commas, Amm 053m: T6. men, Am AN EARLY-CLIMCAL EXPERlENCE fiisserfiation for the Degree of Ph‘ D. EélCHEGAH STATE UNEVERSITY EDWIR RALPH, SfCKMELLER 1 9 7 3 fi‘ 4* LI BRA R. Y L; Michigan State . University rj DAG & SUNS‘ 800K BINDERY INC. LIBRARY amoens ”MICK”. IICIIIGAI ‘\ ‘ a HHWIHIHHUWI“WWHIHIW 3 1293 00088 ‘ ; ~;,,~ _. !" " ~ «yr-1'2 a ‘1 ‘1‘ ', ‘I‘ , - l i I, II ' . L The pL fidence Iev wffl1an ear was sought ' negative che desire to te TWO gro Exploring 57‘ University dL 1y asSigned t Experiment“ ment! and p05 WOW assi The tree amenmy Te one day per w tEStg and p05 TWing (CL: ABSTRACT CONFIDENCE, ATTITUDE, DESIRE TO TEACH, AND AN EARLY CLINICAL EXPERIENCE By Edwin Ralph Sickmiller The purpose of this study was to explore the relationship of con- fidence level for teaching, attitude toward teaching, and desire to teach with an early clinical experience in an elementary classroom. Evidence was sought to demonstrate whether students showed a positive change, a negative change, or no change in terms of confidence, attitude, and desire to teach during the clinical course. Two groups of thirty students each were randomly selected from Exploring Elementary Teaching, a clinical course taught at Michigan State University during Spring Term, 1973. These two groups were then random- ly assigned to one of two conditions in the study. One group, the EET Experimental Group. was randomly assigned to receive the pretests. treat- ment, and posttests. The other group. the EET Posttest-only Group was randomly assigned to receive the treatment and posttests. The treatment consisted of the entire set of activities of Exploring Elementary Teaching (EET), a course which involves weekly seminars and one day per week in an elementary classroom as a teacher aide. The pre- tests and posttests consisted of the Confidence Level Inventory for Teaching (CLIT), a self-measure of confidence level for teaching; the Minnesota Te toward teach i tent of a st The Stu: ahadvanced t approximateij mse of the e students, in sdmol. Cons T rose who had had EET (the ( tested with [)1 demre to teac Five hync “Sugation. W“ 0f test I' Are tr EXPEri MethOC Result 11- Are tr terms I Hethoc RESult diff III' Are ET in ter Methoc RESul: Edwin Ralph Sickmiller Minnesota Teacher Attitude Inventory (MTAI), a measure of attitude toward teaching; and the Desire to Teach Form (DT), a measure of the ex- tent of a student's desire to teach elementary school. The study was extended to Curriculum, Methods, and Materials (CMM), an advanced clinical course at Michigan State University, in which approximately 70% of the students have taken EET previously. The pur- pose of the extension was to investigate the influence of EET on CMM students, in terms of the stability of their desire to teach elementary school. Consequently, CMM students were assigned to one of two groups, those who had had EET (the CMM Experimental Group) and those who had not had EET (the CMM Control Group). Both groups were pretested and post- tested with DT to determine the extent of change during CMM in their desire to teach elementary school. Five hypotheses were constructed to set the direction of the in- vestigation. They are listed here in question form, along with the method of testing and the results of each. I. Are there differences between posttest results of the EET Experimental Group and the EET Posttest—only Group? Method of testing: Multivariate one-way ANOVA.. Results: No significant differences. II. Are.there differences between pretest and posttest results in terms of confidence, attitude, and desire to teach?_ Method of testing: Multivariate one-way ANOVA. Results: Significant increase in confidence; no significant differences for attitude or desire to teach. III. Are there differences between pretest and posttest variances in terms of desire to teach for students taking EET? Method of testing: t-Test. Results: No significant difference. urn-1 ' D 119: .l} 1 IV. Are t in te had E Meth: Resui V. Are t in te not h Metho Resu? Ten dEWC scores were 1 CIESIY‘E to tea daracteriStj . age marit. Socio prior sex Celle day 0‘ grade . teach IS as - relat Lomwowm-b-wotv—J . O O C O o —a O Tneth‘m‘aes i Ewery Case. Tim} ‘. Jessificatio Edwin Ralph Sickmiller IV. Are there differences between pretest and posttest variances in terms of desire to teach for students taking CMM who have had EET? Method of testing: t-Test. Results: No significant difference. V. Are there differences between pretest and posttest variances in terms of desire to teach for students taking CMM who have not had EET? Method of testing: t-Test. Results: No significant difference. Ten demographic characteristics and their relationship to test scores were investigated to determine whether confidence, attitude, and desire to teach varied according to certain personal and situational characteristics. The ten characteristics are: age marital status socio-economic background prior contact with children sex college class level day of the week the student participates grade level in which the student participates teaching style of the classroom teacher to which the student is assigned relative amount of teacher aiding in which the student engages. O ComNO‘O'l-thd I d The most outstanding relationships are with CLIT and MTAI scores. The changes in desire-to-teach scores are negligibly small in nearly every case. The results were interpreted in the light of two important limitations: 1. relatively small sample size (e.g. for the married classification, n = l), and 2. the inspection-of-data technique rather than statistical significance testing. Therefore, apparent relationships are considered suggestive of the need for further research. On this basis, the characteristics deserving special attention are age, marital status, college class level, and day of the week. ‘4.“ 5M. ‘ 41 Students clinical expe desire to teaj fluential act| Nth elemental Since ttl tribution of confidence ti on following 1° Provi With 2- Drovi dutie 3. be pr and ] Edwin Ralph Sickmiller Students were asked to select ten items from a list of probable clinical experiences that they thought influenced them most in their desire to teach. The responses clearly indicate that the most in- fluential activities are those in which the student is working directly with elementary pupils. Since there was no significant change in attitudes or in the dis- tribution of desire-to-teach scores, and since there was a change in confidence that is questionable in terms of a realistic self-assessment, the following recommendations are made. A clinical experience should: 1. provide ample opportunity for teacher trainees to associate with children; 2. provide teaching activities primarily, rather than aide-type duties; 3. be preceded or accompanied by a theoretical exposure to teaching and learning. CONFIDENCE, ATTITUDE, DESIRE TO TEACH, AND AN EARLY CLINICAL EXPERIENCE By Edwin Ralph Sickmiller A DISSERTATION Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY School of Teacher Education 1973 Copyright by EDWIN RALPH SICKMILLER l973 Dedc'cwted to Donna, Ship, and Maude i'ii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The successful completion of this dissertation is the result of the cooperative efforts of many people. Special recognition is due the following people. Dr. Roger Niemeyer, Committee Chairman and an encouraging friend, without whose assistance and guidance, this project would not have been completed. Dr. Henry Kennedy, Dr. Shirley Brehm, and Dr. Andrew Timnick, Committee Members, who have been a continuous source of motivation. Dr. J. G. Moore, teacher and friend, who did the right things at the right times. Mrs. Sue Thrash, statistician, whose assistance was an absolute necessity. Mrs. Betty Nalrath, Mrs. Bertha Mercer, and Mrs. Shirley Goodwin, typists, who worked those extra hours when the deadlines were pressing. The IRC Staff, for their assistance in copying the rough drafts. Dr. and Mrs. Leon Winslow and Professor and Mrs. Kenneth Dickinson, colleagues at Spring Arbor College, who somehow knew just when their friendship and encouragement were needed. My wife, Donna, and our boys, Skip and Mark, for their willingness to allow me the time to work, and their encouragement to stay with the project to its finish. iv L I ST 0F TABL ES 0 O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O I TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF FIGURES. . . ..... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . CHAPTER I. THE PROBLEM O O O O O O O 0 O O 0 O O O 0 O O O O O 0 Need for the Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Purpose of the Study . . ....... . . . . . . Assumptions of the Study . . . . . . . . . . . . Limitations of the Study . . . . . . . . . . . . Hypotheses . . . . . . . . . ..... . . . . . . Overview ...... . . . . . . ....... . . . II. REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Early Clinical Experiences in Teacher Education. . . Confidence Level for Teaching. . . . . . . . . . . Attitude Toward Teaching . . . . . . . . . . . . . Desire to Teach. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Summary. . . . . ............... . . . III. DESIGN OF THE STUDY . . . . .............. Definitions. 0 O O O O ..... 0 O O O O 0 O O O P0pulation ........ . . . . . . . . . . . . Sample . . . ..... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Hypotheses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Design . . . . ........ . . . . . . . . . . Procedure. . ......... . . . . . . . . . . Measurements ...... . . . . . . . . . . . . Summary. . . . . . . . . . . . ...... . . . IV. ANALYSIS OF THE RESULTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Analytical Instruments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . wmtheses O O O O O O O O 0 O O O O 0 O I O O O 0 Summary of Data Collected. . . . . . . . . . . . Sumry. O O O O O p O O O O O O O O O O O Page vii viii TABLE OF CONTENTS--Continued CHAPTER v. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS. . . . . . . . . . Summary of the Study. . . . . . . . . . Conclusions Drawn from the Data . . . . . : Implications for Change . . . . . . . . Recommendations for Further Researc . APPENDICES A. B. C. D. E. F Checklist of Exploring Teaching Activities . Confidence Level Inventory for Teaching. . Desire to Teach Form 1 . . . . . . . . . Desire to Teach Form 2.. . . . . . . Education lOlA--Final Student Assessment Exploring Teaching . . . . . . . . . . . BIBLIOGRAPHY. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vi 0 O '0 O Page 91 91 105 106 109 1.1.2. 115 116 113 122 125 Table 3.1. 4.1. 4.2. 4.3. 4.4. 4.5. 4.6. 4.7. 4.8. 4.9. 4.10. 4.11. LIST OF TABLES Pearson Product-Moment Correlation Coefficients. . . . . . ANOVA for Testing Effects of the Pretest . . . . . . . . . ANOVA for Gain Scores from Pretest to Posttest . . . . . . ANOVA for Gain Scores of Confidence Level from Pretest to Posttest O O O O O O O O O 0 Q ‘ O O O O O O O O 0 O O O O 0 ANOVA for Gain Scores of Attitude from Pretest to Posttest ANOVA for Gain Scores of Desire to Teach from Pretest to POStteSt O O O C O O O O O O O O I O 0 O O O 0 I O O O O O t-Test for Variance Differences of Desire to Teach for the EET Experimental Group from Pretest to Posttest. . . . . . t-Test for Variance Differences of Desire to Teach for the CMM Experimental Group from Pretest to Posttest. . . . . . t-Test for Variance Differences of Desire to Teach for the CMM Control Group from Pretest to Posttest . . . . . . . . Types of Activities of EET and CMM . . . . . . . . . . . . Factors Influencing Students' Desire to Teach. . . . . . . Mean Gain Scores According to Demographic Characteristics. vii Page 65 71 72 73 74 74 76 78 79 85 86 87 _T Figure 4A. Compari 4.2. Compari 4.3. Frequen LIST OF FIGURES Figure Page 4.1. Comparison Scores on CLIT, MTAI, and DT. . . . . . . . . . 80 4.2. Comparison Scores on DT. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82 4.3. Frequency Distribution of DT Scores. . . . . . . . . . . . 83 viii Need for the E In the re efforts by t9.- direct pay—tip fessional pre 01: severai 11” teachers to S Ences Prior 1 University 1- at their 197‘ sessions wit The emp Ity of Ear-1y It is n0t un Education to CHAPTER I THE PROBLEM Need for the Study In the recent past there has been considerable dialogue regarding efforts by teacher education institutions to provide opportunity for direct partipation in schools for teacher trainees early in their pro- fessional preparation. Increased interest is evident in the programs of several institutions which make it possible for their prospective- teachers to get into the schools for two and even three sets of experi- ences prior to student teaching. The BSTEP program at Michigan State University is a good example.1 The Association of Teacher Educators, at their l973 annual meeting, planned eleven of their conference sessions with reference to field-based experiences.2 The emphasis of the present study will relate to the need and util- ity of early clinical experiences in teacher preparation programs. It is not uncommon for people at the student teaching phase of their education to discover that for one reason or another they do not wish 1Behaviorial Science Elementary Teacher Education Program, Final Report, Project No. 8-9025, Contract No. OEC-O-8-089025-3314 (010), Michigan State University, East Lansing: October 1968. 2Association of Teacher Educators, 53rd Annual Meeting, Competency- Based Teacher Education, February 1973. to continue their profesSional preparation. In his discussion of con- sonance and dissonance in the student teaching experience, Elwell3 suggests that retreating from the program is one of the alternatives a student has when he faces a conflict-producing situation. The thesis of this study is that there are at least three identifiable and measur- able characteristics that are often related to the persistence of a student during his training. These three are: l. confidence for teaching, 2. attitude toward teaching, and 3. desire to teach. The definitions given below will be used throughout this study. Confidence for teaching is defined by Smith4 as "Belief in ones ability to teach. This would include a basic grasp of the subject area(s) taught and adequate methods for teaching the subject(s)." Confidence level for teaching, as it relates to early clinical experi- ences, may or may not be based on a realistic assessment of ones ability. Inadequate understanding of teaching and learning might allow a person to have an unrealistically high level of confidence for teaching. Attitude is defined by Marina5 as "A relatively enduring set of beliefs about an object or class of objects which predisposes a person 3AlbertR. Elwell, "Attitude Change as a Function of Differential Student Teaching Placement," Unpublished Doctoral Dissertation, Michigan State University, 1964, pp. 6-7. 4Martha L. Smith, ”A Study of Elementary Student Teaching Confidence in and Attitude Toward Music and Changes That Occur in a Student Teach- ing Experience," Unpublished Doctoral Dissertation, Michigan State University, 1969, p. 38. 