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This is to certify that the

thesis entitled

THREE IVORY TRIPI‘YCHS:
AN INNOVATION OF THE MIDDLE BYZANTINE PERIOD

presented by

SHARON. R. PARK

has been accepted towards fulfillment
of the requirements for

JIASIEBLS__degree in W

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MajErofessor

 

8/5/86

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THREE IVORY TRIPTYCHS:

AN INNOVATION OF THE MIDDLE BYZANTINE PERIOD

BY

Sharon Rose Park

A THESIS

Submitted to
Michigan State University
in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of

MASTER OF ART

Department of Art

1986

ABSTRACT

THREE IVORY TRIPTYCHS:
AN INNOVATION OF THE MIDDLE BYZANTINE PERIOD

BY

Sharon R. Park

This thesis investigates the possible imperial and
religious uses of three ivory triptychs of the Middle
Byzantine Period representing the Deesis with Saints.
Neither this subject as a type of art object nor the
triptych were known before this period. The Deesis became
a popular subject and was depicted in a variety of media
such as enamel and mosaic throughout the period. To
discover the use of these Deesis triptychs I have studied
examples of imperial and religious ivory sculpture
throughout the ancient world including Byzantium and I have
looked at liturgical practices and doctrines of the
Byzantine church to which the triptychs may be related. I
have also investigated the possible connections between the
triptychs and certain Byzantine emperors. The thesis,
then, is an attempt to show how religious and imperial
iconography and uses of each triptych reflect the needs and

ideas of the people who used them.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

I wish to thank Professor Molly Smith for her
encouragment and generous assistance throughout this
project. Her suggestions have left an imprint on this
thesis and my knowledge of Byzantine Art. I am also
grateful to Professor Webster Smith for his extensive and
helpful comments, and Professor Sadayashi Omoto for his

participation in my committee.

ii

TABLE OF CONTENTS

List of Plates

Chapter
I. Introduction
II. Three Deesis-with-Saints Triptychs

III. Imperial and Religious Ivory
Sculpture from the Ancient World

IV. The Deesis-with-Saints Triptychs
as Liturgical Objects

V. The Deesis-with-Saints Triptychs
as Icons

Bibliography

iii

iv

46

67

80

100

LIST OF PLATES

FIGURE
1. The Palazzo Venezia Triptych
2. The Palazzo Venezia Triptych
Back Panels
3. The Crowning of Constantine VII
Porphyrogenitus By Christ
4. The Harbaville Triptych
5. The Harbaville Triptych
Back Panel
6. The Harbaville Triptych
Center Panel
7. The Crowning of Romanos II
and Eudocia By Christ
8. The Vatican Triptych
9. The Vatican Triptych
Back Panels
10. The Vatican Triptych
Detail of Deesis
11. The Vatican Triptych
Detail of Saints
12. Tutankhamun and Ankhesenamun
in a Garden
13. Consular Diptych of Probianus
14. Christ Enthroned in Majesty

iv

PAGE

13

16

19

22

24

26

27
31

33

37

38

49
55

59

15.

16.

The Virgin and Child Enthroned
Between Angels; Christ Enthroned
Between Saint Peter and Paul

The Harbaville Triptych
with the wings closed

61

75

CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

The Deesis with Saints was an important subject in
the art of Constantinople during the Middle Byzantine
Period. It was represented in various media for public and
private devotion. The Deesis comprises the Virgin and John
the Baptist standing before Christ with their arms raised
in supplication on behalf of the faithful viewer. The
Deesis is believed to have been derived from represen-
tations of the Last Judgement, where the Virgin acts as
intecessor for the souls of the faithful before Christ, and
the Baptist as intecessor for the sinners.1 The earliest
known example of the Deesis is located at the Monastery of
St. Catherine at Mount Sinai, dated to the early sixth
century. Just above the apse mosaic of the Transfiguration
are the faces of the Virgin and the Baptist in roundels.
They are not part of the Transfiguration but still occupy
the right and left area beside Christ.

The Deesis is also found in Byzantine represen-
tations of the Crucifixion. John the Baptist rather than
John the Evangelist stands with Mary beside the cross, as
they stand beside Christ in the Deesis, with their hands

raised in supplication. This representation of the Deesis

was depicted on ivory plaques and diptychs possibly as
early as the sixth century.

The Iconoclasts of the eighth and ninth centuries
decreed that images of the saints, apostles, and Christ
should not be produced. Byzantine icons, including
representations of the Deesis, were either hidden from
public view or destroyed. When the Iconoclastic
Controversy ended in the mid-ninth century the defenders of
iconic images were victorious. This event marks the
beginning of the Middle Byzantine Period, and a flourish of
religious art occured as a joyous response to the victory.
The Middle Byzantine Period ended when the Crusaders
captured Constantinople in 1204. For information
concerning the history of the Byzantine Empire a good

source is Cyril Mango's Byzantium: The Empire of New Rome2

 

in which the history and ideology of the Middle Byzantine
Period is discussed. Also, the art of the period and the
role of the emperor cult is examined here in conjunction
with historical development.

The depiction of the Deesis accompanied by other
saints seems to have appeared after the Iconoclastic
Controversy. The best surviving examples of this subject
are three ivory triptychs which date from the late tenth to
early eleventh century. They are commonly known as the
Palazzo Venezia, Harbaville, and Vatican triptychs.
Neither the representation of the Deeis with Saints, nor

ivory triptychs, were known before this period. The

depiction of the Deesis with Saints on ivory triptychs may
have related to the iconostasis which stood before the
altar in many Byzantine churches from possibly as early as
the tenth century.3 Representation of the Deesis with
other saints had been painted on the iconostasis, which is
like a wall with three doors. The triptychs may have
resembled this format, however, they were smaller than the
iconostasis, approximately 12 inches long and 10 inches
high, a size which implies personal use.

The focus of this study is the function of the
triptychs and their relationship to the people who used
them. My purpose is to consider the relationship between
the Deesis-with-Saints triptychs and liturgical prayers and
practices of the Byzantine Orthodox Church and the
Byzantine concept of icons. The figures of the Deesis
correspond to saints called upon in prayer to intercede for
faithful members in the church community including the
emperor. The figures also correspond to saints
commemorated in the Eucharistic ritual. I propose that the
triptychs may have been placed on the altar to be used by a
priest for guidance during the commemoration of the
Eucharist. For information concerning the liturgical
functions of the triptychs, Ernst Kantorowicz's article
'Ivories and Litanies“ is indispensible.“ He associates
the triptychs with prayers known as the Litany of Saints,
to which the figures on each triptych correspond. He also

argues the imperial use of the these triptychs. He does

not, however, discuss the triptychs as icons. The concept
of an icon as a vehicle for prayer can be discerned in the
three triptychs. To my knowledge no author has discussed
the three ivory triptychs as icons. For a better
understanding of the Deesis and the role of the other
saints, the two works which are most helpful are The

Byzantine Divine Liturgy by M. Soloveys and The

 

Byzantine-Slav Liturgy of St. John Chrysostom by C.

 

Kucharek.6

The triptychs may have been made for certain
Byzantine emperors to use during personal devotions or to
accompany the mass. The Palazzo Venezia triptych bears an
inscription dedicated to a ruler named Constantine. Most
scholars agree that this is Constantine VII Porphyro-
genitus, who ruled from 913 to 9593’ The Harbaville and
Vatican triptychs have no inscriptions, but because of
their increased imperial imagery it is likely that all
three were intended for Byzantine emperors. The definitive
study of Middle Byzantine ivory sculpture is Goldschmidt

and Weitzmann's Die Byzantinischen Elfenbeinskulpturen.8

 

It is the only major work on the Deesis-with-Saints
triptychs before this study, and it forms the basis for the
dates assigned to each triptych and relationships with
other imperial ivory reliefs. It does not, however,
discuss the triptychs as liturgical objects or icons.
Information on the integration of imperial imagery into

Christian art is presented in Grabar's Christian Iconography9

 

and Kitzinger's Byzantine Art in the Making.10 Both of

 

these studies investigate the sources for the seemingly
imperial images of Christ and the Virgin in Byzantine art.

Representations of the Deesis with Saints can be
found in the tenth and eleventh century, but no surviving
examples remain after the mid-eleventh century. The Deesis
was depicted in mosaic throughout the rest of the period
but without the accompaniment of other saints. The
triptychs, then, seem to have been made for a distinct
purpose or person of the Middle Byzantine Period.

I have examined several examples of imperial and
religious works of art made from ivory in ancient history.
Ivory was used in ancient Egypt and Greece for images of
rulers and gods in which their kingly and divine manifes-
tations are suggested. Ivory images of God and emperors in
Early Christian and Byzantine art imply a similar
intention.

I have especially examined the ancient Pheidian
statue of Zeus as an iconic image. The Greek concept of an
image of God as a symbol can be applied to this statue and
to the three ivory triptychs as icons. To my knowledge
this relationship has not been stated before. To better
understand the Greek concept of images, Boman's Hebrew

Thought Compared with Greek explains the Greek meaning of

 

'icon' which is continued in the Byzantine concept of

images}1 The "Olympic Discourse" of Dio Chrysostom

presents a first century A.D. look at the ancient statue of

Zeus as a symbol of the power and glory of god.u3 Aspects
of Dio's philosophical ponderings are recalled in thoughts
by Pseudo-Dionysius the AreOpagite. A comparison of the
ideas of these two men, concerning the use of symbols to
represent God, have not been suggested before this study.
Dionysius was a Christian mystic whose writings
influenced Byzantine Church fathers and the development of

iconic images. His works, such as The Celestial Hier-

 

archies, were known in Constantinople in the sixth century
and helped form the basis of the arguments presented by the
defenders of icons during the Iconoclastic Controversy.13

In this way, the Greek concept of images enters Byzantine

theology.

FOOTNOTES

1E. Kantorowicz, "Ivories and Litanies," Journal of
Warburg and Courtauld Institute, 5 (1942), p. 71.

 

 

zC. Mango, Byzantium: The Empire of New Rome,
London, 1980.

 

3T. Mathews, The Early Churches of Constantinople:
Architecture and Liturgy, Pennsylvania, 1971, Chapter 7.

 

 

“Kantorowcz, pp. 56—81.

5M. Solovey, The Byzantine Divine Liturgy,
Washington D.C., 1970.

 

6C. Kucharek, The Byzantine-Slav Liturgy of St. John

Chrysostom, Allendale, 1971.

 

 

ZAll of the authors cited in this study agree with
this conclusion.

3A. Goldschmidt and K. Weitzmann, Die Byzantinischen
Elfenbeinskulpturen des X.-XIII. Jahrhunderts, Berlin,
1934.

 

 

9A. Grabar, Christian Iconography: A Study of its
Origins, Princeton, 1968.

 

10E. Kitzinger, Byzantine Art in the Making,

Cambridge, 1980.

 

11T. Boman, Hebrew Thought Compared with Greek, New

York, 1970.

 

”b. Chrysostom "Twelfth or Olympic, Discourse: On
Man's First Conception of God," Discourses XII-XXX, Loeb
Classical Library, Cambridge, 1977.

 

1Z’lbionysius the Areopagite, Mystical Theologies and
Celestial Hierarchies, ed. Surrey, 1965.

 

 

CHAPTER II

THREE DEESIS-WITH-SAINTS TRIPTYCHS

A trio of ivory triptychs known by the title
Deesis-with-Saints are exceptional examples of imperial and
religious art of the Middle Byzantine Period. These
triptychs may have been made in a workshop in Constan-
tinople, the capital of the empire and center of the
Eastern Orthodox Church. The Middle Byzantine Period
(867-1204) witnessed a prolific production of imperial and
religious art. The three triptychs may have been
commissioned from a local workshop by an emperor or
ecclesiastic for public or personal use. Collectively the
triptychs date from between the middle of the tenth to the
early eleventh century and reflect the tastes of the empire
during that time. The format of the ivory triptych is
unique to Byzantine art, and no previous examples of
Deesis-with-Saints triptychs are known. They are also
important for their stylistic similarity to imperial
imagery found in Byzantine art of the same period.

The triptych in the Palazzo Venezia Museum, Rome,
may be the earliest of the trio. It is dated to the middle
of the tenth century by Goldschmidt and Weitzmann, on

stylistic grounds and the evidence of several inscriptions

10

carved in the ivory.1 The height of the triptych is 9.5
inches; the width of the center panel is 6.5 inches, and
the total length is approximately 12.5 inches. All three
triptychs are similar in size, which is small enough to
suggest private use.

