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This is to certify that the

dissertation entitled

"A Study of WOmen Characters in
Edith Wharton's Fiction 1905-1920"

presented by

Sivaporn Leerabhandh

has been accepted towards fulfillment
of the requirements for

Ph.D. degree in English

 

 

{Ekbut 5;, ji>aAzAifr

Major professor

Sam 8. Baskett
DathflQ 24. 1985

MSU is an Afl'mnaa've Action/Equal Opportunity Institution 0-12771

A STUDY OF WOMEN CHARACTERS
IN EDITH UHARTON’S FICTION 1905-1920

BY

Sivaporn Leerabhandh

A DISSERTATION

Submitted to
Michigan State University
in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY

Department of English

1985

ABSTRACT

A STUDY OF ”CHEN CHARACTERS

IN EDITH lalHARTON’S FICTICN 1905-1920

B)’

Siuaporn Leerabhandh

Edith Wharton’s outstanding women characters, the focus of this study.
provide vivid pictures of women at the beginning of the twentieth century.
Wharton creates two opposing categories of women. the
"new“--independent and mature--and the “old"--dependent and apparently
innocent women.

Because there is a comparative wealth of criticism on Wharton’s
fiction, Chapter One reviews the most important of those books. The
chapter also discusses the concepts of the "old" and “new" women. The
body of the dissertation investigates Wharton’s fiction from 1905 through
1920. Chapter Two focuses on Lily Bart in The House of girth as a moral
and potentially "new“ woman as contrasted with both Gerty Parish. an
extremely "new" woman. and Bertha Dorset, a malicious "old" woman.
Chapter Three has two female protagonists in M as the foci of
attention. Anna Leath. the "old" woman. reveals her selfishness in her
struggle with Sophy Viner. the bold "new" woman. for the love of George
Darrow. In similar pattern but more sophisticated in plot, characterization
and craft. The Age of Inngcenge occupies Chapter Four with the analysis of

May Welland. a conniving "old" woman. and Ellen Olenska. a conscientious

Sivaporn Leerabhandh

"new" woman. The subject of their controversy is Newland Archer.
Wharton’s love triangle pattern continues in Chapter Five as Zeena Frome.
a possessive "old" woman in the novella Ethan Frome. competes with
Mattie Silver. a restless "new" woman. for the love of Ethan Frome. In
Chapter Six, Charity Royall from Summer represents a sensUal "new"
woman in her love experience with Lucius Harney and her marriage with
Lawyer Royall. F inally. in Chapter Seven. Undine Spragg in The Custgm of
the Country gives the picture of the vicious "new" woman who exchanges
herself in marriages with three men for improved social position. Chapter
Eight concludes by discussing Wharton’s attitudes toward American women
in comparison with Frenchwomen as exemplified in her novella. fladame de
Trgzmeg.

This study proves that Wharton’s complex and well-drawn women
characters provide accurate insight into American women. literature. and
culture. Her realistic characterization, sophisticated treatment of plot
and style. and subtle choice of settings all contribute to her increasing
reputation as one of the most outstanding twentieth-century American

authors.

ACKNONLEDGMENTS

This study cannot be done without the supports of the following people
and institutions. First. I would like to express my gratitude to Fulbright
Foundation. Institute of International Education. and Harvard-Yenching
Institute for their financial supports during my four years of doctoral
program at Michigan State University.

Next. I would like to acknowledge my indebtedness to my Guidance
Committee members. Dr. Sam S. Baskett. the chairperson of the Committee.
has been very kind and patient in giving advice, reading, commenting. and
editing my manuscript. Dr. Linda Wagner, an important inspirer for my
study of Edith Wharton, has been very encouraging and understanding in
providing useful resources and suggestions during the writing process.
Also. Dr. Barry Gross has kindly commented and edited my work. Dr.
William A. Johnsen has, likewise, given helpful comments. Finally . I would
like to thank Dr. Frieda Brown, a College Representative. who has proved
to be a careful and efficient Outside Reader of my study.

I also would like to express my appreciation to Michigan State
University library and stafflfor the resourceful materials and prompt
service of computer search and inter-library loans. This access and
opportunity would not be possible for me without the help of Chiang Mai
University. Thailand. who has given me a leave of absence and a round-trip
expense. and that of U518 in Chiang Mai and Fulbright Foundation in
Bangkok. who acted as liaisons in my applying for further studies in the
U.S.A.

F inally, my special thanks are to all of my friends and family.
especially my parents, aunt. brother. and fiance’. whose persistent moral

support and encouragement enable me to finish this project.

ii

PREFACE

Edith Wharton has been selected for this study primarily because of my
special interest in women writers at the turn of the twentieth century--a
crucial period in the development of American women. Born and reared
between the two Feminist Movements (the late nineteenth century and the
mid-twentieth century). Edith Wharton realized the changes occurring in
the status of American women and explicitly portrayed those changes in a
picture of the society. She also reflected the resulting problems of the
American people. especially women. in her novels. Because she was a
woman. Wharton’s life exemplifies this transitional period of change in
American women’s lives. Her traditional upbringing in an upper-class New
York family and her traditional marriage to a Boston gentleman. Edward
Wharton. contrast sharply with her later controversial divorce. her career
as a talented writer. and her independent life in exile.

As a writer. Edith Wharton is too seldom given attention as a modern
American novelist of the first rank. This neglect is possibly due to the
fact that she is a woman writer whose works are read superficially and
often misinterpreted. In addition. some readers and critics have found it
difficult to fit her works into the already set categories. such as popular
romances. moral or didactic fiction. or serious modernist literature. If we
do not attempt such large categorizations. however. it is possible to see
Edith Wharton’s fiction as an effective presentation of American people.
especially women. of her time. Moreover. the quality of her writing. as
exhibited in her language. style. and characterizations. merits study for
itself.

Edith Wharton’s works may be grouped according to the three periods of
her publishing career. The first. her experimental period. 1899-1904.

iii

covers her period of initiation in writing fiction. The second. her most
successful period. 1905-1920. is the time of her major fictions which
brought both literary and commercial success. The third. her less popular
period. 1921-1938. includes a large number of works. mostly written while
she lived in France. but still on the subject of American people in their
country. These later works have yet to be properly evaluated.

My study will focus on the works of her middle period. which I find most
interesting; these most successful works‘ are also considered her major
fictions. This period covers her novels from The House of Mirth
(1905)--her first commercial success--to The Age of Innocence (1920)--the
1921 Pulitzer Prize novel. Most of her major fictions of this period will be
discussed in detail with the emphasis on Wharton’s characterization and
portrayals of women. The order of my presentation and discussion of
these works will not be chronological. Rather. I will consider them as
appropriate to my critical analysis of the principal characters. who will be
thematically related. Since these characters. mostly women. play dominant
roles. they merit special focus according to their development from the
“old" to the "new" woman.

Therefore. as far as Edith Wharton’s 1905-1920 works are concerned. I
will deal with her six major novels. Chapter 1 will summarize and discuss
important studies which are in some way related to my investigation; the
chapter will also discuss and define significant terms and concepts.
Chapter 2 will deal with Lily Bart. Lawrence Selden. Gerty Farish. Bertha
Dorset. and Carry Fisher in The fleese of Mirth (1905). Chapter 3 will
examine the principal characters-—Justine Brent. Bessy Westmore. and
John Amherst--in The Fruit of the Tree (1907) as parallel to Anna Leath.
Sophy Viner. and George Darrow in The Reef (1912). Chapter 4 will analyze
in detail the three main characters of The Age of Innocenee (1920): May
Welland. Ellen Olenska. and Newland Archer. Chapter 5 will be concerned

iv

with Mattie Silver. Zeena Frome. and Ethan in Ethan Frame (1911).
Chapter 6 will discuss the characterization of Charity Royall. Lawyer
Royall. and Lucius Harney in Summer (1917). Finally. Chapter 7 will focus
on Undine Spragg. Ralph Marvell. Clare Van Degen. Raymond de Chelles.
and Elmer Moffatt in The tom of the ntr (1913). Chapter 8. the
conclusion. will not only sum up the consequences of the whole study but
also emphasize the concept of the "old" and "new" women as evident in
French Weys eed Their Meem‘ng (1919) and as presented in Megame de
Trezmee (1907).

Although there are many aspects of these complex major works which
not only reward but require close critical examination. I will focus on
women characters who play strong and dominant roles in Wharton’s novels.
As a woman writer. Wharton consciously and deliberately depicts diverse
late nineteenth-century and early twentieth-century American women.
These portraits show the ambiguous status of women of all social classes
during this period of change and conflicting choice between being the "old"
or the "new" woman. In this context. the relationship between these
women and the male characters is also important. These situations not
only reflect the causes and problems of marriage and divorce in American
culture but also indicate the ways Wharton’s male characters have been
developed from stereotypes to convincing presentations of real human
beings. In short. this study has three objectives. 1 hope to contribute to a
fuller undestanding of Wharton’s novels. of American women. and of
American culture.

My approach will be textual rather than theoretical or psychological.
The principal emphasis will be on Edith Wharton’s works. specifically on
the portrayals of women characters. the stories of their lives. problems.
and relationships. Furthermore. in the context of the history of American
women. especially during the Feminist Movements. these women characters

V

will be analyzed. according to their roles and characteristics. as the "old"
or "new" woman. This concept will be defined and developed in the first

chapter.

vi

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

. CHAPTER 1 1
CHAPTER 2 20
CHAPTER 3 38
CHAPTER 4 5?
CHAPTER 5 76
CHAPTER 6 88
CHAPTER 7 100
CHAPTER 8 117
NOTES 128
BIBLIOGRAPHY 139

vii

CHAPTER 1

Edith Wharton’s place among the greatest writers of American
literature is not yet firmly established nor widely accepted. At the
beginning of the twentieth century. her fiction received critical attention
primarily because of its popularity and commercial success. However.
after her death in 1937. her reputation declined. This was partly because
Wharton is a woman writer. usually considered one of a minor group. and
partly because her works are generally misinterpreted as outdated period
pieces--nostalgic stories about old New York at the end of the nineteenth
century. At present. only a few critics consider Wharton seriously as an
important American author. Apparently. some of her novels. such as m
Me. The House of Mirth. and The age of Innocence. are still read only
because they are required in schools and colleges. It is obvious that Edith
Wharton as a twentieth-century American writer is not completely
forgotten. but she does not receive the recognition she deserves. To
recall her achievement and to bring attention to certain critics whose
works are relevant to this study. I would like to discuss briefly what I find
interesting in their treatments of Wharton.

Two bibliographical works I find very useful to start with are "Edith
Wharton: An Essay in Bibliography" (1973) by James Tuttleton and EM
Wherth eng Kete Qhoein: A Reference Guide (1976) by Marlene Springer.
Tuttleton’s study is informative and neatly presented under such topics as
Edith Wharton as a writer of short stories and n uvelles. her major works.
characterization. settings. and style. Springer’s book is the most recent
and complete reference guide with annotations. Since 1976. no

bibliography of Edith Wharton criticism has appeared.

IN.)

I find Irving Howe’s flgith Wharten: A Colleetien of Critical Essaze

(1962) a valuable collection of criticism. This book gives various
views-~positive and negative--by important critics of Warton’s life and
works. Most of these critics were Wharton’s literary contemporaries such
as Henry James. Edmund Wilson. Percy Lubbock. and V. L. Parrington.
Their essays and James’ letter to Wharton provide positive opinions.
informative critical points. and constructive suggestions. Two essays in
the collection. by Alfred Kazin and Lionel Trilling. sharply attack
Wharton’s work.

Among the critical essays. Irving Howe’s “Introduction: The
Achievement of Edith Wharton“ gives an overall critical evaluation of
Wharton up to 1962. In his judgment. " justice has not yet come to Edith
Wharton"1 fifteen years after Edmund Wilson’s article " Justice to Edith
Wharton." Howe makes this decision in consideration of the neglect of
Wharton by literary historians. academicians. and serious literary critics
as well as her lack of influence on current writers. Seeing Wharton as
"genuinely distinguished ."2Howe points out that the amount of first-rate
criticism of her work is small and that more critical issues should be
raised to give her her “rightful place as a living figure in the literary

.3

world. Unlike many previous critics. for example. G. D. Leavis and E. K.
Brown. Howe considers Wharton "an original writer." not Henry James’
disciple or heiress.“ Rather. Wharton is different from James in
characteristic style. narrative line. and sense of life.5 Moreover. Howe
justifies Wharton’s treatment of her characters. including men’s "notorious
vanity and faithlessness." "weak imagination.” and "laziness of spirit“ or

"a suppressed feminine bitterness. a profound impatience with the claims

of the ruling sex."6 Howe’s perceptive understanding is particularly

evident in his essay "A Reading of The House of Mirth." especially in his
discussion of Lily Bart. He regards the novel as essentially presenting “a
portrait of a young woman trapped in her confusions of value."7 Lily Bart.
a " weak and lovely" woman rather than a tragic heroine.8 is seen as “a
victim of taste”; her taste for morality conflicts with that for luxury. and
her moral awareness does not lead Lily to the courage of abandoning the

9

society. According to Howe. the effective portraying of Lily. "one of the
triumphs of American writing." is achieved by Wharton’s success in
showing a realistic figure "in plasticity and vibration" but at the same
time clinging firmly to her concept of the heroine.10
Contrary to Howe. Alfred Kazin claims that Wharton has been given too

much distinction as an American novelist. To this critic. Wharton cannot
be compared to Henry James. and in her attempt to become a writer. she is
only a specialist in "tales of victimization."111n Kazin’s opinion. Wharton
never became "a great artist. even a completely devoted artist." 12
Regarding Ethan Frome. Kazin criticizes the characterization of Ethan as a
failure "because he is spiritually superior and materially useless.“13
Furthermore. Kazin also expresses his doubt about Wharton’s knowledge of
the New England middle class. The critic unfairly concludes that Wharton
"had no conception of America as a unified and dynamic economy. or even as
a single culture.“14 Kazin’s final point in his essay shows his prejudice
against Edith Wharton as a writer:

. . . Edith Wharton. who believed so passionately in the life of

art that she staked her life upon it. remains not a great artist

but an unusual American. one who brought the weight of her

personal experience to bear upon a m dern American literature
to which she was spiritually alien.

Although I agree with Howe that Wharton is an original writer whose
works are unique. the fact that some critics relate Wharton to Henry James
should not be overlooked. Louis Auchincloss. for ex ample. in his essay
“Edith Wharton and her New York“ (which appears both in Howe’s collection
and Auchincloss’ Refleetigne gf a Jeggeite . began with a few anecdotes of
the relationship between these two authors to show why and how
Wharton’s ties to New York were stronger than James’. Auchincloss.
however. gives a sensible analysis of Wharton’s portrayal of New York and
its people in her three major novels--Th H f Mirth. Th ust of

the ggmtrx. and The Age of Innocence. In Wharton’s novels. the critic

finds New York to be:

". . . a city that was worldly. . . with a sense of order and form.
with plenty of leisure time in which art. music. and literature
could play a moderated role. The people from this world may
lack strength of charactfg. but their inertia is coupled with
taste and observation."
Auchincloss briefly. but perceptively. analyzes Lily Bart. Undine Spragg.
and Newland Archer. In his Opinion. Wharton’s later treatment of
contemporary New York--showing its ridiculous and disgusting
elements--is not as successful as that of the old New York in the three
earlier novels.17
Apart from this critical essay. two other works by Auchincloss on
Wharton should be briefly mentioned. The Edith Wharton chapter in
Pimeere a Qaretakere. which also appears in book form published by the
University of Minnesota Press. examines in more detail most of Wharton’s
principal novels from The Hggee of Mirth to The Age gf Inngeenee. One

important point Auchincloss makes is that Wharton’s attitude toward

18
"evasion of the marriage vow." divorce. and adultery was ambiguous. The

other interesting point is that Wharton and James differed in "their
approaches to their art.“ 19To Auchincloss. Wharton’s approach as a writer
is closer to George Eliot than James. This view seems to contradict his
previous discussion in which he calls Madame ge Trezmes "a true Jamesian
tale of innocents abroad"20and Ihe Reef "a J amesian novel."21 Finally.
Auchincloss’ Edith Wharton: A Woman in Her Time (1971) is a pictorial
biography which only briefly touches on her works. This book is valuable
for its beautiful. clear. and rare pictures of Edith Wharton as well as for
providing the critic’s personal attitude on her life.

Another significant full-length critical study is Geoffrey Walton’s
Edith Wharton: A Critical Intergretatige (first edition 1970; second and
revised edition 1933). As evident in the title and as stated clearly in the
preface. this critic focuses directly on the writer’s works. touching on her
life and personality only to illuminate her works. By restricting his
analysis to the texts. Walton seems to claim. in the 1983 edition. that his
examination of Edith Wharton as a writer is not affected by the
biographical details revealed by R. W. B. Lewis in 1975.

Walton views Wharton as a critic of and an insider in upper-class New
York society who was involved in analyzing "its custom and attitudes for
their human significance and value."22 He admires her characterizations.
finding the writer “a great creator of heroines." 23Analyzing her fictional
works. Walton categorizes them in three major groups: tragedy. comedy. and
satire. The ngse of Mirth and The Reef are discussed as ironic tragedies.
Summer is discussed as an ironic tragi-comedy. and The Custom of the
Qggntrx is discussed as a satiric comedy. The characters and their actions
are analyzed on the basis of their being tragic or comic figures as well as

representatives of certain groups of people. In the concluding chapter.

Walton observes that his comparison of Wharton and James is not
concerned with their "superiority and inferiority" but. instead. with their
"aesthetic differences and personal qualities.“24 Walton concludes that
Wharton ranks with such distinguished novelists as Henry James. George
Eliot. and Jane Austen.

Another approach to Wharton’s novels is advanced by James Tuttleton
in The Novel of Mannere in America (1972). This critic argues that despite
the popularity of romance in the nineteenth century and many writers’
complaints about the inadequacy of material in American society. American
literature has had novels of manners from James F enimore Cooper to
James Gould Cozzens. Tuttleton regards Wharton as a "social historian of
old New York." 25 He finds some of her novels of the middle and later
periods constitute "a brilliant but uneven series of satirical studies of the
social history of New York." 26He considers Wharton the major link between
the nineteenth- and twentieth-century American novel of manners. since
her works relate the generation of Howells and James to that of Fitzgerald
and Lewis.

In justifying Wharton as a novelist of manners. Tuttleton points out the
writer’s two methods in dramatizing the theme of tradition: first. by
illustrating “the importance of the web of culture and manners" and the
danger of escaping or destroying it; second. by reconstructing the social
world of old New York (1340-1330).27 The fiouee gf Mirth and In; Age of
Leggeeeee are the two novels of Wharton’s middle period which Tuttleton
discusses to illustrate why they belong to this form of American fiction.
He contends that both novels provide vivid pictures and records of "the
manners of the world of Edith Wharton’s youth." 28 This approach to

Wharton’s works as novels of manners is. I believe. too narrow: despite the

critic’s claim of its flexible and elastic form.29it restricts analysis to only
the society and manners instead of going into such significant points as
characterization and techniques.

Among many biographical works on Edith Wharton. the most important is
R. W. B. Lewis’ Edith Wharton: A Biograghx (1975). published seven years
after access was granted to the writer’s restricted papers at Yale.
Considered among Wharton scholars the most definitive. inclusive. and
authoritative work. this detailed study is indispensable in providing an
insight into Wharton’s life and works. Apart from giving the reader a
portrait of the author as an intelligent. sophisticated. and emotional but
repressed woman. Lewis also points out her talent as a great writer by
discussing and criticizing her important works as related to her life.

Since the focus of Lewis’ work is on Wharton’s life. the book thoroughly
examines all events and people important in relation to the writer from
childhood to death. For example. Wharton’s "making up" of stories and her
interest in the classical books. European and American. in her father’s
library were two major ways of escape from loneliness in childhood. and
they may account for her later productions of fiction and non-fiction. Dr.
S. Weir Mitchell’s advice for Wharton to write as a cure for her breakdown
in 1394-5 is another interesting point in her career as a writer. The most
controversial issue first revealed by Lewis is Warton’s secret love affair
with M. F. (Morton Fullerton) revealed in her "Love Diary" and poetry.
Other important events. such as the divorce from Teddy Wharton. the World
War I experience. the winning of the 1921 Pulitzer Prize for [he Age of
Innocenee. and her intellectual relationships with Walter Berry and Henry

James. among others. are all recorded and discussed along with Wharton’s

works. In short. Lewis’ biography is useful and informative in terms of
Wharton’s life and her works.

Another influential study is Cynthia Griffin Wolff’s A Eeaet gf Wgrge:
Ilee Irigmgh gf Egith Wharton. published one year after Lewis’ biography.
Her concern is to find out why Wharton wrote and became a great American
novelist despite her wealthy background and the discouraging society in
which she lived. The critic finds that “the ’facts’ of Edith Wharton’s life"
cannot answer the question because the recollections from her " sharply
etched memories" may be only "partial truths."30 Therefore. Wolff
attempts to understand "some of the forces that compelled her to
creativity“ by exploring her mind through the fictions.31 In short. the
focus of Wolff’s study is on the psychological aspect of Wharton as a
successful writer rather on the facts of her life.

In Wolff’s analysis the major factors in the making of the artist were
her own loneliness and the indifference of those she was close to. In
other words. the most important problem of the young artist was not only
her family’s attitude toward her which diminished her self-esteem. but
also the society’s attitude~-disapproval of a woman artist.

Wolff evaluates Wharton’s fictions from 1389 to 1937 in an attempt to
define her characteristic achievements. For instance. Wolff discusses
Wharton’s use of “a double heroine" in her famous short story "The Bunner

Sisters“ as anticipating similar devices in The Fruit of me Tree. The Reef.

and MW. Like many critics. Wolff associates The Hggee
of Mirth with Henry James’ Daisy Miller. sees Medeme ge Irexmes as the

novella of the international theme. views The Reef as Wharton’s attempt

to adopt James’ methods. and compares The Age gf Innocence to A fleetrait
M. Wolff also indicates the literary kinship of Ethan and Zeena in

Ethan Frgme with Hawthorne’s Ethan Brand and the heroine of flee
Blithedale Rgmance; moreover. unlike other critics. Wolff emphasizes the
significance of the narrator and points out his "psychological" problem as
the story’s focus. The Qustgm of the Coungry. according to Wolff. is
autobiographically a novel of a woman’s outrage with old New York
apathetic society. an attitude Wharton shared with her character. Undine
Spragg. but rather than Undine. the critic sees "psychic energy" as the
novel’s subject. Finally. Wolff observes that. as in Wharton’s personal
“Love Diary ." the theme of self-examination as a search for self-discovery
in Summer is one of the most important and pervading themes of the
author’s works. To sum up. Wolff’s A Feast of Words is a thorough.
psychologically-oriented analysis of Wharton’s life and work.

In the same year as A Feast of Words. Margaret B. McDowell. another
important critic. published Edith Wharton. a concise. inclusive. and
insightful critical work. As stated in the preface. her two contentions are
that Wharton’s place in the history of American literature is secure and
that after The Age ef Innocegee (1920) Wharton’s subsequent novels were
comparable achievements although they were not so well recognized.

McDowell focuses her study on Wharton’s fiction rather than on her
life. After relating the author’s life to her fictional female characters and
their relationship with men. the critic objectively indicates many points of
similarities between Wharton and Henry James. without assigning
superiority. The principal part of the criticism is based on McDowell’s
evaluation of Wharton’s characterization. especially her female
protagonists--Lily Bart. Justine Brent. Madame de Treymes. Sophy Viner.
Anna Leath. Zeena F rome. Mattie Silver. Charity Royall. Ann Eliza Bonner.

and Undine Spragg. McDowell. however. views The Age gf Innoeence mostly

10

in terms of Newland Archer’s dilemma. and mentions very little about May
Welland and even less about Ellen Olenska. Moreover. she not only calls
attention to Warton’s earlier less well-known works but also to the later
neglected novels of the 1920’s and 1930’s. McDowell praises Wharton as "a
mannerist." "a moralist.“ "a psychologist in fiction." and "a remarkable
novelist" whose importance is currently accepted in American literature
but whose recognition as "a great one" is yet to come.32

Another concise and valuable critical study is Richard H. Lawson’s
Egith Wherton (1977). Selective in treatment both of the author’s life and
works. this critic briefly summarizes certain events in Wharton’s life and
discusses in detail her five major novels. the short stories. and other
writings. The discussion of the novels is not chronological. Lawson
begins with The Age gf Inneeenee (1920). continues with The Houee of
M (1905). and then The Custom gf the Country (1907). To Lawson. these
three novels indicate Wharton’s "affectionate irony" towards old New York
society. not simply " indulgence in fictional nostalgia."33 In other words.
they reflect the writer’s ambivalent feelings--love and scorn--toward her
own society.3L*Lawson also focuses his study on characterization.
analyzing principal characters such as Ellen Olenska. Lily Bart. and Undine
Spragg.

The other two novels considered by Lawson are presented with
different purposes. The Beef provides the critic with the opportunity to
discuss the influence of Henry James on Wharton. especially in setting.
characters. and " internal balance."35 However. their difference. according
to Lawson. is in Wharton’s "ironic and subtle" style. In the examination of
Ethan Frome. the emphasis is on characterization. which Lawson sees as

Wharton’s highest achievement in this area. The characters are “complex.

11

free of cliche’. believable and even gripping." The style is also praised as
“ taut. precise. unpre tentious."36

In his conclusion. Lawson points out Wharton’s special gifts in plotting
and style. Since she is not " an innnovator of novelistic form." Wharton
cannot be termed a modern novelist; rather. she developed "the
possibilities of the traditional nineteenth-century novel" with her
"virtuosity."37 Finally. Lawson claims that Wharton’s appeal to the modern
reader can be accounted for by the shared experience in materialism as
well as in social and sexual discrimination.

Continuing interest in Edith Wharton is indicated by more recent
critical studies of her life and works. Elizabeth Ammons’ Edith Wharton’e
Argument with America (1930). adapted from her dissertation "Edith
Wharton’s Heroines: Studies in Aspiration and Compliance" (1974). places
Wharton’s fiction in a new perspective: the writer’s public argument.
recorded in her fiction. on "the issue of freedom for women.’38 Focusing on
Wharton’s fictional works from the 1390’s through the 1930’s. she
discusses the difference in subject between the earlier and later works
concerning the woman’s plight. The short stories. novellas. and novels
between the 1390’s through the 1920’s. according to Ammons. generally
have as their subject the misery of being a woman including her isolation.
powerlessness. and enthrallment. In Wharton’s works in the thirties.
however. the subject changes to the support of motherhood or the primacy
of a woman’s duty as a mother. her serving her family rather than
emancipating herself.

