31293 00096 6709 iiiflmillwiiiflmfliillliiiflii 3 .. ‘- 1W flu.- I . O i I L1. ‘ . f ‘1 : = a a "u ‘ pal-H.1- W This is to certify that the dissertation entitled English as a Foreign Language: An Identification of Muitidiscipiinary Dimensions of Non-Native Teacher Preparation in Linguistics, Literature, and Pedagogy presented by Sanad Mohammad Mostafa Abde] Monem has been accepted towards fulfillment of the requirements for Ph.D. degree in Education Major professor MS U is an Affirmatiw Action/Equal Opportunity Institution 0- 12771 remove this checkout from your record. FINES will be charged if book is returned after the date stamped below. * M86 RETURNING MATERIALS: ‘ Place in book drop to LIBRARIES M '7’ i iyyfiw W99 \W ENGLISH AS A FOREIGN LANGUAGE: AN IDENTIFICATION OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY DIMENSIONS OF NON-NATIVE TEACHER PREPARATION IN LINGUISTICS, LITERATURE, AND PEDAGOGY by Sanad Mohammad Mostafa Abdel Monem A DISSERTATION Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Department of Teacher Education Teaching English as a Foreign Language 1986 428- $4819 ABSTRACT ENGLBH AS A FOREIGN LANGUAGE: AN IDENTIFICATION OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY DIMENSIONS OF NON-NATIVE TEACHER PREPARATION IN LINGUISTICS, LITERATURE, AND PEDAGOGY by Sanad Mohammad Mostafa Abdel Monem This research endeavor sought to identify the multidisciplinary scape of EFL teacher preparation in theoretical and applied linguistics, literature, cross- cultural communication, TEFL methodology and assessment, and educational and behavioral processes. A focal question was posed, namely, what competencies do American and Egyptian TESOL specialists deem the fundamental segment of knowledge needed and avidly sought by TEFL participants? The theoretical framework expanded upon the crucial variables optimizing teacher success, curricular bias of TPPS toward literature and relegation of linguistic applications to a minor position and juxtaposition of five LTE models: the silent way, suggestology, community language learning, competency -based approach, and British contextualism. The "pros" and "cons" for inclusion of contrastive linguistics, sociolinguistics, psycholinguistics, interlanguage studies, discourse analysis, and tagmemics were synthetically recorded so as to formulate the theory of EFL teacher preparation. The subjects for this study were drawn from the entire population of Egyptian TESOL personnel and a stratified random sampling of American TESOL specialists. A research instrument consisted of 39-item survey based on a five- Sanad Mohammad Mostafa Abdel Monem point continuum was constructed, pilot-tested, and administered. The returned responses were tabulated, and means, rank order, and MANOVA were computed to evaluate TESOL specialists' attitudes toward the seven curricular emphases. The analysis of data showed that, in the domain of general linguistics and semiotics, EFL teachers should gain a consciousness of English language structure, prosody of speech, linguistic theories of structuralism, TG grammar, morphOphonemic features, stylistics, and historical development. In the realm of applied linguistics, substantial consensus was expressed for EFL teachers' knowledge of psycholinguistic, sociolinguistic, and neurolinguistic dimensions of TESOL, error and contrastive analysis, and functionalist and cognitivist theories. An acquaintance with modern literature, literary genres, and personalized and chronological appraches. to literature teaching can add immeasurably to EFL teacher training. In the competency area of cross-cultural interaction, EFL teachers should have familiarity with verbal versus non-verbal communication, proxemics, gender-specific behavior, contrastive analysis of English and Arabic cultures, and experiential and cognitive approaches to L2 culture teaching. There was also a perceptible preference for EFL teachers' theoretical competence and effective practice in learner-centered and communicative approaches, educational innovations of microteaching, interaction analysis and systems analysis, classroom dynamics, and language testing. DE DICATION To my dear father, MOHAMMAD, for keeping up my spirits To my mother, brothers, and sisters for their prayers and love To my lovely wife for fostering my pursuit of learning To my English teachers who had undying faith in my capabilities to accomplish ii ACKNOWLEDGE ME NTS This research study would not have been completed without the expert guidance and professional assistance of many individuals. I am deeply indebted to my doctoral committee chair, Dr. James Snoddy, for his personal integrity, relentless cooperation, and knowledgeable training in foreign language education research and psycholinguistics of reading. A cordial expression of gratitude is extended to Dr. Paul Munsell, my dissertation co-director, for introducing me to the research side of the TESOL profession and contributing his personal time and awe-inspiring expertise. He has deeply influenced my path toward educational and linguistic research and, indeed, nurtured my interest for L2 acquisition. Sincere thanks are due to Drs. Ben Bohnhorst, Kenneth Neff, James Stalker, Jay Ludwig, Marcellete Williams, and Marilyn Wilson, for their scholarly lectures on languages, linguistics, and education. They provided intellectual stimulation for my academic achievement throughout my career at MSU. Special appreciation should be recorded for Drs. Frederick Erickson and Douglas Campbell. Their intellectual guidance and remarkable competencies have brought ethnographic research to light, and they have dealt effectively with the current problems of bilingual and multilingual classrooms. I would like to acknowledge and thank TESOL specialists in American and Egyptian universities and colleges for their immediate response to the survey and their constructive feedback. The genuine moral support provided by Drs. A. Widdowson, D. Brown, W. Rivers, and C. Brumfit at TESOL conventions was invaluable. iii I wish to express a special acknowledgement to Ms. Barbara Reeves who tirelessly and patiently typed this manuscript. To my wife, friends, and acquaintances, I extend my heartfelt thanks and admiration. iv TABLE OF CONTENTS List of Tables List of Figures CHAPTER I: THE PROBLEM Background of the Problem Acronyms of Teaching English Statement of the Problem Purposes of the Study Significance of the Study Research Questions Testable Hypotheses Basic Assumptions Materials and Procedure Limitations of the Study Definitions of Terms Organization of the Study CHAPTER II: BACKGROUND OF THEORY AND RESEARCH Status of ESL/EFL Teacher Preparation Curricular Components of TPPS for TESL/T EFL Literature in TPPS for TESL/T EFL Languages and Linguistics Sociolinguistics and Psycholinguistics Second Langmge Acquisition Strategies Language and Culture TESL/TEFL Methodology and Evaluation Competencies of ESL/EFL Teachers English Language Proficiency Linguistic Analysis and Applications Socio-cultural Awareness Second Language Pedagogy Models of ESL/EFL Teacher Preparation Applied Linguists' Aproaches to LTE Commtency-Based Approach Freire's Problem Posing Approach Lozanov's Suggestology Gattegno's Silent Way Ctrran's Community Language Learning British C ontextualism Techniques of ESL/EFL Teacher Preparation vii ix — \OOOV" 10 13 ll! 15 16 17 18 19 21 21 28 30 38 #1 44 46 50 52 52 53 56 57 59 62 63 61! 65 66 67 68 CHAPTER III: RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY 71 Introduction 71 Research Instrumentation 72 Development of the Instrument 76 Validation of the Instrument 78 Pilot Testing the Instrument 79 Reliability of the Instrument 79 Population Definition and Sample Specification 81 Population of Egyptian TESOL Specialists 81 Sample of American TESOL Specialists 83 Characteristic of Egyptian and American TESOL Specialists 84 Data Collection Procedures 87 Methods of Data Analysis 89 CHAPTER IV: PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS OF DATA 91 Research Foci and Hypotheses Testing 91 Theoretical Linguistic 92 Applied Linguistic 98 English Literature 104 Cross-Cultural Communication and Interaction 108 Instructional Materials and Methods 114 Educational and Behavioral Processes 122 Priorities of Curricular Commnents in TPPS for TEFL 125 Distribution of Credit Hours in TPPS for TEFL 129 CHAPTER v: CONCLUSIONS, IMPLICATIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS 132 Conclusions and Practical Implications 132 High Priority Competencies 133 Moderate Priority Competencies 145 Low Priority Competencies 147 Recommendations for Egyptian TPPS for TEFL 149 Directions for Future Research 153 Appendices 157 Bibliography 189 vi 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 4.6 4.7 4.8 4.9 4.10 4.11 LIST OF TABLES Cu'ricular Requirements and Prerecpisites, American Master's TPPS Distribution of Credit Hou's in Egyptian TPPS for TEFL Reliability Coefficients of Seven Components of the Survey Number and Percentage of Egyptian TEFL Specialists from Participating Colleges Distribution of the American Sample According to Four Strata Number and Percentage of Course Offerings in American and Egyptian TPPS for TEFL Mean Ratings of American (AG) and Egyptian (EG) TESOL ers' Reflections Regarding EFL Teacher Competency Areas in Theoretical Linguistic Means, Standard Deviations and Wilk's MANOVA of American and Egyptian TESOL Specialists' Ratings Regarding the Curricular Commnent of Theoretical Linguists in TPPS for TEFL Mean Ratings of American (AG) and Egyptian (EG) TESOL ers' Reflections Regarding EFL Teacher Competency Areas in the Component of Applied Linguistic Means, Standard Deviations, and Wilks' MA NOVA of American and Egyptian TESOL Specialists' Ratings Regarding the Curricular Component of Applied Linguistic in TPPS for TEFL Mean Ratings of American (AG) and Egyptian (EG) TESOLers' Reflections Regarding EFL Teacher Competency Areas in Literature of the English Language Means, Standard Deviations, and Wilk's MANOVA of American and Egyptian TESOL Specialists‘ Ratings Regarding the Cu‘ricular Component of Literature in TPPS for TEFL Mean Ratings of American (AG) and Egyptian (EG) TESOL ers' Reflections Regarding EFL Teacher Competency Areas in Cross—Cultural Communication and Interaction Means, Standard Deviations, and Wilk's MA NOVA of American and Egyptian TESOL Specialists' Ratings Regarding the Cross-Cultural Component in TPPS for TEFL Mean Ratings of American (AG) and Egyptian (EG) T ESOLers' Reflections Regarding EFL Teacher Competency Areas in TEFL Methodology Mean Ratings of American (AG and Egyptian (EG) TESOL ers' Reflections Regarding EFL Teacher Competency Areas in Language Assessment Means, Standard Deviations, and Wilk's MANOVA of American and Egyptian TESOL Specialists' Ratings Regarding TEFL Methodology and Assessment Components in TPPS for TEFL vii 23 25 80 82 84 86 94 96 99 101 105 107 110 111 115 118 119 4.12 4.13 4.14 4.15 4.16 Mean Ratings of American (A63 and Egyptian (EG) TESOLers' Reflections Regarding EFL Teacher Competency Areas in Professional Education in TPPS for TEFL Means, Standard Deviations, and Wilk's MANOVA of American and Egyptian TESOL Specialists' Ratings Regarding Educational and Behavioral Processes Components in TPPS for TEFL Rank Order of Cu'ricular Areas in TPPS for TEFL: American TESOLers' Perspective Rank Order of Curricular Areas in TPPS for TEFL: Egyptian TESOLers' Perspective American (A61 and Egyptian (EGl TESOL ers' Allocation of Credit Hours among Seven Constituents of TPPS for TEFL viii 123 124 125 126 130 5. LIST OF FIGURES A possible shape of a methodology course in TESL TPPS (adapted from Brumfit, 1976) Histogram depicting American and Egyptian TESOLers' Importance Ratings of TEFL Approaches and Methods Histogram depicting the breakdown of credit hours among seven curricular components in TPPS for TEFL Relative frecpencies of recommended areas of TESL teacher training (adapted from Nolan, 1985) Comparative frquenCies of TESL ma] or requirements at U ..S and Canadian universities ix 51 117 130 141 142 CHAPTER I THE PROBLEM Background of the Problem English has become the world's favored choice as a second or foreign language. Such a dominant position may be attributed primarily to the fact that English is the language of international communication and is widely used in teaching and learning various sciences in nearly every country in the world. Applied Linguists (1961) emphatically stated that, "English today enjoys a position which makes it best suited of the world's major languages to meet the communication requirements of almost all the countries which must establish wider and more effective contact with the rest of the world" (p. l). The dramatic expansion of English language institutes and teacher preparation programs (henceforth, TPPS) has been ascribed to (a) the language needs of binational centers in Latin America and several locations everywhere; (b) the urgent needs of countries occupied by and allied to America and Great Britain such as Turkey, the Sudan, and Japan; (c) the importation of technical and military aid from English-speaking countries: and (d) influxes of immigrants, non-English-speaking students and political refugees and their desire for speedy integration into the mainstream of American and British economies (Acheson, 19751. A few occupied countries expressed their hostility for EFL based on the belief that the acquisition of English would jeOpardize their own native languages and cultures. However, international students have had to acquire English to be able to cape with the latest developments in the domains of knowledge, either theoretical or practical. Considerable numbers of learners around the world, teachers, and textbook publishers are enthusiastically engaged in sustaining and enhancing the present status of the international industry of teaching English to speakers of other languages. Therefore, Richards and Hino (1983) observed that "within the category of support services, institutions of higher learning and teacher training colleges occupy a vital position" (p. 3121. In Egypt, the teaching of English has occupied a prominent place in governmental schools and universities. Learning English starts in intermediate schools (seventh, eighth, and ninth grades) and continues through the three years of secondary schooling (tenth, eleventh, and twelfth gradesl. In universities, English has been the medium of instruction in colleges of dentistry, pharmacy, veterinary medicine, and engineering. Sometimes professors at these colleges have recourse to using English technical terminology mixed with collocpial Arabic in order to manage well enough with urban and rural students' abilities (Bending, 1976). In addition to being the vehicle of instruction in scientific subjects, English is studied as the first foreign language required in colleges of education, arts, business, and agriculture. Graduates of these colleges who have a reasonable mastery of English have access to remunerative careers in j om'nalism, diplomacy, translation, and broadcasting (Doss, 1970). Two major factors tend to determine the standard of teaching English in Egyptian schools and universities. The first factor is concerned with the contribution of British and American agencies to teacher training programs and the teaching of English in schools. Egypt has received diverse types of generous help in the form of language laboratories, curriculum revision, preparation of proficiency tests, and fellowships. The British council has established two language units attached to inservice training centers for English teachers, one in Cairo and the other in Alexandria. The major purposes of these inservice training units are the following: I. to conduct summer training programs for EFL senior masters and newly graduated teachers for enhancing these four language skills; 2. to remedy the problems and difficulties confronting teaching or learning English, with emphasis on the acquisition of language skills, TEFL methodology, test preparation and administration, and materials development; 3. to coordinate TEFL symposiums on some controversial issues such as linguistic teaching in Egypt, the future of teaching English, communicative competence, etc.; and 4. to provide three-month causes of instruction in four language skills and to administer some international tests such as ELTS to qualify for graduate programs. The teacher and qualifications of that teacher in the English language and in other aspects of professional preparation are the second factor influencing the standard of English instruction in Egypt. Finocchiaro (1974) appreciatively addressed the significant role of the ESL/EFL teacher as the most crucial variable in the four domains of TESOL and identified such essential competencies ESOL teachers are expected to possess as (a) knowledge of how the findings of linguistic, psychology, sociology, anthrOpology, and pedagogy can facilitate learning and teaching; (13) gaining conscious familiarity with the basic features of the English sound, grammar, lexical and cultural systems; and (c) learning how to develop instructional materials in harmony with program objectives. Brown (1981) expressed similar concern and discussed the crucial variables in TESOL programs at some length: The teacher is the single most crucial determiner of language success in classroom learning. As the number of learner variables mystifies us, as textbooks proliferate, and as methods rise up only to be criticized to death, it is the teacher who, in the last analysis, makes the difference. And that's you and me--the "T" in TESCl. Learners, materials, and methods come and go, but teachers live on forever. (p. 5) ESL/EFL teacher training programs, however, have failed to meet graduates' needs or the demands of the TESOL profession both theoretically and practically. A substantial number of Egyptian EFL teachers have been found to be seriously deficient in one of the skills needed for EFL teaching in schools and universities, especially language proficiency. Communicative competence and the ability to teach efficiently and effectively. Egyptian EFL teachers are poorly qualified in the phonology, syntax, and teaching methods of English. "The teachers of English of the preparatory stage in Egypt pronounce English with the Arabic stress patterns. To develop the standard of English instruction in Egypt, it is necessary to prepare efficient teachers" (El Saidi, 1980, p. 233). Such poor qualifications of EFL teachers have resulted in a pathetic standard of English instruction in Egyptian schools. Egyptian EFL teachers should not be blamed alone. The fault lies primarily with EFL divisions in Egyptian colleges of education for the preparation and accreditation of prospective English teachers. EFL student teachers are found deficient in language proficiency. For instance, some prospective teachers are unable to ask yes/no questions. Candidates are admitted to BA programs in TEFL on the basis of scores gained on the General Secondary Education Certificate Examination (Al Banna, 1983). According to Fetzex (1979), failure of TPPS for TEFL may be attributed to the inadequate scope of preparation such as in the study of linguistics and cultural relativity, language acquisition processes, contrastive analysis, out-of- awareness cultural behaviors and conventions, and how they function in interaction in their culture, ethic and thought modes, and humanistic psychology. In TESOL TPPS, students should take full advantage of unique opportunities to learn from each other by sharing and gaining linguistic and cultural knowledge in COOperative, non-competitive ways. DiPietro (1983) vividly described the crux of the problem of TESOL TPPS, "The overwhelming majority of university language departments appears to be as strongly entrenched as ever in the tradition that equates the training of language teachers with the imparting of knowledge about literary themes, novels, genres, and authors" (p. 133). As succinctly expressed by TESOL professionals in general and Edelhoff (1983) in particular, intensive literature courses do not contribute to the pre-familiarization of prOSpective teachers with the process of second language acquisition and learning. Literature departments are still resistant to accepting second language pedagogy and applied linguistic as an integral component in M.A. ESOL programs. In a realistic pronouncement on the preparation of Egyptian EFL teachers at the Seventh Annual Conference of the International Association of Teachers of English as a Foreign Language, Bending (1976) pointed out the problem of the general shortage of Ph.D.-holding lecturers in applied linguistic or TESOL to assist the development of a specialized commitment to ESL/EFL teacher education and ascribed the problem of TPPS to the following. The literary ambitions of the departments of English in the faculties of arts tend to spill over into the education department which should swely be concerned with pedagogies. It would appear that the staff is less interested in wrestling with problems of the Egyptian Classroom than in the acquisition of a higher degree--more Often than no in an obscure literary field. (pp. 318-319) In an attempt to gather detailed information on the teaching of contemporary international linguistic in Egypt, Jernudd (1976) noted that modern linguistic, per se, has no place in TEFL TPPS of Egyptian higher teachers' colleges. The teaching of general linguistic theory and method is severely hindered by insufficient student knowledge of English and by overcrowded classrooms. Professional linguistic in colleges of education consider linguistic as an aid to English language instruction and not as an independent science dealing with all languages. Most linguistic courses concentrate on implanting English proficiency and basic skills such as pronunciation, writing, and English grammar. Williams (1975.) asserted that the emphasis of Egyptian EFL teacher preparation programs on literature and shallow linguistic applications does not enable the prospective teacher to teach efficiently and effectively. EFL teacher training in Egypt should strike the right balance between the amount of theoretical knowledge about the English language and practical application of such knowledge in Classroom situations. To qaalify TEFL teachers, Freeman (1980) suggested that the core curriculum in foreign language education be based on five needs: (3) understanding a culture in depth, (1)) studying a foreign language to the degree of fluency in speech and writing, (c) enhancing the ability to handle empirical investigation, (d) assimilating the performing art of language, and (e) understanding the significant role of theory in human life. Breitenstein (1974) tersely pointed out the instructional components—- largely non-existent in Egyptian TPPS--that the well-prepared EFL teacher should be acquainted with for his future job. A student teacher should know about the following: 1. the history of English teaching in his/ her own country; 2. various teaching methods, with their pros and cons; 3. audio-visual aids, their possibilities, use, and maintenance; 4. how many periods of English the whole course comprises and how they are spread over the years; 5. the intellectual level of his/ her Classes or groups; 6. different skills and the leve1(s) aimed at; 7. the selection of vocabulary and grammar; 8. language aptitudes, interests, and motivation of his/her pupils and how to stimulate them; 9. receptive and productive language control and its implications; 10. Similarities and differences in the sounds and structures of the two languages; and 11. the cultural differences between the two nations. It is pleasant to be able to state that Egyptian language educators have paid some attention to the training process of new EFL teachers through investment of funds and personnel. They have managed to establish the Center for DeveIOping English Language Teaching (CDELT), a joint Egyptian, American, and British facility at the Ain Shanas university, faculty of education in Cairo. CEDLT helps EFL trainers model apprOpriate teaching, monitor the quality of learning environments, COpe with differences in teaching philosophies and share ideas regarding methodology with professionals in light of recent linguistic and psychological disciplines (Schreck, 1981). In light of these concise presentations on EFL teacher preparation, intended to serve primarily as a background, it will be helpful next to identify the dimensions of the problem under investigation. Acronyms of Teaching English Various names suggested as professional labels of teaching English to non- native speakers are repeated in this research endeavor: l. EFL: English as a foreign language, 2. ESP: English for specific purposes, 3. TEFL: teaching/ teachers of English as a foreign language, 4. TENES: teaching of English to non-English speakers (Allen, 1966), 5. TESL: teaching/ teachers of English as a second language, 6. TESOL: teaching/teachers of English to speakers Of other languages, 7. TESOLD: teaching/teachers Of English to speakers of other languages and dialects, and 8. TSESD: teaching standard English as a second dialect. Statement of the Problem The deterioration in Egyptian EFL teachers' competencies and knowledge appears to be due to the poor practices of Egyptian teacher preparation programs for TEFL and the non-existence of professional standards for state certification and accreditation of prospective EFL teachers. Cu'riculum in Egyptian departments of BF! stresses two traditional emphases: literature and linguistic theories of phonology and syntax. Language skills, linguistic applications, and didactic are neglected or relegated to a minor position. In terms of the study hours and marks assigned to each subject, three-fourths of the total of credit hours in Egyptian TPPS for TEFL are assigned to literary studies (novels, plays, poems, etc.) The grave consecpence of such practices is that EFL candidates do not master the language and have inadequate capacity to teach (Badr, 1984). As enunciated in field reports on language treatment and the state of TEFL in Egypt, Egyptian teacher preparation programs for TEFL need explicit and well-defined criteria that specify EFL teachers' proficiency, understanding, experiences and ability in linguistic, either theoretical or applied, literature, cultural and professional education. The professional Standards of TPPS for TESL/TEFL should include a mastery of four language Skills (Hartig, 1974; Nasr, 1967) and a comprehensive knowledge of and preparation in didactic and TEFL methodology, phonological, grammatical, and semantic aspects of English, and the utilization of audiovisual aids of modern technology (Brown, 1981). With a view to assisting practitioners at all educational levels in deveIOping Optimal programs for teacher education, the professional standards attempted in this study will center on EFL teachers' competence and knowledge in l. linguistic analysis and application; 2. the literature of the English language and other aspects of the English culture and civilization; 3. methods of TEFL methodology, language testing and classroom materials preparation, adaptation, and evaluation; and 4. educational processes to understand the teaching process, the behavior of EFL students, and questions of the school and other social agencies. Purposes of the Study The primary purpose of the present study is to identify the linguistic, literary, and pedagogical standards considered apprOpriate for TPPS for TEFL as perceived by American and Egyptian TESOL specialists. The identification of the extent of covergence and divergence in the perceptions of TESOL specialists concerning the priorities of instructional components of TEFL TPPS and the recommended allocation of credit hours among various instructional components are two other specific objectives researched in this survey investigaiton. The identification of these standarc, curricular activities, competencies, knowledge, and skills, and an appropriate distribution of credit hours might contribute to improving the present status Of EFL teacher-training, enhancing the EFL teacher's competencies, and promoting the standard of EFL instruction in schools in Egypt. The general purpose of this study is to determine, as perceived by selected American and Egyptian TESOL specialists, the appropriate level of an Egyptian EFL teacher's competence in and understanding of linguistic, literature, and pedagogy. 10 Specific objectives of the present study are the following: 1. 3. 4. to identify, as perceived by selected American and Egyptian TESOL specialists, an EFL teacher's competencies and knowledge in instructional components of theoretical and applied linguistic that EFL TPPS should contribute directly to their development (e.g., phonology, syntax, contrastive analysis, error analysis, psycholinguistic, and sociolinguistic); to provide decision makers and educational leaders (linguistic, TEFL specialists, curriculum designers, and educators) with a rationale for the inclusion or SCOpe of literature component in ESL teacher training programs; to determine, among American and Egyptian specialists, if there is agreement on the appropriate level of prospective teachers' knowledge and skills in cross-cultIral communication, including a. understanding the cultural patterns of English- speaking peoples, b. having an adequate knowledge of the cultures of the foreign student population; and C. understanding the impact of culturally determined learning styles on second language learning; and to determine, among American and Egyptian TESOL specialists, the pedagogical knowledge and skills considered appropriate for effective teaching, including a. understanding the theoretical foundations of TEFL/‘1' ESL methodology and the demonstrated ability to apply these theoretical principles to ESL teaching Classrooms, b. understanding the principles of testing English as a second language and the ability to apply remedial techniq.Ies, and C. acquaintance with the relatedness of the ESL profession to such areas as human growth and develOpment, learning theories, curriculum organization, and develOpment; to determine the extent of convergence and divergence in the perceptions of selected American and Egyptian TESOL specialists regarding the priorities of major curricular activities in TPPS for TEFL; and ll 6. to identify the recommended allocation of hours of instruction among the following instructional components: theoretical linguistic, applied linguistic, literature, cultures, translation, TEFL methodology and testing, and professional education. Significance of the Study The need for conducting the present study on the appropriate preparation of Egyptian EFL teachers in linguistic, lietrature, culture, and pedagogy was generated by two key considerations. First and foremost, paucity of research and develOpment in second/foreign language teacher education compared with linguistic analysis and methodology has obscured the TESOL profession for sometime. Since the inception of the TESOL profession in the mid-sixties, "many who prepare teachers have not studied the field of teacher preparation or done any research on it. They have studied and done research in other fields. However, they still seem to feel competent to prepare teachers" (Fanselow 8: Light, 1977, p. 9) Even when TESOL guidelines for the preparation of ESL/EFL teachers were develOped in 197 5, no research endeavor was made to evaluate the relevance and adequacy of sociocultural and pedagogical know-how in ESL/EFL teacher training programs. Fanselow and Light objected to TESOL guidelines because they: . . . state or imply what teachers should know and be able to do in general terms, but do not specify behaviors nor prescribe the type of procedures to be followed to produce teachers with the characteristic, knowledge, and skills recommended in the guidelines . . . . The guidelines provide broad guidance, not specific prescriptions. (p. 4). An additional word must be written at this point about the dearth of studies done on the qualifications of competent ESL/EFL teachers and the curricular components of ESL/EFL teacher preparation programs. The status of ESL/EFL teacher preparation programs in most countries is, consequently, uncertain. Fanselow and Light (1977) attributed the uncertainty of teacher 12 training to the absence of well-defined standards for ESL/EFL teacher preparation programs. As a consequence, it was difficult to understand . . . what the qualifications of the teachers were or should be. One of the reasons for this, no doubt, was the widespread attitude that speakers of a language can teach that language to non-native speakers by value of the fact that they speak the language. (p. 3). The second incentive of the present investigation stems from the non- existence of professional standards for Egyptian EFL teacher preparation programs. Egyptian EFL departments need expertly designed statements to describe the prospective teacher's proficiency in English, his/her understanding of language systems and cultural systems, his/her knowledge of language acquisition processes, his/her understanding of teaching methods and testing principles, and the ability to apply all this in the Classroom. The low achievement of Egyptian students in English as a foreign language is, accordingly, due to incompetent teachers and literature-based teacher preparation programs. The teacher is a considerable and essential factor in the success or failure of ESL/EFL teaching programs (Girard, 1972). "Students do not enter school as failures; when students 'fail,‘ it is the practices which teachers and administrators individually and collectively employ that are at fault" (Lembo, 1971, p. 7). In addition, empirical researchers proved the relationship between a teacher's knowledge and skills and student achievement. An analysis of the intercorrelation matrix of the 40 variables used in a study conducted by Politzer and Weiss (1969) at Stanford University showed that teacher behaviors and Characteristic correlated significantly with student achievement. The present research endeavor was conducted to contribute to ESL/EFL teacher education and Egyptian teacher-training programs for TEFL in four dimensions: (a) understanding how Egyptian EFL teachers might apprOpriately be prepared to meet the challenges of their profession, (b) helping Egyptian EFL 13 divisions to structure and restructure their TPPS for the certification of EFL teachers, (c) encouraging Egyptian universities to experiment judiciously with curricula which may be promising for the improvement of teaching EFL, and (d) knowing the competencies, knowledge, and skills, either basic or ideal, needed for EFL teachers which will help in identifying the needs of preservice and inservice teacher training programs in EFL in Egypt as well as implementing the standards of EFL instruction in Egyptian preparatory and secondary schools. Effective teachers should possess a minimum level of competence and efficacy in their teaching (Perren, 1968). Research Questions To accomplish the purposes of the study as previously elaborated, answers to eight cpestions were sought. These questions are drawn from the existing literature in the field of second/ foreign language teacher training. 1. Do American and Egyptian TESOL specialists agree or differ in their perceptions of Egyptian EFL teachers' competencies that should be develOped in the instructional component of theoretical linguistics? 2. Do American and Egyptian TESOL specialists agree or differ in their perceptions of of Egyptian EFL teachers' competencies that should be developed in the instructional component of applied linguistic or linguistic application? 3. Do American and Egyptian TESOL specialists agree or differ in their perceptions of Egyptian EFL teachers' competencies that should be develOped in the instructional component of the literature of the English language, either British or American? 4. Do American and Egyptian TESOL specialists agree or differ in their perceptions of Egyptian EFL teachers' competencies that should be develOped in the instructional component of cross- cultural communication, awareness, and interaction? 5. Do American and Egyptian TESOL specialists agree or differ in their perceptions of Egyptian EFL teachers' competencies that Should be developed in the instructional component of TEFL methodology and assessment? l4 6. Do American and Egyptian TESOL specialists agree or differ in their perceptions of Egyptian EFL teachers' competencies that should be developed in the instructional component of educational and behavioral processes? 7. Do American and Egyptian TESOL Specialists agree or differ in their perceptions of high, moderate, and low priorities of areas of study in Egyptian teacher preparation programs for TEFL? 8. Do American and Egyptian TESOL specialists agree or differ in their perceptions of the breakdown of credit hours among various instructional components in Egyptian teacher preparation programs for TEFL? Testable Hypotheses Seven hypotheses, stated in the null form, were formulated to test differences between the Opinions held by American and Egyptian TESOL faculty as to standards for the inclusion of linguistic, literary, and pedagogical components in Egyptian EFL teacher preparation programs. There will be significant differences between American and Egyptian TESOL specialists in their attitudes toward: H1 the development of Egyptian EFL teachers' - competencies, knowledge, and skills in theoretical linguistic, including English phonology, syntax, morphology, syntax and semantic, history of the English language, comparative and historical linguistic, stylistic, and another foreign language. Hz the development of Egyptian EFL teachers' competencies, knowledge, and skills in linguistic applications, including psycholinguistic processes, theories of first and second language acquisition, learning strategies, sociolinguistic, neurolinguistic, Arabic-English translation, and reading theory. H3 the develOpment of Egyptian EFL teachers' competencies, knowledge, and understanding in the literature of the English language and its need as an instructional component in curricula of Egyptian EFL teacher preparation programs. H4 the development of Egyptian EFL teachers' competence and knowledge in language and culture interconnectedness, cultural interaction and cultural patterns of the target student pOpulation with a 15 view to understanding the effects of culturally determined life styles in EFL learning and enhancing successful cross-cultural interaction in the Classroom. H 5 the development of Egyptian EFL teachers' competence in TEFL methodology, materials develOpment and evaluation, instructional media utilization, and assessment of student proficiency and progress. “6 the develOpment of Egyptian EFL teachers' competence and knowledge in the social and historical foundations of educational systems, learning theories, human growth and development, curriculum organization and development, and classroom management techniques. H7 the identification of high, moderate, and low priority areas of study and an appropriate allocation of credit hours among these areas in Egyptian teacher preparation programs for TEFL. Basic Assumptions The principal assumption of this study pertains to the interdisciplinary and multi-disciplinary nature of the TEFL profession. The competent preparation of ESL/EFL teachers should cover several crucial areas of concentration, including linguistic, psychology, culture, methodology, and education. TEFL practitioners need considerable professional training in linguistics and such allied fields as language acquisition processes, psycholinguistic, sociolinguistic, and error analysis. Second, it is assumed that the guidelines set by such associations as the National Association of State Directors of Teacher Education and Certification (NASDTEC), the National Comcil of Teachers Of English (NCTE), and the Modern Language Association of America (MLA) can be used as a guide to identify the competencies to be possessed by prospective Egyptian EFL teachers. Standards of foreign language teacher education usually help prospective 16 teachers to understand the nature of language, the interrelationships between language and culture, and methodological foundations. Materials and Procedure The following stages were followed to conduct this descriptive and analytical study: 1. examining and analyzing the linguistic, literary, and pedagogical standards of ESL/EFL teacher preparation programs as set by major national and international language associations (e.g., teachers of English to speakers of other languages, the World Federation of Foreign Language Teachers' Association, and the American Council on the Teaching of Foreign Languages) and the National Council of Teachers of English; 2. developing a conceptual framework for viewing and understanding the essential standards of ESL/EFL teacher preparation programs and exploring in detail each of the following components of the conceptual model: a. linguistic standard, covering language proficiency, phonology, syntax, semantic, psycholinguistics, language acquisition, and discourse analysis, including the application of these Skills to ESL teaching situations; b. literary and/or cultural standard, including an understanding of cultural life or learning styles of English-speaking peOple and foreign student pOpulation; and C. pedagogic standard, comprising an understanding of teaching methods and techniques of English to speakers of other languages, language assessment of student proficiency, and other educational processes; 3. constructing a questionnaire for TESOL specialists at American and Egyptian universities as the main instrument for this survey study, based on the literature of the second/foreign language teacher preparation. The investigator will conduct a pilot study of the cpestionnaire in America and Egypt by randomly selecting 10 TESOL specialists from the target pOpulations. The intent of this pilot study is to determine the vaguely formulated items; discussing the implications of the questionnaire items in providing a new profile of ESOL teacher education standards; and synthesizing suggestions gathered from the questionnaire administered to TESOL specialists; l7 4. mailing out the revised version of the questionnaire to 179 TESOL specialists randomly selected from the American universities. Furthermore, the questionnaire will be administered by mail to the entire population of Egyptian TESOL specialists due to the relatively small number of Egyptian professors; and 5. answers were tabulated, and means, percentages, standard deviations, and MANOVA statistic were calculated on the responses to test the seven hypotheses. The amwers to Open- ended questions in the forms of suggestions will be calculated verbatim to conclude discernible trends. Limitations of the Study In order that the findings of this survey questionnaire-based study do not become misinterpreted in various cultural environments, the following limitations related to the nature of the study and the research techniques used are expected to affect the results. 