques had been 10"Twenty Years of Progress in Education,” pp;_gg£,, p. 32. See also comments on the following pages by inter— viewed Ryukyuan educators. 11"University of the Ryukyus Planning to Conduct Night and Correspondence Courses" (translatedL.Ryukyu Shimpo, October 2, 1955, p. 4. 12"Educational Policy in Japan and Okinawa," Okinawa Times, December 25, 1955, p. 6. 102 evident in an article in the University of the Ryukyus student publication, Decade Review.l3 While the developments in the teacher education programme which occurred in the Ryukyus gave the curriculum more parity with teacher education programmes throughout the world, Ryukyuan educators expressed mixed reactions to them. Opinions expressed by Ryukyuan educators, such as Mr. Ahagonl4 and Mr. Agarie,15 indicated a basic agreement on the American origin of the new techniques. Yet, while Mr. Agarie indicated only the origin of the influences, Mr. Ahagon stated that the developments in Ryukyuan teach- ing techniques were due, not so much to direct American influence in the Ryukyus, but to the American influence on Japanese methods. In his Opinion it was the Japanese meth— ods which had the major influence on teaching methods in the Ryukyus. Thus American influence was being felt at two levels, first as direct American influence through such agencies as USCAR and the Michigan State University Mission, and second through American influence on the Japanese 3Michigan State University Group at the University of the Ryukyus: Second Quarter Report, 1964, op. cit., p. 12. 14Interview with Mr. Ahagon, ex—Director of the Education Department of GRI, and Director of the Scholarship Programme to Japan, at Naha, Okinawa, July 28, 1970. 5Interview with Mr. Agarie, Education Department of GRI, at Naha, Okinawa, July 27, 1970. 103 teaching techniques. Both men agreed, however, that Ryukyuan teachers required more training in the use of the new techniques to enable the teachers to employ them more effectively in the classroom. A divergent opinion was expressed by Mr. Itoshu,l6 Chairman of the Elementary School Principals Association in the Ryukyus, who contended that too much time was spent on methods of teaching the various subjects, to the detriment of content knowledge in the subjects themselves. He stated as an example, that mathematics majors did far more work in their field of specialty than did the students who wished to teach mathematics. He indicated a preference for the pre- war programme at Shuri Normal School, where Similar standards were expected from both groups. Mr. Itoshu was not supported by other Ryukyuan edu— cators in his evaluation of the detrimental effects caused by the emphasis on the new teaching techniques. The majority not only identified the changes as being of American origin, but also agreed that these new techniques aided in the development of a more sensitive and effective teacher. As maintained by Mr. Kyan, "the old way was purely the teacher giving what he knew, and felt that the student Should know and believe. Now the teachers are 6Interview with Mr. Itoshu, Chairman of Elementary School Principals, Association of the Ryukyus, at Naha, Okinawa, August 1, 1970. 104 more aware of the student needs and interests."17 Kyan elaborated on the changes which have taken place since 1945, and selected five major developments in teacher education which he felt had made a major contribution to the quality of education in the schools of the Ryukyus. 1. Test surveys and interviewing are now stressed in teacher training. 2. Children are being taught how to think. 3. The audio-visual aids programme has brought about improvement in teaching effectiveness. 4. Teachers are being trained to specialize. 5. Guidance and counselling is now included in teacher training, giving the teacher more knowledge about stuffints, thus enabling him to be of more help. Kyan felt that the United States Administration in the Ryukyus not only provided better treatment and facilities for teachers, but also provided better training of teachers. Differing Opinions have been advanced to explain why the aforementioned changes were accepted so readily as integral parts of the teacher education programme in the Ryukyus. Dr. Hikonori Asato19 asserted that neither the University of the Ryukyus nor the Education Department of GRI had any choice as to whether they wished to adopt or reject American teaching techniques. He maintained that 17Interview with Mr. Kyan, President of the Okinawa Teachers Association at Naha, Okinawa, on July 22, 1970. lBIbid. 19Interview with Dr. Hikonori Asato, Professor of Education from Showa Women's College, Tokyo, Japan; at Naha, Okinawa, on August 8, 1970. 105 most of the early American educational administrators had a military background, and lacked a real understanding of education. This was demonstrated, he felt, when, despite the historical and cultural differences between the Ryukyus and the United States, the Americans became impatient with the slow rate of progress as they attempted to democratize education in the Ryukyus. In this impatience, Asato asserted that the Americans sought to impose their ideas on the Ryukyuan educators, thus negating the very principle of democracy. In the field of teacher education, it is very prob- able that the Mission did select professors from Japan whose training and ideas were consonant with American philosophies and techniques, in order to ensure cohesion in the new pro- gramme by effectively filtering those ideas and techniques with which they were not in accord. It Should also be remem— bered, however, that the Japanese teacher education programme, influenced by United States educators, was developing along Similar lines, although at a more advanced stage than in the Ryukyus. It should also be noted that while Dr. Asato asserted that educators in the Ryukyus had little choice in the develOpments in teacher education, the regular dis- cussions held by all agencies engaged in this programme in the Ryukyus do not tend to substantiate such claims.20 20Michigan State College Report, October 1, 1953 to December 31, 1953, op. cit., p. 16. See also Michigan State College Report, 1951-1952, op. cit., p. 28; and "Twenty Years of Progress in Education," op. cit., p. 30. 106 Mr. Agarie21 stated that changes were jointly decided upon, and quoted as an example the case where USCAR published Educational Ordinances, and encouraged GRI to incorporate the major items into Ryukyuan Education Laws. There was disagreement between the two groups on some of the major items, and GRI refused to accept the Ordinances as guides for their laws. By persisting in submitting education laws more in harmony with their own objectives, GRI persuaded USCAR that these Ryukyuan Education Laws were more attuned to the educational needs of the Ryukyus.22 Dr. Genshu Asato,23 the original Vice—President of the University of the Ryukyus, President for Six years, and now Chairman of the Research Group of Okinawan Reversion to Japan, possibly supplied the key to the rapid acceptance of the new curriculum and methods. He stated that the tra- ditions of Japanese universities probably slowed the acceptance of American policies and ideas there, while the University of the Ryukyus, with no such traditions to draw upon, or to hinder change, was able to accept the new con- cepts of education far more readily. Dr. Gordon Warner24 agreed in principle to this statement, but added that another major reason for the similarity of the Ryukyuan 21Interview with Mr. Agarie, op. cit. ZZIbid. 23Interview with Dr. Genshu Asato, ex-President of the University of the Ryukyus, at Naha, Okinawa, August 4, 1970. 24Interview with Dr. Gordon Warner, op. cit. 107 curriculum to that followed in the United States was the fact that faculty members from the Ryukyus had been trained in the United States. Upon completion of their studies they returned to positions in the Ryukyus, where the impact of the American influence was reflected in their own teaching. This Situation was quite similar to that experienced in the Ryukyus from the fourteenth century onwards, when scholars returning from China after studying Confucianism followed the methods of their teachers. Participation in the scholarship programmes was Open to students as well as to faculty, thus both were directly exposed to American influences. Many returned to the Ryukyus to take up positions in the universities, the English Language Centre, and in the elementary and secondary schools. The number of qualified personnel in the Ryukyus available to teach at all levels of education was increasing. From the United States scholarship programme alone, over 180 Ryukyuans had returned from their studies abroad. The eagerness with which students strove for scholarships is Similar to the attitude of Ryukyuan students during the fourteenth through the nineteenth centuries, when students vied with each other for scholarships to study Confucianism in China. While Sho Shin had increased the number of students eligible to apply for scholarships in the fifteenth century, he allowed little increase in the scholarships available. It was not until after the end of the Second World War that a Significant increase occurred. 