Ammons concentrates on Wl'Iarton’s eight novels from 1905 to 1920.
From these fictions she abstracts certain important arguments which she

finds Wharton as a woman has with the American society: women’s

12

problems with marriage-~repression. lack of independence. powerlessness.
and loneliness--in Ihe Houee of Mirth and The Fruii gf the Tree; culture
as an object of attack for repressing women and encouraging them to
believe that their personal liberty can be attained by marriage--in _‘i'_h_e_
831 and Ethan Erome; and the domination of female human nature by the
American patriarchal culture--in Summer.

Most interesting in Ammons’ study is her view of some of Wharton’s
novels as inverted fairy tales. Lily Bart. going from riches to rags. is
seen as the inverted version of Cinderella. Justine Brent is a new version
of Sleeping Beauty-~awakening to reality and the misery of life. not
fantasy. Zeena Frome may be viewed as the witch and Mattie Silver as
Snow White who at the end turns out to be another witch. Anna Leath and
Sophy Viner also are viewed through Cinderella and Sleeping Beauty
motifs. Undine Spragg. on the other hand. is seen by Ammons as a modern
Circe and a warrior queen.

As my interest is in the "new" woman. Ammons’ discussion of
Wharton’s characters provokes my own research and study. For Ammons.
the new woman possesses admirable qualities--she is active. independent.
autonomous--but she is sometimes isolated and lonely. The child-woman.
on the other hand. conforms to the society’s masculine orientation.
although she is considered by Ammons the least admirable heroine.
Justine Brent is a Wharton heroine who exemplifies the new woman as
opposed to Bessy Westmore. the child-woman preferred by men and the
culture to the adult or “new" woman. Sophy Viner is another new woman of
the middle-class. as is Undine Spragg. the heroine of the "business novel."

Finally. Ammons views Ellen Olenska also as the new woman of the 1870’s

13

old New York period and as the dark adult feared by men. a contrast to May
Welland. the fair child-woman adored by men of the patriarchal society.

In addition to Ammons’ dissertation "Edith Wharton’s Heroines" (1974).
at least three other dissertations deal directly with Wharton’s women
characters: Robert Wolfe’s "The Restless Women of Edith Wharton" (1974).
Jean Turner’s "The Ideology of Women in the Fiction of Edith Wharton"
(1975). and Carol Wershoven’s "The Female Intruder in the Novels of Edith
Wharton" (1982).

In " The Restless Women of Edith Wharton." Wolfe investigates the
women characters from Lily Bart to Nan St. George (in The Buccaneers .
They reflect. he claims. the author’s personal experiences as a restless
woman herself and the changes in the "growing independence" of the early
twentieth-century American women}9 He finds the ambivalence in
Wharton’s writing to be a result of two factors: her concern with the lack
of freedom for women and her dismay at "the vulgarity of women who
divorce!“O Through her female characters. Wharton expresses her
ambivalent attitude towards the changing scene and increasing freedom of
women.

The women in Wharton’s fiction whom Wolfe considers "restless" are
those who are imprisoned. trapped. or restricted by the rules of
conventional society from which they try to escape. some with success and
some without. Lily Bart. according to the critic. is the prototype of the
restless woman who fails to escape. Justine Brent. another restless
woman. exemplifies the "predicament and restlessness of the modern
woman."L"1 Mattie and Zeena are viewed as "restless and disillusioned by
marriage and love."42whereas Charity Royall is "imprisoned and defeated

by ignorance and poverty.""'3 Undine Spragg. however. is "restlessly

14

ambitious."m‘" Finally. Ellen Olenska is considered by Wolfe to be the new
woman of the late nineteenth centuryuivhile Fanny Beaufort represents a
more modern version of Ellen. the American woman of the future!"6

In "The Ideology of Women in the Fiction of Edith Wharton" (1975). Jean
Turner uses the late nineteenth-century American ideology about women
as the basis for investigating Wharton’s "representations of insights into
sexual behavior)!” The critic points out the qualities of the ideal woman
anticipated by the society: submissiveness. moral superiority. chastity.
self-sacrifice. devotion to the home. and delicacy. Turner develops these
traits from various writings of the period which expound upon. for
example. the "cult of true womanhood." the doctrine of subordination. the
beliefs in woman’s "moral guardianship." and self-sacrifice.

Turner’s study focuses on Wharton’s attitudes towards this ideology as
expressed through her treatment of the women characters in her fiction.
For instance. she sees the author condemning Undine Spragg who
"manipulates sexual ideology. . . to achieve her empty triumph.“+8 In
Turner’s view. May’s innocence is intended by the writer to signify
ignorance and blindness to realities of life 99 Most of Wharton’s short
stories. in Turner’s opinion. indicate the author’s opposition to the
ideology of self-sacrifice and moral guardianship.

Turner also perceives in some of Wharton’s characters the "Lady
’Rebel’" who fights against the society’s limitations to get away from the
"socially-reinforced values" --the ideal qualities for conventional women.5O
Justine Brent is a rebel. a worker. an independent woman who exemplifies
Wharton’s ideal as opposed to Bessy. the society’s ideal. Lily Bart. in
Turner’s consideration. is a conscious rebel with two selves-~the "known“

and "socialized" vs. the "unknown" and "inarticulate"--and Lily’s decision

15

not to kill her better self at the end is "the high point of Lily’s
consciousness."51 Ellen Olenska’s unconventionality makes her become a
lady rebel. a contrast to May-~the society’s ideal. Finally. Turner also
classifies Anna Leath as another lady rebel who can break out of the
ideology in a search for happiness while Sophy Viner shows her
consciousness but seems to be "conde mned by conventions of class and
sex."52

Carol Wershoven’s dissertation "The Female Intruder in the Novels of
Edith Wharton" (1979). also appeared in book form with the same title in
1982. By "the female intruder." Wershoven means the recurring character
who dominates Wharton’s novels: the outsider who is in conflict with the
society and different from other women and who is also a vehicle for
Wharton’s criticism of the society. The intruder has many functions but
the two most important are as critic of the society and carrier of positive
value553 These. according to Wershoven. enable Wharton to be considered
"a novelist in the mainstream of American literature."54

This critic finds variations in the pattern of the intruder. In summary.
there are the intruder in the novels of social climbing. the intruder as a
part of a romantic triangle. the double intruders. and the intruder as
teacher. Representing the first kind. Lily Bart and Undine Spragg both
struggle in old New York. the money-dominated society or the world of
wealth. Lily is an outsider to that world since her positive
values--decency. compassion. and humanity-~are considered signs of
weakness.55 On the other hand. Undine is an outsider who successfully
becomes an insider. Wershoven considers Undine Lily’s moral opposite and
also a "monster."56 As a part of a love triangle. Ellen Olenska is an

intruder in the "infantile" New York world which adores woman’s innocence.

16

represented in May Welland. Her status as an outsider is due to her
values such as openness. honesty. generosity. and sacrifice57 Similar to
Ellen is Sophy Viner who is free and neither conventionally "good" nor
"bad."58 Interestingly. the critic interprets this character as the "reef" of
the novel--the hidden obstacle of the love between Anna and Darrow.59 In
the pattern of the double intruders are Justine Brent and Bessy Westmore.
I agree with the first choice since Justine proves herself strong.
independent. and isolated from the society. However. I do not agree that
Bessy is also an intruder since she is a wealthy aristocrat--the insider or
member of the society.

Wershoven’s conclusion concerns Wharton’s unique ability as a writer.
She points out the author’s purpose of writing in order " to clear the world
of its shams."6O Wershoven ends her study by citing "the secret gods of
American society" which. according to the critic. Wharton recognizes and
challenges in her novels. She regards what American people worship:
wealth. pleasure. and the easy answer or formula. as "the empty idols."
Moreover. Wershoven claims that the world of the postwar "new woman"
which Wharton views as a nursery world. set apart from reality .61 needs to
become more mature and be awakened by such a writer with "grown-up
ideas" as Edith Wharton.

The above critical works provide various perspectives for
understanding Wharton’s life and work. My study. I hope. will add to
these perspectives and thus contribute to a better comprehension of Edith
Wharton as one of the greatest and most important American writers.

To prepare the reader for my study. I would like to discuss a few terms
I will use and the significant concepts they convey. My primary concern is

to categorize Wharton’s women as either "old" or "new" women. These two

17

terms. though quite simple. imply more meaning than they first suggest.
The term "old" refers to the type of woman who clings to conventionality
in her ways of living and thinking in order to conform to the standards and
expectations of the male-oriented society. Expected to play the roles of a
good daughter. wife. and mother. the "old" woman should be obedient.
patient. and responsible for her duties at home. Thus. the term "old" also
implies submissiveness and dependency in a woman towards the men in her
life. Contrariwise. the "new" woman signifies the modern type who wishes
to emancipate herself from traditional beliefs. The term "new."
therefore. implies strong and rational. sometimes aggressive. women:
independent. active. self-confident. and decisive.

According to Carolyn Forrey in her essay "The New Woman Revisited"
(1974). the term "the New Woman" was used by journalists in the 1890’s to
describe changes taking place in women’s outlooks and expectations. This
term signified an ideal woman whose major qualities were self-reliance
and independence--in her ways of living. decision-making. viewpoints. and
careers. Moreover. the "new" woman was respectfully viewed as being
well-educated. intelligent. and physically strong and active. Most
important. her desire to be man’s equal was regarded as "a new wave of
feminine self-assertion." 62

The history of the American new woman dates back to the early
nineteenth century when women began to be conscious of their sexual
identity. Their realization of this restricted "socially-defined sexual
identity"--with few rights. little power. and limited role--led them to
many feminist activities and moral reform movements during the period
1830-1860. 63In Jacksonian America. these women. "militant" in action and

determination. joined in a crusade against men who violated the Seventh

18

Commandment?“ They tried to exterminate sexual license as reflected
specifically in the prevalence of prostitutes and brothels. and more
generally in the ubiquitous double standard in American society. As the
prototype of the new woman in the later part of the century. these earlier
women aggressively struggled for identity. autonomy. and equality with
men.

In The American 1890’; (1966). however. Larzer Ziff points out that
women’s achieving equal roles with men in public activities made them lose
rather than gain power because they had to compete with men.65
Apparently. after many decades of women’s struggle. the fight was still
going on without success. Yet. according to Ziff. many new women writers
dealt with the theme of women’s independence during this last decade of
the nineteenth century. Among them. Kate Chopin distinctly presents. in
The Awakening (1899). the actual plight of American women conscious of
the desire for self-fulfillment.

In the 1920’s. the term "new woman" was revived. Partly because of
the war’s effect. the women of this decade were regarded as having
achieved "economic prowess" and "personal liberation."66 A symbol of the
Jazz Age. these women were portrayed as the opposite of the continuum
from traditional women of the previous periods. With "cigarette in mouth
and cocktail in hand" 67and "bobbed hair and rolled hose."68these post-war
women. "carefree flappers." enjoyed life and adventures for their own
sake. Significantly. owing to their sexual liberation and new morality.
they marked the beginning of the "new" woman.

Opposite to the "new" woman--the concept of modern. free. liberated.
independent. autonomous. and equal counterpart of man--is the "old"

woman. the model of the perfect and true lady in the nineteenth century.

19

In Barbara Welter’s essay "The Cult of True Womanhood" (1966). the
mid-nineteenth century ideal woman was described as having four virtues:
piety. purity. submissiveness. and domesticity .69 Being pious or religious
was believed to give woman strength; it was also valuable as a means of
keeping women in the home to devotedly perform their duties. according to
religious beliefs. As essential to the ideal lady was the virtue of purity
or innocence before marriage. after which she was expected to be a
"passive" responder to her husband. Finally. a true woman was supposed
to fulfill her duties not only as daughter and sister but also as mother and
wife; her great task was to bring men to God. These qualities belong. I
believe. to the "old" woman rather than the "new" woman. although Welter
concludes her article by saying that “the True Woman evolved into the New
Woman."7O
It is difficult. however. to group Wharton’s female characters in these
two categories because of their complexity and diversity. Moreover.
Wharton is sufficiently ambivalent toward them to make it often difficult
to categorize her fictional women explicitly as either "new" or "old."
Obviously the author admired some virtues of the "new" woman such as
strong determination. independence. and courage. but she also disapproved
of other qualities in the new woman. such as restlessness.
irresponsibility. and immorality. The "old" woman. on the other hand.
seems admirable in Wharton’s works because of her cultured upbringing.
good taste. elegant manners. and apparent innocence. However. Wharton’s
sarcastic attitudes towards them present these virtues as comparatively
wasteful. leading to nothing. In sum. Wharton may still deeply cherish the
traditional values of the "old" woman although she subtly presents them

with strong irony.

CHAPTER 2

As a woman novelist and as the woman she was. Wharton inevitably
chose as her major subbct the woman--her way of life. plight. and
problems. This does not mean. however. that her women characters are
restricted to their own sphere. The narratives concern both their
relationships with each other and with male characters. Interestingly.
most women characters. especially the principal ones. are portrayed as
stronger. more powerful. and more dominant than men. No matter whether
they are "old" or "new." major or minor. these women are so realistically
and emphatically characterized that their roles surpass those of their male
counterparts.

Wharton’s superior women characters can be traced from the beginning
of her writing career. In most of her fictional work--whether short
stories. short novels. or novels--of the earlier period. the
women--especially the female protagonists--are treated by Wharton as
implicitly or potentially "new" women. Despite their traditional beliefs
and their conventional surroundings. the protagonists tend to have liberal
ideas. especially a desire for independence.

Fulvia Vivaldi. the female protagonist of Wharton’s first novel. IDS.
Vallez gf Decision (1902). clearly illustrates the concept. Given equal
importance with Odo Valsecca. the male protagonist. Fulvia represents the
intelligent and liberal middle-class woman of eighteenth-century Italy.
Unlike the aristocratic ladies represented by Odo’s mother and his wife.

F ulvia. a professor’s daughter. leads a modest and constructive life.

Becoming Odo’s mistress out of their love for each other. F ulvia clings to

her ideal of reforming and improving the kingdom without accepting any

21

rewards of rank or money in return. Her unselfish acts. however. lead to
her murder by the misunderstanding mob.

Criticized as too sentimental and trite in plot as well as language. this
novel is not considered successful. However. the characterization of
Fulvia foreshadows that of later women characters. With different
setting. style. and plot. Ihe House of Mirth (1905). Wharton’s next novel
and her first successful one. portrays the female protagonist Lily Bart.
like F ulvia. as a potential "new" woman.

Both Fulvia and Lily are striking outsiders. women who struggle
gracefully to survive. Possessing the same unusual feminine
characteristics as F ulvia. intelligence and a strong will. Lily learns to be a
strong and independent non-conformist in the upper-class society which
ostracizes her. Both protagonists die. but this fact is evidence of neither
their weaknesses nor their failures. The society is also responsible for
their death.

The Heuee gf Mirth (1905) derives its title from Ecclesiastes 7:4. "The
heart of fools is in the house of mirth." which implies Wharton’s ironic
attitudes toward the early 1900’s New York upper-class society-~its
frivolity. irresponsibility. and pleasure-seeking.1 Characters are
portrayed as the "fools" whose "heart" belongs to "the house of mirth."
Eventually they fool themselves with their prejudice. hypocrisy. and
narrow-mindedness. enjoy the happiness of their luxurious but futile lives.
and become hardened to the declining moral values of their society.

The focus of The Hegee gf Mirth falls on Lily Bart. the beautiful.
graceful. but poor upper-class New York lady. The novel is Lily Bart’s

2

story. or "tragedy" as many critics see it. In contrast with New York high

society ’s luxurious way of living. the story ends with the protagonist’s

22

failure in life and her tragic death. Thus. the novel. in broad outline. is a
portrayal of a young girl’s tumble down the social ladder despite her
attempt to keep her status in society.

Told by an omniscient narrator. the story opens with the meeting of two
principal characters. Lily Bart and Lawrence Selden. at Grand Central
Station which leads to their having tea together at Selden’s apartment.
The result is an important conversation about marriage. In Selden’s eyes.
Lily appears intriguing: "he could never see her without a faint movement
of interest" (p. 3); "Miss Bart was a figure to arrest even the suburban
traveller rushing to his last train" (p. 4). She is "highly specialized" (p. 5)
when compared to other women and magnificent: "everything about her was
at once vigorous and exquisite. at once strong and fine" (p. S). In short.
Lily Bart is a beautiful. well-qualified. and marriageable lady. It is
surprising. therefore. that despite her appropriate qualifications. she is
still unmarried at the age of twenty-nine.

As the "victim of the civilization" (p. 7). Lily realizes the difficult
plight of women in upper~class New York society. She frankly exclaims to
Selden. "What a miserable thing it is to be a woman" (p. 7). The misery
concerns the problem of marriage. According to Lily. "a girl must [marry].
a man may if he chooses" (p. 11). And the important thing for marriageable
women is to keep their appearance--"to be pretty and well-dressed" (p.
12). Lily seems to put much emphasis on the material things as a means to
her success or marriage:

. . . If I were shabby no one would have me: a woman is asked
out as much for her clothes as for herself. The clothes are the

background. the frame. if you like; they don’t make progress.
but they are a part of it. Who wants a dingy woman? (p. 12)

23

Despite her expensive and tasteful dresses. which make Lily attractive
and accepted in the society. she still has difficulty in finding the right man
to marry. One of the reasons lies in Lily’s past--her upbringing and
extravagant way of living-"another in her poor financial situation at
present.

Her parents. Mr. and Mrs. Hudson Bart. and their luxurious way of life
are the main contributors to Lily’s "good taste ." and vanity. Lily’s memory
of her house and the chaos of her childhood shows how the social values
have been implanted in her character:

A house in which no one ever dined at home unless there was
"company"; a door-bell perpetually ringing; a hall-table
showered with square envelopes which were opened in haste.
and oblong envelopes which were allowed to gather dust in the
depths of a bronze jar; a series of French and English maids
giving warning amid a chaos of hurriedly ransacked wardrobes
and dress-closets; an equally changing dynasty of nurses and
footmen; quarrels in the pantry. the kitchen. and the
drawing-room; precipitate trips to Europe. and returns with
gorged trunks and days of interminable unpacking; semi-annual
discussions as to where the summer should be spent; grey
interludes of economy and brilliant reactions of expense--such
was the setting of Lily’s Bart’s first memories. (p. 29)

Of Lily’s parents. her mother--"the vigorous and determined figure . . .
still young enough to dance her ball-dresses to rags" (p. 29)--is more
powerful and authoritative in the house than her father--"bald and
slightly stooping. with streaks of grey in his hair and a tired walk" (p. 30).
Under her mother’s influence. Lily has been brought up to have good taste:
have "a good cook." avoid living "like a pig." be "decently dressed." no
matter the cost. Lily’s "good taste" but lack of the sense of money value
is evident in her suggestion that there be a twelve-dollar bunch of

lilies-of-the-valley at the luncheon-table everyday. Learning about her

father’s ruin. Lily can do nothing but pity him " in a frightened. ineffectual

24

way" (p. 33) until his death. Actually. his death comes as a relief to her.
Two important things Which Lily has been taught by her mother are the use
of her beauty and the escape from dinginess. After they become poor. Mrs.
Bart tells her daughter that her beautiful face will bring the money back
(p. 29). Lily. however. is clever enough to understand "that beauty is only
the raw material of conquest and that to convert it into success other arts
are required" (p. 35). Another bit of important advice that her mother
gave--to fight her way out of dinginess--not only leads to Lily’s conceited
ideas about the luxurious way of life but also to her determination to
marry a rich man.

After her mother’s death. Lily becomes dependent on Mrs. Peniston. her
father’s rich widowed sister--"a Iooker-on" rather than a participant in
life. Lily has to try hard to adapt herself to her aunt’s way of living.
From Mrs. Peniston. Lily does not receive a regular allowance but
"occasional ’handsome presents’"--unexpected checks--to spend on
dressing beautifully. Lily senses that hers is a futile and impractical way
of life. but she seems to have no other alternative. Moreover. without
sufficient financial support. it is necessary for Lily to cling to the
upper-class society. since it provides her with the opportunity to meet and
marry a rich man who will guarantee her social status and. she hopes. her
happiness in life. The only way that Lily can manage to remain in that
society is by staying with her rich friends. such as the Trenors and the
Dorsets. as an unpaid secretary and entertainer to her hostesses. No
matter how boring this work is. Lily has to cling to it if she expects to
achieve her goal of a suitable marriage.

Thus. in terms of her past background. the influence of her parents.

especially her mother. and her present financially dependent situation.

Lily is apparently an "old" or traditional woman in a conventional society.
Like most upper-class ladies. Lily conforms to the society’s assumptions
about and expectations of the woman’s qualifier-always attractive and
apparently innocent. Despite her manifest naivete/. however. she is
actually subtle and tactful in her manipulation of men. Lily has the art to
please any man whomever she wants to notice her. such as Percy Gryce who
almost proposes to Lily because of her attentiveness to his tedious talk
about his Americana collection. Her decision to attract Percy Gryce. a rich
but boring young man. indicates her conformity. She decides to become
Gryce’s possession. like his Americana collection. or his "ornament." the
situation in which most of Lily’s female friends-~Judy and Bertha. for
example--find themselves.

This concept of woman as "A Moment’s Ornament." as the proposed title
of this novel suggests. is later emphasized in the scene of "tableaux
vivants" at the Brys. Superficially. this is an exhibition of artistic
paintings imitatingly portrayed by real women. Lily as Reynolds’ "Mrs.
Lloyd" seems to be very successful with her "flesh-and-blood loveliness"
(p. 135). However. the scene can be regarded as a display of women as
ornaments or potential possessions. Lily is criticized not as an art work
but as her real self. Ned Van Alstyne comments: "Deuced bold thing to
show herself in that get-up; but gad. there isn’t a break in the lines
anywhere. and I suppose she wanted us to know it!" (p. 136) More
straightforward is his later observation:

". . . Gad. what a show of good-looking women; but no one of ’em
could touch that little cousin of mine. Talk of jewels--what’s a
woman want with jewels when she’s got herself to show? The
trouble is that all these fal-bals they wear cover up their

figures when they’ve got ’em. I never knew till tonight what an
outline Lily has." (p. 139)

26

Lily is also a conventional woman in her ignorance about money
matters. Like her mother and most upper-class ladies in the society. Lily
.. seems to be born to spend. not to acquire. money. If she wants to be an
accepted lady of the leisure class. it is impossible for Lily to work for
money. Therefore. apart 'from her small inheritance and Mrs. Peniston’s
occasional presents. Lily has no other means of financial support. Still
she must wear expensive clothes and jewelry. Even worse. Lily falls into a
gambling passion; she likes to play bridge for money. These expenses
intensify her financial plight.

Lily’s solutions to gain money by marriage and investment and to work
for the material necessities she needs often endanger her. To marry Percy
Gryce is a solution although one which will certainly bring her boredom and
even unhappiness. Next. Lily’s reliance on Gus Trenor to make an
investment for her indicates how inexperienced she is in financial matters.
Happily spending the $9.000 dollars Gus gives her in different
installments. Lily does not know that he is attempting to seduce
her—unsuccessfully because of Lily’s strong self-control. or "presence of
mind" (p. 144). Later. after she fails as a paid secretary to both the
Gomers and to Mrs. Norma Hatch and as a hat trimmer. Lily thinks of
marrying Simon Rosedale. a "newly rich" Jew for whom she has felt
contempt. In brief. it is clear that though Lily is ignorant in money
matters. she is clever and calculating in her choice of marriage. It is not
until almost the end that she thinks of marrying Selden for love.

Aside from these actions. Lily is also an “old" woman in her
conventional ideas. For example. Wharton gives a distinctive contrast in

the definitions of "success" by Lily and Selden:

27

. . ."Success--what is success? I shall be interested to have
your definition."

"Success?" She hesitated. "Why. to get as much as one can
out of life. I suppose. It’s a relative quality. after all. Isn’t
that your idea of it?“

"My idea of it? God forbid!". . ."My idea of success." he said.
"is personal freedom."

"Freedom? Freedom from worries?"

"From everything--from money. from poverty. from ease and
anxiety. from all the material accidents. To keep a kind of
republic of the spirit--that’s what I call success." (pp. 68-69)

From the quotation. it is obvious that Lily. true to her conventional belief.
thinks more of success in material terms whereas Selden. in contrast.
considers it in spiritual terms. although it is ironic that he does not and
cannot live in that "republic of the spirit" himself. In Book I. Lily
definitely clings to her traditional beliefs. especially those about her
feminine qualities and materialistic success in life. Later. in Book II. she
gradually realizes the realities of life and understands her true self.

Though many aspects already discussed indicate Lily Bart is an "old" or
conventional woman. she also possesses certain potentials of a "new" or
modern woman. Lily’s hidden real self is revealed. at the beginning of the
novel. in her conversation with Selden:

" Shall we go over to Sherry’s for a cup of tea?"

She smiled assentingly and then made a slight grimace.

" So many people come up to town on a Monday--one is sure to
meet a lot of bores. I’m as old as the hills. of course. and it
ought not to make any difference; but _I_’_ni old enough. you’re
not." she objected gaily. "I’m dying for tea--but isn’t there a
quieter place?" (pp. 4-5)

Lily’s boredom with a lot of people indicates that she is not really a
conformist. There are moments when she needs peace of mind and sincere
talk as the escape from the turbulent and hypocritical world. She is happy

to have tea with Selden in his apartment. though it is inappropriate. To

Selden. Lily expresses herself freely and frankly: ". . . what I want is a

28

friend who won’t be afraid to say disagreeable ones [things] when I need
them. . ." (p. 9). Also. for Lily. Selden is "neither a prig nor a bounder" (p.
9). and she is comfortable to discuss whatever she likes with him.

Lily’s interest in Selden grows because of his idealism which
corresponds with her unconscious inner self. Their meeting at the
Trenors’ house causes Lily’s conflict about her decision to marry Percy
Gryce. It appears that Lily yields to her spiritual impulse by going for a
walk with Selden and thus cuts herself off from an opportunity to marry
Percy Gryce.

Another quality which makes Lily differ from other women in her set is
her morality. Her relationships with Gus Trenor. George Dorset. and Simon
Rosedale show that Lily is not an immoral opportunist. She rejects Gus
Trenor when he tries to seduce her in return for the money he has given
her. Lily’s self-esteem makes her resolve to pay her debt to Gus Trenor
though she has no means to gain money until Mrs. Peniston’s. her aunt’s.
legacy is paid. Lily is involved with George Dorset because she is used by
Bertha Dorset. his wife. on the Mediterranean cruise to draw George’s
attention and as a scapegoat when Bertha’s affair with Ned Silverton is
about to be revealed. Lily has pity for George. but though she has a
chance to take revenge on Bertha by helping George with the evidence for
the divorce and then by marrying him. Lily refuses to do so. Finally. she
turns to Simon Rosedale. a newly rich Jew. who has been attracted to her
because of her beauty and social status. Though she has not loved him.
she is too sincere to deceive him into marrying her. When he suggests that
she use Bertha’s letters to Selden. which Lily has bought from a

charwoman. to blackmail Bertha and gain her support. Lily’s moral scruples

29

are so strong that she cannot. Instead. she burns all the letters without
revealing her trouble to Selden.