The second triptych is known as the Harbaville
triptych and is now located in the Louvre. It still bears
the name of the collection to which it belonged before it
came here. A mid-tenth century date is usually assigned to
this triptych, although art historians are not all agreed
as to when in the century it was made. The Harbaville
triptych is in near perfect condition and often considered
one of the finest Byzantine ivories in existence. The
height of the triptych, 9.5 inches, is the same as that of
the Palazzo Venezia triptych; the width is 6.6 inches, and
the total length is 12.5 inches.

The third triptych is in the Museo Sacro in the
Vatican, and is generally called the Vatican triptych. It
has been dated to the early eleventh century on the basis
of stylistic variations from the other two ivories. This
date is again disputed among scholars. Part of the
background of the center and left panel, including arms of
the Virgin and John the Baptist, was replaced prior to 1775
when it was part of a collection in Todi, Italy. The
height of the triptych is about 10 inches, the width of the
center panel is 6.5 inches, and the total length is

approximately 13 inches.

11

Collectively, the triptychs are the earliest known
sculptural examples of the Deesis-with-Saints. The Deesis,
which appears in the upper portion of the center panel, was
a frequent subject in religious art of the Middle Byzantine
Period. Similar representations were produced in different
media such as mosaic and enamel. The depiction of the
Deesis with Saints in ivory and other media of the same
period indicates the importance of the subject, which may
have appeared initially in sculpture, such as ivory
triptychs. The composition of the Deesis-with-Saints is
similarily carved on the three triptychs. The subject
comprises the Virgin and John the Baptist in supplication
to Christ on behalf of the faithful. Along with the Deesis
on the trio of triptychs are figures of bishop, martyr, and
soldier saints who were popular in the eastern church. The
arrangement of the figures is symmetrical, and they are
dressed in similar garments and hold like objects. A
repetition of poses and patterns is created, which produces
a unifying rhythm of forms and a sense of balance and
harmony. With a closer look, however, decorative
additions, individual characteristics, and inscriptions
appear, making each triptych significantly different from
the other. These stylistic changes can act as suggestions
for the dating of the three works and may possibly help to

reveal their purpose.

12

The Palazzo Venezia Triptych

 

In the scene of the Deesis, Christ stands upon a
platform between the Virgin and John the Baptist (Figure
l). The platform elevates Christ above the ground on which
the others stand, to symbolize His divinity. A fragment of
ivory is missing from the right side of Christ's face but
it is still easy to see that His head is turned toward the
right. He holds a jeweled book cover in His left hand
which probably represents His Gospel. His right hand is
raised in a sign of blessing or greeting. The Virgin and
John the Baptist stand in a three-quarter position with
their hands raised toward Christ in a gesture of
supplication. Below the Deesis are depicted the apostles
Peter, Paul, Andrew, John, and James. On each of the wings
two pairs of saints stand one above the other. On the
front of the left wing is Theodore the Tyro (from Tyre),
Saints Eustathios, Procopius, and Arethas. On the back are
Saints Basil, Gregory the Theologian (Nazienzus), Gregory
the Wonder-Worker, and Severian. On the front of the right
wing is Theodore Stratelates, Saints George, Demetrius, and
Eustratius. On the back are Bishop-saints John Chrysostom,
Clement of Ancyra, Agathonikas, and Saint Nicholas.

Christ, the Virgin, John the Baptist, and the other
saints exhibit human characteristics. The facial features
of each figure have been carefully carved so each appears
individualized. This is especially true of the apostles,

who are depicted in different poses and have different

13

 

Figure 1. The Palazzo Venezia Triptych

14

hairstyles and appear quite naturally portrayed. The
figures on the wings, however, stand in a frontal pose with
each pair assuming the same attitude and holding objects in
the same fashion. Their garments vary depending on the
type of saint, such as soldier or bishop, but the drapery
falls in straight folds without much evidence of a body
beneath except for the feet, which are visible. This is
different, however, for the apostles and the figures which
comprise the Deesis. A contrapposto stance is evident by
the way the drapery is pulled taut across the bent knees
while it falls straight over the tensed leg. This suggests
that the sculptor was familiar with Greek and Roman
sculpture by the way the drapery is used to reveal and
enhance the pose.

It was common practice in Christian art to surround
the head of a saint with a halo. Each figure on the
triptych has been given a halo but those around the head of
Christ, Theodore the Tyro, and Eustathios (all three
figures are on the front of the triptych) have a decorative
band carved around the edge, and the others are left
plain. The effect from this detail is one of incom-
pleteness. This may imply that the triptych was not
finished before it was needed for its intended purpose or
it may be evidence that more than one sculptor was
responsible for carving the triptych.

On the back of the center panel is a cross sparsely

adorned with rosettes at the end of each arm and one in the

15

center; the background is devoid of decoration (Figure 2).
The simplicity of the design produces an effect of purity
and beauty. No color is evident on the triptych today, but
this does not mean none had ever been applied. Other
ivories of the same period exhibit paint or stain on
figures, borders, and other objects, or placed inside
carved letters, as happens in the Vatican triptych. The
letters on the Palazzo Venezia triptych may have been
filled with color or even gold to make them easier to
read. Garments, hair, and held objects may also have been
painted or even gilded. The omission of paint, stain, or
gilding may again imply that this triptych is not finished.
Greek inscriptions are carved across the bands which

separate the figures on the wings and center panel into two
halves. These have been translated by Goldschmidt and
Weitzmann, who believe the inscriptions can be used to
assign a specific date and function to the work. The
inscriptions presented here were rendered into English by
Ernst Kantorowicz. The inscription on the band of the
center panel reads:

At picturing Christ, how weak are hand

and chisel. The spirit's teacher and

transmitter, Christ consults his mother

and the Baptist John, and thus in

sending out His pupils speaketh:

Deliver Constantine from every evil 2

for I shall give to him the fullest glory.
It is generally agreed among scholars that the ruler

mentioned is Constantine VII Porphyrogenitus, who ruled

jointly with his father-in-law, Romanos II, from 913 to 944

16

 

Figure 2. The Palazzo Venezia Triptych
Back Panels

17

and was sole emperor from 945 to 959. The inscription
resembles a commemorative prayer offered up to God for the
safety of the emperor Constantine. It is possible that the
triptych was made for Constantine to commemorate his
coronation as sole ruler and dedicated to him through the
inscription. There are two other inscriptions carved in
the ivory. On one wing is an inscription which reads:

The Lord who created this set of four martyrs
Victoriously chases the foes with their aid.

On another wing is this inscription:

Three priests, one martyr joined for meditstion.
This is the world subdued beneath a crown.

All of the saints pray together for the emperor's welfare
and ability to secure the empire. The soldier saints
oversee the army and wars, the bishops provide spiritual
powers and represent peace. Together they safeguard the
emperor, who has the duty of maintaining peace and
defending the empire. According to Kantorowicz this
resembles a commemorative prayer recited in the Eastern
liturgy during special church festivals. The priest would
commemorate all saints, call the Virgin and John the
Baptist by name, then begin supplications for the favored
living and dead and for the emperor.)+ The inscriptions on
the Palazzo Venezia triptych, then, are intecessory prayers
in honor of the emperor. The figures on the triptych
correspond to the saints called upon in the liturgical
prayers. Along with honoring an emperor, the triptych may

have been used by a priest during the mass to read the

18

inscriptions aloud.

An ivory relief from Constantinople, dated 945, is
believed to represent Constantine VII being crowned emperor
by Christ (Figure 3). An inscription in Greek is carved
between the two figures which is rendered into English by
D. T. Rice:

Constantine, throug God, Autocrator,
King of the Romans.

It is plausible that both of these ivory reliefs were
commemorate Constantine VII Porphyrogenitus. He was one of
the best known and liked emperors of the Middle Byzantine
Period and a great patron of the arts. Other rulers named
Constantine can be found in the eleventh and twelfth
centuries, but according to Rice the style of the
coronation relief is unlike that of those centuries.6
Goldschmidt and Weitzmann note that the depiction of the
emperor being crowned is "a figure with long straight beard
and long hair visible under the crown who very much
resembles the pictures of Constantine VII Porphyrogenitus

It?

as represented on his coins. Furthermore, commemorative
works of art would almost certainly have been made to mark
his succession to the throne as sole ruler in 945. Thus,
it is possible that both the triptych and coronation relief
were made to mark Constantine's passing from joint ruler to
sole emperor in 945. There are three other ivory reliefs
discussed by Rice which have inscriptions dedicated to a

ruler named Constantine. One such inscription on an ivory

panel depicting St. John the Evangelist and St. Paul reads:

19

 

Figure 3. Crowning of Constantine VII Porphyrogenitus
by Christ

20

"The instrument of God (St. Paul) holds colloquy with the
chaste man (St. John) to preserve the emperor Constantine

8 Inscriptions on the other panels are similar

from harm."
and all three are dated to the mid-tenth century. Thus it
seems as though other ivory reliefs dedicated to the
emperor Constantine VII were produced in the mid-tenth
century and that the Palazzo Venezia triptych may have been
one of several commissions for the emperor.

If the Palazzo Venezia triptych was indeed the first
of the trio to be produced, it may have established the
iconography of the Deesis with Saints. The function of all
three triptychs may have been the same as well. The
Palazzo Venezia triptych may have been commissioned as a
dedicatory gift for the emperor to mark his coronation or
to use during the mass. Inscriptions are found on this
triptych only, however. The possible correspondance of the

figures to liturgical prayers is discussed below, in

Chapter III.

The Harbaville Triptych

 

The composition of the Deesis-with-Saints on the
Harbaville triptych is similar to that on the Palazzo
Venezia triptych, with a few exceptions (Figure 4). One
difference in the depiction of the Deesis is that Christ is
seated on an elaborate throne between the Virgin and the
Baptist. Christ now appears as an enthroned ruler while on

the Palazzo Venezia triptych He is standing. The throne is

21

richly decorated to resemble an elaborately carved chair
with gems inset into the surface. Another variation in the
composition is the addition of roundels beside the head of
Christ depicting the archangels Michael and Gabriel. All
four figures around Christ have their hands raised in a
gesture of supplication. Below the Deesis are the same
five apostles found on the Palazzo Venezia triptych.
Clearly defined facial features, variations of hair styles,
and the addition of platforms under every figure produces a
more intricate design on the Harbaville composition of the
Deesis-with-Saints than that of the Palazzo Venezia ivory.
The poses, objects held, and garments are the sam,

however. The saints on the wings include some of the same
as on the other triptych but new saints, depicted in
roundels, have been added. The additional figures in the
roundels on the front of the left wing are St. Mecurius and
Thomas. In roundels on the back of the wing are Sts. Cosmos
and Damien and, standing, James the Persian. In the
roundels on the front of the right wing are Sts. Philip and
Pantaleon, on the back of the wing are Sts. Phocas and
Blaise. In little disks on the upper border of the center
panel are Jeremiah, Elijah, and Isaiah. Even though the
roundels have been aded, the composition is not crowded and
it remains very close to that on the Palazzo Venezia
triptych. On the back of the center panel is a cross
surrounded by plants, papyrus, one olive tree, and two

cypresses around which lions, rabbits, and birds are

 

Figure 4.

22

 

The Harbaville Triptych

 

23

gathered (Figure 5).9 An image of Paradise seems to be
represented, presided over by Christ whose presence is
symbolized by the cross and a monogram of His name flanking
the cross. Inscribed are the Greek letters, IC-XC over
NI-KA signifying 'Jesus Christ Conquers'.1o The cross is
surrounded by stars, which may symbolize the heavens.
Goldschmidt and Weitzmann suggest this "is a nightly sky of
stars, hinting that it represents the Divine

Manifestation."11

This panel, carved with rich decoration,
is in stark contrast to the sparsely adorned back panel of
the Palazza Venezia triptych.