108 In one programme alone, over 1,000 students have studied in the United States of America in the last 20 years. It is little wonder that with a tradition of scholarships in foreign countries for over six centuries, the Ryukyuan students responded so readily to the re-institution of a foreign scholarship programme. American influences entered the Ryukyus in various forms, but did not necessarily gain immediate acceptance by Ryukyuan educators, or adoption into the teacher educa- tion programme. Where knowledge and policies from foreign coun- tries were perceived to be Of value, it was an accepted part of the Ryukyuan tradition to incorporate them into their own system and structure.25 This willingness to accept some foreign ideas was balanced by the ability of the Ryukyuan peOple, develOped over the centuries, to resist passively those demands made on them by foreign powers if they were not convinced Of the value of the ideas. This resistance was demonstrated historically by the Ryukyuan court when Commodore Perry thrust his way ashore, and into Shuri Castle, attempting to force commer- cial and diplomatic agreements between the Ryukyus and the United States. In another situation Sai On and Sho Tai forestalled efforts by Satsuma and the Japanese Emperor, 25Collection NO. 9, op. cit., p. 47. 109 to officially annex the Ryukyus.26 More recently, USCAR was resisted successfully in its attempt to pressure GRI into adopting the Education Ordinances by the incorpora- tion of them into the Ryukyuan Education Laws. Japanese Influences on Teacher Education in the Ryukyus A prefecture of Japan Since 1879, the Ryukyus had been subject to the same laws and regulations as other prefectures, including the Imperial Ordinance on Normal Schools mentioned previously. Strong, centralized control of teacher education in the Ryukyus by the Japanese Min— istry of Education caused the programme followed at Shuri Normal School to be very Similar to that found in other prefectural normal schools. Prior to annexation by Japan, the Ryukyus had no formal programme of teacher training. Subsequently, a fully developed Japanese programme of teacher education was instituted at Shuri, and staffed by either qualified Japanese faculty, or by Japanese—trained Ryukyuan faculty members. This absolute Japanese control of Ryukyuan edu- cation continued through the American invasion of the Ryukyus. Following the American occupation of the Ryukyus in 1945, and the severance of administrative ties with Japan, official Japanese influence on teacher training in the Ryukyus was curtailed, but unofficial influences 26Kerr, op. cit., p. 227. 110 persisted. The educators from both the United States and the Ryukyus who were interviewed agreed that post-war teacher education, and education generally, tended to follow developments in Japan. The stated objective of USCAR was that Of orienting the programme towards Japanese certification requirements, in anticipation of the rever— sion of the Ryukyus to Japan. Mr. Yara attested to the fact that GRI approved of this bias in the Ryukyuan educa- tional objectives.27 The Michigan State College Mission pointed out this orientation towards Japan in their original report. The teacher training program which evolved is based on the degree of understanding it was possible to obtain, and on the unique need of the islands for close ties with Japan. Many of the present teachers were trained in Japan, a number of students are now studying there, and the possibility of eventual reversion of the islands to Japan made it necessary to base as much of the program on Japanese certifi- cation standards as possible and desirable.28 Mr. Yara, Chief Executive of GRI, stated that while the Ryukyus might be controlled by United States Adminis- tration, they had always attempted to follow the Japanese system of education.29 He was supported in this claim by Mr. Ahagon, who spoke from his experience as former Director of the Education Department of GRI, and present Interview with Mr. Yara, Chief Executive of GRI, ex—President of the Okinawa Teachers Association, at Naha, Okinawa, August 6, 1970. 28Michigan State College Repgrt, 1951—1952, Op. cit., p. 32. 29Interview with Mr. Yara, Op. cit. 111 Director of the Scholarship Programme to Japan. Although Mr. Ahagon recognized the American influence on teaching methods and curriculum in Japan and in the Ryukyus, he credited the changes in teacher education in the Ryukyus directly to Japan.30 Mr. Satoshi Shimabukuro, a faculty member at the University of the Ryukyus Education Depart- ment for 14 years, specializing in Educational Adminis- tration, could see little difference between the type of teacher produced in Japan and the teacher who graduated in the Ryukyus.31 This similarity was due in part to the desire of the Ryukyuan educators to imitate Japan, even while accepting American ideas as an expedient in the re-building of Ryukyuan education.32 Specific influences from Japan were also major factors in the re-establishment of teacher preparation in the Ryukyus. In-service training offered a medium for Japanese influence to be felt, for under this programme, outstanding professors from Japanese education faculties were brought to the Ryukyus to teach in summer session programmes offered by GRI and the University Extension Department. 0Interview with Mr. Ahagon, op. cit. 1Interview with Mr. Satoshi Shimabukuro, Assis- tant Professor, Department of Education, University of the Ryukyus, Naha, Okinawa, August 6, 1970. 32Interview with Dr. Warner, op. cit. 112 Japanese educators in this programme made contact with many more students than did their American counter— parts from the Michigan State University Mission, as was shown in Chapter III. This, combined with lack of facil— ity in the Japanese language, limited the direct influence of the Mission members in teacher education and re—education. Traditionally high prestige accorded to educators from Japan was a cultural characteristic of long standing in the Ryukyus, placing the Japanese professors in an even more advantageous position to effectively introduce meth— ods and techniques from Japan. An important point to remember at this stage of the discussion is that when reference is made to Japanese influence on teacher education in the Ryukyus, it refers, to a large extent, to indirect American influence. AS was indicated in the previous chapter, Japanese teacher educa— tion had changed in accordance with the recommendations of the United States Education Mission Report, resulting in a programme strongly oriented towards American ideas and techniques.33 While changes have been made in teacher education in Japan Since that time, the programme still reflects the American influences. A further influence from Japan was the practical help in the use of the new methods given by Japanese con- sultants. The consultants worked in close association 33Civil Affairs Activities, 1952, op. cit., p. 152. 113 with classroom teachers, giving specific help and assist- ing the teachers to understand the new system. Mr. Shima— bukuro stated that from his experience working with teachers, they preferred the more practical help given by the Japanese consultants, to the more theoretical courses taught at the University of the Ryukyus.34 Mr. Kyan rated the influence of the Japanese consultant teams as being major factors in the raising of teaching standards in the Ryukyus.35 This view was supported by senior students enrolled in the Faculty of Education at the University of the Ryukyus. They felt that the courses at the University lacked empha- sis in the practical aspects of teaching.36 Because of the value placed by Ryukyuan teachers on the help given by consultants, in 1965, GRI began sending 36 teachers a year to Japan for Specialized training. Upon their return to the Ryukyus, some of the teachers became teacher consultants and others resumed teaching and gave aid to their fellow teachers.37 A Principal's Train- ing Programme complements the programme for teacher 34Interview with Mr. Shimabukuro, Op. cit. See also M. Tamashiro, "Problems of Teacher Training in the Education Department of Ryukyus University," Bulletin No. 7 (Okinawa: Division of Education, University of the Ryukyus, 1964). 35Interview with Mr. Kyan, Op. cit. 36Interview with eight senior students enrolled in the Faculty of Education, University of the Ryukyus, at Naha, Okinawa, July 29, 1970. 