Lily Bart is also a potentially "new" woman in her attempt to become
independent. despite the indifference of and rejection by the society.
Lily’s decline in her social position. as seen in her working for the
"nouveaux riches" like the Brys and the Gomers and the divorce/e Mrs.
Hatch. leads her to become a worker in a millinery. Brought up to be
"ornamental" rather than "a bread-winner" (p. 297). Lily fails as a worker.
however. It is not completely Lily’s fault but rather the negative
consequence of the society’s influence. Wharton has the omniscient
narrator explain Lily’s situation:

. . . Society did not turn away from her [Lily]. it simply drifted
by. preoccupied and inattentive. letting her feel. to the full
measure of her humbled pride. how completely she had been the
creature of its favour. (pp. 262-3)

Lily’s death in Chapter XIII of Book II has been viewed in different
ways. Wolff views it as "a conscious act" and also points out its
"redemptive effect" in fixing Selden’s esteem for Lily and in idealizing her
triumphant tableau viventfi Turner discusses this point in terms of Lily’s
conscious decision not to kill her better self: 4 the unknown. inarticulate
self filled with desire for security. love. and freedom.5as opposed to her
other self: the known and socialized one. For Turner. Lily’s suicide shows
her sensible judgment to die gracefully with self-esteem rather than to
live poorly in the hypocritical society. Paradoxically. Lawson describes
the death as "an intentional accident."6 In my opinion. Lily’s death is not
suicide. She does not deliberately kill herself because of her own
weakness and desperation. The overdose of chloral sleeping-drops

accidentally ends Lily’s life. Ammons states firmly that Lily’s final action

30

"is not really suicide" since " she dies by her own hand but not by her
conscious will." 7 Before her final and permanent sleep. Lily meets Nettie
Struther. one of the girls at the club whom she has supported financially
through Gerty F arish. Nettie and her baby give Lily "the first glimpse of
the continuity of life" (p. 319). Nettie’s victory over her past troubled life
and the baby’s warmth must have had great effect on Lily’s optimistic
hope. or else Lily would not have gone to sleep with the sweet dream of
holding Nettie’s baby in her arms (p. 323).

Since The ngse of Mirth [marks Wharton’s beginning success. Lily Bart
should be considered the prototype of later successful heroines. Though
Lily fails to climb the social ladder. she succeeds in strongly maintaining
her self-esteem and moral scruples.

Another principal character who plays a less important part than the
female protagonist is the novel’s male protagonist. Lawrence Selden. A
contrast to Lily. Selden appears self-satisfied. inactive. and idealistic. A
young man from a well-accepted but not wealthy family in New York.
Selden is. however. "as much as Lily the victim of his environment" (p.
152). A moderately situated member of upper-class New York society with
a not particularly successful career as a lawyer. he lives in a shabby
apartment. Selden draws Lily’s interest as "more agreeable than most
men" (p. 55); she also admires his social detachment and self-awareness (p.
56). The latter quality is accounted for as an inheritance from his mother:
"the stoic’s carelessness of material things. combined with the epicurean’s
pleasure in them" (p. 153). Therefore. unlike Lily. Selden does not find it
necessary to struggle for anything.

Selden’s lethargy is one of the bad qualities with which Wharton

endows her "negative hero."8 Realizing that Lily is making a mistake by

31

choosing to marry a rich man to secure her position. Selden points out to
her how horrible her future life would be. However. he has nothing to
offer her instead. not even his own proposal. He seems to imply an offer.

but it is Lily who asks:

"Ah." she cried. "for all your fine phrases you’re really as
great a coward as I am. for you wouldn’t have made one of them
if you hadn’t been so sure of my answer."

"I’m not so sure of your answer." he said quietly. "And I do
you the justice to believe that you are not either."

It was her turn to look at him with surprise; and after a
moment: "Do you want to marry me?" she asked.

He broke into a laugh. "No. I don’t want to--but perhaps I
should if you did!" (p. 73)

Such a passage provides a basis for Lewis’ evaluation of Selden as "a

sterile and subtly fraudulent figure" who represents "an emblem of

masculinity" in Wharton’s world.9

Lily’s performance in a simple dress at the Brys’ tebleaux vivanis

mentioned previously helps Selden to realize his love for "the real Lily."

Nevertheless. with a chance to be together in the garden. Selden is not

active enough to initiate the conversation and effectively express himself:
. . ."You never speak to me; you think hard things of me." she
murmured.

"I think of you at any rate. God knows!" he said.

"Then why do we never see each other? Why can’t we be
friends? You promised once to help me." she continued in the
same tone. as though the words were drawn from her
unwillingly.

" The only way I can help you is by loving you." Selden said in
a low voice. (pp.138-9)

Many times Selden shows his intention to help Lily. but it is too late
when he finally decides to translate his intentions into action. When he

does decide to help her. it is because of his romantic vision of himself as a

heroic figure. evoked by the seal with the word Bezond! on the note Lily

32

sends to him. He thinks that "he would take her beyond--beyond the
ugliness. the pettiness. the attrition and corrosion of the soul" (p. 155).
Selden also views himself as the mythic Perseus’ helping unchain
Andromeda and lifting her back to land. In his imagination. Selden sees
himself doing the heroic task of lifting Lily "to a freer vision of life" (p.
159). Unfortunately. this remains only an intention because of Selden’s
misunderstanding when he sees Lily coming out of the Trenors’ house late
at night. His immediate escape to Havana shows not only his unreasonable
anger but also his lack of patience to understand and forgive the woman he
loves.

In addition to his passivity. Selden is not a stable man; his tendency is
to vacillate. On the European trip. he helps Lily leave the Dorsets but is
full of suspicion about her relationship with George. Another time. after
talking to Gerty who asks him to help Lily. he goes to see her at the hotel.
When he learns that she has moved to another hotel to be with Mrs. Norma
Hatch. he abandons his good intention with a "gesture of disgust" (p. 272).

As an idealistic person. Selden can understand only abstract concepts
like "the republic of spirit"; he cannot deal with Lily’s troubling struggles
for survival. Able to point out to her that her actions are wrong. he
cannot provide her with the right alternative. In their last meeting. he
cannot understand what Lily tries to tell him. and he lets her leave him
without doing anything to help. The next morning when he decides to see
Lily and to tell her "the word he meant to say to her" (p. 325). it is too
late. From the beginning to the end. Lawrence Selden is portrayed as an
idealistic but powerless character. imaginative and well-intentioned but

unable to act.

33

Three important minor characters in The flogse of Mirth are Lily ’5
friends Gerty Farish. Bertha Dorset. and Carry Fisher. They play
different roles in her life. Gerty is poor but kind and helpful; she
represents a very modern and independent woman. Bertha belongs to the
rich upper class--immoral. irresponsible. but influential because of her
money. Carry. a divorce’e. exemplifies a "new" woman in traditional
surroundings. She earns her living by working among the rich as their
secretary and introduces Lily to a similar job at which Lily fails.

Gerty Farish. Selden’s cousin. is an example of an independent girl who
devotes herself to social work. At the beginning of the novel. Lily does
not categorize Gerty among the "marriageable" girls because while Gerty
likes "being good." Lily likes "being happy" (p. 7). Gerty lives alone in her
small apartment--a dull. poor. and dingy place. in Lily’s opinion. Like her
place. Gerty herself is simple. plain. modest. and unassuming. as the
omniscient narrator describes her:

. . . Miss Gertrude F arish. in fact. typified the mediocre and the
ineffectual. If there were compensating qualities in her wide.
frank glance and the freshness of her smile. these were
qualities which only the sympathetic observer would perceive
before noticing that her eyes were a workaday grey and her lips
without haunting curves. (p. 90)

It is through Gerty’s revelation to Selden that we know about Lily ’s
charitable donation and visit to the Girls’ Club (p. 134). Also. Gerty is the
one who discovers "the real Lily" from her performance in the tableeux
vivahts when she says to Selden: "Wasn’t she too beautiful. Lawrence?
Don’t you like her best in that simple dress? It makes her look like the
real Lily--the Lily I know" (p. 136).

Gerty loves Lily as a friend and when she thinks Selden dislikes Lily.

she tries to make him change his mind. The faintly suggested love triangle

34

appears in Chapter XIV of Book I when Gerty has Selden come to her flat
for dinner and they talk about Lily. Gerty is "happy in this perfect
communion of their sympathies" towards Lily until she discovers the truth
that Selden is "the key to the secret" of why Lily missed her chance of
marrying Percy Gryce (p. 156). Unhappily. she realizes that "he [Selden]
had come to talk to her of Lily--that was all!" (p. 157)

Gerty’s human feelings-~jealousy. hatred. bitterness. and longing for
happiness--make her a realistic character. In her contemplation after
Selden leaves to find Lily. Gerty’s attitude becomes clear:

. . . She had been so contented. life seemed so simple and
sufficient--why had he come to trouble her with new hopes?
And Lily--Lily. her best friend! Woman-like. she accused the

woman. Perhaps. had it not been for Lily. her fond imagining
might have come true. . . (p. 161).

The more Gerty thinks. the more she blames Lily:

. . . On Selden’s part. no doubt. the wound inflicted was
inconscient; he had never guessed her foolish secret; but
Lily--Lily must have known! When. in such matters. are a
woman’s perceptions at fault? And if she knew. then she had
deliberately despoiled her friend. and in mere wantonness of
power. since. even to Gerty’s suddenly flaming jealousy. it
seemed incredible that Lily should wish to be Selden’s wife. . .
(p. 162).

This section ends with a statement of Gerty’s hatred for Lily who is

superior to her and who deprives her of happiness:

. . . She wanted happiness--wanted it as fiercely and
unscrupulously as Lily did. but without Lily’s power of
obtaining it. And in her conscious impotence she lay shivering.
and hated her friend-- (p. 163).

It is ironic that this passage is followed by Lily’s coming to Gerty for

help after she is almost seduced by Gus Trenor. Gerty kindly helps her

35

friend. who is frightened and lonely. by offering her warm tea. sharing her
bed. and comforting her in her arms until she falls asleep.

Though a minor character. Gerty significantly represents the "new"
woman. the kind Wharton anticipated and developed in the portrayals of her
later female characters. Gerty’s choice of being a social worker. a
non-conformist. may lead to a modest way of life and unsuccessful love.
but it also brings her independence. the ability to support herself. and
satisfaction in helping others.

Among all the characters in The flgese of Mirth. Bertha Dorset is
perhaps the most dangerous and villainous. Rich. married. but unhappy.
she finds excitement in life by having extra-marital affairs. first with
Lawrence Selden and later with Ned Silverton. Bertha’s cunning
selfishness is obvious in her plan to destroy Lily ’5 expected marriage to
Percy Gryce because Lily draws more of Selden’s attention than she does.
Bertha spitefully tells Percy of Lily’s gambling obsession and her debts
and thus scares him away from Lily.

Bertha invites Lily on the Mediterranean yachting cruise to use her for
personal advantage. Bertha’s concern is to be with Silverton so she has
Lily entertain her husband. George. However. when George tries to divorce
Bertha because of her scandalous behavior with Silverton. Bertha accuses
Lily of trying to steal her husband. She openly insults Lily at a party by
dismissing her from the yacht. Returning to New York. Bertha continues
her evil plan to destroy Lily’s reputation and career as the Gomers’
secretary because she fears that Lily may reveal her secret. Bertha is
successful in her plan to detach Lily from society because. as Lily puts it.
"she has a big house and an opera box. and it’s convenient to be on good

terms with her“ (p. 225).

36

Bertha Dorset is a destroyer of Lily ’5 future and a factor in Lily’s
social downfall. Lily thinks of Bertha as one of the pursuing Furies (p.
295). She has the qualities of the three avenging spirits: she is
unyielding. jealous. and revengeful. She never allows Lily to be happy.
Thus. she is the principal agent in the destruction of Lily ’s hopes and
plans.

Bertha represents one of the rich and powerful but pitiless leaders of
the old New York society which destroys the less fortunate. Wharton’s
characterization of Bertha. a " vicious. self-seeking woman [who] carries
on adulterous affairs while holding fast to her dull and wealthy husband." 10
as Wolfe observes. typifies the condition of women of the author’s class
and period.11 Moreover. according to Ammons. Bertha clearly indicates the
hostile relationship between women; they compete with and prey on each
other.12 Selfishly taking pleasure in Lily’s woe. Bertha is portrayed as the
most vicious. From another perspective. however. she exemplifies the
"old" woman. conventional but unscrupulous and corrupted. a contrast to
Lily in morality.

Another friend of Lily. Carry Fisher. is also cunning. "a perfect
vulture." as she is described by a friend (p. 88). A divorce’e. Carry seems
to be disapproved of by the society. but she can survive scandal. Carry
proves to be Lily’s friend. however. when Lily is in financial trouble. She
is the person who introduces Lily to the Brys. the Gomers. and Mrs. Hatch
for whom Lily works successively as secretary and as one who. because of
her social position. can give them entree to upper-class society. She
advises Lily to marry George Dorset or Simon Rosedale as a means to

escape the effect of the rumors instigated by Bertha (p. 238). She also

helps Lily find a way to punish Bertha (p. 252).

37

Geoffrey Walton regards Carry as "a divorced hanger-on"1%ince she
still clings to the upper-class society even though she is not
wholeheartedly accepted. The critic also views this minor character as "a
foil balanced at the opposite pole against Gerty F arish." 1LII partly agree.
Carry. like Lily. puts much emphasis on material things and has to be an
insider of the society to survive. On the other hand. Gerty freely lives
apart as the outsider who does not care for material things. However. I
find both Carry and Gerty to be strong and powerful in their will and
action. Like Gerty. Carry struggles to support herself and her daughter
independently. Instead of leaving or rejecting the society. she uses it as a
means to survive. Wharton ambivalently portrays Carry as a willful.
mature. and clever woman who can be categorized as either the "old" or the
"new" woman.

Wharton’s characterization of women in The House of Mirth
foreshadows the superior female characters in her later works. Lily Bart.
especially. has been viewed in different ways. For instance. Ammons
regards her as the " society’s ideal of the female as decorative.
subservient. dependent and submissive'15 and "the product of a very
special. conservative class" whose "instructive life" shows the misery of
being a woman.16 Walton finds Lily to be a tragic heroine17in a tragedy of
the upper-class society.l8while Tuttleton contends that Lily is not really
a tragic heroine but rather that "her fate is full of pathos."19 McDowell.
however. sees Lily in three different perspectives: as the fated heroine of
a Greek tragedy; as an individual whose nature is a battleground for the
fight between good and evil; and as a protagonist of the Naturalistic

2

novel. 0 No matter how she is perceived. Lily Bart has proved to be one of

the most realistic and unforgettable heroines of American fiction.

CHAPTER 3

The contrast between the "old" and "new" woman is clearer in works
subsequent to The House of Mirth: The Fruit of the Tree (1907). The Reef
(1912). and The Age of Innocence (1920). In these novels. Wharton uses a
"double heroine ." or two female protagonists of equal importance. to
illustrate the two types of women.

Though generally unsuccessful. The Fruit of the Tree traces the
fundamental pattern. The novel divides into two parts. The first half
concerns love. marriage. and the failing relationship between Bessy
Westmore. a charming widow who owns a mill in Hanaford. and John
Amherst. the mill’s assistant manager who is committed to reforming the
workers’ condition. The theme of the second half is euthanasia: Justine
Brent. a nurse and Bessy’s close friend. gives her an overdose of morphia
to end her suffering and pain after a riding accident. Later. Justine’s
marriage to John Amherst successfully connects the two seemingly
separate halves of the novel. Their married life. however. fails when the
truth about Bessy’s death is revealed.

Justine Brent. Wharton’s "feminist heroine."1

undoubtedly represents
the "new" woman in her professional independence. freedom of action. and
strong will power. Well-educated and professionally trained. Justine
supports herself as a nurse. Out of love and idealistic intention to help
John Amherst. she marries him only to discover that her husband can never
forgive her for being responsible for his first wife’s death. Ignored and

despairing of reconciliation. Justine leaves her husband to continue

working as a nurse. supporting herself modestly. Her admirable strength

38

39

contrasting with the failure of her married life probably reflects
Wharton’s ambivalent attitudes towards the "new" woman.

On the other hand. Bessy is an "old" woman in personality. beliefs. and
behavior. Of the rich upper class. she is raised to be a well-educated and
charming lady who is always under the protection of men. Spoiled and
willful. Bessy is able to get what she wants either from her father. Henry
Langhope. or her first husband. Richard Westmore. Bessy’s disillusioned
love for John Amherst. her second husband. who refuses to spend money
conspicuously for her personal satisfaction. leads to their disputes and
her disaster--physical injury from the accident. pain. and death. Through
Bessy. Wharton hints at the weakness and helplessness of the "old" woman
who. though rich and intelligent. still depends on men.

Sophy Viner and Anna Leath exemplify in The Reef a pattern similar to
that of Justine and Bessy in The F rgit of the Tree. The two novels differ
in plots. The Reef is about two love triangles: George Darrow. Sophy
Viner. and Anna Leath; Sophy Viner. Owen Leath. and George Darrow.
Because of the brief and spontaneous love affair between George and
Sophy in Paris. their plans of marriage--George with his old friend Anna
Leath. and Sophy with Owen. Anna’s step-son and the half-brother of Effie
for whom Sophy works as a governess--meet hazardous obstructions as
implied and symbolized by the title.

George and Sophy respectively are responsible for the two love
triangles sketched above. While George causes the competition between
Anna and Sophy. Sophy brings about the conflict between George and Owen.
Both George and Sophy are also present in each triangle as one of the
competitors. Anna and Owen. who appear in different love triangles.

connect them through their mother-and-son relationship. Thus. the

40

problem of marriage decisions emerges. but the issues of morality and
social acceptance are also involved in the two planned marriages. Owen is
suspicious of the relationship between George and Sophy once he secretly
witnesses their private meeting. George can never forget his infatuation
with Sophy in Paris though he intends to marry Anna. the "lady" he loves.
Similarly. Sophy finds it difficult to forget George. her benefactor. despite
her ambition to marry Owen. the wealthy heir of Givre’. Finally. no matter
how much Anna loves George and anticipates a happy married life with him.
she is unable to ignore the past love affair between George and Sophy. The
outcomes of these conflicts are less important. however. than Wharton’s
realistic character portrayals in which lies the lasting significance of The
M.

Among the principal characters. Anna is the most important and the
most complicated. As one of the two characters through whom the "central
consciousness" is alternately penetrated to present the story. Anna
appears distinctive both in her own and George’s viewpoints.

As R. W. B. Lewis points out. Ihe Eeef is "possibly the most
autobiographical work of fiction" Wharton ever wrote; one of the striking
similarities between the author and the female protagonist is their
conventional and privileged upbringing.2 Anna is portrayed as an
upper-class American girl reared in "the well-regulated well-fed Summers
world" (p. 86) of twentieth-century New York. Her conventionality.
reserve. and innocence of worldly experience result from her traditional
upbringing on West F ifty-fifth Street. From her girlhood. Anna’s reserve
isolates her from the society of the other girls and. in Anna’s opinion.
causes "envious mothers" to "cite her as a model of lady-like repression"

(p. 87). However. Anna good-humoredly accepts her inferiority and

41

consoles herself as having "a reserve of unused power" which will reveal
itself after she is released from " this spell of unreality" by "love" or "the
sublime passion" (pp.87-88).

Anna perceives herself finding the clue to "the magic bridge between
West Fifty-fifth Street and life" (p. 88) in her first encounter with young
George Darrow. " But his passion swept over her like a wind that shakes
the roof of the forest without reaching its still glades or rippling its
hidden pools" (p. 88). Evidently. they do not share mutual needs and
understanding: ". . . he wanted to kiss her. and she wanted to talk to him
about books and pictures. and have him insinuate the eternal theme of
their love into every subject they discussed" (p.88).

Anna’s conflicting characteristics of being romantic. conventional. and
hypocritical are obvious in her self-consideration and reaction to George:

Whenever they were apart a reaction set in. She wondered
how she could have been so cold. called herself a prude and an
idiot. . . . But as soon as he reappeared her head straightened
itself on her slim neck and she sped her little shafts of irony.

or flew her little kites of erudition. while hot and cold waves
swept over her. and the things she really wanted to say choked

in her throat and burned the palms of her hands. (pp. 88-89)

Clearly. Anna is attracted to George but keeps him at a distance owing to
her conventional upbringing as a "nice" lady. McDowell reasonably views
Anna as "a prisoner of inhibitions. narcissism. and rigid mores" since she
is "limited and protected by convention" of the old New York.3
Anna’s passion is proved by her jealousy of Kitty Mayne. a "silly" young
lady who has eloped with "a fat young man with eye-glasses" and "come
back from her adventure no less silly than when she went" (p. 89). Kitty’s

flirtation with George causes a mixture of feelings in Anna: she is angry.

jealous. and determined to help George from Kitty. ". . . [Alt the sight. a

42

rage of possessorship awoke in her. She must save Darrow. assert her
right to him at any price. Pride and reticence went down in a hurricane of
Jealousy" (p. 89).

The next day. after George admits that Kitty is "rather good fun" (p.90).
Anna is disillusioned and withdrawn from George. Restrained from
expressing herself. Anna "was conscious of sitting rigidly. with high head
and straight lips. while the irresistible word fled with a last wing-beat
into the golden mist of her illusions" (p. 90).

Anna’s decision to marry Fraser Leath. an American gentleman who
spends most of his life in Europe. is not surprising. Both consciously
conventional. they seem appropriate for each other. Fraser’s gifts to
Anna. "a prettily-bound anthology of the old French poets" and "a
half-effaced eighteenth-century pastel" (p. 91). indicate his romantic.
though old-fashioned. taste as well as his expectation of Anna’s aesthetic
appreciation. Anna’s esteem. not love. for Fraser is obvious in the
following:

. . . Here was some one whose scale of values was the same as
hers. and who thought her opinion worth hearing on the very
matters which they both considered of supreme importance.
The discovery restored her self-confidence. and she revealed
herself to Mr. Leath as she had never known how to reveal
herself to Darrow. (p. 91)

Life at Givre’. however. with Fraser Leath. Madame de Chantelle. her
Europeanized mother-in-law. and her stepson. Owen. is not what Anna has
anticipated. Her inability to adapt herself to French traditions.
symbolized by the sphinx image--a mystery from which she cannot find an
answer--and reflected by Madame de Chantelle as well as Fraser. causes
her unhappiness. An outsider who cannot understand her mother-in-law’s

prejudices against lower-class people nor Fraser’s inconsistency and

43

convictions about manners and etiquettes. Anna feels that everything has
"grown curiously remote and unimportant" (p. 96). Anna describes her
isolation and unhappiness at GivreI to George in a vivid simile of
imprisonment about the close relationship and common experience she has
shared with her stepson: ". . . Owen’s like my son--if you’d seen him when
I first came here you’d know why. We were like two prisoners who talk to
each other by tapping on the wall" (p. 251).

Another vivid simile explains why Anna’s married life with Fraser
becomes boring and disillusioned. Their different attitudes towards life
are strikingly summarized as follows:

. . . Life. to Mr. Leath. was like a walk through a carefully
classified museum. where. in moments of doubt. one had only to
look at the number and refer to one’s catalogue; to his wife it
was like groping about in a huge dark lumber-room where the
exploring ray of curiosity lit up now some shape of breathing
beauty and now a mummy’s grin. (p. 95)

Although she finds many disagreeable aspects in her first marriage.
Anna has conformed to her expected roles as wife and daughter-in-law.
Moreover. as a mother both to Owen and Effie. Anna is devoted and
responsible. Her motherly love for her stepson is shown in her reason for
delaying her own marriage to George: she wants "to see him [Owen]
through" (p. 121) with his marriage to Sophy who is Effie’s governess.
Realizing that Owen’s choice will be unacceptable to Madame de Chantelle
because of the woman’s aristocratic convictions and Sophy’s inferior
background. Anna volunteers to speak for Owen. Anna’s attempt to help
Sophy win Madame de Chantelle’s approval is clear when she persuades
George to support the girl. Since Anna learns that George has met Sophy.

she tries to find out his opinion of the girl and persuades him to talk

Madame de Chantelle into accepting Sophy. Ironically. the discovery of the

44

relationship between George and Sophy brings Anna’s own marriage plan to
ruin.

Although Anna’s relationship with Effie is not emphasized. she
certainly loves her daughter very much. Her care for the girl is indicated
in her concern about the governess. Anna feels happy and relieved when
she finds Sophy on whom she can rely for Effie’s upbringing and education.
since Anna plans to marry George and move with him to South America
where he will have a post as a diplomat.

In Anna’s perception. her escape to freedom and the realization of her
dreams can be achieved through her second marriage with George Darrow.
This theme is carried through the book by the image of the "wings." For
instance. when Anna watches her child. her stepson. her promised husband.
and Sophy together. she expresses her "sense of security": "I feel as if I
could trust my happiness to carry me; as if it had grown out of me like
wings" (p. 177). More important is the scene when Anna and George
conclude their private talk at the pavillion at Givre’. After a conversation
in which George feels uncomfortable about Owen’s seeing him with Sophy
at a theatre in Paris. he " stooped and kissed her. and she sat as if folded
in wings" (p. 116).

As in her first marriage. Anna expects the second with George Darrow
to be a means of escape from a boring. restricted. and conventional life to
an exciting. free. and new reality. It is an escape from Givrel-n-the French
chsteau which has become " the very symbol of narrowness and monotony"
(p. 84) to Anna. There is no doubt about her love for George. but she also
needs him to help her escape to the awakening of life. Elizabeth Ammons
provocatively applies the theme of Sleeping Beauty’s awakening to The

Reef. Anna is the sleeping princess waiting to be awakened by Prince

45

Charming. Ignorant of many realities in life. she has a “fantasy of
freedom" with George as the prince who will come to free her from the
spell?

