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WIIIIIIIIWIII IIIIIMMI

 

978 -
3:33:00 - LIBRARY
’ University, J
‘L—: .

 

:I‘lris is to certify that the
dissertation entitled
TONARD IMPROVED RURAL DEVELOPMENT
MANAGEMENT IN THE PHILIPPINES:
A MANAGEMENT EDUCATION PROGRAM

presented by

Mervyn Juarez Misajon

has been accepted towards fulﬁllment
of the requirements for

Ph. D. degree in Resource Development

 

m/c (ﬁlo

Major professor

 

Date August 2, [983

MSU is an Afﬁrmative Action/Equal Opportunity Institution 0- 12771

—————-- ~-' ~—__v.

LVIESI_J RETURNING MATERIALS:
Place ir book drop to
LJBRAﬁJES remove this checkout from
“ your record. FINES will

be charged if book is
returned after the date
stamped below.

 

 

 

 

 

 

"(QUITE “‘ .

 

 

mm IMPROVED RURAL DE‘IEIDHIENP MANAGEMENT
IN THE PHILIPPINES:

A MNAGEMENT EDUCATION PROGRAM

BY

Mervyn J uarez Misajon

A DISSERTATION
Submitted to
Michigan State University

in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of

DOCIOR OF PHILOSOPHY

Department of Resource Develqznent
1983

H» 3376/

ABSTRACT

TONARD IMPROVED RURAL DEVELOPMENT MANAGEMENT IN THE PHILIPPINES:

A MANAGEMENT BREATION PRCXSRAM

Mervyn J uarez Misajon

There is a sense of urgency and growing acceptance among
theoreticians and practitioners of rural deve10pment regarding the
inportance of the management component in the development process . It
is widely held that efforts twards improving rural conditions have not
been too successful and, in some instances, even worsened conditions.
Managerial deficiencies, among other factors, have been partially
responsible for the lack of success.

Training, specifically management education, is one way of
alleviating the problem and is the focus of this study. The study
embarks on the design of a managesrent curriculum for current and future
middle-level managers that would be applicable to Third World nations,
in general, and the Philippines, in particular.

To design the curriculum, a literature search on the tasks and
roles of current and future middle—level or project managers was
conducted and, based on the findings, relevant concepts, skills, and

attitudes required of them, identified. Content and learning

experiences were then selected and organized with a view towards
subsequent evaluation.

The main findings of this study are: (1) the concept of
development has evolved from definitions that solely centered on
economics and currently include notions of social justice, equitable
distribution of wealth, and citizen participation: (2) the tasks and
roles of current managers of rural developnent are different from their
counterparts in the West due mainly to the differences in cultures, and
the differences in national priorities, i.e. , more develqment-oriented
than maintenance; (3) there are three interrelated, often conflicting,
areas of managerial concern where these tasks and roles are applied,
viz., the program, the organization, and the camunity; (4) there is an
urgent need for citizen participation in national planning and
inplenentation. Therefore, camunity development is needed to mobilize
the peOple towards becaning productive and independent decision-making
units.

The conclusions drawn from the study revolve around strengthening
the education of rural deve10pment managers by training them in the
newer conceptions on developnent, on the three areas of concern, and in
camunity developnent. IThe inplications from such conclusions involve a
rethinking of present values and a search for indigenous managerial
systems, a restructuring of present bureaucratic structures, and

devolution of powers to the community.

To The Filipino People: This dissertation is the first of my

‘humble offerings towards a brighter future for us all.

ii

ACKNONLEMEMENTS

A completed dissertation is the product of many minds and a symbol
of the culmination of years of study. It is, for me, a tribute to all
of the people who have influenced my thinking and feeling in the course
of my study. It is, therefore, virtually impossible to thank all of
those who directly or indirectly have helped me complete this study. I
would, however, like to acknowledge those mom I mild say, contributed
the most.

As the director of a play is a "god" to his performers, so is the
major professor to his advisee. Prof. Frank Fear has been many things
to me. He has been my major professor, study director, mentor, sounding
board for ideas, facilitator, editor, a role model of a teacher, and the
ultimate strategist. He was patient with me, generous with his time,
and always "pulled throng " for me. I am, therefore, honored to have
been his student and personally indebted for the good things he has
shown me.

I am grateful to my committee members, Prof. Milton Steinmueller,
Prof. Larry Lezotte, and Prof. Peter Gladhart for giving me support and
enoouragenents when most needed.

I am thankful to Chancellor Javier 8. staff, Dean Pedro R. Sandoval
and staff, and the late Chancellor Abelardo G. Sarronte for believing in
me and for providing me the much needed home support.

I am thankful to Dr. Edgardo Quisumbing & staff of the Ministry of
Agriculture, Dr. William J. Jorns & staff of Kansas State University,
and the US Agency for International Development, for providing me with
an Opportunity to have been educated in my field and in another culture.

Thanks also to Pam Eder and Nora Beckett for helping me with the
preparation of my dissertation.

iii

I wiSh to thank the many friends I have been blessed with who
constituted my life support system in a foreign land, e.g. , Prof. Donna
Sweeney (who served as my Change agent), Denny Robertamn Suelkﬁin
Wayne Burkhart, Elda Keaton, Kit Machinchik, the Resource Development
secretarial staff, all of my countrymen at MSU who never made me forget
my hareland, and all other names and faces I know whose lives I touched
by my presence and mine by theirs.

Special thanks to Yvonne Pysh and family who gave me the
opportunity of knowing a special family during my stay in the U.S.

To:my parents, especially my mother, grandparents and relatives Who
are all responsible for What I amltoday...a special thanks.

To Melanie, Christopher, and Marie Christine, thoughts ofxdxmn
served as my constant reservoir of strength, goes the biggest thanks of

all.

iv

TABLE OF CDN'I'ENTS

List of Tables
List of Figures
CHAPTERS
I MNAGD’IENT EDIEATION AS A (DNI‘RIBUTING
FACIOR '10 EFFECTIVE RURAL DEVELOPMENT IN
THE DEVELOPING VDRLD
Focus on Rural DevelOpment Management
The Issue of Administrative Capability
The Shortage of Trained Manpower
Training for Rural Developrent Management
Philippine Rural Development: A Management
Training Case in Point
rIhe Importance of Rural Development in the
Ihilippines
Rural Deveth Management in the Philippines
Study Problem and Approach to the Problem
Purpose of the Study
Study Approach
Organization of the Study
II RURAL DEVELOPMENT MANAGB’IENT THEDRY AND PRACTICE:
THE PHILIPPINES AS A CASE IN POINT
The Concept of Development
The Concept of Rural Develorment

Rural Develqment Ideologies and Strategies

PAGE

ix

12
14

14

15

17
17
21

22

Historical Background on Rural Development
Efforts in the Philippines
Philippine Rural Develqment Strategy
Deveth Planning
Implementation
Problems and Issues in Integrated Rural Developrent
The Need for Administrative Reform
Toward a Strategy-Structure for Implementation
The Developrent Comcil Model
The Regional / Local Government Nbdel
The Administrative Model
Public Management Education in the Philippines

Conclusion

III THE RURAL DEVEIDH’IENT MANAGER

The Concept of Develcprent Management

Toward a New Development Order

Rural Developrent Managers in Perspective

Toward a Definitim of "Rural Development Managers"
Tasks

Roles
Philippine Rural Developrent mnagers

Conclusion

IVTHECIXENITIVEANDAFFEXITIVEWOFRURALDEVEIDPMENP

mm

The Cognitive Domain
Application of Concepts to Rural Development Management

Concepts Central to Rural Developrent Management

vi

3o
32
32
35
36
38
41
41
42

43

47
49
49
53
56
57
58
60
61

65

67
67
69

7O

Skills in Rural Develqment Management 72

The Affective Domain 75
Conclusion 77

V A MANAGEMENT EDUCATION PROGRAM 79
Management Training Nbdels 79
The MARD Model 81
Elements in the Curriculum Design Framework 83
Steps in the Curriculum Development Process 83

The Andragogical (Process) Model of Adult

Education 84
The 7-Step Qirriculum Develqment Process 86
Diagnosis of Needs (Step 1) 86
Formulation of Objectives (Step 2) 88

Selection and Organization of Curriculum
Content (Steps 3 & 4) 90

Selection and Organization of learning

Experiences (Steps 5 & 6) 90
Conclusion 92

VI MANAGH’IEN'I‘ EDIEATION EVALUATION 94
The Importance of Evaluation 94
Evaluation in the LlII's 95
Toward an Evaluation Model for MARD 96
Defining Objectives 96
Collecting Information 97
Evaluative Criteria 101
Evaluation Process 103

vii

Using Evaluation Results
Conclusion
VII THE EDUCATION OF RURAL DEVELOPMENT MANAGERS IN
PERSPECTIVE
Summary
Study Purposes and Objectives
Findings/Observations
Conclusions and Implications
Limitations
Recommendations
Final Comments
APPENDICES
Appendix A
Concepts Central to Rural Development Management
Appendix B

Suggested Courses and Descriptions

BIBLIOGRAPHY

viii

104
106

107
107
107

108
110

113
114
116

118

138

157

Table 1.

Table 2 .

Table 3 .

Table 4 .

LIST OF TABLES

Ideologies of Develogment

Rural Development Strategies and Their

Principal Characteristics

Summary of the Proposed Managerent

Education Curriculum

A Summary of a Preposed MARD Evaluation

Process

ix

23-24

28-29

91

105

Figure 1.

Figure 2.

LIST OF FIGURES

When to Collect Evaluation Data

The Newstrom (1978) Evaluation Framework

98

103

CHAP'TERI

MANAGEMENT EDUCATION AS A CONTRIBUTING FACTOR 'IO EFFECTIVE

RURAL DEVELOPMENT IN THE DEVELOPING MORLD

Focus on Rural Development Management

One of the most important challenges faced by less deveIOped
countries (LDC's) today is the management of rural development
programs. Contemporary theoreticians and practitioners of rural
development are concerned about the failure of programs to bring about
significant improvements in rural life (McCallum, 1982; FAO, 1975}
Lele, 1975). Rural poverty, both in absolute and relative terms, has
persisted (Inayatullah, 1973; Hunter, 1978). Sore studies indicate
that, given the tremendous financial investments in such programs by
national governments and external donors, the impact on absolute poverty
has been unexpectedly marginal and, in some cases, has actually
increased the inequalities and reinforced the pre—existing inegalitarian
rural social structures (Inayatullah, 1973).

Case histories of rural deveIOpment programs reveal a wide variety
of reasons why programs have failed (see for example, Ahmed and Coombs,
1975; Borton, 1967; Bunting, 1970: De Wilde, 1967; Hunter et. al., 1976;
Lele, 1975; Nelson, 1973,- Niehoff, 1966; Sheffield and Diejomaoh, 1972;
Fisher, 1972; and Moris, 1981). Reasons that have been advanced
include:

1. The program itself, i.e., inadequacies in the planning,
implementation and evaluation phases;

2. The clients, i.e., inadequacies in stimulating citizen
involvement or participation ;

3. The implementing organization(s), i.e., structural
deficiencies, coordination and integration incapability,
leadership and staffing adequacies; and

4. The environment, i.e., unanticipated effects on, or impacts

of, the social, economic, political, environmental, and
technological systems.

All of these lead to, or imply, what Stifel, et. a1. (1977) have

called a management crisis-~a problem that is gaining awareness and

 

widespread recognition among scholars and practitioners of rural

development. This crisis is attributed to the lack of management or

administrative capability that serves as a major constraint in the

 

implerentation of national programs (Stiffel, et. al., 1977).

The Issue of Administrative Capability
Administrative capability may be defined as an organization's
capability to convert or process critical inputs of a program into
certain oztputs (Iglesias, 1976). Inputs could be generally categorized
into:

1. Resources-——human and non-human components (personnel,
fundings, equipment, materials, etc. ):

2. Structure---organizational roles and relationships that are
program relevant, prescribed legally or informally;

3. Technology—-—know1edge and behavior essential for the
operation of the organization and also for the program itsel f ;
and

4. Support---the range of actual or potential roles and behavior
or persons and entities which tend to promote achievement of
goals.

Experience with development efforts has shown two closely related

factors necessary for the achievement of deveIOpment goals: 1) the

government's ability to design and carry out strategies for

macro—economic growth; and 2) its capacity to increase the
productivity and fulfill the basic needs of a majority of its population
in an equitable fashion (Rondinelli and Mandell, 1981). The burden of
responsibility, which has been placed on governrments in developing
nations, has led to an over-stretching of their resources to plan and
implement rural development programs.

The poor administration of government-sponsored programs has been
largely responsible for the failure of such programs to achieve their
objectives (McCallum, 1982). Avasthi and Maheswari (1966) have called

it an administrative 1ag-the imbalance that exists between aspirations

 

and performance and, consequently, constitutes a major obstacle to

national developrent.

The Shortage of Trained Manpower

One requisite of management or administrative capability is the
presence of trained manpower to plan and implement projects. However,
in most developing countries today, there is an acute shortage of
trained manpower. This has been viewed as a critical deficiency by the
World Bank, FAO, the Foundations, and other organizations that are
committed to, and involved in, rural development efforts.

There are varion reasons for the absence of trained manpower in
developing countries. First, the trerendous expansion of investments in
agriculture and rural developrent in many countries has exacerbated the
manpower scarcities for planning and implementing projects (Israel,
1978). The World Bank in 1975 described the supply of indigenous

supervisory and managerial staff as chronically short in most developing

(xxmmries. 1i.also viewed the shortage as perhaps the most serious
obstacle to large-scale rural develOpment efforts.

Another reason is the poor conditions of service. Salaries for
government erployees are generally low (Jiggins, 1977; Maddick, 1963) .
The low salaries often affect the quality of personnel recruited. Most
talented managers are either pirated away by private businesses (who
offer better pay) or make a conscious effort to join such corporations.
Related to salaries are poor promotion prospects and the lack of job
security. It is generally accepted that promotion in government service
is slow and that the systems of rewards are poor. In sore countries,
employees are still arbitrarily dismissed (Maddidk, 1963). All of these
circumstances lead to a rapid turneover of personnel and a generalhy Low
level of commitment to rural development.

Another reason is that technical personnel have been promoted
through the inexorable process of seniority into positions of management
for which they are often ill-prepared or ill—equipped to handle. This
is the usual case of an agricultural technician being promoted into a
supervisory position.

The need for trained manpower to staff agricultural and rural
development efforts cannot be overlooked. For example, the Rockefeller
Foundation noted that, in the development sectors where it has been
involved (i.e. , agriculture, health, and education), technology transfer
impediments have not been the major problem affecting program
effectiveness. Rather, a pervasive managerial deficiency has been in
evidence at all levels. This situation also demonstrates that ﬂue
growth of foreign assistance availabilities has added substantial

burdens to the managerial requirements of existing national programs .

Una Lele (1975) and Emezi (1979) also point out that low-level
persons are frequently entrusted with the major task of effecting rural
development. Available manpower in local areas is often low in quality,
limited in experience, and lacking in the requisite training demanded by
rural devequrent. Furthermore, professionals in charge of projects are
often technicians who lack training and experience in administration and
management. Hence, they carry an incomplete picture of the overall
objectives, requirements, complexities, and possibilities of rural
development programs .

The existing shortage of skilled manpower to plan, manage, and
operate rural development projects, especially at the field level, has
been a major reason for slow progress in implementing much needed
decentralization of project administration (Rondinelli and Ruddle, 1978;

FAQ, 1975; McCallum, 1982).

Training for Rural Development Management

Lessons in rural develOpment show that the design and
implementation of rural development efforts should be the responsibility
of the government and the people of developing countries. A
prerequisite of any strategy is the development of the organizations and
human resources required to perform the tasks involved. Training is one
approach for improving administrative capability.