37Interview with Mr. Ahagon, Op. cit; interview with Mr. Agarie, Op. cit. 114 consultants, and Operates in a similar manner, sending principals of schools in the Ryukyus for three months to various schools in Japan. Two other groups added to the Japanese influence on teacher education in the Ryukyus, these being the fac- ulty members trained in Japanese universities, and the students attending universities in Japan. These groups were not only trained in the use of the new methods of teaching, but had this knowledge re-inforced by being taught with these same methods.38 Teaching as they were taught is not only a typical reaction of such people upon their return to the Ryukyus, but it is one which has been perpetuated in these islands, as elsewhere, over the cen— turies. Thus, the methods used in Japan which were strongly influenced by American educational ideas and methods, and the resulting Japanese adaptations came to the Ryukyus with visiting Japanese professors and consultants, and returning Ryukyuan students, faculty, teacher consultants, and principals. Summary of Foreign Influences on Ryukyuan Teacher Education To summarize the major points discussed in the preceding pages, it would appear that the developments in teacher education in the Ryukyus resulted from both American and Japanese influences. American philosophy and 381bid. 'I’l.‘ 1| 115 policy were felt both directly and indirectly in the Ryukyus. The direct influences resulted from the efforts of the Michigan State University Mission, and from the Ryukyuan educators trained in American universities. The former group directly influenced the teacher training programme by the changes which they suggested, and to a lesser extent, by their own example in the teaching of courses in the programme. This latter influence was limited due to language difficulties and to the demands of their advisory and administrative responsibilities. The professional growth of the Ryukyuan faculty members was also influenced by interaction with Michigan State University Mission members in seminars, discussions, and by conjoint teaching of courses. This influence had far-reaching effects in that this growth was in turn transmitted to the student teachers. While these influences originated in the United States, their acceptance into the Ryukyus was greatly aided by Japan. AS had been indicated in the previous discussion, Japan had assumed cultural and administrative leadership of the Ryukyus after 1879. Since that time, all educational develOpments and changes had been deter- mined and administered from Tokyo. Although adminis— trative control passed to the United States in 1945, the traditional link between Japan and the Ryukyus was a strong force in Ryukyuan acceptance of changes in their teacher education programme. 116 Educators in the Ryukyus felt that the develop- ments in Japan, resulting from direct American influence, were a major factor in the changes in the Ryukyus. As was indicated in Chapter III, the American ideas were readily adopted by Japanese educators, and this factor was felt by some Ryukyuan educators to have been crucial in the rapid acceptance of these ideas into the Ryukyus. The extensive nature of this Japanese influence has been indi- cated by the large number of Japanese faculty and teacher consultants working in the Ryukyus, and also by the number of Ryukyuan students, teachers, teacher consultants, and principals studying in Japan. From this discussion, it appears that teacher edu- cation in the Ryukyus was influenced directly and indirectly by American educators. The American influences were felt in the administrative structure of the University, the programme offerings with their student—centred orienta— tion, changes in the student teaching experience, and the ’assistance given to upgrade Ryukyuan faculty members. Japanese influence was experienced through the training received by Ryukyuan educators in Japan, and by the prac— tical approach and assistance from Japanese educators brought into the Ryukyus. Evaluation of the Effectiveness of Foreign Influences As a result of direct American influence in the Ryukyus, the administrative structure of the teacher education programme was re-structured, with the University of the Ryukyus and the Education Department of GRI assuming major responsibility for pre-service and in-service pro- grammes. American influence brought a radical re—orientation of the teacher education programme in the Ryukyus. This caused more emphasis to be placed on the process of student growth and develOpment, and the learning environment, rather than on the learning of the subject matter. This does not mean that previously Ryukyuan teachers were not concerned with the development of their students, but that the teacher education programme, prior to 1945, did not emphasize those areas of study which would aid the teacher in helping student development. This resulted in the introduction of new courses, the upgrading of Ryukyuan faculty members in order to enable them to teach the courses, and develOpments in the student teaching experi- ence. The effectiveness of the foreign influences can be determined by the extent to which the teacher education programme reflected developments brought in by American and Japanese educators, and by the type of teacher trained in such a system. An examination of the developments in the teacher education programme, as discussed in the third chapter indicate that visible changes have been made in the curriculum, duration of training, and the re-training of education faculty and school teachers. Whereas it was possible to criticise the lack of courses in the area of 118 growth and development, and in teaching methodology in the pre-war teacher training programme, no such criticism could be levelled at the present programme. Far more emphasis has been placed on professional education courses, the result being teachers with a greater understanding of the learning process. Specific developments in such areas as Guidance and Counselling attested to the effectiveness of the introduction of these new areas. Reports in the Okinawa Asahi Shimbun39 acquainted readers with the fact that guidance teachers had been trained and appointed to Ryukyuan high schools, and had scheduled the first of a series of regular meetings designed to upgrade the effec- tiveness of their operation in schools. The view that foreign influences were effective in upgrading the teacher education programme in the Ryukyus was supported by statements made by Ryukyuan educators. Mr. Kyan commented that: The United States Government provided for better treatment and facilities for teachers: also better training of teachers. . . . The establishment of the University of the Ryukyus, with a new teacher train- ing programme, raised the effectiveness of teacher training. . . . Now the teachers are more aware of the student needs and interests. Dr. Hikonori Asato stated that "teachers before the war were not as well informed about teaching techniques and 39"First Meeting of Guidance Teachers" (translated), Okinawa Asahi Shimbun, March 23, 1954. See also "GRI Guidance Plan" (translated), Okinawa Asahi Shimbun, March 27, 1954. 40Interview with Mr. Kyan, Op. cit. 119 professional areas in education as they are today. The standard is now much higher.“41 When these statements are added to those which appear in the reports of the Michigan State University Mission, and with those of the Education Departments of USCAR and GRI, it is apparent that American influence has been effective in these areas. A specific example of such reports would be one from GRI, which stated that teachers now have a greater knowledge of teaching techniques, and that this has helped raise the standard of teaching in the Ryukyus.42 A final point in support of this argument will be found in the persistence of the American philos- Ophy and policies for almost 20 years in the teacher edu- cation programme of the Ryukyus. Japanese influence on teacher education in the Ryukyus was also found to be effective. Because of the traditional and administrative ties between Japan and the Ryukyus, American ideas became more acceptable in the Ryukyus through their adoption by Japan. The acceptance of the new concepts in teacher education gained further support through the assistance of Japanese educators actively engaged in the development of teacher education in the Ryukyus. Aid was given in the form of the avail— ability of Japanese faculty to help teach courses in 41Interview with Dr. Hikonori Asato, op. cit. 42Education Report: Progress and the Future Pros- pects of Okinawan Education, op. cit., p. 116. 120 pre-service and in-service programmes at the University of the Ryukyus, by Japanese teacher consultants giving prac— tical assistance to teachers in Ryukyuan schools, and by the training of Ryukyuan consultants and principals in Japan.43 The more practical contribution provided by the Japanese teacher consultants was particularly appreciated by Ryukyuan educators at all levels, as it was felt that more emphasis on the practical aspects of classroom teach- ing was needed to raise the standards of teaching in the “gun- 4 n.