1. The study is confined to the preparation of EFL teachers in areas of linguistic, cross-cultural communication, literature and education. No attempt will be undertaken to address English teachers' personal qualities which contribute to their success in the classroom, criteria of applicants' admission to, retention and screening of TPP(S), and student teaching. Numerous other aspects of program development such as public policy and financial considerations are not researched in this study. 2. Emphasis will be made on the identification of competencies and skills ideal teachers are expected to possess for teaching English as a second or foreign language. No statements will be made on how to evaluate these competencies. By the same token, no measures will be set for competence-rating or appraisal to be Offered as guidelines for TESOL programs' evaluation. 3. Extreme care should be given to selected American and Egyptian TESOL Specialists' perceptions regarding the linguistic, cultural, and pedagogical components of EFL teacher preparation programs. TESOL faculty represent two different cultural perspectives: American and Egyptian. It is advisable to be cautious in applying the findings to other educational contexts which are culturally determined. 18 Definition of Terms The following terms are specifically defined in the context in which they will be used in this investigation. Applied lingiistic is the process of formulation and testing of hypotheses for to solve pedagogical problems using linguistic theory (Politzer, 1972). "It may in effect be considered a crossroads, an interdisciplinary area, a combination of linguistic with psychology, pedagogy, mathematic, and so forth" (Pap, 1972). ESL/EFL teacher preparation standards, as used in this study, pertain to common criteria appropriate for all college programs preparing teachers of English to speakers of other languages, highlighting the linguistic, literary, and pedagogical components of those programs. Language pedagogy refers to theoretical approaches to and methods and techniques of teaching English as a second or foreign language. It also deals with design and evaluation of curricula and adaptation of instructional materials (Norris, 1977). Morphology refers to the study of the smallest meaningful mits Of language and of their formulations into words, including inflection, derivation, and composition (Pei, 1966). Neurolinguistic is the nascent discipline of language and the brain to account for how the language mechanisms of the brain function in language use. Phonolggy refers to the study of speech sounds of a given language and their function within the sound system of the target language (Stork, 1972). chholinguistic, in general terms, refers to the study of language as a human behavior to investigate its perception, learning, and production. Psycholinguists are partially concerned with how the mind is organized and how it works (Foss 8: Hakes, 1978). l9 Sociolinguistic, in general terms, refers to "the study of characteristic of language varieties, the characteristics of their functions, and the Characteristics of their speakers as these three constantly interact, change, and Change one another within a speech community" (F ishman, 1971, p. 4). TESOL specialist is a collective body of instructors representing the academic ranks of assistant professor, associate professor, and full professor who prepare prospective teachers to teach English as a foreign language. Organization of the Study Chapter I investigates and describes the aspects of the problem under discussion: its background, need, significance, and purpose. In addition, assumptions, research questions, hypotheses, limitations, and key terms are included to identify the research problem in its entirety. Chapter 11 details the research pertinent to second language teacher preparation from which the present status is drawn. In reviewing relevant literature, emphasis will be placed on five major areas: (a) rationale of ESL/EFL teacher training, (b) the present Status and future needs of EFL teacher preparation programs in Egypt and other counties (c) structure of M.A. programs in ESL in American colleges and universities, (d) curricular components of teacher preparation programs for TESL/TEFL, and (e) patterns and practices of training ESL/EFL teachers. Chapter III will present the procedure and methodology of the study. Description of the research sample, development of the data collection instrument, data treatment, and hypotheses-stating will be examined in detail. Chapter IV will analyze the data to report the linguistic, literary, and pedagogical competencies perceived by American and Egyptian TESOL faculty as "of highest importance." 20 Chapter V will sum up the findings, conclusions suggested by the data, implications for ESL/EFL teacher preparation, and recommendations for future research. CHAPTER II BACKGROUND OF THEORY AND RESEARCH In reviewing the literature related to the preparation of ESL/EFL teachers, there is a scarcity of articles in professional jou'nals on the main theoretical, practical, and research issues (Stern, 1983). Lomax's (1972) review of British data-based literature regarding second/ foreign language teacher preparation revealed that " . . . until relatively recent times, there has been little rigorous British research on teacher education . . . " (p. 289). This chapter is organized to present a comprehensive review of literature pertinent to the training process of ESL/EFL teachers with a view to optimizing teacher success attributable to preservice training. The review expands upon the following topic: (a) status of ESL/EFL teacher preparation; (b) curricular components of ESL/EFL TPPS, including literature, theoretical linguistic, sociolinguistic, culture, TEFL methodology, and professional education; (C) competencies of ESL/EFL teachers; and (d) models of ESL/EFL teacher preparation. Status of ESL/EFL Teacher Preparation An investigation of teacher preparation programs in various countries may account for the negative aspects of graduates' professional preparation for their job responsibilities and the low standard of the English language instruction in TESOL programs. Across the United States, ESL professional preparation programs are subsumed under departments of foreign languages, bilingual education, and 21 22 English. Often ESL teacher preparation does not have a separate and integrated curriculum, but functions under the tutelage of already—existing curricula in English, with similarities overemphasized and differences ignored. The SCOpe, instructional practices, and theoretical bases Of American TESOL TPPS are uncertain (Newfeld 8r Webb, 1979). In his pioneer survey of ESOL TPPS in American and British colleges and universities, Acheson (1975) identified several shortcomings in American M.A. programs of TESOL. It was determined that American TPPS had open admission policies, catering to participants who were totally lacking in teaching of ESL/EFL; had overemphases on linguistic and phonetic and no concern for cultural anthrOpology, TESOL methodology, psycholinguistic, sociolinguistic, etc. (see Table 2.1 from Acheson (1975) for the rank ordering of curricular requirements of American Master's TPPS); lacked concern for competency and performance in the classroom; and, lastly, emphasized theory rather than practice as stated earlier by Conway (1969) in his article "The Undergraduate major in TESOL." Other surveys of Master‘s degree graduates in ESL revealed some deficiencies in American TESOL TPPS. Ochsner (1980), in his Survey of Job- Related Aspects of the M.A. in TESOL Degrees, attempted to gauge to what extent TESOL graduates of M.A. programs were adequately prepared for teaching ESL/EFL. He concluded that TPPS did not fulfill graduates' needs in ESL research design and statistic, English for specific purposes (ESP), ESL tests and measurements, bilingualism, and TESOL program administration. Like Ochsner, Day (1984), in his Survey of Career Aspects of Graduate Training in E21, strongly recommended that ESL professional preparation programs should systematically treat theoretical and pedagogical issues and offer instruction in administration of TESOL programs. 23 Table 2.1 Cericular Recpirements and Prerequisites, American Master's TPPS Number Percentage of TPPS of Total Prerecpisite and/or Recyirement Rank 40 100 Linguistic and phonetic l 37 95 Methods and materials for TESOL 2 27 69 Practice teaching 3 21 53 Electives within the TPP 4 20 50 English language (for non-native speakers) 5 19 48 Learning another language 6 19 48 Review of current research related to TESOL 6 10 25 Electives outside education 8 9 23 Electives outside English 10 9 23 Research skills 10 8 20 Educational psychology 12 8 20 Psycholinguistic 12 8 20 Testing and measurements 12 7 l8 Sociolinguistic 15 6 15 Cultural anthropology 16 6 15 Literature in English (British) 16 5 13 Curriculum/ syllabus develOpment 18 2 5 History and philOSOphy of education 19 With special reference to Master of Arts programs in ESL in the United States, "They are not providing the skills component since the general requirements already demand that M.A. candidates must be proficient in the English language. What they can supply are the information and theory components" (Sukwiwat, 1980, p. 11). Strevens' (1974) standpoint on language teacher education is that TESOL TPPS ought to encompass three components: skills urgently needed in American TPPS, information, and theory. Supporting the views voiced by Acheson, Conway, and Ochsner, Smith (1980) found fault with American ESL graduate programs in their overemphasis on linguistic, curriculum design, and testing. Most TESOL programs have little concern for regular Classroom teaching, motivation, and the environment of learning. But TESOL TPPS have helped a growing professionalism among language teachers. 24 The study was the same in a critical review of graduate theses and dissertations in ESL. Cooper (1978) listed, studied, and Classified over 200 dissertations in ESL with the aim of identifying the strengths and weaknesses of American graduate programs in ESL. The data generated by this undertaking provided the following realistic findings. 1. Methodologies used in graduate TESL theses and dissertations are applied with no attention to empirical designs. Few studies experimentally tackled TESOL problems, whereas most of them were prescriptive or descriptive. 2. Most TESL theses neglected numeroc areas with particular reference to English as a second dialect, bilingualism, learner- centered approaches, and basic research. 3. Graduate TESL theses did not establish carefully and cohesively research priorities of the TESOL profession. Turning to the analytical evaluation of Egyptian TPPS for TEFL, some crucial facts come to light. Egyptian EFL teachers for preparatory and secondary schools, basically receive their preparation at colleges of education. The curriculum for English majors consists of four main components: literature (novels, poetry, drama, and literary criticism), linguistic (grammar and phonology only), language skills (composition only), and translation. Egyptian educators are divided in opinion on the issue of the importance attached to literature courses in TPPS for TEFL. Many older English professors who have earned Ph.D.s in English literature insisted on assigning most credit hours and examination marks to literary genres, periods, and writers. National and international linguists and educators (Badr, 1984; Bending, 1976; Jernudd, 1976) leveled criticisms at Egyptian literature-based teacher preparation programs for TEFL. In his paper "The Effect of Cm'riculum in Faculties of Education on the English Language Proficiency among EFL Teachers," Badr found fault with the bias of the curriculum in Egyptian TPPS for TEFL towards literature and theoretical linguistics (see Table 2.2 from Badr, 25 1984, for the number of credit hours allocated to each curricular component in Egyptian TPPS for TEFL). In order to promote Egyptian EFL teacher training, we need to tackle the following areas. 1. The develOpment of four basic language skills should be considered and equally emphasized in the curriculum of Egyptian TPPS for TEFL. One-third of the total credit hows in the fow years should be devoted to language skills with more concentration in the first years of the professional progam. 2. Literatwe and linguistic should be taught not for the sake of literary studies and linguistic theorizing, but with the aim of building students‘ language competency and providing students with the culture of English-speaking countries. Table 2.2 Distribution of Credit Hours in Egyptian TPPS for TEFL ericular Commnent g 16 Literature (novels, drama, poetry) 28 42.43 Linguistic (phonology, syntax) 20 30.30 Language skills (composition only) 10 15.15 Translation (Arabic-English, comparative translation) 8 12.12 TOTALS: ' 66 100.00 With regard to the status of linguistic (phonology and syntax), it is relegated to a minor position without any attention to applied linguistic studies. Linguists dwell on consonants, vowels, stress, intonation, and pitch. No attempts are made to include applied phonology, pedagogical grammar, sociolinguistic, contrastive analysis, error analysis, and discourse analysis. The subsidiary place of linguistic is, in fact, due to the general misconception that it " . . . refers principally to models of grammar; that it is an area filled with grammarians squabbling over the ordering of transformations and disagreeing about the placing of semantic markers . . . " (Scarborough, 1976, p. 104). 26 Systematic training in TEFL methodology is virtually non-existent in Egyptian EFL teacher preparation programs. Although TPPS offer two courses in methodology, the curricular content deals with conventional methods and techniques. Based on this researcher's attendance at TEFL lectures, methods in TPPS are "eclectic" or "composite." Teaching activities are drawn from such out-Of-date methods as "grammar translation," "direct," "reading," and audio- lingual approaches. Moreover, the curriculum for English majors neglects English language skills development. Students have no opportunity to practice commmicative use of English. They do not receive training in using English to express their own feelings or to state their own Opinions. Let us move to language teacher education in the Far East. Thailand sets another example for ineffective EFL TPPS which failed to develop Thai teachers' basic skills of listening, reading, and writing. To enhance teachers' competencies, a model for preservice training programs was developed to determine basic and ideal qualifications of a Thai EFL teacher in general education, academic specialization, and professional education (Rugsaken, 1976). In order to bring about reform in TPPS for TEFL in Thailand. Sukwiwat (1980) suggested the incorporation of research findings and recent discoveries of linguistic, psycholinguistic, sociolinguistic, and newolinguistics in Thai TPPS. She also asserted that The core curriculum of TPPS should encompass the basic elements of the nature of language; the fundamental principles of language as a communicative process; how language relates to one's thought and action; the relationships between function and forms-- and so on. (p. 8). Let us look at the state of the art of second language teacher preparation in Canada as seen by Massey (1980). The training of ESL teachers does not allow them to function in classrooms, partly because of the following. 27 In the rquired degree programs for second language teachers, the language component of the degree consisted mainly of literature courses. Cowses in language or linguistic wee mostly diachronic in nature. From our analysis of these course contents, there seemed little that could be directly related to training teachers to teach a second language. (pp. 26-27) The main problem that TESL TPPS are up against lies in the discrepancy between their curricular components: literary, linguistic, sociocultural, and pedagogical. Stern (1981) attributed the dilemma of ESL TPPS in Canada this way. University language departments (ULDs) have remained relatively uninfluenced by the more recent developments in theoretical and descriptive linguistics and in sociolinguistic. The linguistic study of a contemporary language, although not entirely absent, plays a far smaller role in the language curriculum than literary history. The Class relationship between linguistic study of the second language and practical training is not widely recognized. (p. 217) France is ow last example of countries struggling to overcome the Chronic dilemma of TPPS for TEFL. French teachers are not well trained in the principles and techniques of language teaching and learning. In the French departments of EFL, stress is laid primarily on philology, literary criticism, and translation. Little attention is paid to linguistic analysis and psychological applications. Descriptions of contemporary English are not yet part of the curriculum; English phonetic is not taught in all departments of English, professional training is not even considered at this stage. Applied linguistics and the methods of language teaching are simply ignored. (Capelle, 1963, p. 7) To (palify prospective English teachers, university curricula of ESL departments should contain applied linguistic, methodology, and modern language courses that strengthen links with schools and English teachers should acquire an advanced and secure command of the language they. are to teach (Capelle, 1963; Rathmell, 1967). 28 To sum up an evaluation of teacher preparation programs in the USA, Egypt, Thailand, Canada, and France, the following factual findings are indicated. 10‘ ESL/EFL teacher preparation programs should prepare prospective teachers in general linguistic, contrastive linguistic (linguistic and cultwal), language teaching methodology, English phonology, and English syntax. ESL/EFL teacher preparation programs do notqpay maximum attention to educational linguistic, reading and composition theories, classroom management techniques, individualized instruction, materials' development and adaptation, materials' evaluation, students' assessment, counseling techniques, and approaches to teaching culture of second languages. ericular Components of TPPS for TESL/TEFL Numerous assumptions have been made about the content of an effective curriculum in ESL/EFL TPPS. It hardly seems possible to comprehensively state the curricular components of an ideal ESL/EFL TPP. The overwhelming majority of language associations and educational linguists appears to focus on a curriculum that develops in the future ESL/EFL teacher the following qualifications: 1. 2. 3. 4. To produced proficiency in the four skills of the English language, linguistic analysis of the English language such as phonology, morphology, syntax, semantic, literature and culture of native English speakers, and educational preparation that qualifies ESOL trainees as Classroom teachers. certify prospective ESOL teachers, some language associations curriculum guidelines for EFL teachers. The Modern Language Association of America (MLA) prepared prOposed statements on the curricular content of foreign language TPPS to develOp (a) aural understanding, (b) speaking, (C) reading, ((1) writing, (e) language analysis, (f) culture, and (g) 29 professional preparation (Michel, 1967). Other similar guidelines were formulated by the National Council of Teachers of English (NCTE) in 1968, the Center for Applied Linguistic (CAL) in 1972, and the National Association of State Directors of Teacher Education and Certification (NASDT EC) in 1976. In 1975, TESOL guidelines for the preparation of ESOL teachers have come into being with broad statements on the cowse offerings of ESOL TPPS in linguistic and English linguistic, psycholinguistic, language pedagogy and assessment, sociolinguistic, and culture. Certain curricular emphases are treated in more detail by some language educators influential in the shaping of TESOL. Brooks (1966) argued that the ideal preparation of foreign language teachers must cover such areas as philosophy, linguistic, cultural anthropology, didactic, phIIOSOphy, psychology, literature, and technology. Close (1966) stressed phonology and grammar in ESOL TPPS. Marquardt (1961, 1962, 1971) listed such curricular components as contrastive phonology, language structure and variation, Sociolinguistics, cross- cultural communication, and language assessment. Alatis (1974), in summing up a LAPSE theory of ESL teacher preparation, pointed out the courses qualified ESL/EFL teachers should take as follows: general linguistic, English structure (phonology, syntax,morphology, contrastive analysis, cultural anthropology, TEFL, language testing, and ESOL practicum. Robinett (1977) placed primary focus on linguistic theory, contrastive linguistic, language Change and variation, and language learning. Gradman (1971) recommended future EFL teacher preparation in language structure, contrastive analysis and error analysis, language acquisition, methods Of language teaching, and testing. Lado (1977) stated teacher qualifications in linguistic, culture, ESOL teaching techniques, and language laboratory. 30 In an attempt to cpalify non-native ESL teachers, Greis (1985) developed a TPP including the core curricular components of linguistic (English phonology, syntax, and contrastive analysis), cultural studies (intercultwal communication, and modern American literature), and recent TESL/TEFL approaches and techniques. Other presentations on the cowse content of ESOL TPPS have pivoted on theoretical linguistic, applied linguistic, and pedagogy (Purcell, 1981). To grasp the importance of the curricular components of ESL/EFL TPPS, it is essential to shed light on the place of such components as literature, theoretical and applied linguistic, psycholinguistic, sociolinguistic, contrastive linguistic, error analysis, interlanguage studies, interconnectedness of language and culture, and second language pedagogy. Literature in TPPS for TESL/TEFL The topic of literature in professional journals usually generates more heat than light- There are divergent points of view about the place of literature in ESL/EFL teacher training programs. Some criticisms have been put forward against the inclusion of the curricular component of literature. Some FL educators claimed that literatwe creates linguistic complexities and does not contribute to the enhancement of second language learners' fow skills: aural comprehension, speaking, reading, and writing. The study of English literature is a luxury and has no place in English. Emphasis should be placed on the functional use of language and the development of a practical command of the four language skills for functioning in a wide range of situations (Blatchford, 1972). Linguists like TOpping (1968) voiced a witty, scathing rejection of any literature in TESOL programs. Since the primary obligations of linguists for ESL/EFL learners are to teach language skills, to develop students' ability to 31 read and write long, complex constructions, and to give students cultural orientation about the society they are anticipating to function, the medium of literatwe does not fulfill their demands. Students can receive needed experience in the reading and writing of the more complex language construction through " . . . the process involved in encoding and decoding the surface recombinations of the relatively small number of deeper level syntactic structures" (p. 100). Dwelling on the lexical complexities of literature, Scott (1964) also posed the following core questions: "How can we get at the content of literary selections without getting bogged down in the complexities of the language? How can we treat literary selections as literature, i.e., as artifacts of our culture, not as supplementary exercises for vocabulary improvement or grammar study?" (p. 49). Some significant pleas are presented for the inclusion of literature in TESL/TEFL programs and questioned the validity of linguists' assumptions, although the prominence of literatwe faded as linguistic became the focal emphasis of TPPS for TEFL (Widdowson, 1982). As a curricular component, literature increases students' linguistic competence and is the most expressive function of a language. Povey (1967) dwelt on the argumentative concepts of the language/literature dichotomy and set forth his cogent argument for the use of literature: . . . literature will increase all language skills because literatwe will extend linguistic knowledge by giving evidence of extensive and subtle vocabulary usage and complex and exact syntax. It will often represent in a general way the style that can properly stand as a model for the students. (pp. 41-42) In TESOL programs, literature is claimed to promote students' awareness of the linguistic structures. "Literature is a good, available resource for developing learners' ability to use language effectively for the interpretation of 32 discowse depending on such factors as students' interests, backgrounds, purposes, and literary traditions" (Widdowson, 1983). In addition, literature contributes to promoting two levels of scientific knowledge: that involving a knowledge of linguistic rules and that entailing knowledge of how to use these rules for communicating ideas (Widdowson, 1978). Adherent to the same approach, Pattison (1963) identified the importance of the ESL/EFL teacher's appreciation of literary masterpieces and command of teaching literature overseas as assets. Literature enables the teacher to call pupils' imagination to the aid of language learning and teaching itself becomes more imaginative. Lessons are not only well-organized but involve pupils, excite their interest, and set them acting out roles. Experientially speaking, literature is said to develop linguistic knowledge on the use level. Literature presents language in communicative and social situations ". . . in which parameters of the setting and role relationship are defined. Language that illustrates a particular register or dialect is embedded within a soCial context and thus there is a basis for determining why a particular form is used. As such, literature is ideal for develOping an awareness of language use" (McKay, 1982, p. 530). In the same manner, Baird (1969) refuted linguists' fallacies against the linguistic benefit of literature in TESOL programs. He asserted that literatwe is inseparable from language through which students learn the linguistic response acceptable in specific social contexts. But students need a certain level of proficiency in English language skills before reading literature. And if there are any potential linguistic difficulties that ESL/EFL learners encounter in literature courses, some TEFL educators recommended simplification of the text through graded vocabulary and syntax. Povey (1979) defended the use of simplified texts in teaching literature that considers an 33 effective balance between the original form with elimination of linguistic difficulties. These abridged texts should ". . . have precisely calculated and planned vocabularies: their syntax is exactly ordered and selected for its range in the hierarchy of linguistic difficulty" (Povey, 1967, p. 58). Scott (1964) expressed similar concern and suggested the adaptation of literary selections through grammatical simplification and restricted vocabulary. There are, however, some serioc limitations for the simplification of texts. Simplified texts get the information diluted, and form and content are inseparable (Honeyfield, 1977). Another controversial stance against the use of literature is that literature does not increase students' cultural potential and creates cultural complexities. Literary texts reflect specific cultural perspectives and ESL/EFL students do not have previous preparation in such cultural or thought modes. Besides difficult vocabulary, difficult syntax, and idiomatic expressions, L2 students encournter different cultural thought modes difficult to comprehend. Because of the diversity Of cultural patterns between societies, students misunderstand literature of foreign languages (Bauman, 1972). If the ultimate purpose Of teaching literature is to promote cultural understanding, . . . a discussion of cultural understanding as a trend in ESOL can be connected with the current emphasis in the United States on bilingualism and biculturals in rather than upon literature which does not contribute to the student's ability to function in the society. (Blatchford, 1972, p. 7) In addressing the primary goal of teaching literature, Slack (1969) held the view that literature does not exert any impact on students and only helps them respond immediately under present conditions or consideration. She rejected that literature is expected to spur students to give meaningful responses to the alien cultures and reiterated that, 34 . . . the primary concern of not only the teacher but of the student, too, is that the student re5ponds in an immediate and meaningful way to the impact of the literary work under present consideration. This kind of response is recognized by both teacher and student as the true measure of success of the cowse; everything else is secondary. (p. 20) Conversely, literatwe is seen as enhancing Cultwal understanding since it mirrors national culture (Harris 8: Harris, 1967a, 1967b), develops in students the aesthetic, moral, and cultural values of the nation (Scott, 1964), and promotes universal human values and international communications (Sridhar, 1982; Marckwardt, 1978). Kintanar (1972,) lucidly delineated the Close connection between language, culture, and literature and claimed that literary studies help students to trace the develOpment of a language with its poets, novelists, and dramatists. A knowledge of the development of language entails a familiarity with literature. In her article "Love and Death in Eden: Teaching English Literature to ESL Students," Marshall (1979) pointed out that her appreciation of the text was promoted and her respect for the students' own cultural framework was enhanced in the course of using English literature with Puerto Rican students. Povey (1967) stressed that literature reflects culture and, therefore, eloquently stated this goal: "American literature will open up the culture of this country to the foreign student in a manner analogous to the extension of the native speaker's own awareness of his culture" (p. 42). Relevant to the point Povey made, literature enhances a teacher's tolerance for cultural differences (Frye, 1964) and fosters habits of seeing with feeling (Oster, 1985). Accordingly, literature should be taught in language programs for students who are intellectually and emotionally ready to read literary works (DiPietro, 1982; Gilroy-Scott, 1983). 35 There still remain significant arguments for the inclusion of literatwe in TESOL programs. Some literary critic maintained that literature promotes students' own creativity and imagination. Frye (1964) pointed out that . . . the ultimate purpose of teaching literature is not understanding, but the transferring of the imaginative habit of mind, the instinct to create a new form instead of idolizing an old one, from the laboratory of literature to the life of mankind. (p. 58) From this perspective, teaching literature should not be an end in itself, but a means of developing creative processes in students' minds and emotions (Spencer, 1979). That is why the teacher should present literary selections containing emotional and experiential elements to help selections containing emotional and experiential elements to help students realize the literary experience (Scott, 1964). Students who study literature should develop an awareness of the way language is used in literary discourse for the conveying of unique messages (Widdowson, 1975). The emphasis on literary analysis at the expense of literary experience must give students a negative attitude toward poetry: . . . when poetry is approached from a merely analytical point of view, the pupil is burdened with far too many technical literary terms-this in itself suffices to bar the reader from experiencing gist is beautiful, let alone from enjoying a poem. (Donen, 1974, p. In addition to the enhancement of linguistic competence, cultural understanding and tolerance, literature is viewed as promoting ESL/EFL students' reading proficiency and the interaction process between the text and the reader's prior knowledge on two levels: linguistic and conceptual (McKay, 1982). Johnson (1981) researched the influence of linguistic complexity and cultural background of a text on the reading comprehension of Iranian readers at the university level. The results indicated that the cultural background of a story had more influence on the ESL reader's comprehension than the level of 36 syntactic and semantic complexity. Such a result consolidated Carroll's assumption that, . . . the implicit cultural content knowledge presupposed by a text interacts with the reader's own cultural background of content to make texts whose content is based on one's own culture easier to read and understand than syntactically and rhetorically equivalent texts based on a less familiar, more distant cultwe. (1983, p. 561) Johnson and Carrell's investigations confirm a significant premise that "every act of comprehension involves one's knowledge of the world as well" (Anderson, Reynolds, Schallert, 8c Goetz, 1977). Therefore, teachers should help second language readers access and activate apprOpriate background knowledge during reading literature. In teaching literature, ESL/EFL teachers are advised to minimize cultural interference, maximize reading comprehension and achieve an optimum balance between the backgound presupposed by the texts ow students read and the background knowledge our students possess, and develop independent readers outside the ESL Classroom (Carrell 8c Eisterhold, 1983). To avoid cultural conflicts and interference in literature, classroom teachers can utilize such classroom technicpes as pre-reading activities (Carrell, 1983; Hudson, 1982), sustained silent reading (McCracken, 1971), language experience approach (Rigg, 1981), narrow reading (Krashen, 1981), and culturally adapted materials (Paulston 8c Bruder, 1976). Moody (1971), Daiches (1970), and Munro (1969) discussed the human and educative values of teaching literature in TESOL programs. Teaching literature should not focus on acquiring factual information on Pope's political trend and Keats' nightingale, but on more practical and educative values. For being justified on educative values, literature fosters clear thinking, cogent arguments, sensitivity and impartiality in judgment. Students of literature learn linguistic and mental responses to a given situation (Baird, 1969). It provides the student 37 and teacher with the versatility and flexibility of mind in the meaning that literature can help L2 learners refine their prejudices and gain "the fullest possible awareness of human relevance" (Daiches, 1970). In the cowse of teaching literature, the teacher should contribute to the student's cognitive and affective development for Civilized living in the modern world through the modification and enlargement of values and utilize literature to reinforce students' language learning (Adeyanju, 1978). Poetry, for example, helps students acquire certain structural patterns, stylistic variation, intonation, and rhythm. From the researcher's point of view, the successful utilization of literature in TESL /TEFL programs rests on the careful selection of approaches to teaching literatwe in order to overcome some linguistic, cultural, and educational barriers. To develop students' linguistic skills and literary appreciation in teaching literature, Birckbichler and Muyskens (1980) presented the personalized approach to the teaching and learning of literature . . . centered upon the student's personal encounter with the text, and the criteria for the judgment of a work are internally imposed. Student reaction to Characters, events, ideas, and style is actively sought through questions eliciting student feelings, experiences, imagination, interests, values, opinions, and attitudes. (p. 23) In addition, Herr (1982) proposed a humanistic approach in teaching literature with a focus on the individual and cultural situations and with attention directed to enhancing the communicative competence, thoughts, Opinions, and feelings of alearner. To sum up, literature, on the positive side, is claimed to be an effective component of ESL/EFL teacher preparation curricula in order to enhance cultwal awareness, develop English language use and usage levels, and promote reading through literature, students discover that "English can be a beautiful language, not just a practical and utilitarian one" (McConochie, 1982, p. 232). 