Anna’s development from the first to the second marriage is clear in
her attempt to make George see her as she is and to express the whole of
her feeling. In other words. she wants to be more sincere and down to
earth in order to make George understand her. After the first private talk
and slight argument with George. Anna feels "richer. deeper. more
complete” (p. 24). She is delighted to see her own changes-~the reduction
of her vanity and insincerity--because of love. Anna’s thoughts reveal the
ambivalence of her feelings:

. . . She was glad now that she had confessed her doubts and
her Jealousy. . . . The sense of power she had been aware of in
talking to Darrow came back with tenfold force. She felt like
testing him by the most fantastic ex actions. and at the same
moment she longed to humble herself before him. to make
herself the shadow and echo of his mood. She wanted to linger
with him in a world of fancy and yet to walk at his side in the
world of fact. She wanted him to feel her power and yet to love
her for her ignorance and humility. She felt like a slave. and a
goddess. and a girl in her teens. (pp. 124-5)

A well-rounded and realistic character. Anna has both good and bad
sides. The "good" Anna is highly moral. charming. lady-like. kind.
understanding. and sympathetic to those around her. However. her
egotism. hyper-sensitivity. strong curiosity. and extreme Jealousy are
sufficiently serious flaws to cause some to withdraw. In fact. it is
difficult for the reader to regard her with compassion. Walton is correct
to doubt that Anna is "a tragic heroine." Despite Wharton’s intention to
evoke the reader’s sympathy and George’s admiration. Anna’s lack of human

warmth and her prudishness. according to Walton. make it difficult for the

reader to identify with her.5 In my opinion. she is not really "a tragic

46

heroine" because of her inability to illicit compassion. Rather. she is a
selfish "old“ lady who needs everything her way. Moreover. Anna’s
frequent ambivalent feelings. indecisive actions. and conflicting moods
show that she is a woman of inconsistent character. In her love for
George. for instance. Anna’s inner conflict of pride vs. passion and
intelligence vs. instinct (p. 130) is obvious in her indecision about whether
or not to marry George.

Of Anna’s human but annoying qualities which finally lead to her
unhappiness. the most pronounced is her Jealousy. Possessive. she reveals
herself as very sensitive to. observant of. and curious about the feelings
and attitudes of the people she loves. Once she senses that the
relationship between George and Sophy is deeper than it appears. she is
curious to know the truth even though it hurts her. Owen’s outburst at
Sophy’s wish to leave Givre for Paris and his secretly witnessing Sophy
and George in private conversations arouse more suspicions in Anna.
Finally. in the crucial meeting at the end of chapter XXIV. Anna’s growing
suspicion is confirmed. She theorizes: "If there’s nothing between them
[George and Sophy). they’ll look at each other; if there i_s something. they
won’t" (p. 247). The result of Anna’s observation is "that he and Sophy had
not looked at each other" (p. 247). Thus. her Jealousy becomes an'outrage.

Anna’s quickness in understanding the relationship between George and
Sophy and her imaginative ability to patch up the scattered pictures make
her suffer more from Jealousy. For Anna. it is "a bad dream." "the horror"
(p. 267). Her broken sentence to George shows how she suffers from being
observant and imaginative: ". . . There w_e_r;e_ little things. . .. little signs. . .

once I had begun to watch for them: your reluctance to speak about her. . .

47

her reserve with you. . . a sort of constraint we’d never seen in her before
. . ." (p. 267).
In Anna’s anxious attempt to find out the truth by paying attention to

even the minutest detail. she tortures herself with rage and Jealousy:

". . . there were other things too. . . crazier things still. . .
There was even last night on the terrace--her pink cloak. . ."

"You’ve forgotten about the cloak? The pink cloak that Owen
saw you with at the play in Paris'? Yes. . . yes. . . I was mad
enough for that!" . . . It does me good to laugh about it now!
But you ought to know that I’m going to be a Jealous woman. . .
a ridiculously Jealous woman. . . you ought to be warned of it in
time. . . " (p. 263)

Anna’s conflicting character is evident in her alternating feelings
towards Sophy. Sometimes Anna’s pity for Sophy. "the girl. . . in a
desperate plight." is so deep that "she longed to lean over with
compassionate hands" (p. 275). Sometimes when Jealousy overwhelms her.
Anna is cruel enough to accuse Sophy as " an adventuress" (p. 290). and
criticizes the girl as being "exceedingly generous" to George in Paris (p.
331). Moreover. after the confession of George and Sophy about their love
affair in Paris. Anna at first seems glad to get rid of the girl from Givret
but later she feels guilty and searches for her twice. even thinking she
will give up George for Sophy. Her self-sacrifice is. according to Turner.
one of the traditional virtues to which Anna. as a lady. has to conform.6 In
short. her inconstancy and inability to decide show her complicated
character.

Lawson interprets the novel’s title as a metaphor of Anna’s situation.
For him. The Reef suggests Anna’s personal plight: as a woman. she is

confronted with obstacles to freedom. The title also implies her

immobility owing to her being restricted by conventions? Wershoven.

48

however. finds Sophy Viner. the other principal female character. the
"reef" of the novel. the hidden obstacle that wrecks the "deep and tranquil
current" of love between Anna and George.8 Both Lawson and Wershoven
have reasonble points. but Wershoven’s interpretation properly emphasizes
Soohy’s role. Actually. Sophy is of equal importance to Anna but she is not
equally treated. She may be seen as playing the role of "double heroine"9

.10

with Anna. of a " split heroine. as a contrast in background and character.
or as a rival. a competitor. and an enemy in their love for George. Since
the novel is never told through Sophy’s point of view. however. the reader
can know her only through George’s and Anna’s shifting consciousness. her
conversation with them. and her reactions to crucial circumstances.
Compared with Anna. Sophy shows more traits of a "new" or modern
woman. From a lower social class than Anna. Sophy independently
supports herself as a secretary to Mrs. Murrett and later as a governess
to Effie Leath. In her position. Sophy is not highly respected as a "lady"
as is Anna. According to Wolfe. she represents "the plight of a poor
defenceless American girl" despite her courage and sacrifice for love.11 In
their accidental and private meeting at Charing Cross and on the train to
Paris. George finds Sophy "unconventional." To him she is alive. frank. and
impulsive. Unlike Anna who is usually well-mannered and reserved. Sophy
expresses herself freely--even like a child--and thus draws George’s
compassion. He wants to make her happy. to help her enJoy her experience
in Paris. "to give her a child’s holiday to look back to" (p. 72). Sophy’s
ignorant innocence. which induces George’s pity. kindness. and intention to
educate her. is seen by Turner as having implications of the Pygmalion

theme? Moreover. Sophy does not hesitate to claim she is an "awfully

modern" woman who is "not so sure“ about her belief in marriage (p. 62).

49

After the love affair with George in Paris. Sophy’s feelings for him are
suspended until they meet again at Givre]. From the very first time they
privately encounter each other in the study. Saphy. who must have known
the prospect of the relationship between George and Anna. expresses her

I
fear of George. She realizes that the possibility of her being at Givre
depends on him. At first. Sophy answers George’s questions bitterly:

. . . "You are happy here?"

"I was." she said with a faint emphasis.

" Why do you say ’was”? You’re surely not thinking of going?
There can’t be kinder people anywhere.". . .

"I suppose it depends on you whether I go or stay."

"On me?" . . . "Good God! What can you think of me. to say
that?"

The mockery of the question flashed back at him from her
wretched face. She stood up. wandered away. and leaned an
instant in the darkening window-frame. From there she turned
to fling back at him: "Don’t imagine I’m the least :11 sorry for
anything!" (p. 149)

Later when George insists on helping her. she answers "with low-toned
intensity": "If you want to help me. then--you can help me to stay here. . .
" (p. 151).

Sophy wants to stay at Givre] not Just to be Effie’s governess but to
be Owen’s bride. She does not tell George about the impending marriage.
but he learns about it from Anna. In their second private encounter. Sophy
shows her strong determination to marry Owen despite many obJections
brought up by George. Sophy seems to be able to understand the problems
she will face: Owen’s youth and inexperience make him not "a good match“
for her (p. 203); and she is aware of Madame de Chantelle’s disapproval.
However. the most important and perhaps unsolvable problem in this future

marriage is the lack of love. This is evident in the climax of their

conversation. George speaks intensely:

50

"I’ll tell you exactly what I meant. You’ll be wretched if you
marry a man you’re not in love with."

The girl. at his words. had lifted her head with a movement of
surprise. Her eyes slowly reached his face and rested there in
a gaze of deep interrogation. . . .

At length she began to speak. "You’re mistaken--you’re quite
mistaken."

He waited a moment longer. "Mistaken--?“

"In thinking what you think. I’m as happy as if I deserved it!“
she suddenly proclaimed with a laugh. (p. 206)

The conversations between Sophy and George are important because
they reveal how Sophy feels about George and the past relationship.
Moreover. the arguments lead to Sophy’s self-knowledge and decision to
cancel her engagement to Owen. She finally realizes that her love for
George and her inability to love Owen make the marriage impossible. In
her explanation to George. Sophy reveals her courage and strong
determination:

. . ."Don’t for a minute think I’m sorry! It was worth every
penny it cost. . . . I tried to carry it off as a Joke--to talk of it
myself as an ’adventure.’ . . . I’d been trying all the while to
put everything I could between us; now I want to sweep
everything away. . . . I’ve made my choice--that’s all: I’ve had
you and I mean to keep you." Her face was shining like her
eyes. "To keep you hidden away here." she ended. and put her
hand upon her breast. (pp. 259-260)
It is clear at this point that Sophy sacrifices the wealth and well-being
she may expect from her marriage with Owen to her love for George. Her
action indicates her self-confidence as a "new" woman but not her
practicality. However. Sophy’s impractical decision to give up the possible
fortune is brave and rather unusual for a woman in her circumstances.
In addition. as Sophy confesses about her love for George to Anna. her

generosity and good will are shown in her pointing out George’s

indifference and her own ignorance:

51

". . . I’m not ashamed of having loved him; no; and I’m not
ashamed of telling you so. It’s that that .‘ustifies me--and him
too. . . Oh. let me tell you how it happened! He was sorry for
me: he saw I cared. I knew that was all he ever felt. I could
see he was thinking of some one else. I knew it was only for a
week. . . He never said a word to mislead me. . . I wanted to be
happy Just once--and I didn’t dream of the harm I might be
doing him!" (pp. 306-7)

Sophy’s final choice of escape to an independent life as Mrs. Murrett’s
secretary in India rather than imprisonment in wealth and life-long
unhappiness with Owen Leath proves her a strong and modern woman. The

13
Cinderella motif. suggested by Ammons. is not carried through here since
Sophy. the poor and neglected girl. refuses to be transported from rags to
riches by Owen Leath. the supposed Prince Charming. In comparison. Sophy
exceeds Anna as a powerful and "new" woman. Anna may appear modern in

/

her secret struggle against the traditions of Givre and her advanced idea
about the acceptable marriage between Owen and Sophy. regardless of the
girl’s background. Nevertheless. Anna’s attitudes towards the revealed
love affair between George and Sophy put her in the old-fashioned and
conventional category. Sophy. on the other hand. accepts the truths that
her love for George is impossible and that her marriage with Owen will
bring her. despite wealth. wretchedness in life and even worse. will ruin
the happiness of George. the man she loves. Therefore. she deserves
esteem and admiration as a modern woman whose action is Justified by

"in

"self-assertion" rather than "self-sacrifice. Sophy does not simply
leave Givre’. giving up her love for George. to make him happy in his
marriage with Anna; she also reveals her self-respect and independence as

a "new" woman. In addition. the sympathy of critics and readers is usually

directed to Sophy. instead of Anna. because of her admirable

52

characteristics of the “new“ woman--kindness. innocence. honesty.
attractiveness. sensitivity. bravery. and passion.”

While Sophy is often regarded as deserving sympathy. and as "the big
’winner’ of the novel."1§.‘reorge Darrow. according to Turner. is perhaps the
one to blame for treating Sophy as an “eternal sex obJect"17and his
irresponsibility in the affair in Paris. Turner also sees him. however. as a
responsible man who has the "courage to pursue his desires."18 I agree
that George is courageous in his pursuit of Anna. but many of his acts
towards Sophy. especially. cannot be considered responsible. Moreover.
his courage and persistence to marry Anna is not admirable in relation to
his desire to have Sophy leave Givre’. Though not so outstanding as the
two women characters. George’s importance in the novel is clear in his
involvement in the two love triangles and in his role as an intermittently
central consciousness of the story. Compared to other male characters in
The Reef. George appears more pleasant and warmer in personality than
Fraser Leath and more understanding and thoughtful than Owen Leath. An
American diplomat in London. George possesses all the qualifications and
skills to enable him to lead a moral existence as well as a successful one.

If George’s love for Anna and his intention to marry her had not been
met with her indifference. the two triangles might never have developed.
Had it not been for the telegram to stop him temporarily from seeing her
without explanation. George’s affair with Sophy in Paris might not have
taken place. As George realizes later. he has found in Sophy. during their
stay in Paris. “the frank and easy comrade“ (p. 260) whose concern for his
unhappiness is impressive. George feels Sophy’s presence in Paris "as the
element of vague well-being that suffused in his senses and lulled to

sleep the ache of wounded pride" (p. 262).

53

It may be understandable for George to find consolation for his
"wounded vanity" in Sophy. but Wharton suggests that he should be more
responsible for his action. Despite his promise. George does not really
help Sophy for he cannot keep his guilty feeling a secret from Anna. In
George’s conversation with Anna. he tries. without success. to use his

diplomatic talk to conceal the truth:

". . . Won’t you tell me the exact impression she’s produced on
you?"

"I have told you--I like Miss Viner."

"Do you still believe she’s in love with Owen‘?’

" There was nothing in our short talks to throw any particular
light on that."

"You still believe though. that there’s no reason why he
shouldn’t marry her?"

Again he betrayed a restrained impatience. "How can I
answer that without knowing her reasons for breaking with
him?" (pp. 252-3)

In fact George knows the reason for Sophy’s leaving. but he cannot tell
because it involves his secret past. Moreover. with her departure. George
can happily marry Anna without any uneasy feelings.

George’s irresponsibility is even clearer after Anna discovers his
affair with Sophy. In their argument. George tries to explain to Anna: "I
swear to you. . . it was simply that [his sympathy for Sophy]. and nothing
more." (p. 291) When Anna says she cannot understand this. George puts
the blame on her:

. . . Finally she brought out: "I don’t think I understand what
you’ve told me."

"No. you don’t understand." he returned with sudden
bitterness; and on his lips the charge of incomprehension
seemed an offense to her.

"I don’t want to--about such things!"

He answered almost harshly: "Don’t be afraid. . . you never
will. . ." and for an instant they faced each other like enemies.
Then the tears swelled in her throat at his reproach.

"You mean I don’t feel things--I’m too hard?"

54

"No: you’re too high. . . too fine. . . such things are too far
from you." (p. 291)

With a stronger will power than Anna. George wins her over. However.
George can never really exert his power on Sophy; she is much stronger in
her will and determination than he is. Sophy’s deliberate decision to go to
India should make George feel less guilty since her presence will remind
him of his responsibility. Consequently. George and Anna should be
happier owing to Sophy’s decision. Their happiness. however. is still
doubtful.

Wharton complicates the plot of The Reef by including several minor
characters. Madame de Chantelle. Adelaide Painter. Effie Leath. and Laura
M c Tarvie-Birch. Not fully characterized nor developed. these characters
represent key concepts. substantiate meaning. and help clarify the primary
characters’ roles.

Madame de Chantelle and Adelaide Painter are two American
expatriates who have spent a long period of their life in France and have
been exposed to the culture. Regarding herself as “old-fashioned" like her
furniture at Givre, (p. 192). Madame de Chantelle is completely
Europeanized. Married to a French aristocrat and converted to Roman
Catholicism. she has accepted wholeheartedly the "civilized" culture. Her
preJudiced and old-fashioned attitude is reflected in her acceptance of
George Darrow because of his social status and background and in her
disapproval of Sophy Viner due to her social and financial inferiority. Her
friend. Adelaide Painter. is portrayed as a contrast. Unlike the arrogant.
preJudiced. and hypocritical Madame de Chantelle. Adelaide comes to Givre.

to persuade her to allow the marriage of her nephew with the governess.

55

In other words. Adelaide’s liberal attitude helps make possible the
marriage of the two despite their different social classes.

The characterization of Effie Leath is not clear. She exists in the
novel to allow Sophy Viner to come to Givre, as her governess and for Anna
to perform her mother role. Effie appears in the novel as a nice " little
fair daughter." Her mother adores her and is concerned about her future.
She thus makes it difficult for her mother to decide to marry George and
leave her at Givre.

Laura. Sophy’s sister. appears only in the final chapter. but Anna’s
encounter with her at Hotel Chicago in Paris makes the ending of The Reef
ambiguous. A singer who claims to be an "artist." Laura lives with her
lover. Jimmy Brance. and a poodle in a dirty and disordered room of
relative poverty. This suggests to Anna the situation from which Sophy
has escaped. In addition. the scene indicates Anna’s inexperience of the
world--the outside. unconventional. and ugly world which she can never
understand.

The last chapter. or epilogue. is. in Lawson’s consideration. out of
place and has the purpose of balancing the reader’s sympathy for Anna and
Sophy. 19If this is Wharton’s real purpose. the expected result fails
because Sophy gains even more sympathy than Anna. Sophy bravely leaves
for India. her unstable future. refusing to follow Laura in her easy
solution or to obstruct the marriage of George and Anna. Lawson also
points out that Sophy is not given "authorial sympathy" because of her low
social class.20 I find this too strong an attack on Wharton’s preJudice. The
author may have been raised conventionally to be a "lady" like Anna. but
that hardly requires that she treat the "new" middle-class woman like

Sophy with bias. Actually. Wharton’s subtle treatment of both Anna and

56

Sophy. her ambivalent attitudes towards the "old" and "new" woman. and
the ambiguous ending of The Reef may cause critical disagreement. but

they contribute to a more powerful and meaningful novel.

CHAPTER 4

The parallel pattern of the "old" and "new" woman. so important in The
R_e_e_f as we have seen. reaches its most effective level in The Age of
Innocence (1920). The structure is still the love triangle of one man and
two women. similar to the principal love triangle of The Reef. but Thg Age
of Innocence dramatizes more intensely the concealed struggle between an
“old" woman. May Welland. and a "new“ woman. Ellen Olenska. Their
implicit battle is over Newland Archer. the male protagonist. That May
seems to gain victory by marrying Newland and by keeping him afterwards
does not mean absolute triumph of the "old" woman over the "new" woman.
however. Other factors apart from herself contribute to May’s apparent
success in marriage. They include the intrusion and protection of the
society. Ellen’s moral and powerful decision. and Newland’s conventional
and inactive character.

Newland Archer. though considered "one of Wharton’s most likeable”

heroes.1

is nonetheless portrayed as less decisive and less active than the
female protagonists. In this. he resembles his predecessors in the works
previously discussed--Lawrence Selden. John Amherst. and George
Darrow--who are also portrayed as lacking in will power and in the ability
to perform actively. These protagonists are all well-educated.
upper-class. and physically attractive gentlemen who have the
opportunities to help the female protagonists in their troubles but fail to
fulfill these expectations.

Sensitivity. idealism. and selfishness are common characteristics of

these heroes. Each seems to be the person who best understands the

female protagonist. Nevertheless. all selfishly cling to their own

57

58

idealistic and conventional beliefs. Due to their lethargy. it is usually too
late when they finally decide to help the female protagonists.
In Wharton’s own words. Selden is a " negative hero" because of his

2 Worse than Selden. Amherst

self-love and indifference to Lily Bart.
conceitedly marries Bessy to upgrade himself and to use money for the mill
reform. Moreover. Amherst can never forgive Justine for helping Bessy to
quicker death. and he selfishly ignores her to idealize the memory of Bessy
instead. Darrow. like Amherst. also deals egotistically with two women.
He not only ignores Sophy. who loves him. but also ignores their
relationship in his desire to marry Anna Leath. the rich upper-class lady
he has admired. Newland Archer is better than his predecessors if only
because he is forced to cling to May and thus does not have a chance to
take advantage of Ellen and make her suffer more.

In terms of the love triangle. Newland. the "central intelligence" of the
novel. has to decide whether to marry May Welland. an "innocent."
conventional young lady of the upper-class old New York. or Ellen Olenska.
a sophisticated. modern. independent lady trying to make her way into the
New York society. As Wolff observes. Newland’s problem in making up his
mind is the center of the novel.3 his decision to marry May despite his love
for Ellen causes them all to suffer and struggle--Newland from the
unfulfilled love and the monotony of married life. May from the truth she
learns and the superficial victory she wins. and Ellen from unsuccessful
love and moral dilemma. .—

As the title ironically implies. this story takes place in the old New
York society of the 1870’s. The setting. as Lewis points out. can be traced

to the old New York world of Wharton’s girlhood. adolescence. and

womanhood. the world described as " safe. narrow. unintellectual. and

S9

hidebound" as well as “endearing and honorable from distance of time.”4

However. the love-triangle structure shows that the novel is not Just a
nostalgic picture of New York 5but an insightful study of human
relationships. especially love. marriage. and divorce. in the setting of
traditional social problems--pre.h.ldice. hypocrisy. and ostracism.

Though most of the story is told through Newland’s consciousness. it is.
not completely his story. as some critics have claimed. For instance.
McDowell observes that Newland’s dilemma. his choice between May and
Ellen. is central to the book. 6and Turner states that the novel deals with
his discovery of “the oppressiveness of the ideology of women."7 Yet. May
and Ellen play dominant roles in the novel. Despite the apparent device of
having Newland as the focus and means of narration. Wharton successfully
portrays two strong women with realistic characteristics.

May Welland substantially represents the conforming insider of the
late nineteenth-century New York society. Always nice. charming. and
calm. she is portrayed as a typically conventional woman--an obedient
daughter. a good wife. and a dutiful mother. May first appears to the
reader in the opening scene at the Opera through Newland’s eyes. She is
described as "a young girl in white with eyes ecstatically fixed on the
stage-lovers" (p. 5). Her innocent. virginal aspect is suggested in the
white color of her dress. her blush at the love scene on stage. and the
flowers-~a single gardenia on her dress and a bouquet of
lilies-of—the-valley she carries (p. 6). May’s appearance is consistently
associated with the color of purity and the spring blossoms which not only
imply freshness. chastity. and loveliness but also relate to her name.

May is also associated with mythological imagery: “In her dress of

white and silver. with a wreath of silver blossoms in her hair. the tall girl

60

looked like a Diana Just alight from the chase“ (pp. 65-6). Diana. the
Roman moon goddess. goddess of hunting and of chastity. highlights
effectively May’s picture as a young. pure huntress in the marriage market
of upper-class New York society. May’s Diana-like and athletic
characteristics are repeated and reinforced in her victory at the bow and
arrow contest at Newport Archery Club.

A product of the society. May has been brought up and trained according
to the traditional conventions of the nineteenth-century upper-class
American lady. Her many conventional qualities are. however. criticized by
Newland. her betrothed:

. . . She was frank. poor darling. because she had nothing to
conceal. assured because she knew of nothing to be on her guard
against; and with no better preparation than this. she was to
be plunged overnight into what people evasively called " the
facts of life." (pp. 45-6)

As a young marriageable girl. May is viewed approvingly by Newland
for her "good looks." "her health. her horsemanship. her grace and
quickness at games." and her intellectual potential (p. 46). Moreover. she
is admired by Newland for her straightforwardness. loyalty. bravery. and
sense of humor. May’s two qualities which bother Newland. however. are
her helplessness and innocence. Trained to possess these qualities. May
becomes a "creation of fictitious purity. so cunningly manufactured by a
conspiracy of mothers and aunts and grandmothers and long-dead
ancestresses" in order to please men (p. 46). According to Wolfe. May
personifies the innocent young woman of the 1370’s whose maJor
characteristics are wealth. purity. virginity. ignorance rather than naivete’.

and well-trained qualities of a hostess. wife. and mother.8

61

An example of May’s conventionality is obvious in her answer to
Newland when. trying to hasten their marriage. he follows her to St.
Augustine. where she spends her summer with her parents: "If you call it
[the engagement] long! Isabel Chivers and Reggie were engaged for two
years: Grace and Thorley for nearly a year and a half. Why aren’t we very
well off as we are?" (p. 82) Newland correctly finds this " the traditional
maidenly interrogation." an echo of “what was said for her“ and not her
own idea. Through the presentation of May. Wharton subtly implies the
irony of the novel’s title. In addition. Newland’s image of May with a
bandage on her eyes indicates her naive and defenseless plight in the
world.9 Brought up to be "nice." “innocent." and inexperienced according to
convention. May seems to need someone to help remove the bandage and let
her see the world in other perspectives. The term "innocence" in the title
may imply the virtues of purity and naivete’. but it also has an ironic
meaning and implies such dangerous qualities as ignorance. inexperience.
and helplessness.

Upon a closer look. however. May is not as completely innocent.
helpless. sweet. and generous as she appears. As a product of the
hypocritical and preJudiced society. she gradually absorbs those dominant
qualities. May’s cleverness is clear in her understanding of many subtle
situations and in her calm way of handling them. For instance. she is.
correct to doubt Newland’s intention for hastening the marriage. and she
talks to him in this vein:

. . ."You mustn’t think that a girl knows as little as her parents
imagine. One hears and one notices--one has feelings and
ideas. And of course. long before you told me that you cared

for me. I’d known that there was someone else you were
interested in. . . ." (p. 149)

62

May cleverly begins to show him that she knows of Newland’s past affair
with Mrs. Rushworth. This leads to May’s suspicion of Newland’s present
affair with Ellen. but May ambiguously talks to Newland without
mentioning anyone’s name:
. . .“l’ve wanted to tell you that. when two people really love
each other. I understand that there may be situations which
make it right that they should--should go against public
opinion. And if you feel yourself in any way pledged. . .
pledged to the person we’ve spoken of. . . and if there is any
way. . . any way in which you can fulfill your pledge. . . even by
her getting a divorce. . . Newland. don’t give her up because of
me!" (pp. 149-50)

May’s generosity is not limited to Newland; she shows kindness and
compassion to Ellen. her unfortunate "foreign" cousin. as well. May gives
Newland "leave" to tell Ellen about their engagement and reveals her
thoughtfulness towards Ellen in her insistence that Newland must do so.
"Otherwise she might thinkI had forgotten her. You see. she’s one of the
family. and she’s been away so long that she’s rather--sensitive" (p. 25).
These thoughtful words undoubtedly make Newland view his fiancee as
"Dear and great angel!" (p. 25)--a stereotypical ideal woman of the
society.

Apart from this. May shows her kind and continuing concerns for Ellen
whenever she talks about her to her Newland. When Mrs. Manson Mingott.
their grandmother. has a stroke. May generously lets Newland go to fetch
Ellen from Jersey City with her carriage. Moreover. Ellen is the first
person to know about May’s pregnancy. two weeks before May is certain.
Finally. when Ellen decides to leave New York for Paris. May arranges a
farewell dinner party for her.

With Newland. the reader gradually discovers the deeply hidden

character of May. Under the innocent look--the childish clear eyes. the

63

calm and sweet temper. and generosity--May is a strongly determined lady
who cunningly conspires to get what she wants. McDowell is absolutely
correct in commenting that though her male acquaintances see May as "an
image of ethereal purity" and a helpless being. she is. for Wharton. "a
woman of considerable strength."10Her first victory is her getting
Newland to marry her despite his love for Ellen. With the marriage. May
becomes "one of the handsomest and most popular young married women in
New York" and also "one of the sweetest-tempered and most reasonable
wives" (p. 207). Like nineteenth-century upper-class American ladies. May
gains a better social status through an appropriate marriage.

