l1 LIBRARIES ,- MIWIIEWILEmm “LIBRARY M590“ M This is to certify that the dissertation entitled PURPOSES, MOTIVATIONS, AND LEARNING AMONG ADULTS IN AN OVERSEAS STUDY TOUR presented by David Warner Parks has been accepted towards fulfillment of the requirements for Doctor of Philosophy degreein Education Ilf" ‘a- Ab...‘ A - ll' um IVIESI_J RETURNING MATERIALS: Place in book drop to LlfiaAfiJES remove this checkout from _—c—_ your record. FINES will be charged if book is returned after the date stamped beiow. ‘. . l FEB 1 8 1999 PURPOSES, MOTIVATIONS, AND LEARNING AMONG ADULTS IN AN OVERSEAS STUDY TOUR BY David Warner Parks A DISSERTATION Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY College of Education 1986 L/ 4 ABSTRACT PURPOSES, MOTIVATIONS, AND LEARNING AMONG ADULTS IN AN OVERSEAS STUDY TOUR BY David Warner Parks Many people go overseas for brief periods of work, study, or travel. Some significantly expand their horizons with what they learn on these trips, while others do not. The purpose of this study was to identify relationships, if any, between the awareness of purpose of adults in a short- term overseas experience and their learning. The 45 subjects were on learn-by—working tours in Israel sponsored by Jordan College. They were interviewed at the beginning of their tours about their purposes and at the end about their learning. An exploratory approach was used for the correlational research method. The subjects' recruitment process and religious characteristics limited generalizability of the findings. The following observations about short-term travelers abroad were drawn from the findings. 1. Expectations are developed by a reflective process which involves personal background and is subject to influence. 2. Most purposes are based in learning. 3. Some travelers who do not expect to learn are externally motivated. 4. Others who do not expect to learn have a passive outlook. 5. The focus of purposes is subject to influence. 6. Learning is associated with indicators of the ability to reflect purposefully upon reality. Those indicators with strongest positive correlation were "focusing purposes on a personal agenda" and "explicitness about expectations." The indicator with strongest negative correlation was passivity. Several practical implications for educators were presented: 1. Short trips have enough potential for helping people learn about life abroad to be worth attention. 2. Special groups to be expected on short trips include those in transition and those who do not expect to learn. 3. Questions need to be raised about selecting candidates with low expectations of learning. 4. Candidates for a short trip abroad can profit by raising their awareness of purpose. 5. The instruments and conclusions of the study are potential tools for raising awareness of purpose. 6. Methods were proposed for influencing the group's focus, raising the explicitness of expectations, and helping individuals pursue a personal agenda. TO MY PARENTS Warner Rockwell Parks and Mildred Ruth Parks Dad, you showed me how to get the job done with good humor and hard work. Mom, you showed me how to care about people now. iii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Three very special people made this study possible. 1. My wife, Delphine, believed I could do it. When I wanted to quit, she always believed I could finish and helped me find the will to try again. She also did most of the word processing and critiqued every paragraph. 2. The Chancellor of Jordan College, Dr. DeWayne Coxon, provided the logistic support and made valuable suggestions for Chapter Four. 3. My advisor, Dr. Ted Ward, worked with me through very difficult situations and over long distances. His advice about research and reporting was always clear, fit the situation, and gave the needed direction and support. Several others made important contributions. The other members of my guidance committee, Dr. Charles Blackman, John Duley, Dr. Kenneth Harding, and Dr. William Kimball, gave professional, friendly, and inspiring guidance. Mr. Duley, on his visit to our home in California, encouraged me to begin the research. Ingrid Currier, Virginia Endermann, and Bill Horn gave very helpful imput on content and style. Steve Burge, Rob Coxon, Robert Frostick, Steve Phelps, and Todd Robinson helped me use computers. iv TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF TABLES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Viii Chapter One: THE PROBLEM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 Purpose of the Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 The Research Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 Explanation of the Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 Importance of the Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 Overview of the Procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 Assumptions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 Delimitations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 Consequent Limitations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 Summary of the Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 Chapter Two: PRECEDENTS IN LITERATURE . . . . . . . . . l3 Purpose and Experience in Ancient Thought . . . . . . . l4 Purpose and Experience in Medieval Education . . . . . 17 The Modern Dualism in Education . . . . . . . . . . . . 19 Emphases on Student Purpose in Experiential Education . 22 Emphases on Student Purpose in Adult Education . . . . 25 Emphases on Purpose by Blumer and Whitehead . . . . . . 26 Student Purpose Seen in Travel Study Reports. . . . . . 31 Summary of Precedents in Literature . . . . . . . . . . 33 Chapter Three: PROCEDURES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34 The Research Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34 Data Collection Instruments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36 Schedule of the Tours Under Study . . . . . . . . . . . 40 The Pilot Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42 Gender and Age of the Subjects. . . . . . . . . . . . . 44 The Subjects' Common Agenda . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44 The Subjects' Religious Characteristics . . . . . . . 44 The College's Commitment to Experiential Learning . . 48 How the College Developed the Israel Tours . . . . . 49 How the College Recruited the Subjects . . . . . . . 50 Creating the Common Agenda . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51 Field Procedures. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52 Procedural Limitations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57 Data Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58 Statistical Procedures. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60 Summary of the Procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64 Chapter Four: THE FINDINGS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66 Awareness of Purpose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66 Explicitness of Purpose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67 Focus of Purpose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71 Basis of Purpose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81 Preparation for Purpose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82 External Motivation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83 Passivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85 Transition Periods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86 Summary of Awareness of Purpose of the Subjects . . . 88 How Concerns Demonstrated Learning . . . . . . . . . . 89 New Concerns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89 Old Concerns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91 Summary of How Concerns Demonstrated Learning . . . . 92 Correlations With Learning. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93 Correlation of NEW CONCERNS with EXPLICITNESS OF PURPOSE . . . . . . . . . 96 Correlation of NEW CONCERNS with FOCUS OF PURPOSES . . . . . . . . . . . . 97 Correlation of NEW CONCERNS with BASIS OF PURPOSES . . . . . . . . . . . . 97 Correlation of NEW CONCERNS with PREPARATION FOR PURPOSES . . . . . . . . . 98 Correlation of NEW CONCERNS with EXTERNAL MOTIVATION. . . . . . . . . . . . 98 Correlation of NEW CONCERNS with PASSIVITY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99 Correlation of NEW CONCERNS with TRANSITION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99 Summary of Correlations With Learning . . . . . . . . 99 Summary of the Findings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .100 vi Chapter Five: FINDINGS, CONCLUSIONS, and IMPLICATIONS. 102 Summary of the Findings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103 Outline of the Conclusions. . . . . . . . . . . . . 103 Conclusions About Awareness of Purpose. . . . . . . 104 Conclusion About Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106 Conclusion About Correlations with Learning . . . . 107 Practical Implications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111 The Potential of Short Trips . . . . . . . . . . . 112 Special Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112 Preparing and Selecting Candidates . . . . . . . . 114 Opportunities to Influence Tourists' Education . . 115 Implications for Further Research . . . . . . . . . . 118 Summary of the Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119 APPENDIX A: ITINERARY OF THE TOURS STUDIED . . . . . 121 APPENDIX B: THE RECRUITMENT PROCESS . . . . . . . . . 123 APPENDIX C: THE ENTRANCE INTERVIEW -- PURPOSES FOR THE TRIP . . . . . . . . . . 129 APPENDIX D: THE EXIT INTERVIEW -- DISCOVERIES ON THE TRIP . . . . . . . . . 130 APPENDIX E: PILOT STUDY INTERVIEW GUIDE . . . . . . . 131 LIST OF REFERENCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132 vii LIST OF TABLES Table Page 1. Age Distributions, Ranges, and Averages . . . . . . . 45 2. Correlations of New Concerns With Factors Which Could be Measured on a Scale. . . . . . . . . . . . . 61 3. Correlations of New Concerns With Factors in Dichotomous Pairs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63 4. Means and Standard Deviations of Subjects' Responses Demonstrating the Personal Background and Expectation Factors of Their Purposes . . . . . . 71 5. Means of Purpose Statements Offered by the Subjects Focusing on Expanded Horizons, Awareness pf Home, and Conscientization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81 6. Means and Standard Deviations of Subjects' Responses Describing Old Concerns and New Concerns . 95 7. Correlations of New Concerns with Twelve Factors of Awareness of Purpose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95 8. Correlations of New Concerns with Factors of Explicitness of Purpose: Personal Background and Expectation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96 9. Correlations of New Concerns with Factors of Focus of Purpose: Expanded Horizons, Awareness 9: Home, and Conscientization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97 10. Correlations of New Concerns with Factors of the Basis of Purpose: Action and Reflection . . . . . . 98 11. A Taxonomy of Correlations with Learning: Twelve Indicators of the Ability to Reflect Purposefully Upon Reality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .108 viii Chapter One: THE PROBLEM Many writers believe Americans should become more aware of other nations.1 Travel abroad is seen as an educational experience for developing this awareness.2 And short trips abroad for adult learning groups are growing more popular.3 The learning outcomes from travel abroad are mixed. Some persons return with a significantly increased awareness of another nation's geography, culture, religion, economy, or politics. Others return from the same experience with very little measurable increase in their awareness of life in the place they visited.4 Among the factors educators think are related to these differences in learning are the culture of the location visited, the structure of the trip, the orientation program which preceded it, the follow-up education, the purpose and 1 See Alger, 1978; Sine, 1981, pp. 32-44; Lappe, Collins, and Fowler, 1978; Smith-Durland, 1978; Bonham, 1980, p. 3; Lamy, 1985, p. 4; and Rosenthal, 1985, p. 5. 2 See Simon, 1978; Willis, 1977; Titone, 1969; Axelrod, 1981; Gudykunst, Hammer, and Wiseman, 1977, p. 384; Grove, 1983; Brady, 1973, p. 4; Steinralk and Taft, 1979, p. 4; Pearson, 1981, p. 28; Kagitcibasi, 1978, p. 143; Hull, 1979, p. 1; Hull, 1981, p. 65; Keeton and Tate, 1978, p. 6; and Bergevin, Morris, and Smith, 1963, p. 74. 3 See Gieseking, 1986; Operation Ezra, 1986; "Vacations: Take a Different Vacation This Year," 1986; and The International Workcamper, 1986. 4 See Pearson, 1981, p. 21; Leonard, 1973, p. 2; Steinralk and Taft, 1979, p. 189; Leonard, 1964; Watson and Lippitt, 1955; Smith, 1955; Taba, 1953; Amir and Garti, 1977, p. 58. l 2 5 the prior experience of the student. This study focused on the purpose of the student. Purpose pf the Study The purpose of this study was to determine and explain relationships, if any, between the subjects' awareness of purpose in a short-term overseas experience and their learning on the trip. The Research Questions The three research questions focused on purpose, learning, and their relationships. 1. To what degree did the subjects exhibit the factors of awareness of purpose associated with learning in similar situations? a. How explicitly did subjects describe their purposes? b. What was the focus of their purposes? c. Were purposes based in reflection or in experience? d. How much did subjects prepare for their purposes? 2. To what degree did the subjects' concerns at the end of the trip demonstrate learning? 3. In what ways and to what degree was awareness of purpose associated with learning? 5 See Craft, 1978, p. 49; Hull, 1979, p.4; Pearson, 1981, p. 22; Leonard, 1964, p. 180; Keeton, 1980, p. 96; Shipton and Steltenpohl, 1980, p. 24; Knapp and Sharon, 1975; Nesbitt, 1977; Willingham, 1977; Batchelder, 1977, pp. 145-146; Warner, 1971, p. 143; Wyatt, 1977, p. 155; Houle, 1961, p. 5; and Tough, 1971. 3 Explanation pf the Variables The independent variable was awareness of purpose; the dependent variable was learning. The purpose was to determine the degree of association among the factors of these two variables. Awareness pf Purpose 29 what degree did the subjects exhibit the factors pf awareness p: purpose associated with learning ip similar situations? Four factors were expected: Explicitness, focus, basis, and preparation. 1. How explicitly did subjects describe their purposes? Explicitness was used as a measure of the seriousness of purpose. Someone may say, "I've got to quit smoking!" The amount of detail then revealed about the purpose to quit is one measure of how closely the person is dealing with reality. One may avoid dealing directly with reality by talking in undetailed slogans or proverbs. Or one may come to grips with the details of smoking's effect on health, social life, career, income -- even about expected actions and results. 2. What was the focus pf their purposes? When going overseas, purposes are usually arranged in three areas of focus, topic, or subject-matter (Abrams, 1981, p. 72). The most prominent focus is expanded horizons, in which people learn about the part of the world they visit. A second area is awareness 9; home, in which the new environment helps 4 people to see their home environment in a new light. A third is conscientization: awareness of oneself in relation to the environment in a context of social responsibility. (See "Definitions," below.) 3. Were purposes based ip reflection pp experience? Some educators are concerned that not enough importance is placed on the students' reflection in experiential education abroad. They think too much value is often put on the activity itself (Pearson, 1981, pp. 21-22; Abrams, 1981, p. 69; Fugate, 1985). Their concern is consistent with Dewey's: "Mere activity does not constitute experience. It is dispersive, centrifugal, dissipating" (1916, p. 163). Dewey assumed that learning resulted from consciously connecting experience with its personal consequences. 4. How much did subjects prepare for their purposes? Preparation is an indication of how far a goal has deVeloped. Even the most explicit desire is useless without steps which begin to carry it out. The smoker who is serious about quitting usually has done something about the desire: Made The Big Announcement, changed the diet or environment, set short-term objectives, joined a support group, or sought professional help. Learning 39 what degree did the subjects' concerns pp the end 9: the trip demonstrate learning? The indicator used to measure the dependent variable was the number of subjects' 5 new, as opposed to old, concerns at the end of their tour. Some precedent for this indicator was in Rokeach's hypothesis that people of an open mind tend to have greater recall of new beliefs (1960, pp. 196-224). New concerns. Experiential learning is being "involved fully, openly, and without bias in new experiences" (Fry and Kolb, 1979, pp. 80-81). The first procedure of the mind in a new environment is . . . a process of becoming used to curious thoughts, of shaping questions, of seeking for answers, of devising new experiences, of noticing what happens as the result of new ventures. . . . It is dominated by wonder, and cursed be the dullard who destroys wonder (Whitehead, 1929, p. 32). Old concerns. Some people, however, tend to talk about the same concerns, regardless of new experiences. They can go abroad already knowing what the world is like. They "seem not to have noticed that they are living in a different country" (Ward, 1984, p. 5). They return with their old concerns undisturbed, never "scared by facts" (Whitehead, 1929, p. 51). This type of contact across cultures strengthens racial prejudice and perpetuates misunderstandings (Allport, 1954; Killian, 1970, p. 184). Associations Ip what ways and pp Egg; gggree was awareness pf purpose associated with learning? The purpose was to determine the relationships among factors of these two variables: How are explicitness, focus, pgpip, and preparation associated new concerns? Importance pf the Study Practical answers were developed to several questions about short trips abroad, as experiential education in a curriculum for expanding the horizons of adult Americans. These questions covered four categories: Learning potential, special groups, selection and preparation of candidates, and opportunities to influence education. The Potential for Learnipg About Life Abroad A basic concern for the research was whether short trips are a good opportunity to help people learn more about the world abroad and begin to participate more fully in international concerns. Are short trips abroad worth an educator's attention? Special Groups What special groups will need educators' attention on short trips abroad? Preparing and Selecting Candidates What curriculum goals should be adopted by schools and other agencies wishing to prepare people, over the long run, for experiential learning on short trips abroad? Also, which curricular goals and methods are effective in orientation programs for short trips abroad? 7 Opportunities pg Influence Tourists' Education How can program planners and tour directors influence the education of participants in short trips abroad? What levels of awareness of purpose can be expected in candidates, and how can the focus of their purposes be influenced? How should tours be structured to enhance learning outcomes? Overview pf the Procedures The procedures, described in Chapter Three, are overviewed in this section. The research methodology was correlational, with an exploratory approach. The subjects were 45 adults (24 females and 21 males) ranging in age from 19 to 79, on a two-week trip to Israel. They were sponsored by Jordan College on a learn-by-working tour as part of its continuing education program for Christians' awareness of Judaism. They were not screened for educational background. Most (40) had special religious characteristics, and their learning goals appeared to have been influenced by the college's method of recruitment. The subjects spent two days in Jerusalem, six days on a kibbutz in the southern desert, and two days touring Biblical sites popular with Christians. They were interviewed at the beginning of their tour about their purposes and at the end about their concerns. The responses were coded and categorized. Then 8 correlations were analyzed between variables using regression analysis and the t-test, to form a taxonomy of factors associated with learning. Assumptions The following assumptions were basic to carrying out this study. 1. The subjects would actually have purposes for their trips and would develop concerns from the trips. 2. The subjects' purposes and concerns would vary. 3. The subjects would talk honestly about their purposes and concerns. This assumption was tempered by the discovery of a strong consensus introduced in the following section. Delimitations Two delimitations are described in this section: (a) The travel experience was a short trip abroad, and (b) the subjects were of a particular type. The Travel Experience Was 3 Short Trip Abroad A short trip abroad normally differs from a long trip in both its positive and negative outcomes. During the first days of cross-cultural contact people develop a growing awareness of group differences. This awareness is a necessary step on the path to positive long term attitude changes (Hofman, 1977; Pearson, 1981). But a short trip does not help people develop their 9 self-concept, attitudinal changes, or language skills (Bower, 1973; Cembalo and Regent, 1981). Neither is a short trip very good at helping people develop long-lasting positive relationships across cultures, another reference group, or an intercultural perspective. On a short trip neither the time span nor the papgg pf contact situations is sufficient for these developments to mature.6 This awareness of differences can have negative results if the trip is the only learning experience aimed at expanding horizons. Since people lack the time or range of contacts to move on from this step, some of them develop unrealistically glamorous attitudes toward the country they are visiting for a short while (Hull, Leonard, and Jurs, 1973). Or some pursue unfavorable prejudices (Grove, 1983, p. 5). People may return with the authority of having been there to announce that, in fact, "Mexicans QQQLE have any sense of time," or "The Irish are hot-headed." The Subjects Were pp 3 Particular Type The study was further delimited by a particular type of subject. The subjects were adults drawn by recruitment among certain religious audiences with the implied promise that the trip would result in a certain type of value to them. Most subjects (40 of the 45) had certain religious characteristics: Distinguishing patterns of worship, of 6 The works of Grove, 1983, pp. 2-4; Brislin, 1981; Ashmore, 1970; Szanton, 1966; and Gudykunst, Hammer, and Wiseman, 1977, support this conclusion. 