By comparing the figures of each triptych another
variation in style becomes evident. The Harbaville figures
are slender and elegant and appear softly shaped in their
long garments. The Palazzo Venezia figures now look short
and broad in comparison. In fact, the overall scheme of
the Palazzo Venezia triptych exhibits a simplicity of
design next to the more elaborate Harbaville triptych.
Goldschmidt and Weitzmann suggest that the forms of the
Harbaville figures are more three-dimensionaly rounded and
appear more softly shaped due to the "wilder and shaggier
hair styles" which are apparent on most of the saints.12
The clothing of the soldier saints resembles appropriate
military dress of the Roman army, with cuirass and kilt,
and a sword at the hip, rather than the long, bulky

garments of the Palazzo Venezia soldiers who hold crosses

instead of swords. The halos behind all the heads of the

24

 

Figure 5. The Harbaville Triptych — Back Panel

25

Harbaville figures have a decorative border along the outer
edge, although Christ's is more elaborate. All of the
apostles on the center panel are deeply undercut and cast
shadows onto the background (Figure 6). Each of these
figures look more like small statues because of the softly
falling shadows created by the high relief. The saints on
the wings are carved in a lower relief and thus look
flatter than the figures on the center panel.

The Harbaville triptych is in very good condition
today, with only a few cracks in the background ivory.
Carved letters of the saint's names clearly stand out and,
just like the Palazzo Venezia triptych, may have been
filled with paint or stain or even silver or gold although
no evidence of this remains on the ivory today. The entire
surface of the Harbaville triptych has been polished and it
still has a smooth, softly shining surface. Stain, paint,
or gilding may also have been applied to the figures.

The Harbaville triptych is often compared to an
ivory relief which depicts the crowning of Romanos II and
his wife Eudocia by Christ (Figure 7). This relief dates

13

to around 945. Romanos II was the son of Constantine VII
Porphyrogenitus and was proclaimed as co-emperor with his
father when he was still a child, about 945. Romanos II
became sole emperor upon the death of his father in 959 and
ruled until 963. The relief depicting the coronation may

have been commissioned around 945 when the joint rule was

established. Yet the young age of Romanos, six years old,

26

 

 

The Harbaville Triptych - Center Panel

Figure 6.

27

 

Figure 7. The Crowning of Romanos II and Eudocia
By Christ

28

makes this seem unlikely. It has been noted by Goldschmidt
and Weitzmann that the figure of Romanos II is beardless.
Byzantine emperors were always pictured on reliefs and
coins with a beard as is Constantine on his coronation
ivory (see Figure 3), while their sons were always pictured
without a beard.1n Furthermore, according to Peirce and
Tyler, Romanos II married Eudocia in 942 or 943 while still
a child.”5 It is possible, then, that this relief
commemorates Romanos II as co-emperor. Thus, like the
coronation relief of Constantine VII, the relief of Romanos
II and Eudocia may commemorate either the joint-rule or
sole rule of Romanos and therefore date between 945 and
959.

It is beneficial to establish the date of the
Romanos II relief because of its stylistic similarity to
the Harbaville triptych. The depiction of Christ on both
ivories is strikingly similar. The proportions of both
figures of Christ are slender and elegant and the facial
features are well defined. The hair and beard are similar
as are the garments, which fall softly around the body.
Careful study of these characteristics reveal both figures
of Christ as nearly identical. It is possible both ivories
were made in the same workshop, carved by the same
sculptor, or commissioned by the same person.

Both the Harbaville and Palazzo Venezia triptychs
can be associated with two ivory reliefs showing the

coronation of a Byzantine ruler. The Harbaville triptych

29

however, unlike the Palazzo Venezia triptych, bears no
inscriptions of dedication or prayers. Yet, based on the
above similarities, it is probable that both ivory
triptychs were made between 945 and 959 to honor either
Constantine VII or Romanos II. Both triptychs were
probably made by an imperial commission for public
liturgical use or for private use by an emperor. The
emperor could have used the triptychs during the mass in
the palace church of Hagia Sophia, or they could have been
imperial gifts to the church for a priest to use when
reciting liturgical prayers in honor of certain saints and
the emperor. Furthermore, the present worn condition of
the Palazzo Venezia triptych implies repeated use. Opening
and closing it, carrying and moving it would weaken the
hinges and remove the polish from the surface. The
Harbaville triptych, on the other hand, appears well
preserved suggesting that it may have been infrequently
used or served a private function. If it was made for
Constantine VII in 959, the year he died, it may have been
placed in a royal or religious treasury, which could
account for its excellent state of preservation. The
refined and intricate additions to the Harbaville triptych
seem to indicate that it was made after the Palazzo Venezia
triptych but followed the composition of that work very
closely. Analysis of the third triptych may yield further

clues as to the use and date of each triptych.

30

The Vatican Triptych

 

The Vatican triptych exhibits a further develOpment
of the stylistic representation of the Deesis with Saints
while following the now established composition of the
other two triptychs (Figure 8). The Deesis appears at the
top of the center panel. Christ is seated on a heavily
jeweled throne and holds a book cover which is also
elaborately decorated. The archangels Michael and Gabriel
guard the throne and the Virgin and the Baptist, standing
on platforms, occupy the right and left sides of Christ.
This composition resembles the Deesis of the Harbaville
triptych except here the archangels are full length figures
with long feathered wings and the throne is larger and
heavier. Below the Deesis are the same five apostles who
are depicted on the other triptychs: Peter, Paul, Andrew,
John, and James. A frieze of roundels containing the busts
of five apostles separates the top and bottom frames. In
the roundels from left to right are St. Mercurius, Stephen,
Philip, Luke, and Matthew. The figures on the wings are
the same as those on the Palazzo Venezia triptych except
for additional roundels as in the center panel. In the
roundels on the back of the left wing are St. Mark and
Thomas; on the front are St. Pantaleon and Mennas. On the
back of the right wing are St. Cosmos and Damien; on the
front are St. Phocas and Blaise. Now that the figures on
all of the triptychs have been named it can be seen that

the identities of the figures are nearly the same from one

31

 

 

Figure 8. The Vatican Triptych

32

example to the next. The only saints not depicted on all
three are James the Persian on the Harbaville triptych and
Stephen, Luke, Matthew, Mark and Mennas on the Vatican
triptych. This addition of apostles and other saints on
the Vatican triptych may correspond to changes in
liturgical prayers to which the triptychs may be related,
as discussed in Chapter III. The Vatican soldier saints
are dressed as the Harbaville soldiers except a shield has
been added between each pair. All the other standing
saints and apostles hold books or crosses as seen on the
two other triptychs, and wear like garments.

A cross is carved on the back of the center panel,
following the style of the earlier triptychs, except that
the design of the Vatican cross has a greater amount of
ornamentation (Figure 9). Simulated jewels are carved on
each arm and elaborate rosettes appear at each end and in
the center. The entire surface around the cross is covered
with vines and leaves. Within the tendrils of the vines
are various birds symmetrically placed beside the cross. A
progression of adornment has occured beginning with the
cross panel of the Palazzo Venezia triptych, which is
sparsely adorned, to the Harbaville triptych, where plants,
animals and stars appear, to the Vatican triptych, where no
space is left empty of decoration. Goldschmidt and
Weitzmann have identified the animals in the crowded
composition. Around the sides of the cross are "birds and

flowers which have strong Oriental characteristics. For

33

 

Figure 9. The Vatican Triptych - Back Panels

34

instance, a Chinese phoenix appears on both the upper right
and left . . . and the guinea fowl in the middle row as

"16 Also

well as flowers with Persian characteristics.
present are eagles and peacocks. The Oriental
characteristics may be of Islamic origin in view of the
contacts between Byzantium and Islam through trade.

The design is very elaborate and yet not unusual to
Byzantine art. A cross presented to a pOpe by Justin II
around 575 had real gems inset in the four arms and a round

disk at the center}7

A jeweled cross in Byzantine art
follows a tradition of depicting the true cross of the
Crucifixion as inset with jewels. Two marble reliefs of
the sixth century exhibit elaborate vines with grapes
hanging from leafy tendrils. Peacocks and guinea fowl
stand on or near the vines. The same design can be found
on the ivory chair of Bishop Maximian made around 547.18
The ornamental designs of these reliefs are similar to the
cross panel of the Vatican triptych and all of them are
believed to have been made in Constantinople. Again, it
is possible that the triptych was carved in a workshop of
the capital of the Byzantine Empire.

Other variations of style occur between the Vatican,
Harbaville, and Palazzo Venezia triptychs besides the
design of the cross panel. The figures on the Vatican
ivory seem to be less naturalistically portrayed. They are

leaner and have small heads causing them to look

elongated. All of the figures are deeply undercut and look

35

more three-dimensional than the Harbaville saints but they
are not as well defined. Goldschmidt and Weitzmann note
that ”the characterization of the individual apostles is
weakened; the expression on the faces, with the little eyes

"19 There

and the wooly hair, is sweetened and trivialized.
is a lack of modelling in the bodies and a sense of volume
is missing. These characteristics are seen in works of art
from the end of the tenth to the early eleventh century,
when a change in style occurred that is especially evident
in ivory carvings. John Beckwith concisely sums up aspects
of these changes:

The ingredients of the new style consist of

high relief, deep undercutting, angular

crisp drapery, the hair treated in tight curls,

rather jagged profiles and a tendencyzoto

treat some of the figures as puppets.
Aspects of the Vatican triptych which correspond to this
change in style are the deep undercutting and jagged
profiles created by long beards and lean faces. The
figures could also be described as puppet-like because of
the lack of volume and the elongation of the bodies. The
inclusion of more figures, which make the composition seem
crowded, and extra ornamentation are two more character-
istics of the new style. The Vatican triptych has the
greatest number of figures of the three triptychs because
of the addition of roundels on all three panels. It is
also the most decorative of the three ivories. Traces of

paint and gilding remain on the triptych, highlighting its

decorative appearance. On Christ's garment, book, halo and

36

throne, traces of green paint or stain are clearly visible
(Figure 10). The wings, robes, and sandals of the
archangels, are also colored green. A detail of two saints
on the wing reveals bright blue remaining on the halos,
clothes and books (Figure 11). Traces of color can also be
seen within the carved names and on the fluted borders.

For these reasons the Vatican triptych seems to typify the
new style and therefore may have been carved at the end of
the tenth or beginning of the eleventh century. There are
no inscriptions on the triptych and its recipient is not
known. The subject and arrangement of the figures,
however, is almost identical to the Palazzo Venezia and
Harbaville triptychs.

The Deesis-with-Saints triptychs are a new form of
art peculiar to the tenth and eleventh century of the
Middle Byzantine Period. The three triptychs may in fact
have been commissioned by members of the same ruling
family. Of the three Byzantine rulers during the late
tenth to early eleventh century who had been born or
married into the family line of Constantine VII
Porphygenitus, any one could have been the recipient or the
donor of the Vatican triptych. The general Nicephorus II
Phocas married the widow of Romanos II, usurped the throne
and became joint ruler with Romanos' two sons (963-69).
After Nicephorus II was assinated, he was succeeded by a
fellow general, John TzimiSkes (969-76), who married

Theodora, the daughter of Constantine VII. When he died,

37

 

Figure 10. The Vatican Triptych - Detail of Deesis

38

 

Figure 11. The Vatican Triptych - Detail of Saints

39

Basil II, son of Romanos II, took the throne (976-1025).21
Representations of the Deesis-with-Saints can be found in
art during the reign of Nicephorus II and Basil II. A
rectangular ivory reliquary for fragments of the true
cross, dated to the reign of Nicephorus II, is carved with
a reduced version of this subjcet. A bust of Christ carved
in a roundel is located in the center of the top edge. He
is flanked by roundels with busts of the archangels Michael
and Gabriel. Below them stand full length figures of the
Virgin and John the Baptist with their arms raised in a
gesture of supplication. Two saints are depicted below
with their hands again raised in supplication. These four
figures stand in spaces designated by a cross decorated
with curled vines. In roundels at the bottom, a ruler is
depicted in the center, his queen to the left, and another

22 The placement of the Virgin and the

figure to the right.
Baptist is reversed from their positions on the three
Deesis-with-Saints triptychs and only two saints are
included. This seems to imply that the triptychs and the
reliquary did not serve the same purpose.