5Ronald J. Marino, "The Effects of a Concentrated In-Service Program Designed to Improve Elementary Teachers' Attitudes Toward Children," Unpub11shed.Doctoral Dissertation, Michigan State University, 1971, p. 14. to respond to that object or class of objects in a consistent manner." Applied to teaching, the "object or class of objects" represents the various aspects of classroom teaching. Desire to teach is the extent to which a person wants to teach school. Both a positive and‘negative aspect of desire to teach are included, i.e. the possibility of wanting to teach or not wanting to teach. A desire to teach implies a commitment to teaching as a profes- sion. If it can be shown that students, during an early clinical experi- ence, make desirable changes in any of the above-mentioned characteris- tics, the need for early clinical experiences will be supported. Students who approach a more realistic level of confidence for teaching, a more positive attitude toward teaching, or a greater desire to teach, during their early clinical experience would typically be inclined to continue on to the next level of training. Those who move in the opposite direc- tion would have the opportunity to make a change in their program, if they so desired, without undue loss of time, energy, and resources. Traditionally, students have given the highest evaluation to the field-centered student teaching phase of their professional training rather than to on-campus education courses. On this basis, it is reason- able to expect the popularity of early clinical courses to be high. Therefore, the incorporation of early clinical experiences into teacher education programs is promising both in terms of their usefulness in decision-making regarding students' continuation in teacher training and in terms of student interest. Smith et al.6 have raised a question regarding the appropriateness of expecting early clinical experiences to stimulate self-selection for students who have not had a theoretical framework for teaching. There are programs that provide for aide-type experiences which would not require the theoretical framework that is needed for instructional teaching. Education lOlA--Exploring Elementary Teaching, hereafter referred to as EET, is an early clinical program of this type which is provided at Michigan State University. EET does not meet the require- ment suggested by Smith because it has no selection criterion related to a theoretical framework. Students do have the opportunity, however, to participate in activities for which no theoretical framework is required. (See Table 4.9 and Appendix A for list of activities.) The underlying motivation for this study is based on some of the assumptions for EET which are noted in the Report of the Committee for Recommending Student Selection Criteria.and Procedures for Elementary Teacher Certification Programs,7 and listed below. It is assumed that EET will: 1. help to identify those students who are least likely to succeed in teaching; 2. enable the student to develop an awareness of his enthusiasm and competence for classroom teaching, or lack thereof; 1E. Brooks Smith, Richard E. Collier, Dorothy M. McGeoch, and Hans C. Olsen, A Guide tg_Professiggal Excellence in Clinical Exgerience in Teacher Education, Executive Committee-aAssociation for tu ent eac - ing, February, 1970, p. 5. 2Report of the Committee for Recommending Student Selection Criteria and Procedures for Elementary Teacher Certification Pro rams, Michigan State University, College of Education, Department of E ementary and Special Education, and College of Human Ecology. Department of Family and Child Science, Unpublished, March 1971, p. l. 3. provide useful information to both the student and faculty in terms of being able to evaluate the student's performance in a variety of situations; and 4. be a good predictor of future teaching competence. Even though it is not explicitly stated, the implication in the preceding assumptions is that EET is viewed as an advance organizer prior to the actual professional educational training of the student.8 It should be made clear, however, that the emphasis of the present study has a career focus rather than an advance organizer orientation. In keeping with the stated purposes of EET, i.e. "informing students of their potential for teaching, and . . . selecting candidates to prepare for teaching,"9 attention will be given to the identification of the student's confidence level for teaching, his attitude toward teaching, and the extent of his desire to teach, as these factors relate to the student's potential for continuing in teacher preparation. Purpose of the Study_ The present study focuses on EET, a pre-student teaching clinical teacher education course which has been taught at Michigan State University for the past one and one-half years. The purpose of the study is to answer the following questions. 8Assessment of Clinicalfi Teacher Education Experiences, Michigan State University, College of Education, Unpublished, February, 1973, p. 0 9Report of the Committee for Recommending Student Selection Criteria and Procedures for Elementary Teacher Certification Programs, _p_. c1t., p. 3. 1. What evidence is there to show whether students increase, decrease, or remain the same in terms of their confidence level for teaching, during the time they take EET? 2. What evidence is there to show whether students become more positive, more negative, or remain the same in terms of their attitude toward teaching, during the time they take EET? 3. What evidence is there to show whether students increase, decrease, or remain the same in terms of their desire to teach elementary school, during the time they take EET? If evidence can be gathered to show significant and desirable changes in terms of the three characteristics listed above, it would be indicative of the value of EET in terms of its usefulness to: l. the pro-service teacher in aiding him in his decision whether or not to continue in elementary education; 2. those at Michigan State University who staff the course and who are responsible for making judgments regarding the feasibility of any given student's continuing in elementary education; and 3. public school personnel in their decision regarding future utilization of their classrooms as sites for field experiences. There are certain demographic characteristics that may have some relationship to the answer to these three basic questions. The number of such characteristics that could exert some influence is large. Ten have been investigated individually to see what effect, if any, they exhibit. The ten independent variables are: age marital status socio-economic background prior contact with children sex college class level day of the week the student participates grade level in which the student participates teaching style of the classroom teacher to which the student is assigned relative amount of teacher aiding in which the student engages. O mmNOSU'l-th-J O -—l Another aspect of EET is explored by researching the following question: Do students who take another clinical course, e.g. Education 321A--Curricu1um, Methods, and Materials--Elementary Education, here- after referred to as CMM, without first having taken EET, show a shift in the intensity of their desire to teach elementary school, during the time they take the course? An affirmative answer would support the need for some type of early experience that would enable students to recognize the degree of their desire to teach. As indicated previously, such recognition might prove advantageous to the student in terms of’ his early choice of a career. This question is used to obtain evidence regarding the usefulness of EET as a screening device. Assumptions of the Study The validity of the interpretation of results depends partially on an understanding of the foundations on which the study rests. In order to provide a perspective for interpretation of the results of this study, the following assumptions are set down. It is assumed that: l. the nature of the measurements in the areas of confidence level for teaching, attitude toward teaching, and desire to teach is a good predictor of success in a teacher training program; 2. the relationship of the responses on the measurements of the three dependent variables, i.e. confidence level for teaching, attitude toward teaching, and desire to teach elementary school, to EET provides a sound basis for decision-making regarding the student's continuance in elementary education; 3. confidence level for teaching, attitude toward teaching, and desire to teach elementary school are adequately measured by the Confidence Level Inventory for Teaching (CLIT), the Minne- sota Teacher Attitude Inventory (MTAI), and the Desire to Teach Form (DT), respectively; 4. the typical activities in which students engage during EET require no theoretical framework for teaching. Limitations of the Study The assumptions listed in the previous section are set in the frame- work of tations the limitations of the study. Awareness of the following limi- is necessary for proper understanding of the results. Interpretation of the results of the study are subject to the previously stated assumptions. The study is exploratory in nature, therefore no attempt is made to establish causative relationships. The focus is on decision-making in terms of the student's continuation in elementary education. There is no attempt to study EET as an advance organizer for future teacher preparation. Since students must pass EET in order to be admitted to the elementary education program, an attempt to make themselves "look good" may be reflected in the test scores. Hypotheses The hypotheses are stated here in broad research form. Appropriate explanation follows after the completed list. I. II. There is no effect of the pretest on the posttest scores in terms of confidence level for teaching, attitude toward teaching, and desire to teach elementary school for students taking EET. There is a difference between pre- and posttest scores in terms, of confidence level for teaching, attitude toward teaching, and desire to teach elementary school for students taking EET. a. There is a decrease from pre- to posttest in the scores of confidence level for teaching. b. There is an increase from pre- to posttest in the scores of attitude toward teaching. c. There is an increase from pre- to posttest in the scores of desire to teach elementary school. III. The posttest variance is greater than the pretest.variance in terms of desire to teach elementary school for the students taking EET. IV. There is no difference between pre- and posttest variances in terms of desire to teach elementary school for the students taking CMM who have had EET. V. The posttest variance is greater than the pretest variance in terms of desire to teach elementary school for the students taking CMM who have not had EET. Hypothesis I is designed to detect a testing effect that may occur between the pretest and the posttest. It is based on the question: Do students who take a pretest and a posttest respond differently on the posttest than do students who take the posttest only? If such an effect should occur, further analyses would include the posttest scores of the group which takes the posttest only rather than those of the group which takes the pretest and the posttest. Evidence of a testing effect can be interpreted to mean that the pretest serves as an advance organizer, suggesting the need for further research in the use of a protesting pro- gram. The results may have implications for instructor methodology both in EET and in similar courses at Michigan State UniVersity and at other institutions. The design of Hypothesis II is intended to show whether or not there is a treatment main effect during EET in terms of the students' confidence level for teaching, attitude toward teaching, and desire to teach elementary school. An overall effect would indicate that there is an individual effect shown by at least one of the three measures. 41H” " Q-H'A’ The conf ation the stu expected to c fully will a; Changes tent with ear likely be ac. In rega measured on desire to te the middle a a wider dis the desire Vailances , reflect a 1 Hypot Enabies st mentary Sc Strong C58 37 contra ~13qu be tat \e EMT!) -ne 4 USE? 10 The confidence level measure may be related to the amount of inform- ation the student has about classroom teaching. These scores may be expected to drop during the EET experience, because the student hope— fully will approach a realistic perception of the act of teaching. Changes in attitude and desire to teach would logically be consis- tent with each other. For example, a positive change in attitude would likely be accompanied by an increase in desire to teach. In regard to Hypotheses III, IV, and V, if desire to teach is measured on a one to five scale, with number one being the greatest desire to teach, typical pro-course scores would tend to concentrate in the middle and upper ranges. Post-course scores, by contrast, may show a wider distribution, reflecting both positive and negative changes in the desire to teach. In such a case, the means could be equal, but the variances would be different. A pre-post change in variance would reflect a shift in the intensity of desire to teach. Hypotheses IV and V are designed to relate EET to CMM. If EET enables students to determine the extent of their desire to teach ele- mentary school, then those who take both courses would have a relatively strong desire to teach which would not change significantly during CMM. By contrast, those students who take CMM without first having taken EET, would be likely to experience a change in their desire to teach as they take CMM. Examining this relationship will provide some insight into the usefulness of EET as an aid in making career decisions. Chapter set under the assumptions, the study. 1 Chapter emeriences i format: ear‘ level for tea Sumary, ChaPter lngs are USe prOCeciure, in Chapter the I011ow1‘r data Coilect Chapte, The 59mmS data’ 1.mp‘ilc 11 Overview Chapter I presents the problem to be studied. The discussion is set under the following headings: the need for the study, purpose, assumptions, limitations, and the hypotheses that set the direction of the study. The final section contains an overview of the thesis. Chapter II contains a review of the literature relating to clinical experiences in teacher education. The following headings provide the format: early clinical experiences in teacher education, confidence level for teaching, attitude toward teaching, desire to teach, and summary. Chapter III describes the design of the study. The following heads ings are used: definitions, population, sample, hypotheses, design, procedure, measurements, and summary. Chapter IV presents an analysis of the data. The format includes the following headings: analytical instruments, hypotheses, summary of data collected, and a chapter summary. Chapter V includes a summary and the conclusions of the study. The sections include a summary of the study, conclusions drawn from the data, implications for change, and recommendations for further research. CHAPTER II REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE A review of the literature related to early clinical experiences in teacher education is presented in this chapter. The format of pre- sentation begins with a discussion of early clinical experiences in teacher education in general, a definition, the need, and pros and cons. This is followed by a consideration of the three dependent variables of the present study: confidence level for teaching, attitude toward teaching, and desire to teach. Finally, a summary of the literature is presented. Early Clinical Experiences in Teacher Education In the development of teacher education in the United States, pre- student teaching clinical experiences received very little attention until the early fifties when the American Association of Colleges for Teacher Education published a comprehensive report which defines and describes "professional laboratory experiences."1 The need for direct learning experiences at all maturity levels is emphasized. 1American Association of Colleges for Teacher Education, Revised Standards and Policies for Accrediting Colleges forleacher Education of the American Association of Colleges for Teacher Edfication,lOneta, New York: AACTE, 1951, pp. 20-32. 7 12 13 Sinclair,2 in his review of literature related to professional laboratory experiences, demonstrates that the AACTE report.provided the impetus needed for the implementation of such teacher education programs. An important distinction is made between professional laboratory experiences and student teaching, as a subgroup of the former. Professional laboratory experiences include all those contacts with children, youth, andfadults which make a direct contribution to an understanding of individuals and their guidance in the teaching-learning process. Student teaching is a period of guided teaching when the student takes ificneaSTng responsibility for guiding the school experiences of a given group of learners over a period of consecutive weeks.3 Of special interest to the present study is the lack of reference to pro-theoretical clinical experiences or to such experiences detached from education courses. Even though the need for clinical experiences is recognized for teacher trainees at all maturity levels and throughout the period of college study, the position of the AACTE report is that such experiences should be related to education courses or to profes- sionally-treated content courses. The Association for Student Teaching issued a publication in 1970 which supports the concept of blending theory with practice in early clinical experiences. It calls for the "establishment of realistic and simulated experimental settings and the planning of coordinated clinical 2William W. Sinclair, "An Analysis of Three Pro-Student Teaching Experiences in the Preparation of Elementary School Teachers," Unpub- lished Doctoral Dissertation, Michigan State University, 1961, p. 14. 