10 speech, of interest in Israel, and of unusually strong consensus. And their awareness of their purposes appeared to have been imprinted with a common agenda by the college's commitment to experiential learning and by its method of recruitment.7 Consequent Limitations The consequent limitations stem from choosing to study a short trip abroad by adults of a certain religious type who were recruited under conditions which appeared to have imprinted their awareness of purpose. The subjects were, therefore, easily distinguishable from most other tourists. Furthermore, the groups were whole populations, not representative of larger groups. Generalizations of the results to other populations would be conjectural hypotheses (Babbie, 1973, p. 59). Definitions The two interview groups were called the "February group" and the "March group," when their findings were analyzed separately. They were called "together," when their findings were analyzed together. The terms "short trip abroad" or "short tour abroad" are used interchangeably to stand for "short-term overseas 'experience." r 7 The subjects' type and the imprinting of their purposes are described further in Chapter Three, "The Subjects' Common Agenda" and in APPENDIX B: RECRUITMENT PROCESS. 11 "The trip" or "the tour" are used interchangeably to stand for the particular short term overseas experience of this study. A "kibbutz" is a commune sponsored by the Israeli government. "Conscientization" is the label used in this study for the subjects' topic of focus dealing with their psyche. It is a term made popular by Freire (1970). Its basic meaning is the increase in awareness of one's self in active relation to the environment. In adult education the term also describes the development of positive, active attitudes about one's self and the setting of personal goals, always in a setting of social responsibility (Boston, 1972). Summary 9; the Problem Educators use travel abroad to help Americans expand their international horizons. Many authorities believe learning from travel is related to the purpose of the traveler. This study determined and explained relationships in a short overseas study tour between awareness of purpose and learning. Hypotheses were developed about the design of short trips abroad as adult experiential education. The research was exploratory and correlational. The subjects were 45 adult Christians on a two-week learn-by- working tour in Israel, sponsored by Jordan College. These tourists spent two days in Jerusalem, six days on a southern desert kibbutz, and two days exploring Biblical sites 12 familiar to Christians. The subjects were interviewed at the beginning of their tour about their purposes and at the end about their concerns. The responses were coded and categorized. Then correlations were analyzed to form a taxonomy of factors associated with learning. The study was delimited to a travel experience which was a short trip abroad and to subjects of a particular type. Consequently, the generalizability of the findings was limited to similar groups and situations. Chapter Two: PRECEDENTS IN LITERATURE A short trip abroad is usually assigned educational value, under the assumption that the personal experience of foreign reality is a valid means of expanding one's international horizons.8 But many authorities behave as if the purpose of the student in an overseas study tour is also related to the student's learning from the tour.9 These two concepts, experience and purpose, are discussed in the literature of education under a variety of terms. Experience is also discussed as "experimentation," "action," "activity," "natural observation," "social interaction," and "apprehending reality" (Chickering, 1977b, pp. 12-18; Coleman, 1977; Houle, 1977). And the way purpose is used in this study has also been expressed as "reflection," "intention," "intended outcome," "objective," "aim," or "goal" (Ammons, 1969). In this chapter precedents are shown for emphasizing these two concepts both separately and in dynamic tension together. Both types of precedent began in ancient thought and were continued in medieval education. The concepts are 8 See Simon, 1978; Willis, 1977; Titone, 1969; Axelrod, 1981; Gudykunst, Hammer, and Wiseman, 1977, p. 384; Grove, 1983; Brady, 1973, p. 4; Steinralk and Taft, 1979, p. 4; Pearson, 1981, p. 28; Kagitcibasi, 1978, p. 143; Hull, 1979, p. 1; Hull, 1981, p. 65; Keeton and Tate, 1978, p. 6; and Bergevin, Morris, and Smith, 1963, p. 74. 9 See Pearson, 1981, p. 21; Leonard, 1973, p. 2; Steinralk and Taft, 1979, p. 189; Leonard, 1964; Watson and Lippitt, 1955; Smith, 1955; Taba, 1953; Amir and Garti, 1977, p. 58. 13 14 emphasized separately in the modern dualism between practical and liberal education. But a creative tension between experience and purpose has been maintained in modern times within the experiential and adult education movements. The theories of Blumer and Whitehead and some analyses of travel study also call for this integration. Pugpose and Experience ip Ancient Thought People in the ancient world believed it was important to experience reality personally and that the person's purpose for that experience was important. But they were not in agreement about the way they approached these concepts. Greeks believed the mental realm was superior. Hebrews valued the mental and physical realms together (Rifkin, 1980; Boman, 1960). The Ancient Role pp Purpose Idealism is the theory that the most important element in the nature of reality is mind or spirit. Plato illustrates the tremendous power of the mind: If all the chairs in the universe were destroyed, the idea of "chair" would still be. Some people would make more chairs, and others would sit in them again (Frost, 1949, pp. 59-60). The Hebrew and Christian scriptures take a perspective on man remarkably similar to Plato's confidence in the creative power of the mind. One Genesis account says God made man "in his own image" (Genesis 1:27). As a result, 15 Adam was the only creature capable of stepping back from the line-up of creation, looking it all over, discriminating among the species, and naming them for what they were to him (Teilhard de Chardin, 1959). Cox calls this process the "disenchantment of nature" (1965, pp. 21-24), or the source of human control of the environment. Plato's man is no less powerful. He looks at his need to sit in comfort and "names" a chair. The Ancient Roles for Experience There is nothing really new or startling about "experiential learning," about the integral relationships between experience and knowledge. When the Bible first reported that Abraham knew Sarah, full-fleshed experience was the medium rather than lectures, print, or tape (Chickering, 1977b, pp. 13-14). This full-fleshed experience was based in a respect for physical matter, which can be seen in the Hebrew doctrines of creation, of revelling in physical nature, of future physical bliss, of the significance of the human body, of the Sabbath, of the incarnate Messiah, and of the resurrection of the body (Boman, 1960; Eckstein, 1982; Jones, 1963; Lewis, 1947; Rifkin, 1980). This basic assumption by ancient Hebrews, that physical nature is good, is especially clear when brought into contrast with their neighbors' beliefs that physical nature is merely an inferior mode of existence, which humans must endure on their way to the ideal. The Greeks observed that the earth is decaying and postulated a corresponding theory 16 of human society in decay. Their theory began with a Golden Age which has degenerated to the present stage and has a limited future. The present human society and earthly existence are thus to be endured, ordered, and conserved as long as possible. But the ultimate form of existence would be the realm of ideas. They concluded that ideas and contemplation of an indefinite future are superior to physical life including the human body. Not that the body or the sunsets were not beautiful -- just not significant, because the real nature of life is elsewhere (Boman, 1960; Rifkin, 1980, pp. 10-12). The Hebrew View, which values the mental and physical together, has been called "integral." Knowing was inseparable from doing (Wren, 1977, pp. 1-11). The Greek view, which separates the mental from the physical realm and values the mental as superior, has been called "dualism." Knowledge was for one class, action for the other (Boman, 1960; Jones, 1963). Purpose and Experience ip Ancient Education The integral and dualistic views were reflected in ancient systems of education. Hebrew schooling was primarily character education for living in the present world. Since good character was desired for all, one curriculum was basic. The best Platonic education was mental, contemplative of the ideal. And a separate, utilitarian education was 17 necessary for the lower classes, to slow the decay process and conserve the world as long as possible (Broudy, 1977, p. 96). Purpose and Experience ip Medieval Education During medieval times, classical Jewish education carried on the Hebrew perspective, while education in the Christian world mixed emphases from Greek and Hebrew thought. Classical Jewish Education Classical Jewish education was experiential and emphasized the purpose of the student. Its philosophic roots were in a practical ethic, rather than a contemplative art. "A Jew is asked to take a leap of action rather than of thought" (Hescel, cited in Chazan, 1980, p. 303). The resulting mission of the school emphasized both practice and motive: The concern was for doing the good, internalizing it, and understanding it as part of one's being. . . . the child and his motivations were regarded as important. The method of learning was active: One actually prayed, recited blessings, and performed acts of loving kindness. And the medium of instruction was modelling: The teacher was to be a pious, behaving Jew whose actions and character were no less important than his knowledge (Chazan, 1980, p. 303-306). 18 The Medieval Universities and Apprenticeships The Platonic dichotomy between liberal and practical education was continued in dual systems. The apprenticeship system was for learning a trade and gaining access to the guilds. And the universities were primarily concerned with theory, even in the professions or when arguing about the number of teeth in the mouth of a horse (Houle, 1977, pp. 21—22). Chivalric Education While scholars mastered content from books and lectures, and craftsmen learned by doing, the elite were educated for leadership in the Chivalric tradition. Because the goal was to produce leaders, and a broad range of competencies was required, Chivalric education may have integrated experience with reflection to a degree. Houle reports some of the standards of competency required: The squire must be able to: "spring upon a horse while fully armed; to exercise himself in running; to strike for a length of time with the axe or club; to dance and do somersaults entirely armed except for his helmet; to mount on horseback behind one of his comrades, by barely laying his hands on his sleeve; to raise himself betwixt two partition walls to any height, by placing his back against one, and his knees and hands against the other; to mount a ladder, placed against a tower, upon the reverse or under side, solely by the aid of his hands, and without touching the rounds with his feet; to throw the javelin; and to pitch the bar" (Houle, 1977, pp. 23-24). 19 The Modern Dualism ip Education The development of modern science created its own dualism. The educational systems developed from medieval times continued their dualistic nature and are now known as "practical" and "liberal" education. The Development 9: Modern Dualism Newton rejected the Platonic belief in a degenerating physical world and developed a new form of the Hebrew belief in the importance of the physical world. In this new belief, the physical is important, not for what it is, but for what people could make of it. Physical matter became, in the Newtonians' eyes, inert, lifeless atoms to be ordered as they would. It was no longer "good" as given by God, nor was it hopelessly degenerating into a nirvana existence. Both the Hebrew motive of stewardship and the Greek concern for conservation of the environment were gone. In their place, the Newtonians laid the foundation for the ideology of progress, which is creating greater value out of the natural world than what exists in its original state. Science, in this context, is the methodology by which people learn the ways of nature so that they can reduce them to consistent principles or rules. Technology, in turn, is the application of these rules in specific instances, the purpose being to transform parts of the natural process into workable forms of greater value, structure, and order than exist in the primal state (Rifkin, 1980, p. 30). The Newtonian worldview provided the metaphysical basis for a radical social change, the industrial revolution. The 20 revolution affected the development of the practical and liberal education systems inherited from medieval society. Experience pp pp Emphasis 9: Practical Education A large body of curriculum thought focused on giving factory workers training in practical experiences and on preparing school children for their future roles as factory workers. The curricula were intended both to help students manipulate an inert physical universe and to be manipulated by the idea-men of industry. Curriculum talk was "dominated by the criterion of social utility." The goal was increased productivity in American factories (Kliebard, 1975, p. 56). Experience was usually emphasized at the expense of the purpose of the student (Greene, 1977). One of the most influential (according to Bellack and Kliebard, 1977, p. 2) curriculum writers of this perspective advocates selecting the right experiences, organizing these experiences for effective instruction, and evaluating the effectiveness of learning experiences (Tyler, 1949). The heavy emphasis on experience in modern practical education has been sometimes tied to behavioristic psychology. Progress in the physical world was conceived of as the result of human manipulation of inert matter in mechanical form. Behaviorists extended the concept into the social realm by viewing society as a large collection of complex organisms of inert matter. Two doctrines came from this concept. First, interaction with the environment 21 produces behavior, hence experience impacts learning. Second, it is the responsibility of certain people to create a more ordered social environment (Skinner, 1971, p. 84). Purpose pp pp Emphasis 9; Liberal Education Modern leaders, even in the professions, were expected to have a liberal education which developed their mental powers. Until recently, their education was almost entirely confined to books, lectures, and written examinations (Houle, 1977, pp. 25-30). The curriculum was geared around the purpose of preserving the accumulated cultural tradition and passing it on through the new generation. It was the general thesis that distinct forms of knowledge exist, a thesis which Peters (1974, p. viii) calls "almost a stock- in-trade of the idealist tradition." The heavy emphasis on mental reasoning in liberal education is based by some people in humanism. The basic commitments of humanism are that reason is the chief means of solving problems and that mankind can survive for people to lead significant lives (Kurtz, 1973, p. 7). These commitments flow naturally from idealism and the progress ideology. Wren contends that this belief in reason and good will is not only liberalism's abiding value, but its gravest weakness, because it makes liberals shy away from the realities of conflict and power which they find in experience (1977, p. 110). The comments of two humanists may be taken as representative of their belief in the 22 importance of the student's purpose. The human being is a purposive creature . . . the selective nature of perception cannot be accounted for in any other way [but by] valueful purpose (Kelley, 1947, p. 47). For the humanist, the basic principle of learning is: Any information will affect a person's behavior only in the degree to which the learner has discovered the personal meaning of that information (Combs, 1978, p. 19). Emphases pp Student Purpose 3p Experiential Education Industry and education have continued their interaction previously described and cited to Kliebard (1975). The modern experiential education movement is based partly in the call from industry for graduates who know from experience how to work. But while the value of experience in education is promoted by the modern experiential education movement, some learning theorists, researchers, and program directors of experiential education also stress the importance of the student's purpose in the experience. Learning Theorists Learning theory in the experiential education movement leans heavily on Dewey, Kolb, and developmental psychology. Dewey is a pragmatist "whose theory of experience has become the touchstone of the experiential movement" (Smythe, 10 Groups organizing this movement include the Council for the Advancement of Experiential Learning, the National Society for Internships and Experiential Education, the Cooperative Education Association, the National Experience- Based Career Education Association, and the National Institute for Work and Learning. 23 1979, p. 2). The nature of experience can be understood only by noting that it includes an active and a passive element peculiarly combined. On the active hand, experience is trying -- a meaning which is made explicit in the connected term experiment. On the passive, it is undegggipg. When we experience something we act upon it, we do something to it; then we suffer or undergo the consequence. We do something to the thing and then it does something to us in return. Such is the peculiar combination. The connection of these two phases of experience measures the fruitfulness or value of the experience. Mere activity does not constitute experience. It is dispersive, centrifugal, dissipating. Experience as trying involves change, but change is meaningless transition unless it is consciously connected with the return wave of consequences which flow from it. When an activity is continued into the undergoing of consequences, when the change made by action is reflected back into change made in us, the mere flux is loaded with significance. We learn something (Dewey, 1916, p. 139). More recently Kolb has been a leading theorist for this movement. He describes a four stage cycle of experience, reflection, theorizing, and experimentation (Fry and Kolb, 1979). Some experiential educators see strong evidence of developmental change as a major outcome of experiential education. But they believe that the "clarifying purposes" of the student play a major role in such change (Chickering, 1977a, pp. 83-84). Researchers Researchers have also shown that students should be given help in clarifying their purposes for experiential study (Knapp and Sharon, 1975; Nesbitt, 1977; and Willingham, 1977). And students' learning prior to their 24 field experience does affect their purposes (Wylie, 1976; Forrest, 1977; and Knapp, 1977). Program Directors The importance of purpose is strongly felt by directors of experiential education. "As learner motivation becomes better understood, techniques for enhancing performance will become more successful" (Keeton, 1980, p. 96). And "the more self-directed the student can become the better able he is to assure quality in his own learning" (Shipton and Steltenpohl, 1980, p. 24). These directors show the importance they place on student purpose by the way they design their programs and the way they evaluate learning. Some educators design their experiential cross-cultural programs to enhance students' awareness of purpose. For instance, Batchelder (1977, pp. 145-146) recommends involving students in assessing their learning as a means of helping them into awareness of purpose in the experience, combatting their "flat plane of unthinking passivity." In Warner's programs, "Learners are accorded the central role in the assessment process . . . as a tool to help learners identify what still needs to be learned, what skills need to be gained if one's goals are to be realized" (1977, p. 143). Students of Wyatt's programs "are asked to set their goals, regularly reflect upon their experiences, analyze what they are learning and how they are learning, and record their impressions and thought" (1977, p. 155). Willingham has 25 defined 66 "principles of good practice" followed by experiential educators (1977). He advocates that students decide on general learning goals, set specific learning objectives which fit both their goals and their site abroad, and help set standards for determining credit. Emphases pp Student Purpose pp Adult Education Three adult educators, in particular, emphasize the importance of student purpose: Houle, Tough, and Freire. Houle Purpose is especially important for an adult traveler. "The ultimate drive for continuing education lies in the desire and will of the individual. . . . When his learning is voluntary, its burden is light" (Houle, 1961, p. 5). To_uga . An adult learns because of "the benefits that the person intends to obtain through the learning project. . . . [and which] are present in his conscious mind when he decides to begin the project" (Tough, 1971). Tough concluded that learning is most effective when initiative and control are in the hands of the learner and when adequate help is available for planning and implementing. Freire "Men are not built in silence, but in word, in work, in action—reflection" (Freire, 1970, p. 76). Four things stand out: Freire's naming concept, his learner/teacher concept, 26 his criticism of the banking concept, and his definition of learning. Freire's description of the human power to stand out from his environment, look at it, and "name" it -- calling it for what he sees it -- is