-.“ 7 - Ryukyus. Reports in newspapers requesting "more practical training in actual classrooms for teachers, rather than an emphasis on the lecture-type training system"44 were sup- ported by statements in other articles related to teacher training. It would appear that current emphasis on a more practical approach to teacher education is one of the attempts to upgrade education in the Ryukyus, and thus bridge the gap between scholastic achievement in Japan and in the Ryukyus.46 Other approaches aimed at achieving the "Twenty Years of Progress in Education," op. cit., p. 33. "Japanese Teacher Consultants Come to Okinawa" (translation), Ryukyu Shimpo, November 5, 1963. S I O O "Twenty Years of Progress in Education," Op. Cit., p. 30. 46An Inferiority of Education in Okinawa to Japan Shown by Charts (Okinawa: Education Dept. Of GRI, May, 1967). 121 same end include the establishment of the Education Research Institute, and the training of Ryukyuan teacher consultants. Influence of Ryukyuan Objectives on Their Teacher Education Programme Prior to the annexation of the Ryukyus in 1879, the Ryukyuans had managed to make their own educational decisions, despite the fact that they had tended to rely on other countries to provide educational leadership. Following the establishment of Okinawa Prefecture as part of Japan, teacher education in the Ryukyus was completely controlled by Japanese Educational Laws, and supervised by appointees of the centralized Japanese Ministry of Edu- cation. Dr. Hikonori Asato stated that not only were the educational purposes and policies in Okinawa determined by Japan until 1945, but that government control of Shuri Normal School was so severe that students had no freedom in their choice of courses.47 This did not remain so after the United States took over the administration of the Ryukyus from Japan. As was indicated in earlier dis- cussion, both USCAR and the Michigan State University Mission acted in an advisory role, allowing the Ryukyuans to effect their own influence and direction through legis- lation enacted by GRI. Mr. Ahagon pointed out that dif- ferences exist between education in Japan and the Ryukyus 47Interview with Dr. Hikonori Asato, op. cit. W‘i .‘0 -ln'0' 122 which are not explained by American influence but are due to Ryukyuan needs and directions.48 Senior students in Education corroborated this independent stance when interviewed: "We must discover other aims of education for Okinawa." "Ryukyuan teachers have to think in terms of the type of society in which we are now living. We must educate the children to realize these aspects of society." "We must decide how to build up the Okinawan economy and know what has been done so far."49 “r“. em.» nu. ulnfir‘. Such an orientation is fostered deliberately by the Okinawa Teachers' Association, and has resulted in teachers' conventions being organized by the Teachers' Association each year, with the emphasis being placed on seminars in each subject area, and on general meetings to determine Ryukyuan educational policy.50 Plans are well advanced for the establishment of a Teacher Training Research Centre by the Teachers' Asso- ciation.51 This centre is to be staffed by outstanding faculty from the University of the Ryukyus, and outstand- ing teachers from schools throughout the Ryukyus, and will 8Interview with Mr. Ahagon, op. cit. 49Interview with University students, Op. cit. SOHTwenty Years of Progress in Education," op. cit., p. 33. 1Interview with Mr. Kyan, op. cit. 123 direct its resources and expertise towards improving teacher training and teaching in the Ryukyu Islands. In summarizing the points discussed in this chap- ter, several themes dominate. The first of these is the interaction which has developed between the Ryukyus and its administrative conquerors. From the fourteenth century, China was accepted as suzerain as the Ryukyuans could “‘T— " perceive many advantages in such an association. When the Ryukyus were annexed by Japan in 1879, the Ryukyuans .,.-fl-n1.k an. t- .' 4 gradually felt themselves culturally and administratively ' to be part of Japan. Japan organized a school system throughout the islands and established a teacher training institution. With the transfer of administrative control to the Americans, the Ryukyuans once again adapted their way of life to incorporate those aspects of American influence which they valued. In their periods of adjustment, how— ever, the Ryukyuans tended to be quite selective of that which they chose to adopt as their own. A second theme relates to the developments in the teacher education programme. Both American and Japanese influences were shown to have been responsible for the developments. Direct American influence was experienced through the efforts of USCAR, the Michigan State University Mission, and the training of Ryukyuan faculty members in American universities. American influence on Japanese teaching techniques resulted in an indirect American 124 influence on Ryukyuan teacher education. Japanese influ- ence was felt through the help given to the Ryukyus by Japanese teacher consultants, Japanese faculty members, and by the more rapid acceptance of American ideas because of their prior adOption by Japan. Finally, attempts to evaluate the effectiveness of the developments in the teacher education programme brought a diversity of Opinion from the Ryukyuans inter- viewed. The majority of educators felt that the develop- “firm—“'- -‘ :‘“‘1"" ments in teacher training helped in raising the standard of teaching, while one person felt the students needed more training in the subject matter they were to teach. The criticisms which had been levelled at the programme in the early post-war period were no longer valid, due to developments in the programme of teacher education at the University of the Ryukyus. These observable develOpments, combined with reports in Ryukyuan newspapers and magazines, and with statements by American and Ryukyuan educators, attested to the effectiveness of the new pngramme. CHAPTER V SUMMARY AND EVALUATION For the second time in slightly less than 100 years, teacher education in the Ryukyu Islands has undergone I‘ reorganization by a foreign power. Each time American and Japanese influences have left an impact on the new Wm“. . 1L~ (a .‘L. programmes. On the first occasion, a Normal School was established at Shuri, following the pattern developed for normal schools in the Japanese Empire. It will be remem- bered that an American educator, Mr. Marion Scott, had been hired to organize and teach at the first normal school in Japan. The graduates from his courses staffed the normal schools established subsequently in other pre- fectures of Japan. While minor changes adapted the pro- gramme introduced by Scott to meet the Japanese cultural and educational needs, the basic structure tended to per- sist. Thus, when a normal school was established in the new prefecture of Okinawa, it was an adaption of the original programme introduced by Scott in Tokyo. As the influence of nationalism and Herbartian educational philOSOphy gradually changed the structure and content of teacher education in Japan, so also did it affect the programme at Shuri Normal School. For over 60 125 126 years the programme at Shuri was controlled from Tokyo. Like other prefectural normal schools, it prepared teach- ers to train children to be faithful to their nation and to the Emperor. The official language in the Ryukyus had become Japanese, this language having been taught throughout the school system by Shuri graduates. In like manner Ryukyuan customs and culture had been deliberately replaced by their Japanese counterparts. The result of such deliberate policies by Japan was a pattern of inter- action that had become established and accepted into the W. 17“" “ST—‘1'" Ryukyuan culture. In the field of education, the Ryukyuans have had a tradition of looking to sources outside their country for leadership and guidance. Over the past Six centuries they have looked to China and subsequently to Japan. Dur- ing the last century the emphasis has passed solely to Japan. Neither a comprehensive system of education, nor a normal school existed in the Ryukyus prior to its annex- ation; thus the Ryukyuans could link their educational advancement to this takeover by Japan. With this back- ground it is understandable that the Ryukyuan educators would be prone to follow ideas and methods from Japan, rather than from some other outside source with which they had no such traditional ties. The second instance of American and Japanese influence on the preparation of teachers in the Ryukyus followed the end of the Second World War. The transfer 127 of administrative power from Japan to the United States set the stage for major structural, curricular, and methodo— logical changes in teacher education in the Ryukyus. The central theme of these changes was the shift in emphasis in the programme from content-oriented courses in school subjects to an emphasis on the learner and the learning environment. All other changes were concomitant to the wr— new emphases. ‘w .