May’s silence does not mean complete ignorance. Her blush when
Ellen’s name is mentioned in the argument about Ellen’s return to Count
Olenski. which amazes Newland. implies knowledge. She understands that
Newland does not want Ellen to go back to her husband not only because
Ellen will suffer but because he does not want Ellen to leave him. Also.
May calmly consents to Newland’s pretext to go to Washington "on
business" because she cannot openly stop him from seeing Ellen. When
May tells Newland. "And you must be sure to go and see Ellen" (p. 266). the
hidden meaning is:

. . ."Of course you understand that I know all that people have
been saying about Ellen. . . . I also know that. for some reason
you have not chosen to tell me. you have advised her against
this course [the return to her husband]. . . . Hints have indeed
not been wanting; but since you appear unwilling to take them
from others. I offer you this one myself. in the only form in
which well-bred people of our kind can communicate unpleasant
things to each other: by letting you understand that I know you
mean to see Ellen when you are in Washington. and are perhaps
going there expressly for that purpose; and that. since you are
sure to see her. I wish you to do so with my full and explicit
approval--and to take the opportunity of letting her know what

the course of conduct you have encouraged her in is likely to
lead to." (p. 266)

54

May does not stop her conspiracy at the hint. She correctly guesses
that Newland is going to leave her for Ellen. which means a divorce and her
failure. Therefore. when Newland decides to confess. May is ready to

interrupt him with the shocking news:

"Madame Olenska--" he said; but at the name his wife raised
her hand as if to silence him. . . .

"Oh. why should we talk about Ellen tonight?" she asked. with
a slight pout of impatience.

" Because I ought to have spoken before."

Her face remained calm. "Is it really worthwhile. dear“? I
know I’ve been unfair to her at times--perhaps we all have.
You’ve understood her. no doubt. better than we did: you’ve
always been kind to her. But what does it matter. now it’s all
over?"

" All over--what do you mean?" he asked in an indistinct
stammer.

May still looked at him with transparent eyes. "Why--since
she’s going back to Europe so soon; since Granny approves and
understands. and has arranged to make her independent of her
husband--" (p. 324).

Ellen’s decision to return to Europe is certainly concerned with May.
This is not revealed until after the farewell dinner party. which May
arranges for Ellen. when Newland bursts out that he wants "to go
away--away from everything." to "India--or Japan." At this point. May
breaks the news:

". . . But I’m afraid you can’t. dear. . ." she said in an unsteady
voice. "Not unless you’ll take me with you." And then. as he
was silent. she went on. in tones so clear and evenly-pitched
that each separate syllable tapped like a little hammer on his
brain: "That is. if the doctors will let me go. . . but I’m afraid
they won’t. For you see. Newland. I’ve been sure since this
morning of something I’ve been so longing and hoping for--" (p.
342).

May uses her pregnancy as her ultimate weapon to tie Newland to her.

Even more conniving. however. is her telling Ellen two weeks before she

was sure that she was pregnant in order to drive Ellen away from Newland.

65

Thus. May achieves what she thinks is her victory. Nevertheless. her
confession before her death to Dallas. her eldest son. shows that she has
realized the truth about Newland’s love for Ellen and that she has lived
with it all her life. Ammons’ critical view of May accurately assesses her
as the conventional "child-woman" with the idealistic qualities approved
by the old New York society. However. the critic indicates that May
represents "a precious human burden. the highest expression of the
leisure-class’s ’nursery parody of life’ and symbolic of its freedom from
normal economic imperatives."11 May’s conformity to the society’s norms in
terms of "ideal femininity" makes Ammons see her as the American
child-woman. with children’s characteristics approved by adults: "gaiety.
innocence. ignorance. acquiescence. dependence. affectionateness. and a
decorous spontaneity ." as well as two vicious qualities. greed and
self-absorption.12 In my opinion. May’s infantile characteristics
appropriately put her in the category of the "old" woman who ignores her
own personal freedom but cunningly fights for the approval of
male-oriented society.

In contrast to May. the Countess Olenska is portrayed as a "foreigner."
an outsider to New York society. Though born a Mingott. an important
upper-class family. she acquires a questionable reputation because of her
unconventional dress at the debut. her upbringing abroad. and her marriage
to the Polish nobleman. Count Olenski. followed by her intention to divorce
him. In general. Ellen is a "new" independent woman with a strong will and
liberal ideas about divorce. At the same time. she is the most sincere and
moral character in the novel.

Ellen’s unconventionality. Judged by old New York standards. is

portrayed in her dress. West Twenty-third Street house. conversation. and

66

behavior. Like May. Ellen first appears to the reader through Newland’s
eyes at the Opera. She is "a slim young woman. a little less tall than May
Welland. with brown hair growing in close curls about her temples and held
in place by a narrow band of diamonds" (p. 9). Her unusual dress--"the
dark blue velvet gown rather theatrically caught up under her bosom by a
girdle with a large old-fashioned clasp" (p. 9)--is criticized by the male
group of old New York gentility--especially Lawrence Lefferts. the
authority on "form." and Sillerton Jackson. the authority on "family."
Before this. Ellen has been a center of gossip owing to her wearing "black
satin at her coming-out ball" (p. 40) instead of the white traditionally
worn by debutantes. Also. in one of Newland’s visits to Ellen. he observes
her unconventional way of dressing. a deviation from New York ladies’
"simple dinner dresses." Ellen. "heedless of tradition. was attired in a
long robe of red velvet bordered about the chin and down the front with
glossy black fur" (p. 105). Despite its unconventionality. the dress is
undeniably pleasing to Newland.
Ellen’s house at West Twenty-third Street in New York also contributes
to her being considered unconventional. The location of the house in a
neighborhood of dressmakers. bird-stuffers and "people who wrote" (p. 63)
is considered by Newland to be "not fashionable" (p. 74). In addition. the
outside appearance is shabby. although this is in sharp contrast to the
inner warmth of the drawing room decorated by Ellen:
. . . The atmosphere of the room was so different from any he
had ever breathed that self-consciousness vanished in the
sense of adventure. . . . What struck him was the way in which
Medora Manson’s shabby hired house. with its blighted
background of pampas grass and Roger statuettes. had. by a
turn of the hand. and the skilful use of a few properties. been

transformed into something intimate. "foreign." subtly
suggestive of old romantic scenes and sentiments. (p. 71)

67

Ellen’s conversation. behavior. and manners also set her apart.
Brought up by Medora Manson. her "eccentric" aunt. after her parents’
death. Ellen becomes a lady "with expansive but incoherent education" (p.
60) who. according to New York norms. does not know how to talk and act
properly. For instance. in conversation with Newland at the Opera. Ellen
shocks him with her comment about their childhood: "I see everybody here
in knickerbockers and pantalettes” (p. 13). This "misplaced flippancy" is
considered by Newland to be in bad taste. Even worse. Ellen unknowingly
describes New York society in a "disrespectful way." saying that she has
been away "Oh. centuries and centuries; so long. . . that I’m sure I’m dead
'and buried. and this dear old place is heaven" (p. 18). Wershoven views her
as an "outsider" to or "intruder"13 in the New York world whose infantile
quality is apparent in the "innocence" of women like May Welland. 14

Unaware of the social rituals and taboos. Ellen freely expresses her
feelings about New York and its people. This self-confident action not
only reveals her sincerity but also helps Newland to see his native city in
different perspectives. As Wolff indicates. Ellen is the "catalyst" who

15

brings Newland to "self-confrontation' --to the reconsideration of his
value. At the van der Luydens’ dinner. after breaking a rule of etiquette
by walking away from the Duke St. Austrey to talk to Newland. Ellen
expresses her opinion about the Duke frankly: "I think he’s the dullest man
I ever met" (p. 64). After the party. when Newland compliments Ellen on
the arrangement of her drawing room. she answers: "Oh. it’s a poor little
place. My relations despise it. But at any rate it’s less gloomy than the

van der Luydens’" (p. 73). This frank comment shocks Newland because one

was not expected to dare to criticize the privileged and aristocratic family.

68

Ellen’s impulsive actions. inappropriate in the society. reveal that she
is an audacious. liberal lady. Unlike Aunt Medora. a "modern" woman who
has brought her up in Europe. Ellen does not spend her life freely and
indulgently falling in love and getting married as she likes. Instead. she
acts confidently. doing whatever she thinks is morally correct. She lets
herself be seen openly going out with Julius Beaufort. an English banker
who marries into the society but is not fully accepted. Also. Ellen
frequently goes to the Sunday party of Mrs. Lemuel Struthers. the newly
rich widow who owns Struthers’ shoe polish factory. She performs these
actions naturally. unaware that they make the society regard her as
strange. Actually. Ellen has tried to observe and act like all upper-class
New Yorkers. asking her cousins and Newland for information because she
does not like to be a non-conformist. This fails to work out properly
because of the society’s preJudice in Judging and accepting Ellen. Her most
controversial action. however. is her decision to sue her husband for
divorce. Despite her attempt to conform and her dislike of being different.
Ellen becomes a source of gossip for the society and a burden for the
family because of her modern idea about freedom and divorce. In fact. the
reason for her seeking a divorce is simple: "I want to be free; I want to
wipe out all the past" (p. 109). Although her wish for release from her
unhappy marriage with the Polish Count Olenski. a collector of women and
china. is understandable. she becomes the focus of scandal and the
disgrace of the family when she firmly refuses to go back to her husband
despite his "handsome" offer. Unlike other women at that period. Ellen
prefers a modest life in separation rather than a stifling married life. She

realizes how unconventional her action is. as she tells Newland in Boston:

69

. . ."I hadn’t thought of it [being alone at the Parker House]

because I’ve Just done something so much more unconventional."

The faint tinge of irony lingered in her eyes. "I’ve Just refused

to take back a sum of money--that belonged to me." (p. 231).

Among Ellen’s positive characteristics. the most admirable is her

conscientiousness in adhering to moral values. Her moral reputation has
been controversially regarded and gossiped about by the New York society
because of the scandal about her relationship with her husband’s
secretary. the man who has helped her escape from Count Olenski. The
controversy about Ellen worsens when she is often seen going out with
Julius Beaufort. newly rich and reputed to have had many mistresses.
However. with moral scruples and strong determination. Ellen successfully
escapes from Julius Beaufort. As Newland is the only person who seems
to understand her loneliness and unhappiness. Ellen admires him and
appreciates his help in keeping her from divorce and. thus. avoiding more
scandal. When Newland confesses his love for her. however. Ellen reminds
him of his engagement to May which cannot be undone. Ellen’s moral
standard is obvious in her entreaty to Newland: "Ah. don’t let us undo
what you’ve done! . . . I can’t go back to that other way of thinking. I can’t
love you unless I give you up" (p. 173). The paradox of the last sentence
reveals Ellen’s confused but determined mind. Her determination to stick
to this decision is clear in her refusal to become Newland’s mistress. when
he proposes to her in his wife’s carriage. Another paradox is apparent in
her answer:

"Then what. exactly. is your plan for us?" he asked.

"For 95’? But there’s no _(.I_s in that sense! We’re near each
other only if we stay far from each other. Then we can be
ourselves. Otherwise we’re only Newland Archer. the husband
of Ellen Olenska’s cousin. and Ellen Olenska. the cousin of

Newland Archer’s wife. trying to be happy behind the backs of
the people who trust them." (pp. 290-1)

70

Ellen adheres to the same moral level in her actions as she does in her
ideas. She does not hesitate to move from New York to Washington after
the marriage of May and Newland and to Paris when she learns from May
about her pregnancy. Another of Ellen’s courageous acts is her visit to
Regina Beaufort. her cousin. after Julius Beaufort’s bankruptcy.

Beautiful. attractive. and exciting. Ellen possesses many
unconventional yet admirable qualities. such as courage. sincerity.
determination. and conscientiousness. which make her a suitable prototype
of a modern woman. Certain critics have seen this in Ellen. Ammons
considers her a "new" American woman evident as early as 1870.16 Wolfe
regards Ellen as representing the new woman of the late nineteenth
century owing to her forthrightness. honesty. independence.
attractiveness. originality. and unconventionality.17 In my opinion. Ellen’s
moral sophistication as opposed to her worldly innocence makes her the
most sympathetic character in the novel.

The relationship between Ellen Olenska and Newland Archer. according
to Lewis. can be explained biographically and psychologically as Wharton’s
past double self. Whereas Newland is the society’s "restive and groping
member." Ellen is the writer’s "partial sketch of the intense and
non-conformist self." 18Thus. Lewis views the scenes of meeting and
argument between Ellen and Newland as Wharton’s "retrospective act of
self-confrontations;9

Newland Archer. like May and most of the upper-class New Yorkers. is
portrayed as a product of the society. He possesses the negative
qualities--conventionality. vanity. hypocrisy. and selfishness--which are
acceptable to that society. On the other hand. Newland is intellectual.

imaginative. partly responsible. and partly liberal. Since most of the novel

71

is told through Newland’s point of view and is concerned with his choice

between two ladies. it is possible to see The A03 of Innocence as

 

Newland’s story. as have many critics. It is. however. not a novel of
education. a "bildungsroman." because Newland has learned very little.
Judging from his action. In addition. the characterization of Newland is not
as strong and powerful as that of May and Ellen.

As the story develops. the reader sees Newland’s inner conflict
between the old. traditional values with which he has been brought up and
the new. liberal ideas he is helped to see by Ellen. Originally. Newland is
conventional. His conventionality is conveyed by his dress. his traditional
house at West Twenty-eighth Street. his conventional family (his mother
Mrs. Archer and his sister Janey). his career as a lawyer which he does not
take seriously. and his general view of life. Newland is proud of being a
New Yorker. and he analyzes the outsiders who try to enter the society
such as Julius Beaufort and Ellen Olenska according to his New York
standard. Moreover. Newland conventionally regards May as his property.
with "a breath of satisfied vanity" (p.6) and "a thrill of possessorship" (p.
7).

On the other hand. Newland views his marriage to May as "a dull
association of material and social interests held together by ignorance on
the one side and hypocrisy on the other" (pp. 44-45). During his betrothal
visit he sees himself as being "shown off like a wild animal cunningly
trapped" (p. 69). He marries May partly because she is the best traditional
choice and also because this marriage will give him security socially. All
this reveals Newland not only as a conventional person in action but also

as a vain and hypocritical man who wants to conform to society’s rituals.

72

Despite his conventionality. Newland’s compassion towards Ellen makes
him better than the New York "masculine solidarity." To Sillerton
Jackson. he defends Ellen. the center of gossip:

". . . She’s ’poor Ellen’ certainly. because she had the bad luck

to make a wretched marriage; but I don’t see that that’s a
reason for hiding her head as if she were the culprit."

". . . Madame Olenska has had an unhappy life; that doesn’t
make her an outcast." (p. 41)
Furthermore. in his argument with Jackson. Newland angrily and
courageously says. "Women ought to be free--as free as we are" (p. 42).
He probably believes this but may not be aware of the implications of what
he is saying. This declaration of his belief in women’s independence.
however. is an early expression of a liberal idea which he will develop
later.

Intelligent and imaginative. Newland has the capacity to be receptive
to Ellen’s efforts to make him more conscious of his values. He tells
Ellen. "It’s you who are telling me; opening my eyes to things I’d looked at
so long that I’d ceased to see them" (p. 76). His acceptance of the new
perspective revealed by Ellen proves that Newland is an open-minded
person not stubbornly stuck to the old values.

That Newland attempts to turn from May to Ellen is not surprising. but
he is too weak to act on his own. He marries May. he later confesses.
because Ellen told him to (p. 241). hardly a sufficient reason. His
weakness is further shown when. after receiving May’s telegram of assent
after he confesses his love to Ellen. he can do nothing but give an ironic
laugh. He vacillates about matters of significance. Before marrying May.
Newland states that he wants his future wife to be "not a simpleton. [but]

socially tactful. witty. attractive. worldly wise" (p. 7) and that he wishes

73

to treat his wife differently from other men such as Lawrence Lefferts.

. Yet. after he marries May. Newland reverts to the old-fashioned ideas and

puts the blame on May:

Archer had reverted to all his old inherited ideas about
marriage. It was less trouble to conform with the tradition and
treat May exactly as all his friends treated their wives than to
try to put into practice the theories with which his
untrammeled bachelorhood had dallied. There was no use in
trying to emancipate a wife who had not the dim mest notion
that she was not free; and he had long since discovered that
May’s only use of the liberty she supposed herself to possess
would be to lay it on the altar of her wifely adoration. (p. 195)

Irresolute and vacillating. Newland is also selfish. Although he is
married to May. Newland still wants to keep Ellen for himself. In Boston
where he meets Ellen again after one-and-a-half years of marriage.
Newland tries to make Ellen promise that she will not go back to her
husband. Ellen’s going back will certainly cause suffering and unhappiness
to them both. but Newland is afraid for himself: "He must do nothing to
make this meeting their last; he must leave their future in her care. asking
only that she should keep fast hold of it" (p. 244). Another expression of
his self-centeredness occurs in May’s carriage when he tries to persuade
Ellen to be his mistress.

"I want--I want somehow to get away with you into a world
where words like that [mistressJ--categories like that--won’t
exist. Where we shall be simply two human beings who love
each other. who are the whole of life to each other; and nothing
else on earth will matter." (p. 290)

Although he is not successful. Newland keeps trying because he realizes
that Ellen loves him. In their secret meeting at the Art Museum in New

York. Newland seems to succeed in making her come to him once by

rationalizing that they have lives of their own and that the sacrifice is

74

worth making (p. 313). However. he cannot persuade her to elope with him
and become his mistress.

Missing the chance to be with Ellen. even temporarily. because of May’s
trick. Newland finally becomes a good and responsible family man. His
conventional upbringing and security in marrying a traditional woman help
him overcome the monotony of his life. the sense of death and suffocation
which at times fill him with the passion to run away. Nevertheless.
twenty-six years later. he decides that he has missed " the flower of life"
(p. 347).

Newland’s limited development in the direction of a more liberal
attitude is reflected in the last chapter. With the appearance of modern
technology. life and society have changed and Newland himself accepts
many new things. He sees the development of women in his daughter.
Mary. who is quite different from her mother. In Newland’s view. Mary is
"no less conventional. and no more intelligent. yet led a larger life and
held more tolerant views. There was good in the new order too" (p. 349).
The most important thing that marks Newland’s acceptance of new ideas is
the coming marriage of his eldest son with Fanny Beaufort. the
illegitimate child of the bankrupt Julius Beaufort and the "notorious"
Fanny Ring--Beaufort’s mistress before Regina’s death.

Wharton has carefully characterized Newland through the novel so that
the last scene becomes meaningful and realistic. The scene is at Ellen’s
apartment in Paris in which Newland sits on the bench under the balcony.
letting his son Dallas go to her though she has invited both of them. Like
most of the conclusions of Wharton’s novels. the conclusion of The Age of
Innocenge is ambiguous and. therefore. leads to different critical opinions.

Walton. who regards the story as having "a pervasive nostalgia for the

75

past."20finds the conclusion "a sentimental endorsement of the tribal
code."21 Wershoven criticizes the ending for showing "gentle negatives."
for not resulting disastrously for any of the maJor characters. Newland’s
perceptions are widened; May’s marriage is "intact though stultifying"; and
Ellen really experiences freedom and independence with her life in Paris. 22
Though some readers may be furious at Newland’s inactivity or lack of
power to act. it is consistent with his being a life-long. "old-fashioned"
romantic. living with his past dream. the memory of Ellen. and ignoring the
present. Newland’s final words--"It’s more real to me here than if I went
up"--reveal his ultimate choice between being a conventional but secure

insider and a modern but insecure outsider. Newland has chosen to remain

a traditional conformist.

CHAPTER 5

Nine years before The A e of Innocence. the publication of Ethan F rome
(1911)--a short novel--had won Wharton a reputation as a successful
American writer. These two famous works differ significantly in their
setting and characterization. The old New York cultural world is totally
different from the bleak New England village of Starkfield; of dissimilar
backgrounds. the characters vary in their ways of living. thinking. and
working. But the two novels are similar in plot structure--a love
triangle--and in Wharton’s use of the double heroine to contrast two
different kinds of women. "old" and "new."

Like May Welland and Ellen Olenska. Zeena Frome and Mattie Silver
fight for the same man though. because they are lower middle-class
women. their tactics in that struggle are more open and less sophisticated.
Zeena. like May. is the wife who silently but craftily engages in keeping
her husband from Mattie in the face of their increasing involvement with
each other. Mattie. like Ellen. is lively. active. and unconventional and.
like Ellen. is an outsider to the family. reJected because of her poverty and
dependency on the Fromes. In terms of her position. Mattie is more
similar to Lily Bart and Sophy Viner than to Ellen. Poor. not very well
educated. and unmarried. Mattie is similar to Lily and Sophy in her need
for support--financial and emotional--and her pose of helplessness.
Without money. sufficient education. and opportunities to improve her
situation. Mattie can never achieve freedom and independence as an
individual.

Ethan Frome as the male protagonist. like Newland Archer in The Age

of Inn cence. is the central character of the story. The book is Ethan

76

77

F rome’s "tragedy"1 since he has most of the narrator’s and the author’s
sympathy.2 However. compared to Zeena and Mattie. Ethan is less
powerful. less active. and less capable of decision and action.

Many literary critics consider Ethan F rome to be one of Wharton’s best
works. It has been widely read and. like most of her novels. translated
into other languages--French. Italian. Swedish. Russian. and Japanese. 3
The novella is evidence that the writer’s subJect is not merely limited to
that of aristocratic New York--its customs and people--but extended to a
milieu as far removed as the poor Massachusetts village of Starkfield and
the farmhouse of the F romes. Wharton states her claim to knowledge of
New England in the "Introduction" to the Scribner’s edition. in which she
says that she had known " something of New England village life long"
before she lived there.“ However. she also states that in this novella. in
addition to personal experience. she drew on "La Grande Bret/ewe" and
"The Ring and the Book." 5 Though not among Wharton’s five personal
favorites. Ethan Frome has been consistently well-received and is one of
the best known of her fictions. Cynthia Wolff regards the book as "a
statement of Edith Wharton’s coming of age as a novelist." 6 Another
example of recent favorable criticism is Richard Lawson’s view that in
Ethan Frome Wharton is at her best in characterizations--“complex. free
of cliche. believable. and even gripping"--and in style--“taut. precise.
unpretentious.’7

The novella’s three maJor characters--Ethan. Zeena. and M attie--are
the foci of attention. The story’s narrator. the "I" in the prologue and
epilogue. seems to be credible but very little has been said about this
voice as character. We learn only that he is an anonymous engineer who

has been assigned to work temporarily in that county where he gradually

78

learns. from the townspeople. Ethan. and his accidental visit to the
Fromes. the tragic story of the three. The narration of the story. either
imaginative or sympathetic according to various critical opinions. is
supposed to be his own version.

Like most of Wharton’s principal female characters both "old" and
"new." Zeena and Mattie are portrayed as strong and determined women.
Though contrasting in appearance in the main part of the story--Zeena a
"sickly" woman and Mattie a young. lively girl--both show their strength
of mind. They are capable of making decisions and acting on them. On the
other hand. Ethan. like most of Wharton’s fictional men. is inactive and
unable to fulfill his life ambitions--education. career. or a new life with
the girl he loves.

Zenobia. or Zeena Pierce F rome. Ethan’s cousin. came to Starkfield to
nurse his mother. an old woman who fell ill. When they first met. Zeena
was voluble. active. understanding. and helpful to Ethan. At that time.
Ethan found Zeena adorable--efficient in sick-bed duties and household
chores. After his mother’s funeral. Ethan asked Zeena to marry and stay
with him at the farm.

Zeena is seven years Ethan’s senior. By the time of Ethan’s proposal.
she was already thirty-five. a middle-aged woman who must have been
desperate for marriage. and who. without it. was perhaps unable to lead a
respectable life. according to the nineteenth-century belief. After the
marriage. however. Zeena develops into a sickly and silent woman. as
Ethan’s mother had been. Zeena’s hypochondria probably results from the
"absorbed observation of her own sy mptoms." in Ethan’s opinion (p. 72). Or
perhaps because of the lonely life at the farm. her self-interest.

especially in her health. has developed into extreme egoism. She thinks

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that her sickness may help draw Ethan’s attention to her. even as her
complaints put him off. Zeena’s silence is explained by the narrator as due
either to "the inevitable effect of life on the farm" or to the fact that
"Ethan ’never listened’" to her complaints (p. 72). Accordingly. Zeena
appears to her husband as "queer." like Ethan’s mother. and also boring.
unattractive. unpleasant to 'be with because of her "shut face" and her
obsession with taking medicine. Not completely Zeena’s fault. her
condition results from the gloomy and lonely surroundings. As Walton
points out. Zeena embodies "the supreme product and the ever present
representative of human and inanimate environment."8
As presented by the narrator and sometimes through Ethan F rome’s
critical observations. Zeena is an ugly. old woman. careless of her
appearance. The uses of gloomy surroundings and imagery help increase
the ugliness. On his way home after fetching Mattie from the dance. Ethan
visualized her sleeping in the dark house with "a dead cucumber-vine
dangl[ing] from the porch like the crape streamer tied to the door for the
death" (p. 51). Ethan’s merciless feeling for Zeena is emphasized in his
vision of his wife asleep with "her false teeth in a tumbler by the bed" (p.
51). Zeena’s first appearance when she opens the door for Ethan and
Mattie emphasizes her unattractiveness.
Against the dark background of the kitchen she [Zeena] stood
up tall and angular. one hand drawing a quilted counterpane to
her flat breast. while the other held a lamp. The light. on a
level with her chin. drew out of the darkness her puckered
throat and the proJecting wrist of the hand that clutched the
quilt. and deepened fantastically the hollows and prominences
3:113? high-boned face under its ring of crimping-pins. . . .(pp.

This description of Zeena in the dark. especially of "her high-boned

face under its ring of crimping-pins." effectively gives the picture of a

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witch. This connection was first made by Ammons. who cited Zeena’s
unattractive face. her dress of black calico. her "tall and angular" body.
and her possession of "Pussy." the favorite cat. as contributing to this
aspect of her characterization. Ammons interprets Ethan Frome as a new
and original fairy tale. the reverse of Snow White. Zeena is parallel to the
stepmother. a witch who is never satisfied with what she has and enJoys
hurting people. According to Ammons. the fairy tale’s reversal is achieved
by Zeena’s victory as opposed to the stepmother’s defeat.9

I find this concept of Zeena as a witch acceptable in certain points.
Certainly she is unattractive and old in appearance. Moreover. apart from
Wharton’s descriptions of Zeena’s physical appearance which make the
interpretation probable. she is also portrayed as a powerful. conniving.
and cruel woman who plans to get rid of Mattie. her poor and dependent
cousin. Using her "final" sickness as a pretext. she sends for a hired girl
to replace Mattie and thus puts an end to the questionable relationship
between Ethan and Mattie. Even Zeena’s face which haunts Ethan when he
is on his way to commit suicide with Mattie supports Ammons’ concept.
However. that Zeena wins is doubtful. Having Mattie as the second witch

in the house. or "Zeena’s double."10

should not be counted a victory.
Furthermore. Zeena not only has to endure a miserable life. but she also
has to take care of two crippled people in the end.