Training may be defined as, "the conscious effort by the management
to bring about change in an individual, a groip, or an organization"
(de Guzman, 1976). A distinction is usually made between training that
takes place in an institution or formal setting, such as a university,

and that which takes place in the job situation and, consequently, is

less structured or non-formal. Another distinction is whether the
completion of training leads to the conferrment of a degree-the former
being usually called as formal degree training as corpared to non-formal
degree training.

To address the problem of trained manpower shortage, developing
nations have embarked upon management education and training programs.
These programs were usually offered through: 1) departments, colleges,
or institutes within a university; 2) public management training
institutions attached to a governrment agency; 3) autonomous private or
semi-private management institutes; 4) administrative staff colleges
on the model of Henly-on-Thames; and 5) ILO productivity centers and I
other training units established by international organizations (Stifel,
et. al., 1977).

However, these training programs have not been entirely successful
in producing a ”breed of managers" capable of handling the demands and
tasks of rural development. The United Nations, as early as 1969, cited
several reasons for the inadequacy of past training programs:

1. Training programs are seldom based on a proper diagnosis,
analysis and quantification of the kind and amount of training
still needed for civil servants;

2. Training is often given haphazardly without establishing

essential priorities according to the needs of develOpment
plans, programs and projects;

3. Since there is no research into, or analysis of the training,
very general courses are given to persons who often have no
opportunity of applying the knowledge they acquire;

4. Almost nothing is known about the type of training that should
be given to the different levels of public administration;

5. There is often complete ignorance of the difference between
academic training in the science of public administration and
in-service training. Although both are essential and
complementary, it frequently happens that only the second type

of training is used to make good the shortage of human
resources in administrative development;

6. In-service training also leaves much to be desired. Programs
are often organized without considering priorities, and
without allocating the resource to the sectors and levels
where the best results could be obtained.

7. In-service training has been conducted more on the lines of
courses for staff in subordinate positions. The countries

have had little or no experience in training executive and
supervisory staff, who are so important for national

development .

In much broader terms, there is a tendency in the developing world
to adopt training programs that are malsuited to the kind of
administration needed. Likewise, there is an apparent overemphasis in.
terms of applying western management models to developing nations.
There is also inadequate assessment of actual training needs. Finally,
trainers are typically foreign consultants or local experts trained

abroad—persons who are mostly familiar with western management models.

Philippine Rural Development:
A Management Training Case in Point

The Importance of Rural Development in the Philippines

 

The Republic of the Philippines is a developing country that has
the developrent of administrative capability as one of its major policy

goals . This is in response to the problem of trained manpower shortage

and inadequate training programs for rural development.

The Philippines' philOSOphy of development does not only imply
economic advance, but also the improvement in the well-being of its
people. President Marcos has stated that "the ultimate yardstick of

development in the 19703 and the 19803 will be the extent to which it

touches and improves the day-to—day lives and welfare of human beings,
of Filipinos" (Marcos, 1973).

In pursuit of this philosophy, the government has drawn 5-year and
10-year Developient Plans that contain a vision of where society wants
to go and how it can reach its destination. As stated by President
Marcos in the Plan's opening page, "the achievement of a much improved
quality of life for every Filipino is the suprere national aspiration.
Toward this end, the conquest of mass poverty becomes the immediate,
fundamental goal of Philippine development" (NEDA, 1975).

The Five-year Philippine Development Plan, 1978—1982, was drawn up)
within the context of the Ten-Year Plan (1978-1987) and the long-Term
Plan for the year 2000. In the first five years, emphasis has been on
rural development with agrarian refbrm.as the cornerstone program and on
labor-intensive industrialization.

The recognition of the importance of rural development as a
strategy to hasten national growth is long overdue considering that
almost three quarters of the 45 million people live in rural areas. The
preponderant rural sector has remained essentially traditional imi
outlook, in technology, and in organization during the post—war period
(ILO, 1974). In such areas, social services are poor, economic
activities limited, agricultural productivity low, and underemployment
high. Accelerated population growth has led to increases in man/ land
ratio and the land frontier seems to have already been reached. Rapid
urban industrial growth-—using the tools of import substitution--have
led to the deterioration of the ability of the rural sector to further

finance import-substituting industrial growth. Consequently, industrial

rates of return are under pressure and further growth is
threatened--quite apart from the increasing pressures of unemployment
and maldistribution.

The ILO report in 1974 also points out that, while the further
growth of the industrial sector itself has been threatened by a lack of
domestic markets and a lack of "fuel", the rural sector has been
increasingly less able to provide sufficient opportunities for
productive erployment. This has led to prerature rural/urban migration
which, in turn, has created urban overcrowding and poverty.

The main task that has to be faced by the country, therefore, is.
the mobilization of the rural sector. Because the country is large and
unusually diverse, the mobilization must be achieved, by and large,
without massive help from private capital.

The rural sector is heavily dependent on the actions of the
government at both the central and local level. Rural mobilization,
therefore, requires the fiscal and organizational energy and imagination

of the government (ILO, 1974).

Rural Develqgment Management in the Philippines

 

It has been argued that the major hindrance facing Philippine
development efforts is the problem of efficient and effective
implementation—-most especially at the field level. One of the key
"bottlenecks" is a generally weak command by those in the field who are
charged with the task of managing programs and projects (Cuyno et. a1. ,

1982) .

10
As the EROPA case studies point out (Iglesias, 1976), there is a
need to recruit and develOp administrative leaders who combine
technical, as well as political, skills so as to cope with inevitable
uncertainties and problems (e.g. the variability of support and resource
inputs and shifting developmental priorities). Thus, successful
implementation often depends on the performance of key program leaders.

Since competent, imaginative and innovative administrative leaders are

 

in short-supply in developing countries, the early identification,

 

cultivation, and retention of personnel with leadership qualities and

 

potential should be aggressively pursued as a key elerent in develgnment

 

plan .

Because leadership plays a dominant role in the success of
implementation, especially in developing societies where the
administrative system needs strengthening, there is a greater sense of
urgency in increasing the cadre of administrative leaders. The
investment, therefore, in executive training for personnel at various
levels of responsibility for program implementation is essential in
institutionalizing leadership competence at all levels in the
administrative machinery (Iglesias, 1976) .

A cursory survey of existing training programs shows that there are
several on-going courses that are geared to meet the need for capable
managers, executives or administrators, and to run various developmental
programs and projects within the government and the private sector.
These generally aim not only at providing participants with the right
skills for effective administration or management, but also at producing
responsible and responsive managers who are able to innovate and cope
with the exigencies of socio-economic and political change (Caoli,

1975) .

11

The training programs differ in terms of objectives, target
clientele, scope, and emphasis of subject matter. Executive development
programs, such as those of the Philippine Executive Academy (PEA),
Developrent Academy of the Philippines (DAP), and Asian Institute of
Managerent (AIM), Which cater to the tOp-level personnel, tend to have a
mixed group of participants and also cover a broader range of subject
matter. This is also true for some middle-management programs.

Other middle management programs are tailored to suit the needs of
requesting agencies and, hence, tend to serve a homogenous groip and
cover specialized subjects in depth. This is, for example, the case
with the in-company programs of the Administrative Development Program
of the University of the Philippines College of Public Administration
(UP-CPA) , the Management and Organizational Development Program of the
Development Academy of the Philippines, and those of the Institute of
Public Health. Some programs are carried out on a full-time,
residential basis while others are offered on a part-time basis. In
terms of methodology, the programs use a combination of lecture-forums,
seminars, workshops, and field trips. Full-time residential courses
usually have one or two weeks of field research exercise as in the
programs of PEA, DAP, LGC, Institute of Planning and Institute for
Small-Scale Industries.

There is some degree of overlap among the programs of the
Philippine Executive Academy and the Development Academy of the
Philippines. This situation suggests the growing need and derand for
high-level managerial skills in a rapidly developing country like the
Philippines. The other programs differ in terms of subject matter

emphasis and the nature of clientele served. Thus, there are training

12

programs for executives of small-scale industries, local government
executives, public health administrators, labor union officials,
regional and city planners, etc.. What is noticeable is the lack of
training programs for managing or administering agricultural and rural
developrent projects (e.g., integrated area or regional development

projects) .

Study Problem and Approach to the Problem
The need to educate and train current and future field
implementors/middle-level rural development managers with specially
designed training programs has been underscored. This dissertation

research is concerned with development management, which has been

 

defined by the ILO in 1977 as, "the activity directed towards the
further development of the knowledge and skills of practicing managerial
personnel and modification of their concepts, attitudes, and practices"

(Stifel, 1977) . Specifically, the focus will be on management

 

education, which the ILO has defined as, "the regular teaching of

 

management as part of an institutional curriculum leading to a formal
degree" and would normally occur in a university or in an institution
devoted specifically to management activities. The distinction between
management education and management training is that the former is an
institutional program that results in the conferment of a formal degree
upon completion. This dissertation, while focusing specifically on
management education, will continually use the term training to refer to
the effort towards change.

The choice of managerent education as the focus of the research is

timely and relevant. Universities have been traditionally regarded as

13

the principal institutions through which management education and
training had been offered to those Who are destined to occupy top and
middle—level management roles. Universities are also institutions fTle
WhiCh can be drawn a group of educational 1eaders--persons Who are
widely experienced and deeply engaged in a common enterprise. More
importantly, universities offer a longer-range approach towards the
creation of a trained pool of rural development managers.

For this research, the University of the Philippines at los Banos
will be utilized as a case in point. The University is currently
offering a masters' degree program in Managerent with a specialization
in Development Management. Middle-level managers are prospective
clients. Administered under the Dean of the Graduate SChool, the
program is managed by the Department of Management, College of
Development Economics and Management (CDEM). This program is also
linked with the University's Management of Rural Development Program
(MARD), Whidh performs the following functions: 1) research; 2)
degree and non-degree training; 3) consulting; 4) policy conferences
and seminars and; 5) publication.

The University of the Philippines System (UPS), of WhiCh the
University of the Philippines at los Banos (UPLB) is part, created the
University of the Philippines Managerent Education Council (UP-MEC) in
1973 in response to mounting demands of the University to effectively
assist government efforts to improve the management ofimﬂﬂic
institutions and organizations. The Council's function is to improve
management within the University and to promote coordination among all
university units. The task of educating rural development managers is,

therefore, within the concerns of the larger UP system and its units.

14

Purpose of the Study

 

The purposes of this study are to:

1.

2.

identify the training needs of muddle-level managers of rural
development programs;

propose a curriculum design intended to strengthen the
masters ' program in rural developrent managerent at UPLB;

develop an evaluation prOposal for management education that
can be applied to UPLB; and

propose future research suggestions--intended to improve the
current program, as well as to further knowledge in management
education and training.

As part of meeting these purposes, a number of important questions

must be answered:

3.

Who are considered middle-level rural development managers in
the Philippines?

What are the important concepts, ideas, skills and attitudes
that have to be incorporated into the educational design?

How should the training program be conducted and evaluated?

Study Approach

 

To accomplish the research objectives, it will be necessary to

perform the following:

1.

Review past and current literature on the tasks and roles of
field implementors of rural development (with an emphasis on
the Philippines):

Through the literature review, identify important concepts,
skills, and attitudes that should be incorporated in a
curriculum design;

Examine management training curriculum designs, including that
at the UPLB, so as to evolve a model to strengthen it;

Construct an evaluation model that will be applicable to the
UPLB educational program; and

Summarize the findings and prOpose future research thrusts.

15
Organization of the Study

 

Chapter 2 will deal with the background to the problem by providing
an overview of the changing concepts of development--especia11y rural
development and its strategies. The experiences and problems
encountered in managing rural development programs and projects in the
Third World, especially in the Philippines, will be presented. Efforts
to solve such problers will likewise be presented.

Chapter 3 will focus on identifying the training needs of
middle-level rural developrent managers with special emphasis on the
Philippines. This will be accomplished through a review of rural
develOpment studies that focus attention on the problems of field -
implerentors. There already exists a literature on field administration
of special programs at the rural level. A review of this literature is
expected to identify the problems encountered in the field and will, in
turn, suggest certain areas where training is most needed. Past
interviews with elected and appointed field implerentors from both the
public and semi-public sector will also be utilized. These interviews
became, in part, the overriding justification of the MARD program (the
academic component) at UPLB.

Chapter 4 will identify concepts and skills, as well as attitudes,
that need to be incorporated into a development management curriculum.
The cognitive and affective Domain Taxonomy of Educational Objectives
will be used as the frames of reference.

Chapter 5 will include a curriculum design and explore teaching
methodologies that are apprOpriate. This chapter will begin by
examining the strengths and weaknesses of a management educational
model, specifically, Pre-entry Postgraduate Manageient Degree programs ,

such as the current Program in UPLB. The goals and objectives of the

16

existing program, as well as the design, will be evaluated according to
the above mentioned model. An alternative model for improvement will
then be designed based on the analysis. Such a model will contain a
curriculum design that contains the concepts, skills, and attitudes,
identified in the previous chapter.

Chapter 6 will present an evaluation mechanism for the education
model proposed in Chapter 5. This will include an assessment of
existing models of evaluating training programs in the field of
managerent. The chapter will begin by stressing the value of evaluation
and its absence in most management training programs. The problems
associated with evaluation will be discussed. Then, an evaluation '
program will be designed based on the education model and curriculum
design presented in the earlier chapters. A summative and process
evaluation will be proposed.

Chapter 7 will summarize the efforts undertaken in the previous
chapters. 'Ihen, recommendations for future research efforts that could
contribute to the management education program — specifically to the

field of rural developrent management - will be made.

CHAPTER II
RURAL DEVELOPMENT MANAGEMENT THEORY AND PRACTICE:

THE PHILIPPINES AS A CASE IN POINT

The purpose of Chapter 2 is to provide an overview of the concept
of Rural Develcprent Management with the Philippine experience as a case
in point. This will provide additional background to the problem
presented in Chapter 1 .

The early parts of this chapter are intended to acquaint the reader
with the theoretical underpinnings of Rural Development Management as an -
emerging discipline. The retaining parts of the chapter will focus on
the Philippine rural development experience--specifica11y on the
importance of training rural development managers and the adoption of an

institutioral approach to training.

The Concept of Development

The term "development" has become a catchword for most of the
leaders of developing countries. For some, the term represents an
ideological trend that must be pursued at all costs--a panacea to the
revolution of rising expectations that threaten their stability. For
others, it has become a vehicle for the attainment of a nation's
aspirations—a strategy for combating hunger and poverty. Whatever the
motive, governments have drawn massive development plans in pursuit of
develcprent despite the confusion and problers posed by the term itself.

Van Meuwenhuize (1978) notes, for example, that the first
difficulty about developrent is serantic, i.e., it can be construed as

an act, a process, or an achieved condition. The second difficulty

17

18

about development is its integrality or comprehensiveness which poses
problems of manageability. DevelOpment has been seen as a problem of
technology transfer. When technical assistance was proven not to be a
miracle—working mechanism, other approaches have emerged, e.g.,
administrative, political, and economic, but no interpretation of
development was fully superseded by its successor. Another difficulty
is the tacit assumption that the modern state is crucial to development
whereas in deve10ping countries the state is not only crucial but also
the main or sole agent of development with regards to its citizenry.

Many writers agree that the term deve10pment gained currency after .
World War II as a result of the growing attention given by the
industrialized west to the conditions of the so called, "underdevelOped"
or developing countries. Definitions of development, then, centered
around the criterion of the rate of economic grcwth often expressed in
the gross national product (GNP) or per capita income (Rogers, 1975).
This thinking focused mainly on the concept of "stages of econcmic
growth" in which the process of development was viewed as a series of
successive stages through which all countries must pass. Rostow's
"stages of growth" theory and the Harrod-Domar growth model are examples
of this thinking.