An enamel and silver-gilt reliquary for a fragment
of the true cross, today in the cathedral treasury of
Limburg an der Lahn, presents a Deesis-with-Saints on the
cover and dates to the reign of Nicephorus II (c965). It

is set with pearls and precious gems and has an inscription

carved along the border. The inscription provided by

40

Beckwith reads: "In deepest honoring of Christ, Basil the
Proedrus caused this repository to be decorated."23 This
is not the emperor Basil but the President of the Council
(Proedrus) and a patron of the arts who was an illigitimate
son of Romanos I and made president by Nicephorus II. The
arrangement of the Deesis on the reliquary is not the same
as the three triptychs but many of the same saints are
depicted. The same five apostles and archangels are
present but five other apostles and a few saints appear new
to the theme. Thus, this composition varies from that of
the triptychs also.

These examples seem to indicate that imperial
patronage of religious works of art in the Middle Byzantine
Period reached a climax from the reign of Constantine VII
until the death of Basil II in 1025. After the death of
Basil II there occurred a period of change which lead to a
decline, then collapse, of the military and the financial
state of the governmentfm' There is also evidence that
ivory became scarce in Constantinople after the eleventh
century. The representation of the Deesis with Saints on
ivory triptychs seems to have appeared during this period
alone based on the lack of other surviving examples. This
may further indicate that an artistic climax occurred from
the mid-tenth to the early eleventh century. Dipictions of
the Deesis continue after the early eleventh century in
mosaics and ivory but usually without the accompaniment of

saints.

41

Conclusion

 

The iconography of the Deesis-with-Saints is almost
identical on each of the ivory triptychs. The figure of
Christ is shown standing on the Palazzo Venezia triptych
and enthroned on the Harbaville and Vatican triptychs. The
Virgin and John the Baptist stand on either side of Christ
in an attitude of supplication. The archangels Michael and
Gabriel are included on the Harbaville and Vatican
triptychs. The same five apostles are located below the
Deesis on each triptych. These apostles are especially
important because they are considered as the foundation of
the church. There are only six saints who do not appear on
all three triptychs, otherwise the bishop and soldier
saints are the same. All of the saints depicted on the
triptychs are Eastern in origin and were given a prominent
position within the Byzantine Orthodox Church. For
example, Basil the Great, John Chrysostom, and Gregory the
Theologian were Orthodox bishops from the fourth century.
Special feast days were set aside in the honor of all three
bishops. Eastern martyrs and soldier saints are depicted
such as Demetrius and George. Demetrius was a consul in
Thessalonica who was martyred (c306) for refusing to
persecute Christians. George was a Cappadocian army
officer under Diocletian at Nicomedia. He was killed for
criticizing the emperor for his cruely toward Christians.

The similarity in figures and composition from one

triptych to the next suggests they were made for a

42

particular purpose or person. The inscription on the
Palazzo Venezia triptych is dedicated to a ruler,
Constantine, probably Constantine VII. The Harbaville and
Vatican triptychs show an enhanced imperial imagery of the
same subject. Furthermore, the Palazzo Venezia and
Harbaville triptychs have been stylistically compared to
two ivory coronation reliefs and therefore probably date to
the same years. Assuming that stylistic similarities can
be relied on as evidence, these two triptychs may well have
been made to commemorate the coronation of one or two
emperors. For these reasons it seems possible that the
three triptychs were imperial commissions. Thus, the
triptychs may have been gifts given to the emperor, or
commissioned by the emperor himself for private use in the
palace church of Hagia Sophia during the mass. Before or
after the recipients died, the triptychs may have been
donated to the church.

The format of the triptych seems to have been an
innovation of the Middle Byzantine Period. The theme of
the Deesis with Saints on ivory triptychs appears
specifically in the tenth and eleventh centuries. This may
be a reflection of the aesthetic tastes of a particular
ruler or correspond to liturgical practices of the church.
Imperial and religious patrons of Byzantine art had a
fondness for precious materials such as ivory, gems and
gilding. The triptychs may have been stained or gilded,

reflecting the tastes of their patrons. It is important to

43

study the use of ivory by some of the greatest
civilizations of the ancient world, including Byzantium, in
order to understand ivory's appeal and how it served

religious and imperial sacred cults.

FOOTNOTES

1Goldschmidt and Weitzmann, I, p. 32.
2Kantorowicz, p. 74.

ibid., p. 75.

“Ibid., pp. 75-76.

5David Talbot Rice, The Art of Byzantium, New York,
n.d., p. 313

61bid., p. 314.

7Goldschmidt and Weitzmann, I, p. 35.

8John Beckwith, Early Christian and Byzantine Art,

3d ed., London, 1979, p. 207.

9Goldschmidt and Weitzmann, pp. 35—36.

iolbid.

11Ibid.

12Ibid., pp. 34-35.

13Ibid.

1“Ibid.

44

45

15H. Peirce and R. Tyler, "An Ivory of the Tenth
Century," Dumbarton Oaks Papers, 2 (1941), p. 15.

 

1fisoldschmidt and Weitzmann, p. 36.
1'72Beckwith, pp. 98-100.

1E31bid.,, pp. 122-123 for information and pictures
of the marble reliefs, and pp. 116-117 for information and
picture of the chair of Maximian.

1c)Goldschmidt and Weitzmann, p. 33.

ZOBeckwith, p. 226 .

21R. Browning, The Byzantine Empire, London, 1980,
pp. 87-92.

 

2"zBeckwith, pp. 209-210. A transcription of the
Greek letters on the reliquary was not possible because of
the blurred quality of the photograph.

23Beckwith, pp. 210-211.

24 Browning , p. 92 .

CHAPTER III

IMPERIAL AND RELIGIOUS IVORY
SCULPTURE FROM THE ANCIENT WORLD

The word ivory, through the history of the world,
has carried a connotation of value. It has a precious
quality and color that will only increase with age. Ivory,
from any period in history, was considered a luxury item
and commonly used by kings and sacred cults. It was
expensive, due to its need to be imported and small
availability, and desired for its rich and durable
character. Sculpture made from ivory has usually been
classified as 'minor sculpture'. This is a deceptive
classification since it refers to the small size and
intricate details of most ivory sculpture. However, it was
never of minor importance. The small size is dictated by
the size of the tusks. Elephant tusks were the most widely
used although tusks of the walrus and hippopotamus were
available. African and Asian elephant tusks vary in size,
color, and shape. Tusks were somewhat difficult to
transport due to their size and weight. The tusks of an
African elephant could be as long as twelve feet and weigh
fifty pounds while Asian tusks averaged five feet in length

and weighed thirty-five pounds. According to Charles

46

47

Woodhouse: "the softer eastern tusk was pure white in
color, more curved and twisted, and with a blunt point; the
harder western tusk is not so densely white and is narrower
and straighter in shape."1 The shape of the tusk would
determine the type and size of an object to be carved. The
straighter African tusk would be suitable for relief
carving while the curvature of the Asian tusk necessitated
a smaller object.

Sculpture carved from ivory is known from as early
as the Paleolithic period but the best preserved works date
from the beginning of the Bronze Age. Ivory as a medium
for sculpture was especially appealing to two types of
peOple throughout the history of mankind, rulers and those
associated with religious and imperial cults. Religious
and imperial ivory sculpture from the ancient Egyptian,
Assyrian, Greek and Roman cultures exhibit characteristics
also seen in sculpture of the Middle Byzantine Period and
there are several good examples from these cultures which

may be examined.

Egyptian Ivory

 

The Egyptians were the earliest people to establish
workshops where craftsmen were employed to produce objects
from ivory. These workshops were usually located in the
vicinity of the king's palace or a temple dedicated to a
god. Egyptian art was made especially for the pharaoh and

wealthy nobility, usually for funerary purposes, and of

48

gods for sacred cults. Most examples of ivory sculpture
have been found in royal tombs from almost every period of
ancient Egyptian history. The best known and best
preserved examples are those from the tomb of King
Tutankhamun. One lovely object is the lid of a coffer
depicting the King and his wife, Ankhesenamun, in a garden
(Figure 12). The lid is inlaid with ivory and stained with
a variety of colors: off-white, rose, ochre, and slate
blue. The height of the lid is approximately 12 1/4
inches; the width, 8 inches? The dimensions resemble
those of the three ivory triptychs. The scene is
intricately carved and the colors are very well preserved.
Here may begin a tradition of staining ivory to enhance the
lifelikeness of the image. Because of the applied color
facial features, modelling of the bodies, and garden
details are well defined.

A throne found in the tomb is inlaid with various
semi-precious stones, pieces of colored glass-paste, and
ivory. Desroches-Noblecourt says of this throne: ”It is
generally agreed that this piece of furniture . . . must
have been the King's ecclesiastical seat used during

«3

religious ceremonies. These two examples from the
several found in the tomb best exhibit the different
manifestations of the Egyptian pharaoh: as King, priest and
god. On the coffer lid, Tutankhamun, as king and husband,

spends a private moment with his wife. The chair

apparently refers to the pharaoh's role of chief-priest.

49

 

Figure 12. Tutankhamun and Ankhesenamun in a Garden

50

According to Egyptian beliefs, the pharaoh was the son of
Amun-Re, the sun-god and god of Upper and Lower Egypt, and
was thus chief-priest and considered divine. All of the
tomb objects were made for the king who, after dying, would
rise again as the god Osiris:

The transfiguration of the dead King, deified

in the person of Osiris, took place on earth

by a double phenomenon. Re rose on the

horizon and, on the throne of the living,

the young Horus, visible form of Anubis,

the new pharaoh, renewed image of the god, 4

would continue to exercise divine rule on earth.
Thus ivory seems to have been used for objects that
indicate the kingly and divine manifestations of the

pharaoh.

Assyrian Ivory

 

Ivory sculpture, known as the 'Nimrud Ivories' has
been found in the remains of Assyrian palaces at Nimrud.
One example has been identified as a representation of King
Ashurbanipal and his wife, and may have been used as a
religious and imperial cult object like the coffer lid of
Tutankhamun .5

Panels of wood inlaid with ivory and joined with
golden hinges were found at Nimrud at the palace of
Ashurnasirpal (883-859). This 'book' consisted of small
panels covered with darkened wax, on which several thousand
lines of cuneiform remain. The edge of each tablet is
raised to protect the area where wax had been applied. On

the cover is the name of Sargon II and a note which says

51

the book should be kept in the "King's new palace at Dur
Sharrukin (Khorsabad)."6 Ivories lightly stained and
covered with gold leaf were also found in the palace of
Ashurnasirpal. It is probable that a court workshop was
located here and produced fine works in ivory for the royal

house.

Greek Ivory

 

The best known use of ivory in ancient Greece is in
the chryselephantine (gold and ivory) images of the gods.

In his Description of Greece Pausanias describes no less

 

than twenty-six statues of gods made of chryselephantine.
The largest of these were of Zeus and Athena by Phidias,
Hera by Polykleitas, and Asclepius by Thrasymedes. The
most famous by far was the statue of Zeus.

Located at Olympia, the statue of Zeus was praised
by Greek writers and considered as one of the wonders of
the ancient world. The image of Zeus, forty feet high, was
one of an enthroned ruler. The throne was adorned with
gold, jewels, ivory, and ebony. He held a sceptre in his
left hand, a Victory in his right, and a garland circled
his head resembling olive branches. The visible areas of
flesh were of ivory, and his robe and sandals were of
gold.7 The wooden core of the statue was overlaid with
gold and ivory. This technique of overlaying ivory or
bending it, as for an elbow, is not known today. With age

this material takes on a soft mellow color and its glow is

52

subtle, two characteristics which make it very desirable.
Marble's grain is clearly visible and its color cannot
match the soft golden glow which ivory acquires with age.
Plato says in the Lays that "white is the color most proper

"8 Thus

for the gods, in tapestry as in other materials.
ivory was considered suitable for images of the gods.
Another striking aspect of Zeus, aside from its size

and embellishment, was its attempt to portray the physical
and the spiritual simultaneously. He was naturalistically
represented as a human king but exhibited aspects which
emphasized his divinity. According to Strabo, when Phidias
was asked what model he would use for his image of Zeus
Phidias replied:

By the pattern exhibited by Homer in the

following lines: So spoke the son of Kronos

and nodded his dark brow, and the ambrosial

locks waved from the King's undying head,

and he made great Olympus to quake.
Homer's description of Zeus is of a glorified king of the
Greeks whose very movement stirred the heavens. The image
is based upon real attributes of a human being. The flesh
of Zeus appeared human, causing the image to look like an
earthly ruler. But, through the use of beautiful materials
and great size, an image of overpowering majesty was
created. The figure of Zeus became in this way a vision of
divine beauty, and thus recognized as being beyond the
human experience. Plotinus, a Neo-Platonic philosopher
from the 3rd century A.D, commented on the statue saying:

Thus Phidias wrought the Zeus upon no model among

things of sense but by apprehending what form Zeus

must take if he chose to become manifest to sight.10

53

In contemplation of the image, the mind, assisted by the
rich materials, would be elevated from the earthly, human
image and instead perceive an image of the divine beauty of
Zeus. It is not only through the senses but through the
mind that one can begin to perceive spiritual beauty in
order to grasp the essence of divinity. A summation of the
effect of the statue by Phidias is given by Quintillian:

The Olympian Zeus in Elis, whose beauty seems

to have added somewhat to the received

religion; so adequate to the Pivine nature
is the grandeur of his work.1

Roman Ivory

 

In the Roman Empire ivory was used to create
religious and secular works of art for the imperial court,
sacred cults, and upper class families. Writing tablets in
the form of diptychs were used by government officials to
record laws or other official business. The diptych, two
tablets joined together by pins or hinges, is similar to
the Assyrian ivory 'book' in that wax was placed into a
recessed area where inscriptions could then be incised.
The diptych format may have descended from writing tablets
such as Sargon's from Nimrud.