38 The maximum use of literature primarily depends on the teaching approach that gives rise to an aesthetic interaction between a reader and a text. In Rosenblatt's (1981) conceptual framework, reading a literary work is a transaction between a reader and a text. To depict the transactional, two-way, reciprocal relationship between reader and text, Rosenblatt (1978) vividly stated the following. The poem, then, must be thought of as an event in time. It is not an object or an ideal entity. It happens during a coming together, a compenetration, of a reader and a text. The reader brings to the text his past experience and present personality under the magnetism of the ordered symbols of the text. He marshals his resowces and crystalizes out from the stuff of memory, thought, and feeling a new order, a new experience, which he sees as the poem. This becomes part of the ongoing stream of his life experience, to be reflected on from any angle important to him as a human being. (p. 12) Languages and Linguistic Most TEFL educators appear to agree that ESL/EFL teachers need a scientific knowledge of language, to understand how language is structured and functioned recording to phonological, lexical, and grammatical levels and to acquaint themselves with the processes of human thought. "By studying language we may discover abstract principles that govern its structure and use, principles that are universal by biological necessity . . . that derive from mental Characteristics of the species" (Chomsky, 1975, p. 34). Linguistic can serve in producing competent English teachers conversant with modern English Speech and usage, aware Of stress of potential difficulty of ESOL learners, and familiar with various methods of and current developments in language teaching. Being equipped with the metalanguage of linguistics and understanding of phonology, morphology, lexis, and semantic, teachers will be able to deal with technical problems in learning and teaching situations (Morrison, 1979). Similarly, Halliday et a1. (1974) contended that 39 . . . replacing good teachers with no linguistic knowledge or training by teachers trained in linguistics does not of itself make much difference to the effectiveness of the language teaching taking place in their Classrooms . . . . The place for both phonetics and linguistic is behind the classroom teacher, in the training that he received for his job as a teacher, in the preparation of the syllabus according to which his teaching programme is organized, and in the preparation of the teaching materials of all kinds that he makes use of in Class. (p.187) The discipline of linguistic bridges the gap between theory and practice needed for the competent preparation of English teachers. Theoretical concerns of linguists should underlie classroom practices and, therefore, good practices must necessarily relate to good theory in linguistic, psychology, and pedagogy (Wardhaugh, 1969). The tremendous output of linguistic research and the convergence of syntax and semantic with reference to case grammar, analysis of relative clauses, and observations on belief and presupposition have actually appear to have contributed to the enhancement of TESOL. Performative analysis which refers to pedagogical ways of teaching aspects of reported Speech enables the EFL teacher to undertake contrastive analysis within a formally defined, linguistic, meaningful framework (Rutherford, 1969). In his article "Linguistic Universals and Their Relevance to TESOL," Jacobs (1969) referred to the fundamental interdependence of syntax and semantic and their application to TESOL. To achieve a valid perspective on language teaching, Wardhaugh (1972) assumed that the linguistic knowledge relevant to ESL/EFL teacher concerns should be thoroughly integrated with hyphenated disciplines such as sociolinguistic and psycholinguistic. Bolinger (1968), likewise, emphasized that "language teaching is not linguistic, any more than medicine is Chemistry" (p. 31). Transformational gammar (TC) is thought to be of use to the ESL/EFL teacher. Traditional grammar remains a "skeleton" and transformational grammar is better due to the fact that transformationalists have dealt with the 40 problems of English sentence structure with energy and intelligence (Gleason, 1965). Transformational theory, which is a set of language generating rules summarized in symbolic formulae and ordered into logical groups and sequences to deal with deep and surface structure, helps the foreign language teacher to organize his/her teaching according to various logical criteria and to know that language is not merely sentences composed of parts, but also Operations performed upon sentences (Pincas, 1981). Conversely, Parkinson (1972) objected to the applicability of transformtional, generative grammar to teaching situations on valid grounds. The transformational approach to English grammar excludes all exceptions of grammatical rules, presupposes an implicit theory of language learning at Odds with the most thoroughly tested methods, and rejects all figurative language. Theoretical semantic can be of help to the teaching of vocabulary to second language learners (Channell, 1981). Two aspects of semantic theory are of potential value to the language teacher. First, semantic field theory (Lehrer, 1974) analyzes vocabulary into fields of interrelating networks of relations between words which can be passed on to EFL learners. Foreign language vocabulary should be taught in semantic settings due to the psycholinguistic conclusion that the mind uses semantic similarity in classifying words (Miller & Johnson-Laird, 1976). Second, componential analysis (Nida, 1975), which breaks down the meaning of a word or words into different pieces known as semantic components, ". . . tells the learner exactly what he needs to know about the relationships between words in the field by making explicit their differences and similarities" (Channell, 1981, p. 119). Second/ foreign language teaching has undergone profound transformations due to linguistic advances as follows: (a) generative grammar and cognitive psychology have undermined mimicry-memory and pattern drills; (b) error 41 analysis has superseded structwal, contrastive analysis; (c) current trends for TESOL have come into being such as the silent way, Asher's total physical response, community language learning, and methods of Winitz and Reeds; and (d) reasoned eclecticism has come into being (Diller, 1975). It is historically recognized that linguistic has influenced FL teaching in descriptive and pedagogical ways (Bolinger, 1972). Any creditable system of teaching and textbooks is based on the linguistic approach of structuralism and contrastive analysis (Anthony, 1970). Linguistic, on the negative side, has come under scathing criticisms for not being applicable to pedagogical environments. Generative grammar and discowse syntax, for example, are abstract and have their own theoretical concerns (Ogasawara, 1983). Linguists hardly contribute to exploring language behavior and skill and second language acquisition, and, therefore, ". . . linguistics is capable of being dispensed as with anything else if it cannot make a reasonable bid for attention" (Bolinger, 1972, p. 109). Sociolinguistic and Psycholinguistic The sociolinguistic approach to language is concerned with the linguistic expression of social and cultwal meaning (Lott, 1975), language functions (Halliday, 1973), elements of the process of communication (Corder, 1973), and speech acts (Searle, 1969). Meaningful use of language in social contexts "appropriately reflects its social and cultural milieu and conveys social and cultural purpose" (Pride, 1971, p. l). Widdowson (1978) affirmed the sociolinguistic or communicative use of language to spotlight the ultimate purpose of language teaching: Communication only takes place when we make use of sentences to perform a variety of different acts of an essentially social nature. Thus, we do not commmicate by composing sentences, but by using 42 sentences to make statements of different kinds, to describe, to record, to Classify, and so on, or to ask questions, make requests, give orders. (p.16) Sociolinguistic attempts undertaken on language variation, sensitivity, dialect geography, linguistic interference, and social dialectology are thought to be relevant to language teaching in identifying the systematicity of the language under investigation and . . . the possibility of systematicity interference with the educator's attempts to use a child's language in measuring intelligence and various skills. On the whole, sociolinguistic studies identify and describe linguistic features which contrast between language systems to be taught and set them in a realistic tolerance based on social class, situation, style, frequency distribution, and linguistic constraints. (Shuy, 1969, p. 113.) Spolsky (1982) Clearly pointed out that sociolinguistic of literacy provides teachers with new tools for understanding the problems of language minority children such as those of the Pacific Northwest Indian Reading and Language Program. Regarding the pedagogical value of sociolinguistic to EFL teachers, Bright (1966) held the viewpoint that sociolinguistics enlightens a teacher on how the attitudes of EFL learners are different from English native speakers and how dialogue in the native language proceeds. Jacobson (1976) contended that EFL learners tend to be unistylistic in their speech behavior and violate the norms of interaction of native speakers of English. EFL teachers should systematically incorporate into teaching materials such sociolinguistic motions as social interaction, style shifting, metaphysical and situational switching, role relationships, transaction and personal interactions. They should promote EFL learners' acquisition of the stylistic variability necessary for effective communication. As Gumperz (1972) indicated, "Stylistic choice becomes a problem when we are away from our accustomed social surroundings. Expressions which are customary in our own group might quite easily offend our 43 interlocutor and jeopardize our mental relationship by misleading messages" (p. 46). Second language learners experience not only linguistic transfer, but also sociolinguistic transfer (Hwang, 1975). Based on this premise, language educators (Kettering, 1974; Paulston, 1974; Selekman, 1973; Savingnan, 1983) develOped a variety of useful techniques such as role plays, social formulas, and community- oriented tasks. To develOp sociolinguistic competence in a second language, Holmes and Brown (1976) suggested that EFL materials develOp (a) an awareness of how the sociolinguistic norms of the first language may interfere with those of the target language, (b) the ability to understand the social and referential meaning of exchanges, and (C) the ability to initiate a conversation. EFL exercises and methods must facilitate the acquisition of communicative competence and accelerate the ability to communicate effectively with native speakers of English in "ordinary," everyday conversations. The second discipline which has influenced language instruction is psycholinguistics that investigates the human mental processes, speech perception, sentence processing, prose comprehension, and language production. Second, language learning and teaching have been the subjects of increasing examination by linguistic as well as psychologists in an attempt to integate psychological and linguistic data together and to work on problems of language learning. In accounting for how a second language can be learned in its totality, Hwong (197 5) stated that . . . the learning of second languages requires both the acquisition of knowledge about rules and the formation of the habits described by those rules. Language teaching procedwes can be improved by application of psychological knowledge concerning the learning of language habits. Situational meaning must be incorporated into language rules where it is applicable, and that the corresponding language habits must be made contingent upon these "situational meanings." (p. 101) 44 In addition, EFL teachers should utilize psychologists' investigations of the processes of memory storage and information retrieval to help their students become active learners (Carroll, 1971). Another psycholinguistic speculation was Postovsky's (1970) idea of starting foreign language teaching with emphasis on listening comprehension and delaying pronunciation and active speech production until listening comprehension has been well established. Also worthy of mention is the work of Jakobovits (1970) entitled "Foreign Language Learning: A Psycholinguistic Analysis of the Issues." Jakobovits has speculated about the influence of motivation on second language learning, either extrinsic or intrinsic, deductive and inductive learning, etc. Specific psychological principles have been of effective use to language teaching with particular indication to (a) presentation of new materials in a multiple frame of reference, (b) immediate reward of correct responses, (C) use of a variety of stimuli, (d) withdrawal of central stimuli, and (e) use of concept learning (Politzer, 1968). Psychological studies dealt with TESOL-related issues with heavy stress on three themes: (a) transfer of knowledge gained in one context to others; (b) display of language aspects via enactive, iconic, and symbolic representation; and (C) establishment of experience-grounded and goal- directed learning tasks that focus on language functions. From a psycholinguistic perspective, instruction in second/foreign language entails that a learner (a) associate linguistic units in the form of lexicon, basic sentences, and short verbal exchanges with the cultural matrix in which they function; 0)) internalize the grammar of the language or the rules that determine the structure of the language; and (C) master the basic functions of language for the purpose of effective Operation (Bosco, 1970). Due to the interplay between language and psychology, a draft statement of qualifications and guidelines for the preparation of teachers of English to speakers of other languages (Norris, 45 1977) makes reference to the fact that teachers ". . . should have insight into the processes of language acquisition as it concerns first and subsequent language learning and as it varies at different age levels." Second Language Angisition Strategies Research endeavors of exploring the process of 12 acquisition have been conducive to four avenues of analysis: contrastive, error, interlanguage, and discourse (Hakuta 8r Cancino, 1977). To begin with , contrastive analysis (CA) is a branch of structural linguistic centered on a systematic comparison of the target language and the source language at all levels. CA proponents (James, 1980; Lado, 1957) assumed that the best ESL teaching materials should emphasize the differences between the source language and the target language. CA enables a language teacher to construct linguistic typology, formulate translational rules, predict and explain common errors in a foreign language (Ogasawara, 1983; Schachter 8c Celce-Murcia, 1979); and to test linguistic theory, to have a comprehensive knowledge of the two contrasted languages, and to establish certain language universals (Fisiak, 1981; Sharwood, 1974). Numerous shortcomings inherent in contrastive analysis have been focused on Choices of sound substitutions (Ritchie, 1968), incomplete learning (Newmark, 1966), the difficulty of predicting direction between languages (Gradman, 1970), the inadequacy of data generated by CA, and the inability of CA to account for similarities between languages (Schachter, 1974). Wardhaugh (1970) questioned the validity of CA as follows. The CA hypothesis exists in strong and weak versions, the strong one arising from evidence from the availability of some kind of metatheory of CA, and the weak from evidence from language interference. The strong version of the hypothesis is untenable, and even the weak version creates difficulties for the linguist. (p. 123) 46 Opponents of CA Claimed that the error analysis (EA) hypothesis can efficiently deal with the difficulties predicted by CA (Abou-Seida, 1984). Studying students' recurring errors and Classifying them into categories as suggested by Richards (1971) gives a learner a Chance to test his/her hypotheses regarding the target language (Corder, 1967) and brings to light many non- contrastive errors (1980). "The greatest impact of error analysis upon teaching . . . is certainly the most general one, namely, to cultivate more tolerance and understanding in the teachers' minds towards errors made by their students" (Nickel, 1980, p. 68). However, error analysis has some inherent limitations related to avoidance behavior in L2 learning (Kleinmann, 1977; Schachter, 1974), Classification and overgeneralizations of errors, and statements of error frequency (Newman, 1977; Burt 6c Kiparsky, 1972). Schachter and Celce-Murcia (1977) made the persuasive point that EA (like CA) is only a tool for the analysis of L2 performance and suggested the interlanguage analysis (IA) model for explaining the L2 learner's output. Selinker (1972) argued that an interlanguage system is intermediate between L1 and L2 and successful L2 learners reorganize their interlanguage to identify with the target language through five processes: (a) language transfer, (b) transfer of training, (c) strategies of L2 learning, (d) communication strategies, and (e). overgeneralization of target language data. But the growing need for linguistic analysis beyond the sentence level led to discourse analysis (DA) based on. the tenet that "the study of language in context will offer a deeper insight into how meaning is attached to utterances than the study of language in isolated sentences" (ELS, 1984, p. 94). Consequently, ESL/EFL teachers should be discowse analysts, ". . . not only to teach with expertise the discowse-oriented materials that may have been created, but also to use authentic discowse at hand as instructional materials" (Crymes, 1977, p. 9). 47 Language and Culture One of the most influential developments in the domain of TESOL has been an emphasis on the clce link between language and culture. Linguists (Lado, 1957), language educators (Paulston, 1978), and anthropologists (Keesing, 1974) claimed that language and culture are two inextricably-related entities and, as such, should be taught together. Saville-Troike (1976) stressed the same perspective in the following comprehensive delineation. Language is the primary medium for transmitting much of culture, making the process of language learning in Children in part a process of enculturation. Children learning their native languages are learning their own culture; learning a second language also involves learning a second culture to varying degrees, which may have very profound psychological and social consequences for both Children and adults. (p. 45) Learning a second culture is a part of learning a second language. ESL/EFL learners should develop a linguistic and cultural competence to understand how people in another culture respond in a given situation. No real acquisition of English as a second language can occur without internalizing the norms, ethic, and values of the target language speakers (Alptekin, 1984). These beliefs are in accord with Brown's (1981) theory of target language acquisition that language learners are forced to take on new cultural identities if they are to be competent in the second language. Other empirical data pointed out bilingual and bicultural changes in L2 learners' personality (Green, 1977; Meara, 1977). Thus, "success in language learning depends upon the degree to which they integrate themselves with the native environment of the language, whether they are learning it in the country in which it is spoken or not" (Curtin, 1979, p. 281). Therefore, if ESOL teachers attempt to teach ESL/EFL without paying maximum attention to the culture of that language, "they are conveying wrong or meaningless words" (Hendon, 1980, p. 192). 48 In the process of second language learning, an L2 learner's behavior appears to be changed and a new way of life and new values of life are injected into his/her already settled behavioral patterns (Trivedi, 1978). This behavioral change is due to the inseparability of language from culture and its underlying values. An understanding of these values and beliefs entails one's graSp of the full meaning of words as used in such a culture (Condon, 1975). For instance, moral and immoral behaviors have a certain kind of significance in Egyptian culture completely different from their implications in Western culture. Henle (1965), in objecting to the separation of linguistic items from the cultural ethos of the language under use, correlated language with culture. Certainly one needs worc for the objects involved in habitual action and, conversely, words which have no use in discourse are not likely to remain long in any active sort of vocabulary. Because of the very function of language, it may be taken for granted that language and culture are related in this way, and this conclusion would not generally be argued as controversial. (p. 20) Second language reading comprehension appears to be inhibited by the cultural origins of ESL/EFL texts more than syntactic and semantic complexity. Prok0p (1981) demonstrated the inhibition of foreign students' recall of a Buffalo Bill story due to a lack of schema for the cultural situations portrayed in the story. Hudson (1982) empirically investigated the relationship between reading comprehension and culture-related materials. Their major findings indicated that L2 learners read efficiently when texts reflected their background knowledge or their own cultures. In spite of the recognition of the close relationship between language and culture, language educators and curriculum designers do not appear to pay much attention to culture courses. Courses concerned with second language culture are not commonly included in the core curricula of TPPS for TESL/TEFL in the United States and Egypt (Black, 1978). On the contrary, prospective teachers of 49 ESL/EFL should be well trained in culture and cross-cultural commmication. Due to the paramount importance of second language culture, ESL/EFL teacher training should include a course in culture as an inseparable part of a TESG. program's curriculum and, carefully, consider the goals, desired objectives, methods used in the course, and course topic (MCGroarty 8c Galvan, 1985). The inclusion of a course in culture in ESL/EFL teacher training programs has been justified on substantial grounds. To begin with, an acquaintance with ways of life in various cultures enhances one's cross-cultural communication and understanding. The ability to contact effectively with native speakers of English depends on English proficiency and comprehension of their cultural patterns and expectations. "Successful cross-cultural communication entails a great deal more than language skills. Intercultural communication between speakers of different languages is rooted in language skills, but it blossoms as people relate to others" (Chastain, 1976, p. 383). The enhancement of ESL/EFL teachers' cross-cultural communication and interculture enables them to get rid of cultural fatigue and shock (Nostrand, 1966) and ethnocentricism (Gardner, 1979). Many experts claimed that language teachers should be able to deal with linguistic and cultural diversity of learners in TESOL programs. In ESL/EFL Classes, . . . students often ask numerous questions related not just to points of grammar and pronunciation, but also to cultural matters such as customs and practices . . . . The need for second-language teachers to respond to the cultural diversity of the learners they serve has long been axiomatic in the field. (MCGraatry 8c Galvan, 198 5, p. 84) Due to the cross-cultwal nature of TESOL Classrooms, teachers are often expected to understand cultural differences, commit to promoting positive activities in and out of the classroom, select positive activities to ease cultural fatigue, and create responsive classroom environments. In addition, ESOL 50 teachers have several avenues to be acquainted with cultural differences: basic readings, asking information about specific cultures from informants, keen observation, and field visits (Jaramillo, 1973). In a cross-cultural communication cowse, an ESOL teacher needs to know some areas of potential cross-cultural miscommunication (Althen, 1981; Dunnett et al., 1981). One cross-cultural problem in TESOL classrooms is social norms of interpersonal interaction which vary from one culture to another (Erickson 5c Mohatt, 1982). Another miscommunication area is ESOL learners' expectations for a given event which differ from culture to culture. ". . . even though peOple in situations such as we study agree on the overall purpose of the interaction, there are often radical differences as to what expectations and rights are involved at any one time" (Gumperz 8c Cook-Gumperz, 1982, p. 63). Two other cross-cultural misunderstandings may arise from rules for discussion and discrimination in various cultures (Jupp, Roberts, 6: Cook-Gumperz, 1982; Kochman, 1981). In recognition of the crucial components of culture in teacher training programs (Cadzen 8c Hymes, 1972), TESOL researchers have described teacher competencies, knowledge, and skills related to culture. ESL teachers should be well trained in sociolinguistic, develOpment of communicative competence, values clarification, modes of teaching culture, communication analysis, tone and register in language, and dealing with the problem of refugees (Altman, 1931). Gaining insight into the linguistic and cultural backgrounc of students is another important skill for ESOL teachers (Finocchiaro, 1969). It is an absolute must for ESL/EFL teachers to be versed in such cultural topic as cross-cultural communication/miscommunication, gender-specific behavior, sociolinguistic / sociocultural variation, verbal versus nonverbal communication, value orientation, cultural assumptions, proxemics, and so forth. Lastly, ESL/EFL 51 teachers should be well acquainted with conventional, observational, media, experiential, and COgnitive approaches to teaching culture in an ESL/EFL classroom (Donahue 8: Parsons, 1982; Hartung, 1983; Bandwa, 1977). TESL/T EFL Methodology and Evaluation Preparation and qualification of teachers in the area of TESL/EFL methodology have been the major concerns of language educators and applied linguists since the inception of the TESOL profession in the mid-19605. Several professional articles and research endeavors have been undertaken to identify the content and role of the methodology component in teacher training programs. Long (1983) surveyed the content of 22 methods cowses in Master's programs in TESOL in Canada and the United States and found the following topic to be covered in a methodology course in TESOL TPPS: (a) historical overview of teaching methods; (.13) teaching speaking skills; (C) curriculum/syllabus design; (d) teaching techniques; (e) innovative teaching methods; (f) materials preparation, evaluation, and adaptation; (3) teaching listening skills; (h) teaching reading skills; (i) teaching grammar; (j) language testing; (k) teaching vocabulary; (1) teaching culture; (m) linguistic and language teaching; (n) sociolinguistic and language teaching; (0) bilingual education; and (p) classroom observation. Brumfit (1976), a British TEFL specialist, suggested that methodology courses for the training of teachers must "provide a synthesis and a realization of everything" that the trainee teacher must learn in his/her training progam. To Clarify Brumfit's view, Figure 1 presents a proposed theoretical shape for a methodology course in TESL situations. 52 Theory of People Sociology Psychology L in guistic Sociolinguistic Psycholinguistic Classroom interaction Language Teaching-learning learning L earning situation, etc. (the situation) (the subject) (the child/ the teacher) Figure l. A possible shape of a methodology course in TESL TPPS (adapted from Brumfit, 1976). Another crucial area related to the curricular component of TEFL methodology in TPPS for TESL/T EFL is the evaluation of programs. For being significant in promoting language teaching-learning Situations, ". . . evaluation is inseparably related to both objective and classroom procedures" (Chastain, 1976, p. 481). Strieff (1970) highlit the major role of evaluation of TESL programs in specific towns: . . . it is part of teacher training activity; part of the process of curriculum development, an essential element in the conduct of field experiments connected with the improvement of learning theory; part of investigation preliminary to a decision about the purchase of rejection of materials. (p. 368) Elucidating Strieff's view of the primary objective of evaluation in TESOL classes, Chastain (1976) made the point that ". . . the primary purpose of evaluation in the classroom is to judge achievement both student and teacher . . . . Evaluation enables the teacher to comprehend what can be done in subsquent lessons to improve teaching" (pp. 481-2). ESL/EFL teachers have a wide choice of evaluation approaches for TESOL progams. Scriven (1967) distinguished between formative (improving the program during the progress of its development and implementation) and surnmative (employing comparative standards to assess the merits of a progam 53 after the process of implementation has been completed) evaluation. Long (1984) also referred to process and product evaluation, and favored the process evaluation which is ". . . the systrnatic observation of Classroom behavior with reference to the theory of second language development which underlies the program being evlauated" (p. 415), with a view to ". . . providing explanations for the findings of product explanations, based on the procedures and the findings of Classroom-centered research on language learning" (p. 409). In conclusion, TPPS for TESOL should be comprised of such various areas of humanities and science as linguistic, literature, cultural anthrOpology, methodology, and evaluation. These curricular components are expected to develOp specific competencies in ESOL teachers. Dwelling on these competencies will be the focus of the next part of this review of literature. Competencies of ESL/EFL Teachers The training of ESL/EFL teachers may be regarded as an attempt to develOp desirable competencies. The precise nature of these may vary from one country to another and from one educational level to another. The competencies listed below are those which are emphasized in courses and training programs that have the objective of helping prospective EFL teachers gain an advanced command of English language skills and systems, understand the process of language acquisition learning and teaching, realize the interconnectedness between language and culture, and acquire theoretical and methodological foundations and practical experiences leading to competence in teaching (Alatis, 1974). They have been distilled by the researcher from published standard textbooks in TESOL, articles on TESOL, and language periodicals devoted to allied fields of sociolinguistic, psycholinguistic, anthropology, and language learning. 54 English Language Proficiency Most ESL/EFL teacher preparation programs appear to provide prospective teachers with some or all of the following competencies: 1. following with ease types of standard English such as oral reports, panel presentations, and mechanically transmitted speech of movies and news broadcasts (National Association of State Directors of Teacher Education and Certification, 1976); 2. speaking with native speakers of English without making glaring mistakes and with a command of syntax and vocabulary sufficient to communicate content effectively (Grittner, 1983; Modern Language Association of America, 1966): 3. approximating native English speakers' fluency and communication in stress, pitch, and intonation when conversing and discussing (Center for Applied Linguistic, 1974); 4. reading with immediate comprehension English prose and verse of considerable difficulty and mature content as easily as in one's native language (Modern Language Association of America, 1966); 5. comprehending written content when reading for diverse purposes such as skimming, reading for factual information, and gaining a sequence of ideas (Baudoin et al., 1977); 6. writing for a variety of purposes such as in writing business letters and announcements with idiomatic naturalness, ease of expression, and some feeling for the style Of English (Marquardt, 1971); and 7. developing proficiency in using various types of written sentences with clarity and correctness in vocabulary, ideas, and syntax (Grittner, 1983). Linguistic Analysis and Application In the opinion of most TEFL educators, a very successful teacher in English as a second or foreign language would be expected to possess some or all of the following qualifications: 1. understanding certain concepts from the field of linguistic as identified by Marquardt (1962, p. 109): a. the nature of language structure, use, and orthography; 2. 3. 5. 55 b. the structure and functions of speech organs, e.g., vocal cords; C. the nature of speech sounds and their manner and point of articulation; d. the nature of the phoneme and phonemic patterning; e. the nature of the morpheme and morphemic patterning; f. syntactic structures and syntactic patterning or analysis; g. sentence types and sentence patterns; h. linguistic features of style and linguistic approaches to literary analysis; 1. the process of linguistic change, e.g., consonental deletion; j. the concepts of idiolect, dialect, language, and language families; develOpinga familiarity with the following descriptions of the English language: . . . differences between animal communication systems and human language; normal stages in the infant's acquisition of his mother tongue; the impediment of deafness; the existence of common speech defects and whose job it is to treat them; relations between speech and writing, literacy and education, languages in contact, artificial languages, language and thought, language and logic, language and literature; and many more. (Strevens, 1974, p. 42); understanding what constitutes language, how language Operates, how speech and writing are related, how language reflects the culture of its speakers, how language Changes, how a particular language varies from speaker to speaker and from region to region, how language is learned, how language influences peOple (Robinett, 1977, p. 38); understanding basic linguistic theories which provide a description of phonological, morphological, and syntactic structures of language (Norris, 1977): acquiring a considerable knowledge of the phonology, grammar, vocabulary, and history of the language the teacher is teaching, wherever s/he teaches, and at whatever level (Close, 1966); 6. 9. 10. ll. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 56 acquiring a knowledge of English phonology, including phonetic/phonemic distinction, how individual sounds of English are made and an understanding of the internal phonetic alphabet (IPA) (Fetzek, 1978; Williams, 1975); gaining a knowledge of analysis and classification of speech sounds, including their reception, transmission, and production (Cartledge, 1968); knowing how individual sounds are made and mastering tricks of the phonetic trade which provides short cuts in correcting mistakes in pronunciation of students (Williams, 1975.); developing an awareness of the particular distinctions and contrasts which English grammar makes and of the way in which grammar expresses such distinctions or contrasts (Wilson 8: Wilson, 1971): gaining a sound knowledge of English grammar and knowledge of how to break down a point of grammar into its smallest and most basic elements and to teach elements one by one (Rugasken, 1976; Close, 1966); understanding the differences in sound systems, forms, structures, and lexicons of English and at least one other language (National Association of State Directors of Teacher Education and Certification, 1976); having a sound knowledge of characteristic and frequently recurring patterns in English and of how to develop in students the habit of correctly using the pattern appropriate to the circumstances (Wilson 8: Wilson, 1971); having a good knowledge of generative, transformational, structural, comparative, and historical linguistic (Young 6: Becker, 1965; Scarbrough, 1976); acquiring a knowledge of varieties of English--social, regional, functional, and developmental—end their effects on second language learning (Alatis, 1974; Center for Applied Linguistic, 1974); having a knowledge of the historical development and present characteristics of the English language (Norris, 1977; Modern Language Association of America, 1966); gaining an experience of learning another language and acquiring another cultural system (G rittner, 1983; Alatis, 1974); ‘ develOping a knowledge of formal and informal systems of English and roles and uses of language in social contexts (Richards 8: Aina, 1983); 57 18. having a knowledge of such concepts from the field of psychology as motivation is second language learning, factors involved in language aptitude, psychological obstacles to language learning, variation in verbal learning rate, and behavioristic view of language learning (Marqiardt, 1962); 19. understanding first and second language learning theories, differences between child and adult language learning, and their implications for the classroom (Center for Applied Linguistic, 1974; Marquardt, 1969); 20. having a knowledge of how interest, first and second language acquisition, abilities, and learning strategies vary for learners of different ages (Norris, 1977); 21. develOping the ability to find and use contrastive analyses (structural or generative-transformational) of the languages of his/her students and English for the preparation of teaching materials designed to help his/her students overcome their most common learning problems (Marquardt, 1969): 22. having a knowledge of theories which deal with the causes and significance of ESL/EFL learners' errors (Thompson, Panos, 8c Thomas-Ruzic, 1983); 23. having an ability to recognize areas of potential inference between a learner's first and second languages and to develop curricular activities to minimize language interference and maximize positive transfer (Center for Applied Linguistic, 1974; Finocchiro, 1974); 24. developing a knowledge of how to incorporate the research findings and recent discoverings of neurolinguistic in TESL/T EFL situations (Sukwiwat, 1980); 25. understanding the impact of socio-cultural variables on language use and language learning (Marquardt, 1969); 26. gaining a knowledge of the principles, psycholinguistic models, and remedial approaches for teaching reading for ESL /EFL students (Clarke 8: Silberstein, 1977; Marcpardt, 1962); Socio Cultural Awareness ESL /EFL teachers would be expected to provide prospective teachers with some or all of the following: 1. an enlightened understanding of language as an essential element of culture and history of English-speaking communities (Trivedi, 1978; Bowen, 1967); 8. 58 a rudimentary knowledge of the geography, history, literature, art, social customs, and contemporary Civilization of foreign people (Modern Language Association of America, 1966); an acquaintance with specific concepts from the field of anthrOpology: a. culture as a system of inter-related patterns of behavior, b. basic structural features of various cultwes, c. structural features of American culture, d. procedures for analyzing a foreign culture, e. procedures for contrastive analysis between American and foreign cultures, and f. interaction between culture and language (Marquardt, 1962); a SOphisticated understanding of the factors which contribute to the lifestyles of various peOples and which determine both their uniqueness and their interrelationships in a pluralistic society (National Association of State Directors Of Teacher Education and Certification, 1976); an ability to compare features of the languages and cultures of one's students with parallel ones in En glish—speaking communities and to identify significant cross-culture-interaction situations if there are no published descriptions for the community (Marqiardt, 1969); an ability to a. help ESL/EFL learners interact successfully in a cross-cultural setting to promote the understanding of other cultures, and b. understand the effects of cultural and socio- economic variables on a student's learning styles and on a student's general level of development and socialization (Center for Applied Linguistic, 1974); an understanding of the anthrOpological theory of cultural relativity for being useful in creating a judgment-free atmosphere (McLeod, 1976); an understanding of how expectations and interpretations in various cultural contexts differ 'On the role of silence, speaking 59 volume and intonation, situations requiring set formulas, conventions of politeness, and how information is organized and shared (Applegate, 1975); 9. a knowledge of a wide range of significant works of literature recognized as classic and other examples of well-written discowse (National Council of Teachers of English, 1968); and 10. a knowledge of literary masterpieces, recent literature, and the history of the English language (Sheshsha, 1982). Second Language PedagomI Successful ESL/EFL teachers would be expected to possess some or all of the following competencies: 1. an understanding of the principles of language pedagogy and the demonstrated ability, gained by actual teaching experience, to apply these principles as needed to various classroom situations and instructional materials (Norris, 1977); 2. an understanding of theoretical approaches to, methods and techniques of teaching English as a second language, with their advantages and disadvantages (Norris, 1977); 3. a theoretical competence and efficient practice in the audio- lingual approach to teaching (Fries, 1945), cognitive code learning (Scarborough, 1976), the communicative approach (Taylor, 1983), the comprehension approach (Winitz, 1981), suggestOpedia (Stevick, 1980), and eclecticism (Brown, 1980); 4. a knowledge of objectives, methodological foundations, and techniques of teaching English for specific pwposes (Richards 6: Hino, 1983); 5. an acquaintance with the goals, objectives, and teaching methods of bilingual education programs (Saville—Troike, 1977); 6. an ability to organize, plan, and teach lessons in aural comprehension, speaking, reading, and writing (5 trevens, 1974); 7. an ability to develOp new instructional materials and curricula in harmony with ESOL students' language proficiency, goals, and program objectives (Finocchiaro, 1974); 8. an ability to experiment with new TESOL methods and techniques productive with students in and outside school communities (Maranrdt, 1962); 9. an ability to utilize and manage language laboratories efficiently and effectively (Cartledge, 1960); 60 10. an understanding of ESL/EFL testing principles including test construction, analysis, administration, and scoring (Marquardt, 1969; Norris, 1977); ll. an ability to select, administer, and interpret the results of prognostic and diagnostic standard tests available for the target language (Massey, 1970); 12. a knowledge of the social fomdations and organization of public education in the Egyptian society (Anthony 6c Crymes, 1966; Brooks, 1966); 13. a familiarity with human growth and develOpment, learning theories, and their pedagogical implications for EFL/ESL classrooms (National Council of Teachers of English, 1968); 114. an ability to give professional counseling help for students who show signs of personality disturbance (Campbell, 1980); 15. an awareness of how technique relates to theoretical principles: teachers who see research as part of their role are likely to view their work more positively than teachers who are exclusively concerned with the practical (Widdowson, 198%: 16. an understanding of curriculum development and organization reflecting realistic objectives and maintaining the place of English as a second language in the classroom (Norris, 1977); 17. an adecpate training in classroom management and discipline and administration of TESL/TEFL programs (Campbell, 1981; Strevens, 19710; 18. an ability to utilize audiovisual materials and quipment (Girard, 1974; Mackay, l968l; 19. an ability to adapt commercially-prepared materials to the local situation (Anthony 6: Crymes, 1966); 20. a commitment on the part of teachers to keep abreast of developments in the profession of teaching (Strevens, 1974‘; and Zl. an ability to demonstrate leadership in establishing home/community exchange of socio-cultural information which can enrich a learner's instructional activities (Center for Applied Linguistics, 19743. In summary, ESL/EFL teachers are expected by all experts to possess a considerable number of competencies related to language proficiency, linguistic analysis and application, literary appreciation, cultural awareness, and second 61 language pedagogy. The development of these competencies through various models of ESL IEFL teacher preparation will be the central point of the next part of this review of literature. Models of ESL/EFL Teacher Preparation The second language teaching profession has recently emphasized the paramount importance of teacher education. For a long time, it some educators appeared to assume that native speakers of a language could teach that language effectively to non-native speakers, based on the fact that the natives Speak that language. Alatis (1983) refuted this simplistic view, stating that as a profession, education does itself a great disservice when it accepts the idea that anyone can just be "taken off the street," as it were, be put into a classroom, and be expected to teach efficiently, effectively, and fruitfully, either English or any other language as a second or foreign language with no minimal qualifications in the fmdamental disciplines of linguistics and phonetics. Being a native speaker of English is not a sufficient requirement to provide a good linguistic model for ESL/EFL learners, but the EFL teacher should gain a good grasp of TESOL methodology and a conscious knowledge of the rules of the English language: the sound system, the grammatical system, the lexical system, and the discourse structure (Celce-Murcia 6c Larsen-Freeman, 1983). Applied Linguistics' Approaches to LTE More recently, in recognition of TESOL as a research-based profession and as theories of applied linguistics have advanced, Georgetown University's Round Table on languages and Linguistics '83 (GURT, 1983‘, as a fruitful outcome of Alatis' efforts, assigned its control theme to SL/FL teacher education and attempted to come up with a rationale, if not a full-fledged one, for SL/FL teacher preparation within the interdisciplinary perspective of applied linguistics 62 and language pedagogy. Some approaches to SL/F L teacher education have been recommended with consensus as a result of GURT's concepts, while some major differences of view persist concerning others. An approach of consensus to SL/FL teacher education is the integration of theory and practice. Jarvis (1983) points out that effective language teacher education must be established as the key concept of pedagogical knowledge-a combination of clinical experience and research. Clinical knowledge "consists of distillation from decades, if not centuries, of experience passed on from teacher to teacher through conversation and the printed page" (Smith, 1980, p. 50). Research knowledge specifically about the second language situation is badly needed to guide ESL/EFL teachers in implementing instruction. Goste (1983) noted that the model of ESL/EFL teacher preparation might keep the following three components integrated as closely and comprehensively as possible: language learning, academic knowledge, and professional preparation. The relationship among these three components is characterized by complementarity and interplay (e.g., learning the language brings experimental knowledge to confront academic knowledge). Brumfit (1983) placed repeated accent on effective practice as an ultimate purpose of teacher education and examined the contentious role of theory. Brumfit's view of teaching teaching not about teaching conforms to the audiolingual dictum of "teach language, not about language" (Stern 6r Strevens, 1983, p. 2‘. Supporting the claim of practice-oriented TPPS for TESOL, Strevens (1983) emphasized the effectiveness of a TPP for TEFL in England for being based on and practicing a theoretical framework implemented within a short duration. Building on the above-mentioned approaches, either theoretical or antitheoretical, GURT (1983) has confirmed that the theory-versus-practice issue 63 in TPPS is controversial due to the non-existence of an established theory of language teacher education. Larsen-Freeman (.1983) emphasized educating teachers, not training them. The process of educating develops an individual's skills so that s/he can adapt to, function, and make choices in any situation. The educating process is characterized by four foci: heightening awareness in any situation to make informed choices, a positive and open attitude to take risks, "knowledge of what options exist to have an informed choice to make" (p. 267), and skills development in the areas of language, language learning and teaching, culture, etc. SL/FL teacher preparation should educate students to be independent learners, "to have the capacity to generate their own learning, and learn how to set objectives, define problems, generate hypotheses, gather information, make decisions, and assess outcomes" (p. 265). Given these introductory approaches to LTE, other patterns of ESL/EFL teacher preparation will now be juxtaposed on the coming pages. The Competency-Based Approach The competency-based teacher education (CBTE) model for preparing educational personnel involved in the TESOL profession calls for specification of knowledge, skills, and behaviors acquired by a student as well as the criteria to be applied in assessing the achievement of these competencies (Schmeider et al., 1975). The CBTE process describes the desired competencies derived from the teacher's role (e.g., using visual aids in the teaching of vocabulary items); the desired behaviors related to theories of learning (e.g., using visual aids in the teaching of vocabulary items); and has access to flexible means of assessment and evaluation (e.g., suggesting clusters of competencies) (Fanselow, 1976). It 64 develops skills in decision making, attitudes, beliefs, and values, not the recall of facts only as claimed by some educators (Ganeles 6r Darcy, 1976). To strengthen the concept of CBT E, Moskowitz (1976) recommended appropriate measuring instruments to determine what competencies are desirable to select and develop. FL educators, however, raised serious questions about the validity of CBTE. Diller (1976) claimed that CBTE tends to produce teachers unable to generate creative patterns in their teaching of ESL. Blatchford (1976) assumed that CBTE is deficient in determining and assessing competencies or in the vague specificity of the competencies to be acqaired. Sherwin (l976), NACT E (1975) and TESOL (1976) unanimously agreed that CBTE neglects the affective domain that includes such cognitive capacities as understanding, synthesis, and evaluation. Freire's Problem-Posing Approach Recently Freire's (.1981) problem-posing approach has gripped the attention of teacher trainees, curriculum designers, and applied linguists as well. According to Wallerstein (1983), students are taught to think. Listening to students on the part of teachers, dialogue in the form of an exchange among everyone in a class, and action are the three steps of the Freirean existential, humanistic approach. Within the framework of Freire's concepts of person, consciousness, and knowing, Crawford-Lange (1981) investigated the impact of the Freirean philosophy on second language teaching and formulated the following pedagogical curriculum design principles to be guidelines for ESOL TPPS. l. Purposes of second language teaching should promote exploring and understanding inter- and intra-cultural similarities and differences and use the second language as a communicative tool in personal, community, and informational life. 65 2. Instructional objectives should be conducive to the enhancement of creative action on the part of learners as should the acquisition of skills that help L2 learners understand culturally- oriented topics and themes. 