Todaro (1977) pointed out, however, that the stages theory fails to
take into account the fact that the Third World nations are part of a
complex international system: development strategies can sometimes be
nullified by external forces outside their control. Also inherent in
the paradigm of economic growth as development were assumptions of the

abundance of capital, technology and ease of quantification of

l9

results--all of which were characteristics or "givens" of western
develcpment and are absent in non-western states .

Profound world events, such as the oil crisis, expansion of
international relations through improved systems of communication and
transportation, concerns about the environmental pollution among the
industrialized states, and the failure of non-western states to develop
using the dominant paradigm, led to a reexamination and reformulation of
the idea of develOpment. It was observed, for example, that in the
19605, the UN grmth target for the Third World was achieved but the
levels of living of the masses remain unchanged. There was a move, ‘
therefore, to "dethrone GNP" and redefine development in terms of
reduction or elimination of poverty, inequality, and unemployment within
the context of a growing economy.

Myrdal (1975), for example, defines development as the upward
movement of the entire social system where there is circular causation
between changes and conditions with cumulative effects. The
"international-structuralist" school of economic development thought, on
the other hand, called for more emphasis on needed structural and
institutional reforms to eliminate a world of "dual societies" caught up
in a dependence-dominance relationship (Todaro, 1977) . Earlier, Goulet
(1973) even proposed the substitution of the term liberation for
develcpment.

The Dag Hammarskjold Foundation (1975) views development as a
totality of different dimensions, i.e., ecological, cultural, social,
economic, institutional, and political dimensions, that systematically

interrelated. In their report, the three pillars of development are:

20

l. satisfaction of needs, beginning with the eradication of
poverty:

2. endogeneity and self-reliance, relying on the strength of the
societies which undertake it; and

3. harmony with the environment.
The report also called for structural transformation and immediate
action as necessary and possible. Likewise, the Scheveningen Report
(1980) called for the provision of a concept of develOpment with
different and new cultural roots by drawing alternative modes of
civilization.

The current concept of developrment, therefore, has departed from a .
definition that centered on materialistic economic growth to one that
implied other valued ends, such as social advancerent, equality, and
freedom (Rogers, 1975). This definition implies alternative pathways to
development—depending on what style of developrent was desired given a
country ’ 3 unique environmental and cultural background .

Rogers (1975:133) summarizes the newer conceptions of developrent
as:

a widely participatory process of social change in a
society, intended to bring about both social and
material advancement (including greater equality,
freedom, and other valued qualities) for the
majority of the peOple through their gaining control
over their environment .

This conception focuses on developrent as a process of change that
is regarded as inevitably normative, i.e., oriented towards goals,
motivated by basic values, and permeated by cultural norms. Goulet
(1973) views developrent as a social system moving away from a condition

of life widely perceived as unsatisfactory in some way, toward sore

condition regarded as the maturation, humanization, or qualitative

21

ascent of human societies. These views imply that the process of change

can be conscioisly directed to achieve predetermined goals.

The Concept of Rural Development

After several years of emphasis in development theory on immediate
industrialization as a cure for the problem of less developed countries
(LIIIS) , there has been a growing body of Opinion in favor of paying more
attention to rural development (Anker, 1973). This realization stems
from the recognition that, of the nearly two-thirds of the world's
people living in LDC's, about 50 to 80 percent of these people live in '
rural areas. In addition, many of these rural residents live in
absolute poverty (World Bank, 1975) .

Rural deve10pment in this decade has been regarded as a highly
normative concept (Axinn, 1978). The perception of the degree of
structural change that is required in a given environment, and the time
horizon for achieving such objective, are some of the factors that
account for divergent views on the topic (Fredericks, 1977). There was
basic agreement, hoyever, that rural development is a planned change
process through which rural poverty is alleviated by sustained increase
in productivity and income of rural workers and households (World Bank,
1975) . r[his involves using any form of action or communication designed
to change the environment, institutions and attitudes of rural people to
achieve the above objectives (Aziz, 1964). More recently, another
dimension has been added to the concept: that rural development is a
process Which leads to a continois rise in the capacity of rural peOple
to control their environment. This process can be accompanied by a

wider distribution of benefits (A.C.D.A., 1976).

22

These definitional concepts point to the objectives and goals of
rural developrent that include (Fredericks, 1977):
1. oitput/productivity goals;
2. erployment generation;
3. access; and
4. control

Such goals point to the fact that mere increases in productivity do
not necessarily lead to rural deveIOpment. There are inherent issues of
wealth distribution and citizen participation that must be dealt with.
Technology, education, and structural reorganization are likewise issues
that must be seriously considered in the formulation of both goals and
strategies for rural development.

It is, therefore, apparent that rural development is an
inter-disciplinary concept and that its goal is the "enrichment of the
quality of life, both individual and collective, and its
universalisation in terms of minimal, if not equal, availability to all
sections of the population" (Rao, 1977) . In much broader terms, the
ultimate goal of deveIOpment is the improved. well—being of men (Kotter,

1974; Ortiz , 1974) .

Rural Developrent Ideologies and Strategies
There are several competing ideologies in rural development which
pose different approaches to action. An ideology, according to Sargent
(1975), provides the believer with a picture of the world both as it is
and how it should be. Table l shovs characteristics of 4 representative

ideologies as presented by Moris (1978).

23

 

kahuna Uncommmmm

umhgmo mm 033

cmoa muluhmpm

ummsoou mpmdﬂnom

"3038.8 mo 30m

 

mumuﬂﬁgm
a 8.68 30: mpﬂmuso 86m mam: mEom mamooH mEum
~3th HmoQH . mumomma HMUQH . mudccwummhucm H003 . muhwmxm woﬂmuso “amazemumm
$3383 5 3382 5 ”~33ch 5 umpcmo m6. 8.
madmo magma 350.5 mg 5950 cacao ummsocu mega «Somonnme
EHHMOEﬁucmpH
32334 mmmHU owmz egg umvﬁg mega “peace maﬁuhmum
E85. vGQgHgma huowﬁ gauge
acmsnwoamxrmoumoc: apes-E8 w moguog ”Em—ECHQEU odscoom «camcoﬁumm
mmmcmsoﬂomcoo c0303 3.5m
mane maﬁa. :9 Hmuoom £830 a 3.3mm mﬁmp Sm... Amiga: £03?“me 1.8
$30 mmmﬁg page umﬁmz coﬂmz "3335 no H93
wit—mm hug mmgnwbo momuosmcusm “>080.“
vsolmoﬂmcH mslcbﬁbm calmgmuso EOE “coﬂuumuﬂo
counumuunﬁnoz coﬂuwmﬂog cojSHHMHUHQEB 830.50g «E2

 

WmHBHQmQH mm?

 

. H wagon.

ugawcrmo mo mmﬂmoHopr

24

.zmoC mMHQ‘ "muuam

 

Mam.» Omlm
”Emmy mcoq

emmcmnv mammmm

coapmuﬂcmouo
mochm w mQOIOU

coﬂuossoum

QEHomH waumnyoan

mummw Calm
"Emu. mEOHIcBHomﬁ

owe/How 90.3.0.5

mmmpmHﬁUMM
moguzmm HMHUOW

msqpm HmooH mo

whom» mIH
“Emu uhozm

occumm mQOHum>QccH

mung w macho
3m: .ucmchmg

mmmm 8pm

mummx mlm
"Emu :BﬂomElunonm

pm>mEom mucmume
muosooum coﬁvosooum
w musuoapmmumcH

”Echo mzluhmum

”conﬂuom Q59

"mammgﬂuo coﬂumsam>m

2.39298 pochoum

 

w mecsm hﬁmo ocﬂmﬂmu QHmSIMHmm mcﬂoCMﬁMIm—me .ucucmo Sum .56th umﬁogcﬂm
mmccmsoﬂomcoo

mmwmm mﬁwaﬂoum m>HOm mmoﬂzmm .3pr manhooum #68ng 254 Mono:
coﬂumuﬂﬂcbz coﬂummﬁoﬂuhwm COHuMNHHmHOHQEUU Coﬁumupmcwm EH2

 

.Ac.pcoov H magma

25

The Penetration ideology of development is well suited to

 

ministries of economic planning, the World Bank, technical assistance
agencies, and socialist regimes after the revolution. Fredericks
(1977), characterizes this development approach as having an
infrastructure-oriented strategy as, for example, reflected in the World
Bank's lending policy in the 1950's (World Bank, 1975). This arose in
light of the fact that emphasis was being placed by regimes in the
developing countries on investing social overhead capital on roads,
schools, health facilities, etc., in urban areas or in the sectors of
the agricultural economy in which the colonial interests were focused.

The Commercialization ideology is, according to Moris, a

 

laissez-faire doctrine in philanthrOpic and conterporary disguise. 'I\wo
strategies were noted by Fredericks with this approach, namely, the
minimum package strategy and comprehensive strategy. The minimum
package strategy was based on the rationale that a minimum quantum of
inputs is necessary to promote rural deveIOpIent and that it is more
viable to spread this minimum requirement over a broad spectrum of
clientele than to concentrate inputs in specific areas or regions. The
comprehensive strategy, on the other hand, uses several strategies based
on the area or sector in which efforts and inputs will be concentrated
for implementation of rural deveIOpment programs .

Contemporary to the above strategy was the people-oriented
Commnity Development (CD) strategy (Fredericks, 1977) that reflects the

Participation ideology. This was basically a social moverent designed

 

to awaken and inspire self-help and self—development directed toward the
people who were not usually involved in the planning of deveIOpment
programs. At the Cambridge Summer Conference in 1948, CD was defined

as:

26

a movement designed to prorote better living for the
whole community with the active participation and,
if possible on the initiative of the community. If
this initiative is not forthcoming spontaneously,
the use of techniques for arousing and stimulating
it will secure the active and enthusiastic response
of the movement (Chang, 1969).

The Mobilization ideology originated, according to Morris, when

 

Marxists began to examine the problets of modernization. 'Ihe ideology
takes the exploited peasants as its frame of reference and documents how
their relative position both within their nations and internationally
has worsened as the direct result of participation in the international
exchange economy. Fredericks (1977) identifies the Chinese model as the.
strategy that suits this ideology. The strategy includes a combination
of the comprehensive and national rural development in which the
traditional and feudal obstacles to change and development have been
obliterated by a new ideology.

While other strategies have been proposed (e.g., Griffins' (1974)
technocratic, reformist, and radical approaches; Ickis' (1979) welfare,
responsive, and integrated strategies) the strategy most worthy of
attention is the integrated strategy. This approach seers to be gaining
wide acceptance among developing countries, in general, and especially
in the Philippines.

Why has the integrated approach been so widely accepted? As a
result of experiences associated with other earlier strategies, an
increasing awareness of the problem of rural poverty and increasing
economic, social, and regional disparities in countries has emerged.
This recognition helped promote a need for the integrated approach to
rural development. 'Ihe need for an integrated strategy stemmed from:

1. the technical requirements of "speeding up" economic growth
and productivity, particularly in rural areas:

27

the expectations of the population have changed considerably
and need to be satisfied;

the need to balance economic growth and population growth; and

the required consideration of timing (Leupolt, 1975) .

Integrated Rural Developrent (IRD) calls for a multi-pronged and

inter—related program designed to give consideration to the

socio-economic characteristics of, and resources available in, a

particular area. According to Anker (1973), the concept of integration

in rural developvent programs implies integration of:

l.

2.

objectives, e.g., social welfare goals (also see Clark, 1974);

many programs into a single program of different corponents of .
an activity, e.g., integration of extension education, credit,
production incentives into a single program to increase
agricultural productivity;

different rural develOpment activities under a common
administrative organization, e.g. , placing health, education,
and agricultural services for a particular area under a common
administrative mechanism:

the content or substance of a rural development activity so
that the policy, programs and the messages of the activity
take into account the interrelationship between the various
factors making up the program, e.g., developing a curriculum
for extension education which includes a discussion of the
relationship of health, agriculture, employment and the role
of women; and

rural people into the process of rural developrent so that
they can, in fact, participate in the inputs to, and the
benefits from, rural develcpment (also see Ensminger, 1971).

As shown in Table 2, the Integrated Rural Development Strategy

further implies, according to Ickis (1979), the following features:

1.

2.

The achievement of developrent goals are shared by rational,
regional and local levels in a nationalistic context;

The nature of the tasks are varied (uncertainty introduced by
corplexity) which requires a matrix type of organization with
permanent coordinating mechanisms;

 

mecca mumomwa
xMDB HmcoﬂuspﬂnmCH Hmvoa can mnmNﬂcmouo
lauds: Soaps? anions—50 Smooch?

mSQEocousm

Do: usa..mcouum mﬂxyisauusm mamcouum
.Emﬂcmmvm: maeumcwpuooo mEchccUm:
ucmcmenwm Suds ocﬂumcaouooo 00:.om Suds
COHDMNHCMOHO mmhplxﬂuwmz omuﬁamuucmomo anmﬂm

Awuﬂxwaoeco sh cocooOHDCﬂ

Aﬁmﬁmoc: ﬁrms:
\ﬁcﬁwupmocsv ocﬂum>

coﬂpmosow muﬂcssnxo

28

oeumﬂamcoﬂumz uﬂumﬁcmesm
me>mH HMOOH

pom .Hmcoﬂmwu .Hmcoaumc
an owumnm mamom acme
Ioon>mp mo unmew>mﬂnvm

chaDMNﬂcmouo

HMUOH mscsocousm m0
ucwugHm>wo “mmﬂocwo
ucmmme mo SHEER

mcoz

omuﬂsocu mcoz

coﬂusuﬂumcﬂ

E 8533ch H830
lumumﬁn.pam HMOHuum>

camwuwo
wacoﬂn.ocm weepsou
>uc>ﬂamo moa>hwm

oﬂumﬂamcumumm
no Hmcoﬂuﬂowhe

mmmmmﬂo pom :OHuHuusc
IHmE mo :OﬂDMCﬁEme

wuﬂGZEEOU womuosmmusm .

mudposupm huHCZEhpu .

womuosmmusm
mo muouosuum

xmmu mo whsumz .

uxmucoo

Hmoﬂmoaowoﬂ manmnoum .

mm>wuomnno uohmz .

 

pcumuowvcH w>wmcommmm

mmmﬁmz

moﬂpmﬂuwyomuwcu

 

mMmehﬂmEm BZEZQOQM>mQ Adem

 

moﬂumﬂumpomuwnu HmmﬂOCHuo uﬁmLB paw mmﬂmmumuum ucmEQOHm>mo Hmuzm

.N QHDNB

29

42.0.3 munMUH "moham

 

 

Hmom umﬁmom acmcmgougn mmusmmme mmmc
mmwumOum mo mmusmmmz >32an mo mousmmmz Im>ﬂu0wmmc umoo mam—5m HOHEOU pom coﬂumﬁuowcH .m
mmHUOQ
mcﬂumcﬂouooo Hmcoﬂmmm mmﬂuag mwﬂocmom conundmuucwo m>ﬂpMﬁuﬂcﬂ mo condom . h
Cmumummch c>ﬁmcommmm chamamz woﬂmﬂumuomumé

 

. Apucoov N mHQmE

 

3O

3. The cormunity structure required is one that is strong but not
autonomous and that linkage with the bureaucracy is through
multi—institutional work teams; and

4. The source of initiative are the regional coordinating bodies
and measures of progress against goals are the mode for
information and control.

In the ideal sense, the tasks of integrated rural development
pertain to all of the above. Suffice it to say that the tasks are
enormous, wide, and varied in scope and that there seems to be an

obvious need to manage the various components and processes in its

different stages.

Historical Background on Rural Development Efforts
in the Philippines

DeveIOping the rural areas has been conceptually and
organizationally considered in government programs since the post-war
years. The administrations of President Quirino (1948-52) and President
Garcia (1957-60) both considered a framework for rural development. Yet
little was done in terms of concrete programs and projects to promote
the living conditions of the rural masses. Under President Magsaysay
(1953-57) , President Macapagal (1962-65) and President Marcos (prior to
the period of the New Society), rural deveIOpment programs were unified
and given considerable attention both in national planning and
implementation.