Ivory diptychs were also used to commemorate Roman
consuls. These are called Consular diptychs and appeared
from about 400 to 541 when the consulate was abolished by
the Byzantine emperor Justinian. On one side of the
diptych was usually carved a representation of the consul

in ceremonial clothes and participating in activities of

54

official life. The name of the consul was often carved
along the top of the relief along with inscriptions
indicating his title and position. The diptych of
Probianus (c400) is an example of such a composition
(Figure 13). The reliefs on the two panels are practically
identical; both depict the consul in the same way. The
figure of the consul Probianus is seated in the center of
the upper frame in a frontal position on a throne-like
chair. Attendants on a smaller scale flank the consul and
hold plain ivory diptychs to record his decrees. In the
frames below are figures on another scale saluting the
consul. Ernst Kitzinger says of this composition that

" . . . abstract principles of symmetry, frontality, and
differentiation by scale and registers serve to express
power and authority."12 Indeed Probianus, elevated on his
chair, is the the most important person and therefore the
largest. His frontal, almost confrontive, stare again
conveys a visual message of his importance.

All of the bodies are well articulated, and their
garments fall into soft natural folds. This naturalistic
depiction is emphasized by the protrusion of several feet
beyond the edge of the ivory, causing shadows to fall. A
decorative border of finely carved palmettes frames the
four scenes and creates a spatial division within the
composition. The reverse side of the diptych is plain with
a raised edge to hold a thin layer of wax. The surface of

the wax was usually colored black or green so the inscribed

55

 

Figure 13. Consular Diptych of Probianus

56

letters would appear white and thus be easy to read.

The diptychs were usually made in Rome or
Constantinople and officially announced the consular
appointment, which would begin on the first of January each
year. They were generally commissioned by the consul to be
presented as a gift to the emperor, friends, and peers.
Many consular diptychs came to be preserved in churches,
having been presented to bishops or priests as gifts, and

adapted to Christian religious practices.

Early Christian Ivory

 

Many Consular diptychs may have been given to the
church, or to individual clergymen, after the fall of the
Roman Empire, or after the consulate was abolished. Some
of them took on religious significance by means of
substituting the names of benefactors, bishops, or saints
for the titles or name of the consul. These names were
often written in ink upon the surface and in some cases
carved into wax on the reverse side. One example of this
transformation is the diptych of Flavius Taurus Clementinus
in Liverpool. One side of the diptych retains the relief
of the Roman consul while on the other side is an inscrip—
tion and prayer dedicated to a Pope Adrian. Thus, despite
its new found use the diptych still honors an official, but
a religious one rather than secular. Other prayers found
on the same diptych were rendered into English by Eric

Maclagen. Although partially obliterated, they clearly

57

establish the liturgical use of the diptych:

+Let us stand well. +Let us stand reverently.

+Let us stand with fear. Let us attend to the

Holy Oblation1 to make offering in

peace to God.
This diptych may have been placed on the altar during the
mass so the priest could read the prayer aloud, or it may
have been used for private devotion possibly by Pope
Adrian.

The adoption of Consular diptychs for church service
may be a source for the official, imperial images of Christ
and Mary. As seen on the Probianus diptych, the consul is
depicted as an imperial type of image by being elevated on
a throne which has a cushion and footrest. The image of
the consul, then, may have been inspired by depictions of
an emperor. A. Grabar believes that "in the represen-
tations of Christ and the Virgin in majesty . . . the
formulas were furnished by the official imagery of the

1“ The Missorium of Theodosius I is a fourth

Roman state."
century example of a Roman emperor enthroned in majesty.
The sliver plate was issued in 388 to celebrate the tenth
anniversary of Theodosius' reign. Represented on the plate
are Theodosius, his two co-emperors, and bodyguards.
Kitzinger's description notes that the emperor, haloed like
a god, is "solemnly enthroned before a ceremonial palace
architecture as he hands a diploma of appointment to a high
official depicted in much smaller size."15 Such images of

the Roman emperor may have been the source for the depic-

tions of Roman consuls and, by adoption into the church,

58

imperial-like images of Christ. On the Harbaville and
Vatican triptychs, Christ is enthroned in a frontal
position and flanked by members of His heavenly court.

This type of image may derive from depictions of Roman
officials such as Theodosius and Probianus. As Christ can
be viewed as the ruler of the universe and King over his
Christian subjects, so a representation of Him enthroned as
a ruler may seem appropriate.

Another imperial portrait known today is the broken
statue of Constantine the Great which once stood in his
basilica in Rome. The exposed flesh was carved from marble
whereas other parts were made from colored materials,
probably stone. The emperor was represented sitting on a
throne, and the figure reached a height of about thirty
feet. The description of the statue of Constantine recalls
the Greek statue of Zeus, who was also depicted as an
enthroned ruler. Zeus, however, was made from precious
materials considered suitable for a god, whereas the image
of Constantine was not as richly embellished.

One of the earliest (early fifth century) and best
preserved examples of Christ enthroned in majesty is the
apse mosaic of the same name in the church of Sta.
Pudenziana in Rome (Figure 14). Christ is enthroned in
imperial splendor in the center of the apse amidst His
apostles. He is elevated above the others on a jeweled
throne and dressed in purple and gold, the colors often

worn by Roman and Byzantine rulers. Christ's raised right

59

 

Figure 14. Christ Enthroned in Majesty

60

hand issues a gesture of address or discourse used by Roman
magistrates and orators. This gesture was assimilated into
Christian iconography indicating benediction and thus
becoming a common motif in Christian art.16 Christ is
surrounded by two groups of disciples dressed as Roman
officials who gesture toward Christ. This scene has the
appearence of a ruler meeting with his court, but it is a
heavenly court with Christ as King. A jeweled cross,
representing the cross of the Crucifixion, stands on the
mound of Golgatha before an image of the heavenly
Jerusalem. This mosaic shows the integration of Roman
imperial imagery with Christian iconography, a practice

which flourished in the art of the Byzantine Empire.

Byzantine Ivory

 

Consular diptychs continued in the Eastern Roman
Empire until Justinian abolished the consulate in 541. The
production of ivory diptychs did not stop but religious
subjects were represented instead. A diptych which dates
from the reign of Justinian shows the Virgin and Child
enthroned between angels and Christ enthroned between St.
Peter and Paul (Figure 15). The Virgin and Christ are
flanked by two figures as though they were palace guards.
Both figures sit under a canopy on elaborate lion-legged
thrones with embroidered cushions. Beckwith describes them
as resembling imperial images of the Byzantine emperor-

cultjy Religious and imperial iconography have merged,

61

 

Figure 15. The Virgin and Child Enthroned
Between Angels

Christ Enthroned Between Saint
Peter and Paul

62

and heavenly scenes of Christ and the Virgin enthroned
accompanied by dignitaries have been created. They appear
as spiritual beings, however, rather than human beings.
They do not sit convincingly on the thrones if they can
even appropriately be described as sitting at all. The
space is very crowded and the figures are so flattened that
they appear almost two-dimensional. The composition is
very similar, though, to the Consular diptych of
Clementinus.

The enthroned image of Christ on the Harbaville and
Vatican triptychs seems to have been derived from this
integration of imperial and religious imagery. Both
figures of Christ sit on an imperial throne carved to
simulate inlaid gems similar to the throne in the Sta.
Pudenziana mosaic. According to Anthony Cutler, in the

Book of Ceremonies, written by Constantine VII Porphyro-

 

genitus, ”the imperial throne recurs frequently . . . and
is described as made of gold, encrusted with precious
stones and covered with cushions and precious carpets."1'8
Thus the image of the emperor's throne may be reflected in
the carved ivory throne of the triptychs. Also, the
inscriptions on the Palazzo Venezia triptych, which were
probably dedicated to Constantine VII, provide evidence of
religious works of art associated with an emperor.

This similarity between images of the Byzantine

ruler and Christ is not surprising when one considers the

ideology of the emperor-cult. The emperor was believed to

63

be the representative of God on earth; he was called the
Vicar of God and was thought to be holy. The emperor,
then, acts as the earthly counterpart to the heavenly
Christ. Because of this unique relationship he was viewed
as sacred and divine. Cyril Mango states,

There was an art of imperial propaganda with

its own iconography: the emperor always

appeared triumphant, bigger than life-size,

frozen in an immobile pose, receiving

tribute, distributing honors . . . What was

appropriate to the earthly emperor was

equally appropriate to Christ, and so the

art of the Church did not hesitate to borrow

from the pre-existing art of the court)9
The imperial imagery of the emperor and Christ merged in
art as it did in the ideology of the emperor-cult. Images
of both figures were also used to stimulate veneration and
instill a sense of awe in the viewer. The image of Christ
on the Deesis-with-Saints triptychs, accompanied by the

other saints, resembles an imperial court but a spiritual

or other-worldly nature is emphasized.

Conclusion

 

Ivory was used throughout the western ancient world
as an emblem of luxury and wealth. It was used to glorify
gods and rulers, an association which gave ivory a
distinctive status. Ancient works of art made from ivory
created an impact on the art of the Middle Ages, especially
in Byzantium. These examples of the religious and imperial
uses of ivory aid in the discovery of the tastes, beliefs,

and ideals of past cultures.

64

The Deesis-with-Saints triptychs are in many ways
the result of some of these traditional practices. They
can be associated with certain rulers of the Byzantine
Empire and also present imperial-style images of Christ and
other saints. Traces of paint remain on one of the
triptychs and all of them may have been colored as well as
gilded. Indeed, as seen in some of the examples in this
chapter, it was not unusual to add color to imperial or
religious ivory sculpture. Only in Byzantine art have
ivory triptychs been found and, although they may have
derived from ivory diptychs, they are an innovation of the

Middle Byzantine Period.

FOOTNOTES

1C.P. Woodhouse, Ivories: A History and Guide,
Canada, 1976, p. 16.

 

2C. Desroches-Noblecourt, Tutankhamun, Boston, 1963,
p. 295.

 

31bid., p. 296.

ulbid., p. 274.

5S. Lloyd, The Archaeology of Mesopotamia, London.
1978, p. 220.

 

61bid., p. 214

ZPausanius Description of Greece, II, Loeb Classical
Library, p. 437.

 

tE. Hamilton, and H. Cairns, Plato: The Collected
Dialogues, Laws, 12. 956a

 

 

31. Stuart-Jones, Select Passages from Ancient
Writers on Greek Sculpture, Chicago, 1966, p. 92.

 

 

1(iDlotinus The Six Enneads, Trans. S. MacKenna, 5,
VIII. 1.

 

1’Stuart-Jones, p. 93.

113(itzinger, Byzantine Art, p. 36.

 

tb. Williamson, The Book of Ivory, London, 1938,
p. 135.

 

65

66
1”Grabar, p. 79.

15Kitzinger, Byzantine Art, p. 31.

 

16Grabar, p. 79.
17Beckwith, pp. 85-86.

18A. Cutler, Transfigurations: Studies in the
Dynamics of Byzantine Iconography, Pennyslvania, 1975,
p. 39.

 

 

19Mango, p. 261.