reminiscent of Adam naming the animals in Eden and of Plato's man naming the chair. A natural curricular perspective growing out of such a view includes Freire's idea of the relationship between the learner and the teacher. He sees the learner being also the teacher and taking the authority for learning into his own creative hands. Freire scoffs at the idea of teachers transferring knowledge funds from their bank into the student banks. Rather, he sees the teacher asking questions of the learner about the learner's interpretation of the environment as a means of engaging the learner in reflective dialogue about the learner's own experiences. Freire calls learning "praxis," the dynamic relationship between action and reflection. Srinivasan (1977, p. 12) shows that Freire practices several behavioristic techniques, even though he may be justly considered a humanist. He can posit both action and reflection in the learner, because of his conviction that the learner is an active, living being who consciously engages the environment. Emphases pp Purpose py Blumer and Whitehead Two modern theorists who are not usually associated with experiential or adult education, per pp, have, 27 nevertheless, made significant contributions towards holding a creative tension between purpose and experience: Blumer and Whitehead. Blumer Blumer is a social psychologist in the pragmatic tradition. The traditional position of idealism is that the "world of reality" exists in human experience and that it appears only in the form in which human beings "see" the world. I think that this position is incontestable. . . . However, this does not shift "reality," as so many conclude, from the empirical world to the realm of imagery and conception. . . . the empirical world can "talk back" to our pictures of it or assertions about it -- talk back in the sense of challenging and resisting, or not bending to, our images or conceptions of it. This resistance gives the empirical world an obdurate character that is the mark of reality. . . . Empirical science pursues its quest by devising images of the empirical world under study and by testing these images through exacting scrutiny of the empirical world (Blumer, 1969, p. 23). Whitehead Whitehead was a mathematician and scientist, first in Cambridge and then in London. After retiring, he was professor of philosophy at Harvard. His emphasis differs from Dewey and Blumer's, because in his cosmology and epistemology he consciously refutes doctrines basic to their pragmatism. Whitehead's cosmology. The cosmos is alive, whole, and enjoyable. Nature is composed of living organisms, large and small. Each organism is dynamic, that is, it is 28 governed by some inward "personality." A natural organism must be understood as a whole organism. It is not the mere sum of its parts. But its personality is not to be understood as anything outside of, or alien to its being. It is altogether, integral, seamless, as it were. Furthermore, the organisms of nature form a truly whole universe together. Since nature is valuable in and of itself, the universe involves enjoyment (Peters, 1966, pp. 15-55). Whitehead's epistemology. The doctrines flow from his understanding of the roles of man and God in this living universe: "the adventure of action met the adventure of thought" (Whitehead, 1929, p. 95). One living organism's "knowledge" of a whole environment of other living organisms is based on the following five points. First, a whole learner must come to know a whole object. (a) Intellectual curiosity is an insufficient part of the learner's ability to know. The whole being is needed in the effort. (b) Abstractions of the object are insufficient. The whole object must be known. So one naturally learns by "specializing" in one whole experience at a time. Second, the living learner gives meaning to the environment. 29 The ultimate motive power, alike in science, in morality, and in religion, is the sense of value, the sense of importance. It takes the various forms of wonder, of curiosity, of reverence, or worship, of tumultuous desire for merging personality in something beyond itself. This sense of value imposes on life incredible labours, and apart from it life sinks back into the passivity of its lower types (Whitehead, 1929, p. 40). The problem with giving meaning to the environment is that it is not possible to investigate reality without first imagining that reality in an pppp; organized form. "Organized thought is the basis of organized action" (Whitehead, 1929, p. 103). And, to further complicate the matter: "Mankind perceives, and finds itself thinking about its perceptions" (Whitehead, 1929, p. 122). Third, the reality of the environment is independent of the learner's ideas. Since the ppp; components of nature are dynamic, that is, they are governed by some inward "personality," they are not completely understandable to any means of human measurement or evaluation. "Accuracy essentially collapses at some stage of inquiry" (Whitehead, 1929, p. 134). These points of Whitehead's epistemology show that his curricular perspective for a short trip abroad is in essential agreement with the theorists already presented. The whole experience must be lived through by the whole traveler. Here is basis for the commonsense assumption that "there is no substitute for going there yourself." 30 The traveler, however, is on one horn or the other of a dilemma. The traveler's ideal of the trip experience is inescapable. One cannot help but imagine the trip. Yet the real experience does not accomodate the imagination of it either before, during, or after the trip. The solution? The true method of discovery is like the flight of an aeroplane. It starts from the ground of particular observation; it makes a flight in the thin air of imaginative generalization; and it again lands for renewed observation rendered acute by rational interpretation (Whitehead in Peters, 1966, p. 22). Furthermore, "all mental development is composed of such cycles, and of cycles of such cycles" (Whitehead, 1929, p. 31). The essential course of reasoning is to generalize what is particular, and then to particularise what is general. Without generality there is no reasoning, without concreteness there is no importance (Whitehead, 1929, p. 53). The following points of Whitehead's epistemology, however, distinguish his approach from those of pragmatists and humanists. Fourth, the learner is responsible for the environment. Whitehead speaks of the learner's duty and reverence for the situation in terms which agree with Freire's social conflict more than Dewey's progress ideology. Duty arises from our potential control over the course of events. Where attainable knowledge could have changed the issue, ignorance has the guilt of vice. And the foundation of reverence is this perception, that the present holds within itself the complete sum of existence, backwards and forwards, that whole amplitude of time, which is eternity (Whitehead, 1929, p. 14). 31 Fifth, the learner persuasively influences the environment. God enjoys the "personality" of the universe as a whole and the many "personalities" of its organisms. "He exercises his providential influence over the world not by push and pull, but by persuasion" (Peters, 1966, p. 71). Whitehead agrees with Dewey and Freire that the learner is an active agent of change in the environment. Whitehead's view of the learner's change agent pplp, however, is slightly different, due to his view of God as the gentle persuader. This view has parallels to the interpretation of some in the Judeo-Christian tradition that God's role in the world is one of suffering love (Yoder, 1972; Greenleaf, 1977). Student Purpose Seen pp_Travel Study Reports The creative tension between purpose and experience are seen in conclusions drawn first by an American professor in Italy and second from research on travel study. 5 Conclusion From pp American Professor pp Italy Carroll, who taught American undergraduates in Florence during 1983, uses an analogy from Dante to emphasize purpose in the experience of travel study. Ulysses tells his crew they should follow him in order "to seek knowledge and virtue." . . . But "knowledge and virtue" apart from a well-conceived hierarchy of value and purpose are but rhetorical flourishes -- and, as with the speech of Ulysses, they may conceal a passion that is, at its roots, mad. . . . Ulysses made experience its own end, its own justification. . . . To be dominated by the passion for experience is to employ no higher 32 criterion to judge amongst various possible experiences: to have no integrating principle by which experiences are ordered to an intelligible goal (Carroll, 1983, p. 270). He saw parallels between Ulysses and his students: Too often, it seems to me, programs overseas for American undergraduates are like the "mad flight" of Ulysses. Students on the programs in Florence, for example, tended to view their Italian adventure not as an integral part of an educational program with clear purposes, but more often as an escape from traditional education into an experimental world: as a senior remarked in the fall: "I did not come to Florence to think" (Carroll, 1983, p. 270). ' Conclusions From Research pp Travel Study Research on travel study has been reviewed by Leonard, Hull and Lemke, Hull, and Hansel. In 1964 Leonard reviewed four studies: Personality type is a more reliable predictor of 'attitude change in an overseas experience than the nature of the experience itself (p. 180). Neither did Hull and Lemke find experience, per pp to be a powerful change agent. They reviewed six more studies in 1975: About the only thing that can be said for certain at this point is that students . . . tend to return to the home campus with a more definite fix on their own personal career plans and feel better equipped to deal with the complexities of our society (Hull and Lemke, p. 203). In 1979 Hull's conclusions could be interpreted as arguments for the mix of experience and purpose. He concludes that the educational factor most basic to study abroad programs is the "experience . . . of being and interacting in a foreign culture." But other influential 33 factors are the "personal openness of the individual," and the person's "cultural contact" (p. 3). Hull reviewed 21 research reports in 1981. The students clearly were seeking some off-campus experiential components to their programs, and expressed most satisfaction with those aspects of their programs. They did not find experiential components in most of the programs prescribed (p. 68). In 1984 Hansel reviewed fifteen studies and listed several factors which affect outcomes. Three of these factors are similar to the two selected from Hull's 1979 list: -- The frequency and quality of the contact with the host nationals. -- The activities of the sojourner while in the host country. -- The attitudes of the sojourner prior to the experience (pp. 10 and 11). Summary p: Precedents pp Literature Experience and purpose were assumed to be important in ancient times. The roles of purpose and experience were continued in medieval education, and a modern dualism exists between practical and liberal education. But a creative tension between experience and purpose has been maintained in modern times within the experiential and adult education movements and in the theories of Blumer and Whitehead. Some analyses of travel study also call for this integration. In Chapter Chapter 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. Chapter Three: PROCEDURES Chapter One the research problem was described. In Two precedents in literature were reviewed. In Three the following procedural topics are presented. The research method. Data collection instruments. Schedule of the tours under study. A pilot study. Gender and age of the subjects. The subjects' common pgenda. The field procedures. Procedural limitations. The data analysis. The statistical procedures. The Research Method The research method and the particular approach to that method are described in this section. The method conforms to what Isaac and Michael (1971) call "correlational." The approach to this method is called "exploratory" by Babbie (1973). The Correlational Method The correlational method contributes to the advancement of knowledge by investigating 34 35 the extent to which variations in one factor correspond with variations in one or more other factors based on correlation coefficients (Isaac and Michael, 1971, p. 21). The correlational method has the following characteristics: 1. Appropriate where variables are very complex and/or do not lend themselves to the experimental method and controlled manipulation. 2. Permits the measurement of several variables and their interrelationships simultaneously and in a realistic setting. 3. Gets at the degrees of relationship rather than the all-or-nothing question posed by experimental design: "Is an effect present or absent?" (Isaac and Michael, 1971, p. 21). pp Exploratory Approach An exploratory approach is intended for relatively unexplored areas of knowledge. Babbie (1973, p. 59) calls for exploration at the beginning stage of inquiry, when many ideas are present on the topic, but critical components of the situation may be overlooked. At this stage, few hypotheses have been developed into well-defined propositions, because there are few conclusions available from previous research focused directly on the topic. The area of inquiry, therefore, tends to be in broad focus. The approach used in this study corresponded in some ways to Babbie's (1973) description of exploratory research, although it was more structured than his model. He recommends a "loosely structured questionnaire" and in-depth interviews of about 50 subjects, who are drawn from, but are 36 not necessarily representative of, the population. Rather than collecting data in a rigidly standardized form, subjects are encouraged to speak freely about the topic. Although the primary purpose of exploratory research is not to look for causes, it is appropriate to be curious about causes, "so long as one recognizes that whatever account or explanation he develops is conjecture . hypotheses, pp theories" (Lofland, 1971, p. 62). The object is to produce broadly stated hypotheses, which can be further refined in subsequent research. Data Collection Instruments The questions used to elicit the subjects' responses were framed, worded, and put into sequence before the interviews in what Isaac and Michael (1971) call "data collection instruments." This approach kept errors due to improperly worded questions to a minimum, helped provide a reliable, uniform set of responses, and helped standardize the content analysis of the data. Two instruments were used: The first was for asking about purpose and the second about learning. In this section both the general procedures used to design the instruments and the way each instrument was derived from the research questions are discussed. Design pg the Instruments Payne (1951) was consulted on the design and administration of the instruments to meet the following criteria. 37 1. Eliciting data that relate to the research questions. 2. Creating a clear picture in the mind of the respondent regarding the subject. 3. Eliciting data that provide reliable and valid information for measurement. Some of the questions were taken from the November pilot study. The instruments were improved in Michigan through nine cycles of drafting and testing on volunteer subjects who had been to Israel. The order of the questions was changed slightly from the order which flows naturally from the research questions, to make the interviews more understandable for subjects. The instruments were designed to allow the subjects free-flowing responses guided by the concerns of the research questions. They helped create a shape similar to the "semi-structured" interview described by Borg and Gall (1971, p. 214). They conformed even more closely to Maccoby and Maccoby's description (1954, p. 454): In the interests of flexibility, the research worker sometimes specifies exactly a series of main questions, which are to be asked of everyone, but lists a series of optional sub-questions or probes which the interviewer is free to use or omit, depending upon the respondent's answers to the main questions. The probes used for each of the interview questions follow: -- Yes? -- Please tell me more. -- What all do you mean by that? 38 The purpose of beginning with open-ended questions is to allow spontaneous recall of feelings and opinions with a minimum of interviewer influence. The semi-structured nature of the interview, however, gives the guidance necessary to elicit the needed data. The Instrument for Asking About Puppose the first research question. 11 The entrance interview was to elicit data concerning The first ten questions were designed to help subjects describe their purposes in responses which could be judged for explicitness, basis. 1. focus, and Back home, when you were thinking about this tour, what do you think were the two or three most important things that made you want the trip? 2. What 3. What 4. What 5. What 6. What 7. What 8. What or job? 9. What 10. What did you did you did you did you did you did you did you did you did you hope hope hope hope hope hope hope hope hope to t0 t0 to tO to to to to learn learn learn learn learn learn learn learn learn about about about about about about about about about 11 the Middle East? Israel? Jews? Arabs? kibbutz life? America? your home or church yourself? what you can do? To what degree did the subjects exhibit the factors (i.e., explicitness, focus, basis, and preparation) of awareness of purpose associated with learning in similar situations? 39 The next question asked directly about preparation. 11. What steps did you take to prepare for doing those things? 12. How old are you? Each subject's age and gender were noted on a separate list. The February group was interviewed about purposes with general questioning, using only questions 1, 11 and 12, with the probes: -- Yes? -- Please tell me more. -- What all do you mean by that? The March group was interviewed about purposes with more specific questioning, using all the questions listed and the probes. The Instrument for Asking About Learning The second instrument was used to elicit data relevant 12 to the second research question. These questions were designed to help subjects describe their concerns in terms which could be judged as either new or old. 1. What did you discover about the Middle East on this trip? 2. What did you learn in particular about the nation of Israel? 3. What did you learn in particular about Jews? 4. What did you learn in particular about Arabs? 12 To what degree did the subjects' concerns at the end of the trip demonstrate learning? 4O . What did you learn in particular about the kibbutz? . What did you learn in particular about America? 5 6 7. What did you learn in particular about your home? 8. What did you learn in particular about yourself? 9 . What did you learn in particular about what you can 10. What has this experience made you want to do? 11. What has this experience made you want to learn? 12. What steps do you plan to take toward learning those things? The second interview remained the same for both groups. Schedule p: the Tours Under Study The tour is described in the following two pages, and a complete itinerary is given in APPENDIX A. The tourists spent two days in Jerusalem, six days on a kibbutz in the southern desert, and two days by chartered bus, touring Biblical sites popular with Christians. Tpp prp ip Jerusalem The groups spent the first Monday and Tuesday nights in the Jerusalem Hilton. Mornings the groups worked at pruning and cultivating roses in the Wohl Rose Park on the Knesset grounds. Afternoons and evenings they toured the Old City of Jerusalem. 41 pip ppyp pp the Kibbutz Late Wednesday afternoon they were bussed to Jericho, south along the west side of the Dead Sea, and on to Kibbutz 1p Qypp (Commune of the City of Ovot). They all picked tomatoes for two hours each day before breakfast. After breakfast was a worship service. Then small groups were assigned to specific work details for the remaining two hours before lunch and three hours after lunch. Work details were usually for repair of housing or agricultural items. Lectures or singspirations were often scheduled at evening for those interested. They slept in kibbutz housing and took their meals, all kosher, in the dining hall. Each one had a spot on the dishwashing schedule. Some were assistant cooks during the regular work schedule. Friday and Saturday they attended synagogue and the ritual Sabbath meals. MDgxaeaQsBead On Thursday morning of the second week the tour bus took the group to the Bedouin Market in Beersheba and in the afternoon to their choice of David's Well, En Gedi on the Dead Sea, or Masada. Friday morning they went through Hebron and Bethlehem to Jerusalem. They spent the rest of the morning in the Old City and left at noon for the Sea of Galilee. The bus went through Samaria, Megiddo, Nazareth, Cana of Galilee, and stopped for baptisms in the Jordan 42 River. They slept in the Moriah Jordan River Hotel in Tiberias. Saturday morning they took a ferry across the Sea of Galilee to Capernaum. In Mussolini's chapel on the Mount of Beatitudes they held a devotional service. The bus then took them to the Acre sea wall, a diamond factory in Haifa, Elijah's cave, Caesarea on the sea, a shopping center in Tel Aviv, and to Ben Gurion International Airport. The Pilot Study Jordan College sponsored ten tour—groups on very similar learn-by-working experiences in Israel from January, 1985, through March, 1986. The 20 subjects in the tour of November, 1985, were interviewed, and the conclusions drawn from these interviews gave some direction to the purpose and focus of the 1986 research. The purpose, procedure and conclusions of this pilot study are described here. The interview guide is in the appendix. Purpose pp the Pilot Study The purpose was to learn, in general, what motivated the subjects to travel and what new purposes they developed from the tour. Procedures p: the Pilot Study Open-ended questions preceded closed questions on each topic, and probes were used to clarify responses. Each subject was privately interviewed once in a room at the 43 kibbutz. The interviews were tape recorded. Conclusions from the Pilot Study The following conclusions are impressions and notes from the interviews and transcriptions, rather than from systematic analysis of the data. 1. Explicitness and action: Participants who were more explicit and active about their goals also seemed to develop more new purposes. 