3American Association of Colleges for Teacher Education, pp, 215,, p. 21. 14 sessions that examine teaching episodes in terms of educational theory. ."4 Smith et al.,the Editing Committee of the AST Guide, emphasize the need for relating the various parts of the teacher education program. He suggests the use of clinical experiences to illustrate an educational principle or to test theory. The effectiveness of the clinical experi- ences is dependent upon the extent to which the relationships among theory, principles, and practice are made clear.5 A definition of "clinical experiences" is offered by the AST in the publication just referred to. Its several elements include: 1. Continuous examination of educational possibilities under a variety of situations. . Experimentation, either in the school or in simulated labora- tory setting. . College and school c00peration, to specify performance expectancies and evaluation. . Cooperative planning and administration of clinical sessions. . Theory-related experiences. . Pooling of curricular resources from college, school, and related organizations.6 0501-5 u N A Guide to Professional Excellence in Clinical Experiences in Teacher Education, the publication from which the ideas expressed above are taken, is presented as an extension and amplification of the standards for accreditation by the National Council for Accreditation of Teacher Education. Twelve "Guidelines to Excellence" are set down for the bone- fit of institutions who are planning a clinical experience program or 4E. Brooks Smith, Richard E. Collier, Dorothy M. McGeoch, and Hans, C. Olsen, A Guide to Professional Excellence in Clinical Ex eriences in Teacher Eduggtion, Executive Committee--Association for Stugent Teaching, February 1970, pp. l-2. 51bid., p. 15. 6Ibid.. pp. 1-2. te. who are without text. 1. 10. 15 seeking accreditation by NCATE. The Guidelines are listed below the explanatory questions which accompany them in the original Clinical experiences in teacher. education consist of. labora-. tory experiences and a practicum including associate, intern, and pretenure teaching. Specific opportunities are provided for analytical study of teaching and for critical examination of the roles of the teacher and the functions of the schools in a variety of settings. Advanced clinical experiences, cooperatively developed and maintained by schools, colleges, professional.organizations,_ and the state education department, provide for differentiated career opportunities. Clinical experiences are functionally and structurally an.in- tegral part of all aSpects of the professional studies com- ponent of the teacher education program. Clinical experiences include direct and simulated activities.. designed to provide maximum flexibility and individualization in selection and scheduling. Clinical experiences in the college class, the teacher educa- tion laboratory, and the affiliated schools and community agencies are guided by carefully selected and fully qualified college, school, and/or community personnel. The responsibilities of the members of the supervisory team are._ clearly defined with res ect to (a) the individualized teaching. of clinical students; Eb? the time allotted to carry out those responsibilities; and c the compensation, benefits, and privileges which may be expected. Representatives from colleges and schools and from related pro— fessional organizations, community agencies,.and the state.. education department are involved, on a partnership basis, in planning, executing, and evaluating programs of clinical experi- ences. Locally appropriate interinstitutional structures (schools. college-community) are established for implementationof cooperatively developed programs of clinical experiences. Students are involved in decision making for the clinical experience program. a\ v s at! e DJ 9 4.. i. a. a. 1K 16 11. The organization and administration of the program of clinical experiences promote the efficient implementation of all pro- gram elements. 12. Means of regular objective assessment.and ongoing evaluation gzvzhgpggogfizstzgdegrgduct of clinical experiences are Thirty years ago the need for work experiences early in teacher training was recognized. Stroh et al.8 reported a teacher survey in which there was a call for classroom work experience as a means of selecting teacher candidates. At about the time of the AACTE report (1951), the need for clinical experiences prior to student teaching was recognized in the State of Michigan. Gates and Currie9 reported the use of pro-student teaching professional laboratory experiences, even though they were employed on a very limited basis. Andrews10 observed the need for broad and functional pre-service training for teachers because of the complexities of the demands on the beginning teacher. He points out, however, that passive classroom ob- servation will do little good in the effort to adequately train teachers. 7191a.. pp. 6-8. 8M. Margaret Stroh, Ida A. Jewett, and Vera M. Butler, Better Selection of Better Teachers, Washington, D. C.: The Delta Kappa Gamma Society, 1943, p. 98. 9Mary Frances Gates and Donald M. Currie, "Survey of Supervision of Student Teaching in Michigan," Journal of Educational Research, 46: 497-511, March, 1953. 7 10Leonard 0. Andrews, "Experimental Programs of Laboratory Experi- ences in Teacher Education," The Journal of Teacher Education, 1: 259-267, December, 1950. 17 1] reports an experiment in which college freshmen partici- Levine pated in office routines and other non-teaching activities. The evalu- ation by participating students and public school personnel was generally favorable. Juniors who engaged in mere teaching-type experiences showed a concern for lack of knowledge about the clerical responsibilities of teachers. Levine states, “Laboratory experience should . . . include first-hand acquaintance with as many facets of the school activities as possible, as well as with the educational needs and resources of the community.”12 Caution must be exercised in the interpretation of Levine's results. Her first follow-up sample included only thirty of the original fifty ’ students. There may be basis for suspecting that the 40% mortality rate reflects less positive results than those obtained from the follow-up group. The popularity of professional laboratory experiences during the late fifties and early sixties is indicated in a report by Ingle and Robinson.13 Their survey showed that studies regarding observation activities in teacher education were not concerned with the value of such experiences but rather with how to accomplish them better. 1'IMadeline S. Levine, "Extending Laboratory Experiences: .Part II," The Journal of Teacher Education, 12:29-35, March, 1961. 12Madeline S. Levine, "Extending Laboratory.Experiences." 113; Journal of Teacher Education, 9:379-382, December, 1958. ' 13Robert B. Ingle and Edward W. Robinson, "An Examination of the Value of Classroom Observation for Prospective Teachers," The Journal of Teacher Education, 16:456-460. December, 1965. 18 Hunter and AmidonM urge experimentation and innovation in six major areas of teacher training. The first of these is a direct clinical experience program throughout the entire sequence of training. They also encourage varying approaches to full-time classroom contact with children. Using the case study approach, Niemeyer15 observed that among his subjects, those who had a better concept of the elementary student were those who had engaged in regular, direct observation of elementary school students. As further support for early clinical experiences, he states, ". . . an individual who repeatedly saw a child functioning in a classroom would develop a better concept of the child's reading limi- tations, motor skills and interest span, which would, in turn, tend to support the theory that pro-service teachers should have clinical exposure throughout their training period."16 Gallegos17 suggests that the public schools are probably the most influential of institutions in terms of the determination of teacher education programs. He encourages a "shifting of locale for the major portion of training programs from the colleges and universities to the public schools." 14Elizabeth Hunter and Edmund Amidon, ”Direct Experiences in Teacher Education: Innovation and Experimentation," The Journal of Teacher Education, 17:282-289. Fall, 1966. 15Roger C. Niemeyer, "Simulation-Gaming in Pre-Service Elementary Education," Unpublished Doctoral Dissertation, Michigan State University, 1972, p. 85. 161bid., p. 129. 17Arnold M. Gallegos, "Teacher Training: The Realities," The Jour- nal of Teacher Education, 23:43-46, Spring, 1972. 19 In 1969, Monson18 reviewed United States Office of Education pro- jects for improving and updating elementary education. His summary of the commonalities of the models developed, which includes "earlier experiences with children," is an indication of the recent trend toward the incorporation of clinical experiences in teacher education programs. Inga survey of forty-eight states and the District of Columbia, Medley19 found the following important information regarding pre- student teaching laboratory experience programs. 1. Eighty percent of the responding teacher education institutions require a pre-student teaching field laboratory experience. This generally consists of observation and/or teacher aiding in an elementary classroom. 2. Cooperating teachers nearly always have a favorable opinion of pro-student teaching laboratory experience programs. 3. Ninety-five percent of the directors of the programs believe that pro-student teaching laboratory experience is essential to the development of elementary teachers. Steenberger20 surveyed students, public school teachers, principals, and college teachers to determine opinion regarding the Teacher Assistant Program of Lansing Community College. The reaction to the program is generally favorable. The consensus of the groups is that such 18Jay A. Monson, "The New Models in Elementary Teacher Education," Phi Delta Kappan, 51:101, October, 1969. 19William A. Medley, "A Study of the Initiation and Current Prac- tices of Elementary Education Pro-Student Teaching Laboratory Experience Programs and the Development of a Handbook," Dissertation Abstracts International, 33:3567A, January, 1973. 20Aaron L. Steenberger, "A Developmental Paraprofessional Program for the Education of Future Teachers Enrolled in.the TwOeYear.Community. Junior College," Dissertation Abstracts International, 33:5019A, March, 1973. 20 teaching-assistant experience will enhance the opportunity for students to gain psychological insight into children's behavior. Based on his telephone survey of respondents in the State of Wyoming, E11152] recommends early clinical experiences as a contributory factor to more effective student teaching. Diversity in the scope of student teaching activities should be encouraged also. Zirbesz2 calls attention to the need for clinical experiences prior to student teaching, and she notes that they "should be in direct relation to phases of pro-service education. The desirability of arranging many of these experiences so they are functionally related to courses has been recognized." In "A Study-Teach Program for the Preparation of Career Teachers" at George Peabody College for Teachers, three of the five underlying assumptions are of particular interest to the present study. 1. An extensive program of visitation should provide a wide variety of models of teaching for the student . . . 2. Theory and practice must be blended and balanced . . . 3. A professional sequence of Experiences must be offered in a continuous series. . . .2 21Arthur H. Ellis, "A Study of Some Aspects of the Student Teaching Program of the University of Wyoming," Dissertation Abstracts Inter- national, 33:2799A, December, 1972. 22L. Zirbes, Teachers for Today's Schools, Washington, D. C.: N.E.A., The Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development, 1951, p. 43. 23David Turney and Lewis W. Stoneking, "A Professional Sequence for the Development of Career Teachers," The Journal of Teacher Education, 16:281-285. September, 1965. 21 In his review of teacher education literature, Lange24 presented the following three-point summary: 1. Theory and practice must be more closely related in order that the instructional program may achieve greater relevance. 2. There must be an interrelation between knowledge and experience in which there is a gradual exposure to classroom teaching. 3. A strong partnership should exist between the public school and the university in the instructional program for teachers. Dyrli25 takes a strong position in favor of clinical experiences in the teacher education curriculum as he describes the elementary education program at the University of Connecticut. He makes it clear though that simple observation and/or teacher-aide arrangements will not, in his opinion, result in anything of significant value. A recent survey by Shuff and Shuff,26 reveals that 85% of the colleges and universities that responded to their questionnaire have a pro-student teaching clinical experience in their elementary education program. Sixty-eight per cent of such experiences are part of another course. 24Donald N. Lange, "Relevance and Accountability in a Teacher Education Program," The Journal of Teacher Education, 23:446~452, Winter, 1972. 25Odvard E. Dyrli, "Involving Prospective Teachers With Children-- A Workable Model," The Journal of Teacher-Education, 23:461-463, Winter, 1972. 26Marian Shuff and Robert V. Shuff, "Designed for Excellence: . ,- A Program for Laboratory Experiences," The Journal of Teacher Education, 23:215-219, Summer, 1972. 22 Sandefur27 conducted a study of the relationship between a clinical experience and teacher behavior during student teaching. He found that his experimental group, by comparison with the control group, displayed more desirable behavior, used more indirect activity in the classroom, received higher grades for student teaching, and scored lower on the National Teacher Examinations. Among his conclusions, the following one is applicable to the present study. Behavior changes in prospective teachers can be more readily effected by programs of professional education that stress direct involvement of the prospective teacher in the teaching-learning process through meaningful laboratory experiences made relevant to content and theory. 3 . Stiles29 has traced the development of teacher education thrOugh ' the last four decades. He recognizes the current emphasis on field experience, but places it in the perspective of its relationship with theoretical knowledge. He states, "Slowly the stockpile of knowledge about teaching and learning are growing, giving reassurance of the basic truth that the professional practice of teaching needs a sound base of professional theory and knowledge as well as accumulated practice--a point that is obscured by the current focus on firsthand experiences.3 27J. T. Sandefur, "Kansas State Teachers College Experimental Study. of Professional Education for Secondary Teachers," The Journal of Teacher Education, 21:386-395. Fall, 1970. 28Ibid., p. 395. 29Lindley J. Stiles, "State of the Art of Teacher.Education," Journal of Educational Research, 64:387-393. May-June, 1971. 3OIbid., p. 387. r Ail "-1 p 1. 1‘ H Eli-J - “ SEC: EXDI rele lear 23 Using the questionnaire and interview methods, Marcum3] gathered evaluative information regarding the pro-student teaching professional laboratory experiences of a southern university. Even though the recent graduates felt that the program had failed to meet their needs in some respects, the consensus of belief was that such a program should repre- sent a variety of actiVities. They also suggested that clinical experiences should begin early in the teacher twaining sequence, should relate theory to practice, and should involve the student in direct learning situations. Gannangelo32 recommends that a variety of first-hand and simulated experiences be incorporated into the pro-student teaching phase of teacher education. These experiences, he believes, should be associated with methods courses and aligned to specific subject areas. Robbins33 emphasizes the experience-orientation of teacher educa- 34 tion programs of the future. For support he refers to John Dewey and his relationship of experience and education; James Bryant Conant35 and 3IWalter Marcum, "A Study of Pro-Student Teaching Laboratory Experi- ences at a Southern University," Dissertation Abstracts International, 31:5253A, April, 1971. 