‘A-“'"' ‘ ~I The changes which were introduced into the pro— gramme to meet the new emphases centred around such courses as Educational Psychology, Psychology of the AdOlescent, and Guidance and Counselling. These and sim- ilar courses were designed to help the trainee teacher know more about the learning process, and how best to help each child to learn. Knowledge of how people learn, and how to structure a positive learning environment, pro- vided guidelines which could be followed when planning curricular and teaching methods. Courses were also needed to introduce the best methods of teaching specific subjects at each educational level. As a result, a variety of new teaching techniques were introduced into the teaching pro— gramme, equipping the teacher to work more effectively with his students. With the introduction of these courses it became necessary, as soon as was practicable, to increase the period of training. The additional period was needed to allow sufficient time for the trainee teacher to acquire 128 knowledge about the way his future pupils would learn, and gain the skills necessary to help them learn. With greater emphasis being placed on the student teaching experience, more time was also required for the seminars for student teachers, which were conducted in such a way that classroom teachers and university supervisors were able to participate. The techniques used by the faculty in the student teaching experience, the academic and professional courses, and in counselling, all reflected the changing emphasis of the programme. While Ryukyuan educators were not in complete agreement as to the superiority of the learner- oriented programme, it was apparent that the programme was effectively disseminating the new techniques and orientation throughout the islands. Of those Ryukyuan educators contacted, the majority agreed that the new programme was instrumental in the development of more sensitive, effective teachers. A comprehensive programme of in-service training to re-educate teachers trained under the former content- oriented programme was developed through the cooperative efforts of Ryukyuan and American educational agencies. Centres were established throughout the Ryukyus, with Japanese faculty being brought in to help Ryukyuan and American faculty teach the summer session courses. The enrollments in these programmes reached a peak in 1955. AS the number of teachers yet to complete certification “TWP“ ‘77—‘17" 129 requirements decreased, the emphasis Shifted from up-grading personnel to the improvement of classroom teaching tech- niqueS. AS was stated earlier, all these developments grew out of the emphasis placed on student-oriented education, with the necessity to re-structure the programme, and up-grade the faculty to achieve this new goal. The concept of education being oriented to student needs came from the United States and caused changes in both the Ryukyus and Japan. Teacher education programmes were revised, teachers taught the new ideas and techniques, and gradually the schools began to reflect this new approach. Through the Michigan State University Mission, and other American educational agencies, a great deal of help and guidance was given to facilitate the changes. Acting in an advisory capacity, the American educators partici- pated in administrative develOpments, bringing changes in the academic and professional courses, and improvements in teaching techniques and student teaching. While the effect of direct American influence such as this was par- ticularly significant in the structural changes which occurred in the university administrative organization and curricula offerings, it was not perceived by Ryukyuan educators as the major factor in the teacher training develOpments in the Ryukyus. The Ryukyuan educators interviewed generally agreed that the developments in teacher education had 130 originated in the United States, but they felt that the major impetus had come from direct American influence on Japanese education. This influence had re-structured Japanese teacher education, and it was the new Japanese programme which had effected most of the developments in the Ryukyus. As Japan had established the first compre- hensive school system in the Ryukyus, and also the first programme of teacher training, Ryukyuans probably asso- ciated educational development with Japan. The association was re-inforced by the influence of various Japanese assistance programmes. Examples of these programmes could be found in Japanese faculty teaching in regular and summer sessions, teams of Japanese teaching con— sultants working with teachers in schools throughout the Ryukyus, and Short-term training programmes for Ryukyuan teacher consultants and principals in Japan. In this way the Ryukyus were able to benefit from American developments in teacher education, and yet remain within the cultural and traditional patterns of inter- action with Japan. Evaluation A comparison Of the pre-war and post—war teacher education programme in the Ryukyus revealed clearly observable developments which were found to have resulted from foreign influences. While the overall programme of Ryukyuan teacher education was generally perceived as 131 being effective, one aspect was singled out for criticism by both students and teachers. With the additional course work entailed in preparing the student to teach in the pupil-oriented programme, the curriculum had tended to become far more theoretical in nature. It would appear from those interviewed that neither the students nor the teachers were in favour of this theoretical emphasis. They were supported in this view by educators of the calibre of Mr. Ahagon and Mr. Agarie, who stated that teachers needed more training in the methods of teaching. Because ‘mrwr—“"“P'—’ of the concern of Education Department officials and teachers alike, efforts have been made to overcome what is felt to be a gap in scholastic achievement between the high school graduates from both countries. One outgrowth of this concern has been a renewed emphasis on classroom teaching techniques, with research being conducted at the Ryukyuan Education Research Centre in all subjects taught in the schools. Resulting from a similar concern, the Okinawa Teachers' Association has incorporated workshops in each subject area into the gen- eral meetings in order to raise the standard of classroom teaching. As the Association is also well into the plan- ning stage of developing its own Research Centre to study teaching techniques, it would appear that the request for more emphasis on practical training in methods of teaching is not only of general concern, but is receiving the attention of educators at all levels in the Ryukyu Islands. 132 While the theoretical nature of the post—World War II programme may have been dysfunctional, certain other aspects were effectively meeting the needs of both individuals and society. The scholarship and faculty training programmes were responsible for bringing new ideas and practices into the Ryukyus. The continued emphasis on the learning environment has aided teachers in Ryukyuan schools to develop more effective programmes to meet the needs of their students. Because of this, Ryukyuan educators have taken advantage of the adminis- trative gap between American and Japanese expectations, and guided the development of education to meet Ryukyuan needs as determined by Ryukyuan educators. DevelOpment has been deliberately aided by the Okinawa Teachers‘ Asso- ciation, which has conducted seminars and discussions each year aimed at shaping education to meet Ryukyuan needs more fully. The focus on raising the standard of education in the Ryukyus has resulted in more flexible and demanding programmes for the preparation of teachers. As a result of the re-alignment of emphases Since 1945, trainee teachers are offered a wider choice of electives, while they are also required to take a demanding core programme emphasizing the process of intellectual, social, and emo- tional growth of the students whom they will teach. This programme has led educators in the Ryukyus to comment on 133 the greater sensitivity of the teachers trained in this way, and of the effectiveness of their methods. While it was readily admitted that the standard of education in the Ryukyus had risen markedly as a result of the