As practiced, the approaches were of the general rural development
context, i.e., goals of equity, productivity, efficiency, and political
stability. The degree of blended objectives varied according to the
respective thrusts of each administration (Lawas, 1979) . In general,

rural development was basically equated with agricultural development.

31

Agriculture was taken as the lead sector to propel rural development.
The programs and projects, which were mostly separately undertaken, can
be grouped into: 1) land reform; 2) resettlement: 3) credit and
cocperatives; and 4) community development.

In 1952, an experiment in rural develOpTent was undertaken by the
Philippine Rural Reconstruction Movement (PRRM) under the leadership of
Dr. Y.V. James Yen. The program revolved around a four-fold goal of
promoting livelihood, education, public health and self-government for
the rural people. It utilized multi—purpose rural reconstruction
workers who live and work with the villagers. Its Operations, however,
were limited to pilot areas in a relatively few provinces.

In 1958, the Philippine government launched a nation-wide rural
development program utilizing a similar approach to the PRRM under the
Presidential Assistance on Community Developrent (PACD). After some
degree of initial success, it later declined like many community
development programs in other countries during the sixties. The high
aspirations and expectations generated were not amply matched.tmr
substantial and sustained accompliShments.

At the same time PACD was launched, a number of other government
agencies undertook similar approaches to rural development. For
example, the Agriculture College of the University of the Philippines at
Los Banos undertook a series of rural develqzment projects: 1) a pilot
study of farm development in 1958; 2) a study on alternative extension
approaChes in 1963; and 3) a family development project in Barrio
Boyong in 1968. From the knowledge and insights gained from these pilot
studies, the University instituted two projects in 1970—the Social

laboratory and the Barrio Deve IOpment School .

32

3 Many of these efforts in rural development have been introduced as
pilot projects to test certain hypotheses, approaches, or
techniques--presumably for subsequent replication or adoption on a
nationwide scale. On the other hand, a number of them were action
research programs intended to contribute directly to the acceleration of
commmity or national development. It was not difficult to identify
small projects that were successfully implemented. But it was extremely
difficult to identify a successful large-scale program of rural

deve lopment .

Philippine Rural Development Strategy

With the advent of President Marcos' declaration of Martial Law in
1972, and the subsequent establishment of the "New Society", the
Philippine government took to the task of drawing a national develOpIent
plan. With Countryside Development as its theme for national
development, the plan called for the adoption of an integrated approach
to rural develOpment. With the subsequent reorganization of the
Philippine Bureaucracy, the government attempted to synchronize national

planning with implementation.

Development Planning

 

One of the major objectives of the Five—Year Philippine Development
Plan (1978-1982), as well as the Ten-Year Development Plan (1978-1987),
is the promotion of regional planning and develcpment. The regional
developtent strategy aims to reduce disparities among the regions and
provide for balanced economic and social progress of the country. It is

recognized that there are lagging regions in the country and that these

33

regions will be the focal points of development, i.e., they will be
strongly supported to catch Lp with leading ones in terms of economic,
socio—cultural, and political development.

To accomplish the above objective, the country has been divided
into 13 regions for planning and administrative purposes. Under the
same Plan, the administrative functions and substantive activities of
the national line ministries were proposed to be decentralized (i.e. ,
deconcentrated) , in short, to regionalize national administration. This
scheme requires the delegation of headquarters authority to the regional
offices on substantive and administrative matters, including discretion
over budgets, personnel, and supplies.

It has been observed that the regions, as presently constituted,
are not suitable areas for planning. Hence, sub-regional planning
bodies were created for specific areas within the region. The
sub-regional planning areas vary. Several examples of the Integrated
Area Development (IAD) approach include:

1. The River Basin Approach - This approach takes cognizance of

 

the presence of a major natural resource-water——in the planning and
developrent ctivities of certain areas. Within the Bicol Region, for
example, is the Bicol River basin which covers two out of the six
provinces within the region. Following the river basin approach, the
Bicol River Basin Development Program (BRBDP) was established to plan
and implement programs and projects in the two provinces under its
jurisdiction. Other river basin IADs include the Leyte Sab-a River
Basin and the Agusan River Basin Development Program.

2 . The Island Develqament Approach - This approach recognizes the

 

nature of the country as well as the consequent problems of

34

transportation facilities and communication services. The islands in
the central part of the Philippines have been considered as separate
planning areas. Integrated development programs have been established
for three islands, namely, Mindoro, Palawan and Samar. The Samar
Integrated Rural Developrent Project (SIRDP), for example, is directed
towards alleviating the island from inadequate linkages in agricultural
services and infrastructure facilities. The overriding objective of
this project is to prorote and sustain the balanced development of the
island -- socially, economically, and physically.

3. The Provincial Develqgnent Approach - This approach takes into

 

consideration the geographic territorial jurisdiction of the province as.
the main planning area for developrent programs and projects. One major
government project, the Provincial DevelOpment Assistance Project
(PDAP), has focused on the province as the planning area. Many of the
provinces in the country have been included in the PDAP.

4. The Municipal Develgment Approach - In this approach, the

 

basis of jurisdictional planning scheme was made possible through the
grouping of different geographically contiguous and adjacent
municipalities in order to facilitate the sharing, strengthening, and
coordinating of plans, programs and projects in the area. In Iloilo
Province, for instance, the municipalities of Pavia, Leganes, Sta.
Barbara, New Lucena, and Zarraga have agreed to initiate joint planning
for the areas under their jurisdiction. Likewise, the adjacent
municipalities of Camaligan, Canaman, Galinza, and Milaor to Naga City

in Camarines Sur have also followed this approach.

35

Implerentation

 

Since the 1950's, there has been mounting evidence of plan failures
due to weaknesses in plan implementation. According to Martin (1971),
of some 1,500 national develOpment plans Which have been prepared in the
last 25 years, not many have been seriously implemented. The state of
planning in the Philippines by the mid-sixties generally exemplified the
problem of plan implementation in developing countries. Waterston
(1965) has noted that of approximately fourteen post-war plans, "almost
all were little more than suggestions, proposals, opinions, or
platitudes designed to influence public policy. . .none had much effect on
the country's developrent". The findings of the UN Economic Commission
for Asia and the Far East (ECAFE) in 1961 suggest that Philippine
economic planning has tended to be more an intellectual exercise or a
call to action than a specific blueprint to be implemented. What has
caused this situation?

The governments of most countries, including the Philippines, are
organized along sectoral lines at the national level. The major
functions and programs of the government are discharged by the variws
ministries or agencies that are responsible for the delivery of
services, such as health, education, agriculture, and infrastructure
development from the national down to the regional, provincial, city and
municipal levels of government.

The delivery of services by the various sectoral ministries,
whether exclusively by a single governmental level or shared with other
levels, has been determined by geographic boindaries. For example, in
the case of health services, this responsibility primarily belongs to

the national government through the Ministry of Health. However, health

36

services are rendered through the various field service areas determined
by the geographic boundaries of the region, province, city or
municipality. The field agents Operating in a common local government
area belong to separate functional hierarchies responsible for different
government programs and services . There is no generalist representative
of the government in the area exercising responsibility for all
functions. There are three broad categories of field level activities
namely:

1. services direct to the peOple, such as extension teaching,
training, advice and consultancy;

2. infrastructural services, such as financing, materials supply,
common production facilities and marketing; and

3. infrastructural organizations, such as mrker's organizations,
cooperatives and youth clubs.

To implerent the Integrated Rural Development Strategy, the Cabinet
Coordinating Committee for Rural Development Projects was created in
1973. In 1978, the National Council for the Integrated Area Development
(NACIAD) was created to bring about more efficient and effective
impletentation of rural development programs .

Thus far, the integrated area deveIOpment approach as applied in
the Philippines during the past years has been built upon the premise
that developrent efforts were geared towards the rural sector. However,
in applying this approach, many problems have been encountered and
attempts have been made to remedy the situation with varying degrees of

success 0

Problers and Issues in Integrated Rural Development
As an observer once said, "Integrated deveIOpment programs are

great in theory but many times turn out to be a failure in practice".

37

In the Philippines, the Integrated Area Development approach has been
built upon the premise that this developrent effort would lead to better
service delivery for the rural sector. However, in applying this
approach, a number of problems have been observed: atterpts to reredy

them have not been very encouraging. 'Ihese problems involve:

1. the coordination of the different activities that cut across
all governmental sectors and agencies in a defined

geographical area;

2. limited resources—both capital and human;

3. the absence of strong organization at the local level; and

4. the need for developing an appropriate
political/administrative structure for effectively planning,
monitoring and implementing Integated Area DeveIOpment
programs and projects (Rola, 1979).

At the UN Asian and Pacific Development Administration Centre
(APDAC) conference on administrative reforms for decentralized
developrent in 1979 at New Delhi, India, the problem of coordination has
been described as "perennial" (Rola, 1979 and Castillo, 1982). Earlier,
in 1965, the working group of experts of the Economic Cormision for Asia
and the Far East (ECAFE) that met in Bangkok, Thailand, emphasized the
need for coordination to prevent duplication of effort, wastage of
resources, and maximize results. The Philippines today faces the same
problem--most especially with integrated rural development as a
strategy.

In most develoPment efforts, the lack of trained manpower and
capital has been a serious bottleneck to implementation. One of the

reasons given for the slow pace of developrent in the rural areas is the

dearth of competent personnel, largely due to the failure of the local

38

units to attract technically competent people to stay and serve in the
local areas (Oamar, 1980).

The need for strong local organizations which are capable of coping
with developrent needs, has been vigorously stressed in well-documented
case studies (see, for example, Castillo, 1982). Likewise, the need for
administrative / political structures suited to developrent tasks has been
stressed by the Eastern Regional Organization for Public Administration

(EROPA) , as early as 1976, in their publication, Implerentation: The

 

Problem of Achieving Results. This casebook, which contains 12 Asian

 

experiences in rural development, clearly shows the need for such

structures .

The Need for Administrative Reform

Earlier, emphasis was made on the need for producing a new breed of
managers capable of planning and managing the implerentation of programs
and projects. For these managers to succeed, a restructuring of
traditional organizational and working relationship structures is in
order.

Most developing countries have recognized the urgent need for
administrative reform to increase the capabilities of their
administrative systems for economic and social development and for
achieving other national goals. Management and administration experts,
meeting in 1965 and 1966 in Bangkok, as well as in New York City in
January 1967, agreed that, "basic reforms in public administration are

essential to the success of measures for economic and social

developrent" (De Guzman, 1976).

39

The main purpose in administrative reform is to institute changes
in the structure and function of the bureaucracy and in the behavior of
its personnel to achieve maximum technical efficiency and organizational
effectiveness. Organizational effectiveness is viewed in terms of
productivity, efficiency and economy, and the optimum use of
administrative resources, as well as in terms of the quality of
administrative services. Other purposes, such as the desire o1 the part
of the new leadership group in the government to achieve control of
policy and personnel, as well as accomodating various political
proteges, have been noted.

It is essential to differentiate administrative reform from
administrative change. The former refers to deliberate, planned, and
specially designed efforts to effect major changes in the various
structures, processes, procedures, and personnel in the bureaucracy.
Administrative change, on the other hand, may occur as a result of
administrative reform or of larger socio—economic political forces in a
country.

The scope of administrative reform may include measures pertinent
to the following:

1. reorganization of the executive branch of the government (for
example, the promulgation of the Integrated Reorganization
Plan in the Philippines in 1972);

2. rationalization and simplification of administrative
regulations and procedures in a government-wide basis;

3. improvement of local goverment and field administration;

4. reallocation of functions among mm'nistries and departments;

5 . establishment or strengthening of central managerial of fices;
6. adoption of technological and technical innovations such as

data processing, performance budgeting and position
classification;

4O

7. institution of training programs designed to effect changes in
the attitudes, skills and general behavior of government
personnel; and

8. reorientation and strengthening of the civil service system.

The stimuli for administrative reform may come from sources and
events, such as the assumption of new functions by government, changes
in political leadership, and the availability of new resources and
technology. For example, the Philippine government has undertaken most,
if not all, of the reform measures cited earlier after the declaration
of Martial Law in 1972. It could also core from results of studies such
as the UN's First DevelOpment Decade report. Waterston (1965) for
example, has concluded that, "the failure of most developrent plans in.
developing countries could be attributed either to deficiencies in the
planning process or to obstacles encountered during plan
implementation." In particular, the capability of administrative
systems to implement plans had been identified as a critical factor in
the plan implementation process (Iglesias, 1977).

Two main approaches that may be adopted to achieve administrative
reforms are those that emphasize structural changes and those that
emphasize the human element in administration. Both approaches find

support from the Dag Hammarksjold Foundation's Towards Another

 

DevelOpment (1975), where a call for structural changes and immediate

 

action was made if deveIOpIent goals are to be achieved.

Basically, what the first approach involves is structural changes
leading to systematic departmentalization based on homogeneity of
functions, clear delineation of authority and responsibility,
simplification of processes and procedures, and an adequate arrangerent

for reporting and coordination. The second approach, on the other hand,

41

involves the initiation and expansion of educational and training
programs for administrators who are expected to act as catalysts in
administration and improve administrative performance through their own
creativity.

The next two sections of this chapter will be devoted to the
explication of the two approaches as they apply to the Philippines. The
first section will discuss a coordination strategy for future planning
and implerentation. The last section will focus on the state of public

managerent education in the country.

Toward a Strategy-Structure for Implerentation
There are three recognized models for implerentation as part of
much needed administrative reform in the Philippines. They are: 1)
The Development Council Model; 2) The Regional/local Government Model;

and 3) The Administrative Model.

The Development Coincil Model

 

Development Councils have been organized in response to the felt
need for coordinating the efforts of various agencies, organizations and
sectors involved in the planning and implementation of developrent
programs and projects in a certain area. They have been organized at
the regional, provincial, and city/municipal levels.

The Council's composition is indicative of the coordination effort
because it is composed of heads of national government agencies
operating in the area, the local government executive, and other leaders
of organizations who play a significant role in the development efforts
in the area. This implies coordination between sector-oriented

administrative personnel and area oriented political officials.

42

The chairman of the council is elected among its members and has
coordination and monitoring functions. Such functions, however, have
been given diverse interpretations resulting in vague and ambiguous
Operations. For example, the chairman does not have supervisory powers
or administrative control over its members, which results in each
retaining their own degree of competence, specialization attitudes, and
loyalties. Other problems include: lack of qualified technical
personnel, inadequacy of funds and facilities, and lack of determined
leadership.

The Council, however, has been effective in the area of
comunication, i.e., it serves as a forum for dialogue, exchange of.
information, feedback, and advice. The problers identified earlier have
to be dealt with if this model is to evolve into a
political-administrative structure that is effective in area planning

and maragerent.

The Regional/local Goverment Model

 

The primary characteristic of this model is that it is less
centrally directed because it is a separate political/governmental unit
at the sub-national levels, i.e. , regional, provincial, city/municipal.
This model adds another tier (regional) to the existing three major
tiers of government, namely, national, provincial, and city/municipal
levels. This model is being envisioned in the National Plan.

Basically, supervisory powers and administrative control will be in
the hands of an appointed regional chief executive. This may involve
phasing out the provincial governments and the creation of districts.

This also implies decentralization and devolution of powers to the

43

regional/ local area. Thus, for example, the local governments will have
responsibility over develOpment programs and projects, as well as the
delivery of maintenance services, while the national government will
take care of national defense, foreign relations, monetary matters and

the judiciary.

The Administrative Model

 

This model's primary characteristic is that it is more centrally
directed, i.e. , more initiative cores from the national government since
this calls for an area manager/area planner appointed by the central
authorities.