3. The content of curricula in second languages should stress cultural and linguistic themes for understanding the cultural significance of certain situations and for using language as a communicative tool. 4. Learning strategies and materials for second language learners should provide rich resources for students in gaining linguistic competence. In addition, students may choose to construct their own materials. 5. In L2 curriculum planning, both teacher and students have functions in planning for thematic and linguistic content (e.g., the teacher prepares cultural codifications for themes and questions, whereas students select themes from cultural resources). Lozanov's Suggestology With the decline of audiolingualism for ESL/EFL teaching, methodologists began to search for a new instructional model that helps teachers to best approach their teaching tasks and incorporates concepts from cognitive psychology and Chameskian linguistics (Bushman 6c Madsen, 1976). Suggestology, as identified by Lozanov (1975a), is the application of the science of suggestion to language teaching. It deals primarily with the possibilities of suggestion to tap one's reserve capacities under the conditions of suggestive organization, orchestration, and harmonization of conscious/para-conscious functions. Suggestopedic methodology is designed to counteract anti-suggestive barriers or fears that inhibit learning such as feelings of incompetence (Newton, 1979). Breaking down negative suggestions occurs through various means such as the high prestige of instructional programs and teachers. "Infantilization"--child- like trust in the system—and confidence are corollaries of prestige and authority. TESOL specialists and experts in linguistics and psychology recommend to EFL teacher training the methodology of suggestOpedia with emphasis on its 66 theoretical framework and correct application. As a theory applied to psychiatry and language teaching, three inseparable psychophysiological principles of suggestology have been formulated: (a) learning involves the conscious and unconscious functions of the learner and is held back by norms and limitations which society has taught us (Stevick, 1980); in other words, interpersonal communication and mental activity are always conscious and paraconscious (Lozanov, 1982‘; (b) "every stimulus is associated, coded, symbolized and generalized" (Blair, 1982); and (3) "every perception is complex" (p. 13). To achieve the results of suggestOpedia in ESL/EFL teacher training, three criteria should be met: (a) unity of the conscious and the unconscious, (1:) joy and easiness, and (c) suggestive interaction (Stevick, 1980). The fundamental assumptions of suggestology stated above place emphasis on teaching language as a feature of social life or teaching the student have to make use of a code (Racle, 1979). According to Willins (1975), "One may know the grammar of a language and possess a considerable vocabulary, but does not know how to begin or end a telephone conversation, how to introduce oneself to a stranger, how to express pleasure, how to complain politely (or even impolitely), and so on . . . " (p. 15). In other words, to learn a language is to learn how to communicate. The suggestopedic approach is focused on the behavioral goal of communication. However, TESOL professionals should take account of some common criticisms against suggestology. Critics of the method pointed out that students' speech after being trained in suggestology is phonologically and grammatically inaccurate. Consequently, students cannot achieve high linguistic levels. In addition, ESL/EFL teacher trainers can adapt suggestopedia to suit various TESOL programs such as the adaptation of suggestopedia to the American academic scene (Bancroft, 1979). 67 Gattegno's Silent Way Another way of teaching languages is the "silent way." According to Gattegno (1963) in his book Teaching Foreign Languages in Schools: The Silent lay, this approach is based on memorization, repetition, and translation, but urges "throwing the learner on himself." Students are motivated to think silently and say appropriate sentences to accompany actions performed under the guidance of a teacher. Students are allowed to make mistakes so as to develop their inner criteria of correctness, rightness, and adequacy and use them more strongly (Blair, 1982). In other words, Learners are engaged in a continuous series of trial and error approximations to a language. Therefore, the silent way deals more effectively with the problems of a traditional classroom such as poor student motivation and attentiveness, lack of student awareness, and the problems of pronunciation and production (Varvel, 1979). For successful silent way programs, ESL/EFL teachers should consider the following points in approaching the silent way: (a) learning the silent way is conscious work taking place within a learning student so that s/he can better adjust to the unknown world outside him/herself and add new resources to the self; (b) learning must involve two steps-(l) a deliberate act of will that leads the self to mental action and (2) the formation of new images or reshaping old ones as a result of the mental action; and (c) goals and personality of the class should be decided before approaching silent way techniqies (Stevick, 1980). Curran's Communi tLLanguage Learning Curran's 0976) model of counseling-learning/community language learning (C-L/CLL) can be applied to ESOL teacher preparation. The qualities of respect for the warmth and dignity of others, empathy, concreteness, and genuineness can be well-utilized in the training process of second language teachers for being 68 vital ingredients for successful intrapersonal and interpersonal relationships between the teacher and the student (King, 1983). In his paper "The Language Teacher as Facilitator," Rardin (1977) concluded that in building upon C-L/CLL theory and practice, a teacher might be a facilitator who makes a conscious and skilful effort in the initial stages of the learning process to counteract the student's fear of the teacher as a threatening person and create a secure environment for students, one that is conducive to a non-defensive, whole-pe rson engagement in the learning process. Dowling and Sheppard (1976) described how to incorporate a counseling modality into the process of language teacher preparation and proposed two phases in an approach to teacher training: valuation and instruction. However, Brown (1977) cautions ESOL teachers against five limitations for counseling the learning/community language learning model, as follows: 1. Curran's suspicious interpretation of the role of a counselor in a counselor-client relationship; 2. a host of affective variables such as social, cultural, and personality which operate within any one learner. It is, therefore, difficult to generalize what type of approach is optimal for each learner; 3. consideration of the suitability of community language learning for a variety of cognitive styles utilized by learners; 4. the inadeqxacy of relying on inductive, learner-initiated responses; and 5. carrying out a community language learning approach which are encountered as budgetary and curricular difficulties. British Contextualism An applied linguistics model known as contextualism is claimed to provide a suitable basis for the language component in TPPS for TESOL. Contextualism as defined by Geiger (1978) describes the levels of substance and form of language structurally and places emphasis on the treatment of language as a 69 network of options, its status as a theory of semantic, and its conceptualization of text as the descriptive unit of language in use. Furthermore, contextualism places stress on the concept of language register in ESL/EFL teacher preparation so as to be able to develop curricular and suggest new strategies of learning grammar and vocabulary. Within the contextualists' framework that emphasizes communicative functions of language and L2 teachers' verbal activities, Geiger (1978) developed a taxonomy as a model for curriculum planning in ESL/EFL TPPS, the L2 teacher is expected to use language in seven ways: 1. organizing in the learning process and in teaching materials; for example, requesting non-verbal and verbal activities in a simple or complex way; 2. guiding the learning process by such means as providing motives for speaking or writing; for instance, a teacher's production of oral and written tests; 3. informing about language (e.g., formulating grammar rules) and about cultural contexts (e.g., providing background material for understanding particular cultural situations); 4. evaluating the learning process itself and learning materials; 5. arguing in teaching and in materials; for instance, expressing factual information, expressing opinions and emotion; 6. expressing emotions in teaching and in materials (e.g., asking about satisfaction, regret, gratitude, etc.); and 7. maintaining teacher-pupil relations in the classroom and discussing the interpersonal dimension in materials. Techniques of ESL/EFL Teacher Preparation In TPPS, the emphasis in the practice-teaching component has been placed on classroom observation technques and approaches, e.g., the directive approach (Gebhard, 1984; Freeman, 1982), the alternative approach (Fanselow, 1985), and the collaborative approach (Cogan, 1973). Banathy (1968) and McArdle (1971) developed a systems' approach—a closed 100p/feedback mechanism used in 70 developing an instructional design--to solve several problems in FL TPPS. Purvis (1983) suggested a "modernation" or "trouble-shooting" technique characterized by group work, using visual techniques, minimum teacher interference, and strict neutrality regarding the problem under discussion through a teacher-moderator. Fukuda (1975) proposed a four-year program for training Japanese teachers in spoken English, and Figueroa (1962) recommended the education of prospective teachers over a long time. Handscombe and Handscombe (1983) stressed the leadership role of an EFL teacher in a preservice TPP. An EFL teacher should shape and influence policy issues. "Teacher training does not go on in a vacuum but in a constantly changing socio-political context" (Ashworth, 1983, p. 47.). A few practice-oriented models of ESOL teacher preparation are proposed in the training process of second language teachers. Marquardt (1969) suggested the inculcation of certain attitudes, understandings, skills, and habits in prospective ESOL teachers' programs. Moore ’1977) attached importance to demonstrations, group discussions, micro-teaching, and practice-teaching in ESOL TPPS. Moorwood (1976,) stressed the effectiveness of participation techniques in ESOL teacher training. For instance, student teachers should practice methods and techniques through peer teaching and microteaching before initiating teaching practice. Celce-Murcia (1983) included problem solving activities in ESOL TPPS curricula with a view to improving the problem-solving skills of prospective teachers. To DiPietro (1983), ESOL teachers should be engaged in real-life interactions to assimilate the real functions of the language. Microteaching is a useful supervisory techniqie defined as the "scaling down of practice-teaching situations in terms of time, class size, and goals or tasks" (Philips, 1975, p. 120) and is described in the following format: "a teach- critique/reteach-critique" (Carver 8: Wallace, 197 5, p. 185). There are, however, 71 such obvious drawbacks for micro-lessons as artificiality and limited focus on one specific teaching skill. Interaction analysis is another technique used to analyze teacher behavior, to provide student teachers feedback about their verbal communications in the classroom, to assess the amount of student talk in the target and native languages (Moskowitz, 1971) and to enable teachers to gain better awareness and control of their teaching behaviors (Moskowitz, 1980). More important recently in teaching practice is Fanselow's (1977) FOCUS (Foci for Observing Communications Used in Settings) to describe student and teacher communications. With the five characteristic of communications noted with FOCUS, ESL/EFL professionals can examine the effects of different communications on learning and translate theories from other disciplines into definite objectives. To enhance the PT process in ESOL TPPS, Greis (1984) presented a model integrating the three major activities of tutoring, observing, and teaching. For the implementation of this model, two stages are proposed: one for tutoring and classroom observation and the other for teaching under the guidance of experienced teachers to alleviate anxiety and enhance confidence in student teachers. To sum up, this chapter of literature review included an explanation and evaluation of specific models of ESL/EFL teacher preparation. The major findings of this investigation follow. 1. Some patterns attached paramount importance to practice as an ultimate purpose of second/foreign language teacher education and pointed out the dubious role of theory. 2. Some individual models emphasized certain techniques for language teacher training such as microteaching, moderation, com petency-based education, Curran's community language learning, etc. CHAPTER III RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY Introduction This research attempted to identify the linguistic, literary, and pedagogical standards considered appropriate for Egyptian teacher training programs for TEFL as perceived by American and Egyptian TESOL specialists. Specifically, the study was primarily designed to determine the appropriate level of an EFL teacher's competencies and knowledge in theoretical linguistic, applied linguistic, cross-cultural communication, literature, TEFL methodology and assessment, and educational and behavioral processes. The determination of the extent of covergence and divergence in the perceptions of TESOL specialists concerning the priorities of instructional components of TEFL TPPS, and the recommended allocation of credit hou's among various instructional components are two other specific objectives researched in this survey investigation. To accomplish these objectives, a specific research methodology was followed. This chapter is dedicated to the elaboration of methodological and procedural aspects of this research. The study utilized the survey method for data collection and a combination of descriptive and statistical techniques for analyzing the data collected by the questionnaire. Presented in this chapter are research instrumentation (the questionnaire), the development of the written survey questionnaire (its purpose, validation, reliability, and pilot testing), selection and description of the research sample population, and procedures followed for data collection and statistical analysis. 72 73 Research Instrumentation To sample the perceptions of native and non-native TESOL specialists regarding the components of linguistic, literature, and pedagogy needed in the curriculum of Egyptian TPPS for TEFL, the most feasible method for gathering these survey data is a questionnaire mailed to the target population in the USA and Egypt. Two respondent groups, one native and one non-native, were asked to respond to specific inquires within their respective field of teaching English to speakers of other languages. The questionnaire was designed to elicit information concerning the content of TPPS for TEFL and the resulting competencies. The inquires addressed to American and Egyptian TESOL specialists were concerned with the effective and efficient preparation of Egyptian EFL teachers in theories of linguistics and English linguistics; linguistic applications of the sc0pe of TEFL in classrooms; utilization of literature as a means to enhance graduates' linguistic competence, reading proficiency, cultural tolerance and human values; familiarity with second language and culture as two inseparable entities and modes of teaching culture; teacher competencies in theoretical approaches to and methods, techniques, and procedures of teaching ESL/EFL; and educational processes that polish the ESL/EFL teacher as an educator, not a literary critic or linguist in an ivory tower. The points of view solicited from the two respondent groups had to do with high, moderate, and low priorities of several areas of study included in TPPS for TESL/T EFL, theoretical linguistic, English for specific purposes, bilingual education, etc., and with the appropriate distribution of hou's of instruction among various curricular components for TPPS for TEFL. The survey instrument was divided into four major parts and had a total of 38 items including 36 multiple choice items in order to avoid bias and equivocal statements (see Appendix A). The first part included 10 items to elicit such 74 demographic information as the TESOL professional's name, gender, department, degrees conferred, academic rank, years of experience in TESL/T EFL, and areas of interest in TESOL. Respondents were urged to record the number of course offerings in specific areas of study of ESOL TPPS as well. Emphasis was placed on general linguistic, phonetic, English phonology, English morphology, modern English grammar, history of the English language, language acquisition, TEFL methodology, language testing, contrastive analysis, theories of learning, and cultural anthrOpology. Although such personal information serves no correlational functions in achieving the primary purpose of this research, biographical data were significant in analysis of data and discussion of research questions and hypotheses. The second part was comprised of five subcategories containing 36 items to identify respondents' perceptions of the appropriate levels of EFL teachers' preparation in five curricular components of TPPS for TEFL: theoretical linguistic and English linguistic, applied linguistics; literature, culture, and society; TEFL methodology and assessment; and educational and behavioral processes. The instructional component of theoretical linguistic (items 1-9) dealt with EFL teachers' qualifications in phonology; morphology; syntax; semantics; linguistic theories; stylistics; comparative, historical linguistics; and the learning of another foreign language. Classified under the category of applied linguistic (items 10-16) are curricular activities that dealt upon psycholinguistic basic of language learning, sociolinguistic premises of language learning and teaching, second language acquisition theories and strategies, Arabic-English translation, and EFL reading theory. Included within the curricular component of literature and culture (items 17-26) are areas of knowledge of British and American literature; modern literary masterpieces; literary genres of drama, literary criticism, poetry, fiction, novel, and the essay; 75 systematic comparison of Arabic culture with parallel ones for English-speaking people; and effects of socio-cultural variation on TEFL learners. The curricular activities tackling second language pedagogy (items 26-37) and sampled in the present study are theoretical approaches to, methods and techniques of TESL, with their advantages and disadvantages, objectives, methodological foundations, and techniques of teaching English for specific purposes and bilingual education; classroom activities and professional concerns of EFL teachers; language testing; philosophy of education; historical education; psychology of education; and curriculum and instructional models. More specifically, the survey instrument sampled clearly stated competencies of EFL teachers with the aim of enabling respondents to judge the importance of questionnaire items. EFL teacher competencies in theoretical linguistic propounded for TESOL Specialists' assessment according to an importance scale are the following: 1. structure of the English language (10 items) including articulation of English sounds, prosody of speech, feature analysis, syntactic analysis, pedagogical grammar, British and American English, morpheme patterning, morpho—phonemic features, and integration of syntax and semantic; and £0 linguistic concepts, linguistic description of language and historical linguistic (9 items) covering structuralism, transformational-generative grammar, tagnemic, linguistic features of English style, computational linguistic, the historical development of the English language, and the process of linguistic change. The survey instrument sampled 20 competencies in applied linguistic: l. the ability to understand linguistic develOpment in the child, comprehension and production processes in second language learning, variation in verbal learning performance, sociolinguistic appropriateness of language, varieties of English spoken in different parts of the world, speech act theory, language planning, hemispherity in relation to learning styles, and the impact of brain damage on language functions; and 2. 76 a thorough knowledge of behaviorism, nativism, functionalism, contrastive analysis, error analysis, interlanguage analysis, discourse analysis, and psycholinguistic and information processing models of reading. (19 items) The component of literature and culture addressed specific areas of knowledge necessary to prospective ESOL teachers: a knowledge of the history of British and American literature with particular attention to modern literature; an acquaintance with the literary genres of novel and fiction, poetry and prose, drama and literary criticism, and the essay; a knowledge of certain writers' works as a reflection of their literary periods; and an understanding of the general, cultural concepts with reference to interaction between language and culture, basic structural features of various cultures, verbal versus non- verbal communication, cultural assumptions and values clarification, gender- specific behavior in various cultures and proxemic. Professional teacher competencies related to TEFL methodology language testing and educational processes (38 items) are detailed as follows: I. a theoretical competence and effective practice in the natural approach, the comprehensive approach, the functional-notional approach, the communicative approach, audiolingualism, cognitive-code learning, suggestology, and community language learning; the ability to understand professional literature and research relevant to TESOL to apply techniques of TEFL such as individualized instruction, microteaching, and socio-therapeutic analysis to utilize microcomputers, audiovisual aids, and language laboratories in EFL instruction; to carry out TEFL researches; to analyze and administer EFL tests; and to feed back the results of assessment into EFL teaching; and a knowledge of the social, political, and historical foundations of the educational system in Egypt, learning theories and human growth, guidance and counseling techniques, classroom management techniques, models of curriculum development, and evaluation approaches to and administration of TEFL programs. The third part of the questionnaire was designed to determine priorities of various areas of study in TPPS for TESOL in the following degrees: high, 77 moderate, and low. The two groups of TESOL specialists were asked to choose no more than 10 items they considered of high, moderate, and low priority. A list of 31 curricular activities was provided for assessment according to an importance scale. The fourth part dealt with an appropriate breakdown of hours of instruction: theoretical linguistic, applied linguistic, literature, culture, TEFL methodology, and professional education. A total of 500 study hours for accreditation of prospective EFL teachers was supposed for the task of distribution. The survey format was a mixture of questions entailing short answers or enumeration as well as choice of one response from five Options. American and Egyptian respondents were asked to rate the importance of specific curricular components and teacher competencies according to a five-point Likert scale. Each selected TESOL specialist was given the ll-page questionnaire with a cover letter of introduction, intent, and directions thoroughly explained on the first page of the instrument. All questions included in the survey were of three types: 1. those which required short answers such as re5pondent's name, specialization, and institutional affiliation in the USA and Egypt; 2. multiple choice questions that requested the checking of one answer; and 3. Open-ended questions that requested suggestions and recommendations. Development of the Instrument The construction of the questionnaire, with all its parts, included assistance from and consultation with numerous individuals and sources. In the initial stage, in order to obtain a sound background required for constructing a survey instrument, a comprehensive review of literature was conducted to identify theories of second/ foreign language teacher preparation (Anthony, 1967; Altman 6r Weiss, 1970; Corder, 1973; Ewer, 1972; Ewing, 1973; Gatenby, 1951; 78 Fraser, 1970), "ideal" curricular of TPPS for TESOL (Brooks, 1966; Lugton, 1970), curricular components of American and British TPPS for TESOL, and major competencies and knowledge (Finocchiaro, 1974; Robinett, 1977) necessary to ESOL teachers. A critical investigation of the following research reports and doctoral studies contributed directly to the development of this survey instrument: 1. a 1983 Georgetown University Roundtable on language and linguistics: Applied Jinguistic and the preparation of second language teachers: Towards a rationale by James E. Alatis, H. H. Stern, and Peter Strevens (editors); 2. Sheshsha's (1982) doctoral investigation on the qialifications of competent EFL teachers in Saudi Arabia as perceived by Saudi EFL teachers and American TESOL professionals; 3. Fetzek's (.1978) research on the content of most TESOL programs and prOposal of some additional areas for study in TESOL preparation that could enable use of the unique opportunities that TESOL programs offer for students to learn from each other by sharing and gaining linguistic and cultural knowledge; and 4. Rugsaken's (1976) prOposed program for training teachers of English as a foreign language at all levels of instruction in Thailand and identification of courses of high value for Thai EFL teachers such as contrastive analysis for Thai and English, Thai linguistic, methods of teaching EFL, and general linguistic. Additionally, ideal qualifications for an EFL teacher and basic qualifications for a Thai EFL teacher were determined. Second, the researcher examined and analyzed the linguistic, literary, and pedagogical standards of ESL/EFL teacher preparation programs as set by major international and national language associations (including Teachers of English to Speakers of Other Languages, the World Federation of Foreign Language Teachers' Association, the American Council on the Teaching of Foreign Languages, the National Council of Teachers of English, the Center for Applied Linguistic, and the National Association of State Directors of Teacher Education and Certification). 79 Third, a conceptual framework for organizing and viewing the essential standards of ESL/EFL teacher preparation programs was developed by the researcher, and each of the following components of the framework was explored in detail: 1. linguistic standard, covering language proficiency, phonology, syntax, semantic, psycholinguistic, language acquisition, and discowse analysis, including the application of these skills to ESL teaching situations; 2. literary or cultural standard, including an understanding of cultural life or learning styles of English-speaking people and foreign student population; and 3. pedagogic standard, comprising an understanding of teaching methods and techniques of English to speakers of other languages, language assessment of student proficiency, and other educational processes. Fourth, a tentative draft of the questionnaire was submitted to the members of the researcher's doctoral committee, specialists in measurement, evaluation and research design, and professors of applied linguistic. Based on the panelists' critical comments on the content and length of the questionnaire, recommended alterations, additions, deletions, and reductions were immediately considered before administering the survey instrument to the target pOpulation in the pilot study. Validation of the Instrument The validity of the survey instrument points to whether it actually measures what it is purported to measure. To enhance the content validity derived from analysis of the content of each item and of the survey as a whole the researcher followed a specific procedure. First, four faculty members in MSU's departments of linguistic, English, and education were asked to individually rate the relevance, accuracy, and obviousness of the survey items using a scale of acceptance or rejection. Reasons for the acceptance or 80 rejection of items were determined with regard to what extent the content of survey items was related to the purpose, research questions, and assumptions of the study. Raters were provided with a cover letter clearly stating the specific objectives of the study, the target population, and directions on how to respond to the questionnaire. Raters' responses were statistically analyzed to discern the extent of agreement and disagreement among their judgments regarding each item. By computing the fou' American scholars' interrater agreement, an index of 85% content validity was concluded. Variance among faculty members' judgments was found to be 18% which indicates an acceptable level of agreement. Second, a tentative draft of the questionnaire was submitted to six graduate students majoring in English and linguistic at Michigan State University in order to obtain their feedback; it was observed that the graduate students experienced no difficulty with regard to the language of the questionnaire, the clarity of individual statements, grouping of competencies, or specificity of curricular components in TPPS for TESL ITEFL. Pilot Testing the Instrument In order to improve data collection techniques, check the apprOpriateness of develOped measures, and attain the specific objectives of this research endeavor, the researcher conducted a pilot study with 20 American and Egyptian specialists randomly selected from the target population. Respondents were solicited to comment on the clarity or ambiguity of each item. Based on participating subjects' responses, necessary alterations, additions, and deletions were considered. Consequently, as recommended by Larsen-Freeman (1985), some unforseeable problems in administration were eliminated before the actual 81 questionnaire was administered and instructions given to subjects were made clear enough not to confound subjects' understanding of the task demands. Reliability of the Instrument Reliability of the questionnaire which refers to its precision as a measuring instrument was determined by utilizing a pretest/posttest technique. The revised version of the questionnaire was administered to 30 TEFL teachers in Egyptian secondary schools. Their responses were coded and tabulated. One month later, the instrument was given to the same group and their responses were tabulated. In order to obtain a correlation coefficient between the scores achieved on the two tests (pre- and post-), a product moment correlation r was applied to the seven components of the questionnaire to determine the level of internal consistency of survey items. Product moment correlation were utilized in this study to obtain a smaller standard error than is possible with biserial, tetrachoric or other correlations. It was found that the reliability coefficient of the total instrument was .77 which was considered adequate for administration to the target population. Table 3.1 indicates the reliability coefficients of the seven components of the survey. Table 3.1 Reliability Coefficients of Seven Components of the Survey Component Coefficient of Reliability Theoretical linguistic .74 Applied linguistic .69 Literature and culture .78 TEFL methodology and assessment .81 Professional education .79 Priorities of curricular components in ESOL TPPS .83 Breakdown of credit hours among areas of study .80 82 Population Definition and Sample Specification Information sought for this investigation was solicited from two groups responsible for training teachers of English as a second or foreign language in two different countries, the USA and Egypt. The former represented the perceptions of native TESOL specialists for judgment regarding linguistic, literary, and pedagogical standards of Egyptian TPPS for TEFL. The latter stood for non-native speakers' perceptions of EFL teacher qualifications in linguistic, literature, and second language pedagogy. Population of Egyptian TESOL Specialists The Egyptian pOpulation of this study comprised all TEFL specialists in Egyptian colleges of education who had as their specialties the teaching of English, either in EFL teacher preparation programs or in such non-specialized programs as biology, chemistry, Arabic, and so forth. The selection of TEFL instructors in Egyptian universities was made in a two-step procedure. First, a pre-questionnaire letter was sent to the associate dean of each college of education conferring a BA degree in English education (TEFL). The intent of this letter was to request names of TEFL specialists and their main areas of specialty. Based on the information these associate deans provided, names of TEFL specialists totaled 121 who had actually earned academic degrees and were involved in TEFL. In comparison with the American population (190 TESOL specialists), Egyptian subjects were relatively small in number. Therefore, the instrument was administered to the whole target population and no sampling procedures such as cluster sampling, random sampling, or stratified sampling were followed. Had proportional samples been taken, a small number of colleges that offer TEFL programs would have been represented. Additionally, the chances of formulating 83 strong recommendations and drawing significant implications would have been lessened. Second, the Administration of Egyptian State Universities supplied the researcher with names of TEFL professionals. A close inspection of the information submitted by associate deans and the Administration revealed that the number of TEFL specialists ranged from 121 to 129 appointed in nine universities located in several governorates across Egypt. In other words, the Egyptian population of TEFL specialists was drawn from nine colleges of education. Table 3 identifies the names of colleges participating in the sample and the total number and percentage of TEFL specialists at each college. Table 3.2 Number and Percentage of Egyptian TEFL Specialists from Participating Colleges Colleges of Education Number Percentage Ain Shams College of Education 26 20.16 Cairo College of Arts (including Fayium Branch) 20 15.50 Alexandria College of Education 15 11.62 Tanta College of Education 14 10.87 Menufia College of Education 5 3.86 Zagazig College of Education 10 7.75 Asyiut College of Education 11 8.53 Mansoura College of Education 16 12.40 Menia College of Education 12 9.30 TOTAL: 129 100.00 84 Sample of American TESOL Specialists The second group from whom research information was solicited consisted of American specialists in English for speakers of other languages (ESOL). In order to identify the names and institutional affiliations of American TESOL specialists, some major resowces were referred to. First, a list of American institutions and TESOL specialists was compiled from Blatchford's Directory of Teacher Preparation Programs in TESOL and Bilingual Education, 1981-1984, the IIE's English Language and Orientation Programs in the United States, 1973, and University Resources in the United States and Canada for Linguistic and Teacher Training in English as a Foreign Language. In order to verify the names and institutions of American TESOLers, a preliminary letter was sent to a number of American private and state colleges and universities requesting the numbers and names of their faculty members in TESOL TPPS. After compiling an initial list of ESOL TPPS institutions and their faculty members which included 82 TPPS and 231 TESOL professionals, 180 TESOL specialists‘(77.9% of the population) were selected using a stratified sample technique in order to assure that specific subgroups in the population will be represented in the sample in proportion to their numbers in the population. In order to stratify the population, various strata were determine.d These strata stood for directors of TESOL teacher preparation programs, directors responsible for the administration of intensive English language programs, applied linguists, and TESOL methodology professors. The names of each subgroup were alphabetized, listed, and randomly selected. Table 3.3 presents the distribution of American TESOL specialists in the research sample according to their positions and areas of specialization. 85 Table 3.3 Distribution of the American Sample According to Four Strata Stratum Number Percentagg Directors of TPPS for TESOL 21 11.7 Directors of English language insti tutions 39 21.7 Applied linguists 48 26.7 TESOL methodologists 72 40.0 Characteristic of Egyptian and American TESOL Specialists As the research instrument pointed out, most Egyptian respondents (79) were male (82.3%). Fifty-six (70.9%) reported that they took positions in departments of English as a second or foreign language where almost all Egyptian teacher preparation programs were housed. Twenty-one (16.6%) took positions in departments of English, leaving two (2.5%.) who were hired by the only division of phonetic in Egypt. Similarly, mct of the American sample were male (71.6%). Concerning departments of affiliation, American TESOL specialists obtained tenure track appointments in linguistic (44.9%), English (20.2%), TEFL/T ESL (24.8%), and education (10.1%.). Of the 79 Egyptian respondents, their qialifications ranged from Ph.D.s (48.1%) to M.A.s (30.4%) to B.A.s (21.5%). The smallest grOUp of Egyptian subjects earned Bachelor's degrees in TEFL. Almost half (50.6%) of the Egyptian participants were academically ranked as Ph.D.-holding assistant professors in TEFL. Only two reSpondents (2.5%) were professors, while 33 (41.8%) were instructors. However, the overwhelming majority of American TESOL specialists earned doctorates (66.1%), followed by Master's degree holders 86 (33.9%). Their academic ranks varied from assistant professor (48.6%) to professor (22. 