32Duane M..Gannangelo, "The Effect of Pro-Student Teaching Experi- ences in Social Studies Classrooms Upon Performance in Student Teaching," Dissertation_Abstracts-International, 33:1563A, October, 1972. ' 33Glaydon 0. Robbins, "New Preparation for Teachers," The Educa- tional Forum, 36:99-102, November, 1971. 34John Dewey, The Aims of Education, New York: Mentor, 1929, p. 18. 35James Bryan Conant, The Education of American Teachers, New York: McGraw Hill, 1963, p. 140. 24 his proposal of the "clinical professor of education"; NCATE standards36 with references to "appropriate laboratory experiences,“ "clinical experience in generic teaching situations," and “the practicum," a period during which theory is tested and teaching style is developed. He pre- dicts the demise of the term "student teaching," to be replaced by a more comprehensive term, more accurately descriptive of the new blend of theory and experience in the classroom setting. He states, "The prospec- tive teacher will move through a series of sequential experiential roles--teacher aide, participant observer, assisting teacher, associate teacher, intern teacher, extern teacher-~en route to becoming a fully certified career teacher."37 Most writers are convinced of the value of pre-student teaching professional laboratory experiences. The citations on the following pages are representative of the authors who have expressed either support or criticism. Smith et al.38 have declared that the chief aim of clinical teacher education is to confirm personalized role conceptions and to incorporate these into an individual teaching style. The sequence for accomplishing this ideal involves exploring, playing, simulating, examining, attempting, and finally assuming the teacher's role. 36National Council for Accreditation of Teacher Education, Standards ¥p;nthe Accreditation of Teacher Education, Washington, D. C.: NCATE, 37Robbins, pp. 913.. p. 101. 38Brooks E. Smith, pp, p13,, p. 5. "Q1. V} "D 191 25 Beyerl39 describes a program at Ball State Teachers College in the late fifties where sophomores had the opportunity to work one day or one evening per week in a Boy's Club. This was a chance, he believes, for students to find out whether or not they were headed for a profession for which they were suited. Early clinical experiences are seen by Hearn40 as opportunities for student self-appraisal in the effectiveness of human relations. Inter- action with children and with adults who are working with children should be arranged for beginning trainees as one way in which they can determine whether or not they have chosen the proper profession. The values of early clinical experiences are seen by Levine4] to include: the introduction of the teacher trainee to the school, a behind-the-scenes look at the school, a realistic picture of what the school is like, and a profitable preparation for student teaching. The experiences to which she refers are primarily the clerical and office routines of the school. According to Cooper and Sadker,42 early clinical experiences enable the student to determine whether or not he wants to teach, and it 39M. C. Beyerl, "A Boys' Club and a Teachers College Provide Laborae . tory Experiences for Prospective Teachers," The Journal of Teacher Education, 8:393-398, 1957. '7 40Arthur C. Hearn, "Case Studies of Successful Teachers,“ Education- al Administration and Supervision, 38:376-379. October, 1952. 4.lLevine, pp, p13,, p. 379. 42James M. Cooper and David Sadker, "Current Trends in Teacher Edu- cation Curriculum," The Journal of Teacher Education, 23:312-317. Fall, 1972. 26 provides a reality perspective for him. College instructors are forced to confront the realities of the public school classroom when they teach students who are spending time in those classrooms. Shuff and Shuff43 point out three advantages of early in-school experiences for teacher trainees. They are: the opportunity to into- grate theory and practice, exposure to the pupils in a school and com- munity setting, and a chance to demonstrate teaching ability. Walsh44 emphasizes the career-decision advantage of students who spend time in the classroom of the public school. He also believes that trainees will tend to generate a sense of dedication as a result of clinical experiences. According to Harrington,45 the student in the early clinical ex- perience can see and feel what is, in contrast to what ought to be. He can formulate a philosophy of education, and he can learn to make value judgments regarding the educational process. Gallegos46 mentions the opportunities the student in an early clinical experience has to practice skills in a real setting and to relate theory to practice. He adds that students can also receive feedback on their performance and that they can progress at their own rates. 43Shuff and Shuff, pp. pip” p. 215. 44Huber M. Walsh,."Let's Move the Methods Course Off Campus,P.. The Journal of Teacher Education, 21:347-351. Fall, 1970. 45Nancy 0. Harrington, "A Challenge for Teacher Education,“ Journal of Education, 152:51-52, December, 1969. “Gallegos, pp, p_i_t., p. 43. 27 On the negative side, he lists the difficulty of scheduling and the lack of cooperation between teacher education institutions and the schools. Overby47 is one of the few authors who fails to point out any ad- vantages of early clinical experiences. He sees the following drawbacks: arrangements to get the students to the school are difficult and, in some cases, impossible; the college must accept the evaluation of the public school personnel; and evaluation by short, drop-in visits by college personnel are subject to the influence of the Hawthorne effect. Confidence Level for Teaching One of the recognized characteristics of a successful teacher is self-confidence. It is generally accepted that a teacher who has developed a realistic sense of self-confidence is likely to perform better than one who has not. The focus of this study is on confidence level for teaching rather than confidence in oneself as a person. Confidence for teaching is de- fined by Smith48 as "Belief in ones ability to teach. . . ." An ade- quate knowledge of children, the subject, and how to teach the subject to the children is implied in ones confidence for teaching. 47George R. Overby, "A New Perspective in the Evaluation of Prospec- tive Teachers in Professional Education Courses," The Journal of Teacher Education, 23:50-52, Spring, 1972. 77* 77’ 7 48Martha L. Smith, "A Study of Elementary Student Teacher Confidence in and Attitude Toward Music and Changes That Occur in a Student Teach- ing Experience," Unpublished Doctoral Dissertation, Michigan State Univer- sity, 1969, p. 38. 28 Though many studies have been conducted in the area of self- confidence, a limited number is reported dealing specifically with confidence level for teaching. Smith49 reports a significant increase in confidence level for teaching during student teaching as measured by the Confidence Level Inventory for Teaching (CLIT). Her sample of sixty-six subjects recorded mean CLIT scores of 168.9 and 186.3 on pre- and posttests, respectively. Similarly, Czajkowski50 found a significant increase in confidence level for teaching during student teaching with the CLIT. The respec- tive pre- post- means for his 124 subjects were 139.5 and 158.6 Schrags] failed to find a significant increase in CLIT scores dur- ing three- and six-week orientation periods with vocational educational teachers. The mean scores for sixty-four teachers were 192.7 before orientation, 197.3 after three weeks of orientation, and 199.2 after six weeks. 52 Hoover, Kaiser, and Podlich used the rank ordering of twenty- five teaching competencies as the basis for determining the confidence 49Smith, pp. 311., p. 91. 50Theodore J. Czajkowski, "The Relationship of Confidence for Teach- ing to Selected Personal Characteristics and Performance of Student Teachers," Unpublished Doctoral Dissertation, Michigan State University, 1969, p. 76. 51Marie Carol Schrag, "An Assessment of Selected Attitudinal Changes in Secondary Vocational Teachers," Unpublished Doctoral Dissertation, Michigan State University, 1972, pp. 41-44. 52K. H. Hoover, L. H. Kaiser, and W. F. Podlich, Jr..."A Comparison of Expressed Teaching Strengths Before and After Student Teaching," The Journal of Teacher Education, 16:324-328. September, 1965. 29 level for their 187 subjects. During student teaching there was a sig- nificant change of nine of the twenty-five competencies. A positive change was recorded on five: teacher-led discussions, establishing behavioral objectives, construction and administration of tests, man- aging classroom behavior problems, and directing study activities. A negative change was indicated for the remaining four: using instruc- tional resources, leading a panel discussion, conducting a role-playing activity, and supervising extra-curricular activities. More than forty years ago, Charters and Waples53 reported that pro-service teachers were unable to distinguish between easy and diffi- cult tasks. With a check list of 559 typical teaching activities, teacher-trainees, relative to experienced teachers, uniformly rated tasks as easy. Support is thereby provided for a desirable, realistic level of confidence rather than high confidence. Richey54 indicates that the entire college career may be necessary to enable the student to gain adequate insight and‘confidence for a successful teaching career. He adds the further important point that these characteristics are best learned through participation in a class- room with children rather than from textbooks. Fogelberg55 administered a competence-for-teaching questionnaire as a pretest and a posttest to two groups of student teachers to determine 53W..W. Charters and Douglas Waples, The Commpppealth Teacherd~ Training Study, Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1929, pp. 30-34. 54Robert W. Richey, Plannin for Teachin , Second Edition, New York: McGraw Hill Book Company, Inc., i958, pp. l26-127. 55Arthur 0. Fogelberg, "The Development of Attitudes Toward Teaching and Feelings of Competence Under Two Student Teaching Plans: Team and Individual," Dissertation Abstracts International, 33:3453A, January, 1973. 30 their feelings of competence toward teaching. The questionnaire had been developed at Arizona State University. Both groups (one group work- ing in pairs, the other individually in student teaching) showed a sig- nificant increase in confidence level during student teaching. The individually-oriented students showed a significantly larger increase than did the paired students. These findings must be interpreted in the light of the research design which involved non-equivalent control groups. Shaw56 found that confidence level for teaching changed signifi- cantly for student teachers who had had no prior field experience. A comparison group of student teachers who had had prior field experience also showed a significant change, but of less magnitude. He reports that changes occurred in both a desirable and undesirable direction at all levels of field experience. Czajkowski's study57 of confidence level for teaching has produced some important implications. He states that if teaching is viewed as a composite of simplified behaviors, high confidence ratings may be indi- cative of a superficial perception of the teaching role. More capable students probably perceive the complexities of teaching and therefore, may rate themselves more realistically. He suggests that the middle ranges on the CLIT may represent the most realistic rating for more capable students. Those who score low on the CLIT probably lack basic 56RobertE. Shaw, "Changes in Self-Concept Pertaining to Selected. Teacher Competencies of Prospective Teacher," Dissertation Abstracts International, 33:4226A, February, 1973. 57Czajkowski, pp. pj_t_., pp. 94-97. 31 confidence in their ability to teach, regardless of whether they have a realistic or an overly simplistic view of teaching. He states, "It is likely that prior to student teaching a minimum level of confidence for teaching is desirable. Very high self-ratings may not be desirable if they are based on uncritical or irrelevant information."58 Attitude Toward Teaching Attitude toward teaching has been the subject of numerous research studies. The following citations are representative of such studies, especially those which apply to early clinical experiences. In his study of attitude change in teacher education, Jacobs59 says, ". . . it should be the purpose of a teacher education program to mold attitudes that will equip the prospective teacher to deal with the teaching role in a way that will bring the greatest benefit to his stu- dents. . . ." He found a significant positive change in attitudes among students at five institutions during an initial professional education course. He also discovered a significant negative change in attitudes among students at the same institutions during student teaching. To reverse the negative attitude change, Jacobs suggests that alternate programs be employed. "Exposure to social situations encountered in the teaching role needs to occur more often in the teacher education 581b1a., p. 97. 59Elmer 8. Jacobs, "Attitude Change in Teacher Education: An Inquiry into the Role of Attitudes in Changing Teacher Behavior," The Journal of Teacher Education, 19:410-415. Winter, 1968. 32 program prior to the student-teaching experience."60 Sinclair6] looked for pre-student teaching attitude changes among students of an observation group, an independent reading group, and a traditfional course (control) group. His testing instruments detected no change among the three groups, but personal interviews with the students revealed that the observation group unanimously felt better prepared to approach student teaching than did either of the other two. Levine62 indicates that the freshmen students in her study popula— tior1 who participated in office-routine activities in schools, felt better prepared to approach student teaching than did juniors who had not had such experiences. The feelings of the students were obtained by informal responses rather than by objective measurement. Lucina63 recognized the acquisition of desirable attitudes toward teaching as one of the factors which would indicate readiness to profit from professional laboratory experiences. She states, "Successful pro- fessional laboratory experiences must be preceded by a readiness on the part of the future student teacher." In a comparison study of classroom observation with on-campus study only, Ingle and Robinson64 found that both classroom observations “ppm” p. 414. “Sinclair, pp. 213,, p. 77. 62Levine, pp. 91., p. 35. 63Sister Mary Lucina, "Readiness for Professional Laboratory Experi- ences," The Journal of Teacher Education, 10:310-314. September, 1959. 64Ingle and Robinson, pp, p13,, p. 460. 33 and on-campus study were accompanied by a positive change in attitudes. There was no significant difference, however, between the two groups. Both groups took a professional education course during the duration of the experiment. Andrews65 recognized the need to improve attitudes of pre-service teachers. He stated in 1950, "When experienced teachers are enrolled in the same class with pro-service students, theicontrast in attitude and interest is compelling evidence of the value of experience in the building of understanding." Using the Minnesota Teacher Attitude Inventory (MTAI), Knoll66 investigated changes in attitude during a pro-student teaching Exploraw tory Field Experience Course at the University of Iowa. With a sample of 448 students, 162 of whom were in elementary education, he found a significant difference in attitude change from pre- to posttest between sexes, college class levels, and grade levels of the field experience. There was no significant difference in MTAI pre- to post- gain scores between levels of type of activity in the field experience. Day67 found a negative change in attitude as measured by the MTAI for each of three groups of subjects. The groups included college 65Andrews, pp, p13,, p. 267. 