This model seeks to reconcile the issue of the area versus the
sectoral approaches by the appointment of an area manager/ area planner
who will be given the authority to effect the necessary coordination of
the various developrent efforts and services being rendered in his area
of responsibility. Thus, he will be responsible for overseeing,
monitoring and coordinating the implementation of the development
programs and projects in the area. This implies a restructuring of
local government and the training of local government officials into
qualified career officials.

All of the above models imply both a restructuring of the
government as an organization and highlights the critical need for
managers and their training-- whatever model is finally decided Lpon.
Furthermore, it suggests that these managers can be categorized as
belonging to middle—level management and that one of their basic tasks

involves program/ project managerent in predominantly rural areas.

Public Management Education in the Philippines

The commitment of the Philippines to develop goals, such as
improving the quality of life for the Filipino people and promoting
economic growth and productivity, and the major role assumed by
government in the national effort to attain these goals, underscores the
importance and urgency of managerent education for the public service.
The successful formulation and implementation of economic, social, and
political development programs require the services rot only of the
economist, physical planner, agriculturist, engineer, educator, health
worker, and other technically-trained personnel, but also of corpetent
managers/administrators-—who can provide the leadership and direct the
collective effort toward national development. The education and
training of prospective managers/ administrators (and of those already in
the government service) with the knowledge, skills, and attitudes
necessary to perform their various roles is a significant undertaking in
the Philippines.

The establishment of public managerent education programs in the
Philippines could be traced to the findings of the Bell Mission in 1950,

which reported, among other things:

1. a lamentable state of public administration in the
Philippines;

2. deplorable salaries of government erployees in corparison with
those obtainable in the private sector, and their efforts on
the quality of public service; and

3. a lack of facilities for the education and training of
subordinate erployees for supervisory positions (De Guzman,
1976).

45

The Mission recomended "that public administration can be improved and
reorganized so as to insure Tonesty and efficiency in the government" .

As a follow-up to the Mission's recommendations, a team from the
University of Michigan visited the Philippines in 1952 to study the need
for, and the feasibility of, establishing a school of public
administration. The survey team from Michigan recommended that an
institute of public administration should be established within the
State University as a center for professional training and education,
research and information, and consultancy services in public
administration. Accordingly, a contract was entered into m June 15,
1952 between the University of the Philippines and the University of.
Michigan for the establishment of the Institute of Public
Administration.

Prior to 1952, no courses in public administration tad been taught
in any of the Philippine colleges and universities. There were no
curricular offerings specially designed to prepare young men and woren
for the public service. Thus, the year 1952 signalled the commencement
of public managerent programs in the Philippines.

Following the lead of the University of the Philippines, other
colleges and universities have offered public management education
programs and courses. As of 1978, the number of educational
institutions offering public managerent programs has grown to 32. The
increase in the number of public management schools indicates the
soaring demand for public managerent education that erarates from the
expansion of governmental activities both in functional scope and area

coverage .

46

Geographically, 24 of the 32 schools are located in Luzon, 12 of
which are concentrated in the Metro Manila area. The Visayas is
serviced by 3 U.P. regional units situated in the regional capitals of
Iloilo, Cebu, and Tacloban. Public managerent education in Mindanao is
a joint endeavor of public and private educational institutions with 3
state colleges and 2 private universities offering public management
programs.

Except for one school (Mindanao State University), all of the 32
schools have degree programs leading either to a Master of Public
Administration or a joint degree in public and business managerent.
Doctoral programs are offered in 4 universities in Metro Manila. Only 6
of the 32 academic institutions offer undergraduate programs in the
field.

The special province of public managererrt program is its general
concern for the entirety of governmental operations, i.e. , the process
of formulating public policies, the expression of these policies in
legislation and other vehicles, and the translation of the policies into
action through concrete governmental instrumentalities. Within this
broad area, it is also concerned with the generic processes of
managererrt, with the techniques of planning, organizing, and controlling
governmental programs and with the effective coordination of all
governmental operations .

Following the earlier curricular offerings of the UP-CPA, most
academic institutions with public management programs at present have
adopted a core of courses along the three traditional sub-fields of
Organization and Management, Personnel Administration, and Fiscal

Administration. A number of schools have added a course on Local

47

Government Administration. The programs aim at developing "management
generalists" who develop skills in budgeting, personnel managetent and
organizational analysis. The graduates are to be specialists in
technique, but they are to be generalists as to the subject area. They
presumably are to be competent to direct any type of public program.
However, the range of government activities that are carried wt in
the various development sectors suggests the need for complex and
diverse managerial inputs. The management agricultural services may
have different requirements from the management of infrastructure
programs. The content of management education curricula must be
fashioned to meet such requirerents with the recognition of functions

that are sui generis to a particular sector and those that are common to

 

several or more of the broad range of development sectors .

Conclusion

Most developing countries find therselves with inadequate numbers
of trained technicians and managers. In addition, their levels of
training have too often proven to be inadequate . This problem has often
been exacerbated by the tendency of training institutions to train for
the tasks of the past or, at best, the present and not for the future.
This observation holds true for the Philippines in that there is
increasing awareness to not only restructure the systets of delivery of
goods and services to the rural areas, but also to train those involved
with such delivery to manage the processes as well. Thus, it is
essential to train current and future managers of rural development
programs and projects on the tasks, roles, and attitudes required for

sustaining current developtent thrusts as well as on the development

48

tasks of the future. Such training requires not only an institutional

approach, but a new management technology as well.

CHAPTER III

THE RURAL DMDPMENI‘ MANAGER

The purpose of Chapter 3 is to provide an overview of the current
and future task requirements of those currently managing rural
development programs and projects. This will lay the foundation for
identifying concepts, skills, and attitudes needed to be learned by
today and tororrow' s manager—the fools of the next chapter.

The early parts of this chapter are intended to acquaint the reader
with the tasks and roles required for today's rural development
managers. The retaining parts of the chapter will deal with area and

project managers in the Philippines and focus m their training reeds.

The Concept of Development Maragerent

There is a growing realization among contemporary scholars and
practitioners of rural development for the need to manage the
development process. As Siffin (1977) has noted: "the essence of
development is not to maintain but to create effectively": this requires
management. The need to manage development also implies the need to
develop management capability and this, according to him, can be
labelled, "developtent managerent" .

To the uninitiated, the terminologies that abomd in the field of
rural developrent are probably not only confusing, but intimidating as
well. This is proof of the field's dynamic and eclectic rature. Any
new and evolving field, which draws its conceptions and content from a
variety of disciplines, usually suffers the problem of developing a

common terminology. Nowhere is this more manifest than in the area of

49

50

rural development managerent/ administration. A brief review of some of

the relevant terminologies may be useful in order to fully understand
the concept of developrent managerent.

Public Administration, in general, refers to the implerentation of

 

public policies which are authoritatively determined by the political
organs of decision-making in the society (De Guzman, 1972). It is
concerned primarily with the activities of the executive branch of the
government and the bureaucracy, and the organization and management of
human, physical and other resources towards the achieverent of certain
public goals. In practice, the term "public administration" is often
used interchangeably with "public manageren " , although Rothwell (1972) ,
has observed that both terms carry differing connotations that influence
ideas of users abolt their meanings.

Basically, managerent is viewed as an active, positive, cpportunity
seeking, change-oriented, aggressive, developmental concept, whereas
administration implies a greater degree of passivity and a status quo

orientation (Stifel, 1977) . Thus, Public Managerent is a hybrid term

 

suggesting public administration' 8 orientation toward implerentation and
maintenance and management's emphasis on the formulation of goals.
Although managerent is usually considered as a fairly universal process,
the specifics of that process can differ in important ways between types
of organizations with different purposes operating under different sets
of constraints.

There are, from an organizational point of View, three basic types
of organizations having different purposes and constraints. These are
the following types with their characteristics according to Korten

(1979):

51

l . Ehterprise Managerent:

a. relative autonomy, subject primarily to the discipline of
the market place:

b. performance is measured, at least in part, by economic
return on capital:

c. success is dependent on creatively responding to its
environment; and

d. usually has a significant but unintended impact on their
environment.

 

2. Maintenance Managerent:
a. traditional maintenance functions, e.g., collecting
revenues;
b. seldom responds creatively to the environment nor seeks
intentioral changes in the environment; and
c. ensures stability and continuity, operating according to
clearly defined procedures to achieve externally defined

purposes .

 

3 . Develcpment Managerent: -
a. inducesﬁintentional changes in their environment for
purposes of the public good; and
b. seeks to develop programs and institutions which impact
beyond their own immediate jurisdiction.

 

Our concern is for the developrent managerent type of organization which
has planned change through program managerent and institution building
as objectives.

Despite the erergence of the term "development administration" from
its parent discipline, comparative administration, critics contend that
it is geared toward system maintenance and does not actively seek to
change the present system. Developtent administration refers primarily
to public administration in developing countries or more specifically
with the administration of developrent programs .

Program Managetent has been pin-pointed by the United Nations as a
vehicle for achieving national development. Its very nature
incorporates the major disciplines of Public and Private Administration.
The program approach is not limited by the constraints of a rigid

bureaucracy and, therefore, allows flexibility and integrates all other

52

approaches as well as agency efforts towards development. Central to
program management are the issues of flexibility, finiteness and
evaluation. This means that planning and budgeting are no longer
incremental or sectoral in approach but must be done with clear,
achievable, time framed goals. Its execution requires flexibility in
organizational structures. Most importantly, its processes and goals
are subject to evaluation.

A program can be viewed as a system under which actions may be
taken toward a goal. As a system, it is composed of two or more related
or unrelated projects. A project is a more specific plan or design for
an undertaking. This can be further broken down into task, activity,
and work.

It is also important to distinguish between programs and projects.
A program may have two or more projects that may lead to accomplishment
of the program goal, but may be unrelated in activities. For example,
an agrarian Reform program may have projects on human resource
development, technology transfer, and infrastructure (both physical and
social).

It appears, therefore, that the concept of development managetent
is a hybrid of Public and Private/Business Administration. Most
importantly though, is the fact that the term, "developrent managerent" ,
is a normative one, i.e., we wish those who are currently engaged with
the task of administrating or impletenting to go beyond these tasks and
manage or develop. Thus, while we seek to improve implementing skills
as part of normal administration maintenance functions, we likewise

seek to develop a development orientation and managerial capacity.

53

Development Management, as an emerging concept, mderscores the
frustration of rural development experts with the inadequacy of
traditional disciplines, largely borrowed from the West, to solve
problers in developtent. It also highlights the need for indigenous

managerent concepts to meet the new development order.

Toward a New Developtent Order
In a faculty conference held in Caracas, Venezuela in 1977,
management experts noted that there is a new development order:
traditional disciplines are inadequate to meet the challenges of this
order, i.e., maragerent concepts and skills in the western sector are
not applicable to rural development in developing countries.
Characteristics of the new order include:

1. a development orientation;

2 . a systers orientation:

3. client participation in planning and implementation of
projects for the community;

4. building and development of local administrative
capability:

5. a multi-dimensional and balanced viewpoint of progress
encompassing economic, social, political, ecological,
physical and cultural aspects (Korten, 1979).

To better understand this new order, it is necessary to look at the
tasks that have to be performed in today's rural developtent efforts.
These tasks have serious managerial implications. They are:

l. The need to organize the urban and rural poor for
participation in making policy decisions which affect their
lives;

2. The need for implementing organizations capable of adapting
rapidly to changing local circumstances; and

3. The need for institutional linkages between center and
periphery, between sectors, between programs and communities ,
and between political and bureaucratic systers.

54

The need to organize the poor into effective problem-solving units
capable of participating in the design and execution of public policy
stems from institutional forces that place this class into a
disadvantaged position at any start of a development program.
Management technologies are therefore required to organize the poor and
facilitate participation. Such a task could change social
relationships, equalize power relationships, and build sustained local
capabilities for organizing around other development needs. For most
countries in the developing areas, this could be a very radical move
that would evoke instant Opposition.

Development-oriented organizations must be able to respond rapidly
to local needs and circumstances. Most of the organizations dealing
with public programs in the rural sector still follow the formal model
of organization. As such, their inflexibility and strict adherence to
formal rules and procedures inhibit creativity and immediate response
towards problets requiring seriois attention. Managerial implications
involve restructuring such organizations and initiating new methods of
organizational functioning appropriate to program implementation.
Again, such a task is radical and is very threatening to the
bureaucracy.

Strong local institutions effectively linked into a national system
are also a basic requirerent for rural development. Especially in an
approach that is integrated, a broad area of the rural sector needs to
be coordinated as well as the various bureaucracies that serve within.
This is likely to be a long and often difficult process that requires
political awareness and sensitivity to power structures and their

manipulations. The creation of new organizing structures is needed to

55

break the monopoly that traditional elites often maintain over
communication and resource flows. large groips look with disfavor on
actions calculated to undermine their power.

A basic question in Developtent Managerent involves: 1) whether
desired social outcomes can be achieved through the central technocratic
allocation of resources to provide services intended to benefit the
poor: or 2) whether the real problem of poverty is rooted in basic
social structures that relegate the poor to conditions of dependency.
If the former is emphasized, then the central problem may be one of
increasing the effectiveness of service delivery. If the latter is to
be the focus of our attention, then the central problem may be to reduce
dependency by measures that increase the potential of the poor to take
independent and instrumental political action on their own behalf.

The tasks faced by development managetent call for a continuing,
multifarious program of training. It requires a constant and widespread
training effort, directed to the needs of staff members at all levels,
and with a training effort carried on as an integral part of the
managetent process.

But as FAO (1975) has pointed out, althmgh the kind of training
effort is not, by itself, the solution to all the ills of managing rural

development, it is a necessagy element of the solution. Withoit a

 

comprehensive management training effort, development programs,
according to the FAQ, are not likely to produce the results hoped for
them.

It is sound advice for governments of deve10ping countries,
therefore, to increase the implerentation capacity for the institutional

framework of rural deve10pment (El-Ghonemy, 1979; Development

56

Administration Newsletter, 1980). In a resolution adopted by the
Economic and Social Council of the United Nations (1970), a call is made
upon the Specialized Agencies to recognize that increased administrative
capability for developing countries is indispensable for meeting the
needs in the 1980' s. This mandate requires continous action at national

and international levels to create such a capability.

Rural Development Managers in Perspective

The term "manager" has been used to mean anyone who is responsible
for subordinates and other organizational resources (Stoner, 1982) .
Managers can be classified by their level in the organization, i.e.,
first line, middle, and top-«and by the range of organizational
activities for which they are responsible, i.e., functional and general
managers. The lowest level in an organization at which individuals are
responsible for the work of others is called first-line or first-level
management. First-line managers direct operating etployees on 1y; they
do not supervise other managers. Middle—level managers, on the other
hand, direct the activities of other managers and sometimes also those
of Operating employees. A principal responsibility of middle managers
is to depict the activities that implement the policies of the
organization. TOp managerent, composed of a cotparatively small group
of executives, establishes Operating policies and guides the
organization's interactions with its environment. The functional
manager is responsible for only one organizational activity, while a
general manager oversees a corplex unit and is responsible for all the

activities of that unit.

57

Earlier, most development literature called for the training of the
agricultural manager. In 1980, for example, the FAO observed that
little has been done to provide training for those who administer
agricultural development programs in developing comtries and , i f there
were sore, the orientation of such training was highly technical. Thus,
the EDI (1979), summarized the job requirements and training needs of

project managers in agriculture as corprising:

Public Relations Coordination
Financial Control Deal with the Bureaucracy
Recruitment

Procurerent Control
Work Planning

Organization

— Budgeting Procedures
- Administration

The concern for an agricultural manager is quite obviois since
most, if not all, of the developing countries' economies are
agriculturally based. This sectoral view was later modified to include
a necessary understanding of the development process in agricultural
development. Such modification laid the foundation for a rural
development view which has agricultural development as a necessary
component. It is now recognized, for example, that a mere increase in
agricultural productivity does not necessarily translate into overall

rural development .