2. Purposes gained: The most frequently mentioned purposes gained were a desire to learn interpersonal skills and a desire to do more work in Israel. 3. Demographics: The subjects were all members or friends of members of the churches in the Jordan College "charismatic" constituency. One age group centered around 30 years and a second around 50. Half were males and half were females. One person was black and 19 were white. Two- thirds had been more than two years in their current job, were college educated, and had been out of school for over three years. Most had regularly attended the same church for over two years, and had been married more than ten. The pilot study provided initial, limited direction, in that the associations seen then between explicitness and action were part of the stimuli for designing this study. 44 Gender and pgp pp the Subjects The subjects of the main study were 21 males and 24 females: 10 males and 13 females in the February group and 11 males and 11 females in the March group. Ages in the main study ranged from 19 to 79. Almost two-thirds fell in the 37-56 years distribution. See Table l. The Subjects' Common Agenda The subjects' awareness of purpose appeared to have been imprinted with a common agenda by a combination of four factors described in this section: their religious characteristics, the college's commitment to experiential learning, its process for developing the tour program, and its method of recruitment. The Subjects' Religious Characteristics Most subjects (40 of the 45) were from a small minority of the Jordan College constituents of a particular religious persuasion. The college began in 1967 as a religious institute for training pastors and missionaries and, by 1986 had developed several secular campuses besides two religious campuses. The college's religious constituents were in a loose network of churches in Michigan and Indiana. Jordan College served this constituency in Cedar Springs, Michigan, with a liberal arts program offering an associate degree and in Grand Valley, Michigan, with a Bible school. 45 Table 1 Age Distributions, Ranges, and Averages DISTRIBUTIONS 19-25 26-35 36-45 46-55 56-65 66-75 76-79 RANGE AVERAGES Range Midpoint Median Mean Standard Deviation February March Group Group (n=23) (n=22) 3 0 l 7 6 6 11 5 1 2 1 0 0 2 19-68 27-79 43.5 53.0 47.0 42.0 45.0 45.0 11.8 14.1 Both Together (n=45) 12 16 19-79 49.0 45.0 45.0 13.0 46 The members of these churches called themselves "full- gospel," "spirit-filled," or, more frequently, "charismatic." They were distinguished from older Christian traditions,l4 such as Baptist, Presbyterian, Roman Catholic, Methodist, Free Methodist, and Episcopalian, by their worship and speech patterns, by their interest in Israel, and by their pattern of consensus and good will. Worship patterns. The subjects' distinguishing worship patterns were in singing and in ecstatic utterances. 1. Singing. They sang only a few of the hymns of older traditions. Instead, they sang almost exclusively choruses which were direct quotations of scripture. They usually clapped, swayed, and smiled as they sang. Often they raised their hands while singing. And sometimes they danced to the song. 2. Ecstatic utterances. A worshipper would begin to speak loudly, with clear enunciation, usually after a special musical signal, but sometimes with no signal apparent to the researcher. Usually the utterance was a set of eight or ten syllables which the speaker repeated several times in the same order but with different emphases, tones, and pitches. These syllables had no meaning in English. The subjects referred to this practice as a "tongue" or "prayer language." Sometimes a "tongue" was followed by a loud, clear 14 The traditions listed are those familiar to the researcher. 47 speech in English by the original speaker or by another person. This speech usually hinted in a general way at positive outcomes for those who were faithful to God and was called an "interpretation." But when this English speech was given without any preceding "tongue," although the content was like an "interpretation," it was called "a word of prophecy," or "a teaching." Speech patterns. The subjects used terms of religious exuberance, such as "Praise the Lord" and "Alleluiah," more frequently than in the older traditions. And they frequently gave thanks for the direct intervention of God in events which those of the older traditions usually attribute to personal choice, skill, or chance occurrence, i.e., good weather, recovery from sickness, or a narrow escape from injury. Interest pp Israel. Israel was a topic of special concern within this constituency before the Jordan College Israel education program. For instance, one leader in the church network had published a tract on Israel which emphasized doing good deeds for all Jews (Kovacs, 1984). Consensupj good willy and presumed consensus. The subjects appeared to have a remarkably higher amount of consensus and good will than the researcher was familiar with in other Christian groups. These qualities may have produced a presumed consensus which contributed towards imprinting their awareness of purpose with a common agenda. 48 1. Consensus. In the opinions they expressed about political and religious topics they always seemed to be in agreement. For instance, they all seemed to agree with what they understood about both American policy in the Mid-east and Israeli policy in the administered territories. And they all seemed to agree that God wanted to heal their physical infirmities. 2. Good Will. Even the five subjects from outside the charismatic movement were apparently of such good will that they were never heard to criticize the unfamiliar worship and speech patterns or to express any important controversial opinion. 3. Presumed Consensus. This remarkable consensus and good will may have combined to make it appear as though fewer aberrations of practice and opinion were in the group than actually were. Aberrational individuals may have simply adopted enough of the cultural flags in use by the 15 group to go two weeks without attracting undue concern. The College's Commitment pp Experiential Learning The subjects' awareness of purpose also appeared to have been influenced by the college's historic commitment to experiential learning. Most of the 1,800 Jordan College students of 1986 were 15 For instance, one subject made a serious attempt to convince the researcher to speak in a "tongue," and several tried to convince his wife. He quickly adopted enough of the group's language and worship patterns to conduct interviewing unchallenged. 49 in associate degree programs on campuses in Grand Rapids, Fremont, Bad Axe, Flint, Detroit, and Benton Harbor, Michigan. These programs were oriented towards helping adult students from blue-collar and minority populations to develop practical professional skills through hands-on, experiential training. Besides these professional programs, the college's continuing education department began experiential education programs in 1977, in which energy technicians learned by designing and building alternate sources (i.e., solar, wind, hydro, bio-mass) for heating, cooling, and electricity. This program led to the development of a baccalaureate degree program, The Jordan Energy Institute, in Grand Rapids, Michigan, in 1978. The continuing education department began study tours in 1980 for energy technicians to examine first-hand the latest and most varied installations of the industry. These tours were in the American Southwest, France, and Israel. How the Collegp Developed the Israel Tours The college chancellor, Dr. DeWayne Coxon, directed the study tours for energy technicians and eventually became a liaison between the college's "charismatic" constituents and Jews in Israel. Some leaders among these constituents wanted to help people learn to appreciate Jews by working along with Jews in Israel. Dr. Coxon found Jewish leaders in Israel who were willing to help place and guide these 50 Christians with their learn-by-working activities. He conducted two exploratory tours of Israel in 1984, in which Christian leaders from Michigan and Indiana were able to meet with Jewish leaders in Israel. These Israelis later provided the Christians with on-site leadership for their tours. By 1986, these activities had led to the chancellor's office conducting an adult education program for Christians' awareness of Judaism. The projects of this program included a monthly newsletter, banquets, appearances by the leader of an Israeli kibbutz, a one-day course at the Holocaust Memorial Center in Detroit, and the tours in Israel. One or more Christian guides on Jewish history and Jewish-Christian relationships accompanied each tour. How the College Recruited the Subjects The subjects were adults drawn by recruitment among certain religious audiences: All but five of the 45 subjects were recruited from the charismatic network previously described. 'The other five came from outside that process and network, but through personal contact with a member of the network. The recruitment process, detailed in APPENDIX B: THE RECRUITMENT PROCESS, emphasized only certain values. The college did not promote the trip as an educational experience. No screening was done for educational background or for any other criteria. No academic credit 51 was given. Not until nine months after the second tour, in December, 1986, did the college give participants certificates of educational accomplishment. Instead, the trip was promoted primarily as a religious experience with four main values: 1. "Blessing the Jews" of Israel. 2. Fulfilling Biblical prophecy. 3. Personally working on the land. 4. Visiting Kibbutz Ir Ovot, in the southern Israeli desert, and meeting Simha Pearlmutter, kibbutz leader. Creatipg the Common Agenda These values, or items, may have been compiled, imprinted, and reported through the following process. 1. Christian leaders in Michigan believed they could help Jews in Israel (item # 1) and fulfill prophecy (item # 2) at the same time. 2. The sponsor had an historic commitment to experiential learning (item # 3). 3. The sponsor had located Jews in Israel willing to receive help (item # 4). 4. A group of 40 like-minded subjects who valued consensus were joined by five who were of good will. 5. The subjects of good will may have realized they needed to conduct themselves and to express their opinions very carefully in order to maintain a reasonable position of acceptance, not becoming the object of much passionate 52 concern during the trip. 6. All the subjects wanted to make the trip and may have construed the recruitment process, which emphasized a common agenda, as an authoritative signal about acceptable purposes for the tour. 7. The common agenda may have been talked out in the common community and then reported individually with much commonality -- the result of having a few aberrational persons of good will in a consensus-oriented community. Field Procedures An overview of the field procedures is given, followed by descriptions of the initial procedural improvements and the measures taken to encourage participation and to minimize interviewer bias. Overview pp Field Procedures The 45 subjects studied were the February, 1986, tour group of 23 and the March, 1986, group of 22. During the first few days of each tour the entrance interviews were conducted, and during the last few days, the exit interviews were conducted. Subjects were interviewed both times in the same order, to allow each person the same number of days 13 between each interview. Participants were questioned during the normal program 13 The limitation imposed by the fact that some were interviewed two days later than others is acknowledged later in "Procedural Limitations." 53 activities, since no times for interviewing had been put into the schedule. These interviews were held in the most convenient spot that could be quickly found, usually outdoors. A pocket version of the interview guide was consulted during the first few interviews and then memorized. The procedure for each question follows. 1. State the question clearly. 2. Listen to make sure the subject understands the question. 3. Proceed with probes and summaries of responses until the subject appeared to be satisfied that the summaries were accurate, complete representations of all the subject wished to say on that topic. Initial Procedural Improvements During the interviews in Michigan to validate the instruments and during the first three interviews in Israel, improvements were established in the manner of probing and in the proper routine for approaching certain questions. Manner pp probing. Silence was found to be an important tool for helping subjects focus on the question at hand. Once subjects understood the question, they were better off left in silence than given more explanation. Perhaps their answer was brief or trite, even protesting that their purposes were not as important as other persons'. But if their response showed that they understood the 54 question, they almost always followed a period of silence with a response which was more explicit and unique. It felt like subjects first gave standard answers to see if they were acceptable. But an expectant silence was their cue that answers were expected to be personal and in detail. The proper routine for certain questions. Two questions were found to be hard to understand. The second question in the first instrument was adjusted to When you think of what we call the whole Middle East situation -- all these countries around here, the geography, their politics, the economics, their languages and cultures, the religious conflicts -- what did you want to learn about the whole Middle East situation? And the next question became: "And, within the Middle East situation, what did you want to learn about Israel, in particular?" Motivating Participation pp the Interviews The researcher adopted several practices designed to encourage subjects to participate in the interviewing: participating in the program, friendliness, and developing trust in the recorder. Participating pp the program. The program activities were attended and most of the accepted patterns of worship and speech were followed. (See the foregoing, "The Subjects' Religious Characteristics.") 1. All the regularly scheduled events and all the spontaneously scheduled events possible were attended. Participation in these activities helped the interviewer 55 develop a common frame of reference with the subjects and the use of much of their specialized vocabulary with at least the "third culture" perspective of one experienced in cross-cultural interaction. 2. The charismatic patterns of worship described earlier in "The Subjects' Religious Characteristics" were conformed to up to a point. It was easy to stand, sing, and clap when others did. But raising the hands in praise with others at a given signal felt awkward and was dropped. Dancing and ecstatic utterance were not attempted. 3. To use adult, non-formal or continuing education effectively with unique groups, their frame of reference must be accepted and their vocabulary used. Certain speech patterns were also adopted by the interviewer, such as saying "Praise the Lord" more often than usual. But no attempt was made to learn any of the more involved codes which would have implied familiarity with the core doctrines and religious practices. Often the question came up, "Are you a charismatic?" (See the foregoing "The Subjects' Religious Characteritics.") The response was always sincere and intended to convey, "No, but I'm enjoying my introduction!" Friendliness. Following the advice of Bingham and Moore (1941), a climate was set of cordial clarity, direction, and genuine personal interest. The interviewer was responsive, personable, and cordial without forgetting 56 structure. Develpping trust pp the recorder. Most authors on interviewing recommend a tape recorder, because it frees the interviewer to concentrate on the responses, thus keeping the interest of the person being interviewed and guiding the interview. But many people have a fear of tape recorders. Trust was developed by conspicuously turning the tape recorder on and off always in the same way and by openly summarizing responses into it. When subjects learned that it was always off at the side and only on at the mouth, they talked freely, knowing they were not being secretly recorded. When their responses were openly summarized into the recorder and they were asked to check the summaries for accuracy, they sometimes volunteered to summarize into the recorder themselves. When each summary was done, they went on freely exploring their imagination in open conversation, knowing that the recorder, down at the side, was off again. Minimizipg Researcher Bias Three methods for keeping researcher bias to a minimum were followed. First, each subject was openly treated with an equal amount of respect and friendliness in off-interview situations, as well as during the interviews. Second, each subject's attention was kept on the planned course of the interview. Third, all responses were met with the same kind of interest, limiting interviewer feedback to an open summary to check for accuracy. 57 Procedural Limitations This research was limited by qualities inherent in correlational methodology, by interviewer bias, plus certain qualities peculiar to this project. Limiting Qualities pp Correlational Methodology Five limitations are quoted from Isaac and Michael: 1. It only identifies what goes with what -- it does not necessarily identify cause-and-effect relationships. 2. It is less rigorous than the experimental approach because it exercises less control over the independent variables. 3. It is prone to identify spurious relational patterns or elements which have little or no reliability or validity. 4. The relational patterns are often arbitrary and ambiguous. 5. It encourages a "shot-gun" approach to research, indiscriminately throwing in data from miscellaneous sources and defying any meaningful or useful interpretation (Isaac and Michael 1971, p. 21). Interviewer Bias Babbie says, "scientists never collect data, pppy create data" (1973, p. 132). The very personal nature of the interview process allows the interviewer's opinions to influence responses through subtle messages of approval or disapproval. The researcher's perspective was from several weeks exposure to the religious frame of reference and vocabulary of the subjects. The responses he received on some topics may have been different from those received by a "native" member of the group or by one completely unfamiliar 58 with the group's special characteristics. Instrument Bias While the open-ended structure of the instruments did promote a certain amount of freedom in the responses, they had enough structure to limit the outcome of the interview. It may be that some subjects' purposes were waters which ran deeper than the instruments were registering. Irregular Interviewing Facilities The lack of an established time and place to interview each person limited somewhat the ability to concentrate on the purposes of the interview. The direct interruptions and other activities going on did compete for attention. Interviewing Timeframe During the first few days of the tour, the entrance interviews were conducted and during the last few days, the exit interviews. Subjects were interviewed both times in the same order, to allow each person the same number of days between interviews. But some were interviewed two days later than others, meaning that the interviews concerned ten-day timeframes which were different by as much as two days in some cases. The basic core of eight days' experience, however, was the same for all subjects. Data Analysis Data were analysed by identifying a concept or its limiting detail as an item of data and counting the items of 59 data for each subject's score. 16 For illustration, the four items in Ron's response are marked and then explained: "I saw a flash flood (item) across the road (item) more than once (item) just like out west (item)." The first item is the basic concept. The other three items are limiting details. In a second illustration, the five items in Marlene's response are marked and then explained: "I learned that Constantine's mother sent (item) Constantine over here (item) and gave him the money (item) to build the shrines (item) over the holy places (item)." The basic concept is the second item, that "Constantine [was sent] over here." The other four items are limiting details. Sally's response is given as a third illustration: "I saw the barrenness of the land (item), dry (item), but beautiful in a way that's hard to describe (item)." The first item is her basic concept; the other two are limiting details. The number of items in each category was recorded for each subject on a computer spreadsheet. The categories were arranged in vertical columns. The subject's responses were in horizontal rows going across the columns of categories. The number of items for each subject was recorded in each respective category. 16 Fictitious names are substituted for real names. 