66Gerald C. Knoll, "A Study of Attitude Changes of Pro-Student Teachers in an Exploratory Field Experience Course at the University of Iowa," Dissertation Abstracts International, 33:3461A, January, 1973. 67Harry P. Day, "Attitude Changes of Beginning Teachers After Ini- tial Teaching Experience," The Journal of Teacher Education, 10:326-328. September, 1959. T 34 seniors before and after their internship, graduates after internship, and graduates after one year out of college. Some of the latter group had taught during that year; others had not. He concluded, ".1... it would seem more appropriate to introduce some kind of initial contact with a teaching situation early in the program before the student has advanced very far with an unrealistic picture of what lies ahead in the classroom."68 Sinclair69 administered the MTAI to an observation group, an inde- pendent reading group, and a traditional course group, each on three different occasions. The test was given one term before student teach- ing, at the beginning of student teaching, and at the end of student teaching. He found no significant differences to exist among any of the groups on any of the testing occasions. The subjects' responses in interviews indicated that those who had had an observation experience felt better prepared to enter student teaching than did those of the other two groups. Lipscomb70 investigated attitude changes of elementary student teachers at Indiana University. He found a significant change in atti- tude from pre- to posttest for forty-one of the forty-four students tested. 681bid., p. 328. 69Sinclair, pp. 513., p. 77. 70Edra E. Lipscomb, "A Study of the Attitudes of Student Teachers in Elementary Education," Journal of Educational Research, 60:159-163. December, 1966. 7‘ 35 Ciaycomb?1 emphasizes the desirability of teachers' having positive attitudes toward teaching and children and the consequential positive effect this will have on pupils' learning. In his study of the atti- tudes of undergraduate teacher candidates, he found the most positive attitudes among those who: 1. had completed their professional train- ing, 2. are female, 3. were reared in urban or suburban communities, 4. prefer teaching in early elementary grades, 5. prefer teaching in the inner city, and 6. prefer a class in which whites and non-whites are nearly equally distributed. Smith72 indicates that a review of the literature of the past twenty years reveals no consistency from one study to another in terms of atti- tude measures. Many studies show an attitude change, but the direction and magnitude of the changes are ambiguous. Desire to Teach The teaching profession has been plagued for years by the low level of commitment of some of its members. Educators generally agree that a high level of professional commitment is extremely desirable for effec- tive classroom performance. The desire to teach is equated in this study with commitment to the profession. 71Clyde M. Claycomb, "An Exploratory Study of Attitude Toward- Children Expressed by Undergraduate Teacher Candidates,” Unpublished Doctoral Dissertation, Michigan State University, 1970. 7211. L. Smith, pp. pip. p. 317. 36 The necessity of commitment to teaching is recognized and empha- sized by Gallegos.73 He sees the unwitting harboring of uncommitted students as a serious hindrance to even the best of programs. He reports that of those trained in Washington State in l965, 50% had dropped out of the profession after only four years of teaching. His hope is that the lessened demand for teachers will tend to correct the situation. Cooper and Sadker74 see a dual role for early clinical experiences. In their discussion of current trends in teacher education, they say, "Besides helping the prospective teacher discover earlier in his college career whether or not he really wants to teach, the early field experi- ences also enable him to approach the rest of the teacher education curriculum from a reality perspective." Marso75 conducted a study at Bowling Green State University with twenty-nine senior education majors in which he attempted to determine what effect, if any, a pre-student teaching clinical experience would have on the students' desire to teach. As compared with a control group, the group with the clinical experience showed a greater diversity in their desire to teach after the clinical experience. DeLong76 describes a sequence of teacher education experiences at 73Gallegos, 92, 213,, p. 46. 74Cooper and Sadker, 92, 915,, p. 317. 75Ronald N. Marso, "Project Interaction: A Pilot Study in a Phase of Teacher Preparation," The Journal of Teacher Education, 22:194-198, Summer, l97l. 766reta DeLong, "Toward More.Meaningful Teacher Preparation," 1mg Journal of Teacher Education, 22:l5-l7, Spring, l97l. 37 Grand Valley State College. She reports that the second major portion of the program, the teacher aide phase, serves to guide students to a firmer position regarding their desire to teach. Bennett77 conducted a review of literature related to commitment to teaching. He reports that a consensus of writers indicates that many female education students who complete the teacher training sequence are not really interested in teaching as a career. Teaching is looked upon by many as a temporary occupation. Bennett‘s findings indicate that completion of the sequence of teacher education courses leading to certification has a significant positive effect on commitment to teach- ing. He makes the following recommendations regarding career commit- ment: l. That efforts be made to identify prospective teachers early in college or pre-college training so proper guidance can direct them to completion of the training sequence. 2. That education professors attempt to instill a positive attitude toward career commitment to teaching. 3. That measuring devices be obtained to determine the degree of commitment. 4. That courses required for temporarily certified teachers be geared to the immediate needs of classroom teaching. '5. That methods courses in special areas of elementary education (normally taught in elementary school by specialists) not be required. 6. That commitment to teaching be investigated in the light of different variables. A 77Don Bennett, "Teacher Commitment--Hhose Responsibility?" Ihg_ Journal of Teacher Education, 2l:515-518, Winter. l970. 38 78 description of an off-campus methods course includes a Walsh's reference to career decisions in a clinical setting. He says, "The early contact with children provided in Off-Campus Methods Courses in a struc- tured, yet genuine, classroom setting can result in the students' confronting important career questions . . . Do I really want to teach?" The value of an early opportunity for such a decision is recognized. Moseley79 calls attention to the dilema of a beginning education student. The student's last contact with school was as a student in public school, and it is necessary for him to make a career decision re- garding teaching at a time of little contact with the school. This calls for early clinical experiences in teacher education so the student can analyze his desire to teach under realistic conditions. Robinson80 concurs with Moseley in his call for an early clinical experience so education students can formulate a realistic sense of commitment to the teaching profession. He states, "It is unreasonable to assume that students can or should make such a decision without the necessary knowledge base." Beyerl8] describes a cooperative program between Ball State Teachers College and a local Boys' Club which involved an early clinical experience 78Walsh, 92, 5139, p. 35l. 7gAubrey H. Moseley, "Teacher Education: The University and the Schools," Kappa Delta Pi, 8:26-27, October, 197l. 80Joseph Robinson, "A Field Experience Program in Teacher Educa- tionnW Kappa Delta Pi, 8:87-88, February, 1972. 8lBeyerl, 93. 9113., p. 398. 39 for prospective teachers. Among its other advantages, he says, "Some prospective teachers find firm support for their earlier vocational choice." In a study of significant events in the Freshman Early Experiencing Program at the Ohio State University, Garry82 reports that students who began the experience with a firm commitment to teach tended to maintain that level of commitment. People mentioned by this group in relation to significant events, tended to be teachers and pupils. Students who be- gan the experience with a tentative commitment to teach, tended to change that commitment to a greater extent, and also tended to mention counselors and parents as significant people. Workman83 conducted a study of the relationship of desire to teach with selected student characteristics. He found that these students with a high degree of extraversion, those who had a dominant personality, and those with a broad background of education-related experience tended to be firm in their desire to teach both before and after an early clinical experience. Perry84 reports that prospective elementary teachers are motivated in their desire to teach by children, whereas secondary trainees are 82Alice N. Garry, "A Study of Significant Incidents in a Teacher Training Early Experiencing Program," Dissertation Abstracts International, 33: 4216A, February, 1973. 83Daniel w. Workman, "The Relationship of Selected Variables in Decision-Making Regarding Choice of A Career in Teachi ng," Dissertation Abstracts International, 33: 4233A, February, 1973. 84James Z. Perry, "The Influence of Selected.Factors.on the Choice. of Teaching as a Career," Dissertation Abstracts International, 33:5606A, April, 1973. 40 influenced more strongly by subject matter. Elementary trainees showed a firmer commitment to their desire to teach than did those in secondary. Wood85 solicited information from two groups of student teachers majoring in business from sixty teacher education schools. One group had had pre- student teaching laboratory experiences and the other had not. The important findings included a significant difference in posi- tive attitude change in the experimental group as opposed to the control group, and the indication that the high school business teacher had been the most influential factor in the student's decision to enter teaching as a career. Ziebarth and Jones86 studied reasons for students' failure to com- plete a specially designed teacher training course. They reported that those who failed to complete the course tended to be the ones who were uncertain of their education goals. Bender et al.87 dealt with the acceptance or rejection of handi— capped students in teacher education programs. They made the observation that the students should be selected who sincerely wish to work with young people in an educational setting. 85Jerry'Lee wood, "The Influence of Professional Laboratory Experi- ences Upon the Career Choices of Undergraduate Business Teacher Education Majors," Dissertation Abstracts International, 32:83lA, August, l97l. 86Raymond A. Ziebarth and Virginia C. Jones, "Secondary Education Individual Instruction Project: A Curriculum Instruction Study Project," Educational Technology, l2:66, November, l972. 87Jay A. Bender, Oliver P. Kolstee, and Harold M. Kaplan, "Acceptance of Disabled College Students into Teacher Training Programs," Exceptional Children, 34:685-691, May, 1968. 41 Weber and Cooper88 recognized the value of an early clinical experi- ence in helping prospective teachers firm up their desire to teach. They said, "There is no doubt that early awareness experiences in the schools allow our students to test themselves and their commitment to teaching. We believe this testing should be done early enough in a student's college career to allow for other options if he discovers that teaching isn't for him." Summary The foregoing review of literature identifies the major thinking and trends in the area of profession laboratory experiences which relate to the focus of the present study. These ideas are summarized in the following statements. l. The need for professional laboratory experiences, including pre-student teaching, is recognized by most writers in this field. 2. According to most authors who have dealt with pre-student teach- ing clinical experiences, their advantages far outweigh their disadvantages. 3. The consensus of opinion is that early clinical experiences should be accompanied by theoretical training in education, even though some people emphasize only the experiential component. 4. The type of activities in which students engage during early clinical experiences is generally a mixture of teaching and non-teaching, with emphasis on teaching activities. 5. Changes in confidence level for teaching, attitude toward teaching, and desire to teach generally occur during early clinical experiences, but the direction and magnitude of such changes are not consistent from one study to another. 88Wilford A. Weber and James M. Cooper, Com etencyrBased Teacher .Egucation: A Scenario, American Association of College57fbrTeacher Education, PBTE Series No. 5, Washington, D. C., l972, p. 8. CHAPTER III DESIGN OF THE STUDY The research design is described in Chapter III. The following headings serve as the format for the discussion: Definitions, Population, Sample, Hypotheses, Design, Procedure, Measurements, and Summary. Definitions The definitions listed below are intended to clarify and operational- ize pertinent terms which are used throughout this study. l. Education lOlA--Exploring Elementary_Teaching, which is referred to hereafter in this study as EET, is a three-hour course re- quired of everyone seeking admission to the Michigan State Uni- versity elementary certification program. The current Michigan State University Catalog gives the following description: "Emphasis on the nature of teaching in the elementary school achieved through field experiences while serving as a teacher aide in an elementary classroom. Concurrent lecture sessions focus on techniques of classroom management and operation.”1 1 s _“s M.S.U. Catalo ue Descri tions of Courses Section, Michigan State University Publications, 1973, p. A38. ' 42 2. 43 Education 3ZlA--Curriculum, Methods, and Materials-Elementary Education, is referred to as CMM in this study. This three-hour course involves "Bases, scope, and sequence of curriculum in reading, language arts, and social studies; adaptation of principles to methods and materials of teaching in the elemen- tary and middle school."2 In practice, elementary science and mathematics are also part of this course. Elementary School, as used in this study, refers collectively to all grades from kindergarten through sixth grade. . EET Experimental Group is the randomly selected group from EET, Spring Term, 1973, which was given both the pretests and the . posttests. ' EET Posttest-only Group is the randomly selected group from EET, Spring Term, l973, which was given the posttests only. CMM Experimental Gropp_is the sample selected from CMM, Spring Term, l973 students who have had EET. The Desire to Teach Form was administered as a pretest and as a posttest to this sample. . CMM Control Group is the sample selected from CMM, Spring Term, . 0 1973 students who have not had EET. The Desire to Teach Form was administered as a pretest and as a posttest to this sample. file 029 039 04o 05; 06, GHd 07 Experimental Group pretest measures, EET Experimental Group post- refer, respectively, to the EET test measures, EET Posttest-only Group posttest measures, CMM Experimental Group pretest measures, CMM Experimental Group 2 Ibid., p. A39. h». All 44 posttest measures, CMM Control Group pretest measures, and CMM Control Group posttest measures. 9. Confidence Level Inventory for Teaching, which will hereinafter be referred to as CLIT, is a testing instrument designed to measure confidence level for teaching. (See further discussion under Measurements, pp. 63-68 and Appendix B.) 10. Minnesota Teacher Attitude Inventory [Form A), which will here- inafter be referred to as MTAI, is a testing instrument designed to measure attitudes toward teaching. (See further discussion under Measurements, pp. 63-68.) ll. Desire to Teach Form, which will hereinafter be referred to as DT, is a testing instrument designed to measure the extent of desire to teach elementary school. Form 2 of DT (OT-2), the post-course form, differs from Form 1 (DT-l) in that it includes explanatory information regarding the level of desire to teach. A distinction between the two forms is made in this study to call attention to the explanatory part of DT-2. (See further discussion under Measurements, pp. 63-68 and Appendices C and D.) 