According to Ammons. Mattie is compared with Snow White. a "fairy
maiden" and "princess of nature for Ethan. "Has emphasized by the
description of her dark hair--"soft yet springy. like certain mosses on
warm slopes" (p. 146)--her small hands. young face. fresh and gay manners.

As Zeena is often associated with dark. gloomy colors--black. grey.

brown--Mattie is usually associated with red. white and pink. for example.

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her crimson ribbon at the dance. and pink hat at the church picnic. colors
which. according to Ammons. suggest passion and purity respectively.
Moreover. Ammons points out that Mattie’s last name. Silver. connotes the
precious metal.12and she indeed is valuable in Ethan’s desperate and
gloomy life. a "bright serviceable creature. a bit of hopeful young life."
active and perceptive. with "an eye to see and an ear 'to hear" (p. 33).

A contrast to Zeena. Mattie appears to Ethan as a lively. talkative. and
cheerful girl. She is attractive to Ethan not only because of her youth and
light-heartedness but also because she admires him. She openly praises
Ethan’s knowledge about the stars on their walk home after the dance at
the church. Mattie also appreciatively remembers how Ethan found her
lost locket during the picnic at Shadow Pond. In my opinion. Mattie is a
"new" woman. free in her ideas and expressions as well as young in her
appearance.

Mattie’s youthfulness is advantageous to herself; it increases her
attractiveness and provides her with a chance to marry. As a helpless
orphan dependent on her cousin Zeena. Mattie should grasp the opportunity
of marrying Denis Eady. the Irish grocer’s son who is interested in her.
However. Mattie cares for Ethan from the beginning as she later reveals to
him and is determined enough to keep and idolize her love in her suggestion
of suicide. She strongly and idealistically believes that death will keep
them together forever.

Mattie’s use of the red pickle dish. Zeena’s precious present from
Philadelphia. "to make the supper table pretty" indicates her audacity.
Though Mattie knows the history of the dish well. she dares use it to
please Ethan on their first dinner together. However. when the cat

accidentally breaks the dish. Mattie shows both her anxiety and

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responsibility. Though Ethan tries to conceal her guilt by blaming the cat
when Zeena finds the dish fragments. Mattie courageously and honestly
accepts the responsibility.

The breaking of the precious pickle dish can be interpreted as symbolic.
Mattie is one of the most important factors of the crash in the married life
between Ethan and Zeena. Like the marriage. the dish which Zeena "cared
for most of all" is broken into unmendable fragments owing to Mattie.
Zeena’s wrath at Mattie and the way she carries the broken glass as a
beloved dead body (p. 123) prove the significance of the incident and its
place in the structure of the novel.

Obviously. Ethan and Zeena see Mattie quite differently. He finds her
the most pathetic creature. especially when Zeena plans to get rid of her.
To Ethan. Mattie tries to please Zeena by doing the household chores
without pay though she is physically small. weak. and awkward. After she
is dismissed. Mattie’s plight draws even more of Ethan’s sympathy. She is
apparently too weak. inexperienced. and untrained to find a Job " in the
surroundings of indifference and animosity" (p. 122) of the outside world.

From the first evening at the supper table Zeena silently observes
Mattie with hostility. noticing the red ribbon in her hair. Zeena’s Jealousy.
aroused by the changes in her husband. for instance. his scrubbing of the
kitchen floor to help Mattie and his shaving every morning. makes her see
Mattie as "a bad girl" who threatens her well-being. She fears that Mattie
will attract more of Ethan’s attention and accordingly she acts to send her
away. In Zeena’s opinion. Mattie is not at all a poor and helpless girl.

Zeena’s powerful determination to get rid of Mattie is parallel to
Mattie’s willingness. even eagerness. to die with the man she loves. On

the way to the railway station. Ethan and Mattie are so desperate about

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her departure that they think of death. The accident of Ned Hale and Ruth
Varnum which almost costs their lives while coasting down the slope gives
them the idea. However. it is Mattie who directly states it:
. . ."Ethan! Ethan! I want you to take me down again!"
"Down where?"
"The coast. Right off." she panted. "So’t we’ll never come up
any more."
"Matt! What on earth do you mean?"
She put her lips against his ear to say: "Right into the big
elm. You said you could. So’t we’d never have to leave each
other any more." (p. 165)
Mattie’s persuasive pleadings help make Ethan yield to her plan. This
strong suicidal intention reveals Mattie as perhaps immoral. irresponsible.
and selfish. She is. after all. stealing her cousin’s husband. trying to kill
not only herself but Ethan. out of self-centered love. Mattie’s actions and
qualities. however. provide her with certain dimensions of the "new"
woman. Trapped as a victim of the traditional belief about women. Mattie
is struggling desperately for freedom. She feels that she is free to end
her own and Ethan’s lives regardless of the traditional beliefs in morality.
responsibility. and selflessness.

Mattie. an active rebel. is deliberately contrasted with Ethan. the
ambitious but inarticulate and inactive male protagonist of the story. Like
most typical Wharton heroes. Ethan possesses gentlemanly
qualities--honesty. self-respect. independence. and generosityll-but
lacks the power and courage to achieve his goals. Unlike other Wharton
heroes. however. he is a poor. hard-working. and ambitious farmer. His
ambition to become an engineer fails because of the lack of financial

support after his father’s death. Ethan’s unhappy condition is worsened

by his dismal life accentuated by the cold weather. the poverty of the

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family. and the sickness of his "queer" mother. "sickly" Zeena. and. later. a
querulous and crippled Mattie.

In Wolff’s analysis. Ethan is "the embodiment of some deep and mortal
misery." 1”She sees the narrator’s vision and version of the story as
contributing to the explication of a private nightmare filled with
repression and desolation.15 It is evident that the narrator’s sympathy
completely goes to Ethan who is presented as a tragic figure who never
experiences any satisfaction in life in his education or work or women.
The narrator tends to sympathize with Ethan in his distress after learning
about his story and about the cause of his physical distortion and after
meeting the two women in the gloomy and impoverished surroundings. It is
possible that his sympathy for Ethan emerges from his own fear that he
may one day find himself in a similar situation.16 There is a distinction.
however. between the narrator’s and the author’s attitudes towards
Ethan. Wharton’s ambiguous attitude is evident in the story’s ironies and
its bitter ending. It is doubtful that her sympathy is entirely with Ethan.
The ironies consist of the unexpected results deriving from events and
characters. According to McDowell. pleasure. ecstasy. and happiness turn
into distress. suffering. and pain.17 The suicides of Ethan and Mattie do
not end with "the glorious death" but "years of pain." 18Moreover. whereas
Mattie changes from a lovely girl to an old woman. Zeena develops from a
sickly to a strong person who takes care of Mattie and Ethan. The ironic
ending appears in the narrator’s description of his shocking confrontation
with Zeena and Mattie. introduced to him by Ethan. and also in Mrs. Hale’s
comment:

". . . the way they are now. I don’t see’s there’s much
difference between the Fromes up at the farm and the Fromes

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down in the graveyard; ’cept that down there they’re all quiet.
and the women have got to hold their tongues." (p. 181)

From the beginning Ethan surprises the narrator and the reader by his
crippled form. his silence. and his " careless powerful look" (p. 3) which
contrast sharply with his intellectual ambition. honesty. and generosity.
Ethan’s interest in the narrator’s science book reveals his past ambition
to be an engineer and his failure to graduate from Worcester College
because of his father’s death. He works honestly and lives meanly as a
farmer. cutting lumber for Mr. Hale. the Starkfield builder. Ethan’s pride
and honesty are apparent in his inability to lie and get the advance from
Andrew Hale so that he can escape with Mattie. Mrs. Hale’s tender and
sympathetic words rouse Ethan’s conscience and self-respect. Though
poor. Ethan is proud of his modest but honest living. independent in his
thinking. and considerate to Mattie. He plans to rebel against Zeena’s
power when she tries to drive Mattie away from his life. He shows his
concern for Mattie’s unpromising future and is always kind to her. helping
with the household chores. fetching her from the dance party at night.
finding her locket at the picnic. and carrying her heavy trunk to the sleigh
when she leaves. Ethan is also considerate to the narrator as well; he
gives him a ride in bad weather and. on the day of the heavy storm. offers
him shelter. Poor. desperate. and unhappy. Ethan silently shows his human
warmth towards others.

Ethan treats Zeena indifferently and sometimes unkindly. however.
Marrying her after his mother’s funeral because of his own fear of
loneliness is bad enough but worse is his ignorance of her needs. He
"never listened" to her complaints and cannot understand his wife.

especially her need for his attention and compassion. Consequently. Zeena

and Mattie both contribute to the tragic outcome. but Ethan himself is also
deeply responsible.

As the story reveals. Ethan does not seem to have the chance to choose
between Zeena. the "old" woman. and Mattie. the "new" woman. He is
already married to Zeena when Mattie arrives. Moreover. his morality and
honesty stop him from leaving Zeena for Mattie. The novella concludes
with Ethan’s being responsible for both women and with Mattie’s turning
Zeena-like. or even worse.

The contrast between the two maJor women characters is clear
throughout the main part of the story. Though the categories cannot be
sharply drawn as in Wharton’s other works. Zeena represents the "old"
woman and Mattie. the "new" one. Unlike the upper-class women. Zeena
has nothing to occupy herself with except her own health. Zeena’s
conventionality is obvious in her clinging to the tradition of marriage; she
has to marry Ethan before she becomes too old. She first impresses Ethan
as a prospective housewife when she dutifully nurses his mother.
Moreover. Zeena conventionally and strongly holds to the failing marriage
by viciously getting rid of her own poor cousin Mattie. In short. Zeena’s
traditional beliefs. conventional manners. and dependence on Ethan prove
her the "old" woman.

Mattie’s portrayal. on the other hand. gives us an impression of the
"new" woman. Her partial dependence. apparent weakness and
helplessness make her not completely "new." but her activeness. strong
determination. and attempt to be independent indicate that Mattie is the
beginning of the modern woman. With better education and opportunities.

Mattie could have developed as one of the strongest "new" women.

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Unfortunately. her lack of necessary resources and her later crippled

condition make it impossible.

CHAPTER 6

Another successful fiction by Wharton with a small-town setting and
dealing with a society other than that of upper-class New York is Summer
(1917). Though it has been considered "Wharton’s greatest novel'1 and her
"most balanced novel."2its lack of popularity may be explained by its
controversial subJect: the sensual awakening of an adolescent girl. Charity
Royall. Cynthia Wolff sees the book as "a novel of the season of youth." in
keeping with its title. and thus "the most erotic fiction that Wharton ever
published."3

As Ethan is the focus of the narrator’s viewpoint in Ethan Frome.
Charity is the central consciousness in Summer. Both characters are
similar in their boredom with the New England small town environment.
their helplessness in dealing with their miseries. and their unhappiness in
love. Designated "an ironic tragi-comedyiu Summer is generally less
serious. gloomy.‘ and desperate than the "tragedy" Ethan Frome. Apart
from the difference in seasons--summer and winter--the characterization
of Charity as a passionate young girl contrasts significantly with that of
the reserved Ethan.

Charity is a more developed version of Mattie Silver. Both represent
the "new" woman--bright. vigorous. active. brave. determined. sensual. and
struggling for independence. Playing the maJor role in a longer story.
Charity has more opportunities than Mattie for self-expression and
rebellion against social codes as she searches for her identity.

Charity is Wharton’s clearest example of the "new" woman. Young and
immature. Charity represents an unconventional. active. and strongly

determined woman in thoughts and actions. Elizabeth Ammons regards her

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as "a born rebel" and "a social outcast" because of her contempt for the
society’s rituals and morality concerning sex and marriage.5 She also
considers Charity to be "the most openly defiant and the most openly
sexual of Wharton’s heroines."

Charity Royall was born one of the Mountain people. considered
"outlaws" by the townspeople; her father had escaped to the Mountain as a
drunken murderer and her mother is described as "half human" (p. 50).
Taken down to North Dormer and brought up as Lawyer Royall’s ward.
Charity is thus named as a reminder of her benefactor’s benevolence.
Moreover. she is always reminded of her inferior background by the
townspeople. She does not seem to belong there. and she is never
satisfied with herself. her situation. and the North Dormer society.
Charity’s seeking consolation in nature. lying in the grass of a hill side
pasture. indicates her loneliness. alienation from the town. lack of
security. and need for love. Her open resistance to the social and moral
codes is apparent in her choice of the secret and unstable love affair with
Lucius Harney. a young irresponsible architect from the city. rather than
marriage with Lawyer Royall.

The novel presents. according to Margaret McDowell. "a cliche,
situation."7 Charity plays the role of an independent adolescent who is
initiated into life and maturity by the love affair with Lucius Harney.
Deserted by him and pregnant. Charity is saved from abortion and
prostitution only by marriage with Lawyer Royall. her guardian.

As an outsider. Charity experiences loneliness in her adolescence.
Sensitive. she understands Royall’s similar isolation. but her independence
makes her unable to relate to him. At home. they seldom converse.

Therefore. after a short period of boring work as the librarian of the

90

Hatchard Memorial Library. Charity finds her life more and more isolated
from "civilized" culture. and her dissatisfaction grows.

Lonely. passionate. and ambitious for a better way of life. Charity is
attracted to Lucius Harney. Miss Hatchard’s cousin from the city. first
because of his appearance:

She had liked the young man’s looks. and his short-sighted
eyes. and his odd way of speaking. that was abrupt yet soft.
Just as his hands were sunburnt and sinewy. yet with smooth
nails like a woman’s. His hair was sunburnt-looking too. or
rather the colour of bracken after frost. his eyes grey. with the
appealing look of the short-sighted. his smile shy yet
confident. as if he knew lots of things she had never dreamed
of. and yet wouldn’t for the world have had her feel his
superiority. . . . (pp. 12-13)
Apart from giving an impressive picture of the young man. the passage
indicates that Charity is very observant. sensitive. and fanciful. Not only
do Lucius’ sophisticated looks attract her attention but she is also
conscious of his superiority in appearance and knowledge to the other men
she knows. the quality she cannot find in any one at North Dormer. except.
perhaps. in her guardian.

Despite the realization that she is poor and ignorant and that she
should be humble. Charity feels herself powerful in Lawyer Royall’s house
and in North Dormer. Whatever she demands from her guardian--the
position of the town librarian. a hired woman to cook and do the household
chores--she easily gets. She has the power of making the decision for
herself not to go to a boarding school at Nettleton after Mrs. Royall’s
death partly because she knows Royall would be lonely. Able to feel pity

for him. her willfulness and strength. however. protect her in the critical

moment when her guardian tries to enter her bedroom.

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"Charity. let me in. I don’t want the key [to the whiskey
cupboard]. I’m a lonesome man." he began. in the deep voice
that sometimes moved her.

Her heart gave a startled plunge. but she continued to hold
him back contemptuously. "Well. I guess you made a mistake.
then. This ain’t your wife’s room any longer."

She was not frightened. she simply felt a deep disgust; and
perhaps he divined it or read it in her face. for after staring at
her a moment he drew back and turned slowly away from the
door. . . . (p. 17)

In addition to being strong and decisive. Charity is self-confident. a
quality which makes her different from other girls. as Lucius comments on
one occasion. Her feeling of superiority. originating from her privileged
upbringing. is obvious in her contempt for the "village love-making" in
which the youths are involved. Not until her encounter with Lucius does
she realize her "disdains and reluctances" for the young people’s love
affairs.

Considering herself to be superior to others. Charity suppresses and
disguises her passionate feelings as indifference and reserve. She feels.
however. that her relationship with Lucius gives her the opportunity to be
free from life’s limitations on all moral and social codes and to gain the
warmth and passion she had not received from her parents.

By taking Lucius to visit several old houses. Charity has the
opportunity to know him more intimately. Out of fear of his contempt for
her inferior origin. she unnecessarily describes to him her Mountain
background. Her desire to impress him becomes more desperate when she
takes him to the brown house under Porcupine owned by the Mountain
people. Their poor and miserable condition makes Charity feel ashamed of

her people when Lucius hesitates to give them money in return for a cup of

whiskey.

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From the beginning of their relationship. Charity. sensitive and
intelligent. knows the differences. especially in education and opportunity.
between herself and Lucius Harney. Immature and innocent. however. she
cannot distinguish the "city fellow"’s superficially polite and kind manner
from his " liking." She immediately Jumps tothe conclusion that Lucius
really likes her because she loves him. and once she even imagines herself
his bride.

The scene in which Charity spends the night watching Lucius through
his window before he leaves North Dormer shows her emotional confusions
and conflicts. Observing the man she loves--his face. expression. and
movements--Charity ends up by realizing the conflict between her own
youth and pride. She becomes aware of sexuality. knowing what happens
between young men and girls. though the society assumes ignorance on the
girl’s part. Though Charity is not concerned about rumors and gossip. she
decides to stay outside because. with self-respect. " she could not so
cheapen herself to Harney" (p. 72).

Rationalization is one of Charity’s weak points in her relationship with
Lucius. Though she detects that Lucius’ tone in speaking to her is
"fraternal" rather than "lover-like." Charity rationalizes his treatment
towards her.

. . . It seemed to be enough for him to breathe her nearness like
a flower’s; and since his pleasure at being with her. and his
sense of her youth and her grace. perpetually shone in his eyes
and softened the inflection of his voice. his reserve did not
suggest coldness. but the deference due to a girl of his own
class. (p. 91) '

Charity’s relationship with Lucius does not end with his leaving North
Dormer. They arrange several meetings. one of the most important of

which is their visit to Nettleton on the Fourth of July. In a new summer

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hat and a new white muslin dress which resembles a bride’s. Charity thinks
she manages to please Lucius and win his admiration. During this trip.
Lucius buys Charity a blue brooch. the only gift she will ever receive from
him. Moreover. it is also the first time Charity notices the house of Dr.
Merkle. the abortionist Julia Hawes. her friend’s sister. came to see.

The confrontation with Julia. now a prostitute. embarrasses Charity;
her embarrassment shows her innocence and immaturity. Even more
embarrassing is her later encounter with Lawyer Royall. her guardian.
drunk and in the company of Julia Hawes with a party of prostitutes and
loafers. Though shocked when he calls her a "damn-bare-headed whore."
she unsuccessfully tries to persuade Royall to go home. From this scene.
Charity experiences more of the ugliness of life.

Juxtaposed against this important scene is the preceding one which
takes place during the fireworks. Charity’s excitement at seeing the
beautiful fireworks is parallel to the ecstasy she feels when Lucius kisses
her. Charity’s first passionate experience. It certainly has great effect on
her: ". . . An unknown Harney had revealed himself. a Harney who dominated
her and yet over whom she felt herself possessed of a new mysterious
power" (p. 104).

Ironically. the Fourth of July. a celebration of independence. marks the
day of Charity’s ultimate dependence.8her deprivation of the chance to be
free. After this scene. Charity is powerless under Lucius’ influence. Her
intention to escape from North Dormer and Lucius to the Mountain fails
when he follows her and uses his power to keep her from going away.

The effect of the love affair on Charity is indicated by her changes

during the preparation for Old Home Week at North Dormer. She is no more

94

an independent and decisive girl. Lucius becomes the most important

person in her life.

Charity saw the force of the argument [that she should
return to North Dormer]; but if she acquiesced it was not so
much because of that as because it was Harney’s wish. Since
that evening in the deserted house she could imagine no reason
for doing or not doing anything except the fact that Harney
wished or did not wish it. All her tossing contradictory
impulses were merged in a fatalistic acceptance of his will. . . .
(p. 124)

Moreover. Charity’s sense of possession. of "knowing" the man better than
anyone. overwhelms her. Apparently. this passionate secret adds meaning
to Charity’s life.
. . . She. Charity Royall. was the only being on earth who really
knew him. knew him from the soles of his feet to the rumpled
crest of his hair. knew the shifting lights in his eyes. and the
inflections of his voice. and the things he liked and disliked.
and everything there was to know about him. as minutely and
yet unconsciously as a child knows the walls of the room it
wakes up in every morning. It was this fact. which nobody
about her guessed. or would have understood. that made her
life something apart and inviolable. as if nothing had any power
to hurt or disturb her as long as her secret was safe. (p. 125)
As the secret meetings continue in the deserted house. Charity realizes
her love for Lucius. Love has a beautiful meaning. not " something
confused and furtive" as Charity has thought but "bright and open as the
summer air" (p. 123). Moreover. being unconventional. Charity does not
care about anyone’s knowing. She is happy with her experience. "a new
world" into which Lucius carries her. In his presence. other people are
non-existent to Charity. He seems to be there Just for her.
Her mistaken concept of love is revealed to her. however. at the Town

Hall during the activities of Old Home Week. From the stage where Charity

sings with a group of girls. she discovers the intimate relationship

95

between Lucius and Annabel Balch. a fair girl from Nettleton. when a maple
branch collapses. They are sitting close to each other. engaged in their
implicating conversation. The vision uncovers to Charity the truth. "the
bare reality of her situation." It is the first time Charity learns about
Lucius’ mystery. his intimate relationship with Annabel. Charity does not.
however. feel Jealousy. Instead. she feels "a terror of the unknown" or
fear of mysterious attractions that can take Lucius away from her. Yet
she is strong enough to accept her loss by thinking that all she has given
Lucius is not enough in comparison to other gifts he may get from other
people.

Charity’s realization is emphasized by Lucius’ reluctance to promise to
marry her when he is forced to do so by Lawyer Royall. His leaving for
New York and the postponement of the marriage clearly show his selfish
intention. Eventually. Charity learns from her friend Ally Hawes about
the engagement of Lucius and Annabel and their preparation for the
wedding. Charity expresses her anger by tearing Annabel’s blouse. which
Ally is sewing.

Despite her anger and violent action. Charity later comes to see
Annabel as more suitable for Lucius than herself. Her feelings of
selflessness and sacrifice are evident in her letter to Lucius releasing him
to marry Annabel according to his promise: "I want you should marry
Annabel Balch if you promised to. I think maybe you were afraid I’d feel
too bad about it. I feel I’d rather you acted right" (p. 157). This simple
and straightforward letter shows Charity’s sincerity. strong
determination. and forgiveness. She does not want to use convention to

attach Lucius to her against his will.

96

Even later. when Charity learns she is pregnant. she does not use this
as a means to draw Lucius back. She courageously decides on her few
alternatives. Out of self-respect and disgust for Dr. Merkle. Charity
refuses to have an abortion. Neither does she tell Lucius. Unfortunately.
Charity’s escape to the Mountain to stay with her mother is impossible
because. coincidentally. her mother dies the day she goes up to see her.
Finally. Charity chooses to depend on herself by going to Nettleton.
bearing her child. giving it to other people. and. like Julia Hawes. becoming
a prostitute. a sad and helpless decision. Wharton. however. ends by
having her heroine reconciling with her guardian and marrying him.
Helpless and desperate. Charity follows Lawyer Royall down the Mountain
and accepts his proposal.

Charity’s marrying Lawyer Royall. whose ward she is. is criticized by
some as a kind of incest. McDowell. for instance. points out that the
"overtones of incest" in Charity’s marriage with her guardian. old and
drunk. darken the ending.9 Similarly. Ammons finds the novel’s ending
"sick." owing to the "subJect of the incestuous nature of patriarchal
marriage."10 According to her. the novel thematically provides Wharton’s
"criticism of the patriarchal sexual economy." For her. the
"quasi-incestuous" nature of marriage without Charity’s willingness
indicates that American marriage is symbolically incestuous}1 Both
McDowell and Ammons have reasonable points. The theme of semi-incest

‘2 novel end on a repulsive. gloomy note. Marriage. however. is the
only solution for Charity’s respectable survival in the society.

Wharton seems to prepare for Charity’s final choice by the
characterization of the only two men whom she could conceivably marry.

Through Charity’s thoughts we see the young girl’s favorable attitudes

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towards them. As a young gentleman from the city. refined.
knowledgeable. sensitive and artistic. warm and tender as a human being.
Lucius wins Charity’s love. As Royall says to Charity. however. Lucius is
"pleasant" as company but "soft" in character. The young man’s
indecisiveness about Charity and Annabel makes him appear irresponsible
and deceitful.

Like many of Wharton’s male protagonists. Lucius Harney is portrayed
as inactive and incapable of making decisions. He seems too weak in spirit
to act for what he believes. Marilyn French. in her introduction to the
novel. argues that Lucius loves Charity.12This seems unlikely since he has
done nothing to prove his love for her. Despite his sweet words and
attempts to console Charity. Lucius gives what proves a meaningless
promise to marry her after he has seduced her. He also deceives Charity
by concealing his intention to marry Annabel Balch. If. in Charity’s
rationalization. Lucius is fair by not leading her on to misunderstanding
about his love. he is unfair in keeping silent about Annabel and making
Charity a false promise.

Royall. the only other man in Charity’s life. possesses similar
qualities--respectability. intelligence. sophistication. and superiority.
Unlike Lucius. however. Royall does not express his kindness to Charity by
words but by action. Despite his reputation of being "close" with his
money. as Charity puts it. Royall gives his ward such presents as the
Crimson Rambler and its fan. her summer hat. and her dresses. As the
guardian. as noted earlier. Royall takes good care of Charity. uses his
influence to help her become the town librarian. and pleases her by hiring
Verena Marsh to stay and cook as Charity has wanted. Unfortunately.

Royall may be seen as villainous at the beginning of the novel when he

tries to force his way into Charity’s bedroom. and also at the end when he
takes advantage of her predicament to marry her.

As French views him. Royall is indeed "a complex figure.“13 He does not
appear fully a villain because Charity does not see him as one.1L" She not
only realizes Royall’s superior position among townspeople but also pities
him for his loneliness. ' Further. Royall is the only person who knows and
understands Charity. In his second proposal. Royall expresses his
knowledge of Charity; like him. she wants the best. and thus a certain
sympathetic understanding exists between them. Moreover. he tries to
have Lucius and Charity marry in accordance with the prevailing social and
religious conventions. Following them to their place of assignation.
Royall forces Lucius to promise to marry Charity. In a way. this action
may be regarded as Royall’s trying. in a self-serving way. to efface
Charity’s disgraceful reputation which affects his own. Yet. his
interruption of the love affair also indicates Royall’s care and concern for
Charity.

Obviously. Wharton has Charity gradually change her feelings for
Royall from disgust and hate to respect. Charity’s hatred for her guardian
partly originates from blindness in her love for Lucius Harney and partly
from Royall’s inability to control himself. Later. Royall helps Charity to a
clearer view of her blind love. and she admires his maJestic look and
impressive speech during his address for Old Home Week. When Royall
follows Charity to the Mountain to take her back. Charity is glad to see him
and does not refuse his third proposal. Moreover. though Charity
associates her wedding ceremony with her mother’s funeral. she accepts it
calmly and seems to. enJoy the luxuries of being Mrs. Royall. Therefore.