60 Statistical Procedures Descriptive statistics summarized the findings concerning awareness of purpose and learning. Categories of strong, medium, and weak correlation with new concerns scores were created using the components of regression analysis and the t-test. Although the statistical summaries are given in Chapter Four: THE FINDINGS, the use of statistical tests is described here in this section. gpgression analysis. Regression analysis was used to determine correlations between the factors for which responses could be rank-ordered on a scale (Babbie, 1973, pp. 254-255). These factors were the expected sub-topics of awareness of purpose: explicitness, focus, basis, and preparation. The responses (illustrated‘in Chapter Four) defining explicitness were found to be personal background and expectation. Those defining focus were found to be expanded horizons (further defined as common agenda and personal agenda), awareness pp home, and conscientization. Those defining basis were found to be action and reflection. Garrett (1956, pp. 93-95) was consulted for the regression formulae and their uses. As shown in Table 2, these correlations ranged from -0.33 to 0.67. u): 61 Table 2 Correlations of New Concerns With Factors Which Could be Measured on a Scale FACTORS ON SCALE CORRELATIONS WITH NEW CONCERNS February March Both Group Group Together PERSONAL BACKGROUND -0.04 -0.33 -0.14 EXPECTATION 0.17 0.57 0.44 EXPANDED HORIZONS 0.08 0.67 0.49 Personal Agenda 0.46 0.50 0.44 Common Agenda 0.06 0.40 0.23 AWARENESS OF HOME 0.00 0.01 0.09 CONSCIENTIZATION 0.00 0.01 0.09 ACTION -0.24 0.11 0.07 REFLECTION 0.37 0.52 0.46 PREPARATION 0.39 0.30 0.30 62 The t-test. Correlations were determined with the t- test between new concerns scores and the unexpected factors: the externally motivated, the passive, and those in transition. These factors could not be rank-ordered on a scale, but were groups to which each respondent either belonged or did not belong. These factors were compared with their opposites in dichotomous pairs, i.e., passive vs. others. The scores of these dichotomous pairs were analyzed for significance with the t-test. Garrett was consulted for the formulae and processes for testing "the significance of the difference between two means in small samples" (1956, pp. 122-127). For instance, the new concerns means were 38.1 for the passive and 56.1 for others. Was the difference in the means of these scores (18.0) due to chance, or did it signify a difference in the nature of the two groups? The p for these groups was 1.99. The values of p were then located at the .05 and the .01 levels of significance by consulting TABLE II on pages 182-183 of Garrett, 1956. Since 1.96 was the lowest p shown by the table for significance at the .05 level with 306 degrees of freedom, the conclusion was that the difference in means between the passive and the others was significant at the .05 level, or had only a 5% chance of being due to sampling fluctuations. This procedure was applied to all the dichotomous pairs. The variation of their scores around their means yielded t-values from —0.51 to 1.99.. And their sample sizes 63 yielded degrees of freedom from 306 to 462. See Table 3. Table 3 Correlations of New Concerns With Factors in Dichotomous Pairs FACTORS IN NEW DIFFERENCES DEGREES DICHOTOMOUS CONCERNS IN THE T- OF PAIRS MEANS MEANS VALUES FREEDOM Externally Motivated 36.4 28.0 -0.51 456 Others 64.4 Passive 38.1 18.0 1.99 306 Others 56.1 Transition 63.9 23.0 -0.10 462 Others 40.9 Categories pg correlation. Regression analysis and the three components of the t-test were also used to create categories of strong, medium, and weak correlation with ppp concerns. In the strong category were those which showed (a) consistent r-values of at least 0.30 in the February group, the March group, and in both together (b) r-values of at least 0.44 in both groups, or (c) a difference in the means of at least 18 points and significance on the t-test at the .05 level (a t-value over 1.96 and more than 100 degrees of freedom). In the medium category were those which showed 64 (a) at least one r-value of at least 0.30 or (b) a difference in the means of at least 18, and a positive t-value or at least 306 degrees of freedom. In the pppp category were those which showed (a) no r-value of at least 0.30, (b) differences in the means of less than 18, or (c) both a negative t-value and less than 306 degrees of freedom. Summary pp the Procedures The research method was called "correlational" and the particular approach "exploratory." Two instruments were used to elicit the subjects' responses: One about purpose and one about learning. The subjects were on learning tours in Israel sponsored by Jordan College. They spent two days in Jerusalem, six days on a kibbutz in the southern desert, and two days by chartered bus, touring Biblical sites popular with Christians. A pilot study of a tour in 1985 provided some direction. The 45 subjects of the research proper were the February, 1986, group of 23 and the March, 1986, group of 22. The subjects were 21 males and 24 females; ages ranged from 19 to 79. The subjects' awareness of purpose appeared to have been imprinted with a common agenda. During the first few days of each tour the entrance interviews were conducted, and during the last few days, the 65 exit interviews. Initial procedural improvements were made, and measures were taken to encourage participation and to minimize interviewer bias. The research was limited by the subjects' common agenda, by qualities inherent in correlational methodology, by interviewer bias, and by certain qualities peculiar to thiS‘project. Data were analysed by identifying a concept or its limiting detail as an item of data and counting the items of data for each subject's score. Descriptive statistics summarized the findings concerning awareness of purpose and learning. Categories of strong, medium, and weak correlation with new concerns scores were created using the components of regression analysis and the t-test. 1m '0" ID O—h Ca Pt. Chapter Four: THE FINDINGS The findings answered the three research questions. 1. Tp what degree did the subjects exhibit the factors pp awareness pp purpose associated with learning pp similar situations? Factors were analyzed from four projected categories (explicitness, focus, basis, and preparation) and three unexpected categories (external motivation, passivity, and transition). 2. Tp what degree did the subjects' concerns pp ppp ppp pp the trip demonstrate learning; The indicator chosen for learning was the new concerns score. 3. pp what ways and pp what dpgrees were the factors pp awareness pp purpose associated with learning? These factors were correlated with new concerns scores and sorted into categories of strong, medium, and weak correlation with new concerns. pppp: The two interview groups were called the "February group" and the "March group," when their findings were analyzed separately. They were called "both groups" or "together," when findings were analyzed together. Awareness pp Purpose To what degree were people aware of their purposes for the experience? Factors demonstrating the four anticipated categories were found: 1. How explicitly did the subjects express their purposes? 66 67 2. On what did the subjects focus their purposes? 3. What were the bases of their purposes? 4. How much did they prepare for their purposes? And three unexpected categories were found: 5. Subjects who were externally motivated. 6. Subjects who wanted a passive experience. 7. Subjects in a period of transition. Explicitness pp Purpose Three factors became apparent about explicitness: expectation, personal background, and the formation process for purposes. Expectation. Responses in which subjects were looking forward to "what-I-want-out-of-the-tour" were called expectation. The number of items they mentioned about what they hoped their purpose to yield were summed. As was explained in the data analysis section of Chapter Three, each concept and each limiting detail of a concept was called an item of data. For instance, Kara mentioned eleven items about her expectation, presented here as the items were presented in Chapter Three. "I couldn't think of a better place to be (item), to learn to live for God (item). And now that I'm here (item), I want to learn from these people (item), how to live for God and learn about the Bible (item). I have not been around charismatics before (item), and I don't worship like they do 68 (item). But I like (item) the way they are always praising God (item) and praying (item) and reading the Bible (item)." And Tony mentioned six items: "This is the first opportunity I've had (item) to work at just regular work (item) with believers (items). I feel like we need to learn how to work collectively (item), because we can do more that way (item). I want to know how it goes on an ordinary job with believers (item)." Personal background. While talking about expectation for the tour, everyone also responded with items about personal backgpound. Some seemed to be laying the groundwork for their purpose. Kara: "I had done a lot of traveling around (item). I recommitted my life to the Lord in December (item). I found out about the opportunity (item) through some friends (item) and called and made reservations to come (item)." Others appeared to be laying the groundwork, but never quite got to the point of their expectations. Marlene: There must be something for me to do or learn of great importance here on this trip, because the whole month before I had one illness right after the other and was sick right up to the moment of getting on the airplane, and I was sick with the hives the first few days of the trip. Ron: I have taken at least 12 trips as a dentist to various parts of the world -- like Guatemala -- where I take in my equipment and work on people's teeth. After the interview probes, Ron went quickly back to talking about his dental trips, his membership in The Flying Dentists Association, and the fact that tooth decay is as 69 .bad in his home county as it is in the mountains of Guatemala. He appeared to be laying the groundwork for an expectation which he never specified. And some of the personal background responses had no discernable connection to the tour. For instance, Carol told how God had healed her of weeping excema and had given her $20,000.00 to remodel their house. And Kirk talked about being in a valley. Well, maybe, there are times when you go through things and learn things you really don't know, until you look back on it. And there are times when you're in a valley and you really don't know why, until you start walking up the next mountain, and you look back on it. Subjects persisted in talking about personal background while they responded about expectation. Some talked about their background less than others, but everyone mixed it into the responses. Purposes were formed thropgp pp interpretation process. Two aspects of this process were found. First, subjects usually explained their expectations in terms of their personal backgrounds. Second, the act of interviewing stimulated the process. When people were asked, "Why are you here?" they did not usually have purposes readily defined. With each interview question and probe subjects seemed to reflect on how their expectations sounded against their backgrounds and then went on to modify or confirm them. In other words, they developed their purposes through a conversation now were affe recs expl more more 70 involving their backgrounds and the interviewer. Several said they expected to learn more from the trip, now that they had been "forced to think." And those who were "forced to think" more explicitly appeared to have been affected in their learning outcomes. The March group had received more explicit questioning and had given more explicit responses about purposes. This group was also 23% more explicit about new concerns, in which it deviated 22% more from the mean. Subjects developed their purposes through a constant dialogue between their background and their expectations, a dialogue which apparently was stimulated and guided by the interview questions. Explicitness summary. Subjects were slightly more explicit about personal background than expectation. And this degree of explicitness remained constant whether interview questions were general or specific. The March group, which had been given much more explicit questions about purposes, showed a mean and standard deviation in personal background that were almost equal to the February group. But the type of questions appeared to affect the explicitness of expectation responses. The March group was three times as high and deviated from the mean twice as much in expectation. See Table 4. 71 Table 4 Means and Standard Deviations of Subjects' Responses Demonstrating the Personal Background and Expectation Factors of Their Purposes February March Both Group Group Together PERSONAL BACKGROUND Mean 15.4 16.5 15.9 Standard Deviation 12.5 11.4 12.0 EXPECTATION Mean 6.0 20.4 13.0 Standard Deviation 6.0 13.2 12.5 Focus pp Purposes The greatest concentration of purposes was expected to focus on expanded horizons abroad, a smaller group on conscientization, and the smallest group on awareness pp home. The focus pp expanded horizons. This concentration, while definitely the largest, was also split into two important foci. The greatest number of items focused on topics summed up under the term common agenda.17 These were a set of purposes which people usually expressed in religious terms peculiar to the group, which will become apparent in the T? The common agenda is, in all probability, traceable to the factors described in "The Subjects' Common Agenda," Chapter Three. 72 examples to follow. They usually approached these topics with a common understanding. But another group of topics is summed up under the term personal agenda. When subjects described their purposes about topography, politics, culture, anthropology, or the economics of the area, usually they spoke in universal terms. And individuals often approached these topics as though their interest might be unique. 1. The common agenda focused on four topics. Blessing the Jews in the Holy Land. Working pp the land with their own hands. -- Helping fulfill prpphepy. —- An intense interest in Simha Pearlmutter and his kibbutz. Blessing the Jews was a given which most did not explain. Tony: This goes back seven years, to when I was converted. I've been praying for Israel ever since, and I didn't really know why. Then I started seeing these scripture verses that confirmed my desire to pray for Israel. Joyce: You want to know why we're here? Just to bless the Jews by working on the land with our own hands. I always had a love in my heart for the Jews. And when I began to study, I became aware of the idea of blessing the Jews with my labor and my life. Martha: Ron and I have gone into the remote jungles and helped Indians with their teeth for many years. That was good, but a better thing is for us to be working here in Israel helping Jews. Why I just think this idea of coming to bless them is out of sight! 73 Lola: I felt like I needed to learn love and compassion for Jews, so I could know them better. Two described their prejudices and either hinted or stated that their acts of "blessing" were to help overcome their prejudices. Rob: I had lived in the Jewish community in Toledo. And I couldn't stand them. I just could not stand them. It was just completely, you know, I just didn't want to really ever be around a Jew. They were arrogant and demanding and rude. Cheap! Peter: I came to Israel to reduce my prejudice toward Jews. In shops at home I sometimes hear someone talking broken English who looks Jewish. I feel I cannot trust what the Jew will say -- that he might cheat me. I made plans to come here and work for these people to reduce my prejudice. And several coupled their desire to "bless Jews" with an interest in learning about them. But their interest in Jews was based in their personal understanding of Christianity. For instance, Joan was interested "not so much in Judaism, the religion of the Jews, as in the Old Testament, the old covenant, the Hebrew language." And Sheila feels "that, as a Christian believer, it is necessary to learn about Judaism." The second item on the agenda, working pp the land with their own hands, was their method. A few saw manual labor as a means of helping a poor, struggling nation of chosen people. Tina thought, "Israel is poor and needs my labor. And the scriptures teach that we should bless Israel with our labor." Some described work as a person-to-person way of blessing, which complemented their prayers for Jews in 74 Israel. Donald: I felt like I needed to improve my willingness to do instead of just to theorize and pray. Beatie: When you bend your back, when you sweat, when you do things for people, that's when you show your love. This is a form of blessing. Tony: I want to work as a servant and bless Israel with my labor. Nina: I felt a working vacation was a much better way to spend my time than lying on a beach. Work is a Christian way of living. I am happier that way. And they saw work as a good way to learn the culture and topography of the land. To them it was far superior to a bus tour. Sheila: I wanted to be on a working tour because I felt that would give me an opportunity to get acquainted with the people of the place. Donald: I felt like working was a better chance to get acquainted than just looking at the sites and rushing off. Joan: For me working on the land and getting acquainted with the people there was an important part in choosing this kind of a tour. The third item on the agenda, helping fulfill prophecy, was almost always the end of the labor. Nina: It's part of the fulfillment of prophecy, even though that may sound like a lofty expression. It is a thrilling thing to be part of it. Teresa: The main thing about coming on this tour instead of Lester Summerall's or any other was I would be fulfilling scripture by coming here to work. Five prophecies were commonly cited: (a) Gentiles will help rebuild the land, (b) the desert will "blossom like a 75 rose," (c) the Jews will all return to the land, (d) the Jews will all recognize Jesus as the Messiah, and (e) the Messiah will return. The fourth item on the agenda was Simha and his kibbutz. These seemed to personify the first three items on the agenda. People had an intense interest in helping the kibbutz and in learning from Simha. And they were curious. First, they wanted to pplp. Simha was the leader of the kibbutz where they were to spend six days. Even though most of the interviews about awareness of purpose were done while people were working in the Wohl Rose Park of Jerusalem, before they had ever seen the kibbutz, people spoke of Simha and his kibbutz as the ones to receive their blessings. Kevin: I feel like my visit to the kibbutz is going to be the most important part of blessing Israel, because Jews come there to see what's happening and realize that Christians are there to bless the Jews. Sam: My purpose in coming here is to carry a word of encouragement and comfort to Simha. George: My purpose is to analyze the leadership and management of the kibbutz. Bruce: I was curious how the kibbutz got started and operates and how people donate to it. I want to work on a project which will be beneficial in years to come and will give me a sense of pride and belonging. Lola: I wanted to bring a word of encouragement to Simha. And I wanted to get a vision of the kibbutz and its needs, so that I can be a better leader of intercession back home. 76 Second, they wanted to learn from Simha. Sherry was interested in "listening especially to what Simha has to say." Joan felt somehow benefited from hearing him "read the Bible in Hebrew." And third, they were curious about Simha. Most, like Tony, mentioned hearing Simha speak in their churches. I had seen Simha at my church, and that created a curiosity -- I wanted to learn more about that kind of Jew. And I was looking forward to working with him and learning more about him. They wanted to know how he lived as an orthodox Jew who believed Jesus is the Messiah. Joe: I knew there was a Shabbat dinner at the kibbutz and that Simha read the Tora and did a regular Jewish synagogue service, even though he believes that Jesus is the Messiah. And I wanted to find out how that worked -- Simha being a born again believer but holding to the orthodox Jewish religion. Sherry wanted to know "how Simha and his family separate their belief from the Orthodox and still maintain their Jewish character." Suzanne "wanted to find out what the Christian Jews here believe." 2. Personal Agenda. Although subjects expressed their purposes which related to the common agenda in religious terms peculiar and common to the group, when they spoke of other topics they tended to use more universal terms and to speak as though their interest might be unique. 77 Some responses listed specific cultural, topographical, pp economic items to be investigated. Frank: I wanted to see how the Shekel and the Dollar worked —- the rate of exchange and the dollar's real worth in practice. Joan: I have done some studying of Arabs and Bedouins. I am fascinated with their tents. Their general life-style is peaceful and unhurried. Joe: I wanted to eat food from cultures new to me. And I knew that lots of Arabs are in Michigan, but I can't tell the difference between a Lebanese, a Jordanian, a Palestinian, or a Jew, even, when I see them. I was hoping I could learn here to distinguish between them. And I thought I might be able to learn more important things about them in their native setting than in Michigan. Beatie: I would like to learn how Arabs look at God. Lloyd: I wanted to read their papers, to talk to people to find out what they believe. . . . I wanted to buy a replica of the temple. . . . I have a lot of empathy for the Palestinians, who have been moved off their land and are being used as pawns in the situation. Billy, a career rock layer: I was interested in finding out what the rocks look like on the walls, the buildings and everything. About half the personal agenda responses emphasized the modern State pp Israel. Several were curious about it's role in regional politics. For instance, Edward thought he might learn about "how Israel was trying to defend itself against the people that were trying to destroy them." Joan said, "I wanted to know whether the hostility here has increased, as we have heard it has in the press." George "wanted to know how Israelis lived knowing that tomorrow or at any time they could be at war." 78 And some were curious about Israeli society. Joanie wanted to know: Why do they call them Sabras? Why hard on the outside and soft on the inside? What percent are orthodox, coming out of Chicago, used to those luxuries, and what percent are from Russia and not used to having it so good? You've got this one little lady from Russia with just a coat she's carrying and then you've got this other rich lady from Chicago. What does this mix develop? Does it result in a Mafia where some go in and take over, like in our country, or what? Other personal agenda responses noted the importance pp geography for understanding the Bible and made vague reference to locations. David: I wanted to be in the place where Jesus had walked and talked with his disciples, so that the scriptures would come more alive. Ingrid: I was interested in just getting a clearer picture in my mind of the geography -- of where things are. Edward: I wanted to see the things here that I had read about in the Bible: Places like where David, the Tomb, and Solomon, and where they thought Jesus had prayed and all. To summarize the point thus far: most purposes focused on expanded horizons. This focus had two headings: The common agenda was treated in terms which were peculiar and 18 common to the group. But personal agenda topics were treated in universal and individualistic terms. The other foci were awareness pp home, and conscientization. (See "Definitions," in Chapter One.) 3' 18 The common agenda is, in all probability, traceable to factors described in "The Subjects' Common Agenda," Chapter Three. 