'Population The study population is the Michigan State University students who were enrolled in EET, Spring Term, 1973. A second population, related to Hypotheses IV and V, is the Michigan State University students who were enrolled in CMM during Spring Term, l973. 45 Sample The sample consists of two randomly selected groups of thirty stu— dents each from EET, Spring Term, 1973. The EET Experimental Group received pretests, treatment, and posttests; the EET Posttest—only Group received the treatment and posttests only. Both the EET Experimental Group and the EET Posttest-only Group took EET (the treatment) simul- taneously. Two additional groups of students were selected from CMM for re- searching Hypotheses IV and V. The first of these, the CMM Experimental Group, was drawn from that segment of the class which had had EET previously. The other group, the CMM Control Group came from among those who had not had EET. Only those students who completed DT both as a pre- test and as a posttest were included in the sample. Hypotheses The hypotheses are stated here in the null form, with accompanying alternates. I. There will be no difference between the mean posttest score of the EET Experimental Group and the mean posttest score of the EET Posttest-only Group, in terms of confidence level for teaching, attitude toward teaching, and desire to teach elementary school, as measured by CLIT, MTAI, and DT, respectively. Symbolically: Ho: M2 = M3. Alternate: The mean posttest score of the EET Experimental Group will not equal that of the EET Posttest-only Group. Symbol1cally: H]: M2 f M3. II. 11a. 11b. 46 Legend: M2 = EET Experimental Group posttest mean, M3 = EET Posttest-only Group posttest mean. There will be no gain from pretest to posttest for the EET Experimental Group, in terms of confidence level for teaching, attitude toward teaching, and desire to teach elementary school, as measured by CLIT, MTAI, and DT, respectively. Symbolically: Ho: M2 - M1 = 0. Alternate: There will be a gain from pretest to posttest for the EET Experimental Group. Symbolically: H]: M2 - M1 f 0. Legend: M2 = EET Experimental Group posttest mean, M1 = EET Experimental Group pretest mean. There will be no gain from pretest to posttest for the EET Experimental Group, in terms of confidence level for teaching, as measured by CLIT. Symbol1cally: Ho: M2c - Mlc = 0. Alternate: There will be a gain from pretest to posttest for the EET Experimental Group. Symbol1cally: H1: M2C - Mlc f 0. Legend: M = EET Experimental Group posttest mean score on 2c CLIT, M c = EET Experimental Group pretest mean score on CLIT. 1 There will be no gain from pretest to posttest for the EET Experimental Group, in terms of attitude toward teaching, as measured by MTAI. IIc. 011. 47 Symbolically: Ho: M2a - Mla = 0. Alternate: There will be a gain from pretest to posttest for the EET Experimental Group. Symbol1cally: H]: M2a - Mla f 0. Legend: M = EET Experimental Group posttest mean score on 2a MTAI, M a = EET Experimental Group pretest mean score on MTAI. I There will be no gain from pretest to posttest for the EET Experimental Group, in terms of desire to teach elementary school, as measured by DT. Symbolically: Ho: M2d - Mld = 0. Alternate: There will be a gain from pretest to posttest for the EET Experimental Group. Symbolically: H]: M2d - Mld # 0. Legend: M = EET Experimental Group posttest mean score on DT, 2d M = EET Experimental Group pretest mean score on DT. ld Optional Hypothesis II (OIL) There will be no difference between the mean pretest score of the EET Experimental Group and the mean posttest score of the EET Posttest-only Group, in terms of confidence level for teach— ing, attitude toward teaching, and desire to teach elementary school, as measured by CLIT, MTAI, and DT, respectively. Symbolically: Ho: M1 = M3. Alternate: There will be a difference between the mean pretest score of the EET Experimental Group and the mean posttest score of the EET Posttest-only Group. OIIa. OIIb. 48 Symbolically: H1: M1 f M3. Legend: M1 = EET Experimental Group pretest mean score, M3 = EET Posttest-only Group posttest mean score. There will be no difference between the mean pretest score of the EET Experimental Group and the mean posttest score of the EET Posttest-only Group, in terms of confidence level for teaching, as measured by CLIT. Symbolically: Ho: Mlc = M3c' Alternate: There will be a difference between the mean pretest score of the EET Experimental Group and the mean posttest score of the EET Posttest-only Group. Symbolically: H]: Mlc f M3c' Legend: M = EET Experimental Group pretest mean score on lc CLIT, M = EET Posttest-only Group posttest mean score on CLIT. 3c There will be no difference between the mean pretest score of the EET Experimental Group and the mean posttest score of the EET Posttest-only Group, in terms of attitude toward'teaching, as measured by MTAI. Symbolically: Ho: Mla = M3a' Alternate: There will be a difference between the mean pretest score of the EET Experimental Group and the mean posttest score of the EET Posttest-only Group. Symbolically: H]: Mla f M3a' Legend: M = EET Experimental Group pretest mean score on la MTAI, M a = EET Posttest-only Group posttest mean score on MTAI. 3 OIIc. III. 0111. 49 There will be no difference between the mean pretest score of the EET Experimental Group and the mean posttest score of the EET Posttest-only Group, in terms of desire to teach elementary school, as measured by DT. ld = M3d' Alternate: There will be a difference between the mean pretest Symbolically: Ho: M score of the EET Experimental Group and the mean posttest score of the EET Posttest-only Group. Symbolically: H]: Mld f M3d' Legend: M1d = EET Experimental Group pretest mean score on DT, M3d = EET Posttest-only Group posttest mean score on DT. There will be no difference between the pretest variance and the posttest variance of the EET Experimental Group, in terms of desire to teach elementary school, as measured by DT. Symbolically: Ho: 5? = 3;. Alternate: There will be a difference between the pretest variance and the posttest variance of the EET Experimental Group. Symbolically: H]: s? f 5:. Legend: S? = EET Experimental Group pretest variance on DT, SE = EET Experimental Group posttest variance on DT. Optional Hypothesis III (0111) There will be no difference between the pretest variance of the EET Experimental Group and the posttest variance of the EET Posttest-only Group, in terms of desire to teach elementary school, as measured by DT. IV. 50 Symbolically: Ho: S? = 5;. Alternate: There will be a difference between the pretest variance of the EET Experimental Group and the posttest variance of the EET Posttest-only Group. Symbolically: H]: S? f 5%. Legend: S? = EET Experimental Group pretest variance on OT, 2 S3 = EET Posttest-only Group posttest variance on DT. There will be no difference between the pretest variance and the posttest variance of the CMM Experimental Group, in terms of desire to teach elementary school, as measured by DT. Symbolically: Ho: SE = 8%. Alternate: There will be a difference between the pretest variance and the posttest variance of the CMM Experimental Group. 0 O 2 2 Symbolically. H]. S4 1 55. Legend: $2 = CMM Experimental Group pretest variance on OT, 5: = CMM Experimental Group posttest variance on DT. . There will be no difference between the pretest variance and the posttest variance of the CMM Control Group, in terms of desire to teach elementary school, as measured by DT. Symbolically: Ho: 52 = 5;; Alternate: There will be a difference between the pretest variance and the posttest of the CMM Control Group. Symbolically: H : s: f 53. l Legend: 5: = CMM Control Group pretest variance on OT, 5; = CMM Control Group posttest variance on DT. 51 m The basic design of this study is referred to by Campbell and Stanley3 as the Separate Sample Pretest-Posttest Design. They have symbolized it as follows: R 0 X 0 where the R's indicate that the subjects have been randomly selected from the population and the groups have been randomly assigned to the 1 and 02 represent the pretest and posttest observations, respectively, for the EET Experimental Group, treatment, X represents the treatment, 0 03 represents the posttest observations for the EET Posttest-only Group. In this design, 0 may appear to represent a control group measure, 3 but it does not do so in the traditional sense. Since the only differ- ence between the two groups is the absence of pretest measures for the EET Posttest-only Group; 0 functions as a control for testing effects. 3 The designations "EET Experimental Group" and "EET Posttest-only Group" have been selected to make this point clear. The extension of this research into CMM, suggested by Hypotheses IV and V, is symbolized as follows: 14x2°5 O4 and O5 signify the pre- and posttest measures, respectively, of the 3Donald T. Campbell and Julian C. Stanley, Experimental and Quasi Egperimental Designs for Research, Chicago: Rand, McNally and Company, 1970, pp. 53-54. 52 CMM Experimental Group, 06 and 07 represent the pre- and posttest measures, respectively, of the CMM Control Group, X1 stands for the treatment (EET) which the CMM Experimental Group has had, X2 stands for the treatment (CMM) that both groups have had, and the dash line indi- cates that the two groups have not been randomly selected from the population nor randomly assigned to treatments. Random selection and assignment were not practiced since the sample subjects were drawn from just that segment of CMM students who completed both the DT pretest and posttest. Approximately 65% of the total en- rollment of CMM completed both forms of DT. The inherent soundness of the Separate Sample Pretest-Posttest Design is subject to the limitations discussed below. Arguments are presented in this discussion to demonstrate how these have been avoided when possible in the present study. 4 is what The first limitation mentioned by Campbell and Stanley they term history. This concern is raised because of the possibility that some change-producing events may occur during the treatment in addition to the treatment. The longer the time interval between pretest and posttest, the higher is the probability that such an event will occur. In order to be a plausible explanation for change, however, historical events must occur in such a way that most of the subjects in the study are affected. The researcher knows of no such events having occurred during the course of the present study. 4Ibi .. pp. 5-7. 53 The second potential drawback pointed out by Campbell and Stanley5 is that of maturation. Questions are raised regarding the effects of changes in chronological age, emotional growth, etc. This is not a major weakness in this study, Because the time period between the pre- and posttests was relatively short, i.e. nine weeks. Significant maturation was not likely to have occurred for people in the age range of these subjects. The question of instrumentation is raised by Campbell and Stanley.6 The dangers to be avoided in this regard are related to (1) changes in the calibration or scoring of the instruments, (2) differences among observers and/or scorers, and (3) pretest sensitization. Since the observations of the dependent variables in the present study were made by using objective tests, and since the same tests were used for pre- and posttests, neither calibration nor scoring of the tests were likely to have caused any change-producing effects. Test administration was accomplished by the cooperative efforts of staff from EET and CMM. Even though various people participated in the administration of the tests, an effort was made to standardize the procedures and conditions of testing. Pretest sensitization was controlled in the basic design (Hypotheses I, II, and III). The phase of the study which involved CMM did not have such a control, so a limitation is recognized at that point. The effect of pretest sensitization in CMM would tend to minimize a change in variance of DT scores from pretest to posttest. 51bid.. pp. 5-9. 61bid.. pp. 5, 53. 54 The interaction of selection and maturation is mentioned by Campbell and Stanley7 as a possible competing variable, the effects of which might be confused with treatment effects. This interaction is of con- cern however, only when the samples are drawn from essentially different populations. Since both the EET Experimental Group and EET Posttest-only Group were drawn from the same population, the interaction of selection and maturation was not applicable to the present study. Further limitation is recognized because of the absence of a com- parison control group. A control group was highly impractical in this design because of the difficulty in obtaining an experimental group which would receive the treatment (EET) and an equivalent control group which would not receive the treatment. There are eight remaining factors which Campbell and Stanley8 indicate may jeopardize either the internal or external validity of any design. They argue, however, that the Separate Sample Pretest-Posttest Design is so constructed that it adequately controls them all. To test Hypothesis I, a multivariate one-way ANOVA was performed on the overall mean scores of the EET Experimental and EET posttest- only Groups (02 vs. 03). This technique was intended to show whether or not there exists a difference between the EET Experimental Group and the EET Posttest-only Group due to testing effects. Simultaneously, a univariate one-way ANOVA was performed on the mean scores of the EET Experimental Group and EET Posttest-only Group in terms of CLIT, MTAI, 71bid., pp. 5, 4a. 81bid., pp. 5, 4o. 55 and DT separately. In this way it was possible to determine which, if any, of the three tests was causing the effect. The purpose of testing Hypothesis I was to see whether or not a dif- ference existed between 02 and 03. Since both the EET Experimental Group and the EET Posttest-only Group were randomized, it was assumed that an 02 vs. 03 difference would be due to testing effects. Further analy- sis then would call for a comparison of group means between 02 and 03. In the event of no difference, further analyses could be performed on gain scores from the pretest to the posttest of the EET Experimental Group (02 - 0]). To provide for the outcome of no difference between 0 and 0 2 3’ Optional Hypothesis II was designed for analysis of differences between Hypothesis II was constructed for analysis of gain scores. group means of the EET Experimental Group and the EET Posttest-only Group (01 vs. 03). Hypothesis III and Optional Hypothesis III were similarly designed to accommodate analysis based on variance differences from pretest to posttest. Comparison of the variance of the EET Experi- mental Group on the pretest with their own variance on the posttest is indicated by Hypothesis III. Optional Hypothesis III suggests a compari- son between the EET Experimental Group and the EET Posttest-only Group. Hypothesis II was tested by means of a multivariate one-way ANOVA on the gain scores of the EET Experimental Group from pretest to post- test. The intention was to detect the presence of a treatment effect on the basis of all three dependent variables: CLIT, MTAI, and OT. A simultaneous univariate one-way ANOVA was performed on gain scores of the EET Experimental Group from pretest to posttest for CLIT, MTAI, and DT, separately. Thus it was possible to determine a treatment effect on 56 each dependent variable individually. Results of analytical treatment reported in Chapter IV show that Hypothesis II, rather than Optional Hypothesis II, was the appropriate choice for significance testing. To test Hypotheses III, a t-test was performed on the pretest and posttest variances of DT scores for the EET Experimental Group. The purpose was to show whether or not there was a pre-post shift toward a more or less extreme position in terms of desire to teach elementary school, during EET. As was the case with Optional Hypothesis II, analytical