CHAPTER IV

THE DEESIS WITH SAINTS TRIPTYCHS
AS LITURGICAL OBJECTS

Roman Consular diptychs had been adapted to
liturgical practices when they were aquired by the church
in the sixth century. In this chapter I propose that the
Deesis-with-Saints triptychs correspond to liturgical
prayers as well. Their part in the liturgy may have
derived from the pre-existing use of ivory diptychs. Both
the diptychs and triptychs could also have been used for
private devotion since dedicatory inscriptions have been
found on several examples of both types of ivories. The
diptych of Clementinus and the Palazzo Venezia triptych
provide examples of such inscriptions. The way in which
the diptychs and the Deesis-with-Saints triptychs
correspond to the mass needs to be studied in order to gain

a better understanding of their role as liturgical objects.

Ivory Diptychs as Liturgical Objects

 

Prayers and dedicatory inscriptions were carved on
the plain sides of the Consular diptychs, while little
regard was given to the secular significance of the
reliefs. These commemorated church officials, benefactors,

an emperor, and other favoured persons, living and dead.

67

68

The Consular diptych of Clementinus, probably carved in
Constantinople in 513, has such inscriptions on its
panels. The curator of the Victoria and Albert Museum,
Eric MacLagen, has rendered these into English. According
to the inscriptions, it was dedicated to a Church or
Convent of St. Agatha by a priest named John during the
pontificate of Adrian I (772) or Adrian II (867).1 Written
in Greek horizontally across the two ivory panels is the
following inscription:

+Let us stand well. +Let us stand reverently.

+Let us stand with fear. Let us attend to the

Holy Oblation, to make peace in offering to God.

Mercy, peace, the sacriface of praise. The love

of God the Father and the grace of Our Lord

and God the Saviour Jesus Christ be upon us.

Remember 0 Lord thy servant John, the least 2

among the priests of the habitation of St. Agatha.
Below this in smaller letters is a final inscription:

+Remember O Lord thy servant Andrew Machera.

+Remember O Lord thy servant John, a sinner,

Priest. +Remember O Lord thy servant and

our shepherd Adrian the Patriarch. 3

The Holy St. Agatha. The Holy Mother of God.
These prayers of commemoration are in the form of a
litany. The Greek word ektene, or litany, means to entreat
or supplicate. Such prayers of supplication were read out
loud by the priest during the mass for those who were to be
given special consideration. Diptychs such as that of
Clementinus may have been placed on the altar in order for
the priest to read the prayers inscribed on the ivory. The
names read could be ammended by an ecclesiastic when

someone died or fell out of favor with the church. Also,

the names were listed in a hierarchical order, with the

69

emperor and ecclesiastics taking precedence.

The litanies on the Clementinus diptych correspond
to prayers recited before the preparation of the bread for
the Eucharistic ritual. Such prayers begin with an
invocation glorifying the Holy Trinity as in the first
inscription on the diptych. Then the names of a Patriarch,
church, emperor, saints or other favored people would
follow, as in the second inscription on the diptych. The
priest would ask God to give these people special
consideration. Then litanies for the benefit of the church
community would follow. According to M. Solovy, this type
of litany is among the oldest parts of the Eastern Liturgy
and is still part of the mass today.“ Other types of
litanies were recited during the mass to commemorate
various saints and the breaking of the Eucharistic bread.
It is to these types of litanies that the

Deesis-with-Saints triptychs would seem to correspond.

The Deesis-with-Saints triptychs as Liturgical Objects.

 

The reliefs on the trio of triptychs correspond to
prayers of the Eastern Liturgy known as a Litany of
Saints. This type of litany consists of several prayers of
intercession or mediation sung or recited by the priest
during the preparation rite of the Eucharist. The Litany
of Saints was a request to the saints, the Virgin, and John
the Baptist, to intercede with God for the church, the

faithful, or an emperor. According to Solovy, the theme of

70

the petitions is a request for the salvation of man's
soul;5 Ernst Kantorowicz provides an example of such a
litany. The priest would read the following prayer aloud:

Holy Mary . . . intercede for us

Michael . . . intercede for us

Gabriel . . .

John the Baptist

Peter

Paul

Andrew

John 6

James . . . intercede for us
The faithful in the church may have replied ”pray for us"
aloud with the priest, or silently to themselves. By
reading the names of the figures in the center portion of
each triptych, Mary, John the Baptist, Peter, John, and the
rest, the Litany of saints can be visualized. The Deesis
alone is a visual image of such an intecessory supplication
offered up before Christ. The names of the other saints
and martyrs may have been included in the litany on special
occasions such as Easter, Christmas, or a saint's name
day. Thus the figures on each triptych correspond with the
saints called upon in the litany. This connection may
reveal the original function of the triptychs and provides
a reason for their similar composition and the repetition
of certain saints. The triptychs, then, represent a
harmony between the verbal image and the visible image and
become an image of prayer itself. A triptych may have been
placed on the altar, as diptychs may have been, for the

priest to read the name of each saint inscribed in the

ivory as well as to look at their images.

71

Another parallel between the Deesis-with-Saints
triptychs and the Orthodox liturgy exists in the ritual
breaking of the bread for the Eucharistic offering.
Beginning in the tenth century, the Eucharistic rite, or
Proskomide, becomes enriched with new ceremonies.7 The
bread used in the offertory was stamped with the Greek
inscription IC-XC-NI-KA surrounding a cross. This
inscription is the monogram for 'Jesus Christ Conquers' and
also appears around a cross on the back panel of the
Harbaville triptych (see Figure 5). The monogram acts as a
statement symbolizing Christ's triumph over death. Stamped
on the Eucharistic offering, the monogram becomes the motto
of the church and sums up the meaning of the Eucharistic
ritual. During the offertory the priest cuts into the
bread and removes the cube bearing the inscription and
places it on a paten. This cube is called the Lamb of God
and symbolizes Christ's sacrifice for the salvation of the
world. A separate offering is then cut and divided in
memory of certain saints and arranged in order next to the
Eucharistic Lamb. The Virgin is the first to be
commemorated, with a particle of the bread placed to the
right of the Lamb. A second particle is removed in honor
of John the Baptist and placed to the left of the Lamb.
Other particles in memory of the archangels Michael and
Gabriel and the apostles are placed to the left side as
well. The final particles were removed and placed to the

left of the Lamb in memory of past Orthodox bishops and the

72

officiating priest.8 Prayers would accompany the rite
creating a dramatic representation of Christ's sacrifice.
Any one of the three triptychs discussed here would
suggest a correspondence with the Eucharistic ritual. Such
a correspondence might account for the arrangement of the
figures on these triptychs. Christ, symbolized by the
Lamb, occupies the center position and the Virgin stands to
the right. This agrees with the order in which the
particles of the bread were removed in the offertory as
well as their placement on the paten. A particle for the
archangels was removed next and on the Harbaville and
Vatican triptychs figures of the archangels surround the
image of Christ. A particle in honor of John the Baptist
was placed to the left of the Eucharistic Lamb and on the
triptychs he stands to the left of Christ. Furthermore,
the stamp on the bread parallels the inscription on the
back of the Harbaville triptych. The monogram symbolizes
Christ's triumph over death. Both the monogram and cross
become visual symbols to the faithful that through Christ
they too can triumph over death and gain everlasting life.
If an emperor used a triptych during the mass, the meaning
of the Eucharistic ritual as a sacrifice to save mankind
would be better comprehended with the help of visual
images. The depiction of the Deesis along with other
saints indicates, to the one who uses the triptych, that he
does not pray alone and his prayers for salvation will be

strengthened by the intecessory powers of the saints.

73

Thus the Deesis-with-Saints triptychs as liturgical
objects can be seen to correspond to the Eucharistic
liturgy of the Eastern Orthodox Church. The act of cutting
particles from bread in memory of certain saints is a
practice which came about in the tenth century, possibly,
then, at the same time that the first Deesis-with-Saints
triptych was produced. Because of the small size of the
triptychs and the personal message of salvation which they
deliver, it is likely that they were used by private
individuals. Because of the rich imperial imagery of the
tripychs, carved from precious ivory, they were probably
used by an emperor. The inscriptions on the Palazzo
Venezia triptych only help to strengthen this idea since
they resemble a short intecessory prayer offered up for the

emperor.

The Iconostasis

 

It is likely that curtains or an iconostasis, an
altar screen, were placed in churches since the Early
Byzantine Period. Curtains were probably hung in the
aisles early in the period to conceal the women on one side
of the church from the men on the other side. Curtains
also may have hung from a ciborium which may have concealed
the altar. These curtains were described by a ninth
century source as "veils of gold and purple interwoven,
embroidered with marvelous holy images."9 Such curtains

may have been replaced with an altar screen in some

74

churches. According to Kitzinger, after 558 A.D., an altar
screen was placed in Hagia Sophia, and "was adorned with a
rich array of silver reliefs depicting Christ, angels, the

10 A true iconostasis, a

Virgin, prophets, and apostles."
wall with three doors on which images of saints were
painted, might have been used after the Iconoclastic
Controversy.11 These images, or icons, of saints may have
been similar in subject matter to the representations of
saints on the three ivory triptychs. A row of small images
filled the top, and larger images of Christ, the Virgin,
and John the Baptist, flanked by apostles, occupied the
lower area. Thus, the Deesis with other saints may have
been depicted on the iconostasis in an arrangement similar
to that on the triptychs. Behind the center, or Royal
Door, of the iconostasis was the altar where the Eucharist
was consecrated. This area corresponds to the center panel
of each triptych where the image of Christ is located.
Christ, as the Lamb of God, occupies a central position in
the Eucharistic liturgy and in the representation of the
Deesis. A triptych with its leaves closed would conceal
the image of Christ, as the closed doors of the iconostasis
conceals the sanctuary (Figure 16). Opening the leaves of
the triptychs revealed the image of Christ and his court of
saints. Opening the door of the iconostasis revealed the
sanctuary where the consecration of the Eucharist took

place. In both instances, what is revealed is the mystery

and divinity of Christ. George Galavaris relates the two

75

 

Figure 16. The Harbaville Triptych with the wings closed

76

objects in the following way:
A triptych resembled in form the Royal Doors
of the iconostasis. When the triptych was
closed, it provided the believer with the
same feeling he experienced when he stood in
front of the closed doors of the iconostasis.
The open triptych simulated one's seeing
through the Royal Doors into the inner part
of the sanctuary with the altar, where the

Sacrement was performed; thus, one contemplated
the meaning of one's participation in the divine.

12
Because the iconostasis was placed in front of the altar,
the faithful may not have been able to see the performance
of the liturgy at all, only hear and respond. The images
on the iconostasis would help them to visualize the rite
instead. In the same way the triptychs might have helped
their owners participate in the ritual. For an emperor,
who sat in a royal box in the palace church of Hagia
Sophia, a triptych would be an important visual aid since
he would not be able to observe the rite. Indeed, it would
have been imperative for the emperor to see the ritual in
some sense as he was considered to be God's representative
on earth. The iconostasis would likewise serve the
faithful, but in a less personal or private way.

The idea of revealing the sacred image in order to
enable one to participate in the divine has appeared
elsewhere in religious art.. The statue of Zeus, located in
the center of his temple at Olympia, was concealed by a
woolen curtain. The divine image of Zeus would be revealed
to the viewer when the curtain was raised.13 The signif-

icance of the sacred image was emphasized by revealing the

statue only during certain festivals. In the same way the

77

Torah, the essential object of Jewish worship, was placed
behind a Torah curtain, which emphasized its sanctity.

When the curtain was moved the divine word of God was
revealed. Thus, the ancient idea of concealing a sacred
object is found in the Byzantine church as well, through
the use of curtains, and the iconostasis. The images on
the triptychs were concealed in a similar way when the
leaves were closed. In all cases, concealing and revealing

the image is an indication of its sacredness.