developments in the teacher education pro- gramme, it was also pointed out that more improvement was still needed if the standard of education in the Ryukyus were to be raised to satisfactory level. It was to over- come such a problem that the Ryukyuan Research Centre was established, and it was also a major reason behind the plan of the Okinawa Teachers' Association to develop a centre with a similar orientation. A group of final year education students at the University Of the Ryukyus also expressed a desire to improve the quality of teaching in the schools, although their major concern was for the future welfare of the Ryukyuan children. They felt that education could help to re-shape the culture of the Ryukyus, making it possible for youth to develOp into more effective citizens and to raise the general standard of living for all the Ryukyuans. This could be achieved by assessing the economic possibili- ties of the islands and then training the students in the ability to develop these possibilities to their greatest potential. To do this, the traditional patterns of agri- culture and fishing may have to be de-emphasized, and more productive occupations introduced. Their major concern was that the children be adequately prepared to 134 succeed in a materialistic world, and that peace be adOpted as the paramount national and individual virtue. That prospective teachers are even considering this role for education is indicative of the beginnings of cultural re-orientation. The overall effectiveness of the programme of teacher education following the end of the war in 1945 was due to several factors. The first of these was the COOperation which took place between all the educational agencies. The Michigan State University Mission made its contribution through its advisory activities, the lectur— ing duties accepted by its members, and by interaction with their Ryukyuan colleagues. The suggestions put for— ward by this group were discussed by educators from GRI and the University of the Ryukyus, with modifications resulting from such discussions in the light of Ryukyuan educational objectives. A second factor which influenced the effective- ness of this programme was the deliberate orientation of the programme to that of Japan. This orientation util- ized the cultural and traditional pattern of interaction between Japan and the Ryukyus as a vehicle for the intro- duction of the learner-centred programme of teacher educa— tion. By following the traditional pattern of educational developments in the Ryukyus, American policies in teacher 135 education were introduced, but they gained more rapid acceptance for having passed through the Japanese "filter." A final factor in the development of the programme in teacher education was the obvious desire of the Ryukyuan educators to improve the quality of education in their schools, and to direct the educational Objectives to Ryukyuan needs. With this goal in mind they were pre- pared to argue, resist, and persevere until teacher educa- tion programmes in the Ryukyus aided teachers to prepare the youth to more adequately meet their future. Recommendations l. The major factor in Ryukyuan society in the next two decades will be readjustment following the reversion of the Islands to Japan. It is recommended that a series of studies be done at five-year intervals to determine the long-term effects of changes brought about in Ryukyuan education during the period from 1945 to 1972. Special attention Should be given to the trend towards learner-centred education, the balance between subject matter and methodology, and to Ryukyuan autonomy of edu- cational development. 2. It is also recommended that a further study be conducted in the Ryukyus, to determine ways in which teacher education could be further improved. Statements by Ryukyuan educators criticizing an alleged difference in scholastic achievement between graduates of Japanese 136 and Ryukyuan schools have led to a demand for an improve— ment in the quality of claSsroom teaching. Such a project would indicate continued interest in Ryukyuan teacher education and would further consolidate the tradition of cooperation which exists between the University of the Ryukyus and Michigan State University. 3. Another area for further research which has been suggested by this study is related to the development of a more effective pattern of Operation by a group of for- eign educators when assisting in a project such as this. While consensus was obtained on the general effective- ness of the Michigan State University contribution to developments in teacher education in the Ryukyus, it was also agreed that further work was still required to raise the standard of teaching in Ryukyuan schools. What changes should be made in future programmes of assistance to ensure that the quality of teaching continues to meet the require- ments of the national educators? 4. A further recommendation arising out of this study relates to the newly formed Ryukyuan Research Centre, and the efforts of that Centre to raise the standard of class— room teaching in the Ryukyus. Such a project would not only offer an Opportunity to determine the criteria to be used by Ryukyuan educators when evaluating effective methods of teaching, but would also give an insight into the effectiveness of the Institute when engaged in research, specifically where important practical outcomes are expected. SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY 137 SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY Books: An Annotated Bibliography Data of Ryukyu History: Collection No. 3, 1945-1955. Translation. Okinawa: Education Department of GRI, July 14, 1958. A discussion of the development of education in the Ryukyus between 1945 and 1955. The section on teacher education provides information on such institutions as the Bunkyo Gakko and the Foreign Language School, together with a discussion of the methods of selection, conditions of acceptance, and curriculum for each institution. Data of Ryukyu History: Collection NO. 9, 1945-1955. Translation. Okinawa: Education Department of GRI, 1965. This study provides a good basic background knowledge of the develOpment of education in the Ryukyus, commencing with the sending of students to China in 1392. It follows the development of education and teacher education in detail up to 1945, and provides statistical information on student numbers and attendance. Glacken, Clarence J. The Great Luchu. Japan: Charles E. Tuttle Company, 1960. This is a comparative study of three villages in Okinawa: Hanashiro and Minatogawa, respectively an agricultural village, and a fishing and quarry— ing village in South Eastern Okinawa, and Matsuda in the North, devoted to forestry and agriculture. The study includes some discussion of education in Okinawa. Haring, Douglas G. The Catalog of the Ryukyu Research Collection. New York: Syracuse University Library and the Maxwell Graduate School of Citizenship and Public Affairs, 1969. A list of 2,103 titles of articles and reports related to the Ryukyu Islands as of March, 1969. 138 139 Higa, Suncho, and Kerr, George H. Bibliography of the Ryukyus. Okinawa: The University of the Ryukyus, 1962. This is a collection of 2,200 Japanese lan- guage articles relating to the Ryukyu Islands, published in both Japanese and English. It also notes the libraries where the references may be found. Keenlyside, Hugh, and Thomas, A. L. History of Japanese Education and Present Educational System. Japan: Hokuseido Press, 1937. An informative work which gives an excellent 1 historical development of education in Japan. Con- * tains a separate chapter on normal schools in : Japan in some detail, including the curriculum at i each type of normal school. Kerr, George H. Okinawa: The Histogy of an Island People. 1 Vermont: Charles E. Tuttle Company, 1964. | This is a well written and balanced account of the historical background of the Ryukyuan people. It provides excellent information on the development of education up to the Meiji Restora- tion, and also includes a selected bibliography. Kikuchi, Dairoku. Japanese Education. London: John Murray, Albermarle St., 1909. A well organized and informative study of edu- cation in Japan emphasizing the developments in this area since the Meiji Restoration. It has an excellent chapter devoted to normal schools. Kumura, Toshio. The DevelOpment of Modern Education and Teachers Training in Japan. Japan: Japanese National CommiSSion for UNESCO, 1961. An extremely well written and valuable his- torical study of the development of teacher educa— tion in Japan. Looks at education from the feudal period to the present time, and discusses some of the influences which helped Shape the developments. Maedormari, Asao. Educational History of the Ryukyus. Translation. Okinawa: Extension Department, Uni- versity of the Ryukyus, 1952. An account of teacher education in the Ryukyus. Discusses early Japanese and Chinese influences on education, and also looks at later Japanese influ- ences on teacher education. The study includes an examination of both pre-war and post-war programmes. 