96) to associate professor (48.6%). With respect to years of experience in TEFL, Egyptian subjects tended to have a considerable number of teaching experiences as TEFL professionals. Their years of experience ranged from 5 to 30, and over half of them (51.9%) had had 11 to 15 years of TEFL experience. Only one-third of them (30.9%) were new instructors of EFL in Egyptian TPPS for TEFL. The Egyptian TESOL specialists were also asked to indicate their areas of interest in TESOL. Thirty-five (44.3%) listed TEFL methodology as the favorable subject in the interdisciplinary field of TESOL. Other areas of focus included testing of EFL (51%), teaching language skills (30.3%), applied phonetic (8.9%), and pedagogical grammar (21.5%). Of the American specialists, areas of interest in TESOL included TEFL methodology (34.9%), applied linguistic (32.1%), testing of ESL (8.3%), teaching language skills (14.7%), and ESL reading and composition theories (10.1%). The final item, "How many college courses does your institution of work offer in specific areas of study?" was asked to identify course offerings in American and Egyptian ESOL TPPS. As Table 3.4 points out, American TESOL specialists reported that their ESOL TPPS offer at least one course in English phonology (93.6%), English syntax (84.4%), methods of TEFL (55.96%), and language testing (76.2%) as an absolute must for TESOL candidates. They also confirmed the inclusion of general linguistics (98.1%), contrastive analysis (76.2%), and language and culture (94.5%). Conversely, Egyptian TEFL specialists asserted the availability of courses related to English phonology (100%), English syntax (98.6%), history of the English language (98.7%), and methods of TEFL (100%), and the entire absence of courses offered in general linguistic, contrastive analysis, and language acquisition. Table 3.4 shows 87 number and percentage of Specialists' responses regarding course offerings in their TPPS. Table 3.4 Number and Percentage of Course Offerings in American and Egyptian TPPS for TESOL Areas of Study General linguistic Phonetic English phonology English m orphol ogy English syntax Modern English grammar History of the English language Methods of TEFL Language acquisition Language testing Theories of learning Contrastive analysis Language and culture Group American Egyptian A meri can Egyptian A meri can Egyptian A meri can Egyptian A meri can Egyptian A meri can Egyptian American Egyptian American Egyptian A meri can Egyptian A merican Egyptian American Egyptian American Egyptian American Egyptian .Q 2 (1.8%) 67 (84.8%) 8 ( 7.3%) 6 ( 7.6%) 0 ( 0.0%) 0 ( 0.0%) 13 (11.9%) 32 (40.5%) 0 ( 0.0%) 4 (11.4%) 8 ( 7.3%) 39 (35.8%) 39 (35.8%) 11 ( 3.7%) 0 ( 0.0%) O ( 0.0%) 5( 4.6%.) 64 (81.7%) 0 ( 0.0%) 3’. 3.8%) 79 (72.5%) 0 ( 0.0%) 23 (21.1%) 56 (70.9%) 6 ( 5.5%) 12 (15.2%) Course Offerings 23 (21.17%) 12 (15.2%) 72 (66.1%) 69 (63.3%) 102 (93.6%) 75 (44.9%) 86 (78.9%) 42 (53.2%) 92 (84.4%) 67 (84.8%) 54 (49.5%) 76 (96.2%) 45 (41.0%) 0 ( 0.0%) 11 (10.1%.) 2 ( 2.5%) 61 (55.9%) 15 (18.9%) 83 (76.2%.) 68 (86.1%) 16 (14.7%) 57 (72.2%) 71 (65.2%.) 22 (27.8%) 84 (77.1%) 47 (59.5%) More than 2 84 (77.1%) 0 ( 0.0%.) 29 (26.1%) 4 ( 5.1%) 7 ( 6.4%) 4 ( 5.1%) 10 ( 9.2%) 5 ( 6.3%) 11 ( 5.6%) 3( 3.8%) 47 (43.1%) 3 ( 3.8%) 25 (22.9%) 78 (98.7%.) 98 (89.4%.) 77 (47.2%) 43 (34.5%) 0( 0.0%) 26 (23.9%) 8 (10.1%) 14 (12.8%) 22 (27.8%) 12 (11.1%) 1 (1.3%) 19 (17.4%) 20 (25.3%) 88 Data Collection Procedures After the development of the questionnaire and selection of the Egyptian pOpulation and American sample, steps for collecting the data of this survey investigation were taken. First, a preliminary request for information on the names of TESOL specialists was sent to 69 American educational institutions in which TPPS for TESOL are established and which were included in Blachford's Directory of Teacher Preparation in Programs in TESOL and Bilingual Education, 19814984. The responses of American colleges and universities to the researcher's rquests are summarized as follows: Number Percentage A. Total number of institutions sent initial requests 69 100 B. Number of responses 53 76 C. Number of responses rejecting the release of names and addresses of TESOL Specialists to outsiders 9 13 D. Number of institutions having no faculty specializing and majoring in TESOL 7 10 The second phase of the data collection procedure involved the administration of the questionnaire to American TESOL specialists. On June 12, 1985, a cover letter informing each subject of the purpose of the study and need for their co0peration was prepared, and 181 questionnaires were mailed to 61 colleges and universities two weeks later. Extra copies of the survey instrument, accompanied by follow-up letters, were mailed to American participants who failed to send back their questionnaires by the given date. Because the return rate of questionnaires sent to directors of TPPS for TESOL and English language centers was low, the researcher contacted their secretaries by telephone to pass on oral messages to the directors. Follow-up letters and telephone calls were 89 deemed necessary to raise the low response rate for the questionnaire. Numbers and percentages of the distributed questions are summarized as follows: Number Percentagg A. Total nu'nber of mailed questionnaires 180 100.0 B. Total number of returned questionnaires 117 65.56 C. Number of usable questionnaires 109 60.56 The final phase of collecting the research data was concerned with Egyptian subjects involved in the survey. Due to time pressure, economic factors, and the complexity of procuring names and addresses of TESOL faculty members, the questionnaires were distributed to the Egyptian sample through the development of individual contact persons in nine universities. Another significant reason for this procedure was due to the researcher's attempt to raise the response rate of distributed questionnaires. Most Egyptian TESL faculty members have teaching overloads in several universities and busy schedules. They are not culturally accustomed to receiving survey instruments and passing judgments on TPPS to outsiders. On November 7, 1985, 125 questionnaires were mailed to nine contact persons who are assistant professors of English or linguistic or TEFL. On November 23, 1985, individual contact persons were requested to distribute the questionnaires to TESOL specialists, and each participant was handed a questionnaire accompanied by a cover letter and a list of definitions of terms repeated in the questionnaire so as to avoid misinterpretation of items. A week later, follow-up letters accompanied by additional questionnaires were mailed to individual contact persons in case some potential respondents might have misplaced their original copies. By January 15, 1985, the rate of returned questionnaires ranged from 63.2% to 66.4%. Responses to the questionnaires mailed to the Egyptian population was as follows: 90 Num be r Percent agg A. Total number of qJestionnaires mailed 125 100.0 B. Total number of responses 83 66.4 C. Number of usable questionnaires 79 63.2 Methods of Data Analysis The first statistical procedure consistent with the nature of the data utilized descriptive statistic in the form of percentages, simple frequency tables, means, and standard deviations with the aim of drawing generalized descriptions regarding demographic information, curricular components of TPPS for TESOL, teacher competencies, and distribution of credit hours of instruction in TESOL TPPS. To determine the perceived importance of selected curricular components, a mean value ranging from one to five was assigned to each item. The rating scale followed in assessing the importance of curricular components was used as follows: (a) each selected item that received a mean rating of 4.51 or above was considered of greatest importance, (b) each item receiving a mean value of 3.51 to 4.50 was considered of high importance, (c) each item gaining a mean of 2.51 to 3.50 was of moderate importance, (d) each item with a mean value of 1.51 to 2.50 was of low importance, and (e) each item that achieved a mean of less than 1.5 was of negligible or no importance. Also, mean ratings were used to rank order professional competencies and areas of knowledge of ESL/EFL teachers sampled in the questionnaire. The rank order of seven selected clusters of curricular components was utilized to identify the covergence and divergence of American and Egyptian TESOL Specialists' perceptions regarding the priorities of major competencies necessary to ESOL teachers in Egyptian secondary and preparatory schools. 91 A multivariate analysis of variance procedure was followed for the inferential testing of seven null hypotheses pertaining to the curricular components of TPPS for TESOL. A MANOVA was utilized to determine significant differences between responses of Egyptian and American specialists. Univariate f tests were also performed on the data obtained in the study when appropriate. An alpha level of significance was established at .05 to reject individual null hypotheses. CHAPTER IV PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS OF DATA Research Foci and Hypothesis Testing . The researcher's purpose in this investigation was to spotlight the appropriate level of Egyptian EFL teachers' preparation and (palifications in theories of the English language, applied linguistic, literature of the English language, culture of the language and student population, language methodology and assessment, and educational and behavioral processes. Adopting the survey method, the researcher sought to determine priorities of curricular components and the recommended allocation of hours of instruction among constituents of TPPS for TEFL. To effect identification of preparation and accreditation standards pertaining to linguistic, literature, and pedagogy in TPPS for TEFL, data have been extracted from the research survey and organized around the eight major questions and hypotheses set forth in Chapter I. The data are treated descriptively and analytically in all instances and displayed in freqiency distribution tables and histograms. Some graphic representations are depicted to pinpoint the degree of concordance in perceiving fundamental components of non-native EFL TPPS by American and Egyptian TESOL specialists by computing means and standard deviations, curricular items are rank ordered to determine the high, moderate, and low priorities of curricular components in TPPS for TEFL. To test hypothesized differences between the two respondents groups on six curricular components, a multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) was performed on the data obtained for all hypotheses from one to seven. The 92 93 probability level for tests of statistical significance was established at .05. Narrative presentations are included for the hypotheses rejected or accepted. Moreover, the data are treated in the context of theory and practice of TESOL on levels of approach, method, and technique (Anthony, 1963) or rationale, strategy, and tactic (Wilson, 1968,1969). In order to facilitate comprehension of the data analyzed in this chapter, the researcher adhered to a sequential format to report the results of the specialists' questionnaires. The format of data presentation recorded and tabulated responses to each curricular activity by American and Egyptian subjects in rank order according to means and standard deviations. The second step involved computation of f-ratio results to reveal whether an overall significant difference existed between responses of American and Egyptian TESOLers regarding optimal constituents of TPPS for TEFL. The last step related survey findings to the conceptual framework formulated in the third chapter, "Review of Related Literature." Analysis of the data addressed the eight foci of the survey in the following sequential order: (a) theoretical linguistic, (b) applied linguistic, (c) culture of the target language, (d) literature of the English language, (e) TEFL methodology and assessment, (f) educational and behavioral processes, (g) priorities of curricular components in TPPS for TEFL, and (h) breakdown of credit hou's among areas of study in TPPS for TEFL. Theoretical Linguistic There will be no significant differences between American and Egyptian TESOL specialists in their attitudes toward the develOpment of Egyptian EFL teachers' competencies, knowledge, and skills in linguistic theories, English phonology, syntax, morphology, syntax and semantic, history of the English language, comparative and historical linguisitic stylistic, and other foreign languages. 94 To address the first research hypothesis, findings concerning the curricular component of theoretical linguistic in TPPS for TEFL are tabulated and interpreted within the interdisciplinary perspective of linguistic and applied linguistic. Table 4.1 demonstrates how American and Egyptian TESOL specialists rated the relative importance of selected areas of knowledge integrated into TPPS for TEFL and how each respondent group rank ordered the competencies of EFL teachers in the English language. Average mean ratings of American TESOLers ranged from 4.63 to 3.01 with a grand mean of 4.39 for the curricular component of theoretical linguistic in its entirety. The higher the mean score, the more substantially the curricular activity is considered by the respondent to constitute an integral area of instruction for future EFL teachers. American TESOL participants enunciated the most favorable support for EFL teachers' knowledge of English language structure and linguistic theories of structuralism, transformational generative grammar, and Pike's tagmemic grammar. Moderate ratings were assigned to the curricular sub-components of computational linguistic, linguistic relativity, universal grammar and culture, and social customs of another foreign people. Negligible importance was attached to no curricular activities that emphasize the linguistic aspects involved in the preparation of ESL/EFL teachers. According to the importance scale set forth in Chapter 111, an understanding of prosodic features of English speech such as stress, pitch, and intonation was rated at the tOp of the list, followed by a thorough knowledge of the syntactic analysis of English, an ability to utilize and apply pedagogical English grammar in TEFL programs, a pedagogical knowledge of transformational-generative grammar, an EFL teacher's capability of producing point and manner of articulation of English sounds, and feature analysis of English phonemes. American respondents' other perceived curricular areas of 95 Table 4.1 Mean Ratings of American (AG) and Egyptian (EG) TESOLers' Reflections Regarding EFL Teacher Competency Areas in Theoretical Linguistics M Rank Order Competency (Area) A_G _E_(_} _A_G_ fig 1A Articulation of English sounds 4.57 4.44 5 8 1B Prosody of English speech 4.63 4.62 l 1 1C Feature analysis of phonemes 4.49 4.48 7 6 2A Syntactic analysis of English 4.60 4.56 2 2 2B Pedagogical English grammar 4.59 4.55 3 3 2C Differentiation between British and American English 3.38 4.43 20 7 3A Morphemes and morphemic patterning 4.06 4.36 13 11 3B Morpho-phonemic features of English 4.01 3.88 l4 14 4A Theories of meaning 3.94 2.70 15 15 4B Integration of syntax and semantic 4.41 4.38 10 10 5A Structural linguistics 4.42 4.39 9 9 5B TG grammar 4.58 4.53 4 4 5C Tagmemic 4.21 3.65 11 16 6A Linguistic relativity 3.79 3.51 18 17 6B Universal grammar 3.88 3.12 16 19 7A Linguistic features of different styles 4.15 3.98 12 13 7B Computational stylistic 3.01 2.94 21 20 8A Structure of another FL 4.51 4.07 6 12 8B Culture and social customs of an FL 3.64 3.21 19 18 9A Historical development of English 4.47 4.51 8 5 9B Process of linguistic change 3.85 2.94 17 21 96 high importance included structural linguistic, integration of syntax and semantic, morphophonemic features of English language, linguistic features of different styles of language, and structure-uphonology, syntax, and morphology-- of another foreign language. On the other hand, mean values of Egyptian TEFL specialists ranged from 4.62 to 2.94, with a grand mean of 4.26 for the theoretical linguistic component in TPPS for TEFL. These competency areas, all of which relate to language phenology, syntax, and development, received the highest mean values above 3.50, supporting the claim that those curricular activities were a substantial component of EFL teachers' training and qualifications. Prosody of English speech dominated the first place position, followed by syntactic analysis of English. Pedagogical English grammar was rank ordered in third place, followed by transformational-generative grammar, historical develOpment of the English language, feature analysis of English phonemic, differentiation between British and American English, and point and manner of articulation of English sounds. American and Egyptian TESOL specialists agreed on the four top-rated items of prosody of English speech, syntactic analysis of English, pedagogical English grammar, and transformation-generative grammar. To determine if significant differences existed between the two groups in the research sample, data were subjected to Wilks-lambda's multivariate analysis of variance. No statistically significant differences were found in the specialists' perceptions of EFL teachers' essential competencies in modern linguistic theories of the English language, structure of English language (phonology, morphology, syntax, and semantic), history of the English language, historical linguistic, historical develOpment of English, stylistic, and learning another foreign language. Table 4.2 indicates that American and Egyptian TESOL specialists held highly favorable attitudes toward the curricular activities pertaining to the theoretical 97 linguistic component. The value of the f—test with degrees of freedom (df = 25.1937), .89670, was not significant (p .56118). At the predetermined .05 level of significance, the null hypothesis could not be rejected. Table 4.2 Means, Standard Deviations, and Wilks' MANOVA of American and Egyptian TESOL Specialists' Ratings Regarding the Component of Theoretical Linguistics in TPPS for TEFL Groyp N Mean S.D. DE F-ratio P (f) American TESOLers 109 4.39 .95 Egyptian TESOL ers 79 4.26 .83 21.194 0897 561 From the perspective of American and Egyptian TESOL specialists, theoretical linguistic should occupy a considerable place in EFL TPPS. Practitioners of the art should develOp a sound knowledge of language analysis that covers phonology, morphology, syntax, and lexicon of English, and the demonstrated ability to contrast these elements with another foreign language. It was agreed that successful EFL teachers should possess (a) a sound comprehension of prosodic features of English speech and the phonetic alphabet and how individual English sounds are made; .(b) a knowledge of linguistic theories that describes phonological, morphological, and syntactic phenomena of languages; and (c) a thorough understanding of how to contrast English structures with Arabic ones. American and Egyptian TESOL specialists reported that competent EFL teachers should base their classroom practices, use, and preparation of teaching materials, dialogue with learners, evaluation of students' progress, and explanation of teaching points on a thorough but sound knowledge of the subject of linguistic study. They also need to understand the phonetic, morphological, syntactic, semantic, and usage aspects of the language. It is not enough for an 98 effective EFL teacher to merely know the language in the sense of being a native speaker of it; s/he must be acquainted with the results of linguistic investigation of the language (Fraser, 1970) and have a familiarity with the description of the language s/he is going to teach, preferably a description whose terms are compatible with the description inherent in the syllabus being taught. Accordingly, the component of linguistic should help EFL teachers improve their own language performance. The results of this study specifically supported the research reported in Chapter II. The groups of respondents agreed that effective EFL teacher preparation should emphasize phonetic, grammar, semantic, linguistic theories, and historic developmental of the English language. Phonetic can help EFL teachers understand precise descriptions of English articulation and establish priorities of pronunciation teaching (Wilkins, 1973). Competent EFL teachers need to (a) have a .sound knowledge of stress, intonation, and the phonetic alphabet; (b) know how individual sounds are produced and master phonetic tricks that distort students' pronunciation; and (c) be acquainted with the pronunciation problems of their students (Williams, 1975). In the study of syntax, EFL teachers need to mderstand the transformational approach to the study of language, its main tenets, its terminology, and its results. The transformational model can make EFL teachers aware that "grammar is an account of the structural possibilities of various concepts related to communicative purpose" (Morrison, 1979, p. 151). EFL teachers should be able to break down a point of grammar into its smallest and most basic elements and teach each element one by one. Theoretical semantic is another crucial component that contributes to English vocabular teaching through semantic field theory and componential analysis. Although linguistic theories are crucial areas of instruction, American and 99 Egyptian TESOL specialists underestimated the items of linguistic relativity, universal grammar, and computational linguistic. Applied Linguistic There will be no significant differences between and Egyptian TESOL specialists in their attitudes toward the development of Egyptian EFL teachers' competencies, knowledge, and; skills in linguistic applications: psycholinguistic processes, theories of first and second language acquisition, learning strategies, sociolinguistic, newolinguistic, Arabic-English translation, and reading theory. Native and non-native TESOL professionals were queried as to the extent of the importance for the assigned competencies falling into the category of applied linguistic. Table 4.3 reflects the two respondent groups' ratings of 20 curricular activities through means and rank ordering of the items. Mean ratings of American TESOLers ranged from 4.72 to 2.11 with an overall mean of 4.51 for all curricular activities related to applied linguistic. American respondents considered curricular activities of language development, varieties of English, functionalist theory of L2 acquisition, and error analysis very essential for a teacher to. function effectively in a TEFL classroom. EFL teachers' knowledge of error analysis as second langauge acquisition strategy was rated the top priority by 78.13 and received a mean rating of 4.72. Such an American reaction was an obvious indication of the fundamental importance of error analysis strategy in TPPS for TEFL. The highest mean values were assigned to stages of psycholinguistic development in a child (X = 4.69), a study of varieties of English (X = 4.66), and an understanding of the functionist theory of L2 acquisition (X = 4.51). The five top-rated curricular activities, most of which are largely non- existent in Egyptian TPPS for TEFL, are ranked in the following order of importance: cognitive theory of L2 acquisition (X = 4.43), interlanguage analysis (X = 4.36), contrastive analysis (X = 4.35), sociolinguistic appropriateness of language (X = 4.29), and discourse analysis (X .-.- 4.17). Two curricular activities-- 100 Table 4.3 Mean Ratings of American (AG) and Egyptian (EG) TESOLers' Reflections Regarding EFL Teacher Competency Areas in the Component of Applied Linguistics Meg Rank Order Commtency (Area) _A_C3_ _E'_C_‘x 55; ESE 10A Stages of language development 4.69 4.63 2 2 10B Comprehension and production processes 3.09 3.69 17 11A Varieties of English 4.66 4.55 MB Sociolinguistic appropriateness 4.29 4.06 11C Speech act theory 3.95 2.54 ll 16 11D Language planning 3.38 2.11 l5 19 12A Hemispherity and learning styles 4.12 3.09 10 12 IZB Language disorders 2.45 1.98 19 20 13A Behaviorist theory of L2 acquisition 3.76 2.68 14 15 13B Cognitivist theory of L2 acquisition 4.43 4.17 5 6 13C Nativist theory of L2 acquisition 3.87 3.49 12 10 13D Functionist theory of L2 acquisition 4.51 4.35 4 14A Contrastive analysis 4.35 4.23 7 5 14B Error analysis 4.72 4.68 1 1 14C Interlanguage analysis 4.36 2.78 6 l4 14D Discourse analysis 4.17 2.49 9 17 15 Arabic-English translation 2.11 3.87 20 8 16A Psycholinguistic models of EFL reading 3.84 3.33 13 11 16B Perceptual models of EFL reading 3.08 2.95 18 13 16C Readability principles 3.25 2.31 16 18 language disorders, and Arabic-English translationureceived extremely low scores of 2.45 and 2.11, respectively. It was noted that 197 Americans in the sample objected entirely to the curricular activity of Arabic-English translation in TPPS for TEFL. 101 Egyptian TESOL specialists' mean ratings ranged from 4.68 to 1.98 with a grand mean of 4.43 for curricular activities falling into the category of applied linguistic. The most important competencies were an ability to diagnose the causes of EFL learners' errors and their drawn pedagogical implications (4.68, ranked first), an understanding of psycholinguistic development in a child (4.63, ranked second), and a knowledge of varieties of English—social, functional, and develOpmental (4.55, ranked third). Functionalist theory of second language acquisition, contrastive analysis, cognitive theory of second language acquisition, sociolinguistic appropriateness of language, Arabic-English translation, and comprehension and production processes of second language acquisition were all given high ratings. Nativist theory of second language acquisition, psycholinguistic view of EFL reading, and hemispherity and learning styles were of much less interest. Negative impressions were expressed about perceptual models of EFL reading, interlanguage analysis, behaviorist theory of second language acquisition, and speech act theory. Application of readability principles to EFL teaching materials (2.31, ranked 18th), language planning (2.11, ranked 19th), and language disorders (1.48, ranked 20th) were regarded as being much less important or negligible. A further examination of the judgments of American and Egyptian TESOL specialists revealed that both groups of respondents were quite favorable in their impressions of the paramount importance of error analysis, psycholinguistic, and varieties of English. There was, however, a sharp contrast between the two groups on the curricular activities of Arabic-English translation and contrastive analysis. To determine appreciable differences between the respondent groups on curricular activities of applied linguistic, data were subjected to multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA). The results of the statistical analysis failed to show any significant differenc between the American TESOL 102 specialists and their Egyptian counterparts on the importance rating of EFL teachers' competencies in psycholinguistic, sociolinguistic, neurolinguistic, second language acquisition, second language learning strategies, translation, and reading theory. The value of the overall f-ratio with degrees of freedom (DF = 16.8973) was .95337, which was not significant at the predetermined .05 level (p .68119). Table 4.4 Means, Standard Deviations, and Wilks' Curricular MANOVA of American and Egyptian TESOL Specialists' Ratings Regarding the Component of Applied Linguistic in TPPS for TEFL Grogp N Mean S.D. DE F-ratio P (f) American TESOLers 109 4.51 67 Egyptian TESOL ers 79 4.43 86 16.897 953 .681 A comparison of the two groups yielded critical data for identifying competencies and skills of EFL teachers in applied linguistic. There is a general agreementthat EFL teachers should be well acquainted with two strategies of second language acquisition: error analysis and contrastive analysis. As a trend on the horizon of applied linguistic, an error analysis strategy can help EFL teachers analyze their students' errors and build a picture of the freq1ency of types of errors. Contrastive analysis is another favorably perceived area for EFL teachers. Although Fisiak (1981) and Schachter and Celce—Murcia (1977) spoke highly of contrastive analysis, American TESOL participants attached only moderate importance to this item. Fetzek (1979) objected to overestimating contrastive analysis as a tool for predicting some difficulties in second language acquisition, while other theories of error analysis are effective. A professional preparation program for TESOL offering a course in contrastive analysis as the only means of error prediction runs the risk of allowing prospective teachers to 103 adhere to contrastive analysis in their careers with no minimal attention to other such analytical methods as error analysis or interlanguage analysis. This reflects the possibility of reassessing the pedagogical usefulness of contrastive analysis in the preparation of instructional materials and the planning of cases. Another area of great interest to American and Egyptian TESOL specialists is psycholinguistic devoted to the mental process of learning and using language. EFL teachers are urged to have a thorough knowledge of how linguistic and psychological principles function in a language classroom. TPPS for TEFL should foster graduates' comprehension of psycholinguistic contributions to FL teaching in three domains: (a) neurophysiological, dealing with language acquisition age, lateralization, etc.; (b) cognitive, subsuming research into the role of memory, hypothesis-testing, and learning strategies; and (c) affective, associated with humanistic psychology that draws on a learner as a whole person (Magnan, 198 3). Sociolinguistic appropriateness of language is a fourth topic of interest among respondents. There seems to be a strong desire to enhance EFL teachers' communicative competence which is ability to adjust language according to social settings. In addition to message content, phonology, syntax, lexicon, and semantic, EFL teachers must learn apprOpriate levels of languages used in different social contexts, i.e., body gestures, facial expressions, when to be silent, how to communicate effectively in culturally significant settings, which comments might be offensive. It is expected that future EFL teachers will learn how to handle the functions of language. This heightened awareness of the sociocultural and sociolinguistic dimensions of language should be available for EFL teachers through coursework in sociolinguistic, social anthropology, nonverbal language, kenesic, and proxemic. EFL teachers ". . . should be req.11red to keep an inventory of physical and emotional distance between speakers, nonverbal body language, gestures, register shift code switching, taboo 104 topic, ritualistic speech, age differentiation, and solid class differentiation" (Nussenbaum, 1983, p. 124). Unexpectedly, American respondents rated the curricular activity of Arabic-English translation as "of low importance" (2.11, ranked 20th). However, the score of the same item for Egyptian TESOL participants was much higher (3.81.) to indicate the importance of training in translation for future EFL teachers. This would strengthen favorable claims by some language educators and applied linguists. It is possible to make the most use of translation to build on what learners already know about the operation of their first language in order to build their knowledge of how to use second language communication and to convey the meaning of second language usage items via first language items (Thamas, 1976) and increase students' awareness of their native languages (King, 1973). In addition, translation from the mother tongue into the target language is a device for testing particular linguistic items such as points of divergence between native and target languages (M atthews—Bvesky, 1972). Reporting American and Egyptian TESOL specialists' support for numerous applied linguistic-related competencies reqiired for practitioners of the art, the findings of the survey-based data show conformity with the statements and results attributed to the 1970 TESOL Guidelines for the preparation of ESOL teachers and the work of Strevens (1974) and Sheshsha (1982). As stated in the TESOL statement (1970), minimal competence in applied linguistic for a practitioner of the art refers to a sound knowledge of second language acquisition, individual differences and learning styles, cultural variables in language use, and sociolinguistic dimensions of language teaching. Greater attention should be given an EFL teacher's knowledge about language which contains normal stages in an infant's acquisition of his/her mothers tongue, notions of correctness and social judgments on language, language variety 105 including dialects and accents, languages in contact, artificial languages, and language and thought (Strevens, 1974). Sheshsha (1982) fomd that competent EFL teachers should possess the knowledge of (a) how interest, language acquisition abilities, and learning strategies vary for learners of different ages; (b) basic theories for studying causes of errors in second language acquisition; and (c) the ability to analyze the phonological, syntactical, and lexical differences between English and Arabic (contrastive analysis hypotheses). However, it is interesting to note that data in the present study do not support the findings of Acheson's survey that the relatively new fields of psycholinguistic, error analysis, second language acquisition, and sociolinguistic are low ranked in TPPS for TESOL in American and British colleges and universities. In the past, psycholinguistic and sociolinguistic were the exclusive domain of university linguistic without minimal attention to foreign language teaching. Today, linguists are virtually concerned about foreign language pedagogy and psycholinguistic and sociolinguistic bases of foreign language teaching and learning models. English Literature There will be no significant differences between American and Egyptian TESOL specialists in their attitudes toward the development of Egyptian EFL teachers' competencies, knowledge, and understanding of English literature and its need as an instructional component in curricula of Egyptian EFL teacher preparation programs. A literature component constitutes the third core part of the American and Egyptian TESOLers' survey of the identification of linguistic, literary, and pedagogical standards of Egyptian TPPS for TEFL. Table 4.5 displays the mean ratings of American and Egyptian respondents to report their professional assessment of the curricular activities in literature that "should be" part of EFL teachers' optimal preparation in TESL/T EFL. 106 Table 4.5 Mean Ratings of American (AG) and Egyptian ’EG) TESOLers' Reflections Regarding EFL Teacher Competency Areas in English Literature Mean Rank Order Competency (Area) A_G £9 £9 £9 17 Knowledge of the history of English literature 3.23 4.39 5 2 18 Knowledge of the history of American literature 4.21 2.13 2 6 l9 Indepth study of major authors' writings 3.86 4.09 3 3 20 Knowledge of a wide range of significant works of modern literature 4.53 4.42 l l 21 Study of such major literary genres as drama, poetry, fiction, and essay 3.69 3.95 4 4 22 Study of some representative works from literature other than English 2.87 2.19 6 5 American respondents' mean ratings averaged from 4.53 to 2.13, with a grand mean of 3.89. The higher the mean score, the more important the competency is deemed to be for future EFL teachers. A knowledge of a wide range of significant works of modern literature received a mean rating of 4.53 (of the greatest importance), with 89.5% responding positively to this item. High importance was assigned to knowledge of the history of American literature (X = 4.21, ranked second), indepth study of major authors' writings (X = 3.86, ranked third), and study of such major literary genres as drama, poetry, fiction, and essay (X = 3.69, ranked fourth). American TESOL professionals held negative feelings about two competencies. They were generally unenthusiastic about an EFL teachers' need for knowledge of the history of English literature (X = 2.23, ranked near the bottom of the list), while study of some representative works 107 from literature other than English was viewed as unimportant (X = 2.87, ranked sixth). The value of EFL teachers' knowledge of English literature as a cultural activity overruled the mediocre rating of 3.23 given by American respondents. Egyptian TESOL specialists held more favorable perceptions of the need for EFL teachers' literary knowledge and competencies. Their average mean ratings ranged from 4.52, given to knowledge of a wide range of significant works of modern literature, to a low mean rating of 2.13, assigned to EFL teachers' "knowledge of the history of American literature." The overall mean rating of all competencies approached 4.06. These curricular activities which related to English literature, authors' writings, modern literature, and literary genres were rated slightly higher than 3.75. The lowest scores, 2.14 and 2.19, came from "study of some representative works from literature other than English" and "knowledge of the history of American literature." Egyptian TESOL specialists' responses could be viewed as an indication that Egyptian TPPS for TEFL are aligned with literature—based departments and are still resistant to second language pedagogy and applied linguistic. Conversely, American responses confirmed the independence of TESOL TPPS from literature departments and the integral component of TEFL pedagogy and applied linguistics in American TPPS for TESOL. A multivariate analysis of variance was performed on these data to determine whether there was a significant difference between American and Egyptian respondents concerning EFL teachers' literary competencies. At the the .05 level, the MANOVA failed to show any statistically significant difference between the two responding groups in terms of the importance rating of EFL teachers' competencies in English literature. Table 4.6 indicates a high agreement among respondents for the component of literature which is SUpported by the same rank ordering of the following curricular activities: 108 1. knowledge of a wide range of significant works of modern literature; 2. indepth study of major authors' writings; and 3. study of such major literary genres as drama, poetry, fiction, and essay. Table 4.6 Means, Standard Deviations, and Wilks' MANOVA of American and Egyptian TESOL Specialists' Ratings Regarding the Component of Literature in TPPS for TEFL Grogp N Mean S.D. QE F-ratio P (f) American TESOLers 109 3.98 1.09 Egyptian TESOLers 79 4.06 1.03 17.842 1.932 .875 Some language educators showed little support for literature as part of the curriculum of TPPS for TEFL and viewed literature as unnecessary for future EFL teachers. Respondents believe that EFL students do not possess the necessary linguistic and analytical skills to approach literary texts due to their linguistic complexities and metaphorical language. Foreign language learners should be well prepared linguistically before entering into the intricacies of literature. Some respondents indicated that learners' grammatical skills can be develOped without having recourse to literary texts and introduced to literary analysis after the promotion of saphisticated reading skills (Esler, 1968; Bolinger, 1968). These foreign language educators also viewed literature as a reflection of a particular cultural perspective and that adult Arab learners misunderstood American literature due to their background knowledge of the Arabic culture and the difference of literary values (Yousef, 1968). Other respondents' perspectives of literature focused on literature as a pedagogical tool for develOping language skills, cross-cultural understanding, and educative values. For them, the separation of language from literature is 109 entirely rejected. Language can, and indeed should be, taught through literature. As indicated in Chapter II, literature promotes all language skills and extends linguistic knowledge through extensive and subtle vocabulary usage, and complex syntax (Povey, 1972). The present study supported the linguistic benefits of literary texts as well as cultural usefulness. For instance, Bostick (1972) used black francophone and hispanephone literatures to inform students about the problems of an era and the culture of an ethnic group. Prospective EFL teachers should be trained in the literature of the English language to become acquainted with cultural patterns, human values, and literary appreciation. This investigation, however, lent no support to Sheshsha's (1981) findings that an EFL teacher's knowledge of the history of English literature, literary masterpieces, and recent literature is of little importance and should not be strongly emphasized in Saudi TPPS for TEFL. In response to negative impressions, literature fosters an overall increase in reading proficiency and in this way contributes to a student's academic and occupational objectives. Cross-Cultural Communication and Interaction There will be no significant differences between American and Egyptian TESOL specialists in their attitudes toward the development of Egyptian EFL teachers' competence and knowledge in langauge and culture in interconnectedness, cultural interaction, and cultural patterns of the target student pOpulation with a view to understanding the effects of culturally determined life styles in EFL learning and enhancing successful cross-cultural interaction in the classroom. The focus of this section is on the identification of the perceived appropriate level of prospective EFL teachers' knowledge and skills in understanding cultural patterns of the target language and the source language and the impact of culturally determined learning styles on second language learning. Table 4.7 displays the mean ratings and rank orders of American and Egyptian respondents regarding their estimate of the importance of' the 110 curricular activities falling into the category of cross-cultural communication. The average mean ratings of this group ranged from 4.39 to 1.94, with a grand mean of 4.22. The higher the mean rating, the more essential the area of knowledge was judged to be for prospective EFL teachers. American TESOL specialists showed greater concern about EFL teachers' ability to use contrastive analysis of English and Arabic for the preparation of teaching materials and courses. This curricular activity received an overall mean score of 4.53, selected first in rank order. A little over half of the American participants assigned a high importance for other curricular activities. Interaction between language and culture were ranked a close second with a score of 4.31. Experiential approaches to the teaching of culture in TEFL programs were rated higher than cognitive approaches (culture assimilators, etc.), while proxemic and cultural assumptions and value orientations received relatively equal mean values of 3.79 and 3.68, respectively. American TESOLers also felt favorably about the curricular activities of gender-specific behavior in various cultures (X = 3.61, ranked seventh) and the effects of social-cultural variation on EFL learners (X = 3.52, ranked eighth). Four curricular activities received moderate mean ratings between 3.28, which was assigned to observational approaches such as native informants, and 2.75, which was given to the item of verbal versus nonverbal communication. A knowledge of basic structural features of various cultures was rated as unfavorable for EFL teachers. In view of American TESOL specialists' overall responses, they were very positive regarding the inclusion of