Conclusion

 

Roman Consular diptychs were converted to use in the
Orthodox mass as the litanies inscribed on them were read
aloud by a priest. These litanies were short intercessory
prayers for certain people in the church community. Such
prayers were inscribed on the Palazzo Venezia triptych
dedicated to the emperor Constantine VII and may have been
read aloud in the mass in his honor. The three Deesis-
with-Saints triptychs have a more profound connection,
however, with the liturgy of the Orthodox church. The
figures depicted on each triptych correspond with names in
the Litany of Saints, intecessory prayers recited before
the preparation of the Eucharist. The saints are asked to
intercede with God on behalf of the faithful. The center
panels of the triptychs also can be seen to correspond to
the breaking of the Eucharistic bread. Particles of bread

are offered to the Virgin and the Baptist while the main

78

portion symbolically represents the Lamb of God. This
division into particles agrees with the figures who
comprise the Deesis. Other particles are cut in memory of
the archangels, Michael and Gabriel, and the apostles.
Thus, the other figures on the triptychs may have been
included in the rite as well. Also, the monogram,
IC-XC-NI-KA, stamped on the Eucharistic bread, is found on
the cross panel of the Harbaville triptych. Finally, the
figures of saints on each triptych may correspond to images
of saints on the iconostasis.

Thus, the trio of triptychs harmonize with the
Divine Liturgy of the Eastern Orthodox Church. Through the
sacred image the liturgy is made visible. Since the
triptychs are so small and probably would not have been
seen by the congregation in the church, they were probably
intended for private use. They may have been placed on the
altar where the priest could consecrate the Eucharist in
front of the image of Christ and then offer up other
particles in memory of other saints depicted on the
ivories. They may also have accompanied the emperor who,
in his royal box, may not have been able to observe the
rite. The triptychs would be his guide to visualize the

sacred ritual.

FOOTNOTES

1Williamson, p. 137.

ZIbid. Eric Maclagen was curator at the Victoria and
Albert Museum at the time of this publication. The Diptych
of Clementinus is located at this museum.

31bid.
u
Solovy, p. 123.
5 .
Ibid., p. 241.
Kantorwicz, p. 66.
7
Solovey, p. 125.
8 .
Ibldo, p. 126-128.
9

Mathews, p. 167.

0
Kitzinger, The Art of Byzantium, p. 198.

 

11Mathews, p. 167.

12G. Galavaris, Icons from the Elvehjem Art Center,
Madison, 1973, p. 11.

 

13

Pausanias, p. 447.

79

CHAPTER V

THE DEESIS-WITH-SAINTS TRIPTYCHS AS ICONS

The trio of triptychs are apparently related to the
Eastern Orthodox liturgy by their visualization of the
Litany of Saints and the Eucharistic commemoration. A
further aspect of the sacredness of the triptychs is their
function as icons. An icon is a device through which the
faithful may communicate with God and other saints. Sacred
images of Christ, the Virgin, John the Baptist, or other
saints, help the believer to communicate with that person.
The icon is also acts as a mediator between God and the
worshipper. During private devotions, then, the triptychs
engender communication between the worshipper and the
interceding saint. The triptychs also act as a channel for
prayer during the Litany of Saints. The figures depicted
on the triptychs are the same saints who are called upon in
the Litany to intercede with God for the believer. In this
endevor they become what the Eastern Orthodox Church calls
an icon. Byzantine icons also have a deeper theological
meaning concerning the sacred word and the sacred image to

which the triptychs can be related.

80

81

The Word

An ordinance of the Seventh Ecumenical Council (787)
declared that the veneration of icons should be on the same
level as the cross and the gospels}' All three religious
objects are distinctive symbols of Christianity. The cross
is a symbolic image of Christ's crucifixion and triumph
over death. The gospels create visual images of the word
of God. Icons present the word of God in visible form
representing an analogy between the sacred word and sacred
image. Each triptych's figures are the visible image of
the saints who are petitioned in the Litany of Saints. The
image and the word then express the same thing; they are
both counterparts of the person represented. The name of
each saint inscribed beside his head emphasizes this
likeness between the word and the image. In this way the
triptychs become an image of the prayer as well as a
vehicle for that prayer.

The concept of the image as equivalent to the word
appeared in the writings of Philo, a Jewish Biblical
scholar and Neo-Platonist of the first century A.D. His
philosophy is an important link between the Platonic and
Christian concepts of the image. Gerhard Ladner presents
Philo's theology of the rational word of God symbolized by
the Divine Logos or sacred word:

Philo explains that the intelligible world
of invisible light . . . is nothing but the
Word of God which is the Divine Image.

Elsewhere the Logos 1% called the eldest
or first Image of God.

82

The Greek word lgggg means more than simply 'word'. It can
also mean utterance or thought, and its basic meaning
involves order, reason, and mind.3 The word logike, or
verbal, can be translated as rational or spiritual."’ Thus,
Divine Logos is the word of God, the image of God and the
essence of God, whereas the 'verbal' word reveals His
spirituality. It is through the Logos, the likeness or
image of the invisible God, that the knowing and
understanding of God is possible.

This concept enters the Byzantine doctrine on images
through the writings of Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite.
He was a Christian mystic and Neo-Platonist whose writings
became known in the East beginning in the sixth century.

In his Celestial Hierarchies Dionysius says that celestial

 

beings are depicted in "material images in the inspired
writings of the sacred word so that we might be guided
through the sensible to the intelligible."5 The triptychs
as sensible, tangible objects reveal the Logos as the
visible image of Christ. His sacred name written as a
monogram beside His head has the same function as his
image. His name and His image represent one concept just
as the visible image of Christ represents the invisible
God. The monogram on the back panel of the Harbaville
triptych emphasizes the analogy between the word and the
image. It symbolizes God's presence in Paradise in the
same way that the stamped monogram on the Eucharistic bread

symbolizes the Lamb of God. Visible images, then, help

83

make intelligible the Logos of God, and are an essential
aspect of an icon. The worshipper can perhaps establish
communication more easily with a visual image as a channel

for prayer.

The Image

 

In the words of John of Damascus, an eighth century
defender of icons: "An image is a likeness, an exemplar or
a figure of something, such as to show in itself the
subject represented."6 So an icon is a likeness of a
person, the prototype, which is defined by John of
Damascus: ”Now a prototype is that which is imaged, from
which the derivitive is obtained.“7 Honor given to the
image passes through the icon to the original, the
prototype. Thus the faithful venerate the icon for whom it
represents. Christ, the Virgin, the Baptist, or another
saint are prototypes. The icon itself is not worshipped,
just as the cross and the gospels are not worshipped in
themselves, but rather are vehicles in the worship of God.
An icon, however, is different from the cross and gospel in
its capacity as a channel for communication. Prayers
directed to the icon are believed to be transmitted to the
prototype through the image. Each of the three triptychs
discussed here is such a vehicle for prayer. If one of
these triptychs were standing on the altar during the
consecration of the bread, the priest could hold up the

offering in front of the images of the saints to transmit

84

the offering to the prototype. During personal devotion,
the triptychs as icons provide a focus for contemplation
and provide assurance to the faithful that his prayers will
reach the prototype.

The depiction of the Deesis with saints is a visual
image of intercession. The basic meaning of the word
'deesis' is petition, which implies a request to a superior
authority, in this case, God. The Virgin and John the
Baptist stand in continuous supplication to Christ on
behalf of the faithful. The plea is taken up by the other
saints who, through their repetition, reinforce the prayers
of the faithful.

According to Gervase Mathew: "New optical contri-
vances . . . were aimed to emphasize or facilitate a
personal link between the image and the believer."8 Since
an ease in communication was the necessary link between the
faithful and the image, when making icons, the Byzantine
artist used several devices to make the figures look
believable and natural so a common sense of identity could
be established. The frontal stance of most figures is one
optical device used on each triptych. The frontal pose
helps to establish communication with the viewer. The
saints on the wings and the five apostles face the viewer
ready for address. The Virgin and the Baptist stand in a
three-quarter position, which symbolizes their intercessory
powers. The Virgin and the Baptist are mediators between

the earthly world of the faithful and the spiritual world

85

of God. Their stance indicates they serve both worlds.
They stand in an almost frontal position, ready to recieve
the prayers of the faithful, and turn their profiles to
Christ to make supplication to Him with their prayers.
Concerning a frontal and profile stance Meyer Shapiro says:

The contrast of frontal and profile . . .

is a means of distinguishing a past symbolic

event and a present symbolized one, the first

a unique historic action, and the second a

recurrent liturgical performance
Thus, on each triptych, the Virgin and the Baptist
perpetually intercede for the faithful.

Another optical device used on the triptychs to
enhance communication is the depiction of the figures in a
naturalistic attitude while simultaneously expressing their
spiritual nature. The dual representation of a human and
divine nature is an essential characteristic of an icon. A
human image of the divine prototype is more understandable
to the viewer and makes the iconic image more approach-
able. The human nature of the saints is made visible by
portraying them as individuals. Short hair, long hair,
baldness and beards, youth and old age are human
characteristics which the viewer would be able to identify
in himself. Although the bodies of the apostles are
relatively frontal, their heads are turned in different
directions creating a sense of movement and variety. This
idea is also conveyed by the turned stance of the Virgin

and Baptist.

Christ is the central focus of each triptych as well

86

as the focus for prayer. Since Christ was once man He can
be depicted in human form. He is portrayed natural-
istically, and, besides, He is not much larger than each of
the other figures on the triptychs. Thus it is easy to
perceive His human proportions. This is especially evident
on the Palazzo Venezia triptych where, even though He
stands on a platform, He is of the same height as that of
the Virgin and the Baptist. On the Harbaville and Vatican
triptychs he is enthroned as an earthly king. Also,
Christ's willingness to hear the prayers of the faithful
encourages the believer to approach His image.

The spirituality of Christ and the other figures is
symbolized by their attributes: halos, crosses, scrolls,
gestures of supplication and benediction, and jeweled
covers of the gospel. The names inscribed beside each head
affirms their human as well as their divine nature. The
name of Christ indicates at once His human and divine
natures. The spiritual authority of Christ is revealed
through the jeweled imperial throne on which He sits in the
Harbaville and Vatican triptychs. The symmetry of each
composition, the formal arrangement of the saints, and the
kingly image of Christ produce an image of a heavenly
court. Thus the human and spiritual natures unite to
create an iconic image. The presentation of the Deesis
with saints has been appropriately portrayed so an ease in
communication can occur between the viewer and the image.

As a vehicle for prayer, the function of the Deesis-with-

87

Saints triptychs as icons is secured. They are able to
give an idea of God and the saints and to inspire

veneration in the viewer.

An Ancient Greek Icon

 

The doctrine of a Byzantine icon, as exhibited by
the three ivory triptychs, was heavily influenced by the
ancient Greek concept of sacred images. The word 'icon' is
Greek in origin, eikon, which means likeness or image.
Boman discusses the Greek meaning of the word icon:

For the ancients 'image' is not only a copy

of a visible object, but it can also mean

a radiating, a becoming visible and manifest

of the essence in such a way as to have a

share in the very substance of the thing

itself. Thus, eikon means the coming into

appearance of the kernal, the essence,

of a thing; it particiates in reality.10
This adequately describes the doctrine of a Byzantine icon
as well. But since the word and its meaning is Greek in
origin there must have been something in ancient Greece to
fit this description.

The most famous statue of a god in the Greek world
was the chryselephantine statue of Zeus by Phidias.
Pausanias always refers to the 'image' of Zeus rather than
the 'statue'. The reasons for this are similar to why a
Byzantine icon is called an image. A duality of human and
divine natures is expressed by this image as by the images
on the trio of triptychs. Zeus was portrayed natural-

istically as a king. He was enthroned, crowned with a

garland around his head, and held a sceptre in his hand.

88

His ivory flesh appeared natural and would have taken on a
soft golden color with age. The divine nature of Zeus was
revealed by his great size and the rich materials used to
embellish the image. He was surrounded by Victories and
other gods including the Graces and the Seasons. Zeus was
thus portrayed as the ruler of men and gods alike. He sat
in a frontal pose facing the entrance of the temple. Upon
entry the viewer would stand in front of a curtain behind
which sat Zeus. When the curtain was removed the splendor
of the image would have been revealed. The image of Zeus
did participate in reality by resembling a human being but
he clearly was beyond any physical being. Phidias made the
image based on the verbal description of Homer. That
verbal image and the visible image expressed the same
thing; the divinity of Zeus.