140 Majikina, Anko. Outline History of Okinawan Education. Okinawa: Okinawa Book Selling Company, 1965. A good general source of information on edu— cation in the Ryukyus, with some information relat- ing to teacher training at the normal schools. Maretzki, Thomas W., and Maretzki, Hatsumi. Taira: An Okinawan Village. Six Culture Series, Volume VII. New York: .John Wiley and Sons, 1966. This is a modified form of a sociological Ph. D. dissertation on child rearing conducted at Taira in Northern Okinawa. Post-war Developments in Japanese Education. Vol. I: Education in Japan, 1945—1952. Tokyo: Supreme Commander for the Allied Powers, April 1952. A detailed examination and evaluation of education in Japan. The study includes a crit- ical analysis of teacher education and discussion of developments since 1945. Articles and Periodicals An Inferiority of Education in Okinawa to Japan Shown by Charts. Okinawa: Education Department of GRI, May, 1967. - Bird's-eye View of Education in Okinawa: No. 4. Okinawa: Research and Planning Section, Education Department of GRI, 1966. Chamberlain, Basil Hall. "The Luchu Islands and Their Inhabitants." The Geographical Journal, V, 4 (1895). ”Educational Policy in Japan and Okinawa." Translated. Okinawa Times. Okinawa, December 25, 1955. "First Meeting of Guidance Teachers." Translated. Okinawa Asahi Shimbun. Okinawa, March 23, 1954. "GRI Guidance Plan." Translated. Okinawa Asahi Shimbun. Okinawa, March 27, 1954. "Japanese Teacher Consultants Come to Okinawa." Translation. Ryukyu Shimpo. Okinawa, November 5, 1963. Kaminuma, Hachio. "Essay on Okinawan Education: Reversion to Japan and Educational Problems." Translation. Japan: Nampo Doho Yengo Kai, 1966. 141 Kinjo, Juniguchi. "Outline of Educational History in Okinawa." New Cultural History of Okinawa. Edited by Tadayasu Kingo. Okinawa: Study Association of the Home Country Magazine, 1956. Outline of Okinawan Education: No. 6. Okinawa: Research and Planning Section, Education Department of GRI, 1970. Pitts, F. R.; Lebra, W. P.; and Suttle, W. P. Post—war Okinawa. SIRI Report No. 8. Washington: Scien— tific Investigations on the Ryukyu Islands, 1955. Tamashiro, M. "Problems of Teacher Training in the Edu- cation Department Ryukyus University." Bulletin No. 7. Okinawa: Division of Education, Univer- sity of the Ryukyus, 1964. "Twenty Years of Progress in Education." Shurei No Hikari. Okinawa: United States Forces, September, 1965. "University of the Ryukyus Planning to Conduct Night and Correspondence Courses." Translation. Ryukyu Shimpo. Okinawa, October 2, 1955. Warner, Gordon. "History of Post—war Education in the Ryukyu Islands: Part I." Shurei No Hikari, Vol. 106. Okinawa: United States Forces, Ryukyu Islands, November, 1967. . "History of Post-war Education in the Ryukyu Islands: Part II." Shurei No Hikari, Vol. 107. Okinawa: United States Forces, Ryukyu Islands, December, 1967. . "History of Post-war Education in the Ryukyu Islands: Part III." Shurei No Hikari, Vol. 108. Okinawa: United States Forces, Ryukyu Islands, January, 1968. . "History of Post-war Education in the Ryukyu Islands: Part IV." Shurei No Hikari, Vol. 109. Okinawa: United States Forces, Ryukyu Islands, February, 1968. . "History of Post-war Education in the Ryukyu Islands: Part V." Shurei No Hikari, Vol. 110. Okinawa: United States Forces, Ryukyu Islands, March, 1968. 142 . "History of Post-war Education in the Ryukyu Islands: Part VI." Shurei No Hikari, Vol. 111. Okinawa: United States Forces, Ryukyu Islands, April, 1968. "History of Post-war Education in the Ryukyu Islands: Part VII." Shurei No Hikari, Vol. 112. Okinawa: United States Forces, Ryukyu Islands, May, 1968. . "History of Post-war Education in the Ryukyu Islands: Part VIII." Shurei No Hikari, Vol. 113. Okinawa: United States Forces, Ryukyu Islands, June, 1968. "History of Post-war Education in the Ryukyu Islands: Part IX." Shurei No Hikari, Vol. 115. Okinawa: United States Forces, Ryukyu Islands, 1 .!1i "1 ‘. 2." 'TT'“? August, 1968. , . "History of Post-war Education in the Ryukyu Islands: Part X." Shurei No Hikari, Vol. 116. Okinawa: United States Forces, Ryukyu Islands, September, 1968. "History of Post—war Education in the Ryukyu Islands: Part XI." Shurei No Hikari, Vol. 117. Okinawa: United States Forces, Ryukyu Islands, October, 1968. "History of Post-war Education in the Ryukyu Islands: Part XIII." Shurei No Hikari, Vol. 121. Okinawa: United States Forces, Ryukyu Islands, February, 1969. "History of Post-war Education in the Ryukyu Islands: Part XIV." Shurei No Hikari, Vol. 122. Okinawa: United States Forces, Ryukyu Islands, March, 1969. Reports The Annual Summary of the Michigan State College Mission to the University of the Ryukyus: September 15, 1952 to June 15, 1953. Okinawa: MSC, 1953. Bulletin and Course Announcements for the In-Service Teachers' Seminar, 1970-1971. Okinawa: English Language Centre, 1970. 143 Civil Affairs Handbook: Ryukyu Office of the Chief of Naval Operations. (Loochoo) Islands. Washington: Chief of Naval Operations, Navy Department, 1944. November 15, Civil Administration of the Ryukyu Civil Administrator. Islands: Report for Period July 1, 1967 to June 30, 1968. Vol. XVI. Okinawa: United States Civil Administration of the Ryukyu Islands, 1968. . Civil Administration of the Ryukyu Islands: Report for Period July 1, 1968 to June 30, 1969. Vol. XVII. Okinawa: United States Civil Admin- istration of the Ryukyu Islands, 1969. . Civil Administration of the Ryukyu Islands: Report for Period July 1, 1969 to June 30, 1970. Vol. XVIII. Okinawa: United States Civil Admin- istration of the Ryukyu Islands, 1970. . Civil Affairs Activities in the Ryukyu Islands: Report for Period Ending December 31, 1952. Vol. I, No. 1. Okinawa: United States Civil Administration of the Ryukyu Islands, 1953. . Civil Affairs Activities in the Ryukyu Islands: Report for the Period Ending December 31, 1953. Vol. I, No. 3. Okinawa: United States Civil Administration of the Ryukyu Islands, 1954. . Civil Affairs Activities in the Ryukyu Islands: Report for the Period Ending June 30, 1954. Vol. II, NO. 1. Okinawa: United States Civil Administration of the Ryukyu Islands, 1954. . Civil Affairs Activities in the Ryukyu Islands: Report for the Period Ending September 30, 1957. Vol. V, No. 11. Okinawa: United States Civil Administration of the Ryukyu Islands, 1958. Progress and Future of Okinawan Educa- Education Department Education Report: tion. Translation. Okinawa: of GRI, June, 1965. 1958. Michigan State University Advisory Group at the University Fourth Quarterly Report, of the Ryukyus: Okinawa: MSU Mission, 1959. F1 144 Michigan State University Advisory Group at the University Of the Ryukyus: Second Quarter Repprt, 1960. Okinawa: MSU Mission, 1960. Michigan State University Advisory Group at the University of the Ryukyus: First Quarter Report, 1962. Okinawa: MSU Mission, 1962. Michigan State University Advisory Group at the University of the Ryukyus: Fourth Quarter Report, 1962. Okinawa: MSU Mission, 1962. Michigan State University Advisory Group at the University of the Ryukyus: Second Quarter Report, 1964. Okinawa: MSU Mission, 1964. The 1951-52 Report of the Michigan State College Mission to the University of the Ryukyus. Okinawa: The MSC Mission, September, 1952. Okinawa University Directory. Okinawa: Okinawa University. Quarterly Report of the Michigan State College Mission to the University of the Ryukyus: June 16 to September 30, 1953. Okinawa: MSC Mission, 1953. Quarterly Report of the Michigan State College Mission to the University of the Ryukyus: October 1 to December 31, 1953. Okinawa: MSC Mission, 1953. Quarterly Report of the Michigan State College Mission to the University of the Ryukyus: Januaryyl to March 31, 1954. Okinawa: MSC MissiOn, 1954. Quarterly Report of the Michigan State College Mission to the University of the Ryukyus: July 1, 1954 to September 30, 1954. Okinawa: MSC MissiOn, 1954. Quarterly Report of the Michigan State University Mission to the University of the Ryukyus: April 1, 1955 to June 30, 1955. Okinawa: MSU Mission, 1955. Quarterly Report of the Michigan State University Mission to the University of the Ryukyus: July 1 to September 30, 1956. Okinawa: MSU Mission, 1956. United States Education Mission to Japan. Report. Japan: Supreme Commander for the Allied Powers, March, 1946. 