culture in TPPS for TEFL. Comparatively, the attitudes expressed by Egyptian TESOL specialists toward the component of culture in TPPS for TEFL were encouraging. They believed overwhelmingly that EFL teachers should develop the ability to find and 111 Table 4.7 Mean Ratings of American (AG) and Egyptian (EG) TESOLers' Reflections Regarding EFL Teacher Competency Areas in Cross-Cultural Communication and Interaction Mean Rank Order Competency Area A_G E A_G _E_§ 23A Interaction between language and culture 4.31 4.28 2 2 23B Basic structural features of various cultures 1.94 2.14 13 13 23C Verbal versus non-verbal communication 2.75 3.06 12 10 23D Cultural assumptions and value orientation 2.68 3.71 6 5 23E Gender-specific behavior in ' various cultures 3.61 3.54 23F Proxemic 3.79 3.67 24 Contrastive analysis of English and Arabic cultures 4.39 4.53 l l 25 Effects of social-cultural variation on EFL learners 3.52 3.42 8 9 26A Conventional academic approaches (e.g., lectures) 3.16 2.73 11 12 26B Observational approaches (e.g., native informants) 3.28 3.59 9 7 26C Media approaches (film videotapes) 3.23 2.91 10 ll 26D Experiential approaches (role plays, simulation games, etc.) 4.09 3.75 3 4 26E Cognitive approaches (culture assimilators, etc.) 3.87 4.11 4 3 use contrastive analyses of Arabic and English to help students overcome cultural learning problems. The curricular activities of interaction between language and culture and cognitive approaches to the teaching of culture received high mean ratings of 4.28 and 4.11, respectively. They were followed in rank order by two other curricular areas of knowledge: experiential approaches to the teaching of culture and cultural assumptions and value orientation, with 112 means of 3.75 each. Curricular components of sociocultural variation and verbal versus nonverbal communication received mean scores approaching 3.00. Negative expressions were felt only about basic cultural features with a negligible mean rating of 2.14. The mean average ratings of all curicular activities ranged from 4.53 to 2.14, with a grand mean value of 4.21. The higher the mean value, the more substantial the area of study in TPPS for TEFL. Since an analysis of Egyptian TPPS for TEFL revealed the nonexistence of cultural cou'se offerings, it was expected that Egyptian respondents would voice the most favorable support for most cultural items included in the fourth part of the survey. The data were subjected to Wilks' lambda's multivariate analysis of variance to determine if an overall significance existed between American and Egyptian TESOLers regarding EFL teachers' areas of knowledge in culture. Table 4.8 presents the results of the multivariate test, along with the significance of f results (.8238) with apprOpriate degrees of freedom (14.385). At the predetermined .05 alpha level, a MANOVA failed to show any significant difference between the two groups of respondents, where the value of the overall f test (08238) was not significant (p .7336). As a result, the null hypothesis could not be rejected, indicating that American and Egyptian TESOLers had favorable perceptions and a high degree of agreement on the development of Table 4.8 Means, Standard Deviations, and Wilks' MANOVA of American and Egyptian TESOL Specialists' Ratings Regarding the Cross-Cultural Component in TPPS for TEFL Grogp N Mean S.D. 13E F-ratio (f) American TESOLers 109 3.191 1.312 Egyptian TESOLers 79 3.636 1.079 14.385 824 .734 113 EFL teachers' competence in language and culture interconnectedness, cultural interaction, and cultural patterns of the target student pOpulation with a view to understanding the effects of culturally determined life styles on EFL learning. Firthermore, the rank ordering of cultural areas of knowledge reflects the convergence of American and Egyptian judgments on the following top-rated three curricular activities in the same order of importance: 1. ability to compare aspects of Arabic culture with parallel areas for English-speaking people, 2. thorough knowledge of interaction between language and culture, and 3. experiential approaches (role plays, simulations games, etc.) to the teaching of culture in TEFL programs. The data displayed in Tables 4.7 and 4.8 suggest that Egyptian and American TESOL specialists enthusiastically favored the cultural leadership role EFL teachers. Teacher competence in the target language and culture is part of the criteria for student success and critical to a successful language program. EFL instruction in the target culture is paramount for being an accessible window on the world of advanced technology and industrial development. Native teachers of EFL who teach overseas tend to reflect the cultural norms and values of their home countries; they believe strongly that "teaching the target culture is a sine qua non of teaching the target language." Otherwise, it is believed, students will be exposed to a hollow language devoid of cultural content and will be unable to identify with the English—Speaking culture" (Alptekins, 1984, p. 15). In other terms, culture is the raison d'etre for foreign language study, and language is used primarily to transmit the ideas of culture. Because of language and culture interconnectedness, teachers and students should explicitly discuss their own and each other's cultural patterns and attitudes and create judgment-free atmospheres in the neutral territory of 114 language classrooms (McLeod, 1976). The adaptation of such an anthrOpological approach enables prOSpective EFL teachers and students to acquire communication patterns of native speakers or learn the sociolinguistic rules of language. American and Egyptian TESOL specialists believe that EFL teachers should have a sound knowledge of cultural contrasts and variations in nonverbal behavior to avoid faulty communication and alienation. Facial expressions, gestures, eye contact, proxemic behavior, kinesic behavior, and addressing conventions are culture-specific behaviors of which EFL teachers should be aware. By perusal of Birdwhistell's (1970) Kinesic and Context, Hall's (1966) IDS Hidden Dimension, Hall's (1974,) Handbook for Proxemic Research, and Knapp's (1972) Nonverbal Communication in Human Interaction, prospective EFL teachers can develOp a knowledge of how kinesic and proxemic differences and how sensory modalities are culture-bound. They are expected to tolerate non-native students who do not follow the American culture in their behaviors. Of the five approaches to teaching of culture in TEFL programs suggested to the respondents, experiential and cognitive approaches are the most favored and practical for EFL teacher preparation. Classified under experiential approaches are role plays that give students the Opportunity to practice the language, aspects of role behavior, and actual roles they may need outside classrooms. Language teachers can present role plays relevant to student interests, experiences, and needs with the aim of enhancing students' cultural tolerance and sensitivity. Simulation games and cross-cultural exercises are workable, experiential approaches to identify how many cultural patterns are deeply ingrained. Cognitive approaches are the most recent in teaching the second language culture and are primarily ". . . based on cognitive psychology which seeks to provide a rational basis for choice among alternative behaviors" 115 (McGroatry 6r Galvin, 1985, p. 88). Among cognitive psychology-oriented techniques are the following: (a) culture assimilators that make choices and match those choices against the behaviors of the native culture, (15) culture capsules that describe cultwal contrasts, (c) culturegrams that delineate the main aspects of cultures, and (d) culture asides which are spontaneous responses to unplanned comments on cultural topic rising in a classroom. However, American and Egyptian TESOL participants felt negative impressions about conventional academic approaches to the teaching of culture such as reading from textbooks and lectures. These unfavorable responses may be attributed to the view that students should practice and try cultural behaviors in real or artificial situations. Instructional Methods and Materials American and Egyptian TESOL specialists will have similar attitudes toward the development of Egyptian EFL teachers' competence, in TEFL methodology, materials development and evaluation, instructional media utilization, and assessment of student proficiency and progress. The major concern of this section is to identify American and Egyptian TESOLers' perceived estimates of the mean degree of importance for specific language teaching and testing methods used in TEFL programs and to generalize those findings in order to determine if any one language-teaching approach predominates in classroom practices at TPPS for TEFL. Tables 4.9 and 4.10 summarize American and Egyptian TESOLers assigned ratings to TEFL methodology-based activities on a scale of five (of greatest importance) to one (of negligible importance). The higher the mean value, the more pertinent the curricular activity is considered by respondents for prospective EFL teachers. American participants' average mean score varied from 4.82 to 2.07 with an 116 Table 4.9 Mean Ratings of American (AG) and Egyptian (EG) TESOLers' Reflections Regarding EFL Teacher Competency Areas in TEFL Methodology Com19etency Area All-Len Rank Order 39. as. A9 129 27A The natural approach 4.43 4.30 6 8 27B The comprehensive approach 4.21 4.09 9 12 27C The functional-notional approach 4.57 4.26 5 9 27D The communicative approach 4.82 4.71 l 1 28A Audio-lingualism 2.23 2.43 20 17 28B Cogni tive-code learning 4.25 4.59 28C Eclecticism 4.79 4.69 28D Suggestology 4.03 3.41 12 15 28E Community language learning 3.92 4.02 13 13 29A Individualized instruction 3.75 4.16 15 11 29B Microteaching 4.08 3.95 ll 14 29C Socio-therapeutic analysis 3.11 3.11 17 18 30A English for specific purposes 4.13 4.25 10 10 308 Bilingual education 2.07 2.37 21 20 31A Preparation and teaching listening reading and writing lessons 4.73 4.61 3 4 31B Deve10ping/ evaluating instructional materials and curricula 4.68 4.65 4 3 31C Preparing and using language laboratory lessons 3.61 4.37 16 7 31D Utilizing micro-computers in TESL/TEFL 3. 59 1.8 3 18 21 32A Experimenting with new TESOL methods 4.37 4.48 7 6 328 Directing TESL/TEFL researches 3.85 3.34 l4 16 32C Having familiarity with periodicals and organization devoted to TESOL 2.83 3.20 19 17 117 overall mean value of 4.69, while their Egyptian counterparts' mean score similarly ranged from 4.71 to 1.83 with an overall mean rating of 4.81. The total response to approaches, methods, and techniques of TEFL seem to indicate native and non-native participants' satisfaction with most aspects of the TEFL methodology category in TPPS for TEFL. The majority of American and Egyptian TESOL respondents generally expressed favorable support for EFL teachers' theoretical and practical knowledge of the communicative approach, eclecticism, the natural approach, and the functional-notional approach. High ratings above 3.5 were assigned to the comprehensive approach, cognitive code learning, and suggestology. Community language learning impressed Egyptian TESOL specialists more than American ones, and the interest in this approach is reflected in Egyptian participants' comments on the last open-ended question. Nearly half of the surveyed participants, either native or non-native, favorably responded to the importance of such innovative techniques of TEFL as individualized instruction and microteaching. American TESOLers exhibited more favorable attitudes toward language teaching approaches and methods than their Egyptian counterparts. Figure 4.2 depicts that American respondents rated all approaches to, methods and techniques of TEFL except community language learning higher than did the Egyptian TESOL participants. The two groups, however, were not entirely dissatisfied with audio-lingualism and socio-therapeutic analysis. Although a large majority of participants assigned a high mean value to an EFL teacher's knowledge of English for specific purposes, they thoroughly rejected the marginal significance of bilingual education area in TPPS for TEFL. The distribution of responses of American and Egyptian TESOL Specialists to EFL teachers' knowledge of classroom activities and other professional concerns were.relative1y equal throughout. The response to EFL teachers' ability Percentage of Perticipante' Responses 100. 90 80 70 60 SO 40 30 20 10 118 0! 1: Egyptian m -““"“ 83. g z , ms 22:32:: ’ fl 73'” 6.3.3: ..|‘ s . 7~ g E = 59 611 , ‘ V g g 54,6. 2 g m g 53.5: I 5 r “g ‘ I I f g a = 45: fi 44; ’ a ’ 5 ’ 5 ’ " 5 a I a 5 a ’ ‘ 33‘ a I a — a ' fl ' ’ ’ I f s d f ‘ ’ 5 s 5 E = 5 5 5 5 W; a I I ‘ ‘ a I g . , a1 a ‘ I a v a i‘ ’ ‘ d ‘ I .— i p ‘ ‘ ’ a a a a ’ ‘ a = 2 a a a a a 5 fl " a f C E E 1 2 E g 5 g 5 5 o I POM; 0.4.: 00 o >~ £55 £233 fif‘é 5.5 :: as: s: 'a E‘ a: 3 is: <3 :3 w =3 3 a a” :4 .I: m ‘- e 2: -’ :32. g 5 m Figure 2. Histogram depicting American and Egyptian TESOLers' importance ratings of TEFL approaches and methods. to prepare and teach listening, reading, and writing lessons and to develop/evaluate instructional materials was strongly positive and received a higher favorable perception, high enough to be ranked the third curricular activity of substantial importance in TPPS for TEFL. Ability to prepare and use language laboratories was also rated as of "high importance" and assigned a higher mean value by Egyptian TESOLers than by their American counterparts. Although three-fourths of the American participants believed that EFL teachers' knowledge of microcomputer uses in TEFL programs constituted an indispensable element in TPPS for TEFL, Egyptian respondents underestimated this curricular [19 activity with the lowest mean score of 1.83 (ranked 21, the bottom of the list). The response to the last three curricular activitiesin the methodology category experimenting with new TESOL methods, directing TESL/'1' EFL researchers and having familiarity with TESOL periodically brought to light the discriminating assessment of native and non-native TESOL specialists and their divergence on the importance of research competence for future EFL teachers. As for the development of EFL teachers' competence in language testing, . there are two observations that could be extracted from the data. First, the response to language assessment items stressed the necessity of this curricular area in TPPS for TEFL. Three items in the methodology competent were assigned the highest means ratings. The second observation has to do with the convergence of participants on the rank ordering of items in the same descending order of importance (see Table 4.101. Table 4.10 Mean Ratings of American {AG} and Egyptian (EG) TESOLers' Reflections Regarding EFL Teacher Competency Areas in Language Assessment Competency Area Mean Rank Order A_G .E_G A_G. E9 33A Constructing, analyzing, and administering EFL tests 4.64 4.51 1 l 330 Preparing diagnostic, achieve- ment, and prognostic tests 4.05 3.48 3 3 33C Understanding methods of feeding back the results of assessment into EFL teaching ‘ 4.49 4.33 2 2 The general findings here suggest that American and Egyptian TESOL specialists have a positive inclination towards TEFL methodology activities. To confirm this trend, the data were subjected to a MANOVA technique to 120 determine whether there existed a significant difference between American and Egyptian TESOL specialists regarding the development of Egyptian EFL teachers' competencies in the component of TEFL methodology and language assessment. Table 4.11 presents the results of those MANOVA statistics. At the .05 alpha level, the statistical analysis failed to show any significant difference between American Table 4.ll Means, Standard Deviations, and Wilks' MANOVA of American and Egyptian TESOL Specialists' Ratings Regarding the Curricular Component of TEFL Methodology and Assessment Components in TPPS for TEFL ' Grog fl Mean S.D. _D_lf_ F-ratio P (f) American TESOL ers 109 4.69 .693 Egyptian TESOLers 79 4.81 .645 21.725 .695 .983 and Egyptian TESOLers. The value of the overall f-ratio with degrees of freedom (DF = 21.725) was .6945 which was not significant at the .05 level (p .98311). There was a high agreement among reSpondents on the development of Egyptian EFL teachers' competence in TEFL methodology, materials' development and evaluation, instructional media utilization, and assessment of student proficiency and progress. This high degree of concordance can be evidenced by American and Egyptian TESOLers' rank ordering of the following top-rated competencies: l. a theoretical and practical knowledge of the communicative approach to teaching EFL; 2. a somd knowledge of how to apply principled eclecticism in TEFL classrooms; 3. an ability to develop/evaluate instructional materials and curricula in harmony with ESOL students' proficiency; 4. preparing and teaching listening, speaking, reading, and writing lessons; 121 5. a sound knowledge of how to use the functional-notional approach to enhance EFL learners' communicative skills; 6. constructing, analyzing, and administering EFL tests; and 7. understanding methods of feeding back the results of assessment into EFL teaching. A number of sobering facts come to light in this section of the survey, and descriptive and statistical data seem to be highly encouraging for the preparation of competent EFL teachers. Of the language teaching approaches posed for the importance rating, the communicative approach impressed TESOL respondents. Nearly two-thirds of them preferred more training in communicative language teaching (CLT) which was seen as worthy of emphasis in TPPS for TEFL. It seems that American and Egyptian TESOL specialists are willing to unanimously support the adoption of the communication approach in TEFL programs. Any language teaching approach should enhance interaction between language users and their environment and provide students with task- oriented activities in realistic discowse in the target language. As perceived by the respondents (see Table 4.9‘, there is no longer considerable emphasis for audiolingualism which calls for the coalescence of structural and behavioral views of language learning and explicit grammar. Another interesting note was the perceptible preference for the functional-notional approach that differentiates among three different types of functional-notional categories: semantics-grammatical categories, categories of modal meaning, and categories of communicative function. The most illuminating disclosure of this portion of the survey was the unanimous agreement on EFL teachers' abilities to competently handle classroom activities. It was reported that effective EFL teachers should be capable of developing/evaluating instructional materials and curricula in harmony with ESOL students' proficiency. However, it seems that the utilization of micro- 122 computers in TEFL programs have not kindled American and Egyptian TESOLers' interests, although computer-assisted language instruction is encom'aged. Examining the overall responses, it is apparent that language testing is a crucial methodology activity in TPPS for TESL/TEFL. Cou‘se work in testing should be expected to provide prospective teachers with 1. an understanding of the principles and knowledge of the techniques of second language assessment and interpretation of the results; 2. the ability to construct a test including planning the test in light of general and specific course objectives, preparing test items and writing directions, revising test items, pretesting the material and analyzing pretest results, assembling the final form of the test, and reproducing the test; 3. a theoretical knowledge of types of tests including prognosis (aptitude and placement) and attainment tests (achievement and general proficiency); 4. the ability to develop test items for measuring listening, speaking, reading, and writing skills; and 5. the ability to analyze, administer, and score tests and the ability to place students in an ESL sequence. The findings of the TEFL methodology category supported, in part, the results found by Acheson (1975), Rugasken (1976), Fetzek (1978), and Sheshsha (1982) in their survey research endeavors. Acheson recommended eclecticism as the most favored method from American and British perspectives, and a qualified teacher can choose this personal method with no confidence in the old or new orthodoxies. Acheson placed considerable emphasis on the influential TEFL methodology component in TPPS and in an EFL teacher's demonstrated ability to apply principles of second language pedagogy to classroom situations and materials. Fetzek included an EFL teacher's exposure to pros and cons of various methods and application of linguistic and pedagogical theory in the evaluation and selection of tests and exercises as integral activities in TPPS for TEFL. Sheshsha prioritized an EFL teacher's ability to prepare daily unit lesson 123 plans, develOp curricula and instructional materials, and construct and analyze English language tests. Educational and Behavioral Processes American and Egyptian TESOL specialists will have similar attitudes toward the development of Egyptian EFL teachers' competence and knowledge in the social and historical foundation of educational systems, learning theories, human growth and development, curriculum organization and development, and classroom management technicpes. The last component in the process of TFL teacher education is discernible in a flexible approach to the areas referred to as educational and behavioral processes. American and Egyptian TESOLers rated the relevance of educational offerings as they prepare EFL teachers to function within classrooms and deal with substantial issues pertinent to student involvement, individual differences, and the teaching-learning task. Table 4.12 displays the mean ratings of those curricular activities that are supposed to be an aspect of EFL teacher's preparation. The mean scores of American TESOLers ranged from a high of 4.11 to a low of 1.96. The mean score of all American respondents on all curricular activities is a disheartening 2.79. The mean ratings of the Egyptian group averaged from 4.29 to 2.38 with an overall mean score of 3.09, slightly higher than that of the American TESOLers. A multivariate analysis of variance indicated that the difference in scores between the two groups was significant. Table 4.13 presents a comparison of overall mean scores for the whole category of professional education as rated by both American and Egyptian TESOL specialists, along with the significance of the f-results (.13825) with degrees of freedom (7.748). The value of the f-test was found significant (p .3251) at the .05 level, indicating that American and Egyptian TESOL specialists did not come into accord with the development of Egyptian EFL teachers' competence and knowledge in the social and historical 124 foundations and educational systems, learning theories, human growth and development, curriculum organization and development, and classroom management techniques. Table 4.12 Mean Ratings of American ’AG) and Egyptian (EG) TESOLers' Reflections Regarding EFL Teacher Competency Areas in Professional Education Competency Area Mean Rank Order 119 3.9 3.9. 3.9 34A Social and political foundations of the Egyptian educational system 2.03 3.41 9 8 348 History of educational thought in Egyptian society 1.96 2.38 10 IO 35A Learning theories and their application 3.69 4.17 4 2 368 Human growth and develOpment 3.47 3.71 5 6 35C Guidance and counseling techniques 3.09 3.26 8 9 35D Classroom management techniques 3.92 4.08 2 3 36A Models of curriculum development 4.11 4.29 l l 368 Evaluation of TEFL programs 3.78 3.97 3 4 36C Administration of TEFL programs 3.35 3.60 6 7 36D Utilization of available community resources in the classroom 3.22 3.82 7 5 A large majority of American and Egyptian TESOL specialists felt positively about EFL teachers' knowledge of models of curriculum development which was ranked at the top in the area of curricular activities. Numbers 35A, 35B, 35D, 368 were the most favorable of any responses to the ID items sampled in this section. Such favorable responses might be a conclusive indication that an EFL teacher should be well trained in understanding learning theories and their application. Human growth and development, classroom management techniques, and evaluation of TEFL programs should be viewed as essential aspects in the process of ESL/EFL teacher preparation. Other curricular 125 Table 4.13 Means, Standard Deviations, and Wilks' MANOVA of American and Egyptian TESOL Specialists' Ratings Regarding Educational and Behavioral Processes Component in TPPS for TEFL Group E Mean S.D. E F-ratio P (f) American TESOLers 109 2.793 1.029 Egyptian TESOLers 79 3.091 1.236 7.74 8 1.383 .0 325 activities (34A, 34B, 36C) were assigned poor ratings and conceived as the least favorable areas of knowledge. It was not reported as desirable for EFL teachers to have knowledge of the social and political foundations of the Egyptian educational system, history of educational thought in Egyptian society, and human growth and development. This negative finding about fomdations of education supports, at least in part, assumptions of second language educators. Brooks (1966) claimed that the necessary development of EFL teachers' abilities must include professional education for students, handling day-to-day problems of instruction, understanding classroom dynamics and techniques, and promoting professional growth and development. Another significant plea for the inclusion of such courses as history of education, philosophy of education, and educational psychology is the enhancement of EFL teachers' knowledge of the power structure of a school system, community and societal philoSOphies, and how and when to initiate educational change (F etzek, 1979). Priorities of Curricular Components in TPPS for TEFL American and Egyptian TESOL specialists will have similar attitudes toward the priorities of curricular components in Egyptian teacher preparation programs for TEFL. Utilizing a representative sample of American and Egyptian TESOL specialists, this question sought to identify 10 areas of study considered to be of 126 highest priority and the crucial significance of each component within TPPS for TEFL. A list of 30 possible areas of study in TPPS and some vague curricular areas were technically defined to facilitate understanding of the nature of the main subject (e.g., first language acquisition, how children accpire their mother tongues, etc). Tables 4.14 and 4.15 summarize the rank order of all possible areas of study in TPPS to be representative of views of native and non-native TESOL specialists. Table 4.14 Rank Order of Curricular Areas in TPPS for TEFL: American TESOLers' Perspective Curricular Area/Subject M_e_an galls Methods of TESL/TEFL 4.81 1 Second language acquisition 4.80 2 Teaching four language skills 4.78 3 Psycholinguistics 4.73 4 Materials develOpment/selection/adaptation 4.56 5 Theoretical linguistics 4.51 6 Sociolinguistics 4.42 7 Language testing 4.37 8 Error analysis 4.31 9 Inter connectedness between language and culture 4.25 10 First language acquisition 4.11 11 Arabic/English translation 3.98 12 English phonology 3.76 13 Learning another language 3.51 14 English syntax 3.39 15 Discourse analysis 3.27 16 English for specific purposes 3.19 17 Composition theory 3.12 18 Contrastive analysis 3.09 19 Reading theory 3.03 20 Cross-cultural communication and miscommunication 2.71 21 127 Table 4.14, continued Curricular Area/Subject M 1213!; Structure and Arabic language 2.69 22 English semantic 2.61 23 English literature 2.58 24 Statistic and research design 2.53 25 English morphology 2.46 26 Deve10pment of the English language 2.41 27 Bilingual education 2.33 28 History of education 2.18 29 Philosophy of education 2.03 30 Table 4.15 Rank Order of Cm‘ricular Areas in TPPS for TEFL: Egyptian TESOLers' Perspective Curicular Area/Subject M221 lialk Teaching fou' language skills 4.83 1 Methods of TESL/TEFL 4.76 2 Second language acquisition 4.67 3 Materials develOpment/ selection/ adaptation 4.61 4 Psycholinguistic 4.59 5 Theoretical linguistic 4.45 6 Error analysis 4.42 7 Interconnectedness between language and culture 4.37 8 Sociolinguistic 4.22 9 Arabic/English translation 4.06 10 Language testing 3.84 11 Contrastive analysis 3.77 12 English phonology ' 3.49 13 English syntax 3.98 14 English for specific purposes 3.29 15 English literature 3.17 16 Statistic and research design 3.11 17 128 Table 4.15, continued Curricular Area/Subject MED _R_a_r_i_1§ Reading theory 2.98 18 English semantic 2.71 19 Structure of Arabic 2.69 20 Discourse analysis 2.67 21 Composition theory 2.55 22 Learning another language 2.53 23 English morphology 2.49 24 First language acquisition 2.35 25 Cross-cultural comm unication/ miscommmication 2.29 26 Development of the English language 2.23 27 Philosophy of education 2.19 28 History of educational thought 2.09 29 Bilingual education 1.84 30 In skimming Tables 4.14 and 4.15, several things stand out to reveal respondents' concerns in the process of SL/FL teacher training. One is that American and Egyptian TESOL specialists rated methods of TESL/T EFL teaching four language skills, second language acquisition, materials develOpment/selection/adaptation, theoretical linguistic, sociolinguistics, language and culture, error analysis, and language testing as being of high priority. Other curricular activities that deal with theories of linguistic and applied linguistic were highly rated with definite reference to first language acquisition, Arabic/English translation, and error analysis. American and Egyptian perceptions of priorities stressed integral components of pedagogical knowledge and linguistic training for EFL teachers and justified Diller's (1977) claim that "there is a certain priority for English language and linguistic, for a decision on the nature of language and on the psycholinguistic mechanisms of 129 language acquisition will determine to a large extent our decision on the principles and methods of teaching" (p. 21). However, some courses devoted to linguistics were ranked as low priority, i.e., structure of Arabic language, contrastive analysis, and English morphology. Another interesting outcome of this section was that literature and education cowses were found to be of low priority. Cll'l’iCUial' activities relevant to English literature were assigned very low ratings. This is a very healthy sign, for it indicates that TPPS for TEFL are not subsumed under departments of literature and that curricula of TPPS for TEFL tend to emphasize linguistic and TEFL methodology or look like watered down linguistics' degrees. The low priority of educational components speaks to the frustration of all educators and mirrors the adverse attitude of TPPS for TEFL towards education. Acheson (1975.) similarly confirmed the following. The lack of concern with such educational matters as competency and performance in the classroom is partly explicable by the fact that only about ten of America's 50 TESOL departments appeared to be affiliated to schools, departments, or colleges of education. The remaining 40 were attached to departments of linguistic, English, foreign languages, speech, or other administrative units in the academic institutions. Firthermore in many cases, it is surmised that the preparation of teacher educators in the TESOL teacher preparation programs has been exclusively in linguistic, rather than in education and/or the teaching of ESOL. (p. 99) Distribution of Credit Hours in TPPS for TEFL American and Egyptian TESOL specialists will have similar perceptions of the breakdown of credit hoLrs among various instructional components in Egyptian teacher preparation programs for TEFL. American and Egyptian TESOL participants similarly reported their favored distribution of 500 hours of instruction among the seven curricular components in TPPS for TEFL. Table 4.16 and Figure 3 reflect how both groups of respondents estimated the percentage mean for each separate category. 130 Table 4.16 American (AG) and Egyptian (EG) TESOLers' Allocation of Credit Hours Among Seven Constituents of TPPS for TEFL Number of . Cred. Hrs. Mean (96) Rank Order 99 99 39 99 3.9 99 Theoretical linguistic 110 75 82 15 2 4 Applied linguistic 150 120 , 30 24 1 1 Literature no so ' 10 16 6 3 Culture and cross-cultural communication 60 45 12 9 4 6 Methodology of TEFL 75 85 15 17 3 2 EFL testing and evaluation 45 55 9 ll 5 5 Professional education 20 40 4 8 7 7 TOTALS: 500 500 10096 10096 . m, 168.. e 15°. 1:: ‘ no.1 1:“ - m 113 \\‘W on» 3885 cults lean peas .. s q s t: 8.353.853}; .- k\“\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\‘\\\\\\\\\\N~‘ T "n. .............. .\\\\\\\\x\m\\\\\\\\\\\\\‘ “"‘m' .\\\x\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\‘ "' " "" \m“\\\\\‘ luau-Io relu- lee-l m U I r 0‘ “mm" .\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\x w" "' M“\\\\\\\\\\5 Mogul“ It MCI Ital “'""" "" .\\“\‘\‘\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\8 Figure 3. Histogram depicting the breakdown of credit hours among seven curricular components in TPPS for TEFL. 131 Among American TESOL specialists, applied linguistics received heavy emphasis in terms of credit hours (30%) and was considered to need the largest number of credit hours. A percentage mean of 20% allotted to the component of theoretical linguistic revealed that American TESOLers expressed the second level of commitment for linguistic theories in TPPS for TEFL. Methodology of TEFL was assigned the third largest time allocation with a mean score of 15.1%, followed by culture and cross-cultural communication (12%) and EFL testing and evaluation (9%). Literature, relegated to a minor place, received a small percentage of credit hours (10%), while professional education was negligibly conceived and assigned a low estimate of 4%. Egyptian TESOL respondents placed an emphasis of credit hou's on the instructional components of applied linguistic (24%,) and methodology of TEFL (17%). The component of literature, unexpectedly assigned 16% of the total study hours, received a higher rating than the curricular area of theoretical linguistics (15%). The aforementioned percentages make it clear that stress was given to two citricular components, applied linguistic and methodology of TEFL. Although theoretical linguistic gained the second largest time allocation (24%) from the American perspective, it was assigned only 15% of the total credits and ranked as the fourth largest time allocation by Egyptian TESOLers. EFL testing and culture received moderate estimates of 11% and 9%, respectively. The credit hours reportedly assigned to the component of professional education equaled 8%. Such findings underlined the tOp priorities of applied linguistics and TEFL methodology in TPPS for TEFL. CHAPTER V CONCLUSIONS, IMPLICATIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS In the previous chapter, data interpretation was presented and the results of statistical analyses were related to the theory of EFL teacher preparation formulated early in the study. Each part of the American and Egyptian TESOL specialists' survey instrument was addressed in the same sequential order as presented in Appendix A in order to conclude the theoretical and pedagogical rationale for the enhancement of the quality of Egyptian Arabic-speaking EFL teacher training. In this final chapter, conclusions of the data findings are presented and implications are drawn with respect to the curricular components of Egyptian TPPS for TEFL. Based on the findings, high priority, moderate prioriy, and low priority competencies of EFL teachers are identified, and the recommendations for how to develOp these competencies through the curricular components of theoretical linguistic, applied linguistic, literary acquaintances, cultural studies, and instructional materials and methods are posed for consideration and implementation. The chapter concludes with an immediate call for the development, use, and ratification of standards for Egyptian EFL teacher education and accreditation. Conclusions and Practical Implications The study's findings indicated that American and Egyptian TESOL specialists held both favorable and unfavorable attitudes toward the development of various skills and qualifications in prospective EFL teachers as set forth in the survey instrument of the study and posed for assessment. Based on these 132 133 findings, several conclusions were drawn with respect to the identification of linguistic, literary, and pedagogical dimensions of teacher preparation for non- native speakers of English. The conclusions warranted some practical implications for improving preparation of ESL/EFL teachers and demonstrating the fundamental principles of curriculum development in TPPS. As a reminder for the reader, the conclusions and their pedagogical import develOped from this research should be limited to the population from which the samples were drawn and viewed in light of the limitations of the study highlighted in Chapter I. The reader should also bear in mind the researcher's difficult decision to pronounce definite and uncontroversial recommendations about the most or least important aspects of the curriculum in TPPS for TESL/‘1' EFL. The criteria used to identify major and minor competencies of prospective teachers were designed as follows: (a) curricular activities in components of linguistic, literature and second language pedagogy to which American and Egyptian TESOL specialists assigned mean ratings of 3.51 or above were clustered together and regarded as essential or necessary or "high priority" competencies; (b) curricular activities scoring between 2.51 and 3.50 as mean values .were identified as "moderate priority" competencies which specialists, administrators, and educators might strive for in TPPS for TEFL; and (c) curricular activities receiving mean ratings of 2.50 or below were considered "low priority" competencies. High Priority Competencies In the field of theories of linguistic and semiotic, EFL teachers should acquire a very considerable knowledge of English phonology, syntax, morphology, and how the English language develOped to the state it is in now. Their detailed knowledge could include analysis of English phonology such as vowel and consonant analysis, points and manners of articulation of English sounds, prosodic 134 features of English speech and feature analysis. Many other curricular activities classified mder the component of theoretical linguistic were assigned high importance and regarded as being significant in the minds of American and Egyptian TESOL specialists. Of the 21 curricular activities related to theoretical linguistic, TESOL specialists expressed a strong preference for 15 items whose mean ratings ranged from 4.63 to 3.65. These top rated 15 curricular activities were deemed necessary for prospective teachers to function successfully in TEFL prOgrams and underscored EFL teachers' fundamental knowledge of language structure, linguistic theories of structuralism, transformational generative grammar and tagnemic, and structure of another foreign language. EFL teachers' further knowledge of pedagogical grammar, morphophonemic features, linguistic relativity, linguistic features of different styles and historical develOpment of English was judged important enough to stress their necessary develOpment in practicing teachers of TEFL. The grand mean of theoretical linguistics-related activities (X = 4.39) brought into prominence the belief that linguistic has much to contribute to competent EFL teacher preparation and, accordingly, teachers should keep abreast of the latest develOpments in the domain of linguistic to base their classroom practices on and, in turn, foster language learning. As a result of assessing the importance of the curricular activities representing this component of theoretical linguistic, it was found that .American and Egyptian TESOLs had more favorable attitudes toward the development of a non—native EFL teacher's competencies, knowledge, and skills in linguistic theories; English phonology, syntax, morphology, syntax, and semantics; history of the English language; comparative and historical linguistic; stylistic; and another foreign language. 135 In the realm of applied linguistic, American and Egyptian TESOL specialists expressed substantial consensus for EFL teacher preparation in the component of applied linguistic. Most applied linguistic-related activities received the highest mean values and were considerably related enough to identify the top priority of this area in the process of EFL teacher preparation. Of the 20 curricular activities clustered in the component of applied linguistic, the respondents attached high importance to nine items whose mean ratings averaged from 4.72 to 3.87. According to TESL specialists' judgments, to function effectively in TEFL classrooms, an EFL teacher should develop an understanding of error analysis strategy of second language acquisition, stages of psycholinguistic develOpment in children, varieties of English, and functional theory of second language acquisition. Such a perceptible preference for second language acquisition theories and strategies stressed the substantial usefulness of this area in enabling an EFL teacher in understanding how abilities differ with age, analyzing EFL students' errors and building a pictire of the freqlency and types of errors, and feeding back these pedagogical insights into methodology and materials. Among other curricular activities related to linguistic applications and that gripped respondents' attention were psycholinguistics and sociolinguistic. An EFL teacher should have knowledge of how linguistic and psychological principles—motivational variables, psychological variables, attitudes toward language, etc.