Toward a Definition of "Rural Develggment Managers"

 

So, who is the rural development manager? me obvioqs answer is:
people who are managing programs and projects in the rural areas. The
fact that they work in rural areas is a necessary prerequisite, but it
is more than just physical location that determines this description.
The comotations are numeron and they relate to the following:

1. differing tasks, skills and roles that have emerged as a
result of adopting development strategies, e.g. , integrated

58

rural development which is a combination of the welfare and
responsive strategies mentioned by Ickis (1979) ;

2. different View towards organizations and management functions,
i.e. , develOpIent-oriented organizations in lieu of enterprise
management or maintenance management. A cognizance of

differing managerial contexts and driving towards more
indigenous managerent systers; and

3. different view towards citizen involverent i.e., towards more
citizen participation through well organized community

organizations.

Ickis (1979) describes foir categories of rural development managers
based on research in Latin America. These are: 1) Program Managers;
2) Regional Directors of government agencies; 3) Project Managers:
and 4) Comunity Managers. He described Program Managers as usually
national ministers performing meta-managerent functions and belonging to
the top-level managerent group. Regional Directors would also fall into
the upper level management category. He described the middle-level as
corposed of project managers, i.e., people who interface between the
community and the bureaucracy. Comunity mnagers would be the elected
officials of the municipality. Ickis basically took, as a point of
departure, the policy framework of eiterprise managetent and applied it
to rural development. The focus of our concern is the middle-level

manager or the project manager.

T‘_a_s_k§. Moris (1978) observes that project managerent in the LIIJS
requires a large input of energy expended on essentially manipulative
and political tasks. In the humid trOpics, such as in the Philippines,
the energy required for successful management is itself a major
constraint. Managers probably work longer hours in temperate zone

systems, as Mintzberg (1973) would seem to eiggest, but one feels that

59

energy drains more acutely in the tropics. Much Of an LDC manager's
time is usually spent on trivial, but essential, tasks, e.g., rushing to
town to buy tubes of mimeograph ink. This is in contrast to Mintzberg's
findings that chief executives average 36 pieces of mail, 5 telephone
calls, and 8 meetings per day. Moris (1981) further Observes that a
cotmi’crent to both achieverent and power seers necessary.

Research on actual tasks performed by project managers is lacking.
Only recently have efforts to acquire data been undertaken. For
example, studies are being conducted in latin America, Asia, and Africa
by the different management organizations in those areas focusing on
project managerent and training. It is assumed, at present, that project
managers perform the traditional functions of administration, such as:
planning, organizing, staffing, directing, controling, coordinating, and
budgeting. In reality, thoigh, other critical functions are performed:

1. matching people to assignments to make use of their special

strengths ;

2. safeguarding performance specifications while negotiating the
design and implerentation of field programs;

3. remaining alert to the issues under consideration at a
particular moment within the larger administrative system;

4. insuring that all parties to a key decision have advance
personal knowledge of the issues at stake;

5. identifying and securing commitment for all important
components that depend upon outside support;

6. providing contingency arrangements to back up all key
components if their supply is at all probleratic;

7. identifying those items requiring long start-up times so that
preliminary actions will be taken in time;

8. exploring unofficially the political feasibility of all
required measures for project implerentation;

9. learning and acknowledging the constraints which each party
involved in a negotiation feels to be binding; and

60

10. establishing realistic decision rules and deciding when

general regulations must be ignored or overridden (Moris,
1981).

These tasks require the employment of what Morris calls

"compensatory managerent tactics" to overcore weaknesses in the system.

These are:

1.

2.

3.

Roles.

Paying tremendous attention to detail, since almost any item
can go wrong;

Following—up all important matters personally ("birddogging"):

Building a large redundancy factor into all aspects of
operation (also mentioned by Gaiden and Wildavsky (1974):

Establishing direct personal contact with authorities before
initiating any formal requests ("personalismo" ):

Adjusting day-to-day activities to fit immediate
opportunities, instead of arranging schedules far in advance;
and

Using simple but effective control devices to insure that
organizational resources do not melt away.

Sore of the roles of rural develorent managers are similar to

those performed by the enterprise manager although in a different

context and substance. Ickis (1979) sums the following as a result of

research undertaken in latin America:

1.

Strategist--this role according to Ickis is often excluded
from the more conventional definitions of the public
administrator's role, where planning is regarded as more
mechanistic than creative.

Infuser of values--this means developing and transmitting an
organizational doctrine,i.e. a set of values and ideas which
guide the organization's actions...a critical role in
organizations seeking to introduce reforms .

Decision-Maker--prob1em solver: a very basic management

concept.

Negotiator--engaging in continual negotiations with a much
broader range of groups and interests than other type of
managers.

61

Organization Architect--a meta-management function performed
at the very highest levels where decisions are made regarding
the design of the systems which will shape the policy-making
processes.

Implementor—-obtaining action through people, motivating
others in such a way ttat they will implement the strategy.

Ambassador--establishing linkages between institutions,
visualizing the total system, identifing key points of
interdependence, gaining acceptance by appropriate
individuals, and introducing the necessary linking mechanisms.

Public Spokesman--the advocacy role, i.e., representing and
defending his program and its objectives, often controversial
by nature, to the outside world.

Interpreter of Cormunity Aspirations-managerial actions aimed
at mobilizing the community to play a more active,
self-directed role in using its own resources, setting
priorities, and obtaining needed inputs from the government;
as well as actions to make programs and bureaucratic
structures more responsive to these cormunity inputs .

Philippine Rural Development Managers

In the Philippines, the focus of our attention is the rural

development manager at the middle-level. This is the project manager or

the proposed area or district manager.

The tasks of an area manager involved in Integrated Rural

Developtent, utilizing the Integrated Area Development Approach , would

be the fol lowing:

1.

Planning--this is a critical function of the area manager and
involves the balancing of objectives or harmonizing the
oftentimes conflicting objectives of sectoral programs as well

as that of communities within the area. It also involves the
participation of representatives/ managers of variois sectoral

and cormunity agencies.

Implementation--a critical task is the avoidance of
duplication of efforts given the multiplicity of sectoral
agencies involved. Developing an organizational capability is
another critical task.

62

3 . Monitoring and Evaluatim—-a critical task that deserves more
attention is the complex monitoring required because of
multiplicity of objectives. Designing other evaluation
scheres other than economic evaluation.

Research on project managerent in the Philippines, such as Ocampo's
(1980) study on the Bicol River Basin (as well as other observations on
IAD projects), reveal constraints impinging or project performance which
serve as determinants of a project manager's tasks and roles. Project
organization requires a project manager with considerable role
adaptability. He must balance technical solutions with time, resource,
and human factors. He is, in short, an integrator and a generalist
rather than a technical specialist. -

There are seven constraints impinging or project performance that
has been commonly identified by different agencies involved in IAD
projects. These are:

1. Organizational structure and authority relationships--The
matrix type of organization does rot facilitate coordination
and pin-point specific responsibility for project success.
Authority relationships are therefore ill—defined leading to

individualistic oitlooks and performances among agencies .

2. Managerent support-weak political will or wavering support of
tOp program and political leaders.

3. Leadership traits and technical competence of project
maragers-there is often a lack of technical-project managers
and, if there are available, they are often lacking in
leadership or management skills .

4. Competence of project staff assistance—there is an equal need
for staff trained in rural development as well as project
develcpment.

5. The environment of project managetent—often the location of
projects are in very depressed areas with almost no amenities .

6. The temporal nature of project life—since projects by nature
are time constrained, issues of promotions and job stability,
as well as loyalties, core to the fore.

7.

8.

63

The discrepancy of pay rates of personnel assigned to
projects—-often project staff members receive higher pay than
those assigned by agencies to aid program developrent. Both
staff may perform the same job, thus leading to jealousies and
other organizational pathologies .

A fast-rising issue is the meddling of foreign consultants in
project implementation. Although documentation is
insufficient, it is not too uncommon to hear local project
leaders gripe about discrepancies in pay, approaches to the
problem or tasks at hand, and the foreign consultant's
penchant for utilizing western-oriented models to solve
problers which have indigenous systers for their solution.

Some of the most cormon problems encomtered by project maragers in

the Philippines are those that pertain to cormunications, policies, the

attitudes of farmers, conflicting interests of parties, minimum budget

(including the delay in the arrival of funds), and cumbersome

administrative and procedural matters (based on an unpublished selected

random sampling survey conducted in 1978 by MARD personnel).

There are, on the other hand, four criteria which define the role

of a rural developrent manager. These are, according to Korten (1979) :

1.

2.

3.

4.

Job responsibilities are centered on results rather than
procedures;

These results depend on voluntary support from individuals and
independent organizations which are beyond the manager's

direct control;

The programs being managed contribute toward strengthening the
capacity of organizations external to the manager's own,
especially community level organizations comprised of the
poor; and

The manager's decisions are subject to the guidance of sore
broadly representative body.

In essence, the ability to recognize the appropriate role to be

played and to change roles readily is a mark of an effective manager

(Stoner, 1982) .

64

In InternalizirgLRural Develqzment Ebperience by Olyno and Lumanta

 

(1979), the Philippine rural development manager is expected to be a
rural educator, a technical adviser, a community organizer, an
information disseminator, and a resource linker.

As a rural educator, he is expected to provide the farmers'

 

learning experiences for them to acquire modern farming practices which
will lead to high productivity. Aside from the above, he is expected to
help the cormunity grow throlgh the introduction of innovations and, if
needed, he sholld be able to reorient values which may impinge upon the

developrent of the comunity as a whole.

As a technical adviser, he is expected to provide direct advice on

 

technical aspects related to agricultural and rural development.
Specifically, he should be able to provide research data, technical
experience and advice m methods and techniques .

As a community ogganizer, he sholld be able to help the community

 

establish its local institutions and strengthen existing organizations.
He should help the people verbalize their need for a local organization,
urge them to organize, and emphasize the advantages of cooperative
undertakings through organization

As an information disseminator, he is expected to transmit

 

knowledge and information throlgh a variety of channels. He is expected
to explain methods to the farmers who are generally cut off from such
information, inform and provide them with learning resource materials on
farming, horemaking, and anything to improve rural life.

As a resource linker, he is expected to bring to the clientele

 

packages of technical services, such as marketing, credit assistance,

and infrastructure projects. He is expected to serve as the middle-man

65

between the farmers and resource agencies to ensure that the necessary
resources will reach intended clientele.

In the MARD personal interview of project managers (1978) from both
the public and private sector, the fol lowing roles were perceived by the
managers themselves:

1. Be able to handle himself and those aromd him in any given
situation. Able to accept his own failures, be a risk taker,
and be aggressive, inrovative, creative, and corpetent;

2. Be in touch with the actual project situation and be flexible
erough to adopt policies for field implerentation;

3. Be knowledgeable about his goals and familiar with managerent
tools;

4. Be able to motivate his staff and get their cooperation,
loyalty, and support ; and

5. Be more of a generalist, although knowledge of agriculture
would be an advantage.

These managers achieved their positions throlgh possession of a degree

and field of specialization along with much experience. They are

generally agriculturists by profession and have limited formal

managerent training. They were able to effectively run projects throlgh

their intuition and common sense; they admit the need for management

training.

Conclusion
Based on existing literature on rural development, a selected
random survey, and personal observations, the tasks and roles of the
rural developrent marager at the middle-level pertain to three major

areas of equal concern: the community, his organization, and the

program.

66

The tasks and roles he fulfills at the community level are
primarily directed towards strengthening the community as a
political/ social decision-making unit. As a member of an organization,
specifically a public one, his tasks and roles are directed towards
ensuring efficiency and effectiveness in the management of
organizational resolrces. As program leader or member, his tasks and
roles pertain to the creation of organizational and institutional
arrangerents conducive to effective program planning, implementation,
and evaluation (which are typically multi-agency and often
multi—sectoral).

His concerns can be said to be equally focused on the managetent Of
all three important, and often conflicting, components with a frequent
view towards concurrent maintenance and development.

It follows, therefore, that the tasks, roles, and concerns
necessary to manage rural develcpment require the acquisition, throlgh
training, of the appropriate concepts, skills, and attitudes. The
identification of these requisite concepts, skills, and attitudes will

be the focus of the next chapter.

CHMHER.DJ
THE<31§HHTVEITE>AEHKHTVEIXIMJN

OFIIRALIXNEUN%ENTIWEEGHW§H‘

Given the tasks and roles outlines in Chapter 3, the purpose of
this chapter is to identify the elerents of the cognitive and affective
domain and how they relate to the concepts, skills, and attitudes
required of a rural deve loptent manager .

The concepts, skills and attitudes that will be identified here are
the product of theoreticians and observations of rural developrent
practitioners. However, two constraints must be noted: 1) there is no
specific position description, "rural development manager", in most
organizations and bureaucracies involved in rural development; and 2)
development writers have used different labels (e.g., development
systems manager [Korten, 1979], agricultural manager [110, 1974],
development-oriented administrators [De Guzman, 1976],) to refer to
approximately the same set of role responsibilities. It will help to
keep in mind, however, that the concepts, skills, and attitudes
described in this chapter should be applicable to the tasks of

middle-level managers in the public sector.

The Cognitive Dorain
"Cognitive" is used to include remembering and recalling knowledge,
thinking, problem-solving, and creating. Bloom's (1964) taxonomy of
this domain is organized into six major classes, but can be subsmed
into two areas: 1) knowledge; and 2) abilities and skills. Knowledge

involves the recall of specifics and universals, the recall of methods

67

68

and processes, or the recall of a pattern, structure, or setting.

Intellectual abilities, on the other hand, refer to organized modes of

operation and generalized techniques for dealing with materials and

problems .

The area of knowledge in rural developrent, for example, involves :

l.

The
involves :

1.

5.

knowledge of specifics, i.e., knowledge of termirologies Lsed
in the field as well as of specific facts, i.e., dates,
events, people and places, etc.;

knowledge of ways and means of dealing with specifics, i.e.,
ways of organizing, studying, judging, and criticizing facts
or information about rural development; and

knowledge of the universals and abstractions in a field, i.e. ,
the theories and generalizations in rural development .

area of intellectual abilities or skills, on the other hand,

comprehension of the materials or ideas in rural development
without necessarily relating it to other material or seeing
its fullest implications. This involves translation of ideas,
interpretation or explaration, and extrapolation;

application or the use of abstractions in the field or
concrete situations;

analysis or the breaking down of ideas into elements to focus
closely on their structure, organization and their

relationships ;

synthesis or the putting together of elements and parts so as
to form a whole: and

evaluation or the judgements of ideas in terms of internal
evidence and external criteria.

To fully explicate the above, it is necessary to identify the

concepts that constitute the knowledge areas of the rural development

manager.

69

Concepts may be defined as notions of or perceptions of reality
whose meanings have become established and validated and have been
assigned names. Concepts have mental, physical, and verbal forms.
Concepts are also open-ended, suggesting that we never attain complete
understanding of them because new principles and facts are learned
through research and practical experience. Concepts are useful as a
means for delineating a field of knowledge in terms of its parts, as
organizing elements of a curriculum, and as the substantive content of
educational objectives.

In a report authored by the Extension Committee on Organization and
Policy (ECOP) of the National Association of State Universities and Land
Grant Colleges entitled, "Community DevelOpment Concepts, Curriculum
Training Needs" (1975), concepts were described as useful:

1. as ways of thinking abolt (analyzing and describing) real life
situations; -

2. for organizing and structuring observations of reality, facts
and knowledge;

3. for cormunicating with others;
4. as a basis for predicting and testing relationships;

5. as a means for becoming acquainted with a field of knowledge;
and

6. As eletents in developing theory.

Application of Concepts to Rural Devequrent Managerent

 

Rural development managers must be prepared to think about, and
make applications of, concepts. Studies of human learning suggest that
the learner can deal with a limited number of abstract ideas. It is
important, therefore, tlat key concepts be identified for clearer focus

by the learner.