results reported in Chapter IV indicate that Hypothesis III, rather than Optional Hypothesis III, was the appropriate choice for sig- nificance testing. To test Hypothesis IV, a t-test was performed on the pretest and posttest variances of DT scores for the CMM Experimental Group. This was intended to show whether or not there was evidence of a pre-post shift toward a more or less extreme position in terms of desire to teach elementary school for those studehts in CMM who have taken EET. To test Hypothesis V, a t-test was performed on the pretest and posttest variances of DT scores for the CMM Control Group. The intention was to show whether or not there was a pre-post shift toward a more or less extreme position in terms of desire to teach elementary school for those students in CMM who have not taken EET. The ten demographic characteristics listed below were selected as possible factors that may differentially influence the outcomes of the measurements of the dependent variables. l. age 2. marital status 3. socio-economic background 57 . prior contact with children . sex ' . college class level . day of the week the student participates . . grade level in which the student participates . teaching style of the classroom teacher to which the student is assigned l0. relative amount of teacher aiding in which the student engages. OmNO'OQ'I-h These characteristics can be divided into two general categories: personal and/or background characteristics (age, marital status, socio- economic background, prior contact with children, sex, and college class level) and situational factors (day of the week the student participates, grade level in which the student participates, teaching style of the classroom teacher to which the student is assigned, and type of activity in which the student engages). No attempt is made here to justify the selection of these specific variables to the exclusion of all other possibilities. The rationale for choosing these particular ten is based on the following points: (1) most of these are typically used in re- 9’10’11 (2) intuitively it search of the nature of the present study; can be expected that confidence level for teaching, attitude toward teach- ing, and desire to teach are influenced according to different levels of these independent variables; (3) various levels of each characteristic are represented in the sample; and (4) the data are easily objectified. gGeorge R. Schneck, "An Investigation of Visitation Experience in an Education Program for Prospective Elementary Teachers," Unpublished Doctoral Dissertation, Michigan State University, l972. 10Marie Carol Schrag, "An Assessment of Selected Attitudinal Changes in Secondary Vocational Teachers," Unpublished Doctoral‘Dissertation, Michigan State University, l972. 1lTheodore J. Czajkowski, "The Relationship of Confidence for Teach- ing to Selected Personal Characteristics and Performance of Student Teachers," Unpublished Doctoral Dissertation, Michigan State University, 1968. 58 For each independent variable, two or more levels were identified. Age was categorized into two levels: l8 to 20 and 2l to 23 years old. Two levels of marital status were used: single and married. Socio- economic background was determined by categorizing the occupation of the student's father under three headings: professional and/or business, a technical and/or skilled labor, and unskilled labor. Four levels of . prior contact with children were identified by assigning a numerical value to the length of time the student was in contact with the child and to the type of experience during the contact. The time scale was ' - E4 represented by 1: one month or less, 2: one to six months, 3: six months to one year, and 4: more than one year. The experience scale is represented by 1: children's clubs, church, camp, playground, 2: baby- sitting, 3: classroom, and 4: your own children and brothers or sisters. A total prion-contact number was obtained by multiplying the time-scale number by the experience-scale number for each response and then summing across all responses for a given student. For example, if a student indicated he had done babysitting (experience value = 2) for six months to one year (time value = 3), he was credited with a value of six for that particular response (2 x 3 = 6). The sum of all his respon- ses then composed his total prior-contact number. The range of all total prior-contact numbers for all respondents was from 0 to 55. For convenience, this range was reduced to four levels, where "l" repre- sents O to 13, "2" represents 14 to 27, "3" represents 28 to 4l, and "4" represents 42 to 55. Each respondent was finally assigned one of the four reduced prior-contact numbers. Sex was categorized into two levels: _ .3 . 0:1 1.3km! 59 male and female. Five levels of college class were used: freshman, sophomore, junior, senior, and other. Day of the week was divided into five levels: Monday through Friday. Three categories of grade level were identified: kindergarten through third grade, fourth through sixth grade, and a combination of grades; Teaching style of the classroom teacher was described on a four-point continuum scale from l: open fi (warm, friendly, comfortable, adaptable) to 4: closed (cool. unfriendly, uneasy, inflexible). Three levels of relative amount of teacher aiding were identified on the basis of total time spent in the elemen- t) tary school. 1: 46-62%, 2: 63-67%, and 3: 68-72%. - Most of the data for the ten demographic characteristics were col- lected from a student personal information form. Data for the teaching style of the classroom teacher were obtainedifrom written responses to the fourepoint continuum scale indicated above by l. graduate assistant supervisors who worked with the teachers, 2. students who participated in the classroom, and 3. the researcher, because of personal visits to the classrooms of some participants. A single integer on the continuum was assigned to each teacher, that integer being the rounded average of all responses. Analysis of the demographic data was done on an inspection-of- data basis rather than by statistical significance testing because the sample is not large enough (n = 30) to provide subjects for every cell of a crossed design. The following method was employed. The gain scores of CLIT, MTAI, and DT were grouped according to the various levels of each characteristic. The mean gain score for each test for each 60 level was then computed. The results are shown in Table 4.ll, Chapter IV. The data for the relative amount of teacher aiding was collected from students' responses to a checklist of suggested activities for EET.12 (See Appendix A.) Students were requested to indicate the frequency of engaging in certain activities by checking opposite that activity in column l: "1 time," column 2: "2 or more times," or column 3: "weekly." The researcher grouped each suggested activity into two categories: aide-type activities, and non—aide-type activities. The three columns listed above were assigned values of one, two, and three, respectively. The percent of the total school time spent in I aide-type activities for any given student equals the sum of all his "aide" checks compared with the sum of all checks. From a list of probable activities in EET and CMM, students were requested to select the ten that they felt were most influential in determining their desire to teach elementary school. The analysis of the results involved identification of those items which were selected most often as first, second, or third choices. These figures are summarized in Table 4.lO, Chapter IV for the EET Experimental Group and- for random samples of the CMM Experimental and Control Groups. Procedure The procedure describes the steps that were taken to obtain the subjects and the data for the study. 12Checklist of Explorin Teachipg Activities, Michigan State Univer- sity, College of Education, partment of Elementary and Special Educa- tion. l. 4. 61 Eighty students were randomly selected from the initial enroll— ment lists of EET, Spring Term, l973. Forty of this group were randomly assigned to the EET Experimental Group, the remaining forty being assigned to the EET Posttest-only Group. After the test data had been collected, the size of both the EET Experi- mental Group and the EET Posttest-only Group was reduced to thirty each. Those to be eliminated from the original sample of forty were randomly selected after elimination of those who (l) submitted incomplete pretest or posttests, (2) showed evidence of a misunderstanding of test directions, or (3) were found to be three or more standard deviations from the mean of the sample group on any one demographic characteristic. During the period from April 3 to lO, l973, all students in EET were asked to complete a battery of tests according to an announced schedule. The CLIT, MTAI, and DT were administered to the previously selected EET Experimental Group. The remainder» of the students in the study population were given tests related to the EET experience but essentially different in both content and format from the CLIT, MTAI, and DT. During the Spring Term, l973, all enrollees in EET received the treatment which consisted of participation in EET. Placement of students in the schools and in grade levels was done according to the needs of the schools, the number of openings, and student choice rather than on a random assignment basis. On Tuesday, June 5, l973, all students in EET were again tested. 62 Both the EET Experimental Group and the EET Posttest-only Group received the CLIT, MTAI, and DT. The other class members re- ceived tests which were different in content and format from those of the two sample groups, but of approximately the same length. On Friday, March 30, l973, Dr. Shirley Brehm, Director of EET, assembled her graduate assistants for purposes of orientation to the course. The researcher attended the meeting and was introduced as a proctor with primary responsibility in the area of testing. Three students were assigned to the researcher for supervision, in order to minimize the probability of the graduate assistants', and hence the students', knowledge that a research study was to be conducted and any effects that might accompany this knowledge. . On Monday, April 2, l973, the entire EET class was assembled by their regular instructors for orientation to the activities of the course. At this meeting the students were asked to complete several forms, including a personal data form which provided information pertinent to this study. In order to minimize effects due to test administration by a special person, the researcher was introduced as a regular member of the EET team, with primary responsibility in data collection. Each Monday during Spring Term, l973, EET students were required to meet in regular session. The researcher met with the stu- dents and graduate assistants during these sessions in order to 63 gain credibility as a testing proctor and to gather evidence that the meetings were held and regularly attended. 8. Periodic visits were made to the participating schools by the researcher in order to: a. collect pertinent data by observation of students, schools, and teachers . a b. provide credibility for the investigator's presence in 1 testing session, and c. supervise assigned students. 9. During the week of April 2 to 6, l973, DT was administered as a pretest to all the students in CMM who were present in their E] section meetings. 10. During the period from May 2l to 31, l973, DT was administered as a posttest to all the students present in the CMM section meetings. ll. In order to obtain as large a sample as possible of completed DT pretests and posttests from CMM, telephone calls were made by the researcher to those CMM students for whom there was a pretest but no posttest response. As a result, some of the eighty CMM Experimental Group and thirty-five CMM Control Group responses were obtained by special arrangements at the convenience of the students. ligapsurements The Confidence Level Inventory for Teaching (CLIT), the Minnesota Teacher Attitude Inventory (MTAI), and the Desire to Teach Form (DT) Were chosen as measures of the dependent variables: confidence level 64 for teaching, attitude toward teaching, and desire to teach elementary school, respectively. The basis of the Confidence Level Inventory for Teaching was an eighty-one item student teacher evaluation form used at Michigan State University in the early sixties and revised in a l964 study by LePere and Cox.13 Subsequently, Dr. Shirley Brehm and Dr. Jean LePere admin— 1 stered the instrument to students in Michigan State University Methods Eilocks, using item analysis to determine discrimination values for each i tem. Administration of Form I to eighty students in early l966 resulted i n a reduction of the items from eighty-one to forty-four. Later the same year all but twenty-four of the remaining items were discarded on the basis of item analysis after administration to 179 students. Czajkowskij4 used Form III of the instrument (twenty-four items) with l 24 students and showed correlation coefficients for each item to be consistent with those of Brehm and LePere. On a test-retest basis, with a ten-week period of student teaching intervening, Brehm and LePere Computed a Pearson product-moment correlation coefficient of .47. 15 Czajkowski, by a similar procedure, obtained .61. The value obtained in the present study with the EET Experimental Group is .7ll as shown in Table 3.1. The present form of the test consists of twenty-four behaviorally stated aspects of teaching. The subject is requested to rate himself 13Jean M. LePere and Richard C. Cox, Training Elementary Teachers: .(kg‘mparison of Separate and Block Methods Courses, Michigan State Univer- Slty, Bureau of Education“ Research Services, East Lansing, l964. 14Czajkowski, pp, 513,. pp. 39-43. 15Ibid.. pp. 41-42. 65 Table 3.l. Pearson Product-Moment Correlation Coefficients wt Pooled within (EET Exp. Gp. and EET Post-onlypGp. - Posttests) T‘ CL IT-MTAI . 238 CLIT-DT - . I90 MTAI-DT - .229 Gain Scores (EET Exp. Gp- Pretests and Posttests) r CLIT-MTAI - . l81 CLIT-DT -.020 MTAI-0T .079 EET Exp. Gp. Pretest Posttest __r_ CLIT-MTAI .l78 CLIT-0T -.Zl4 MTAI-0T -.396 CLIT-MTAI -.052 CLIT-0T -.ZlO MTAI-DT -.218 CLIT - MTAI .l09 CLIT - DT -.366 MTAI - DT -.3l9 CLIT - CLIT .7ll MTAI - MTAI .770 DT - DT .772 MTAI - CLIT .095 DT - CLIT -.057 01' - MTAI - . 323 66 on a one to ten scale for each item, ranging from "extreme concern about abilities" to "extreme confidence in abilities." The total score is obtained by summing across all items, a high score indicating high confidence for teaching and a low score representing low confidence. The CLIT is designed to measure self concept as it relates to teaching. The items are based on the assumptions that, (l) the de- scribed behaviors are representative of the major aspects of teaching, zand (2) that the student's feeling of confidence in regard to these aareas reflects his general confidence for teaching. The Minnesota Teacher Attitude Inventory (MTAI) has been widely used as a measurement of teacher attitudes. Cook, Leeds, and Callis, the authors of the test, characterize it as an instrument designed to ". . . measure those attitudes of a teacher which predict how well he will get along with pupils in interpersonal relationships, and indirectly how well satisfied he will be with teaching as a vocation.. The most direct use to which the MTAI can be put is in the selection of teachers ‘For teaching positions. A parallel use is in counseling students about a vocational choice."16 The usefulness of the MTAI as a predictor Of satisfaction in teaching and as a counseling tool in relation to Vocational choice provides the basis for its selection in the present Study. Validation and development of the MTAI was begun by administering 756 items to 200 teachers. Principals' ratings indicated that, in terms ‘ 16W. W. Cook, C. H. Leeds, and Robert Callis, The Minnesota Teacher Attitude Inventory: Manual, New York: Psychological Corporation: 67 of maintaining good relationships with students, 100 of these teachers were superior and 100 were inferior. 