Walton’s comment that Lawyer Royall represents. for Charity. sexual

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horror and the shame of inferiority15is not true. Finally. the
reconciliation between Royall and Charity. represented by their exchange
of compliments--”You are a good girl. Charity" and "I guess you’re good.
too"--has ironic implications because neither of them is "good." For
example. Royall gives Charity forty dollars to buy new dresses. but she
uses it to purchase the blue brooch. Lucius’s present. back from the
abortionist. However. their conversation shows an improved stage of their
relationship.

To conclude. Wharton’s ambiguous ending makes it difficult to Judge
Charity’s success as a "new" woman. Ammons sees Charity’s action as a
"futile rebellion against the double standard." 16Her attempt to be an
independent woman fails and therefore. in Ammons’ view. Charity ends her
fight at the same point where she started. as Royall’s "unnatural
dependent."17ln this regard. Charity fails as a rebel: she cannot escape

from being a dependent in the society.

CHAPTER 7

Undine Spragg. the female protagonist of The Custom of the quntry.
represents a type of "new" woman. Charity and Undine are similar in such
"new" woman qualities as ambitiousness. willfulness. and the courage to
fight for independence. but they differ in significant individual
characteristics.

Charity and Undine are Wharton’s most dominant female protagonists.
the center of consciousness in the respective novels. Ambitious.
determined. and courageous. both struggle to achieve-the best in life--love
and identity for Charity and respectable social position for Undine. They
are not afraid or ashamed to think and act independently. qualities typical
of the "new" woman.

Unlike Charity. however. Undine has her father’s wealth to provide her
with the opportunities to enter the refined and cultured upper-class
society. While Charity has a poor background. little education. and no
means of escape from her predicament. Undine has her father’s money and
her charm to attract men to marry her. Obviously. Undine uses marriage as
a weapon for her social climbing. whereas Charity’s marriage leads her
back to the society but dependent on Royall.

Undine’s apparent success as a social climber eventually comes with
her dependency on her several husbands. Lacking moral consciousness and
integrity. Undine has been criticized as a monster1--ugly. selfish. and
heartless--characteristics which. however. contribute a great deal to the
novel’s accomplishment according to many of Wharton’s critics.

The Custom of the Country (1913). one of Wharton’s five personal

favorites among her own fiction.2 is a long novel. Divided into five books

100

101

and forty-six chapters. this novel mainly focuses on Undine Spragg. the
female protagonist who seems successful in her social climbing. The book
is her story. her rise from the middle-class background of a mid-western
town to New York upper-class society. her marriages and divorces to keep
her social and financial status. and her final material success. though she
remains dissatisfied.

The novel is one of Wharton’s richest works. as many different critical
views of it suggest. The Custom of the Cogntry has been regarded as a
satirical novel about the institution of marriage in the leisure class} or.
by the same critic. as a business novel. with Undine as Wharton’s
capitalist heroine.’4 It also has been considered a comedy of manners with
the tone of a satirical fable.5 Another interesting approach considers it as
a novel of roguery. with Undine as a humorless M? It has also been
viewed psychologically as a novel of energy and initiative. concerning
human psychic energy . power.’assertion. drive. and ambition.7 For me. it is
a novel with a "negative" heroine who has many unacceptable qualities:
selfishness. cruelty. dishonesty. and immorality. Owing to these
characteristics. she stands out as an extremely "new" woman whom the
society of her time found difficult to accept wholeheartedly.

Among Wharton’s women characters. Undine is perhaps the least
admirable because of her many negative qualities. but she is also one of
the most lively and active. Like all Wharton’s heroines. Undine is
portrayed as a very strong. determined and independent character. She is
capable of doing things that are scandalous. selfish. and malicious. as
evidenced in her four marriages and one extra-marital affair. in order to

get the two things she considers important for a "well-ordered life":

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amusement and respectability (p. 250). Undine’s negative qualities are
progressively revealed as the story progresses.

It is clear from the beginning that Undine is a spoiled child in a
mid-western family from Apex City who have moved to New York and tried
to gain admission to upper-class society for their daughter. Mr. Spragg. a
hard-working businessman. and his wife. a simple. unambitious housewife.
indulge their only daughter with whatever she wants. They leave Apex
because they think that “Undine was too big for the place." but then they
discover that she seems "too small for New York" (p. 31). No matter what
her age. Undine does not seem to grow out of her childhood game of
dressing up in "her mother’s Sunday skirt" and playing lady before the
mirror (p. 37). Invited by Mrs. F airford to dinner at Washington Square.
Undine succeeds in getting a new dress from her father. Later. she
manages to have her father buy an opera box for her as a treat to Mabel
Lipscomb. her friend. Despite the parents’ mild protest at first. Mr.
Spragg finally buys his daughter season tickets for a parterre box for
every other Friday. Both parents understand their daughter’s
unreasonable extravagance and willful obstinacy: "Undine never wanted
anything long. but she wanted it ’right off.’ And until she got it the house
was uninhabitable" (p. 51). However. they never do anything to stop or
improve her. Undine’s difference from her parents is observed by Ralph
Marvell:

. . . Sometimes. as he sat between the lonely primitive old
couple [the Spraggs]. he wondered from what source Undine’s
voracious ambitions had been drawn: all she cared for. and
attached importance to. was as remote from her parents’

conception of life as her impatient greed from their passive
stoicism. (p. 226)

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Despite many of her obJectionable characteristics. Undine still
possesses certain admirable traits such as quick adaptation. frankness.
cleverness. and practicality. Undine’s beauty. or her lovely "form"--in
Mrs. Heeny’s phrase--is the most important factor in her social climbing.
She appears attractive to most men. from those with artistic eyes for
beauty like Ralph Marvell and the painter Claud Walsingham Popple to the
newly rich with eyes for material things like Peter Van Degen and Elmer
Moffatt. In addition to her attractiveness. Undine cleverly adapts herself
to situations: during her second dinner party at Washington Square after
her engagement to Ralph. Undine is described by the omniscient narrator:

. . . Her quickness in noting external differences had already
taught her to modulate and lower her voice. and to replace "the
i-dea!" and "I wouldn’t wonder" by more polished locutions; and
she had not been ten minutes at table before she found that to
seem very much in love. and a little confused and subdued by

the newness and intensity of the sentiment was. to the Dagonet

mind. the becoming attitude for a young lady in her situation.
(pp. 82-3)

At this same dinner table. Undine shows her frankness and innocence.
or ignorance. depending on the standard of Judgment. in her conversation

with Mr. Dagonet. Ralph’s grandfather. on Mabel Lipscomb’s divorce:

. . . "I guess Mabel’ll get a divorce pretty soon." she added.
desiring. for personal reasons. to present Mrs. Lipscomb as
favourably as possible.

Mr. Dagonet’s handsome eyebrows drew together. "A
divorce? H’m--that’s bad. Has he been misbehaving himself?"
Undine looked innocently surprised. "Oh. I guess not. They
like each other well enough. But he’s been a disappointment to
her. He isn’t in the right set. and I think Mabel realizes she’ll

never really get anywhere till she gets rid of him." (p. 84)

Divorce. a controversial issue. is viewed differently by Ralph’s mother.
Mrs. Marvell. and Undine. For Mrs. Marvell. who represents New York

society. "a divorced woman is still--thank heaven!--at a decided

104

disadvantage" (p. 35). Undine. however. perceives this issue from the Apex
perspective: "If a girl marries a man who don’t come up to what she
expected. people consider it’s her credit to want to change" (p. 85). As the
story proceeds. this issue of divorce will become increasingly important.
Undine scandalously applies for divorce from Ralph Marvell. her
upper-class New York husband. and from Raymond de Chelles. her
aristocratic French husband. because they cannot come up to her
expectations. especially her material expectations.

None of Undine’s marriages is based on love. Her rush to make Ralph
marry her before the scheduled date is caused by her fear that Elmer
Moffatt will reveal their previous secret marriage in Apex City and thus
make her lose the chance to enter higher society. During her honeymoon
with Ralph. Undine shows her selfish practicality twice. First. when Ralph
romantically suggests driving back by moonlight from Lecceto. she replies:
"It might be nice--but where could we get anything to eat?" (p. 115)

Later. in France when the newly wed couple run out of money because Mr.
Spragg cannot afford to send them more. it is Undine who makes "the
practical suggestion" that Ralph should ask Laura F airford. his sister. for
help (p. 129). Undine always finds her way out. She is indifferent to her
father’s misfortune and insensitive to Ralph’s hurt feelings.

Undine’s conflict with Ralph begins with their honeymoon trip. Ralph
prefers the peace and quiet of Siena. but Undine loves the crowds of
pleasure-seeking people at St. Moritz. Other conflicts and arguments
gradually follow. Undine’s choice of friends--for example. the Baroness
Adelschein. "a Russian lady of cosmopolitan notoriety" (p. 125)--annoys
Ralph. When he warns her about her unsuitable choice. however. Undine

haughtily replies. "Well. I guess I don’t need anybody to do that [to choose

105

her friends for her]: I can do it myself" (p. 126). Though Ralph tries to
point out that Undine is ignorant of the society’s conventions and that she
is " on the wrong track." Undine stubbornly maintains. "No one’s ever yet
gone any farther with me than I wanted!" (p. 127) It is clear that the lack
of understanding between Undine and Ralph emerges from their difference
in background. Even worse. Undine is too insensitive and too
self-centered to listen to Ralph.

One of Undine’s most careless and inconsiderate actions in her
marriage with Ralph is her having Ralph’s family relics--the old family
ring and the pennant-"reset in Paris without Ralph’s knowledge. Later.
when Ralph discovers it from the bill. he feels "the stab of his wife’s
deception" (p. 160). Undine’s lies to Ralph slowly reveal themselves as
their marriage proceeds to its failure.

Undine’s selfishness is clearly indicated in her attitudes towards
pregnancy and motherhood. When she discovers that she is pregnant.
instead of being happy. Undine worries about her looks and regrets the
loss of opportunities to wear fashionable Paris clothes in New York. When
Ralph says that he is sorry for her illness. she bursts out:

"Sorry--you’re sorry? You’re sorry? Why. what earthly
difference will it make to you?" She drew back a few steps and
lifted her slender arms from her sides. "Look at me--see how I
look--how I’m going to look! You won’t hate yourself more and
more every morning when you get up and see yourself in the
glass! Your life’s going on Just as usual! But what ’5 mine
going to be for months and months? And Just as I’d been to all
this bother--fagging myself to death about all these things--"
her tragic gesture swept the disordered room--"Just as I
thought I was going home to enJoy myself. and look nice. and
see people again. and have a little pleasure after all our
worries--" She dropped back on the sofa with another burst of
tears. "For all the good this rubbish will do me now! I loathe

the very sight of it!" She sobbed with her face in her hands. (p.
143)

106

From the beginning. Undine hates the idea of becoming a mother
and--true to form--she never fulfills this role to her son. Paul Marvell.
Preoccupied with Peter Van Degen. she forgets Paul’s birthday. She uses
her nervous breakdown as a pretext to escape alone to Europe. leaving
Paul in the care of Ralph and his family. After divorcing Ralph. Undine is
given custody of her son. but she never wants to have Paul with her while
she is enJoying herself in Europe. When she needs a large amount of money
to pronounce the "annulment of marriage" with Ralph so that she can marry
the Comte Raymond de Chelles--a Roman Catholic aristocrat--Undine uses
Paul as an instrument to get the money from Ralph: she will let her son
stay with Ralph in return for a very large amount.

Undine’s affair with Peter Van Degen begins after she tires of her
marriage with Ralph. Though already married to Clare Dagonet. Ralph’s
cousin. Peter flirts with other women. Like Undine. he marries a member
of the established class Just for status in society. Undine is attracted to
Peter because of his wealth and his contemptuousness: "She felt the
strength of Van Degen’s contempt for everything he did not understand or
could not buy: that was the only kind of ’exclusiveness’ that impressed
her" (p. 147).

After Undine’s first acceptance of Peter’s offer to pay the bill for her
dress. she feels that she has "let herself drift on the current of their
adventure" (p. 172). With a plan to end her marriage to Ralph. Undine asks
for her father’s financial support--the old resource--to follow Peter on
his trip to Europe. As she is afraid of losing Peter. her new financial
resource. Undine manipulates him by pretending to be indifferent to his
departure and too proud to accept his offer to let him "straighten things

out for her" (p. 173).

107

In Paris. Undine makes every effort to obtain a strong hold on Peter.
and she seems successful at the beginning: "the attention she attracted in
Paris had reawakened Van Degen’s fancy. and her hold over him was
stronger than when they had parted in America" (p. 209). Undine’s cunning
and successful manipulation of Peter are clear at the end of Book Two. She
uses Laura Fairford’s cable. which summons her to return because of
Ralph’s illness. to trick Peter into an ultimate decision to be responsible
for her. Undine triumphs as Peter. with his weak character. cannot let her
go; he promises: "I’ll do anything you say. Undine; I’ll do anything in God’s
world to keep you!" (p. 217)

The happiest part in Undine’s life and the most cynical part of her
behavior is her living secretly for two months with Peter as they travel
around Europe before her divorce. Undine is happy because "for the first
time in her life she had been able to buy everything she wanted" (p. 257).
It is obvious that her conscience has never bothered her since her
self-indulgence and egoism enable her to rationalize her action:

. . . She had gone with him. and had lived with him for two
months: she. Undine Marvell. to whom respectability was the
breath of life. to whom such follies had always been
unintelligible and therefore inexcusable. She had done this
incredible thing. and she had done it from a motive that
seemed. at the time. as clear. as logical. as free from the
distorting mists of sentimentality. as any of her father’s
financial enterprises. It had been a bold move. but it had been
as carefully calculated as the happiest Wall Street " stroke." (p.
256)

Undine’s relationship with the Comte Raymond de Chelles. a
conventional French aristocrat from a family of moderate fortune. begins
during her second trip to Europe. Still aiming at Peter Van Degen. Undine

at first flirts with Raymond only to excite Van Degen’s Jealousy. Later.

after realizing the loss of acceptance in society as a divorcee. Undine

108

turns to Raymond. one of her "great admirers." By now. experienced and
more mature. Undine advances her relationship with Raymond carefully.
She knows of her disadvantage as a divorced woman. which makes it
impossible to marry a Frenchman of position. However. Undine does not
want Just a secret love affair as she has had with Peter. Her attitude is
directly stated: "She was determined to give up Chelles unless he was
willing to marry her; and the thought of her renunciation moved her to a
kind of wistful melancholy" (p. 283).

It is Raymond himself who brings the idea of the annulment of marriage
to Undine. This indicates his intention to marry her despite his family’s
disapproval. The problem of finding the money to validate the annulment
is solved. with Elmer Moffatt’s help. when Undine uses her custody of Paul
to obtain money from Ralph. Luckily for Undine. Ralph fails in his
investment. commits suicide. and leaves Undine in a better position to
marry Raymond:

. . . Ralph Marvell’s death had brought about a sudden change in
her situation. She was now no longer a divorced woman
struggling to obtain ecclesiastical sanction for her remarriage.
but a widow whose conspicuous beauty and independent
situation made her the obJect of lawful aspirations. (p. 330)

In Undine’s opinion. Raymond is much preferable to Ralph. In addition
to possessing a title. which enables Undine to be a Countess. a chateau.
handsomeness. and popularity. Raymond is sweet and charming to her.
Though he sometimes reminds her of Ralph. Undine feels. because of her
own egocentricism. that he is more valuable: ". . . after her bitter two
years of loneliness and humiliation it was delicious to find herself once

more adored and protected" (p. 329). Now Undine has regained all the

109

social status and privileges of a married woman and can enter easily into
respectable French aristocratic society.

Undine’s disillusionment starts with the move from Paris to Saint
De’sert. the Chelles’ estates in Burgundy. where Undine has to spend most
of the time in loneliness and monotony. With the death of Ray mond’s
father. Undine becomes a marchioness. but it means "no financial
advantages" for the new marquis. Narrow-minded and lacking in
generosity. Undine cannot understand her husband’s concern to keep the
good reputation of his family’s name by paying the debt of his brother
Hubert. Moreover. Raymond’s resistance to their taking the premier suite
of the H3tel de Chelles in Paris during their annual spring visit annoys
Undine. She selfishly wants the best for herself. Later. when this suite
is given to Hubert and his rich American bride because they can provide the
new electric light and heating. Undine’s anger and resentment lead to an
argument with Raymond in which she refuses to give him a child. When
Raymond explains to her: "There are many reasons why I have to think
about money. One is that m don’t; and another is that I must look out for
the future of our son." Undine sarcastically replies. "Oh. my dear. you’d
better leave it to your brother to perpetuate the race. There’ll be more
room for nurseries in their apartment!" (p. 343)

What seems unbearable to Undine in the conflict with her husband is his
apparent indifference to her which implies her insignificance in comparison
to his family. Undine’s sense of helplessness leads her to approach
Raymond about their child. but. to her disappointment. he is so strong that
he will not "come back" under Undine’s influence. Her pride is. therefore.
secretly wounded. Nevertheless. Undine never stops her malicious plan.

She rebels against her mother-in-law’s traditional rule of the chateau

110

about the saving of fires (p. 354). The dullness of her life makes Undine
spend more. as in her youth. on clothes and whatever is necessary to
maintain her beauty. The greatest mistake Undine makes is her suggestion
that Ralph sell either Saint Desert to cut expenses or the historical
tapesteries to provide money for her happiness. The gap between them
widens as Raymond keeps repeating to Undine. "You don’t understand." and
as Undine taunts him. "I understand that you care for all this stuff more
than you do for me. and that you’d rather see me unhappy and miserable
than touch one of your great-grandfather’s arm-chairs" (p. 359).

Undine’s anger grows because she cannot hurt Raymond with her "old
weapons of aggression." Although she finally uses the suggestion of their
separation as the ultimate weapon with which to wound him. Raymond’s
reply--"It’s one of the things we don’t do"--is. for Undine. "like the
slamming of an iron door in her face" (p. 359).

The climax of the couple’s conflict comes when Undine. in return for
Raymond’s refusal to pay her bills. tries to sell the Boucher tapestries to
a dealer. In their argument. Undine clings to the same self-centered
reasons. She has to get some money for a better life after economizing for
a long time; she wants to send Paul to school; she wants to ask her friends
to dinner. Undine does not at all understand Raymond’s fury which bursts
out in an insult not only to her but to all American women who marry
French aristocrats:

"Ah. that’s your answer--that’s all you feel when you lay
hands on things that are sacred to us!" . . . "And you’re all
alike." he exclaimed. "every one of you. You come among us
from a country we don’t know. and can’t imagine. a country you
care for so little that before you’ve been a day in ours you’ve
forgotten the very house you were born in--if it wasn’t torn
down before you knew it! You come among us speaking our

language and not knowing what we mean; wanting the things we
want. and not knowing why we want them; aping our

111

weaknesses. exaggerating our follies. ignoring or ridiculing all
we care about--you come from hotels as big as towns. and from
towns as flimsy as paper. where the streets haven’t had time
to be named. and the buildings are demolished before they’re
dry. and the people are as proud of changing as we are of
holding to what we have--and we are fools enough to imagine
that because you copy our ways and pick up our slang you
understand anything about the things that make life decent and
honourable for us!" (p. 370)
This passage indicates the Frenchman’s attitude towards how Americans
think about matters of culture. The exaggerations show how Raymond’s
fury extends from his wife as an individual to her whole country and to all
Americans. Inconsiderate and insensitive as Undine is. it is impossible
for her to understand Ray mond’s point of view. Therefore. it is not
surprising that Undine divorces him easily after finding a better financial
resource in Elmer Moffatt.
Undine’s two marriages--the first and the fourth--with Elmer Moffatt.
a Mid-Western businessman who becomes successful in New York. probably
show her undeveloped character from adolescence to womanhood. The first
marriage. a hidden and hasty one. had lasted only two weeks. Before that
she had already been engaged to Millard Bunch. an ordinary Apex City man.
but she had suddenly changed her mind after a passionate and swift
romance with Elmer. The first marriage took place without her parents’
approval. and Undine was "hauled back" to Apex since Elmer was powerless
to fight the authoritative and influential Mr. Spragg. Later in Undine’s
recollection of her "brief adventure" with Elmer in Apex. it is clear that
she was attracted to young Elmer because he was gallant. bold. and
practical. Though he failed in the townspeople’s eyes because he got drunk
and acquired a scandalous reputation by walking openly with a prostitute

on Sunday. Undine had sympathy and passionate feelings for his being

reJected by the society. and thus she married him.

112

The similarities between Undine and Elmer. both Mid-Westerners
struggling their way into New York upper-class society. are obvious. As a
man. Elmer uses business as an instrument to gain wealth. success. and
respectability. As a woman. Undine uses her charm and beauty to marry
"the right man" who can provide her with money. amusement. and
respectability. Undine. Elmer. and Peter Van Degen are in the same group
of the opportunistic "nouveaux riches." or the "Invaders." in Ralph’s term.
of the Old New York tribe--the established rich.

The relationship between Undine and Elmer is a long-term one. and
each benefits from the other. After the first marriage ends. neither of
them feels resentment. Elmer. however. uses the secret of their marriage
to blackmail Mr. Spragg and make Undine promise to help back him in
business. Undine keeps her promise by introducing Elmer to her husband
as an old Apex friend. Undine also helps Elmer. however. for her own
personal benefit: with Elmer’s help. Ralph can be successful in business
and afford to send her for a European vacation.

Elmer’s revelation to Ralph about Undine’s first marriage is not
intentional or malicious. It comes about when Ralph challenges Elmer in
anger for the latter’s insulting tone in reference to Undine:

"Look here. Moffatt." he said . getting to his feet. "the fact
that I’ve been divorced from Mrs. Marvell doesn’t authorize
anyone to take that tone to me in speaking of her."

Moffatt met the challenge with a calm stare under which
there were dawning signs of surprise and interest. "That so?"
Well. if that’s the case I presume I ought to feel the same way:
I’ve been divorced from her myself." (pp. 320-1)

Elmer is. therefore. not a completely villainous character. His

achievement in business. which revives Undine’s interest in him. shows

that he has finally fulfilled his materialistic ambition. As Undine’s

113

estimate of people is based on their ability to get what they want. she
admires his financial success. After meeting Elmer as "the greatest
American collector" who is interested in buying the Chelles’ tapestries.
Undine identifies herself with him:
. . . Here was some one who spoke her language. who knew her
meanings. who understood instinctively all the deep-seated
wants for which her acquired vocabulary had no terms; and as
she talked she once more seemed to herself intelligent.
eloquent and interesting. (p. 365)

Other good characteristics evident in Elmer are his kindness and his
sincerity towards Undine and her son. Despite the profit he also gets in
return. he generously gives Undine some of his advice. for example. about
the custody of Paul and how to get a large sum of money to pay for the
annulment of the marriage. When Undine suggests that they have a secret
affair since the French consider marriage "a business contract" (p. 3‘36).
Elmer offers her an honorable way out of her unhappiness by marrying him:

"Look here. Undine. if I’m to have you again I don’t want to
have you that way. . . . you were my wife once. and you were my
wife first--and if you want to come back you’ve got to come
that way: not slink through the back way when there’s no one
watching. but walk in by the front door. with your head up. and
your Main Street look." (pp. 387-8)

As Undine is the most important character of The Custom Of the
Countr . I have focused on her thus far and considered other minor
characters in relation to her. Many critics do not regard Undine as a
her time in the traditional sense. but she is undoubtedly the novel’s most
;._tstar.dir:g and vivid female character. An extremely "new" or modern
woman with some far from admirable qualities. Undine does not attract the

reader’s compassion. At the end. Wharton portrays her as a materially

successful woman who is still dissatisfied with her present husband. who

114

lacks "gentlemanly" qualities. and with herself for being a divorced woman
and thus unable to become an ambassadress. Wharton characterizes Undine
as a woman who fulfills her social ambitions by whatever means available.

If Undine is the female protagonist of the novel. her male counterpart
is certainly Ralph Marvell. Like most of Wharton’s heroes or male
protagonists. Ralph is a highly idealistic but essentially conventional man.
Though he is an upper-class New York gentleman with a distinguished
family background. Ralph tries to modernize himself according to his
ideals. The most significant conflict in Ralph’s mind concerns the
consciousness of classes:

Small. cautious. middle-class. had been the ideals of
aboriginal New York; but it suddenly struck the young man that
they were singularly coherent and respectable as contrasted
with the chaos of indiscriminate appetites which made up its
modern tendencies. He too had wanted to be "modern." had
revolted. half-humorously. against the restrictions and
exclusions of the old code. . . . (p. 71)

Ralph’s sense that the new class. the "vulgar" newly rich. is trying to
take possession of New York from the aboriginals indicates both his
conventionality and perceptivity. He views the marriage between the two
groups in business terms of buying and selling:

. . . Marry--but whom. in the name of light and freedom? The
daughters of his own race sold themselves to the Invaders; the
daughters of the Invaders bought their husbands as they bought
an opera-box. It ought all to have been transacted on the Stock
Exchange. . . . (p. 74)
This idea stems from the marriage of Ralph’s cousin Clare Dagonet. of a
traditional family. to the materially successful Peter Van Degen. one of

the Invaders. He sees Undine as a daughter of an Invader using her

father’s wealth to buy everything.

115

Ralph’s idealism is most clearly indicated in his intention to marry
Undine "to save her from ’Van Degen and Van Degenism’" (p. 76). He has
the romantic vision of helping Invaders like the Spraggs whom he
mistakenly considers unaffected. plain. and innocent. The honorable
married life Ralph gives Undine is not the only thing she wants. however.
Her happiness depends on luxuries for which Ralph never has sufficient
income. even though he unwillingly takes up his profession as a lawyer to
make more money in an effort to satisfy Undine’s insatiable needs.

Artistic. intellectual. sensitive. and romantic. Ralph has a world of his
own. He tries to be a writer but is unable to finish his writings. All of
Ralph’s abstract qualities are represented in his boyhood image of a cave
as his inner world--a secret and private place--the threshold which Clare
and. later. Undine are seen as reaching (p. 72). During the honeymoon.
Ralph romantically sees Undine as the muse of his creative writings
though he has learned from Mrs. Spragg the real origin of her name--a
hair-waver trademark used in her father’s business (p. 75).