79 The focus pp awareness pp home. In the February group, which was not given specific questions, no one mentioned a purpose focused on awareness pp home. In the March group only 14 of the 23 responded to the two additional, specific questions on this focus. And most of these made only general responses. Ingrid: Because I had been to England and Russia, I knew I would appreciate the comforts of life when I got back to the States. Suzanne: I already knew that the best part of vacation is getting home again. Sherry: I hoped to learn about my husband by being away from him. Lloyd: I think this absence from my wife is going to teach me something about our relationship. Joanie D: I wanted to see how Jews saw America and Americans. I spent some time in Germany and I learned to look at America through German eyes. Only two of these gave more information than the initial labels to their purposes. In short, the focus on awareness pp home was small and weak. The focus pp conscientization. In the February group, seven people reported purposes related to conscientization. (See "Definitions," in Chapter One.) In the March group, two questions about what people wanted to learn about "yourself" and about "what you can do" were added to the routine; thirteen more responded, for a total of twenty. A few had a little tension about the situation. Suzanne had hoped to find out if she is a good traveler or a very social person. Kara knew that overseas "you can't 80 expect to have what you had back home. You have to put up with what you have and do your best with it." Most of these responses were brief and repetitive under probing. Marcella: I just felt like being here may give me a better understanding of my purpose in life -- what God intends for me. Joe: I thought this experience would help me grow. Shawn: I thought I would learn discipline. But seven did focus in a more specific way on developing empathy for foreigners or on learning obedience, by following the tour schedule or the work schedule. Bruce: I wanted to learn what it felt like to be a foreigner. I see foreigners at home, but can not feel what they feel. Here the signs are in Hebrew, TV is in Hebrew, everything is geared for "them" and not for me. It makes me feel what "they" must feel like when they come to America. Beatie: I had traveled alone, without guides, and run my own schedule. So to come on a guided tour is a form of obedience, submitting myself to the leadership and the discipline of the tour. Jody: I felt like I was supposed to do whatever was asked of me and not to grumble. I want to learn obedience to whatever I am asked to do. Focus summary. Focus scores were derived by totalling the expectation scores in each area of focus. For instance, Frank focused two purposes on expanded horizons, with expectation scores of 3 and 9, respectively, which gave him a total of 12 for expanded horizons. Most purposes focused on expanded horizons, a few on awareness pp home, and a few more on conscientization. Within the focus on expanded horizons, the greatest number of items focused on a common agenda which people usually 81 expressed in terms peculiar to the group and approached in a common way. The other items within that focus are called the personal agenda, which they treated with universal terms and individualistic interest. Only a very few had an explicit focus on awareness pp home. But several focused more explicitly on topics of conscientization. The March group, which had more specific questioning, had higher scores in all categories. See Table 5. Table 5 Means of Purpose Statements Offered by the Subjects Focusing on Expanded Horizons, Awareness pp Home, and Conscientization February March Both Group Group Together EXPANDED HORIZONS 4.5 16.0 10.1 Personal Agenda 3.1 13.6 7.2 Common Agenda 6.4 19.1 15.0 AWARENESS OF HOME 0.0 1.9 0.9 CONSCIENTIZATION 1.5 2.2 1.8 Basis pp Purpose Each purpose was judged for its basis in action or reflection. The distinction is based in Dewey's (1916, p. 163) idea that experience without reflection is dispersive, but experience and reflection "peculiarly combined" result in learning. Some who based their purposes in action clearly liked 82 farm work, and even had vague hopes of retiring to the kibbutz. Nina: I was looking forward to getting back on the farm and working the land again. Henry: I would like to set up the generator on a trailer with flood lights and outlets, making a portable work station for the welder and other power tools. These purposes began and ended in experience, while others included both experience and reflection. Joe: I wanted to find out why people would fight over such barren land. I wanted to know if the fighting was going on in Israel or if it was in the territories surrounding. I wanted to see what it was like to have a city set on a hill, Jerusalem, because I had never even seen a mountain, let alone a city put on a mountain. Joanie: I wanted to find out if there were any orphans that were in need of homes. I came over here to find God's will for my life, for my husband, and for the children I'm going to adopt. Do I want to support it with my finances in the future or not? And also to find out whether or not we want to come here to live once a year, twice a year, or forever, or what? Basis scores were determined just like focus scores, by summing the expectation count in each category. Subjects based their purposes in reflection (mean = 5.5) three times as often as in action (mean = 1.5). Preparation for Purpose The steps people took to prepare for their experience were few and simple. And they were not usually directed to a specific purpose. Most people reported prayer and Bible reading. Several read a book on Bible prophecy. Some talked with previous visitors to Israel. 83 Peter took three preparatory steps: "I read Steve Litle's Exodus ll and the Bible books of Joshua and Isaiah." Shawn: "I gave up coffee, did a lot of walking, drank a lot of water, did a lot of praying." Lola was ordained a minister. Suzanne "read articles in the Brittanica." [How many?] "Oh, I don't know. Not too many." The mean of preparation scores was 2.8. External Motivation The term externally motivated has been used arbitrarily to designate the 20 subjects who claimed little or no personal involvement in the decision to travel. Instead, they were ppypp by a strong influence which was external in the sense that they did not own it or could not explain it, and which left them with very little deliberation, planning, or awareness of purpose. Rob, for instance: "I don't really know why I'm here. I just have this strong desire." Some of the externally motivated attributed their trip to the influence of other people. Kate said: "I didn't want to come." And when probed, she admitted, "the big thing for me is being here with my husband and watching him enjoy it." Kirk met David, the leader of his tour, several days before departure date, listened to his enthusiastic description, realized he wanted David's leadership, and immediately registered for the tour. Billy also came, because David talked him into it less than a week before departure. 84 Shawn: I wasn't even sure I was going to come until three weeks before, and didn't really have a strong desire to come. My friend, Sheila, wanted me to come with her. Gene: Really, Carol wanted to come more strongly than I did. I was somewhat interested, also, in studying the culture of Judaism. But it was an opportunity that came along. The warm weather and the tax break helped. Other externally motivated travelers attributed their trip to the influence of God. Luke: God directly spoke to me and asked me to come on this tour. Then I asked for signs to make sure it was real, and God fulfilled those signs. Beatie: I felt the Lord wanted me to come on this particular tour, instead of to South America, where I had plans already. The Lord sent me the money and the things that I need for this trip, one by one, from dozens of people from six different states. And people just brought in everything I needed from cameras to tooth brushes to clothing to the money for the ticket right to the very last $180. Lola described similar phenomena. But the clincher for Lola was when she asked the Lord for a sign. "I opened up to the same scripture in Jeremiah, in two identical Bibles, and one Bible was upside down. That was my sign." Both Beatie and Lola turned aside almost all probes about their purpose by coming back to their deep conviction that God had simply ordered the trip. Lola felt this so strongly that she had the elders in her home church lay their hands upon her and ordain her as a minister just before the trip. Some of these 20 externally motivated subjects expressed such strong feelings of divine influence that 85 Teresa wondered. Well, my! What's the matter with pp? Why isn't God talking to me in such a special way? All these people talk about how they feel directly led of God to come to this specific place. It makes me feel like maybe I don't have the full vision. Passivity The term passive has been used arbitratily to designate the ten subjects who were looking for a passive experience. They saw themselves overwhelmed by a quality or event which they supposed is peculiar to The Holy Land. They expected a new sense of purpose or security. For instance, Lloyd was looking for religious security. I felt I needed a retreat, to be blessed of the Lord and lay aside the weights of the home. I sensed that, here in the Holy Land, I would be able to live the life of God naturally, without having to pay special attention to it. Because I will feel God closer here. For others the common agenda took on a prospect larger than life. Teresa expressed frustration with her job, which seemed so ordinary. She kept repeating, "What does bookkeeping have to do with eternity?" She hoped that being in The Holy Land, "blessing the Jews by working with my hands to fulfill prophecy" she would feel more important than in her normal life of bookkeeping and commuting. But Jody was looking for emotional security. This was Jody's second tour with Jordan College. She had "holy bumps" when she heard about the opportunity to go on her first tour in 1985. 86 Israel was the only place I could understand a loving God. Here I felt I was in the home of the father who loves me. So I felt relaxed and comfortable. Susie anticipated a very passive learning role: I felt like as I walked through the land, God would speak to me and point out things. Luke wanted "to learn to decipher God's will and to follow it." But he, like Susie, seemed to anticipate a very passive role. I had a dream a year ago in which I was a chicken tucked safely under God's arm. God reached down and took me by the head and said, "I'm going to wring your head off and eat you, and then you will live in me." And later God said I would be meeting somebody on this trip who would help me. The common denominator of all these purposes is that they show ten subjects passively waiting, their active potential in the shadows. Their talk in this vein was so open and prevalent that some of the 35 other subjects purposely discounted it. Tony: I wanted to see the reaction of the other people when they saw the holy sites. I believe that this is a unique place, but that if Jesus were here today, he would probably point out that it's just an ordinary place. Like all the other places in the world, only made unique because God chose it. Transition Periods Almost half said their purpose depended partially on their transitory situation. These 22 people had been through one stage of life but were not yet settled into another. One said he was "at a crossroads." These people seemed somewhat insecure, not really knowing what to do 87 right now, but also eagerly looking and ready-to-learn. The category was called transition. What did it mean to be in transition? Kevin, Kara, and Tina were all out of high school but not yet settled in a career. Peter and Joyce's children had all finally moved out on their own. Kirk, Lloyd, and Nina were freshly retired. Kathy had just quit her job. Tony, Joe, and Susie had recently been divorced. Sheila had just sold her business, her children had all recently left home, and her mother had just died. Jon and Marlene were starting a new career and had recently married off their only child. Ron and Martha were selling the business and their children were out of the nest. But the category had three problems. First, it was noted only from a logical inquiry. No references to previous research or theory were used to build a case for studying it. Second, because no precedents had been studied, the category could not be defined or measured clearly enough to compare it with previous research findings. Third, creating the category after-the-fact meant that relevant information had not always been noted. It was sometimes deduced that a subject was in transition from statements and observations originally noted for other reasons . 88 Summary pp Awareness pp Purpose pp the Subjects To what degree did subjects exhibit the factors of awareness of purpose supposed to predict readiness to learn? 1. Subjects were slightly more explicit about personal background than about expectation. 2. Subjects formed their expectations through a process of interpreting their personal backgrounds, a process susceptible to external stimulation. 3. Most purposes focused on expanded horizons. And the greatest number of these items concerned a common agenda which people usually expressed in terms peculiar to the group and approached all in the same way. 4. Purposes were based in reflection far more frequently than in action. 5. Subjects' preparation steps were few and not directed to specific purposes. 6. The 20 externally motivated travelers felt moved by a strong influence. 7. The 10 passive were waiting for something to happen. 8. The 22 subjects in transition were finished with one stage of life and had not yet chosen another. The foregoing factors were correlated with the indicator of readiness to learn, new concerns. 89 How Concerns Demonstrated Learning To what degree did the subjects' concerns at the end of the trip demonstrate learning? The indicator chosen for learning was the new concerns score. New Concerns Three fourths of the concerns were entirely new to the subjects. Two brief new concerns are presented with the items marked for counting as was described in Chapter Three. Kathy: "I learned how you catch buses (item) and taxis (item) in Jerusalem (item). I noticed how people dress in layers (item) and all carry bags (item), and probably the layers are in the bags (item). I learned how to eat a roll (item) with some kind of filling in it (item) from a stand (item) by the bus station (item)." Kara: "I'm so far from anywhere here in the desert (item). It's beautiful (item), but its all just land, land, land, land (item) for a long ways until you get to where you're going (item)." At times they simply recited new facts without analyzing them. Bruce, for instance, learned the number of rooms, size of the lawn, cost, and payment procedure of a girl's house who works in the Wohl Rose Garden. Anne: "I had never heard of a Bedouin before I got here." 90 Joyce: What have I learned? That I'm so ignorant in so many things! I just found out that there was such a thing as Bedouins and a Bedouin Market. And I went to the Old City to shop and went away thinking it was this little alley about two blocks long. Then, when I went up on the Mount of Olives that night, looking down on the city, I saw this big wall and heard talking about that's the wall around the Old City. I realized, Oh, it's more than just a little alley where they sell goodies! Sally: The kids here are learning four or five different languages. Nili and Daphne, in the Rose Garden, both knew Hebrew and American and several other languages. Corina knows French and a little English. And the Arabs have to learn English in school. This was news to me! Martha: I found that there are differences in the types of Christian traditions we all come from and what we all think is proper worship forms. Other times they used new facts pp guestion pp old analysis. Donald: I had never seen that thick a crop of tomatoes before . . . [and] I was surprised to learn there are as many Hasidics as I noticed in Jerusalem. Gene: I found there were more people than just Jews in Israel. And I was surprised to see the Jordan border so close to the kibbutz. I went into Jordan on the way to the grocery store and the hardware. Henry: I was just a little shocked that I had come to love and bless these people, and yet, at the department store they were waiting on everybody else first. They left me and my American Express card until the end. I really got riled at security at the airport. They were letting everybody else go through real fast and slowed Jody and me way down. Or they tried to put new facts together and come pp with p new analysis. 91 Peter: This trip has had some effect on my prejudice against Jews. The Jews I met here didn't seem to be as bitter as the ones I have known back home. And I learned more details about Jewish life and what individual Jews are like. I found the way to get away from preconceived ideas about people is to get right in and get acquainted with them in person and get the facts of the individuals. I did that with the Arabs, by going over to meet a family of Bedouins. And they invited us right in for coffee. That was a friendly gesture in itself. Old Concerns One-fourth of the subjects' concerns were old to them. Sometimes they rehashed old ideas which had pp direct reference pp the tour. Susie: I would rather be myself and let the chips fall where they may. I want to be honest and "be the real me" in every situation, rather than to be something I know I ought to be. I have been aware of this pretty much during this past year. Henry: I expect Sharon to come back. I have been following the Israeli political scene for about seven or eight years, and -- well, at this time he's the only one on the scene. I mean, there's nobody else that's come up who could run the country. Rob: I think Israel can pretty well take care of itself, and I pray for Israel every day. I have always felt that this little strip of land was pretty safe. Although asked what they had discovered the last two weeks in Israel, they told about their concerns from up to eight years ago back home. Other times they found evidence pp confirm old ideas. Teresa: I see, through the release of that guy, ah, Scharansky? Is that the -- Yea! Yea, I see it all lining up with scripture. His release fit in with the book I read about it, Exodus ll. The Jews are coming out of the North and returning. 92 Rob: I don't feel like this trip has changed my understanding of Jews too much. I talked with people and it was interesting: I discovered the same thing that I did earlier. They're arrogant. They're going to do what they darn well please. And to some extent I think that's good. When they bombed that nuclear plant in Iraq, if they would have asked the 0.8. for permission, they never would have got it. So they just went ahead and did it and then waited for the flack. In a lot of ways I'm glad they're that way. Summary pp How Concerns Demonstrated Learning The indicator chosen for learning was the new concerns score. The scores for both new and old concerns were derived by summing the number of new and old items of concern for each person. As shown in Table 6, scores were almost three times higher for the new than the old. These scores varied greatly among individuals. And they deviated from the mean in the new about three times as much as in the old. The March group, which had received more explicit questioning and had given more explicit responses about purposes, was slightly more explicit about concerns, and its concerns scores deviated more from the mean. a) 93 Table 6 Means and Standard Deviations of Subjects' Responses Describing Old Concerns and New Concerns February Group OLD CONCERNS Mean 17.3 Standard Deviation 11.8 NEW CONCERNS Mean 46.9 Standard Deviation 31.1 March Group 20.2 14.2 57.6 38.0 Both Together 18.6 13.1 52.1 35.0 Correlations With Learning In what ways and to what degrees were the factors of awareness of purpose associated with learning? was correlated with new concerns scores using the statistics processes described in Chapter Three. Each factor The criteria described there were used to create the following categories of correlation with new concerns. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Strong positive correlation. Medium positive correlation. Weak correlation. Medium negative correlation. Strong negative correlation. In the two strong categories were those which showed (a) consistent r-values of at least 0.30 in the February 94 group, the March group, and in both together (b) r-values of at least 0.44 in both groups, or (c) a difference in the means of at least 18 points and significance on the t-test at the .05 level (a t-value over 1.96 and more than 100 degrees of freedom). In the two medium categories were those which showed (a) at least one r-value of at least 0.30 or (b) a difference in the means of at least 18, and a positive t-value or at least 306 degrees of freedom. In the pppp category were those which showed (a) no r-value of at least 0.30, (b) differences in the means of less than 18, or (c) both a negative t-value and less than 306 degrees of freedom. The factors in each category are shown in Table 7, which is followed by a series of discussions showing the manner in which each factor fits the criteria of its particular category. 