0n the basis on item analysis, l64 of the items were retained because of their apparent ability to differentiate between superior and inferior teachers. These items were then cross-validated by administration to lOO teachers for whom no prior information was available regarding their relationships with pupils. Comparison of these scores was made with ratings of principals, pupils, and observers. Correlations between teacher MTAI scores and rating scores were used to compute validity coefficients. The results showed correlations of .45, .46, .49 and .60 for MTAI and principals' ratings, MTAI and pupils' ratings, MTAI and observers' ratings, and MTAI and combined ratings, respectively. Finally, l50 items were selected for publication, with a split-half reliability of .909 being reported.17 The Pearson product-moment correlation coefficient obtained in the present study with the EET Experimental Group is .770 as shown in Table 3.1. Responses for each item range from "strongly agree" to "strongly disagree" on a five-point scale. The range of total scores is from -l50 to +150, with the higher scores indicating the more positive atti- tudes. The Desire to Teach Form consists of a pretest and a posttest ver- sion. Their construction, by the researcher, was based on three forms f 17Ibid.. pp. 3-4. used in EET.]8']9’20 The purpose of DT-l, the pretest version, is to determine the extent of the student's desire to teach elementary school prior to a clinical teacher education course experience. The student? is requested to respond to a one to five scale ranging from "I am cer- tain that I want to teach in elementary" to "I am certain that I do not F. went to teach in elementary school." The posttest version, DT-2, asks I for a response to the same scale, this time based on experiences in the school assignment of the current term. In addition, DT-2 attempts to «determine the kinds of experiences in the clinical course which influ— g enced the students most in their desire regarding teaching in elementary school. Consequently, a list of twenty-seven probable experiences is loresented with instructions to select the ten most influential and rank 'them from one to ten with number one having the greatest influence in Tdetermining a student's desire to teach. The twenty-seven-item list does not stand as an exhaustive set of experiences in a clinical course. It is representative of the seven major categories of activities recom- rnended for EET students.21 As indicated in Table 3.l the Pearson Product-moment correlation coefficient for this one-item test is .772. 18Education lOlA:7Final Student Assessment, Michigan State University Fbrm, R-2, Spring, 1972. 19Exploring Teachin , Michigan State University, College of Educa- ‘tion, September, 19 20 21 Checklist of Exp]oring_Teaching Activities, pp, 913, Ibid. 69 Sumary The essence of Chapter III is a description of the research samples and the populations from which they were drawn, the procedure by which data were obtained, and a listing of the hypotheses to be researched. Also included is a list of pertinent terms with their definitions, a dis- cussion of the strengths and weaknesses of the research design, and background information regarding the testing instruments. CHAPTER IV ANALYSIS OF THE RESULTS Five hypotheses were tested in the present study. The analysis of each is presented in the first section of this chapter. Following this is a summary of data collected, after which is the chapter summary. Analytical Instruments The instruments used to measure the three dependent variables were the Confidence Level Inventory for Teaching (CLIT), a self-measure of confidence level for teaching; the Minnesota Teacher Attitude Inventory (MTAI), a measure of attitude toward teaching: and the Desire to Teach Form (DT), a measure of the extent of a student's desire to teach elemen- tary school. The EET Experimental Group was tested both prior to and following EET. The EET Posttest-only Group was tested only after they had completed EET. Both the CMM Experimental Group and the CMM Control Group were tested prior to and following CMM. (Hypotheses The hypotheses which have set the direction for this study are pre- sented below. Each is accompanied by a short description of the type of significance testing that was done, a tabular presentation of the results, and a significance statement. 70 71 Hypothesis I There will be no difference between the mean posttest score of the EET Experimental Group and the mean post- test score of the EET Posttest-only Group, in terms of confidence level for teaching, attitude toward teaching, and desire to teach elementary school, as measured by CLIT, MTAI, and DT, respectively. A multivariate one-way ANOVA was performed to test the significance fit of Hypothesis I. Simultaneously a univariate one-way ANOVA was per- formed to determine the contribution of each dependent variable to the outcome of the multivariate analysis. given in Table 4.1. The results of these analyses are Table 4.1. ANOVA for Testing Effects of the Pretest. Multivariate ANOVA pg, 3, 56 Univariate ANOVA Source of Test Variation CLIT Group Error MTAI Group Error DT Group Error 9!. d ' 58 d fl 58 E. .4565 Mean Sguare 1353.75 1036.68 18.15 707.69 .0667 .268 1: IA 1 ”C \l —l (A) co l-n 1.30 .0256 .2489 .2579 .8734 .6198 The null hypothesis of no testing effect of the pretest on the posttest was not rejected at the .05 level of confidence. This is 72 equivalent to saying that the pretests failed to act as an advance organizer for the posttests. This result leads to Hypothesis II rather than to Optional Hypothesis II. Hypothesis II There will be no gain from pretest to posttest for the EET Experimental Group in terms of confidence level for teaching, attitude toward teaching, and desire to teach elementary school, as measured by CLIT, MTAI, and DT, respectively. A multivariate one-way ANOVA was performed to test the significance of Hypothesis II. The results of the ANOVA are given in Table 4.2. Table 4.2. ANOVA for Gain Scores from Pretest to Posttest. Multivariate ANOVA 9.: f. Ls. 3, 27 4.574 .0103* *Significant at the .05 level of confidence. The null hypothesis of no gain from pretest to posttest for the EET Experimental Group was rejected at the .05 level of confidence. The indication is that at least one of the variables will show a significant change from pretest to posttest. t 73 Hypothesis IIa There will be no gain from pretest to posttest for the EET Experimental Group in terms of confidence level for teaching, as measured by CLIT. A univariate one-way ANOVA was performed to test the significance of Hypothesis Ila. The results of the ANOVA are given in Table 4.3. Table 4.3. ANOVA for Gain Scores of Confidence Level from Pretest to Posttest. Univariate ANOVA ;J Source of I_e§_i:_ Variation g1 - Mean Square f_ Lg ‘ CLIT Group . 1 3740.83 9.03 .0055* Error 29 414.35 *Significant at the .05 level of confidence. The null hypothesis of no gain from pretest to posttest in terms of confidence level for teaching was rejected at the .05 level of confi- dence. Confidence level for teaching underwent a significant change from pretest to posttest. Hypothesis IIb There will be no gain from pretest to posttest for the EET Experimental Group in terms of attitude toward teaching, as measured by MTAI. A univariate one-way ANOVA was performed to test the significance of Hypothesis 11b. The results of the ANOVA are given in Table 4.4. 74 Table 4.4. ANOVA for Gain Scores of Attitude from Pretest to Posttest. Univariate ANOVA Source of 12333. M12339. fl. Mean Square 5 LS. MTAI Groun 1 790.53 2.91 .0990 fig Error 29 271.98 . The null hypothesis of no gain from pretest to posttest in terms 5 of attitude toward teaching was not rejected at the .05 level of con- fidence. Attitude toward teaching did not change significantly from pretest to posttest. Hypothesis IIc There will be no gain from pretest to posttest for the EET Experimental Group in terms of desire to teach ele- mentary school, as measured by OT. A univariate one-way ANOVA was performed to test the significance of Hypothesis IIc. The results of the ANOVA are given in Table 4.5. Table 4.5. ANOVA for Gain Scores of Desire to Teach from Pretest to Posttest. ’“""" . rv Univariate ANOVA Source of Test Variation gf_ ~Mean Square §_ P;§_ DT Group 1 .0333 .3258 .5726 Error 29 .102 75 The null hypothesis of no gain from pretest to posttest in terms of desire to teach elementary school was not rejected at the .05 level of confidence. Desire to teach elementary school did not change sig- riificantly from pretest to posttest. Optional Hypothesis II (including 11a, 11b, and IIc) were con- structed to test the difference between group means in the event of a testing effect of the pretests on the posttests. A testing effect is iindicative of the occurrence of a change-producing factor in addition to the treatment. Hypothesis 011 There will be no difference between the mean pretest score of the EET Experimental Group and the mean post- test score of the EET Posttest-only Group, in terms of confidence level for teaching, attitude toward teach- ing, and desire to teach elementary school, as measured by CLIT, MTAI, and DT, respectively. Hypothesis OIIa There will be no difference between the mean pretest score of the EET Experimental Group and the mean post- test score of the EET Posttest-only Group, in terms of confidence level for teaching, as measured by CLIT. Hypothesis OIIb There will be no difference between the mean pretest score of the EET Experimental Group and the mean post- test score of the EET Posttest-only Group, in terms of attitude toward teaching, as measured by MTAI. Hypothesis OIIc There will be no difference between the mean pretest score of the EET Experimental Group and the mean post- test score of the EET Posttest-only Group, in terms of desire to teach elementary school, as measured by DT. 76 Optional Hypotheses II, 11a, 11b, and IIc were not tested because of the outcome of Hypothesis I. This is consistent with the discussion in Chapter III relative to Hypothesis II and Optional Hypothesis II. Evidence of a testing effect would have required the comparison of EET Experimental Group pretest means with EET Posttest-only Group posttest means in order to cancel the influence of the pretests on the posttests. Hypothesis 111 There will be no difference between the pretest variance and the posttest variance of the EET Experimental Group, in terms of desire to teach elementary school, as measured by OT. A t-test was performed to test the significance of Hypothesis III. The results of the t-test are given in Table 4.6. Table 4.6. t-Test for Variance Differences of Desire to Teach for the EET Experimental Group from Pretest to Posttest. l-s l<+ ' Test - p g_f_ DT 30 28 .717 .670 Mean'score (pretest) - 1.23 Mean Score (posttest) = 1.17 Variance (pretest) = .254 Variance (posttest) = .213 \ The null hypothesis of no difference between pretest and posttest variances of the EET Experimental Group, in terms of desire to teach 77 elementary school, was not rejected at the .05 level of confidence. The variance of the DT scores did not change significantly from pretest to posttest. Optional Hypothesis III was constructed to test the difference between variances in the event of a testing effect of the pretests on . _ the posttests. A testing effect is indicative of the occurrence of a r (ziiange-producing factor in addition to the treatment. Hypothesis 0111 we . There will be no difference between the pretest variance of the EET Experimental Group and the posttest variance of the EET Posttest-only Group, in terms of desire to teach elementary school, as measured by DT. Optional Hypothesis III was not tested because of the outcome of FLYpothesis I. This is consistent with the discussion in Chapter III relative to Hypothesis III and Optional Hypothesis III. Evidence of a 'teesting effect would have required the comparison of the EET Experimen- tal Group pretest variance with the EET Posttest-only Group posttest Variance in order to cancel the influence of the pretest on the posttest. Hypothesis IV There will be no difference between the pretest variance and the posttest variance of the CMM Experimental Group, in terms of desire to teach elementary school, as measured by OT. A t-test was performed to test the significance of Hypothesis IV. The results of the t-test are given in Table 4.7. 78 ‘Table 4.7. t-Test for Variance Differences of Desire to Teach for the CMM Experimental Group from Pretest to Posttest. _.___Test ‘ 0. 9: I: .2 0T 80 78 .591 - .220 Mean score (pretest) = 1.19 Mean score (posttest) = 1.18 Variance (pretest) = .205 Variance (posttest) = .197 The null hypothesis of no difference between pretest and posttest \Iair~iances of the CMM Experimental Group, in terms of desire to teach e‘l ementary school, was not rejected at the .05 level of confidence. The variance of DT scores did not change significantly from pretest to post- test. Hypothesis V There will be no difference between the pretest vari- ance and the posttest variance of the CMM Control Group, in terms of desire to teach elementary school, as measured by DT. A t-test was performed to test the significance of Hypothesis V. Tlie results of the t-test are given in Table 4.8. 'ML 79 Table 4.8. t-Test for Variance Differences of Desire to Teach for the CMM Control Group from Pretest to Posttest. _..__.Test 9. 9.: .E .12. OT 35 33 .839 .780 Mean score (pretest) = 1.37 m .2371? - -_n I“ Mean score (posttest) = 1.29 Variance (pretest) = .652 Variance (posttest) = .562 ‘Ifi. The null hypothesis of no difference between pretest and posttest variances of the CMM Control Group, in terms of desire to teach elemen- tary school, was not rejected at the .05 level of confidence. The vari- ance of DT scores did not change significantly from pretest to posttest. filmary of Data Collected The data collected in this study are summarized in the figures and tables that follow. The intention is an empirical presentation of the data, without any interpretative comnents. Figure 4.1 is a graphical comparison of mean scores on CLIT, MTAI, and DT for the EET Experimental Group and the EET Posttest-only Group. Gain scores from pretest to posttest for the EET Experimental Group are inCluded. The CLIT mean scores range from 183.6 to 194.8 on a scale Which has a minimum of 10 and a maximum of 240. The mean MTAI scores 1‘élnge from 52.13 to 57.27. The MTAI scale ranges from -150 to +150. 80 W EET Exp. Gp. EET Exp. Gp. EET P-O. Gp. ._E.tets§.L__ _Ens.ttes.t_ m 195 a. x (194.8) CLIT Gain = 11.2 190 '85 (185.3) MTAI x (56.17) 01 A a; r 1.3 «- DT x - x 1.2 .1}. (I'M (1.23) Gain = -.0.05 (1.17) 1 1 +- Figure 4.1. Comparison Scores on CLIT, MTAI, and DT. 81 [IT mean scores cover a range 1.17 to 1.23 on a 1 to 5 maximum range. The focus of Figure 4.2 is on DT. Both pretest and posttest means aire given along with gain scores of the three groups which were pre- arid posttested. Figure 4.2 is associated with Hypotheses III, IV, and V. Since the emphasis of these hypotheses is on variances, a variance P. l s<:ore accompanies the mean of each group. 3 Figure 4.3 contains a set of frequency distribution graphs. The ggv~aphs show pre- and posttest results for the EET Experimental Group, 1tl1e CMM Experimental Group, and the CMM Control Group. Tables 4.9 and 4.10 are coordinated with each other. Table 4.9 ‘iss a list of activities or situations in which students might have l>a1rticipated during EET or CMM. In the first column, "Item #," of 'Ttable 4.10, the number of certain of these activities or situations is '1 isted. Those items are shown which were selected as first, second, or 1:f1ird choice by students in response to the second part of DT-Z. The rlumbers in Table 4.10 indicate the frequency with which any given item Vveas selected as first, second, or third choice in terms of its influence C>r1 a student's desire to teach elementary school. In Table 4.11, the means of the gain scores on the three dependent variables, confidence level of teaching, attitude toward teaching, and desire to teach elementary school, are presented. The mean gain score ‘1=()l” each test is listed according to the various level of the ten demo- g1r~éagahic characteristics which were investigated in this study. 82 1.35a- 1.30“ [YT (Mean) 1.2&_ 1.204.. *— Pretest Posttest ("5 = 1.37, 2- S6 - .652) CWI Cont. Gp. Pl Gain = -.08 . x (M7 = 1.29, i, s = .552) EET Exp. Gp. Gain = -.06 X x (M - 1.18, s: = .197 CMM Exp. Gp. Gain = -.0]) (M2 = 1.17. s; = 213) Figure 4.2. Comparison Scores on DT. It 83 Number of People EET Exp. Gp. Pretest 25.. 25.. 20.. 20 _. 15-- 15 - 101'- 10.. 51- 5 . 0 _.