—-function in a language classroom. Further, EFL teacher comprehension of linguistic appropriateness of language could enhance their communicative competence and the ability to adjust language according to social settings and develOp their awareness of attitudes and ethnocentric notions about languages, world view, and cultures. This heightened awareness of the sociolinguistic dimensions of language should be available for EFL teachers through courses in sociolinguistic, anthropological linguistic, kinesic, and 136 proxemic. An emphasis on sociolinguistics' courses throughout should be cross- disciplinary enough to discuss many topic with a wide range of applications, owing to TESOL specialists' judgments and the grand mean of the area of applied linguistic (X = 4.49.). It was demonstrated that American and Egyptian TESOL specialists had similar attitudes toward the development of a non-native EFL teacher's competencies, knowledge, and skills in linguistic applications: psycholinguistic process, theories of first and second language acquisition, learning strategies, sociolinguistic, neurolingusitic, Arabic-English translation, and reading theory. In the competency area of English literature, respondents' general, overall responses revealed a few competencies to be of "greatest" or "high" importance. American and Egyptian TESOL specialists felt that an EFL teacher's knowledge of a wide range of significant works of modern literature, his/her indepth study of major authors' writings, and his/her acquaintance with literary genres in English literature (such as drama, poetry, fiction, and essay) were most essential for effective training. However, it is in the area of literature than a TEFL trainee needs careful guidance to help him/her select representative works to understand modern American literature (Marchwardt, 1978). A Wilks lambda multivariate test of significance was conducted to determine if there were a significant difference between American and Egyptian TESOL specialists regarding prospective EFL teacher preparation in literature. A level of .05 was set to show significance, but a multivariate analysis of variance significance was .8752. Based on the statistical analysis, it is possible to conclude that American and Egyptian TESOL specialists had similar attitudes toward the development of non-native EFL teachers' competencies, knowledge, and understanding in English 137 literature and their need as instructional components in curricular of teacher preparation programs. Turning to the curricular component of cross-cultural communication in TPPS for TEFL, a non-native EFL teacher is expected to have cultural understanding not only of English-speaking people but, to some extent, of the various cultures and linguistic backgrounds of EFL students. Training in language and the culture it reflects was considered valuable by American and Egyptian respondents. American TESOLers held the viewpoint that an EFL teacher's thorough knowledge of interaction between language and culttre is part of the criteria for student success critical to effective TEFL programs, enabling both teachers and students to discuss their own and each other's cultural patterns and attitudes. Among the other tOp priorities, competencies were closely related to an EFL teacher's ability to compare aspects of Arabic cultwe with parallel areas for English speaking peOple, his/her knowledge of gender-specific behaviors in various cultures, familiarity with kinesic and proxemic differences, and understanding of experiential and cognitive approaches (role plays, culture assimilators) to second language culture teaching. The high mean ratings given to these areas of knowledge suggested that every element of language corresponds to an quivalent segment of the totality of the thought and life of those people who speak it. And since it was determined that non-native teachers should be well-acquainted with the cultural norms and values of their home countries and parallel areas for English speaking people, some required courses in inter-cultural communication and insights from research should be carefully considered to accommodate future needs of EFL teachers in classrooms. Based on these data, it was concluded that American and Egyptian TESOL specialists had similar attitudes toward the development of non-native EFL teachers' competencies and knowledge in language and culture 138 interconnectedness, cultural interaction, and cultural patterns of the target student population with a view to understanding the effects of culturally determined lifestyles in EFL learning and enhancing successful cross-cultural interaction in the classroom. TEFL methodology and assessment is another competency area in this study concerned directly with EFL instruction and all that relates to it, comprising formulation of objectives, course content, teaching approaches, materials preparation, classroom dynamic, and tests and measurements. Of the language teaching approaches presented for rating, more training in communicative language teaching was identified by almost two-thirds of the sample as worthy of emphasis in T PPS for TEFL. Respondents placed little emphasis on audiolingualism which calls for the coalescence of structural and behavioral views of language learning and explicit grammar. Another interesting note was the unanimous agreement on the pedagogical importance of the notional functional approach and on enhancement of EFL teachers' abilities to competently handle classroom activities. Effective EFL teachers should be capable of develOping instructional materials and curricula in harmony with ESOL students' proficiency. Examining the overall response to the component of language testing, American and Egyptian TESOLers placed considerable emphasis on EFL teachers' understanding of the principles and techniques of second language assessment and interpretation of results and his/her ability to analyze, administer, and score tests and place students in ESL sequences. These findings were in agreement with the views of Richards and Hino (1983), Grittner (1983), Norris (1977), and Brumfit and Strevens (1976). When the data of the TEFL methodology component were subjected to a multivariate analysis of variance, it was found that, overall, American and Egyptian TESOl specialists had similar attitudes toward the development of 139 Egyptian teachers' competence in TEFL methodology, materials development and evaluation, instructional media utilization, and assessment of student proficiency and progress. The curricular components rated high in priority were largely consistent with the ideal curricular delineated by language educators influential in the shaping of TESOL. Bowen (1966) categorized the content of the ideal curicular into general, applied, and practical linguistic and professional education which can deal with history, philosophy, and methods of language teaching. Marquardt (1971.) suggested the inclusion of contrastive phonology, language structure and variation, sociolinguistic, cross-cultural communication, and language assessment. Gradman (1971) proposed that the minimal teacher preparation should promote a knowledge of language, language acquisition, historical and current methods of language teaching, materials and error analysis, measu'ement and testing, and the prerequisite of competence in English for non- native speakers. Robinett (1977) placed primary focus on general linguistic theory, contrastive linguistic, language change and learning, and the knowledge of at least one foreign language. In his attempt to improve non-native ESL teacher preparation, Greis (1985) developed a TPP that accommodated linguistic, cultural, and academic needs, reconciled old and new methodology, and provided adecpate practice teaching characterized by tutoring and systematic observation. The identification by American and Egyptian TESOL specialists of the basic segment of the fundamental knowledge needed for prospective teachers leads to a conclusion for immediate consideration by TPPS for TEFL in non- English speaking countries. American and Egyptian TESOL specialists assigned high ratings to several curricular activities which were considered the basic components or minimal requirements of teacher education programs for TEFL. 140 It was noted that Egyptian language educators should consider all curricular activities given favorable judgments by American and Egyptian TESOL specialists for inclusion in Egyptian TPPS for TEFL. Attempts to rate present cases and the general value and overall effect of the program should be launched to determine to what extent prospective EFL teachers develop minimal competencies in terms of the recommendations laid down by guidelines committees of national TESOL associations or by Nolan's (1985) indication of the relative frecpencies of recommended areas of TESL teacher training (see Figure 4) or by Blatchford's (1982.) determination of the comparative frequencies of TESL major reqiirements at United States and Canadian universities (see Figu'e 5). Egyptian supervisors spend enough time in carefully scrutinizing student teachers to determine if they are developing professional reqiired competencies. English language departments should carefully examine the number, variety, and content of courses needed for accreditation in order to reinforce the development of the following minimal competencies: l. a thorough understanding of prosodic features of English speech such as stress, pitch, and intonation; 2. a fundamental knowledge of phonological, syntactic, and morphological structure of English and the ability to clarify differences and similarities between English and a linguistic minority language; 3. a knowledge of another language structure without acquiring an understanding of the relationship between language and the culture which it reflects; 4. an understanding of syntactic analysis and patterning, pedagogical English grammar, and how syntax and semantics are integrated and the ability to deal with these phenomena in TEFL classrooms; 5. an ability to articulate point and manner of English sounds and the related knowledge of feature analysis of English phonemes; E51. Methods Linguistics 1551. Materials .4 Curriculum Grammar: Structure of English Practice Teaching Testing and Evaluation Cross Cultural Communication Introduction to Language Phonology] Sound System Foreign Language Expcr. Psychology of Learning Teaching Beading Psychology of ' Language Learning Human Relations Counseling Seminar in Special Problems Total N - 22 141 J22 .1 JH J16 1:4 4:2 J” ' \. _lto '12::4 :34 12:34 1:23 1:11 C]: Frequencies shown indicate the number of TESL experts who recommended that area. . Source: Robert B. Nolan. Coordinator, Adult Education Service Center, Northern lltinois University. " De Kalb, Illinois 60115. j ' ‘ Figure 4: Relative frequencies of recommended areas of TESL teacher training. ESL Methods Linguistics ESL Materials 5: Curriculum Grammar: Structure of English Practice Teaching Testing and Evaluation Cross Cultural Communication introduction to Language Phonology/ Sound System Foreign Language Esper. Psychology of Looming Teaching Reading Psychology of Language Looming Human Relations ' Counseling Seminar in 8min Problems Total N - 22 142 122 l: l: 117 J16 l J12 Jr: "1 J10 1. 1-7 F [22:34. [2:234 [2:214 .1223: Elia \ \ L—Ji' ~i Frequencies shown indicate the number of “€81. experts who recommended that area. Source: Robert B. Nolan. Coordinator, Adult Education Service Center, Northern illinois University, . De Kalb, lilinois 601 is. ' Figure 5‘ C°mPafativc Ire uencies of TESL ma 0 and Candian universitigs. j r requirements at U.S. 10. ll. 12. 13. l4. 15. 16. l7. 18. 143 a knowledge of linguistic theories that describe phonological, morphological, and syntactic phenomena of languages from viewpoints of structuralism, transformational-generative grammar and tagmemics; an understanding of phonemic and morphemic patterning and morphOphonemic features of English language; a knowledge of linguistic features of different styles of language and the demonstrated ability to apply linguistic approaches to literary analysis; a knowledge of another foreign language structure (such as phonology, morphonology, and syntax); a knowledge of the historical development and present characteristic of the English language; an understanding of the basic theories which diagnose the courses of EFL learners' errors as they move toward the acquisition of English and their pedagogical implications; a sound knowledge of how children acquire their mother tongues at the phonological, grammatical, and lexical levels; an understanding of psycholinguistic development in children, comprehension and production processes in second language learning, and variation in verbal learning performance; a familiarity with social, regional, functional, and develOpmental varieties of English and their effects on second language learning; an understanding of the theoretical principles of the functionalist and cognitivist theories of second language acquisition and the demonstrated ability to apply these linguistic theories in EFl teaching; an understanding of sociolinguistic appropriateness of language and the demonstrated ability to function and adjust language according to social settings; an ability to determine the contrasting linguistic elements in native and second languages of EFL learners that are expected to retard learning and the ability to develop curricular activities so as to minimize language interference and maximize positive transfer; a knowledge of the psychological aspects of language and learning in terms of perception, memory, intelligence, motivation, etc.; 19. 20. 21. 22. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. 33. 144 an ability to incorporate research findings and recent discoveries of neurolinguistics in TEFL programs; a knowledge of a wide range of significant works of modern literature; an indepth study of major authors' writings and an acquaintance with literary genres in English literature such as drama, poetry, fiction, and essay; an ability to compare aspects of Arabic culture with parallel areas for English speaking people which are likely to be conducive to cultural conflicts; a thorough knowledge of the reciprocal interaction between language and culture; an understanding of experiential and cognitive approaches (role plays, simulation games, culture assimilators) to the teaching of culture in TEFL programs; a knowledge of how facial expressions, gestures, eye contacts, proxemic behavior, kinesic behavior, and conventions of address are culture-bound; a theoretical and practical knowledge of the communicative- notional, comprehension, and cognitive approaches to and individualized instruction and microteaching techniqies of teaching English as a foreign language; a theoretical knowledge of and the ability to utilize principled eclecticism and community language learning in TEFL programs; an ability to develop/evaluate instructional materials and curricula in harmony with students' proficiency and program objectives; an ability to prepare and teach lessons in the four language skills of listening, speaking, reading, and writing; a sound knowledge of how to use the functional-notional approach to enhance EFL learners' communicative skills; an ability to experiment with new TESOL methods and techniques productive with students in and outside school communities; an ability to utilize and manage language laboratories efficiently and effectively; a knowledge of objectives, methodological foundations, and techniques of teaching English for specific purposes; 145 34. an understanding of the principles of EFL test construction, analysis, administration, and scoring; 35. a theoretical knowledge of types of tests including prognosis (aptitude and placement) and attainment tests (achievement and general proficiency); 36. an ability to develop test items for measuring listening, speaking, reading, and writing skills; 37. an understanding of methods of feeding back the results of assessment into EFL teaching; 38. a familiarity with learning theories and their pedagogical implications; and 39. a knowledge of classroom management techniques, models of curriculum development, and evaluation of TEFL programs. Moderate Priority Competencies The second point of fundamental importance in concluding the major findings of the study is concerned with the identification of moderate priority competencies that EFL teacher preparation programs should take into account for the develOpment in prcpective teachers. Data interpretation revealed that American and Egyptian TESOL specialists assigned fairly moderate ratings to 22 curricular activities whose means ranged from 2.59 to 3.48. Curricular activities of moderate importance were included with the major instructional components of theoretical linguistic, applied linguistic, literature, culture, TEFL methodology, and professional preparation. There was moderate support for the old theories of linguistic and approaches to and techniques of TEFL methodology and second language culture teaching. For instance, TESOL Specialists did not attach high priority to EFL teachers' linguistic knowledge of behaviorism, nativism, interlanguage analysis, and discourse analysis. Similar moderate ratings were attached to some curricular activities in professional education with special reference to an EFL teacher's knowledge of human growth and develOpment, professional counseling and guidance techniques, and 146 administration of TEFL programs. All these competencies, moderately rated in priority and clustered in the areas of applied linguistic and SL/FL pedagogy, were, by no means, consistent with TESOL statements on qualifications and guidelines for the preparation of ESOL teachers and NCATE standards for English teacher preparation. However, some of them are in line with Nolan's (1985) findings (see Figure 4) that suggest the low frequency of the counseling area in TPPS for TESL. Teaching competencies rated moderate in this study in terms of importance and priority are considered supplementary to the basic segment of the fundamental knowledge stated earlier in this chapter. In spite of the moderate assessment of the 22 competencies listed below, language educators should strive for enhancement of the essential areas of knowledge and SUpplementary competencies as well. Courses offered at the undergraduate and graduate levels should not be limited to basic preparation, and EFL teacher trainers should set guidelines that clearly indicate the recommended development of the following competencies: 1. an ability to differentiate between British and American English in speaking and writing; 2. a basic knowledge of theories of meaning (referential, mentalist, etc.); 3. an acquaintance with universal grammar and linguistic determinism; 4. the actual learning of culture and social customs of another foreign language; 5. an ability to utilize computers in analysis of literary and TEFL textbooks; 6. a knowledge of the process of linguistic change; e.g., consonental deletions; 7. a knowledge of behavioristic and nativistic theories of second language acquisition; 147 8. a knowledge of interlanguage analysis and discotrse analysis as strategies for second language learning; 9. an ability to functionally use speech act theory in developing materials and teaching units for enhancing EFL learners' communication skills; 10. an understanding of the relationship between hemispherity and learning styles and the effect of brain damage on language functions (aphasia); 11. a knowledge of psycholinguistic and perceptual models of EFL reading; 12. a knowledge of the history of English literattre; 13. an understanding of verbal versus non-verbal communication in cultural assumptions and value orientations; 14. an understanding of the impact of socio—cultural variables on language use and learning; 15. an understanding of conventional academic, observational, and media approaches to the teaching of culture in TEFL program; 16. a theoretical knowledge of and the demonstrated ability to apply suggestology method in TEFL programs; 17. a theoretical knowledge of and the demonstrated ability to apply socio-therapeutic analysis in TEFL programs; 18. an ability to carry on and direct TESL/TEFL researches; 19. a familiarity with periodicals and organizations devoted to TESOL; 20. an acquaintance with human growth and develOpment and their pedagogical implications for ESL/EFL classrooms; 21. an ability to give professional counseling and guidance help for students who show signs of personality disturbance; and 22. an ability to administer TEFL programs and utilize available communication resources in a classroom. Low Priority Competencies In addition to the high and moderate priority competencies already mentioned, American and Egyptian TESOL specialist identified 13 low priority curricular activities which belonure in TEFL program;ged primarily to the major 148 curricular components of literature and professional education. Although some curricular activities were rated low in priority, they did not seem to correlate very well with the standards of teacher training programs as set by national and international associations of foreign language teacher education and tended to be inconsistent with the findings of previous research. Although American and Egyptian TESOL specialists rated low the area of American literature in TPPS for TEFL, statements of the Modern Language Association (1962) on qualifications for secondary school teachers of modern foreign languages placed emphasis on ". . . the EFL teacher's firsthand knowledge of some literature masterpieces and acquaintance with the geography, history, art, social customs, and contemporary civilization of English speaking people" (p. 35.). A similar low estimation was extended to EFL teachers' professional knowledge of the social and political foundations of the Egyptian educational system and the history of educational thought of the Egyptian society. This judgment of TESOL specialists ran counter to TESOL recommendations that ". . . the primary objective of cases and training should help the student to understanding and knowledge of social foundations and organization of education and human growth and develOpment" (Norris, 1977, p. 33). The rationale for developing these competencies in TPPS for TEFL, therefore, should be on an elective basis, depending upon TEFL trainees' interests and backgrounds. TPPS for TEFL are definitely encouraged to offer courses of instruction as optional requirements for candidates completing the whole program. Elective courses might promote the following qualifications: 1. a knowledge of language planning and the effect of brain damage on language functions (aphasia); 2. a study of linguistic processes involved in Arabic—English translation; 149 3. an ability to apply readability principles to selection of reading matter for TEFL; 4. a knowledge of the history of American literature; 5. a knowledge of some representative works from literature other than English; 6. a knowledge of basic structural features of various cultures; 7. a theoretical knowledge of and demonstrated ability to apply audio-lingualism in EFL teaching; 8. an acquaintance with the goals, objectives, and teaching methods of bilingual education programs; 9. an ability to utilize micro-computers in TESL/TEFL; 10. a knowledge of the social and political fomdations of the Egyptian educational system; and 11. an historical knowledge of the educational thought of the Egyptian society. In summary, this study indicates that American and Egyptian TESOL specialists show a high degree of agreement on competencies they feel are important and unimportant in teaching English as a foreign language. Possibly this population should have greater input into preservice and inservice provided. Recommendations for Egyptian TPPS for TEFL Analysis of the data accumulated in this study and insights gained from the pertinent review of literature seemed to warrant comments about some central pedagogical implications for EFL teacher development and certification, although it was largely impossible to come to grips with firm conclusions about the qualifications and competencies EFL teachers should possess. In order to effectively remediate EFL teacher education, Egyptian TPPS should be obliged to alter their curricular content in order to reflect new develOpments in the TESOL profession so as to enhance EFL teacher trainees' awareness, attitudes, knowledge, and skills and to assist them in providing 150 leadership in the establishment of a growing sense of professionalism. Egyptian college professors should be urged to reevaluate EFL teacher education as a form and domain of intellectual inquiry touching on several curricular activities: languages, linguistic, literature, cross cultural communication, and others. The scope of the TEFL profession is wide-ranging and imposes on teacher trainers a sense of totality and diversity. TEFL discipline is not exclusively literature nor linguistic nor pedagogy, but is inclusive in scope allowing for a variety of subdisciplines, interests, and Specializations. The language component, for instance, should encompass the prime elements of English sound, grammar, lexical and cultural systems; how Speech and writing and literature and education are related; how language mirrors life styles and logic of people; and so on. When the multidisciplinary structure of TPPS is ignored and a rigid distinction between prestigious literature programs and non-prestigious language training programs is adhered to, the regressive horizons and fragmentation of EFL teacher education will continue. In dealing with Egyptian TPPS for TEFL, curriculum planners and decision makers should not underestimate the significance of prospective EFL teachers' attainment of a high level of competency in the four language skills of audiolingualism as well as the development of their ability to Speak standard English at a normal conversational tempo and to comfortably carry on conversations with native speakers of English. It remains that the overwhelming majority of TEFL supervisors and senior masters continue to indict graduates on the ground that they do not possess sufficient and substantial knowledge of the language they expect to teach. It is unfortunate when a prospective teacher is placed in a teaching situation in which she is not really proficient in the language utilized for sharing knowledge with his/her Students. Prospective EFL teachers' inadequate grasp of language and their uncertainty about meanings and 151 grammatical patterns will impair EFL learners' achievements and jeOpardize their motivation. Bearing in mind all these hazards, Egyptian TPPS should provide intensive language training in terms of a variety of courses and allocation of credit hots-s, require entrance and exit proficiency tests, and promote exchange programs between Egyptian TEFLers and native Speakers of English. Language proficiency must be supported by a scientific study of contemporary English based on the contributions of recent linguistic theories-- transformational generative grammar, case grammar, tagmemic, and so forth. Given that TESOL Specialists converged on curricular activities in the category of applied linguistic, an immediate recommendation is that the discipline of linguistic applications should be a fundamental component in the training of prospective EFL teachers. The focal emphasis of applied linguistic as relevant to language teaching aims might foster the applicability of the findings of the following areas pertinent to language pedagogy and issues: second language acquisition, literacy, developmental psycholinguistic, legal language, lexicography, language pathology, computer language, and translation. In these curricular areas, empirical investigations and field studies should be initiated to explore the potential contributions of linguistic theory to language teaching. From transformational-generative grammar is derived substitution, correlation, and transformation skills; from contrastive analysis, a taxonomy of linguistic contrasts, sources of language interference, and formulation of translational rules; from pidgenized varieties of language, insights into such persistent errors in classrooms as reduced vocabulary and heavy use of paraphrases and circumlocutions as well as heavy reliance on extra linguistic features; from psycholinguistic, brain functions, language perception, retention and production, and cognitive and affective factors; and, finally, from sociolinguistics. Accounts of societal interaction, speech act theory, and 152 language appropriateness. EFL teachers can utilize applied linguistics as the mediator between linguistic areas and the classroom. A call for the indispensable component of applied linguistics in TPPS for TEFL does not obliterate literature, but a balance should be struck between literary studies and linguistic areas. As Stern (.1980) pinpointed, the first agenda item for the new university language department should be the loosening of rigid ties between literature and language. Considering the primacy of literature, other studies with special attention to educational linguistic and language pedagogy are equivalent in importance to literary studies; however, the literature component in Egyptian TPPS must (a) train graduates to teach literature and introduce them to a variety of approaches to literature teaching such as personalized, cultural,. chronological, and interdisciplinary approaches; (13) encourage empirical researches on literature teaching in Egyptian TEFL programs; and (c) state Specific goals of teaching literature and, therefore, prepare literary units for EFL teaching purposes. Besides EFL pedagogy-oriented literature cowses, Egyptian TPPS for TEFL should initiate courses in culture of second languages and nonverbal communication. Egyptian teachers should develop cultural leadership in EFL teaching, have the ability to handle the diverse linguistic and cultural backgrounds of EFL students, understand the impact of social and economic factors on TEFL programs and teachers' cognitive and affective styles, and gain conscious familiarity with contemporary English civilization and social affairs. As a result, American and Egyptian TESOL Specialists stressed EFL trainers' adecpate exposure to feasible approaches to teaching second language culture and had more favorable attitudes toward experiential, cognitive, and media approaches to culture teaching. Experiential approaches such as role plays, Simulations, and cross-cultural exercises should be an important component in 153 culture or methodology courses that EFL teachers use in presenting cultural information and overcoming potential sotrces of cultural contrasts. The same recommendation should be made for cOgnitive approaches that utilize culture assimilators, culture capsules, and culturegrams for supplying culture information in TEFL classrooms. A teacher' should have as a last resort the conventional approaches such as lectures and readings from newspapers and magazines. A Significant trend crucial to the development of the TEFL profession in Egypt consists in didactics and methodology of English teaching integrated from the very beginning with academic studies and accompanied by supervised classroom observations at the practicum level. The emphasis on methods courses should shift from grammar, translation, and audiolingual reception/substitution drills to other learner-centered and communicative methods including commmity language learning, the Silent way/suggestOpoedia, the notional- functional syllabus and eclecticism, and building up communicative competence- -the ability to communicate in social situations. Serious attempt should be initiated to integrate into TEFL techniques educational innovations such as interaction analysis, micro-teaching, and systems analysis, which determine the effects of teacher behaviors on student attitudes and achievement. Certainly, TEFL methodology components Should at least allude to evaluate techniques which promote an EFL teacher's ability to assess syllabi and to make decisions on the use of texts (such as formative and summative evaluation versus process and product evaluation). Directions for Future Research The present investigation attempted to determine the appropriate level of Egyptian EFL teachers' knowledge and Skills in linguistic, literature, cultural 154 anthropology, and second language pedagogy with no minimal attention to their levels of competency in the four audiolingual skills. The most direct follow-up to the present study would be the development of Egyptian EFL TPPS'S standards that Spell out objectives of preservice EFL teacher training programs to define the role of EFL teachers in Egyptian schools; to detail personal attributes and professional competencies of TEFL trainees; to set up criteria for the selection, retention, and screening of candidates; to appraise TEFL candidates' academic and professional skills through batteries of proficiency tests; and, finally, to establish a code of ethics that personnel involved in English language instruction must adhere to. Replication of this research endeavor Should be encotraged, including not only the population of Egyptian TEFL specialists in colleges of education, but also TEFL non-Ph.D. degree-holding instructors at the pre-college level and in private institutions. It would be tremendously useful to compare the views of all Egyptian TESOLers—TEFL faculty, teachers, graduates, and seniors--as to their analytical (evaluation of the content of curricula in TPPS for TEFL along the lines of Badr's (1984) evaluative study so as to assess the effect of cadmium on the promotion of graduates' English language proficiency. It is recommended that projects of research be executed ". . . to determine which components are really effective and which should be rethought or omitted" (Bowen, 1966, p. 118). Future research efforts Should be directed at (a) testing various models of TEFL pre— and inservice teacher preparation; (1)) gearing TESL/TEFL theses and dissertations towards a synergistic approach that solves specific problems in areas of testing, cognition, and language acquisition; (c) assessing training needs of EFL teachers and determining how they perceive their prior training; (d) developing curricula and course offerings that strike balance between knowledge and skill in the training of EFL teachers; (e) initiating new models of student 155 supervision that establish rapport and encourage teachers to change without resentment on their part; and (f) surveying all aspects of Egyptian TPPS for TEFL along the lines of Acheson's (1975) study examining all aspects of American and British TPPS for TESOL, e.g, curricular emphases, important of some theories and practices, job placement, and academic faculty. It is ftn‘ther recommended that empirical research of EFL teacher education be designed and implemented in order to analyze teacher behaviors; to compare the behaviors and characteristic of successful and less-successful teachers in terms of EFL learners' achievement; to develOp specifications of teacher behaviors, the conditions under which these behaviors are performed, and the criteria by which they are evaluated; and to validate pre- and inservice models of EFL teacher training, e.g., interaction analysis, micro-teaching, the competency-based approach, the non-directive approach, the alternatives approach, and the supervisory approach. Further attempts to study issues related to ESL/EFL teacher behaviors should take into account the correlation between EFL teacher training and learners' achievement, the effect of literature and cultural components on the enhancement of EFL teachers' communicative and sociolinguistic competence, and the develOpment of valid and reliable tests for measuring EFL teachers' behaviors. Literature in the area of empirical studies is not voluminous, and the results of the suggested researches could be used to mirror the process of EFL teacher training. Hopefully, the findings and recommendations of this study will motivate Egyptian curriculum planners and administrators to change current practices of teacher education, expand curricula, initiate new courses, and invest new funds and personnel in the training of TEFL professionals who are likely to be candidates for leadership positions in education. Such research might arouse 156 attention which would lead to more indepth studies within ESL/EFL TPPS' areas and will serve as a model for further research of this nature. APPENDICES APPENDIX A QUESTIONNAIRE Dear TESOL Specialist: The attached questionnaire concerning the identification of linguistic, literary, and pedagogical standards of Egyptian EFL teacher preparation programs is a part of a doctoral study at Michigan State University, USA. The specific objective of this study is to determine, as perceived by selected American and Egyptian TESOL Specialists, the appropriate level of an Egyptian EFL teacher's competence in and understanding of those instructional components: linguistic, literature, and pedagogy. The questionnaire consists of four sections: 1. identification data; 2. curricular components of EFL teacher preparation programs (TPPS): a. theoretical linguistic, b. applied linguistic, c. literature and culture, d. TEFL methodology and assessment, and e. professional education; 3. priorities of curricular components in TPPS for TEFL; and 4. breakdown of credit hours in TPPS for TEFL. I would appreciate your frank and prompt responses to the questionnaire and your returning it in the enclosed envelope on the same day you receive it. You' responses will be kept strictly confidential. Findings and conclusions of the survey will be provided to you if you request it in July, 1986. Thank you in advance for your participation. Sincerely, Sanad Mohammed Abdul Moneim Ph.D. Candidate, TESOL SMAM/bar 157 158 AMERICAN AND EGYPTIAN TESOL SPECIALISTS' QUESTIONNAIRE CONCERNING IDENTIFICATION OF LINGUISTIC, LITERARY, AND PEDAGOGICAL STANDARDS FOR EGYPTIAN EFL TEACHER PREPARATION PROGRAMS Section 1: Identification Data Name Gender: Male Female Department Degree Academic rank Years of ESL/EFL teaching experience Years of interest in TESOL How many college cou'ses does your institution of work offer in the following areas of study? a. General linguistic b. Phonetic c. English phonology d. English morphology e. English syntax f. Modern English grammar g. History of the English language h. Methods of TEFL i. Language acquisition j. Language testing k. Theories of learning 1. Contrastive analysis m. Cultural anthropology 159 Section II: Curricular Components of EFL Teacher Preparation Programs (TPPS) INSTRUCTIONS: I am seeking your perceptions on each of the following competencies, areas of knowledge, and curricular components that represent varying points of view about EFL teacher preparation. Please rate the importance of each statement by circling one of five responses: G1 = of greatest importance L1 = of low importance HI = of high importance NI = of negligible importance M1 = of moderate importance A. Theoretical linguistic: among the areas of knowledge that Egyptian EFL teacher preparation programs should emphasize in the training process of prospective teachers are the following: 1. Principles of English phonology: a. point and manner of articulation of English sounds GI HI M1 L1 NI b. prosodic features of English speech such as stress, pitch, length, and intention GI HI M1 L1 NI c. feature analysis of English phonemes GI HI MI Ll NI 2. Principles of English syntax: a. syntactic analysis of English GI H1 M1 L1 NI b. pedagogical English grammar GI HI M1 L1 NI c. differentiation between British and American English GI HI M1 L1 NI 3. Principles of English morphology: a. the nature of morphernes and morphemic patterning G1 HI M1 L1 NI b. morpho—phonemic features of English GI HI M1 L1 NI 4. Principles of English semantic: a. theories of meaning (referential, mentalist,etc.) GI HI M1 L1 NI b. integration of syntax and semantic GI HI Ml LI NI 160 5. A study of linguistic descriptions of language: a. structural GI HI Ml Ll NI b. transformational- generative GI H1 MI L l NI c. tagmemic GI HI M1 L1 NI 6. A study of the nature of language: a. linguistic relativity Gl HI M1 L1 NI b. universal grammar GI HI M1 L1 NI 7. Astudy of stylistic: a. linguistic features of different style of language GI HI M1 L1 NI b. computational stylistic GI HI Ml Ll NI 8. The actual learning of another foreign language, including: a. structure (phonology, syntax, morphology) GI HI M1 L1 N1 b. culture and social customs GI HI M1 L1 NI 9. A study of historical, comparative linguistic a. The historical development of the English language GI HI MI LI NI b. the process of linguistic change GI HI M1 L1 NI Applied linguistic: among the curricular components that Egyptian EFL teacher preparation programs Should provide effective instruction in for prospective teachers are the following: 10. A study of psycholinguistic basic of language: a. stages of language develOpm ent inachild GI HI M1 L1 N1 b. comprehension and production processes in L2 learning GI HI M1 L1 NI ll. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 161 A Study of sociolinguistic: a. varieties of English: social, regional, functional, and develOpmental b. sociolinguistic apprOpriateness of language c. speech act theory d. language planning A study of neu'olinguistic: a. hemispherity and learning styles b. the effect of brain damage on language functions (aphasia) A study of L2 acquisition theories: a. behaviorist (empiricist) b. cognitivist (information processing) c. nativist (naturalist) d. functionalist (Halliday) A study of L2 acquisition Strategies: a. contrastive analysis b. error analysis c. interlanguage analysis d. discou'se analysis A study of linguistic processes involved in Arabic-English translation A study of EFL reading theory: a. psycholinguistic models of EFL reading b. perceptual models of EFl reading c. application of readability principles to selection of reading materials for TEFL G1 G1 G1 G1 G1 G1 G1 G1 G1 G1 G1 GI GI G1 G1 GI G1 G1 HI H1’ H1 H1 H1 HI H1 H1 HI HI H1 H1 H1 HI H1 H1 H1 MI M1 M1 MI M1 M1 M1 M1 M1 M1 M1 MI M1 M1 M1 M1 M1 M1 L1 L1 L1 L1 LI L1 L1 L1 L1 LI L1 L1 L1 L1 L1 L1 L1 L1 N1 N1 N1 NI NI NI N1 N1 N1 N1 N1 N1 N1 N1 N1 N1 N1 N1 162 Literature and culture: among the curricular components and areas of knowledge that Egyptian EFL teacher preparation programs Should emphasize for prospective teachers are the following: 17. A knowledge of the history of English literature G1 HI M1 L1 N1 18. A knowledge of the history of American literature GI HI Ml LI N1 19. An indepth study of some major author's writings GI HI M1 L1 N1 20. A knowledge of a wide range of signifi- cant works of modern literature GI Hl MI LI N1 21. A study of such major literary genres as drama, poetry, fiction, and essay GI HI M1 L1 NI 22. A study of some representative works from literature other than English GI HI M1 L1 NI 23. A knowledge of certain cultural concepts: a. interaction between language and culture GI HI MI LI Nl b. basic structural features of various cultures GI HI M1 L1 NI c. verbal versus non-verbal communication GI HI MI LI NI d. cultural assumptions and value orientation Gl Hl M1 L1 NI e. sex-specific behavior in various cultures GI HI M1 L1 NI f. proxemic (the study of the physical distances maintained by language users in relation to each other) GI HI M1 L1 N1 24. An ability to compare aspects of Arabic culture with parallel ones for English- speaking peOple GI H1 M1 L1 N1 25. An understanding of the effects of social- cultural variation on EFL learners GI HI Ml LI NI 163 26. An understanding of approaches to the teaching of culture in TEFL programs: a. conventional academic approaches (lectures, readings from textbooks, etC.) GI HI M1 L1 NI b. observational approaches (e.g., native informants) GI HI M1 L1 NI c. media approaches (film, videotapes, etc.) GI HI MI LI NI d. experiential approaches (role plays, simulation games, etc.) GI HI M1 L1 NI e. cognitive approaches (culture assimilators, etc.) GI HI M1 L1 NI TEFL methodology and assessment: among the curricular components that Egyptian EFL teacher preparation programs Should provide effective instruction in for prospective teachers are the following: 27. Approaches to TEFL: a. the natural approach GI H1 M1 L1 Nl b. the comprehension approach GI HI MI LI NI c. the functional-notional approach GI HI M1 L1 NI d. the communicative approach GI H1 M1 L1 N1 28. Methods of TEFL: a. audio-lingual GI HI M1 L1 NI b. cogni tive-code GI HI MI L I NI c. eclectic GI HI M1 L1 NI d. suggestology GI Hl M1 L1 NI e. community language learning GI HI M1 L1 N1 29. Techniques of TEFL: a. individualized instruction GI HI M1 L1 NI b. microteaching GI HI Ml L 1 N1 c. socio-therapeutic analysis GI H1 MI Ll NI 164 30. Methods of TEFL for Specific prOgrams: 31. 