70

Rural Development Management can be categorized as an eterging
sub—field of the study of Rural Developtent. The plethora of literature
on rural development within the last five years attests not only to the
interest in rural development but to its attainment of disciplinary or
semi-disciplinary status. Moris (1978) asserts that there is ample
fomdaticn of materials and concepts to warrant the emergence of rural
development as an applied profession in its own right. Yet, the
interstitial nature of the profession is a limiting factor in itself.

Rural Development intersects about ten academic disciplines.
Important sub-areas, according to Moris, which overlap the jurisdictions

of the conventional disciplines, include:

 

 

Tcpical Area Parent Disciplines
l. Develqment economics Economics
2 . Applied Anthrcpology Anthrcpology
3. Underdeveloprent Theory Marxian sociology
4. Rural sociology Sociology
5. Interrational agriculture Agricultural Economics
6. Nonformal education Extension, Education,
Cormunication
7. Development Administration Political Science,
Management, Public
Administration
8. Urbanization & Modernization Geography, Demography,
Sociology
9. Rural & regional planning Economics, Geography
10. Techrology transfer Agriculture, Engineering

Worthy of inclusion in the above list is cormunity development, which is

eclectic, and has eterged as a discipline and as an applied profession.

Concepts Central to Rural Deve qurent banagetent

 

The following is a list of critical concepts of rural develOpIent
managerent adapted from the ECOP (1975) report. They are delineated

here and discussed in the Appendix A. This list is not necessarily

71

complete considering the dynamic nature of the field ; as new concepts

and sub-concepts emerge they can be
concepts identified:
Comunity Develcpment Concepts

1. Cormunity

2 . Development
3 . Comunity Develcpment Process

learning Concepts

1 . Behavioral Change -
2 . Teachable Moment
3. Diffusion and Adcption

Sociological Concepts
1. Social System

2. Social Interaction
3 . Cormunication

added to the central group of

4. Organizational Boundary Maintenance

5. Decision Making
6. Socialization
7. Social Control
8. Social Change
9. Social Moverent

Geographic Concepts

1 . Region
2 . Central Place
3 . Functional Area

Political Concepts

1. Political Culture

2. Political System Functions
3. Demand Inputs

4. Support Inputs

5. Power and Influence

Economic Concepts
1. Marginal Aralysis

2. Opportunity Cost
3. Economies of Size

4. Inter-industry and Input-Output Analysis

5. Mlltiplier analysis
6. Interregional Cotpetition
7. Benefit-Cost Analysis

72

Feasiility Concepts

1.

Feasibility

Property Rights Concepts

1.

Prqaerty

Statistical Concepts

1.
2.
3.
4.

Systems theory

Modelling techniques

Linear Programming

Survey and Sampling Techniques

Administration/Managerent Concepts

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

7.
8.
9.

Efficienq and effectiveness

Organizational and Damagerial Theory

Ratiorality—legality

Functional specialization

Authority-Hierarchy

Managetent Functions (Planning, Organizing, Staffing, leading,
Controlling)

Project Managerent

Operations Research

Managerent Information System

These are the essential concepts which comprise the body of

knowledge constituting the emerging field of rural development

managerent .

Skills in Rural Dewlwt Managerent

 

In a quote from a report on the Gombe and Funtua Agricultural

Developrent Projects by Gordon and Duncan (1982), a distinction was made

between technical skills and managerent skills:

1.

by technical, or task related, skills is meant, for example,
road and dam construction, use of base and surfacing
materials, book-keeping, stores systems, administrative
procedures, engineering and vehicle maintenance skills,
evaluation techniques, etc.; and

management skills mean those less tangible, but essential
skills of being able to think and plan ahead: to forsee
problems, set standards and monitor progress: to tackle tasks
methodically and set objectives: to build effective teams;

73

to motivate subordinates; to visualize and keep in mind the
broader picture of the whole job; people using human resources
effectively; cormunicating effectively, etc. .
Katz (1974) has identified three basic types of skills needed by all
managers---technical, human, and conceptual. Technical skill is the
ability to use the tools, procedures, or techniques of a specialized
field. Human skill is the ability to work with, understand, and
motivate other people—either as individuals or as groups. Conceptual
skill is the mental ability to coordinate and integrate all of the
organization's interests and activities. Katz has pointed out that,
although all three of these skills are essential to effective
management, their relative importance to a specific manager depends upon
his or her rank in the organization.
Samuel Paul (1977) mentions four types of skills that should be
learned by today's public managers:
1. planning skills:
2. analytical skills:
3. organizatioal skills; and
4. integrative skills.
He arrived at these types based on what he describes as the functions
performed by today's public manager, namely, planning and policy,
environmental appraisal, service delivery and logistics, technology and
production, budgeting, information, and control, and organization and
personnel.
To the above list, Siffin (1977) would add what he calls
"unstructured skills", which are regarded by some as central to
creating effective managers. These skills are considered most essential

for public managers in the developing world and include:

74

1. interpersonal skills:
2 . synthetic and integrative skills;
3 . problem-and—opportunity—finding skills: and

4. decision-making skills under conditions Of instability,
uncertainty, and flux.

Synthetic skills are akin to Ackoff's "systemic-thinking,‘ i.e.,
something to be explained as part of a larger system and explained in
terms of its role in that larger system. Integrative skills are skills
tl'at embrace the multiplicity of objectives and services, as well as the
different agencies, involved in integrated rural developtent. The other
two skills are in response to the environment in which the rural manager A
Operates. Livingstone (1971) , for example, argues that while analytical
skills are important, a manager's success will ultimately depend on his
ability to anticipate problers long before they arise.

The skills mentioned by Katz, Paul, and Siffin, address-dto a large
extent--the task requirerents of integrated rural develcprent. Sore of
the skills mentioned can be taught but, as Livingstone maintains,
certain characteristics of effective managers are almost impossible to
teach. These ctaracteristics are personal qualities that people develop
long before they elter managerent training programs . For example, three
qualities associated with successful maragers are:

l. The need to manage. Only those people who want to affect the
performance of others and who derive satisfaction when they do
so are likely to becote effective managers .

2. The need for power. Good managers have a need to influence
others. To do this they do not rely on the authority of their
positions but on their superior knowledge and skill.

3. The capacity for empathy. The effective manager also needs
the ability to understand and cope with the often unexpressed

emotional reactions of others in the organization in order to
win their cooperation (Livingstone, 1971) .

75

A pertinent question is: What do field managers believe are the

most important maragerent skills? A 1978 study conducted by MARD at the

University of the Philippines found that, among a sample of Filipiro

field managers:

1.

the skills ranked as most important by the respondents were
skills relating to the management function of planning,
directing, and controlling. Emphasis was given to Skills
pertaining to coordinating, motivating personnel and

delegating respons ibilities;

next in the rank of importance to the respondents were
people-oriented skills (e.g., basic skills such as persuading
people, resolving conflicts, and relating interpersonally:
organizational skills, such as personnel selection,
performance evaluation, disciplining, and counseling
employees); and skills in the use of basic tools (e.g.,
operations research, records management, accounting,
bookeeping, budgeting, linear programming): and

Last in the rank of importance were skills that the
participants felt were support-related skills rather than
management-related. These are skills in using the corputer,
designing training programs, maintaining physical facilities,
and fund raising.

The Affective Dorain

If trainers want assurance that the knowledge and skills acquired

in the training situations are transferred to the work situation, every

effort must be undertaken so tlat the accompanying values and attitudes

are develqaed in the managers being trained.

There are re generalized approaches to the develOpIent of desirable

attitudes and values, but the first step involves determining the types

of attitudes which should be promoted and developed. This brings us to

the subject of the affective domain (De Guzman, 1976). As a trainee

moves from the lower levels in the affective domain, the belavior of the

trainee changes from passive to active, involuntary to voluntary,

76

transitory to stable, inconsistent to consistent, and from neutral (or
negative) to positive.

Management training on attitudinal or behavioral change must
consider the affective domain as a first step in developing attitudes,
predispositions, values and beliefs that are supportive of acquired
managerial capabilities and technocratic skills. For example, Krathvohl
(1956) cites the following levels in the hierarchy of the affective
dorain:

1. Receiving (i.e., knowledge or information received by the
student in the education process)

a. Awareness

b. Willingness to Receive
c. Controlled or Selective Attention

2. Responding (i.e., the student reacts to the knowledge or
information he has acquired)
a. Acquiesence in Responding
b. Willingness to Respond
c. Satisfaction in Response

3. Valuing (i.e. , the student begins to consider or decide which
knowledge he wants to learn or retain)

a. Acceptance of a value
b. Preference for a Value

c. Commitment
4. Organization (i.e. , the student organizes his values into a
cohesive form)

a. Conceptualization of a value
b. Organization of a value system

5. Characterization by a Value Oorplex (i.e., the student begins
to act olt his values after internalizing them)
a. Generalized Set
b. Characterization
It is important to note that the Peace Corps (1973) has utilized the
above model in training its overseas participants. But what are the

values that are to be considered desirable in the training of Filipiro

administrators?

77

In research conducted by De Guzman and Carbonnel in 1976 (De
Guzman, 1979) on the development—orientedness of Filipino
administrators, sore value committments were identified. These are the
values tlat sholld be instilled in every Filipino administrator:

I . change orientation;

2 . action prOpensity;

3 . commitment to economic deve lcprent;
4. concern for economic equality:

5. concern for public participation;
6. concern for conflict avoidance:

7. concern for the nation; and

8. selflessness .

MARD (1975) has also identified several attitudes or attributes
that a rural development manager should possess. The manager must
possess character, be a risk-taker, aggressive, inrovative, creative,
and competent. He must constantly be attuned to his environment or
culture. As Samonte (1978) points olt, personalism and particularistic
orientation is a typical social value in a transitioal society that can
be used to advantage by the manager. It can help him win grolp support,

prevent conflict with policy makers, and facilitate acceptance of plans.

Conclusion
It is important to note that there are several reservations
regarding the transferability of managerial concepts, tools, techniques
and techrology. Reasons tIat have been advanced include:
1. Some are specifically designed for stable ongoing systems in

which the ethos of "maintenance" rather than "development" is
the cperative imperative.

78

2. Some are too sophisticated and powerful in terms of the needs,
available data, and qualified personnel, and the general
resource base of the comtry concerned; they are used either

suboptimal 1y or irrelevantly.

3. There is a record of faddism in the discovery and adoption of
tools, techniques, and technology in the managerent field.

4. Their effectiveness anywhere is determined in particular by
the presence of what Moris calls a congruent "surrounding
administrative culture". (Stifel, 1977)

In essence, there are two types of culture that significantly
affect the transferability of concepts. One is the administrative
culture imposed by western colonialism which has been perpetuated since
independence in developing countries. As in the case of the.

Philippines, the Spanish and American systers of goverment have been

transplanted and

"through the passage of time has acquired its own
enduring legitimacy either because it has evolved as

an amalgam congruent with indigenous value systers

or because of sheer prescription" (Stifel, 1977) .
The other culture is the deep-rooted traditional culture of a peOple or
a region. The implication of such cultures, according to Mendoza
(1978), is for such countries to develop concepts (or management
systems) that are responsive to, and congruent; with, the values, the
needs, and the resolrces of such areas.

The task tl'at remains, therefore--having identified the skills,

attitudes and concepts of a rural development manager—is to blild a

curriculum. This, essentially, will be the concern of the next chapter.

CHAPTERV

A MANAGEMENT EDUCATION PROGRAM

The purpose of this chapter is to describe a managerent education
program that is suitable for rural developrent managers. The proposed
program is expected to be used in the current MARD program in UPLB.

The early part of the chapter will be spent discussing the

different models of public managetent education. Focus will then be on
the MARD program of UPLB as one model. The later part of the chapter

will be devoted to presenting a curriculum design based on the '

preceeding chapter.

Managetent Training Models

Siffin (1977) notes that, throughout the developing world, the
existing models for education and training (that fall under the broad
rubric of public maragement) are western in their origin. There are
currently three such models .

The first model pertains to the administrative cultures of western
colonial rule, including their traditions of training for the public
services. Such a model, concentrating on law and order maintenance, has
socialized many of the present generation of public officials (e.g. , the
Institutes of Administration and the Administrative Staff Colleges in
anglophonic countries, and the Ecole Nationale d'Administration in
francopl'onic comtries [Stifel, 1977]).

The second model is the transfer of American public administration

programs during the late 1950's and throughout the 1960's, which

79

80

resulted in the establishment or deveIOpment of some seventy
administrative training institutions in the deve10ping world. The UP
College of Public Administration (mentioned in Chapter 2) is one
example.

The third model, which is recent and has gained a measure of
popularity, is the replication of the American business managerent model
as exemplified in Harvard, MIT, Stanford and, in the Philippines, the
Asian Institute of Managerent (AIM).

While these models are currently gaining popularity and acceptance,
critics still argue that their transferability on a large scale has to
be seriously questioned. In 1976, the participants to the Bellagio I
Conference, [Stifel, 1977] composed mostly of those involved in
managerent education all over the world, proposed three alternative
models.

The first model seeks the infusion of management content into
existing professioral (pre-entry) degree programs. This model addresses
the development of future managers, but also addresses the constraints
of time available and the priority of technical subjects in the
curricula.

The second model is the Post-entry Short—Term Non-Degree Program.
This curriculum focuses on specialized, intensive short-term courses for
senior and middle-level sectoral managers.

The third model is the Pre-entry Postgraduate Management Degree
Program. This model concentrates directly on new graduates by offering

a one or two-year postgraduate program in management with a sectoral

etphasis .

81

UPLB ' s MARD program incorporates the second and third model. The

focus of this paper, however, is on the third model, which is the
educational component Of the MARD program (the Master of Manath

major in rural development managerent) .

The NERD Nbdel

 

In most deve10ping countries, the universities will be encolraged
and expected to provide diverse programs that are directly geared to
national development needs (including management education and
training). Managerent institutes and universities obviously can assist
each other in the development of curricula, research, and evaluation ‘
efforts.

The experience of the Indian Institute of Management and
Administration (IIMA), as well as of the Asian Institute of Management
(AIM), suggests that the effectiveness of management education and
training programs will be enhanced by the presence of:

1 . a ﬂexible organizational form;

2 . the encouragerent of research and consultancy;
3. a sound educational model;

4. leadership; and

5. a minimum size of Operations.

The MARD model, still in its infancy, addresses all five factors.
However, the focus of or concern is the evolution and the continuity of
a sound educational model that will not only serve local national
interests, but also serve nations within the region.

Such a task is Obviolsly difficult, given the undefined managerent

disciplinary bomdaries that exist. However, we can be guided by the

82

insights of those who have had previous experience in training. For
instance, Youker (1979) says that, from learning theory, research, and
experience, managetent training results in behavioral change when the
training:

1. is built around local systers, procedures and cases;

2. involves a team from an organization rather than only an
individual;

3. is experientially based so that participants can gain
confidence in their new skills;

4. promotes within the participants the need for the training and
belief in its relevance to them and their problems; and

5. invOlves follow-up back on the job so as to integrate the.
training into the local administrative environment.

The MARD model can be viewed as an enperiment—-if not a pioneering
effort—given the fact tlat most schools of public management focus on
the training of senior and middle-level public servants and not
specifically on rural development. Also, while non-degree training is
being focused on specific sectors of rural areas, there is no formal
managerent education at this time for middle-level managers of rural
developrent. Mnile it is expected that agricultural specialists will be
the major clientele of MARD, the emphasis of training is directed
towards producing a managerent generalist. Thus, variols students from
development sectors, who occupy or would be occupants of management
positions, will be trained to manage projects irrespective of sector.