In 97 A.D., a man from Asia Minor, Dio Chrysostom,
delivered a discourse in front of the Temple of Zeus in
Olympia concerning the image of Zeus. He describes the
human characteristic of this statue as a symbol the god's
attributes:

For his sovereignity and kingship are intended
to be shown by the strength in the image and
its grandeur; his fatherhood and his solicitude
by its gentleness and kindliness; . . . the
Kingship between gods and men . . .by the mere
similarity ipishape, being already in use
as a symbol.
Thus the image symbolizes all these aspects of Zeus. The

image provided an idea of the god and his goodness and it

inspired awe and veneration in the viewer. It revealed the

89

beauty and authority of Zeus, and, in the words of Dio:
”nobody, not even an insane person, would liken it to any
mortal man soever, if it be carefully examined from the

"12 In almost

point of view of a god's beauty or stature.
any religion there seems to be a desire to represent an
image of God in human form. One reason the human form is
chosen is because no mortal knows what form God takes.
Another reason is provided by Dio:

Men, having no mere inkling thereof . . . fly

to it for refuge, attributing to god a human

body as a vessel to contain intelligence and

rationality, in their lack of a better

illustration, and in their perplexity seeking

to indicate that which is invisible and

unportrayable by means of something portrayfible

and visible, using the function of a symbol.3
The idea of an image as a tangible and believable symbol of
the deity is what inspired the making of icons, pagan or
Christian. They act as the visible expression of one's
belief in a god.

The idea stated by Dio can be found in similar
fashion in the writings of Pseudo-Dionysius. Dionyius was
a Christian mystic and influenced by the philosophy of
Plato. He inspired Christian writers such as John of
Damascus and stimulated the development of iconic images.
He presented an idea similar to Dio's concerning material
images of God:

For it might be said that the reason for
attributing shapes to that which is above
shape, and forms to that which is above forms,
is not only the feebleness of our intellectual
power which is unable to rise at once to
spiritual contemplation, and which needs to be

encouraged by the natural and suitable support
and upliftment which offers us forms perceptible

90

to us of formless and and supernatural

contemplation but . . . because . . . the

secret doctrines should veil and render

difficult access for the multitude the sublime

and powerful truth of the supernatural

intelligence. For . . . not everyone is holy,

nor have all men knowledge.
According to Dionysius, the material forms are necessary
because our minds are too feeble to comprehend the divine
in its invisible form. Also, because man needs encourage-
ment and assistance to contemplate the divine. Dio and
Dionysius are saying that the material image is a con-
cession to the weakness of human nature. An icon of Zeus
or Christ presents an image of the deity manifested in
human form which our human minds can comprehend.

The Byzantine world did not need to see the image of

Zeus to adopt a similar doctrine. The Greek concept of the
image was adOpted and developed by Christian writers such
as Pseudo-Dionysius and John of Damascus. Through them,
the Greek concept of images formed the basis for the
Byzantine doctrine of images. A rational and tangible
image was desired not for image-worship, but because of

what the images do for the believer; enhance communication

and contemplation, and provide a link with the divine.

Contemplation

 

The Deesis-with-Saints triptychs as icons provide a
focus for contemplation of the divine. They are the means
by which the faithful can try to elevate their minds from

the human, physical nature of the images to understand the

 

91

spiritual, divine nature of the prototypes. There are
several ways the triptychs can enhance contemplation. In

his Celestial Hierarchies, Pseudo-Dionysius put forth the

 

idea that through a hierarchy of beings the soul can rise
from earth to heaven as though ascending a spiritual
ladder: "The aim of Hierarchy is the greatest possible
assimilation to and union with God . . . by contemplating
intently His most Divine Beauty . . . it molds and perfects
its participants in the holy image of God."15 A hierarchy
of images is established on each triptych by placing the
figures in order of rank under Christ. On the exterior of
the wings are bishop saints and on the interior are martyrs
and soldier saints. They provide a starting point for the
believer, as the bottom of a ladder. These figures were
well known within the Byzantine church and close to the
believer's physical world. On the central panel are those
saints who are closest to God. The apostles, as the
foundation of the church, receive the prayers of the
faithful from the saints on the wings and present them to
the Virgin and the Baptist. John the Baptist was during
his lifetime an intermediary between God and His people and
maintains that same position after death. Mary is the
Mother of God and traditionally the intecessor nearest to
God. Christ is symbolically and visually the central

axis. He recieves the prayers from the Virgin and Baptist
and transmits them to God. Thus the triptychs used in

prayer provide a hierarchical approach to God. In this

92

way, the minds of the faithful might be elevated from the
material world to the realm of the divine. The faithful
becomes a participant in prayer through this hierarchical
approach. According to Dionysius, through this approach
the soul of the believer becomes enlightened and purified:

For even of those who are allotted a place

in the Divine Order finds his perfection in

being uplifted, according to his capacity,

towards the Divine Likeness . . . he becomes . . .

a fellow-worker with God, and shows forth the

Divine Actinity revealed as far as possible

in himself.1
Thus the believer might become a likeness of God, a living
icon, by participating in his divinity. God created man in
his image so man might become God-like. With the help of
icons such as the triptychs, such a state might be
attained.

There is yet another way in which the triptychs can
enhance contemplation. The mind of the faithful can be
elevated from the material world to the spiritual through
contemplation of the beauty of the material image.
Contemplation of material beauty as a guide to the
spiritual world is an anagogical approach found in the
writings of Pseudo-Dionysius:

For the mind can by no means be directed
to the spiritual presentation and contemplation
of the Celestial Hierarchies unless it use the
material guidance suited to it, accounting
those beauties which are seen to be images
of the hidden beauty.17
The triptychs, as icons, may implement such an anagogical

approach in several ways. Material beauty in the form of

color or gilding applied to the triptychs, stimulate the

93

mind to contemplate divine beauty. Traces of paint and
gilding can be seen on the Vatican triptych (see Figure
10). Also the throne of Christ is carved to simulate
inlaid jewels. Through his eXperience of the applied
material beauty the viewer may better comprehend the hidden
beauty of God. Plotinus, the Roman Neo-Platonic
philosopher of the third century, had already developed a
similar idea. He believed that the material object becomes
beautiful by communicating with the divine.18 Thus, the
images on the triptychs are purifed and radiant since they
represent an image of holiness. The iconic images on the
triptychs put forth a radiant light which is inherent in
the ivory and would be enhanced by additional color and
gilding. Plotinus says that "even material forms
containing light incorporated in them still need a light

apart from their own."19

Even the image of Zeus at Olympia
was embellished with color and gems. The chryselephantine
work would have projected an image of the god's radiance.
His throne was adorned with gold and jewels, ivory and
ebony. The viewer would immediately confront the divine
beauty of Zeus. The same is true of the triptychs although
their embellishment is more subtle and they are smaller in
size.

A stress on symmetry and rhythm is evident on each
triptych and reinforced through repetition. On the wings

pairs of saints are arranged one above the other. A

repetition of line and pattern is also evident. Symmetry

94

exists among the apostles of the center panel by the use of
an odd number of figures. The center saint on the
Harbaville triptych stands on a separate platform so his
cental position among the other figures is emphasized.
Through the use of symmetry and repetition a hypnotic
rhythm is created and a sense of unity within the
composition is perceived. This sense of balance and unity
may act as a focus for contemplation. Plotinus says of
symmetry that: “Beauty is that which irradiates symmetry
rather than symmetry itself and is that which truly calls
out our love."20 Icons embellished with color and gilding
and composed symmetrically and rhythmically are a reflec-
tion of the ordered and beautiful realm of the divine. By
contemplating such images the mind of the faithful is
ordered, uplifted, and hence prepared to communicate with

God.

An Emperor's Triptych

 

The trio of triptychs might have been made for
certain emperors of the Middle Byzantine Period, such as
Constantine VII Porphyrogenitus. It is likely that all
three triptychs were owned by emperors who may have used
them as icons for personal devotion or to accompany the
mass. In the palace church of Hagia Sophia, the emperor
sat on a throne in a royal box located in the south aisle

21

near the apse. It was screened off with either a curtain

or a wall and he would not have been visible to the

95

congregation. Likewise the emperor may not have seen the
people and his view of the mass may have been obstructed.
However, if the emperor had a Deesis-with-Saints triptych
with him it would not have been necessary to view the
liturgy, only listen. Because the triptych figures
correspond to the Eucharistic ritual he could have
visualized the rite through the triptych. He may also have
used the triptych as an icon for use in prayer and
contemplation.

The iconic images of Christ on the Harbaville and
Vatican triptychs are especially suited for an emperor to
pray through since they depict Christ enthroned as a
ruler. The image of Christ on a jeweled throne surrounded
by beautiful colors and gold would have been a reflection
of the Byzantine ruler on his decorated throne. An
emperor-cult had existed in the Byzantine Empire since the
time of Constantine the Great. Cult images were made of
the emperor and available for the people to revere.
According to Cyril Mango, the emperor was thought of as
holy and in his portraits was usually represented wearing a
nimbus. This type of representation appears as early as
the fourth century in the depiction of Theodosius I on the
silver Missorium. A halo surrounds his head, and is
emphasized by the arch in the pediment above.

The relationship between the emperor and his
subjects was formal and composed of ceremonious rituals.

Mango provides the following description:

96

The emperor's subjects communicated with him
by means of acclamations which were rhythmical
and repetitive as in the Divine Liturgy, and
when received in audience prostrated themselves

on the ground . . . What the emperor was to

his subjects, God was to the emperor}?2

The Byzantine people imagined that the emperor together
with his court was a reduced reflection of the heavenly
court of God. The emperor gleaming with gold and jewels,
and dressed in the imperial purple robes was supposed to be
a living image of Christ whose divine light shone through
the person of the emperor.

Beholding a Deesis-with-Saints triptych an emperor
might better understand the glory of God and His heavenly
court. He presided over an earthly court based on a
heavenly model and was a reflection of the divine image of
God. The trio of triptychs, then, are suitable icons for
an emperor. He would quickly percieve a commom sense of
identity with the image of God's court. He would be
prepared to communicate with the divine. By participating
in God's divinity, the emperor, as a fellow-worker with

God, becomes a living icon.

FOOTNOTES

1L. Ouspensky and V. Lossky, The Meaning of Icons,
Boston, 1952, p. 32.

 

2G. Ladner, "The Concept of the Image in the Greek
Fathers and the Byzantine Iconoclastic Controversy,"
Dumbarton Oaks Papers, 7 (1953), p. 7.

 

3J. Pelikan, Jesus Through the Centuries, New Haven,
1985, Chapter 5.

 

“Solovey, p. 292.

5Dionysius the Areopagite, p. 22.

6C. Mango, The Art of the Byzantine Empire 312-1453,

Sources and Documents in the History of Art Series, New
Jersey, p. 171.

 

ZNicene and Post-Nicene Fathers, VIII, Grand Rapids,
1955, p. 88.

 

Eh. Mathew, Byzantine Aesthetics, New York, 1971, p.

 

107.

SN. Schapiro, Words and Pictures, Netherlands, 1973,

 

10Boman, p. 121.
“Dio Chrysostom, p. 63.

12mm. , p. 67.

97

98

13 Ibid. , p. 79.

1“Dionysius the Areopagite, p. 24

151bia., p. 29

16Ibid., p. 30.

17Ibid., p. 22.

18Plotinus, 1, VI. 2.

191bia., 6, VII. 21.

20Ibid., 6, VII. 22.

21Mathews, p. 134. Based on archaeological

evidence, Mathews believes the throne was located between
the last column of the nave arcade and the southeast pier.
A complex of ceremonial places reserved for the emperor was
located near the sanctuary end of the southern aisle east
of his royal box.

22
Mango, Byzantium, p. 219.

 

2
3Ibid., p. 157.

CONCLUSION

The Deesis-with-Saints triptychs exhibit a blending
of imperial and religious iconography and ideology of the
Middle Byzantine Period. As suggested in this study,
imperial inscriptions and associations with ivory
coronation reliefs suggest that the triptychs may have been
intended for use by Byzantine emperors from the mid-tenth
to early eleventh centuries. The apparent association of
the triptychs with the Byzantine Orthodox liturgy and the
doctrine of icons would indicate that they were intended
for personal use during the mass and in private
meditations. At the same time they also recall the
traditional iconography of the emperor and his court.
Ivory was used in ancient Egypt and Greece for images of
kingly and divine manifestations. Ivory was used for the
same purpose in art of the Middle Byzantine Period for
images of God and the emperor. The three
Deesis-with-Saints triptychs then, achieve a harmony among

liturgical, iconic, and imperial imageries.

99

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