145 University of the Ryukyus: Catalog 1958-1959. Okinawa: University of the Ryukyus, May, 1958. University of the Ryukyus: General Information 1968—1969. Okinawa: University of the Ryukyus, September, 1968. University of the Ryukyus: Catalog 1970. Okinawa: University Of the Ryukyus, 1970. Unpublished Material and Other Sources M King, Horace. "An Analysis of Educational—Administrative- : Cultural Aspects of the Relationship Between the 3 University of the Ryukyus and Michigan State University." Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, ' Michigan State University, 1962. i Interviews Mr. Masaru Agarie, an Official of the Education Department of GRI, at Naha, Okinawa, July 27, 1970. Mr. Choji Ahagon, ex—Director of the Education Department of GRI, and currently Director of the Scholarship Programme to Japan, Okinawa, July 28, 1970. Dr. Genshu Asato, ex-Head of Adult Education Division, ex—President Of the University of the Ryukyus, Okinawa, August 4, 1970. Dr. Hikonori Asato, Professor of Education at Showa Women's College, Tokyo, Japan, at Naha, Okinawa, August 8, 1970. Mr. Itsuo Fukuyama, Teacher Consultant at the Ryukyuan Education Research Institute Centre, Okinawa, August 5, 1970. Dr. Edward Pfau, State Department of Education, Lansing, Michigan. Mr. Choryo Itoshu, Chairman of the Elementary School Principals Association of the Ryukyus, Okinawa, August 1, 1970. Mr. Seiki Kyan, President of the Okinawa Teachers Associa— tion and an ex-teacher, Okinawa, July 22, 1970. 146 Professor Asao Maedormari, Faculty of Education at the University of the Ryukyus, Okinawa, July 22, 1970. Dr. Raymond Hatch, Professor of Education at the University of the Ryukyus, Okinawa, July 22, 1970. Professor Satoshi Shimabukuro, Assistant Professor of Educational Administration at the University of the Ryukyus, Okinawa, August 6, 1970. Mr. Seijun Toguchi, Director of the English Language Centre, Okinawa, August 4, 1970. Mr. Chobyo Yara, Chief Executive of the Government of the Ryukyu Islands, and ex-President of the Okinawa Teachers Association, Okinawa, August 6, 1970. Dr. Gordon Warner, Director of Health, Education and Welfare, USCAR, Okinawa, July 28, 1970. Dr. Yuji Yonemori, Chairman of Educationaleoundations at the University of the Ryukyus, Okinawa, August 4, 1970. Teacher Consultant from the Department of Education of GRI, Okinawa, August 4, 1970. Eight final-year university students from the Faculty of Education at the University of the Ryukyus, Okinawa, July 29, 1970. APPENDIX 147 SAMPLE OF THE INTERVIEW PROCESS Major Questions for Interview on Teacher Education in the Ryukyus This research is being carried out by Professor Kevin Collins, an Australian citizen currently on faculty at the University of Lethbridge in Alberta, Canada. It is hOped that an unbiased, objective evaluation of teacher training in the Ryukyus might be obtained through this study. These questions are being sent to you several days before the interview so that you may have time to think about them at your leisure. After the interview I Shall send a summary of my interpretation of what you have told me so that you can correct any inaccuracy which I may have been guilty of making. ' 1. What do you think were the most significant changes in Teacher Training since 1945? 2. Why did these changes come about? (e.g. An American decision, an Okinawan decision, or a combination of both.) ' 3. Which changes in teacher training have helped most to raise the standard of teaching in the Ryukyus? 4. Which changes may have caused a lowering of the standard of teaching in the Ryukyus? 5. Were there any changes in any of the following sections which were particularly effective? (a) Objectives in teacher training. (b) Methods of teaching, taught to the student teachers. (c) Curriculum used for teacher training. 6. Did any of the changes in the above sections have a harmful effect on the quality of teacher training? 7. Which institutions have planed an important role in the development of teacher training in the Ryukyus? 8. What contributions has the Okinawa Teachers Association made towards the improvement of teacher training? Thank you very much for your time and effort. I Shall return a copy of the information which you have given me so that you may check the accuracy with which I have inter— preted your answers. 148 “In; «m. ‘1. mm ' : .11“ 149 July 27th, 1970 Mr. S. Kyan, Chairman, Okinawa Teachers Association, Naha, Okinawa. Dear Mr. Kyan, Here is the summary of your answers which I promised you. If there are any inaccuracies or important omissions please make the necessary corrections. When you are satisfied that it is an accurate interpretation of your answers would you please Sign the sheet at the place provided at the bottom of the last page. Thank you for your help and cooperation. Yours sincerely, Kevin Collins 150 INTERVIEW WITH MR. KYAN: PRESIDENT OF THE OKINAWA TEACHERS ASSOCIATION Date: July 22nd, 1970 Answer to Question 1: Since the war teachers have joined together and tried to bring about change. This had not been done previously. Before the war the Central Govern- ment had controlled everything, Now teachers tried to work together to achieve objectives they felt important. 1. Promotion of immediate reversion to Japan. 2. Promote anti-war movement and work for peace. 3. Protect human rights. 4. Protect the happiness of the children. Answer to Question 2: Strictly a local decision by teach- ers. In the past the U.S. Government had given some help, but the local teachers had put pressure on USCAR, to estab- lish democratic education as they saw it. Answer to Question 3: 1. Educational conventions are one of the best ways. After district and regional meetings teachers come to the OTA in Naha for 3 days--21 committees have seminars on various subjects and talks are given by top Japanese educators. 2. Okinawa passed its own Educational Law aimed at adopt- ing the Japanese educational system. 3. The U.S. Government provided for better treatment and facilities for teachers; also better training of teachers. 4. Japanese consultant teams gave technical guidance by visiting schools and working with individual teachers. 5. Okinawa teachers went to Japan to learn more about teaching techniques during summer vacation. Answer to Question 4: l. Okinawan educational system is not completely under the control of the U.S. Government or the Japanese Government but is caught between. This situation has not lowered the standard but has slowed the rate of improvement. 2. U.S. Ordinance #165 concerning education was confusing and teachers had no real direction--not sure what they could do. . 3. U.S. has control of the money. GRI had no freedom in use of its budget. 4. Facilities and equipment still only 30% of Japanese standard. 151 Answer to Question 5: (a) Objectives: 1. Objectives for teacher training were restricted by the U.S. Government. There was no freedom to adopt the Four Objectives (Answer 1) into teacher training. 2. There was a lot of confusion after the war due to many teachers being unable to accept new ideas and methods. 3. Establishment of the University of the Ryukyus with a new teacher training programme raised the effective- ness of teacher training. Note also: Other changes which effectively raised the standard of teaching were: (a) Japanese consultant teams of teachers. (b) Okinawan teachers visiting Japan. (c) Okinawan educational leaders visiting the USA. (d) Okinawan students studying in the USA. (e) Okinawan students studying in Japan. (b) Methods: 1. The old way was purely the teacher giving what he knew and felt that the student teachers should know and believe. Now the teachers are more aware of the student needs and interests. . 2. Method of teaching with audio—visual system has caused changes. ' 3. Guidance and counselling now given in home rooms. (c) Curriculum: 1. Test survey and interviewing are now stressed in teacher training. 2. Children now being taught how to think. 3. Audio-visual programme brought an improvement. 4. Teachers now being trained to specialize. 5. Guidance and counselling is now included in teacher training; gives more knowledge about students and so teacher is able to help more. Answer to Question 6: Yes! Now we have enough teachers who are trained in the methods of teaching with audio-visual equipment but we do not have enough equipment and no funds to buy any. There- fore teachers (particularly those trained in Japan) have to learn teaching techniques which do not involve such equipment. (Note: Japan has ample equipment in schools.) 152 Answer to Question 7: 1. University of the Ryukyus--Government—supported institu— tion. 2. Okinawa University--Private institution. 3. Kokusai University--Private institution. 4. Okinawa Christian College-—(Two year college) Private institution. 5. Okinawa Women's College-~(Two year college) Private institution. 6. Okinawa Teachers Association--Played a big role in sending scholars to Japan. Answer to Question 8: Generally has been involved in providing facilities and pro— tecting teachers. 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