32. 33. a. b. English for specific purposes (e.g., English for science technology) bilingual education Classroom activities: a. b. C. d. preparing and teaching listening, speaking, reading, and writing lessons developing/ evaluating instructional materials and curricula in harmony with ESOL students' proficiency preparing and using language laboratory lessons utilizing micro-computers in ESL/ EFL instruction Professional concerns: a. experimenting with new TESOL methods and techniques carrying on and directing TESL/TEFL research having familiarity with periodicals and organizations devoted to TESOL Language testing: a. b. C. constructing, analyzing, and administering EFL tests preparing diagnostic, achievement, and prognostic tests understanding methods of feeding back the results of assessment into EFL teaching G1 G1 G1 GI G1 G1 G1 G1 GI G1 G1 G1 H1 H1 H1 H1 HI H1 HI H1 H1 H1 H1 HI MI MI M1 M1 MI MI MI MI M1 M1 M1 M1 L1 L1 L1 L1 L1 L1 1.1 L1 L1 L1 L1 L1 NI NI NI NI NI N1 N1 N1 N1 N1 N1 N1 165 Professional education: among the curricular components that Egyptian EFL teacher preparation should provide effective instruction in for prospective teachers are the following: 34. Philosophy of education: a. social and political foundations of the Egyptian educational system GI HI MI Ll NI b. history of educational thought in Egyptian society G1 HI MI Ll N1 35. Educational psychology: a. learning theories and their application Gl Hl M1 L1 NI b. human growth and development GI H1 Ml LI NI c. guidance and counseling techniques GI HI M1 L1 NI d. classroom management techniques GI H1 M1 L1 NI 36. Curriculum and instruction: a. models of curriculum development GI HI MI LI NI b. evaluation of TEFL programs GI HI M1 L1 NI c. administration of TEFL programs GI HI M1 L1 NI d. utilization of available community resources in the classrooms Gl H1 M1 L1 NI 37. What other curricular components and areas of knowledge in theoretical and applied linguistic, literature, culture, TEFL methodology and professional education, not mentioned here, do you perceive v_ery important for the competent preparation of Egyptian EFL teachers? a. l. 66 Section II: Priorities of Curricular Components in TPPS for TEFL Please write in each column below no more than 10 items you consider high priority, 10 items you consider moderate priority, and 10 items you consider low priority areas of study for EFL teacher preparation programs. A list of areas is provided below. 10. High Priority Areas Moderate Priority Areas Low Priority Areas List of areas of study in EFL teacher preparation programs: :— .9 p— t— i» N O O theoretical linguistic English phonology English morphology English syntax English semantic materials develOpment, selection, and adaptation language testing English for specific purposes (e.g., English for science, for business) English literature sociolinguistic (relationship between language and culture/ society) discourse analysis (organization of oral and written language) psycholinguistic (psychological aspects of language and language learning.) first language acquisition (how children acquire mother tongue) 14. 15. 16. l7. 18. 167 second language acquisition (how children acquire second language) error analysis (courses and significance of error) methods of TESL/TEFL teaching four language skills reading theory composition theory development of the english language history of educational thought philosophy of education statistic and research design bilingual education interconnectedness of language and culture structure of Arabic language learning another language contrastive analysis Arabic-English translation cross-cultural communication/miscommuni cation Section IV: Breakdown of Credit Hours in TPPS for TEFL Suppose you had 500 study hours for the certification of prospective EFL teachers. How would you allocate these 500 hours among the various curricular components in EFL teacher preparation programs? Recommended Dis- tribution of Hours Curriculum Areas of Instruction Theoretical linguistic (e.g., phonology, morphology, syntax, lexicology, linguistic theories, universal grammar, tagmemic, generative-transformational, comparative, and historical linguistic, etc.) hours Applied linguistic (e.g., first and second language acquisition, sociolinguistic, psycholinguistic, netrolinguistic, discourse analysis, reading theory, composition theory, etc.) hours Literature in English (e.g., history of the English language, novel, dram a, Shakespeare's works, etc.) hours 168 4. Culture and cross-cultural communication (e.g., interconnectedness of language and culture, linguistic and cultural contact phenomena, language and cultural change, etc.) 5. Methodology of TEFL 6. EFL testing and evaluation 7. Professional education (e.g., cwriculum develop— ment and evaluation, history and philosophy of education, instructional media, classroom management techniques, etc.) TOTAL: hows hours hows hows 500 hows THANK YOU FOR COMPLETING THE QUESTIONNAIRE Sanad Mohammad Abdul Moneim APPENDIX B TESOL STATEMENT ON QUALIFICATIONS OF TEACHERS OF ENGLISH TO SPEAKERS OF OTHER LANGUAGES TESOL GUIDELINES The Preparation of the American School Teacher The Guidelines are intended to suggest desirable competencies for teachers of English to Speakers of other languages. In common with all teachers, his preparation will be based on a sound general education, courses and experiences which help him become a well-educated person with a strong background in the liberal arts and sciences, including psychology. Academic specialization cowses and experiences help him to become proficient in the area of concentration; and professional education courses and experiences help him prepare himself as a teacher. The statement which follows presupposes concurrent or prior completion of the baccalaureate degree program and is therefore concerned primarily with academic specialization and professional education. Its purpose is: (l) to define broadly the role of the English-as-a-second-langtage teacher in American schools; (2) to describe his personal qualities and professional competencies; ( 3) to state the minimal objectives for a teacher education program designed to develop professional competencies; and (4) to characterize the features of such a program. The Role of the English-as-a-second-language Teacher in American Schools The teacher of English to speakers of other languages in American schools is expected to: l. Progressively develOp in his students comprehension of and ability to interact with English-Speaking American society through mastery of communicative competence in English as it is used by the English-speaking population. Help his students gain mastery of both receptive (listening and reading) and productive (speaking and writing.) English-language Skills. Help his students gain an awareness of and respect for similarities and differences between the English-speaking culture and their own cultural heritage. Help his students gain knowledge of American social customs, traditions, folklore, history and literature in such a way as to contribute to their mastery of the language and culture, and their future educational and social development. 169 170 2. Evaluate his students' progress toward the above objectives, identify their strengths and weaknesses in performance, and adjust their instruction appropriately. 3. Make judicious selection and use of approaches, methods, techniques, procedures, materials and aids appropriate to effective language teaching for his pupils and curriculum objectives. Evaluate the effectiveness of these teaching procedwes and materials in bringing about student behaviors appropriate to the cwriculum objectives, and revise their use as necessary. Maintain vitality in the instructional program by implementing changes in the goals, procedures and materials whenever such changes are indicated by changes in the teaching Situation, or by developments in language teaching theory and practice. 4. Correlate the sequence and scope of his teaching with that in other instructional areas in the curriculum; and contribute to the definition of curriculum goals for linguistic minority students in English-as-a—second—language specifically, and in other areas generally.. Person Qualities, Professional Competencies and Experience of the English-as-a-Second-Language Teacher in American Schools To achieve the objectives of his teaching role the teacher of English as a second language in American schools is expected to: 1. Have personal qualities which contribute to his success as a classroom teacher, insure understanding and respect for his Students and their cultural setting, and make him a perceptive and involved member of his community. 2. Demonstrate proficiency in spoken and written English at a level commensurate with his role as a language model. Whether he is a native-language or second-language speaker of English, his command of the language should combine qualities of accuracy and fluency; his exprience of it should include a wide acquaintance with writings in it. 3. Have had the experience of learning another language and acquiring a knowledge of its structure; and have a conscious perception of another cultural system. If possible, the language and cultural system should be related to that of the pOpulation with which he is to work. 171 4. Understand the natwe of language; the fact of language varieties-social, regional, and functional; the structure and development of the English language systems, and the culture of English-speaking people. 5. Have a knowledge of the process of language acquisition as it concerns first and subsequent language learning and as it varies at different age levels; and understand the effect on language learning of socio-cultural variables in the instructional situation. 6. Have an understanding of the principles of language pedagogy and the demonstrated ability, gained by actual teaching experience, to apply these principles as needed to various classroom situations and instructional materials. 7. Have an understanding of the principles, and ability to apply the techniques and interpret the results of seond-language assessment of student progress and proficiency; and ability to evaluate the effectiveness of teaching materials, procedures and cwricula. 8. Have a sophisticated understanding of the factors which contribute to the life Styles of various peOples, and which determine both their uniqueness and their interrelationships in a pluralistic society. Objectives and Features of a Teacher Education Program in Teaching English as a Second Language A program to prepare a beginning English-aS-a-second-language teacher must provide him with the opportunity to develop the academic and professional competencies set forth in Section C above. These competencies will be developed to a level of proven ability capable of enabling him to fulfill satisfactorily the role-objectives Specified in Section B above, as demonstrated through actual teaching responsibility under exprienced supervision. The program features instruction and experiences which contribute directly to develOpment of competencies in: linguistics and English linguistics; psycho-linguistic; language pedagogy and assessment, including supervised teaching experience; and studies in culture. In addition, the program requires objective assessment of both the English and foreign-language proficiency of all candidates, and provides or arranges for supplementary instruction whenever necessary. A teacher education program may be viewed as having fow main components with overlapping competency objectives. The list of tOpics and experiences given here (with cross-references to Section C above) is not intended to be exhaustive or limiting, but only broadly suggestive of the content of each instructional component. 172 Academic specialition: cowses and training with the primary objective of helping the student to understanding and knowledge of the nature of language and English language systems, language learning, and language in culture. a. Linguistic and English Linguistic (C4): the nature language, its systematic organization, variation and change; major models of linguistic description; major sub-systems of present-day English (grammatical, phonological/graphemic and lexical/semantic), English historical development and dialectical variation; contrastive linguistic with special reference to comparison of English and a "linguistic minority" language. b. Psycholinguistic and sociolinguistic (C5): language acquistion processes in first and second language learning, age differential in language learning, individual learning styles; basic socio-cultural variables in language use and language learning, types of bilingual and multilingual educational Situations, social determiners of dialect and Style. c. Culture and society (C3, C4, C5, C8): the elements of socio-cultural systems; cultural pluralism in American society; description, comparison and interrelatilonship of English-speaking and linguistic- minority cultures; culturally determined life styles and their effect on second language learning. Pedagogy: foundations, methods, and practicum: cowses and training with the primary objective of providing theoretical and methodological foundations, and practical experience leading to competence in actual teaching situations. a. Professional education: social foundations and organization of American education, human growth and development, learning theory, and cwriculum development, including the place of English as a second language in the curriculum. b. Seond-language pedagogy (C6): objectives, theoretical approaches to, and methods of teaching English as a second language; language teaching techniques and procedures; curricula, teaching materials, and aids; adaptation of instructional materials to Specific Situations; professional information sowces: jownals, research reports, and professional organizations; design, implementation and evaluation of innovative materials and techniques. 173 c. Second-language assessment (C7,): principles of testing; techniques and interpretation of second- language assessment of Student progress and proficiency; evluation of teaching materials, procedures and cwricula. d. Language teaching practicum (C6, C7): systematic directed observation, supervised teaching practice, and progressive teaching responsibilities which contribute to exprience and competence in the primary roles of the ENgliSh-aS-a-Second-language teacher described in Section B above. Although experience gained in the training program will usually be more extensive and direct in the roles that help Shape student behaviors (Bl-B2) than in those roles more broadly concerned with curriculum development and evaluation (B3-B4), opportunities should be made available for some experience in all roles. (l) The institution provides Opportunities for systematic, directed observation of a variety of English-aS-a-second-language teaching situations for children, adolescents, and adults at beginning, intermediate, and advanced levels of instruction, and which employ a representative variety of appropriate teaching methods, materials, and aids. (2) The institution provides directed teaching practice, with progessively increased responsibility, under expert supervision in teaching situations apprOpriate to the student teacher's employment goals. Through his experience the candidate will both develOp and demonstrate his actual and potential ability as an English-aS-a- second-language teacher by achieving at least a "good" leval of competence in the role-objectives of Section B above. Another Language: learning experience; structural and cultural information (C4): For those candidates who have not had recent experience learning another language, the instituation offers, or provides by special arrangement, second-language instruction. Whenever possible, cowses are available by which the candidate can gain knowledge of the linguistic structure of the language and features of the cultural system of the population with which he intends to work. 174 4. Evaluation of candidates: Evaluation of each candidate's achievement in the areas of competence outlined above is an integral and systematic part of the teacher education program at all its stages (i.e., for admission to, retention in, and completion of the program). a. English language proficiency (C2), of both native and non-native speakers, is demonstrated prior to admission by satisfactory completion of apprOpriate college-level course work requiring a high level of oral and written expression, and/or objective assessment by standardized test instruments prOperly interpreted. b. The institution publishes a clearly formulated policy concerning admission to, retention in, and successful completion of the teacher education program. The statement of this policy includes precise information about application procedwes and criteria for admission to the program; it indicates how and by what professional criteria students may be eliminated from the program; and it sets forth clearly the minimal academic achievement and level of teaching competence required for successful completion of the program. c. The institution evaluates the candidate's achievements by instrwnents appropriate to the measwement of each competency including direct evaluation the candidate in his continuing education and career development, and for recommending, licensing, and employing him. His readiness to teach is certified in the name of the whole institution. An official designated to make such certification is able to demonstrate that he has received assessments concerning the candidate's performance in all units of the teacher education program. 5. Staff and facilities: The institution has a Staff whose combined competencies are superior to the level of instructional proficiencies which are the objectives of the program. The teachers and supervisors of cowses and training in teaching methodology are themselves superior in the competencies outlined in Section C above. The institution maintains an up-to—date curriculum materials collection comprising materials, aids, and equipment commonly used in teaching English as a second language at all levels. Journals, research reports, and other sowces of supportive professional information are available and kept current. 175 The institution maintains close contact with the instructional programs in which candidates serve their observation and directed teaching practice assignments. APPENDIX C GUIDELINES FOR TEACHER EDUCATION PROGRAMS IN MODERN FOREIGN LANGUAGES GUIDELINES FOR TEACHER EDUCATION PROGRAMS IN MODERN FOREIGN LANGUAGES The Preparation of the American School Teacher: The preparation of a teacher in this country usually consists of: general education, courses and experience which help him become proficient in an area of concentration; and professional education, courses and experiences which help him prepare himself as an educator The statement which follows is concerned only with academic specialization and professional education. It is intended to define the role of the modern foreign language teacher, to state the minimal competence which should be provided by a training program, and to characterize such a program. The Modern Foreign Language Teacher in American Schools: The teacher of a modern foreign language in American schools is expected to: 1. Develop in students a progressive control of the fow language skills (listening, speaking, reading, writing). 2. Present the language as an essential element of the foreign culture and Show how that culture is Similar to and cfifferenct from that of the United States. 3. Present the foreign literature in such a way as to bring the Students to understand it and to appreciate its values. 4. Make judicious selection and use of approaches, methods, techniques, aids, material, and equipment for language teaching. 5. Correlate his teaching with that in other areas. 6. Evaluate the progress and diagnose the deficiencies of student performance. Minimal Objectives for a Teacher Education Program in Modern Foreign Languages: The program to prepare a beginning modern foreign language teacher must provide him with the Opportunity to develOp: 1. Ability to understand conversation at normal tempo, lectures, and news broadcasts. 2. Ability to talk with a native with a command of vocabulary and syntax sufficient to express his thoughts in conversation at normal speed with reasonably good pronunciation. 176 Features of a Teacher Education Program in Modern Foreign Languages: An institution that seeks approval of its modern foreign language teacher education program accepts the responsibility for demonstrating that its program provides students with the Opportunity to acquire the competences 177 Ability to read with immediate comprehension prose and verse of average difficulty and mature content. Ability to write a simple "free composition," such as a letter or message, with clarity and correctness in vocabulary, idiom, and syntax. An understanding of the differences between the sound systems, forms, and structures of the foreign language and of English and ability to apply this understanding to modern foreign language teaching. An awareness of language as an essential element of culture and an understanding of the principal ways in which the foreign culture differs from our own. First-hand knowledge of some literary masterpieces and acquaintance with the geography, history, art, social customs, and contemporary civilization of the foreign people. Knowledge of the present-day Objectives of modern foreign language teaching as communication, and an understanding of the methods of techniaues for attaining these objectives. Knowledge of the use of specialized techniques, such as educational media, and of the relation of modern foreign language study to other areas of the curriculum. Ability to evaluate the professional literatwe of modern foreign language teaching. named above. It is characterized by the features listed below. 1. The institution has a clearly formulated policy concerning admission to, retention in, and completion of the program. The statement of this policy includes precise information about when and how to apply for admission to the program and what criteria are used in screening applicants; it States the minimal achievement required for successful completion of the program and it indicates when, how, and by what professional criteria students are eliminated from the program. A printed statement of this policy is available to all who request it. The institution evaluates the previous language experience of all applicants for admission to the institution as well as of that of applicants to the modern foreign language teacher education program through the use of proficiency tests in the four language Skills. It uses the results of such evaluation for student placement in modern foreign language instruction. 178 In order to provide candidates of varied backgrounc with the opportunity to achieve at least the level of "Good" in the seven areas of competence outlined in Section C above, the institution offers, or provides by special arrangement, instruction in: a. The four language skills (listening, speaking, reading, writing). This instruction includes regular and extensive exposwe to several varieties of native Speech through teachers, lecturers, native informants, or mechanically reproduced speech, and exposure to severl varieties of the written language through books, newspapers, magazines, documents, etc. b. The major works of literature. This instruction is largely or entirely in the foreign language. c. Other aspects of the culture and civilization. The instruction includes the study of the geography, history, and contemporary civilization. d. Language analysis, including a study of the phonology, morphology, and syntax of the modern foreign language and comparison of these elements with those of American English. e. Professional education, including a study of the social foundations and the organization of public education in the United States, human growth and development, learning theory, and curriculum organization, including the, place of foreign languages in the curriculum. f. Methods of teaching modern foreign languages. A study of approaches to, methods of, and techniques to be used in teaching a modern foreign language. There is instruction in the use of the language laboratory and other educational media. The institution provides an Opportunity for systematic, supervised Observation of a variety of modern foreign language teaching situations of differing quality in elementary and secondary schools, at beginning, intermediate, and advanced levels of instruction, in classroom and language laboratory. The institution provides student-teaching experience under expert supervision in which the candidate can demonstrate his actual or potential ability to be a modern foreign language teacher. 8. 10. 179 The institution has a Staff whose combined cOmpetences are superior to the level of instructional proficiencies which are the objectives of the program. The teachers of the methods courses and the classroom teachers (cooperating teachers) who supervise the student teaching are experienced foreign language teachers and are themselves proficient at least at the level of "Good" in the seven areas of competence. In addition, the cooperating teachers are interested in having student teachers work under their supervision. The institution maintains a curriculum library containing the materials and equipment commonly used in teaching modern foreign languages in elementary and secondary schools. The institutuion provides all students of modern foreign languages with such opportunities for reinforcement of their classroom learning as a language laboratory, foreign films, plays, and lectures; language reading and listening rooms with books, periodicals, records, and tapes; language houses and language tables. The institution, if it dows not have its own program outside the United States, calls to the attention of all foreign language majors Specific foreign study programs which have been carefully selected. A candidate's achievement in the seven areas of competence is evaluated through appropriate tests, his teaching skill is appraised by experts, and the results of the evaluation and appraisal are available for advising him in his continuing education and for recommending, licensing, and employing him. His readiness to teach is certified in the name of the whole institution. An official designated to make such certification iS able to demonstrate that he has received information about the candidate from all units in the institution concerned with the candidate's preparation. APPENDIX D NCTE STANDARDS FOR THE PREPARATION OF TEACHERS OF ENGLISH The teacher of English at any level should have personal qualities which will contribute to his success as a classrom teacher and Should have a broad G UIDEL INE 1 background in the liberal arts and sciences. A. Like all other teachers, he should be able to work successfully with children or adolescents and with his peers. personality and possess such important qualities as creativity, a sense of humor, self-discipline, and a genuine appreciation of the variety of linguistic and cultural backgrounds of his Students. He Should be an educated person who has a critical awareness of himself and of the world in which he lives. Careful counseling Should help him plan a balanced program from among the many disciplines which can contribute to his intellectual growth and to his effectiveness as a teacher of English. 1. History, speech, fine and applied arts, and foreign language would be particulary appropriate in a program for the teacher of English at any level. (a) (b) Because American literature is an integral part of the curriculum in the secondary school, the teacher of English would benefit from a study of American social, cultural, and intellectual history, as well as political history. The inclusion of the works of many British authors in the curriculums of American elementary and secondary schools suggests the value of the study of British cultural history. The increasing appearance of African, Asian, and Latin American literature in the curriculum makes cowses in the cultural history of non-English speaking peOpleS useful for all, and essential for some, teachers. Preparation in Speech Should help the prospective teacher listen more critically, speak and read aloud more effectively, and assist students in developing these proficiencies. Such preparation Should also broaden the teacher's knowledge of the processes of oral communication, help him relate these processes at both theoretical and functional levels to other uses of the English language, and provide him with the means of assessing the effectiveness of his own use of Spoken language in varying teaching situations. 180 He Should have a mature (c) (d) PhilOSOphy, history, sociology, psychology, anthrOpology, and geography, valuable in themselves, would help the prospective teacher become familiar with a growing body of information that contributes to our understanding of man, his languages, and 181 Study and practice in the fine and applied arts, valuable in themselves, would enhance the teacher's ability to recognize, nowish, and to evaluate students' creative work and artistic techniques. A knowledge of at least one foreign language should not only broaden the cultural background of the secondary school teacher, but also supplement his knowledge of the English language and of literature writen in English. Instead of merely reading or hearing about the difficulties and deficiencies of translations and about the differences between the structure of Englilsh and that of other languages, he should learn about these matters directly through study of another language, classical or modern. ESpecially appropriate is the study of a foreign language having a literature that has significantly influenced English and American literature. But in the present world, important advanteages accrue from a practical command of any living foreign language. The increasing frequency and intensity of problems of bilingualism and multi-dialectism in American schools make it virtually imperative that both the elementary school teacher and the secondary school teacher of Englilsh be familiar with a foreign language, with the methods by which English is taught to speakers of another language or dialect, and with the psychological processes involved in learning a second language or dialect. his literature. The sciences and mathematic would give the prospective teacher some knowledge of these subjects, an understanding of their importance in the modern world, and an introduction to methods of scientific analysis. 182 GUIDELINE II The prOgram in English for the elementary school teacher Should provide a balanced study of language, literature, and composition above the level of freshman English. In additilon, the program should require supervised teaching and English or language arts methods, including the teaching of reading, and it Should provide for a fifth year of study. 1. The elementary school teacher spends between 40 and 60 percent of his time teaching English and related skills in almost any pattern of school organization. (a) His preparation program Should, therefore, develOp his own Skills and increase his knowledge of the components of English. (b) His program must, in addition, include study of materials and methods for teaching English to elementary school children. 2. The fifth-year program may be taken either prior to teaching, during summers, or through accredited extension or in-service cowses taken dwing the school year, but it should ordinarily be completed within the first five years of teaching. The elementary school teacher should study English and English Education to supplement his basic preparation. His needs, deficiencies, or special interests, determined through careful counseling, may suggest undergraduate or graduate work in 'these or other areas. The program in English for the secondary school teacher of English should constitute a major so arranged as to provide a balanced study of language, literature, and composition above the level of freshman English. In adition, the program should require supervised teaching and English methods, including the teaching of reading at the secondary level, and it should provide for a fifth year of study, largely in graduate courses in English and in English Education. 1. The secondary school teacher of English is a specialist in English: (a) His preparation program should, therefore, develop his own skills and increase his knowledge of the components of English. (b) His program must, in addition, include study of materials and methods for teaching English at the secondary level. 183 2. The fifth-year program may be taken either prior to teaching, during summers, or through accredited extension or in-service cowses taken during the school year, but it should ordinarily be completed within the first five years of teaching. The secondary school teacher of English Should ordinarily study English and English Education at the graduate level. His needs, deficiencies, or special interests, determined through careful counseling, may, however, call for undergraduate or graduate studies in these or other areas. The teacher of English at any level should consider growth in his profession as a continuing process. 1. He should broaden his knowledge and understanding of the content and teaching of English through reading, observation, research, formal cowse work, in-service study, workshops and institutes, and travel. 2. He Should read publications which report investigations of the organization and content of the English curriculum, describe new and improved methods and materials for the teaching of English, report relevant research, and examine the philosophical bases for the teaching of English. 3. He should seek further professional growth through such activities as membership in local, state and national professional organizations, study in the United States and in foreign countries, and experience as an exchange teacher. 184 GUIDEL INE III The teacher of English at any level Should have an understanding and appreciation of a wide body of literature. A. His undergraduate program should have prepared him to read for his own enjoyment, to gain insight into himself and the world around him, and to understand and appreciate how writers order experience. 1. He should have developed a Strong commitment to literature as an experience to be enjoyed both in and out of school classes. 2. He should have developed the habit of reading beyond classroom necessity so that he can bring to his teaching a wide experience with literature and with the means of stimulating his students' creative responses and reactions to literary works. B. He Should hae studies literature systematically. 1. He Should know a wide range of significant works of literature recognized as classic and, in addition, examples of othe well- written discowse. 2. He should have studied such major literary genres as drama, poetry, fiction, and the essay. 3. He Should be able to relate contemporary writing to the traditions from which it grows. 4. He should have studies important writers and writings of English and American literature both to extend his knowledge of literary history and convention and to develop his critical Skill. 5. He should have studies some representative works from literatures other than English and American. 6. He should have studied in depth some major authors (such as Shakespeare) and at least one literary period. C. He should have acquired critical and scholary tools. 1. He should be able to use his knowledge of language and rhetoric to analyze literature more perceptively. 2. His study of different ways of analyzing a work of literature Should include some formal training in the throries of literary criticism and practice in close textual criticism. 185 3. He Should be able to analyze and discuss language as it is uded in various media and literature as it is presented in such media as radio, television, motion pictures, and theater. He should know literary works appropriate for the level at which he teaches. l. The elementary school teacher should know a wide body of children's literature. 2. The secondary school teacher of English should know a wide body of literature for adolescents. He Should have studied and practiced the Strategies of teaching literature to students who have a wide range and variety of individual and group differences. 1. He Should be able to foster in his students a taste for literature. 2. He should be able to demonstrate processes of literary analysis to his students through critical techniques apprOpriate to the literary work and to the level at which he is teaching. 3. He should have a knowledge of the theories and methods of teaching children and adolescents to read literature with skill and perception. 4. He Should be able to insure a fuller understanding of literature through hiw own oral reading and through classroom activities such as individual oral interpretation, choral reading, and apprOpriate dramatic activities Of all kinds. 186 GUIDELINE IV The teacher of English at any level should have Skill in listening, Speaking, reading, and writing, and an understanding of the nature of language and of rhetoric. A. He Should have developed skill in Skill in Speaking and writing. 1. He Should have had supervised practice in speaking and writing in a variety of modes. 2. He Should have acquired a functional understanding of the activities essential to the composing process, and Of the qualities and prOpertieS of children's writing. 3. He should have had supervised practice in describing, analyzing, and evaluating, for purposes of teaching, various kinds of apeaking and writing, both historical and contemporary. 4. He should have had special work apprOpriate to the level at which he will teach: (a) to develop his skill in reading aloud and in storytelling; (b) to develop his ability to help students control and expand their linguistic resources for conversation and other forms of oral discourse, such as storytelling, informal or structured discussions and reports, or fully develOped speeches for public occastions; (c) to develop his ability to help students find adequate means of expression in both imaginative and factual writing; (d) to increase his awareness of the origins, the objectives, and the potentialities of composition teaching in the schools; (e) to prepare him to teach spelling, handwriting, and other conventions of written expression. 5. He Should have had instruction in writing beyond the college freshman level, either through an advanced course in composition or through supervised individual instruction and practice. Not only should he be prepared in the technical and expository aspects of composition, but he Should also have explored the creative and liberating functions of Speaking and writing and the relations between such creativity 187 and other forms of expression, e.g., painting and pantomime. He Should have a well-balanced descriptive and historical knowledge of the English language. 1. He should be able to utilize his knowledge of language and of language learning to develop his own and his students' ability to read and to listen. His knowledge should include an understanding of the components of reading and listening processes and o the variety of ways in which people He Should have some understanding of phonology, morphology, and syntax; the sources and develOpment of the English vocabulary; semantic; and social, regional, and functional varieties of English usage. He Should be acquainted with methods of preparation and uses of dictionaries and grammars. He should be well-grounded in one grammatical system and have a working acquaintance with at least one other system. He should have studied basic principles of language learning in order to apply his knowledge at various grade levels to the problems of those learning to Speak, listen, read, and write to a variety of audiences. He should have an understanding of the respective domains of linguistics and rhetoric, and of the range of choice available within the structure of the language. read and listen. I. 4. He Should have some acquaintance with the principles of classical rhetoric, and Should understand their relationship to modern rhetoric. He should have some acquaintance with the influence of rhetorical theory on the teaching of composition. He should have sufficient acquaintance with the principles of rhetoric and the nature of the writing process to be able to use the former, where relevant, in analyzing the latter or products thereof, whether written or oral. He should have sufficient acquaintance with the principles of rhetoric, as related to the writing process, to be able to use them, where relevant in his own writing and speaking, and also in his teaching. The teacher of English at any level should have an understanding of the GUIDELINE V relationship of child and adolescent develOpment to the teaching of English. A. He should in a formal way have studied human behavior, with emphasis upon the age level at which he plans to teach, and should explore relevant research on child and adolescent development for its possible implications for the curriculum in English. 1. Because he must constantly evaluate the performance of his students and the effectiveness of his own teaching, both subjectively and by diagnosing and measuring student performance, he should understand the techniques, possbiliities, and limitations of testing and of grouping students by interest, He Should have studied the language development of children and adolescents: their interest in language, their growth in using vocabulary and syntax, in understanding and using figurative speech, as well as their growth in the ability to distinguish among several varieties of usage. He should be aware of the growing knowledge about the specific relationships between language develOpment and personal develOpment. He Should be aware of the growing knowledge about the specific relationships between control of spoken language (sentence patterns, vocabulary, dialect) and success in reading. 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