95 Table 7 Correlations of New Concerns with Twelve Factors of Awareness of Purpose CORRELATIONS WITH NEW CONCERNS Strong Positive ------- Medium Positive ------- Weak ------------------- Medium Negative ------- Strong Negative ------- FACTORS OF AWARENESS OF PURPOSE Focus on a Personal Agenda Explicitness about Expectations Focus on Expanded Horizons Basing Purposes in Reflection Preparation for Purposes In Transition Focus on the Common Agenda Focus on Awareness pp Home Focus on Conscientization Basing Purposes in Action Focus on Personal Background Externally Motivated Passive Outlook 96 Correlation 9; NEW CONCERNS with EXPLICITNESS pp PURPOSE Explicitness showed strong positive correlation with new concerns, with two important distinctions. First, explicitness about expectation showed much stronger correlation (0.44) than did explicitness about personal 19 background (-0.14). And second, the group which had received more explicit questioning, the March group, showed much stronger positive correlation than the February group. Expectation was placed in the category of strong positive correlation with new concerns scores, and personal background, which showed a correlation of -0.33 in the March group, was placed in the category of medium negative correlation. See Table 8. Table 8 Correlations of New Concerns with Factors of Explicitness of Purpose: Personal Background and Expectation EXPLICITNESS AREAS CORRELATIONS WITH NEW CONCERNS February March Both Group Group Together PERSONAL BACKGROUND -0.04 -0.33 -0.14 EXPECTATION 0.17 0.57 0.44 19 Responses in which subjects were looking forward to "what- I-want-out-of—the-tour" were called expectation. Responses in which subjects seemed to be laying the groundwork for their purposes were called personal background. 97 Correlation pp NEW CONCERNS with FOCUS Q: PURPOSES Expanded horizons showed strong (0.49) correlation. But its sub-category, personal agenda, was the only area of focus to show consistently strong positive correlations in both the March group and the February group. Personal agenda and expanded horizons were placed in the category of strong positive correlation; conscientization and awareness pp pppp, weak correlation; and common agenda, medium positive correlation. See Table 9. Table 9 Correlations of New Concerns with Factors of Focus of Purpose: Expanded Horizons, Awareness pp Home, and Conscientization FOCUS AREAS CORRELATIONS WITH NEW CONCERNS February March Both Group Group Together EXPANDED HORIZONS 0.08 0.67 0.49 Personal Agenda 0.46 0.50 0.44 Common Agenda 0.06 0.40 0.23 AWARENESS OF HOME 0.00 0.01 0.09 CONSCIENTIZATION 0.00 0.01 0.09 Correlation pp NEW CONCERNS With BASIS QE PURPOSES Purposes based in reflection showed stronger correlation (0.46) than those based in action (0.07). Reflection was placed in the category of strong positive correlation. Action was placed in the category of weak / ‘lv llllyAl‘lIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIILIh 98 correlation. See Table 10. Table 10 Correlations of New Concerns with Factors of the Basis of Purpose: Action and Reflection PURPOSE BASES CORRELATIONS WITH NEW CONCERNS February March Both Group Group Together ACTION -0.24 0.11 0.07 REFLECTION 0.37 0.52 0.46 Correlation 9; NEW CONCERNS with PREPARATION FOR PURPOSES Those who actively prepared before departure to fulfill their purposes for the tour showed somewhat more learning than the others. Preparation showed correlations of 0.39 in the February group, 0.30 in the March group, and 0.30 in both together. It was placed in the category of a strong positive correlation with new concerns. Correlation pp NEW CONCERNS with EXTERNAL MOTIVATION Twenty subjects did not take personal responsibility for the decision to take the tour. Their scores were remarkably lower (28 points at the mean) than for others. But the low t-value (-0.51), even with high degrees of freedom (456), showed that this difference is not likely to be maintained in cases which are similar. This factor was 99 placed in the category of medium negative correlation. Correlation pp NEW CONCERNS with PASSIVITY Ten subjects looked forward to a passive role in the Holy Land. Scores were remarkably lower (18 points at the mean) for the passive than for others. And the t-value (1.99) and degrees of freedom (306) showed that this difference is likely in 95% of cases which are similar. This factor was placed in the category of strong negative correlation. Correlation pp NEW CONCERNS with TRANSITION Twenty-seven people were pp transition. They were finished with one part of their life (school, marriage, job) but had not yet started on the next part. These people scored 23 points higher on the mean than the others. The t- value was -0.10, with 462 degrees of freedom. This factor was placed in the category of medium positive correlation. Summary pp Correlations With Learnipg The factors of awareness of purpose were sorted into five categories of correlation with new concerns scores. 1. Strong positive correlation with new concerns scores: -- Focus of purposes on personal agenda. -- Explicitness of expectation. -- Focus of purposes on expanded horizons. -- Basis of purposes in reflection. -- Preparation. 100 2. Medium positive correlation with new concerns scores: -- In transition from one stage to another. -- Focus of purposes on the common agenda. 3. Weak correlation with new concerns scores: -- Focus of purposes on awareness pp home. -- Focus of purposes on conscientization. -- Basis of purposes in action. 4. Medium negative correlation with new concerns scores: -- Focus of purposes on personal background. -- Externally motivated, not taking personal responsibility for the trip. 5. Strong negative correlation with new concerns scores: -- Passively waiting for something to happen. Summary pp the Findings The findings answered the three research questions. I. To what degree did the subjects exhibit the factors of awareness of purpose associated with learning in similar situations? 1. Subjects were slightly more explicit about personal background than about expectation. Subjects developed their purposes through a constant dialogue between their background and their expectations, a dialogue which was stimulated and guided by the interview questions. 2. Most purposes focused on expanded horizons. The greatest number of these items related to a common agenda which people usually expressed in terms peculiar to the 101 group and approached all in the same way. 3. Purposes were based in reflection far more frequently than in action. 4. Subjects' preparation steps were few and not directed to specific purposes. 5. The 20 externally motivated felt moved by an external influence. 6. The 10 passive were waiting for something to happen. 7. The 22 subjects pp transition were finished with one stage of life and had not yet begun another. II. To what degree did the subjects' concerns at the end of the trip demonstrate learning? Scores were almost three times higher in new concerns than in old concerns. These scores varied greatly among individuals. And they deviated from the mean in the new about three times as much as in the old. III. In what ways and to what degree was awareness of purpose associated with learning? The factors of awareness of purpose were sorted into five categories of correlation with new concerns scores: 1. Strong positive. 2. Medium positive. 3. Weak. 4. Medium negative. 5. Strong negative. Chapter Five: FINDINGS, CONCLUSIONS, AND IMPLICATIONS Many people go overseas for brief periods of work, study, or travel. Some significantly expand their horizons with what they learn on these trips, while others do not. The purpose of this study was to determine and explain relationships, if any, between the subjects' awareness of purpose in a short-term overseas experience and their learning on the trip. In the following sections, first the findings are summarized, then conclusions are drawn from the findings. Finally, implications are suggested for practice and for further research. Summary pp the Findingp The findings concerned awareness of purpose, learning, and associations with learning. Awareness pp Purpose 1. Subjects were more explicit about personal background than expectation. They developed their purposes by referring to personal background in a process influenced by the interview. 2. Most purposes focused on expanded horizons. The greatest number of these items concerned a common agenda. 3. Purposes were based in reflection more than action. 4. Preparation steps were few. 5. Three unexpected categories were the externally 102 103 motivated, the passive, and those in transition. Learning Scores were almost three times higher in new concerns than in old. These scores also varied about three times as much in new as in old concerns. Associations With Learning The factors of awareness of purpose were sorted into five categories of correlation with new concerns scores: 1. Strong positive. 2. Medium positive. 3. Weak. 4. Medium negative. 5. Strong negative. Conclusions The conclusions are about short trips abroad and those 20 who make these trips. They are presented first in outline, then accompanied by explanatory comments. Outline pp the Conclusions The conclusions are arranged in the order of the research questions, which cover the subjects' awareness of purpose, their learning, and the relationships between these two variables. 20 These conclusions should be applied to other populations only by carefully comparing them to the special characteristics of the subjects and situation of this study. 104 pp Conclusions about awareness pp purpose. 1. Explicitness varies considerably. 2. Expectations are developed by a reflective process which involves personal background and is subject to influence. 3. Focus is almost entirely on expanded horizons. 4. Focus is subject to influence. 5. Most purposes are based in learning. 6. Preparations tend to be few. 7. Some travelers may be externally motivated, have a passive outlook, or be in transition. pp Conclusion about learning. 8. Learning can be high and can vary considerably. pp Conclusion about associations with learning. 9. Learning is associated with indicators of the ability to reflect purposefully upon reality. Conclusions About the Awareness pp Purpose The first seven conclusions concerned travelers' awareness of purpose: Explicitness, the development of expectations, the focus area, the influence of focus, basis, preparation, and three potential categories of awareness. 1. "Explicitness varies considerably." Explicitness of expectation deviated from the mean by as much as 20 points. Explicit, more than general, questioning tends to elicit responses with enough variation to produce significant comparisons and predictions. 105 2. "Expectations are developed by a reflective process which involves personal background and is subject to influence." Blumer cautioned: Interpretation should not be regarded as a mere automatic application of established meanings but as a formative process in which meanings are used and revised as instruments for the guidance and formation of action (Blumer, 1969, p. 5). When people were asked, "Why are you here?" they entered into a reflective process of interpretation similar to Blumer's description. First, the actor indicates to himself the things toward which he is acting; he has to point out to himself the things that have meaning. . . . Second, by virtue of this process of communicating with himself, interpretation becomes a matter of handling meanings. The actor selects, checks, suspends, regroups, and transforms the meanings pp ppp light pp the situation pp which pp pp placed and the direction pp his action" (Blumer, 1969. p. 5, emphasis added). Subjects not only explained expectations in terms of personal background, but the interviewing stimulated the process. Those who were (as they said) "forced to think" more explicitly by the interviewing may have been affected in their learning outcomes. 3. "Focus is almost entirely on expanded horizons." As was noted in the section on "Delimitations" in Chapter One, little emphasis is placed on awareness pp pppp or on conscientization. 4. "Focus is subject to influence." Subjects focused their purposes on the common agenda promoted by the sponsor twice as much as elsewhere. m. . 1318" tra age are pa “’I We! the 91). 106 5. "Most purposes are based in learning." Purposes were based in reflection on personal consequences far more frequently (75%) than in action alone (25%).21 6. "Preparations tend to be few." And they tend not to focus on specific purposes. 7. "Some travelers may be externally motivated." They do not take personal responsibility for the decision to travel, but place that responsibility in another person or agency external to themselves. "Some travelers may . . . have a passive outlook." They are waiting for something to happen to them on the trip. "Some travelers may . . . be in transition." They are pausing as they pass from one stage of life to another. Conclusion About Learning This study gave support to the contention that on short trips abroad "learning can be high . . ." (conclusion 8). Three-fourths of the subjects' concerns were new. Yet, according to the second clause of conclusion 8, learning can "vary considerably" from one person to another. The new concerns scores deviated 35 points from the mean. 21 It could be argued, however, that the interview questions were in terms which induced responses about reflection more than about action. The possibility should be considered that those who talked in terms of reflection were trying to give pleasing responses. 107 Conclusion About Correlations with Learning This study gave support to the contention presented in Chapter One that the experience of a short-term overseas trip is not the only ingredient needed for learning from the 'trip. Rather, as conclusion 9 states, "Learning is associated with indicators of the ability to reflect purposefully upon reality." These twelve indicators are presented in a taxonomy (see Table 11) which includes interpretive notes. The taxonomy corresponds directly to the five categories in which the new concerns scores were found to correlate with the factors of awareness of purpose in Chapter Four. The language of correlation has been broadened, however, to the language of conclusions, and the implications for purposive reflection are pointed out in interpretive notes following Table 11. 108 Table 11 A Taxonomy of Correlations with Learning: Twelve Indicators of the Ability to Reflect Purposefully Upon Reality CORRELATIONS INDICATORS OF THE ABILITY TO WITH LEARNING REFLECT PURPOSEFULLY UPON REALITY Focus on a personal agenda Explicitness about expectations STRONG POSITIVE ------- Focus on expanded horizons Expecting to learn Preparation for purposes ' In transition MEDIUM POSITIVE ------- Focus on the common agenda Focus on awareness pp home Focus on conscientization 8 2 I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I Basing purposes in action ' Focus on personal background MEDIUM NEGATIVE ------- Externally motivated STRONG NEGATIVE ------- : Passive outlook 109 I. Learning has strong positive correlation with five factors of awareness of purpose. 1. "Focus on a personal agenda" of one's own making, beyond the common agenda of the tour group implies having reflected to the point of being slightly off-center, having new ideas, marginal interests. 2. "Explicitness about expectations" is characteristic 1 of those who have reflected, know what they want, and will I spell it out. These seem to show a sense of purposiveness. 3. A "focus on expanded horizons" implies the ability to reflect on the task at hand -- a trip abroad. 4. "Expecting to learn" is shown by basing purposes in reflection on the personal consequences of actions, which implies not only a desire to experience something new, but a vision beyond, involving personal change. 5. "Preparation for purposes" means not being content only to reflect about the possibilities, but also taking practical, initial steps. II. Learning has only medium positive correlation with the following factors of awareness of purpose. 1. Being "in transition" from one stage to another may be a special learning opportunity for some people. When at a crossroads, those who are usually alert and actively involved may find themselves in a more reflective state of mind. Their eyes may be up, looking around, and ready to notice things they might have passed by a few months ago, when they were intently involved in a previous stage of life. 110 2. A "focus on the common agenda" may imply a willingness to enter into the experience as defined basically by the group and the occasion. III. Learning has weak correlation with the following factors of awareness of purpose. 1. Holding one's "focus on awareness pp pppp [or] on conscientization" may indicate such strong attachment to ‘“ problems of the home or the psyche that one is unable to reflect purposefully on the task at hand or is unwilling to " enter into the experience as defined basically by the group and the occasion. 2. "Basing purposes in action" alone may imply a lack of reflection about the personal consequences of action. IV. Learning has medium ppgative correlation with the following factors of awareness of purpose. 1. Although a temporary "focus on personal background" was necessary for everyone's process of developing expectations, those who continued to talk primarily about their personal backgrounds under specific questioning tended to be poor learners. Perhaps they were reflecting on the past to the point of crippling their ability to reflect on the present. 2. Being "externally motivated," placing responsibility in another person or agency external to one's self implies a lack of purposiveness. t'm ex; Cd ra. 111 V. Learning has strong negative correlation with having a "passive outlook" on the trip. Those waiting for something to happen to them seem to be denying their right to step back from their environment, reflect on it, and name it for what it means to them. Practical Implications From the conclusions come six practical22 implications for educators. 1. Short trips have enough potential for helping people learn about life abroad to be worth educators' attention. 2. Special groups to be expected on short trips include those in transition between life stages and those who do not expect to learn from the trip. 3. Questions need to be raised about selecting candidates who do not expect to learn. 4. Candidates for a short trip abroad can profit by raising their awareness of purpose. 5. The instruments and conclusions of the study are potential tools for raising awareness of purpose. 22 Practicality may depend on how the conclusions are interpreted. For instance, one interpretation of conclusion 9, "Learning is associated with indicators of the ability to reflect purposefully upon reality," is that developing these indicators will result in greater learning from short trips abroad. But another is that the ability to reflect purposefully upon reality is not necessarily developed concurrently with some of its indicators. Instead this ability lies deep within the individual, may not be so readily understood as this study has seemed to imply, and may be merely a particular title for a quality that others call by other names, such as "having broad interests" and "open-mindedness." 112 6. Methods are available for influencing the group's focus, increasing the explicitness of expectations, and helping individuals pursue a personal agenda. The six preceding implications are discussed in this section. The Potential pp Short Trips A basic motivation for the research was the desire to know if short trips are a good opportunity to help people learn more about the world abroad and begin to participate more fully in international concerns. From conclusion 3, "Focus is almost entirely on expanded horizons," and conclusion 8, "Learning can be high," a practical implication does seem to be that short trips abroad have enough potential as a learning experieance to be worth an educator's time helping people prepare, participate, and follow-up with further education. Special Groups Special groups to be expected on short trips include those in transition between life stages and those who do not expect to learn from the trip. 1. The planner of a short trip abroad should anticipate those referred to in conclusion 7: "Some travelers may . . . be in transition." They may be taking the trip either as a means of getting their bearings or because they don't know what else to do for the time being. Learning was only medium high for this group. Some of them may have learning difficulties peculiar to their 113 crossroads situation. The tour director should be ready to use specific educational processes proven to help people in transition. 2. It can be inferred from five conclusions that a minority on short trips abroad does not expect to learn from the trip. -- Conclusion 1. "Explicitness varies considerably." Those with weak explicitness may also have weak intention to learn. -- Conclusion 3. "Focus is almost entirely [but not completely] on expanded horizons." A small minority could not focus attention on the trip, but focused on problems back home or within the psyche. Learning was low for this small minority. -- Conclusion 5. "Most [not all] purposes are based in learning." A lack of reflection in one-fourth of the purposes may mean that less than one-fourth of the subjects have very weak intention to learn. Some even expressed surprise that they might learn. -- Conclusion 7. "Some travelers may be externally motivated [or] have a passive outlook." These will not take personal responsibility for the decision to travel or are waiting for something to happen to them on the trip. Their responses sometimes seemed to indicate a particular worldview or emotional difficulty which hampered their ability to reflect purposefully upon reality. And their new 114 concerns scores were low. These conclusions are consistent with Houle's 1961 theory of an "activity oriented" sub-group among adult learners. For this group the activity itself is more important than learning. He characterizes them as "joiners" who attend to escape boredom or to uphold a group value. Tour planning should take these people into account. Preparing and Selectipg Candidates When tours are conducted as educational experiences, attention should be given to conclusion 9: "Learning is associated with indicators of the ability to reflect purposefully upon reality." Initial questions need to be raised about selecting candidates with low expectations of learning. Perhaps a short trip abroad does some good for these people other than the type of learning this study measured. If so, that good could be identified and enhanced. If not, the educator might consider screening out those with low expectations of learning or doing something to correct their inability to reflect purposefully upon reality. Candidates for a short trip abroad can profit by raising their awareness of purpose. Schools and other agencies which want to prepare people over the long run for experiential learning on short trips abroad might incorporate the goal of helping people develop "indicators of the ability to reflect purposefully upon reality." These 115 indicators are the skills of somewhat independent thought, of reflection, of preparation, and explicitness of expectation. The instruments and conclusions of the study are potential tools for raising awareness of purpose. Programs orienting candidates for a certain short trip abroad in the near future could adapt the instruments by changing the questions to apply directly to the situation at hand. The candidates could use the instruments to stimulate their own goal-setting processes.23 After goal—setting, the taxonomy in Table 11 would help candidates interpret their responses. A discussion could thus be created about prospective learning. Candidates could (a) raise their levels of awareness of purpose for their trip and (b) create their own learning goals for the orientation program. Finally, since learning has strong positive correlation with preparation for fulfilling one's purposes, candidates should be encouraged to make specific preparation to fulfill their goals. Opportunities pp Influence Tourists' Education Program planners and tour directors who would intervene in short trips abroad to influence the education of the 23 The explicit questions are better than general questions for eliciting responses with enough variation to produce significant comparisons. For a discussion of the value of writing goals in a group see Delbecq and Van de Ven, 1976. 