As Undine identifies herself with Elmer Moffatt. Ralph finds himself
identifying with Clare Van Degen. In Ralph’s suffering fr-om the unhappy
marriage with Undine. he finds comfort in Clare’s sympathy and in "her shy
unspoken understanding." Clare is the opposite of Undine:

. . . After all. he [Ralph] and she [Clare] were of the same
blood and had the same traditions. She was light and frivolous.
without strength of will or depth of purpose; but she had the
frankness of her foibles. and she would never have lied to him
or traded on his tenderness. (p. 161)

Clare’s tender feelings for Ralph are expressed more clearly than
Ralph’s for her. Her marriage to Peter Van Degen does not prevent her

from showing Ralph her kindness and understanding nor from giving him

116

encouragement and financial help. Clare warns Ralph about Peter’s
influence on Undine from the beginning. She is always present to help him
in time of troubles. Whereas Undine forgets her own son’s birthday. Clare
remembers and gives Paul an expensive present (p. 160). Also. it is Clare
who detects Undine’s real purpose in claiming Paul's custody. She explains
to an "incredulous" Ralph how Undine needs that sum of money for the
annulment. Moreover. Clare offers to help him with her Dagonet money.

While Undine and Clare are both characterized as strong and active.
Ralph. in contrast. shows himself incapable of action. Portrayed as an
intelligent. delicate. and sensitive man. he is apparently too weak to
survive the crudeness of life. His suicide at the end of Book Four results
from his failures which are too much for him to endure. He cannot bear the
fact that he has lost the money he has borrowed in the investment with
Elmer Moffatt. whom he relies on totally. Without the money. he cannot
keep Paul with him. In addition. his discovery about Undine’s first
marriage and her lies to him--the bitterest truth he finds out from Elmer
Moffatt--wound him terribly as is evident in his thought before the
suicide: "She had lied to him--lied to him from the first. . . there hadn’t
been a moment when she hadn’t lied to him. deliberately. ingeniously and
inventively" (p. 324).

Undine’s influence on Ralph is always on his mind. to the very moment
that he puts the muzzle of the revolver against his head. His last thought:
"My wife. . . this will make it all right for her. . ." seems to indicate that
this final action. perhaps the most vigorous in his life. is dedicated to

Undine who contributes most importantly to his death.

CHAPTER E:

CONCLUSION

Many critics of American literature have rated Edith Wharton as one of
the outstanding writers of the twentieth century. Despite previous
neglect due to misreading and misinterpretation. Wharton’s fiction has
been acknowledged for its vivid and effective portrayals of American
people and the mastery of her language and style. Technically. she is not
comparable to the modernists who were great stylistic innovators because
she rarely introduced obviously new techniques into her fiction. Her use
of irony. however. was far more sophisticated than the use of that device
in most fiction contemporary with hers.

One way to understand Wharton’s uniqueness and distinctiveness is
through the analysis of her fictional characters. especially the women who
are very complicated and interestingly dominant. More important.
Wharton’s characterization of these fictional women reflects her attitudes
towards the social positions and problems of American women at the turn
of the century. As a woman writer who had modern. liberal ideas about the
"new" woman but who had been reared in a conservative culture and who
still cherished certain aspects of the "old" woman. Wharton had definite
ambivalence toward her women characters. She did not explicitly express
her attitudes toward her contemporary American women in her novels but.
in one of her non-fictional writings. French Ways and They: Mea__nim (1919).
Wharton discusses the "New F renchwomen" and compares them with
American women. This chapter is the most open criticism about her female
contemporaries and contributes significantly to an understanding of her

women characters.

117

118

To Wharton. the maJor difference between the French and American
' women is their level of maturity. She considers Frenchwomen "grown up"
whereas the American women are still "in the kindergarten":

. . . The world she [the average American woman] lives in is
exactly like the most improved and advanced and scientifically
equipped Montessori-method baby-school. . . . a baby world
where. shut up together in the most improved hygienic
surroundings. a number of infants noisily develop their
individuality. (p. 101)

Wharton sees American women as infants because of their
acculturation. In her view. American women are handicapped by their lack
of freedom. activity. and authority which can be developed and achieved
through interactions with men (p. 102). Unlike middle-class F renchwomen.
Wharton points out. American women are not their husbands’ business
partners (p. 103); they do not voluntarily participate in their husbands’
Jobs and thus they do not grow up. Wharton’s admiration for Frenchwomen
with regard to this matter is clearly stated:

. . . it is this practical. personal and daily participation in her
husband’s Job that makes the F renchwoman more grown up than
others. She has a more interesting and more living life. and
therefore she develops more quickly. (pp. 106-7)

Wharton supports the participation of men and women in all kinds of
activities because she believes that such interactions will lead to " real
maturity" for both sexes:

. . . the great mass of men and women grow up and reach real
maturity only through their contact with the material realities
of living. with business. with industry. with all the great
bread-winning activities; but the growth and maturing take
place in the intervals between thgse activities: and in lives

where there are no such intervals there will be no real growth.
(p. 109)

119

Owing to these differences. the F renchwoman has control of French life
as "a business woman. a mother. and an artist" (p. 111). In comparison. the
American woman. because of the inherited Puritan hypocritical tradition
which obstructs open social relations between men and women. becomes
retarded in her growth. futilely and unsuccessfully developing her
individuality "in the void. without the checks. the stimulus. and the
discipline that comes of contact with the stronger masculine individuality"
(p. 103).

In addition. Wharton claims that the society’s acceptance of a "balanced
power" between grown-up men and women plays a very important role in
women’s development. In France. there are free and open social relations
between men and women. but in America. the long hypocrisy of the Puritan
heritage has hindered frank and sincere relationships between the two
sexes to the disadvantage of women. Marriage also accounts for the
differences: American women cease their roles as social factors or as
influences on men on their wedding days. but Frenchwomen become social
factors or full participants in society only when they get married (p. 116).
To Wharton. this difference shows American women’s social limitations as
opposed to the "extraordinary social freedom" of Frenchwomen.

This chapter on the "New Frenchwomen" indicates not only Wharton’s
negative opinions on the development of the American women but also the
idealistic model she found in the Frenchwomen. Wharton admired the
post-World-War-I Frenchwomen because of their rapid and practical
development in individuality whereas the American women still clung to
their immature world. Unlike her female contemporaries. Wharton herself
was a mature woman. Her inner conflicts between a traditional upbringing

and her struggle for independence were indicated by her mental breakdown

120

in 1394. Dr. S. Weir Mitchell’s treatment (advising her to write)
successfully cured her illness and led to her recovery of self-confidence
and. later. to independence. Moreover. Wharton’s devotion to her writing
career. her divorce from Edward Wharton. her participation in intellectual
male company in Europe. and her expatriation in France until her death all
show her as an independent and mature woman. Wharton’s frank criticism
of American women in French Ways and Their Mggrning reveals her
sophisticated and advanced ideas and suggests a new way for
self-development to American women.

According to Wharton. being conservative and keeping to their old
Puritan heritage. American women were infantile. immature. and ignorant
of the limitations they confronted. Not totally their fault. Wharton found
that social inequality and lack of independence were inherent in the "old"
or conventional American women. She suggests that. like Frenchwomen.
American women should realize their disadvantaged positions and try to
develop themselves into the "new" and more mature women.

Twelve years before French Wa s and Their M eanin . Wharton’s
opinions about the Frenchwomen in her novella. Madame de Treymes (1907).
were slightly different. but her views on the American women were the
same. The development of the Frenchwoman from "old" to "new " is clear
in Wharton’s characterization of Madame de Treymes. a sophisticated and
powerful F renchwoman. as contrasted with Fanny. or Madame de Malrive.
an innocent and immature American woman married to a French aristocrat.

Set in Paris and told from the point of view of John Durham. the male
protagonist. the novella concerns his intention to marry his old New York

friend. Fanny. after her divorce from her French husband. The most

121

important and influential character. as the title suggests. is. however.
Madame de Treymes. Fanny’s sister-in-law.

Madame Christiane de Treymes is "the most powerful member of the
group" (pp. 30-1) which has control over F anny’s plan of divorce. Refined.
civilized. graceful. and handsome. she first impresses John because of her
personality: " She was a beauty. if beauty. instead of being restricted to
the cast of the face. is a pervasive attribute informing the hands. the
voice. the gestures. the very fall of a flounce and tilt of a feather" (pp.
39-40). However. despite her power and personality. Madame de Treymes
is an unhappy woman whose extra-marital affair with Prince d'Armillac and
financial support of him cause a scandal. In addition. as a Catholic. her
inability to divorce adds to her unhappiness.

Madame de Treymes’ cleverness and sophistication is obvious in her
understanding of John’s purpose in giving a lot of money to "her ventes de
charite" (p. 48) in order to enter into her social circle. Moreover.
straightforward and frank. she abruptly asks him. at their first meeting.
about his wish to marry her sister-in-law. From the first intimate
conversation with John. Madame de Treymes reveals herself to be a
sympathetic friend of Fanny. but. more important. she is a loyal member of
her family and a religious person especially on the issue of divorce.
forbidden by the Catholic Church. Despite her compassion and
understanding of Fanny’s situation. Madame de Treymes cleverly and
deliberately avoids John’s two important questions concerning the divorce:

". . . what I wish to know is. what position your family would
take if Madame de Malrive should sue for a divorce." . . .
Madame de Treymes seemed in no haste to answer; but after a

pause of reflection she said. not unkindly: "My poor Fanny
might have asked me that herself." (pp. 66-7)

122

Another unanswered question is whether or not Monsieur de M alrive will
oppose the divorce. This Madame de Treymes avoids by suggesting that
they meet and talk again later. The evasion and suspension of the crucial
matter indicate her sophistication and ability to act; she is the person who
has control of the situation.

The two traps Madame de Treymes sets for John show her malicious
maturity. First. she asks him for financial help to her family in return for
her support of Fanny’s divorce:

. . . "If you would [help]. . . if you would! Oh. there is nothing I
would not do for you. I have still a great deal of influence with
my mother. and what my mother commands we all do. I could
help you--I am sure I could help you; but not if my own
situation were known. . . ." (p. 82)
Failing in her trick to sell John her influence or to make him bribe her with
his money. Madame de Treymes cunningly continues with her plan by
helping Fanny get the divorce. showing her kindness and understanding to
her sister-in-law. Her second trap is almost successful because of
Fanny’s innocent faith and John’s ignorance. Madame de Treymes
considers her support for Fanny’s divorce from her brother a service for
which she has the right to be repaid. apart from John’s later offer of
money.

The puzzle of Madame de Trey mes’ ironic words--"it is in the
contemplation of your happiness that I have found my reward" (p. 115)--is
clarified because she has discovered that John is one of the "good
people--Just simply. courageously ggqg!" (p. 128). It is J ohn’s innocence.
sincerity. and esteem in his love for Fanny that make Madame de Treymes

reveal her secret plan. She knows that John is going to be in "horrible

misery" as a result of the trick. The consent to the divorce. despite the

123

French family’s abhorrence. will lead to Fanny’s marriage to John.
Consequently. this marriage. according to French law. will give the father
custody of the son and bring young de Malrive back " to his race. his
religion. his true place in the order of things" (p. 136). in Madame de
Treymes’ words. Since Fanny loves her son devotedly. she will not marry
John if that marriage means the loss of her son. Madame de Treymes
reveals the family ’s plan to John because she expects to use his silence as
a means to get hold of the boy. However. she underestimates John’s
morality .

Madame de Treymes’ principal purpose is to keep the boy with the
French family. She considers the benefit of the family more important
than F anny’s feelings. She points this out to John at the beginning in her
distinction between the Americans and the French: "You consider the
individual--we think of the family" (p. 135).

Madame de Treymes’ failure at the end is not due to her decreasing
power or weak character. Rather. it is due to her humanitarian feelings
toward Fanny and John. Despite her personal sufferings from her
scandalous affair with the bankrupt prince and her inability to divorce her
husband. Madame de Treymes still tries to satisfy the family’s need to the
best of her ability. Thus. her character can be evaluated from different
perspectives. To the Americans. Madame de Treymes may appear a
cunning. malicious. and dangerously sophisticated lady who takes
advantage of innocent people like Fanny and John. However. for her
family. she must be a courageous and powerful member who helps protect
the family’s unity.

Compared with Madame de Treymes. Fanny de Malrive plays a minor

role. An American lady from the upper-class New York society. Fanny

124

Frisbee has married a French aristocrat. has a son. and leads an unhappy
life in Paris. In addition to her decision to divorce. F anny’s determinatidn
is evident in her intention to live in France because of her devotion to her
son. Possessive and conventional. she wants "to obtain complete control"
of young de Malrive and to perform the duty of a good mother.

A weak point in Fanny’s character is her tendency to trust people too
easily. After fifteen years of unhappy life in F rance. Fanny is still
innocent and optimistic. She ignorantly believes that her sister-in-law is
on her side. trying to help her. Immature and ignorant. Fanny becomes a
victim. She does not seem to learn much about the sophisticated
"civilized" world symbolized by Madame de Treymes.

The portrayals of the Frenchwoman and American woman in Magame de
Trey mgs indicate Wharton’s attitudes towards the "old" and the
prospettively "new" women. Innocent. ignorant. conventional. and
unsophisticated. Fanny represents most American women. the "old" or
traditional type who is rarely developed and easily becomes a victim. On
the other hand. Madame de Treymes. though partly "old" because of her
conservative idea about her own marriage and loyalty to the family. is a
mature and developing character. Her ability to use her will power and her
courage to act show her potentiality to develop into the "new" woman.
Conscious of the Frenchwoman’s lack of freedom owing to tradition and the
Catholic Church. Madame de Treymes wants to liberate herself from her
position. In brief. she is growing up into an adult while Fanny is still a
child.

Like Madame de Treymes. Wharton was conventionally brought up to be
the "old" type but became conscious of women’s inequality and lack of

freedom in all aspects of life. She did not belong to the Feminist

125

Movement. but many of her works can be viewed through its trends.
However. as an upper-class lady of old New York tradition. Wharton
cherished certain aspects of the "old" and practiced conventional manners
in the society. all of which resulted in what critics see in her works as
nostalgic elements. The ambiguities usually found in Wharton’s fictions
manifest her ambivalent attitudes toward the changing status of women.
both real and fictional.

Categorizing Wharton’s female characters into "old" or "new" women
provides an opportunity to study her maJor works in all their important
aspects: characterization. plot. style. subJect. and language. Grouping the
maJor women characters into the categories. however. is not easy. Because
of Wharton’s ambivalent attitudes towards them. I found it difficult
putting them definitely into the categories of the "new" and "old". For
example. Madame de Treymes. F ulvia Vivaldi. and Lily Bart are "old"
women who can become "new" ones. Though their beliefs about love.
marriage. and family are conventional. their consciousness of the
limitations in society and the lack of freedom for women prove them to be
potentially "new." or modern in ideas. This first group of characters
contrasts with the traditionally "old" who stay strongly attached to their
inherited beliefs. The second group consists of Anna Leath. Bessy
Westmore. May Welland. Fanny de Malrive. and Zeena Frome. Wharton
portrays these women as dependent and unaware of their situation. Also.
the author presents their ignorant "innocence" to show how emotionally
immature these women are. They futilely use their strong will to fight
other women and achieve nothing constructive.

On the other hand. Wharton’s portrayals of the "new" women also

reflect contradictions. Undine Spragg. Charity Royall. and Mattie Silver

126

are "new" women because of their powerful decisions. bold actions. and
liberal ideas about family life for women. They all struggle for survival.
for the life they wish to have. However. these three women are not really
free. Their lack of freedom and their dependence are clear at the ends of
the stories. Undine is dependent on her husbands who enable her to be
accepted in upper-class society. Charity becomes dependent on Lawyer
Royall. her guardian and benefactor. by submissively marrying him.
Mattie. though courageous and determined. has to depend on both Ethan
and Zeena after the suicide attempt.

The last group of female protagonists consists of Ellen Olenska. Sophy
Viner. and Justine Brent who are all unquestionably "new" women. With
strong will. they bravely fight sufferings caused by love and marriage.
Most important. these three protagonists can successfully keep their
independence though they have to lose their happiness and love in return.
With freedom. the future lives of Justine and Sophy are still questionable.
but Ellen proves to be a successful "new" woman. Probably. Wharton
discovered her solution for the "new" woman at the time she reached the
peak of her writing career.

In reaching this conclusion. I would also point out that much more study
of Wharton’s women characters remains to be done from other points of
view than the one I have taken. Her later novels have many interesting
and well-developed characters who have not received sufficient attention.
Most of her short stories are also worth more attention than they have
PECEI‘.='E: they are concise. well-plotted. and filled with outstanding
characterization. As Wharton’s work :. '2 talents are more fully exams;
she will be increasingly recognized as one of the maJor American author-s.

One significant basis of that recognition will be her serious. complex. and

127

sensitive portrayal of the emerging "new" American woman against the

background of her time.

NOTES

CHAPTER 1

1Irving Howe, ed., Edith Wharton: A Collection of Criticgl
Essays (Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1962),
p. 1.

2Howe, p. 2.
3Howe, p. l.
4Howe, p. 6.
5Howe, p. 9.
6Howe, p. 15.

7Irving Howe, "A Reading of The House of Mirth," in Edith
flggrton: A Collection of Critical Essays, ed. Irving Howe
(Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall, 1962), p. 122.

8Howe, p. 126.
9Howe, p. 124.
10Howe, p. 125.

llAlfred Kazin, "Edith Wharton,' in Edith Wharton: A
Collection of Criticgl Essays, ed. Irving Howe (Englewood Cliffs:
Prentice -Hall, 1962), p. 89.

12Kazin, p. 90.

13Kazin, pp. 92-3.

128

129
14Kazin, pp. 93-4.

15Kazin, p. 94.

16Louis Auchincloss, llEdith Wharton and Her New York," in
Edith Wharton: A Collection of Criticgl Essgyg, ed. Irving Howe
(Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall, 1962), p. 34.

17Auchincloss, p. 41.

18Louis Auchincloss, Pioneers g Caretakers: A Study of Nine
Americgn Women Novelists (New York: Dell Publishing Co., Inc.,
1961), p. 31.

19Auchincloss, p. 44.
20Auchincloss, p. 32.
21Auchincloss, p. 36.

22Geoffrey Walton, Edith Whgrton: A Critical Interpretation
(Rutherford, N.J.: Fairleigh Dickinson University Press, 1970), p.
22.

23Walton, p. 26.

24Walton, p.198.

25The phrase is used as the title of Chapter 5 in James
Tuttleton’s The Novel of Manners in America (Chapel Hill:
University of North Carolina Press, 1972).

29Tuttleton, p. 123.
27Tuttleton, p. 124.
28Tuttleton, p. 129.

29Tuttleton, p. 274.

130
30Cynthia Griffin Wolff, A Feast of Words: The Triumph of
Edith Whgrton (New York: Oxford University Press, 1976), p. 5.
31Wolff, p. 5.

32Margaret 8. McDowell, Edith Whgrton (Boston: Twayne
Publishers, 1976), p. 144.

33Richard H. Lawson, Edith Wharton (New York: Frederick Ungar
Pub. Co., 1977), p. 15.

34Lawson, p. 95.
35Lawson, p. 64.
36Lawson, p. 72.
37Lawson, p. 98.

38Elizabeth Ammons, Edith Wharton’s Argument with America
(Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1980), p. ix.

39Robert Francis Wolfe, I'The Restless Women of Edith
Wharton,"I Diss. Columbia 1974, p. 8.

40Wolfe, p. 20.
41Wolfe, p. 130.
42whiie, pp. 35-6.
43Wolfe, pp. 37-8.

44Wolfe, p. 41.

45Wolfe, p. 57.

4‘5Wolfe, p. 60.

131

47Jean Turner, ”The Ideology of Women in the Fiction of Edith
Wharton 1899-1920,“ Diss. University of Wisconsin 1975, p. 20.

48Turner, p. 142.
49Turner, p. 170.
50Turner, p. 221.
51Turner, p. 263.
52Turner, p. 303.

53Carol Wershoven, The Femgle Intruder in the Novels of Edith
Wharton (Rutherford: Fairleigh Dickinson University Press, 1982),
p. 17.

54Wershoven, p. 16.
55Wershoven, p. 58.
5‘f’Wershoven, p. 73.
S7Wershoven, p. 93.
58Wershoven, p. 98.
59Wershoven, p. 98.
60Wershoven, p. 164.
61Wershoven, p. 16?.

62Carolyn Forrey, "The New Woman Revisited," Women’s Studies,
2 No. 1 (1974), 38-9.

63Carroll Smith-Rosenberg, "Beauty, the Beast, and the
Militant Woman: A Case Study in Sex Roles and Social Stress in

132

Jacksonian America," in A Heritage of Her Own, ed. Nancy F. Cott
and Elizabeth H. Pleck (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1979), p.
198.

94Smith-Rosenberg, p. 200.

95Larzer Ziff, The American 1890’s: Life ggd Times of a Lost
Generation (New York: Viking, 1966), p. 51.

69William Chafe, The American Woman (New York: Oxford, 1972),
p. 49.

67Chafe, p. 49.
68Chaie, p. 94.

69Barhara Welter, "The Cult of True Womanhood, 1820-1860,"
American Quarterly 18, No. 2, pt. 1, (Summer, 1966), 152.

7oWelter, p. 174.

CHAPTER 2

1Edith Wharton, A Backwggd Glance (New York:
Appleton-Century, 1934), p. 207.

2Walton and Wolff see the novel as a tragedy; Tuttleton and
Auchincloss call it the novel of manners; Trilling considers it a
class novel; Lewis regards it a survey of the comedie humaine,
American style; and Ammons calls it an economic novel.

3Wolff, p. 130.
4Turner, p. 282.

5Turner, p. 274.

6Lawson, p. 32.

7Ammons, p. 42.

8Richard Warrington Lewis, Edith Whgrton: A Biography (New
York: Harper & Row, 1975), p. 155.

9Lewis, p. 155-
loWolfe, p. 25.
11Wolfe, pp. 24-5.
12Ammons, p. 39-
13Walton, p. 52.
14Walton, p. 52.
15Ammons, p. 32-
1‘5Ammons, p. 33-
17Walton, p. 23.
18Walton, p. 26-
l9Tuttleton, p. 125-

20McDowell, p. 49.

CHAPTER 3

1Turner uses Nevius’ terms, I'feminist heroine," in her
discussion of Justine Brent, p. 251.

2Lewis, p. 326.

134

3McDowell, p. 59.

4Ammons, p.
5Walton, p.
6Turner, p.

7Lawson, p.

80.

70.

306.

61.

3Wershoven, p. 98.

9Wolff uses this phrase in her discussion of Wharton’s

heroines.

10This phrase is further discussed by Ammons
of Wharton’s female protagonists.

11Wolfe, pp.
12Turner, p.
13Ammons, p.
14Turner, p.
15Lawson, p.
1‘5’Wershoven,
17Turner, p.

18Turner, p.

19Lawson, p.

20Lawson, p.

38-9.

310.

91.

315.

59; Wershoven, pp. 108-9.

p. 104.

310.

309.

in her analysis

CHAPTER 4

1Wershoven, p. 78.
2Lewis, p. 155.
3Wolff, p. 314.
4Lewis, p. 424.

5Lawson also finds that though loving and critical, the novel
is not "an indulgence in fictional nostalgia, pure and simple" (p.
15). He concludes that the story provides a criticism of old New
York, "a vanished society."

6McDowell, p. 92.
7Turner, p. 286.
8Wolfe, p. 53.

9Wolfe interprets this image as the ”blindness of young women
of that era" (p. 55).

10McDowell, pp. 98-9.
11Ammons, p. 147.
12Ammons, p. 48.
13Wershoven, p. 78.
14Wershoven, p. 76.
”Wolff, p. 316

1‘sAmmons, p. 146.

17Wolfe, p. 57.
18Lewis, p. 431.
19Lewis, p. 431--
20Walton, p. 130.
21uaiton, p. 137.

22Wereshoven, p. 90.

CHAPTER 5
1Lawson, p. 72.
2McDowell, p. 68; Ammons, p. 71.
3Lewis, p. 311.
4Wharton’s introduction to Ethan Frome, p. v.
5Introduction, p. ix.
9Wolff, p. 183.
7Lawson, p. 72.
8Walton, p. 80.
9Ammons, p. 68.
10Ammons, p. 67.

11Ammons, p. 64.

137

12Ammons, p. 65.
13Walton, p- 83-
14Wolff, p. 170-
15Wolff, p. 183.
19Wolff, p. 184-
17Mcooweii, p- 66-

18McDoweii, p. 66.

CHAPTER 6

1Marilyn French’s introduction to Summer (New York: Berkley
Books, 1981), p. xxix.

2Wolff,p. 292.
3Wolff,p. 267.
4Walton, p. 84.
5Ammons, p. 132.
6Ammons, p. 134.
7McDowell, p. 70.
8McDowell, p. 71.
9McDowell, p. 71.

loAmmons, p. 133.

138

11Ammons, p. 137.
12French, p. xiv.
13French, p. xliv.
14French, p. xliv.
15Walton, p. 86.
1‘5Ammons, p. 139.

17Ammons, p. 139.

CHAPTER 7
1Wershoven, p. 73.

21h Lewis’ Edith Whggton: A Biography (p. 490), her five
personal favorite fictions are Hudson River Bracketed (1929), [fig
Gods Arrive (1932), The Custom of the Country (1913), Summer
(1917), and The Children (1928).

3Ammons, p. 102.
4Ammons, p. 111.
5McDowell, p. 80.
9Lawson, pp. 47-8.

7Wolff, p. 233.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Primary Sources: Edith Wharton’s works in chronological order
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The House of Mirth. New York: Scribner’s, 1905. The text used
for the study is a Berkley edition (New York: Berkley Pub.
Corp., 1981) with an introduction by Marilyn French.

Madame de Treymes. New York: Scribner’s, 1907.

The Fruit of the Tree. New York: Scribner’s, 1907.
Ethan Frome. New York: Scribner’s, 1911.

The Reef. New York: Appleton, 1912.

The Custom of the Country. New York: Scribner’s, 1913.

Summer. New York: Appleton, 1917. The text used for the study is
a Berkley edition (New York: Berkley Pub. Corp., 1981) with
an introduction by Marilyn French.

French Ways and Their Meaning. New York: Appleton, 1919.

The Age of Innocence. New York: Appleton, 1920. The text used
for the study is the 1968 Scribner’s edition with an
introduction by R. W. B. Lewis.

A Backward Glance. New York: Appleton-Century, 1934.

139

140

Secondary Sources: critical works in alphabetical order

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Auchincloss, Louis. Edith Wharton. Minneapolis: University of
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. Edith Wharton: A Woman in Her Time. New York:
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. Pioneers & Caretakers: A Study of Nine American Women
Novelists. New York: Dell Publishing Co., 1961.

 

 

. Reflections of a Jacobite. Boston: Houghton Mifflin
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Bell, Millicent. gaith Wharton and Henry James: The Story of
Their Friendship. New York: Braziller, 1965.

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Boynton, Percy H. A History of American Literature. Boston: Ginn
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141

Brenni, Vito J. Edith Wharton: A Biblioggaphy. Morgan Town: West
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1935.

Chafe, William. The American Woman. New York: Oxford, 1972.

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, ed. Egith Wharton: A Collection of Critical Essays.
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143

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144

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