116 participants are presented with opportunities for improving awareness of purpose. Methods are available for influencing the group's focus, increasing the explicitness of expectations, and helping individuals pursue a personal agenda. Influencing the group's focus. Conclusion 4: "Focus is subject to influence." In the tours studied, the sponsor (a) selected people of a common religious identity which included a strong presumption of consensus and (b) emphasized a certain agenda during recruitment. Not every short trip abroad will have such an audience. And in some curricula, such a presumption of consensus would be unwelcome. But sponsors may find effective ways of influencing expectations of each audience and situation. Learning has strong positive correlation with expecting to learn. Simply promoting the tour as a learning experience, complete with the items associated in western culture with schooling (including academic credit, discussions, readings, lectures, and examinations) may help people expect to learn. Raising the explicitness pp expectations. Learning has strong positive correlation with explicitness about one's expectations. Furthermore, "expectations are . . . subject to influence" (conclusion 2). Not only did subjects develop their expectations under the influence of the interviewer, but their expectations were more explicit when they were probed with more explicit questions. 117 Pre-tour activities, including the recruitment procedure, the beginning of the tour, and each important experience of the tour, are all opportunities for developing explicit expectations. Tourists could be given exercises, modified to fit their trip, which are proven to stimulate reflective thinking and explicit goal-setting. H Helpipg individuals pursue p personal agenda. Since learning has strong positive correlation with focusing , purposes on a personal agenda, guided opportunities could be t built into the schedule for people to move away from the group in brief, safe adventures. (These adventures should be connected to the whole theme of the trip, and the adventurers should be properly prepared for and debriefed from these experiences.) One type of adventure should move people physically away from the group to help them experience the initial emotional isolation of leaving their mobile American colony and crossing cultural barriers. A second type of adventure would be away from the group's common agenda into an area of marginal focus -- marginal focus for the groups studied would have been into Arab culture. Both types of adventure might help people develop the ability to think more independently, thus becoming better experiential learners. I—I—‘ l‘)‘ (‘9' r‘" 118 Implications for Further Research Five questions are implied for further study. 1. This study could be replicated using different populations, to determine whether these findings have broader application. Alternative groups might include tourists of a different age span or from another region of the country, culture, or religious or socio-economic background. 2. Nine major conclusions, about short trips abroad and those who make these trips, were drawn from the findings: -- Explicitness varies considerably. -- Expectations are developed by a reflective process which involves personal backgrounds and is subject to influence. -- Focus is almost entirely on expanded horizons. -- Focus is subject to influence. -- Most purposes are based in learning. -- Preparations tend to be few. -- Some travelers may be externally motivated, have a passive outlook, or be in transition. -- Learning can be high and can vary considerably. -- Learning is associated with indicators of the ability to reflect purposefully upon reality. Some of these nine may be at the point of being restated as hypotheses and tested in situations allowing greater control of the variables. 3. The 1985 participants in eight Jordan College tours similar to the two studied in 1986 could be the subjects of survey research which tests the findings of this study via mailed instruments. 4. Learning from short trips abroad could be compared to performance on certain psychological tests which have 119 been shown to relate to other types of learning. Those developed by Rokeach (1960) on openmindedness, flexibility, dogmatism, and opinionation may be especially relevant to the ability to learn from another cultural situation. 5. Yet to be determined is the degree to which orientation programs can influence a prospective traveler's development of the factors associated with learning. These were indicators of the ability to reflect purposefully upon reality, i.e., "focusing on a personal agenda" and "explicitness about expectations." Summary pp the Study Many people go overseas for brief periods of work, study, or travel. Some significantly expand their horizons with what they learn on these trips, while others do not. The purpose of this study was to identify relationships, if any, between the awareness of purpose of adults in a short- term overseas experience and their learning. The 45 subjects were on learn-by-working tours in Israel sponsored by Jordan College. They were interviewed at the beginning of their tours about their purposes and at the end about their learning. An exploratory approach was used for the correlational research method. The subjects' recruitment process and religious characteristics limited generalizability. The following observations about short- term travelers abroad were drawn from the findings. 1. Expectations are developed by a reflective process whi 8X 120 which involves personal backgrounds and is subject to influence. 2. Most purposes are based in learning. 3. Some travelers who do not expect to learn are externally motivated or have a passive outlook. 4. The focus of purposes is subject to influence. h 5. Learning is associated with indicators of the ability to reflect purposefully upon reality. The indicators with strongest positive correlation were "focusing purposes on a ; personal agenda" and "explicitness about expectations." The indicator with strongest negative correlation was passivipy. Practical implications were presented for educators: 1. Short trips have enough potential for helping people learn about life abroad to be worth attention. 2. Special groups to be expected on short trips include those in transition between life stages and those who do not expect to learn. 3. Questions need to be raised about selecting candidates who do not expect to learn. 4. Candidates for a short trip abroad can profit by raising their awareness of purpose. 5. The instruments and conclusions of the study are potential tools for raising awareness of purpose. 6. Methods are available for influencing the group's focus, increasing the explicitness of expectations, and helping individuals pursue a personal agenda. APPENDI CES SUNDAY MONDAY TUESDAY WEDNESDAY THURSDAY FRIDAY SATURDAY SUNDAY MONDAY APPENDIX A ITINERARY OF THE TOURS STUDIED 1:30 p.m. 11:00 p.m. 8:00 9:00 7:00 8:00 3:00 8:00 2:00 7:00 6:00 8:30 9:30 12:30 2:00 6:00 6:00 8:30 9:30 12:30 2:00 5:00 7:30 9:00 11:30 4:00 6:00 8:30 9:30 12:30 2:00 6:00 6:00 8:30 9:30 12:30 2:00 6:00 p.m. p.m. a.m. a.m. p.m. a.m. p.m. p.m. a.m. a.m. a.m. p.m. p.m. p.m. a.m. a.m. a.m. p.m. p.m. p.m. p.m. a.m. a.m. p.m. a.m. a.m. a.m. p.m. p.m. p.m. Cedar Springs, bus to Chicago EL AL to Amsterdam and Tel Aviv Arrive Ben Gurion Airport Arrive by bus, Jerusalem Hilton Breakfast in the Hilton Prune and dig in the Wohl Rose Park Jerusalem's Old City Prune and dig in the Wohl Rose Park Bus to Jericho and the Dead Sea Arrive Kibbutz Ir Ovot All Pick Tomatoes Breakfast and devotions Small Group Work Projects Lunch Small Group Work Projects Supper All Pick Tomatoes Breakfast and devotions Small Group Work Projects Lunch Small Group Work Projects Synagogue Service First Ritual Sabbath Meal Synagogue Service Second Ritual Sabbath Meal Third Ritual Sabbath Meal All Pick Tomatoes Breakfast and devotions Small Group Work Projects Lunch Small Group Work Projects Supper All Pick Tomatoes Breakfast and devotions Small Group Work Projects Lunch Small Group Work Projects Supper 121 TUESDAY WEDNESDAY THURSDAY FRIDAY SATURDAY SUNDAY 6:00 8:30 9:30 12:30 2:00 6:00 6:00 8:30 9:30 12:30 2:00 3:00 6:00 7:00 8:00 12:00 1:00 6:30 6:00 12:00 7:00 8:30 10:00 11:00 12:00 1:00 6:00 8:00 11:00 8:00 9:00 a.m. a.m. a.m. p.m. p.m. p.m. a.m. a.m. a.m. p.m. p.m. p.m. p.m. a.m. a.m. noon p.m. HOOD 122 All Pick Tomatoes Breakfast and devotions Small Group Work Projects Lunch Small Group Work Projects Supper All Pick Tomatoes Breakfast and devotions Small Group Work Projects Lunch Small Group Work Projects Visit flowing well via farm wagons Supper Breakfast Bus to Beersheba's Bedouin Market Lunch at restaurant near market Bus to Masada, En Gedi (Dead Sea Beach), and David's Well (where David cut the tail off Saul's coat) Supper at the kibbutz Bus through Arad and Hebron to Bethlehem's Church of the Nativity and to Jerusalem's Old City Bus through Judea, Samaria, and Galilee. Brief stops at Jacob's Well and Joseph's Tomb in Shechem/Nablus and at Mary's Well Jordan River baptism service. Supper and overnight at Moriah Jordan River Hotel in Tiberias Breakfast in hotel Ferry Sea of Galilee to Capernaum Devotional service, Mussolini's Chapel, Mt. of Beatitudes Bus to Acre's Crusader sea wall Lunch, Acre sea—side restaurant Bus to Haifa diamond factory, Elijah's cave, and Caesarea Arrive Tel Aviv shopping center Bus to Ben Gurion Airport EL AL to Amsterdam and Chicago Arrive O'Hare Airport Bus to Cedar Springs APPENDIX B THE RECRUITMENT PROCESS The recruitment process consisted of banquets, appearances by the leader of Kibbutz Ir Ovot at local churches, and a newsletter. These three were reviewed to illustrate the extent to which their elements may have shaped the common agenda. The Banquets Each banquet was sponsored by a different church in the Jordan College constituency, in a restaurant or banquet room L1 near that local church. Letters of invitation, computer- generated to individuals and personally signed by the college's chancellor, were sent to people in the area whose interest in Israel was known to the local church or to the .1_ college. Admission was free. According to the December, ' 1984, newsletter: "The banquet is becoming a tool to recruit workers and raise funds to do the necessary work in Israel." The schedule for these early banquets follows. -- Grand Rapids, Michigan ------ August 3, 1984 -- Midland, Michigan ---------- October 8, 1984 -- Traverse City, Michigan --- December 7, 1984 -- Port Huron, Michigan ------ January 25, 1985 -- Bad Axe, Michigan -------- February 22, 1985 -- Benton Harbor, Michigan ----- April 19, 1985 -- Grand Rapids, Michigan -------- May 19, 1985 —- Port Huron, Michigan ------- August 23, 1985 -- Ludington, Michigan -------- August 16, 1985 -- Traverse City, Michigan - September 27, 1985 -- Midland, Michigan --------- October 11, 1985 -- Dallas, Texas ------------- December 7, 1985 -- Grand Rapids, Michigan ----- January 3, 1986 -- Gaylord, Michigan -------- February 28, 1986 Each banquet featured prayer led by a local church leader, songs by soloists from Jordan College, slides of Israel with a narrated script, talks by both the Jordan College president and chancellor, testimonies from participants in the college's recent tours in Israel, and a collection of gifts and pledges by the host pastor. January 20, 1987, a person was interviewed who had helped with the planning and had attended all the banquets in the above schedule, Mrs. Darci Frostick, Executive Secretary for Research and Development at Jordan College. She was given the following introductory question: "Could 123 124 you please help me reconstruct the banquets of 1985 and early 1986?" She was asked the following questions: 1. "What kind of events happened at those banquets which emphasized 'Blessing the Jews' pp Israel?" 2. "What kind of events happened at those banquets which emphasized fulfilling Biblical prophecy?" 3. "What kind of events happened at those banquets which emphasized personally workipg pp the land?" 4. "What kind of events happened at those banquets which emphasized Kibbutz lp Ovot pp_ Simha Pearlmutter?" Descriptions of banquet events which seemed to promote the following items of the common agenda are based on Mrs. Frostick's responses. (The researcher attended the banquets in May, 1985, June, and October, 1986. His impressions support those of Mrs. Frostick.) 1. "Blessing the Jews" pp Israel. a. The president's talk emphasized that "blessing the Jews" was a Biblical doctrine. b. The chancellor's talk always emphasized "blessing the Jews." c. Testimonies were from people who had been to Israel to "bless the Jews." d. Brochures at each plate described the whole program of "blessing the Jews" and the scriptures which support the doctrine. e. The pastor-host had been to Israel to "bless the Jews." f. The slides were of Israel in general, with the narrated script on the history of modern Israel, persecution of the Jews, and their return to the land. g. The whole group sang Israeli choruses which emphasized the favor of the Jews, such as "Awake, O, Israel," and "Blow the Trumpet in Zion." h. Solos were sung which emphasized God's favor toward 125 the Jews. -- "All My Heart is in Jerusalem." -- "El Shaddai" (Hebrew for "God, my source of strength"). i. Public prayers asked that people could see that "blessing the Jews" was a Biblical doctrine. 2. Fulfilling Biblical prophecy. a. The president's talk emphasized fulfilling the prophecy that the desert would be restored. b. The chancellor's talk usually emphasized "blessing the Jews" by helping to fulfill the prophecy that "The desert will blossom like a rose." One time his talk was entirely about the prophecy of the Jews' return from Russia to the land. c. Solos were sung which emphasized prophecy: -- "Elya" (about a Jewish girl imprisoned in Russia for her faith). -- One singer wrote his own song, using the prophecies that "streams in the desert shall bring forth new life" and "the lion will lay down with the lamb." For this song he dressed up like the Jewish high priest. d. The host pastor usually said that Christians were grafted into the vine of Israel and that all of Israel (as opposed to Jews in other places) would be saved in a day. 3. Personally working pp the land. a. The chancellor's talk usually emphasized helping to fulfill prophecy by personally working on the land with one's own hands. b. The host pastor, during presentation of financial needs, always emphasized blessing Israel with prayers, personal work on the land, and gifts. c. Testimonies were about picking tomatoes, fixing machinery and buildings, and hauling off junk to clean up the land. d. Slides showed American Christians working in Israel, picking tomatoes, building a greenhouse, and cleaning up junk. 126 4. Kibbutz lp Ovot pp Simha Pearlmutter. a. One of the brochures at each plate was entirely about Kibbutz Ir Ovot. b. In his talk, the chancellor described how the college had started at Kibbutz Ir Ovot, what they were doing there, and how people could help there in person. He gave updates on how much money had come in from the kibbutz's field crops; how the tomatoes, melons, and cucumbers were doing; and how the college was going to start helping the kibbutz with the development of its date garden. He gave updates of work accomplished by the most recent F3 groups and work planned for the next groups. Mrs. Frostick explained that the purpose of these updates was "to uplift the people by telling them what had been accomplished, and to show people the need for going to Israel." He told how much fun the kibbutz Sabbath was -- the good meal and the rest from responsibilities. c. Many of the slides shown were of Kibbutz Ir Ovot. d. The testimonies were all from tourists who had been to Kibbutz Ir Ovot. - e. Mr. Pearlmutter was the featured speaker at the banquets in Benton Harbor and Grand Rapids in April and May of 1985. Appearances py the Leader pp Kibbutz lp Ovot Simha Pearlmutter, the leader of Kibbutz Ir Ovot, made personal appearances at churches in the College constituency during April and May, 1985, on the following schedule. April 14 -- North Judson, Indiana, and Benton Harbor, Michigan 15 -- Benton Harbor, Michigan 17 -- Nappanee, Indiana 21 -- Traverse City, Michigan 23 -- Leelanau, Michigan 24 -- Kalkaska, Michigan 26 -- Midland, Michigan 27 -- Midland, Michigan 28 -- Detroit, Michigan 29 -- Cedar Springs, Michigan 127 I? S -- Grandville and Bad Axe, Michigan 6 -- Bad Axe, Michigan 7 -- Bad Axe, Michigan 8 -- Caro, Michigan 9 -- Bad Axe, Michigan 11 -- Port Huron, Michigan 12 -- Port Huron, Michigan 14 -- Grand Rapids, Michigan 15 -- Cedar Springs, Michigan 16 -- Cedar Springs, Michigan 17 -- Grandville, Michigan 19 -- Holland, Michigan In these appearances Mr. Pearlmutter very likely emphasized the common agenda. In his presentations attended by the researcher, one at the Benton Harbor banquet and several at Kibbutz Ir Ovot, Mr. Pearlmutter tended to repeat stories which emphasized all points of the common agenda. The Newsletter The bi-weekly newsletter was four pages, each page 17 inches by 11 inches. The newsletter's title was Blossomipg Rose Newslepper from Volume 1, December, 1984. It became Blossoming Rose Press in April, 1985. And it was Blossoming Rose from November, 1985, through December, 1986. The masthead carried the phrase: Assisting Israel in Renewable Energy Technology -- Agriculture -- Housing The masthead also displayed a drawing of a rose in blossom, against the background of a cultivated vegetable field. By November, 1985, the drawing was dropped. And in February, 1986, the masthead phrase was changed to: The Prophet Isaiah said to the Jews . . . -- Even the wilderness and desert will rejoice in those days, the desert will blossom like a rose. -- Foreigners will rebuild your walls. -- Foreigners will work your fields and vineyards. The newsletter featured editorials by the Jordan College chancellor, articles by members of the network of sponsoring churches, excerpts from histories of the Jews, articles advocating Christian cooperation with the Jewish community, testimonials from participants in the college's recent tours in Israel, and reports from Kibbutz Ir Ovot. 128 Copies of the ten newsletters still available (December, 1984, February, April, June, July, September, April, November, December, 1985, and February, 1986) revealed the following statistics. ITEMS OF THE NUMBER OF ARTICLES COMMON AGENDA EMPHASIZING EACH ITEM "Blessing the Jews" of Israel --------------------------- 7 Fulfilling Biblical prophecy --------------------------- 11 Personally working on the land ------------------------- 11 Kibbutz Ir Ovot --------------------------------------- 25 Simha Pearlmutter ------------------------------------- 11 APPENDIX C THE ENTRANCE INTERVIEW -- PURPOSES FOR THE TRIP Back home, when you were thinking about this tour, what do you think were the two or three most important things that made you want the trip? (PROBES USED FOR EACH QUESTION) -- Yes? -- Please tell me more. -- What *10. 11. What What What What What What What all do you mean by that? did did did did did did did or job? What What What steps did you take to did did things? you you you you you you you you you hope hope hope hope hope hope hope hope hope t0 t0 to to to to to t0 to learn about learn about learn about learn about learn about learn about learn about learn about learn about the Middle East? Israel? Jews? Arabs? kibbutz life? America? your home or church yourself? what you can do? prepare for doing those * Added for the March Group 129 APPENDIX D THE EXIT INTERVIEW -- DISCOVERIES ON THE TRIP We would like to know what you discovered on your trip. 1. What did you discover about the Middle East on this trip? (PROBES USED FOR EACH QUESTION) -- Yes? -- Please tell me more. -- What all do you mean by that? 2. What did you learn in particular about the nation of Israel? . What did you learn in particular about Jews? . What did you learn in particular about Arabs? . What did you learn in particular about the kibbutz? 3 4 5 6. What did you learn in particular about America? 7. What did you learn in particular about your home? 8. What did you learn in particular about yourself? 9. What did you learn in particular about what you can do? 10. What has this experience made you want to do? 11. What has this experience made you want to learn? 12. What steps do you plan to take toward learning those things? 130 APPENDIX E PILOT STUDY INTERVIEW GUIDE Back home, when you decided to come here, what do you think were the most important things that made you want to come to this place? In your own personal study recently, what topic has been your special area of interest? Could you give me a quick list of the most important things you have been learning? Do you think when you return home you are likely to be directed into any new activities? And what new goals do you have now? -- What do you want to do? -- Could you explain that further for me? What do you want to learn now? -- What will you do to learn this? -- Where do you think you will go to learn this? 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