The University of the Philippines at los Baros instituted the MARD
program under the late Chancellor Abelardo G. Samonte with a view toward
accelerating rural developtent activities by providing trained managers
at the implementation level. The immediacy of its response to the

national need implies program deficiencies, such as the inadequacy of a

83

well-conceived curriculum design, evaluation methods, and procedures.
These are MARD's areas that need strengthening and that this
dissertation hopes to adequately address .

A sound educational program, for example, should be based on a well
designed needs-assesment survey of the client's organizational needs and
Of the clients therselves. Based on these findings, Objectives or goals
can then be stated that will, in turn, provide the basis for the
curriculum and evaluation design. Throlgholt the process, there should
be provisions for continols feedback and evaluation that can provide the
basis for making corrective inputs in the program. Such designs, which
are intended to systeratize program developtent, Pave rot been addressed
by the MARD staff. This paper will, therefore, address those concerns

by prOposing a managerent curriculum that is designed to improve the

existing program.

Eletents in the Curriculum Design Framework

Steps in the Curriculum Development Process

 

The development of an educational program requires thinking throlgh
the steps involved in program development, i.e. , planning,
implerentation, and evaluation. The process of building a curriculum is
parallel to the planning process.

Taba (1962) has identified 7 steps in the curriculum development
process:

1. diagnosis of needs;
2 . formulation of objectives;

3. selection of content;

84

4 . organization of content;
5. selection of learning experience;
6. organization of learning experience; and

7. determination of what to evaluate and the means of doing it.

These steps will be one of two elerents associated with our curriculum
framework. These 7 steps represent the traditional model of education,
which can be described as content oriented, in contrast to the process

(or andragogical model), which is the other element in the framework.

The Andragogical (Process) Model of Adult Education

 

The andragogical model of education is a process model—in contrast
to the content models employed by most traditional educators. The
difference is that, in traditional education, the teacher decides in
advance wtat knowledge or skill needs to be transmitted, arranges this
body of content into logical units, selects the most efficient means for
transmitting this content and, then, develops a plan for presenting
these content units in some sort of sequence. The andragogical model,
on the other hand, prepares in advance a set of procedures for involving
the learners (and other parties, e.g., the organization(s)) in a process
involving the following ele'rents:

l. establishing a climate conducive to learning;

2. creating a mechanism for mutual planning:

3. diagnosing the needs for learning;

4. formulating program objectives that will satisfy these needs;

5. designing a pattern of learning experiences:

85

6. conducting these learning experiences with suitable techniques
and materials ; and

7. evaluating the learning outcomes and rediagnosing learning
needs.

The andragogical model is particularly applicable to the NERD case
for several reasons. Traditioral pedagogy promotes dependency whereas
andragogy increases self-directiveness. Pedagogy also considers
experience of little value; andragogy utilizes learners as a resource
for learning. In terms of readiness to learn, pedagogy takes into
consideration the biological development of the learner whereas
andragogy focuses on developmental tasks of social roles. Knowledge .
learned in pedagogy has postponed application value; andragogy has
immediate applicability. lastly, pedagogy is topic—centered; andragogy
is problem-centered.

The model needed by MARD is one where there is a strong erphasis on
increasing self-directiveness and recognition of the learner's
experiences. It should be problem-centered and subject-centered. It
also recognizes that, unlike training (where time is usually short), a
degree-granting program takes more time and, therefore, application of
sore learning is postponed.

Pedagogy functions well in a setting that is authority-oriented and
formal, as well as in a competitive environment. Andragogy functions
well in a mutually respectful, informal, and collaborative enviroment.
Flaming for instruction in pedagogy is by the teacher alone, whereas
andragogy involves the student in an array of activities that include:

diagnosis of needs and formulating objectives and activities .

86

The curriculum design model that ererges in this dissertation is a

combiration of two elerents that are desirable: the 7-step curriculum

develqnment process us ing an andragogical approach.
The 7-Step Curriculum Developrent Process

Diagnosis Of Needs (Step 1)

In the earlier chapters, a case for the training of current and
future rural developrent managers was made. The basic assumption of
this paper is that the rate of success of rural deveIOpment programs and
projects have been low and that, among other factors, a managerial-
deficiency has been pin-pointed as largely responsible.

To effectively diagnose the needs for learning to overcome such a
deficiency, two steps are necessary. First, it is necessary to
construct a model of the desired betavior, performance, or competencies
of the rural deveIOpment manager. Secondly, the discrepancies or gaps
between the competencies specified in the model and their present level
of development by the learners need to be assessed.

There are three sources of data for building a diagnostic model
namely: the society, the organization, and the individual.

The Society. Developing countries lave adOpted corplex strategies

 

for rural deveIOpment (e.g. , the integrated approach) that require

training of current arnd future implementors/managers of programs and

projects. The matter of training is part of public policy designed to:
l . strengthen administrative systers;

2. provide the necessary impetus to rural develqment efforts;
and

3. sustain its gains.

87

The Organization. Organizations and governmental agencies view

 

training as one way of strengthenirng administrative capability, i.e. , to
improve present managerial capabilities and, at the same time, develop a
cadre of managers necessary for sustaining development efforts.
Management education, as one among other solutions, is preferred because
it is an integral part of public policy towards development and
resources are often adequate for pursuing this type of solution.

It should be noted, however, that previous training programs have
not been without problers. Sore of these problets pertain to structural
deficiencies in the conceptualizaton and execution of the programs:
others relate to the more fundamental problem of what to teach and how '
to teach it (given the perceived absence of indigenous well-developed
models for transferring managerent concepts and skills).

The Individual. Managers, in actuality, perform a variety of

 

functions that are largely maintenance-oriented. However, we also
expect them to perform more and more developtental functions. Note has
also been made of the manager's functional areas of concern, i.e., the
community, his organization, and the program or project. The
accommodation of these conflicting goals and carpeting areas of concern
neccesitates training in management tl'at would include, for example, the
develqnment of integration arnd synthesis skills .

Our model of the rural development manager, given the task
environment in most developing countries, is generalist in orientation.
It focuses on the person who has basic training in one of the
development sectors (such as agriculture) and "tops" this degree with
managenent training in the previously mentioned areas of concern. Thus ,
a graduate of the program can be expected to manage a development

project irrespective of sector.

88

There is, therefore, a need to inculcate the concepts, skills, and
attitudes required of today and tororrow' s rural development manager.
Such concepts, skills and attitudes have been identified in the previols
chapter. However, the perception of such a need has to be shared by the
students themselves. As a matter of fact, much of the assessment (as
part of the diagnostic process), is self-assessment with the
teacher/ facilitator providing the student with procedures for obtaining
data about his oorpetency level. A variety of feedback—yielding tools
and procedures are available to incorporate into the assessment process.

Having diagnosed learning needs, the next step in the curriculum

design process is to formulate program and curriculum objectives.

Formulation of Objectives (Step 2)

 

Clearly defined educational purposes are neessary for outlining the
content of a curricultmm, for developing instructional procedures, for
assessing student growth, and for making continued improvetents in the
program. Such Objectives can be derived from the interests of the
learners, from conterporary society, and the sub ject-matter disciplines .
Also, it should be stressed that three levels of objectives need to be
discussed here, i.e., program objectives, curriculum objectives, and
course objectives.

Education program objectives can be stated as follows:

 

1. To increase the efficient implerentation Of rural developrent
activities;

2. To improve the administrative capabilities of current
managers; and

3. To build a cadre of trained managers who will sustain the
development effort.

89

Curriculum objLectives, to be realistically attainable, should be

 

described both in terms of the kind of behavior expected and the

content or context to which that behavior applies. Thus, upon

corpletion of the program, the student is expected to be able:

1.

To gain knowledge of the major principles, concepts, theories,
and facts in the field of rural development; specifically,
those that pertain to the areas of community deve 10pment,
organization and management , and program
administration/managemnt ;

To think critically, logically, and be able to analyze the
concepts and issues involved in rural developnent, apply facts
and principles to the solution of new problers and to predict
and explain new phenorena;

To integrate and synthesize elerents of facts and theories and .
evaluate their importance;

To be positive about himself, to relate interpersonally, and
to manage groups;

To familiarize himself with the tools and techniques of
managerent, the tasks and roles demanded from today's rural
development manager; and

To internalize the necessary attitudes of a
developrent-oriented manager.

Course objectives are more specific and can be described according

 

to the modules of learning within a course. For example, a course on

project managerent would have multiple learning modules. Given the fact

that preparing detailed plans for implerentation of projects is one of

the tasks of our manager, an appropriate course objective could be: A

papticipant, at the end of the course, will be able to prepare a work

breakdown structure, prepare a critical path network, and analyze a

critical path network .

9O

Selection and Organization of Curriculum Content Stgs (3 8: 4)

Based on the needs and objectives articulated earlier, the content
of the curriculum becomes easier to decide. The concepts presented
earlier (in Chapter 4) essentially constitute the basis for the content
of the curriculum. The organization of such content will be based on
three pillars, namely: organization and management, community
development, and program management. Presented in Appendix B is a
detailed course description of the tcpics that will be discussed in each

area. A curriculum summary is presented in Table 3.

Selection and Organization of learning Experiences (Steps 5 & 6)

 

The criteria for building an effective, organized group of learning

experiences are: continuity, sequence, and integration. Continuity

 

involves the treatment over time of a concept, skill or value. gaggence
emphasizes higher levels of treatment of an element rather than

duplication with successive learning experiences. Integration involves

 

acquiring relationships within and among elements of the curriculum
(ECDP, 1975).

A look at the curriculum will reveal that the courses endnibit a
logical, deductive order. luring the early semesters, for example, the
student focuses on the acquisition of knowledge and concepts and, then,
moves toward the more specific application of these concepts. Thus, the
program management component starts by introducing the student to the
different concepts in the field, then gives him a macroscopic view of
public programs, and finally focuses on how to prepare a project
proposal. There is adequate time for field exposure at the end of the

program; an integrating seminar is designed toward the end.

91

Table 3 .

Summary of the PrOposed Nanagerent Education Curriculum

 

Course Description Credits Semester to
be Taken
Summer Workshop Summer
before

admission

Public Prggram Managenent

 

Public Affairs Management 3 1
Public Programs Managerent 3 2
Project Managerent 3 3

Cormunity Develggent

 

Comunity Developrent Theory 3 1
Special Topics in CD 3 2
Planned Change 3 3

Organization arnd Nanagerent

 

Organization arnd Managerent Theory 3 l
Managerial Decision—Making 3 2
Organizational Developrent 3 3
Research Methods in RDM 3 2
Field Studies in Rm 5 F i n a 1
Summer
Seminar in Rm 1 F i n a 1

Summer

92

A very basic feature of the curriculum, however, is that it will be
strongly anchored in the principles and concepts of andragogy. This is
not only relevant, but necessary, considering that the students/ clients
of MARD are professionals. Thus, the following techniques will be used
at every qaportunity (bring the learning process:

1. case studies;
2. syndicates;

3 . sensitivity training:

4. group dynamics ;
5. role playing;

6. simulated learning through structured work experiences; and

7. action learning.
The andragogical model involves: 1) choosing problem areas that have
been identified by the students through self-diagnostic procedures: 2) i
selecting appropriate formats (individuals, groups, mass activities) for
learning; 3) designing units of experiential learning; and 4) utilizing
suggested methods and materials and arranging them in sequence according
to the students ' readiness and aesthetic principles (Ingalls and Arceri,
1972; Knowles, 1970).

Thus, while the three areas of learning have been identified and

courses have been sequenced, the students are expected to provide input
into the curriculum. For a sample of where and how these techniques

will be incorporated in the curriculum, see the attached examples of

course designs in the Appendix B.

Conclusion
The design of this curriculum has been largely a conceptual process
using the frameworks of early writers, such as Taba, and the experience
of trainers, such as Youker (of the Economic Develogrent Institute). It

should be noted that much of the training efforts in rural development

93

(e.g. in Malaysia, India, Swaziland and training espoused by the World
Bank, FAO, and ILO) do not have a strong community develqzment (CD)
content. At a time when citizen participation is a most heavily sought
input to rural development, the need for CD training is paramount. The
curriculum proposed here answers that need.

The model being designed incorporates features of both the
pedagogical and andragogical model. The pedagogical model is useful in

terms of thinking through the areas of learning as suggested by

professionals and academicians. Further elaboration, however, or
"homing in" on the target more accurately, is provided by the
andragogical model. This unique carbination will ensure acceptance from
both students and university administrators .

What is necessary now is for us to propose how this curriculum will

be evaluated (Step 7).

CHAPTERVI

MANAGEMENT EIIJCATION EVALUATION

The purpose of Chapter 6 is to propose an evaluation design that
can be utilized by any organization engaged in management education or
training, in general, and by the MARD program in particular.
Specifically, it is an evaluation scheme for the curriculum design
presented in the previous chapter.

The early parts of the chapter will be utilized to explain the
nature and need for evaluation and the advantages of having an
evaluation scheme. The evaluation design will be presented in the later.

portions of the chapter.

The Importance of Evaluation

Evaluation is undertaken for a number of different reasons.
Chelimsky (1978) and Rossi (1979), for example, point out that
evaluation may be undertaken: for management and administrative
purposes: to assess the appropriateness of program shifts: to identify
ways to improve the delivery of interventions: and to meet the
requirements of funding groups vino have fiscal responsibility for the
allocation of program monies. Furthermore, that evaluation can be
undertaken for planning and policy purposes, i.e., to help decide on
either program expansion or curtailment, and to reach decisions on
whether to advocate one program :or the other. Basically, evaluation
measures the worth or value of an activity, decision, or course of
action. It asks whether objectives were accomplished and whether they

were the right objectives to begin with.

94

95

Evaluation is useful to a management training or educational
program in that it can be used to justify expenditures or the very
existence of the program. It also seeks to improve training as well as
the trainers. It can therefore be said that evaluation, for all

practical purposes, is an important carponent of an educational program.

Evaluation in the LDCs

It is important to realize that the matter of evaluation is viewed
in different ways in developing countries. This observation is in line
with our assumptions on the impact of administrative cultures and the
overall question on the transferability of western concepts and values,
as postulated earlier in this work. For example, the conduct of
evaluation requires clearly specified goals and a time-frame against
which rates of achievement can be plotted. Yet, in the IDC's, vague
goals are often politically necessary; official goals are either partial
or badly chosen and the clarification of sore goals may not occur until
several years of effort have been invested. Thus, a program evaluator
trained in western evaluation techniques will often find goals as
difficult, if not impossible, to evaluate.

It has also been observed by Moris (1981) that where administrative
systems are below the threshold for effective interaction, actual
achievements will fall considerably below potential
productivity--perhaps by as much as 50 percent. Furthermore, the
discovery that sate evaluation can be helpful has been rapidly extended
to the much stronger assumption that definitive evaluation is always
desirable. Actual field experiences also suggest that, in the LDCs, the

demand for data is high but the storing and handling mechanisms are

poor, if not inadequate.

96

Such limitations, which need no further elaboration, must be home
in mind when conducting evaluation to assess the relative strength of
the MARD program. For example, the program objectives of MARD, which
focus on increase in public program implementation efficiency, would be
difficult to measure since such programs may themselves be difficult to
evaluate. What is realistically feasible, then, is the evaluation of
curriculum objectives because the many variables that surround program

operation are reduced.

Toward an Evaluation Model for MARD
As an educational program designed to implement and sustain
national development efforts, MARD needs an evaluation model that is
carprehensive and appropriate. This means that the evaluation program
should contain the following exponents, which ty their order, suggest
the sequence of steps by which to develop that program:
1. the formulation and clarification of objectives:

2. the selection and construction of the appropriate devices for
collecting evidence;

3 . the application of evaluative criteria: and
4. the translation of evaluation findings into curriculum

improvement (Taba, 1962; Youker, 1982).

Defining Objectives

 

The first step in evaluation is the definition of objectives. This
is usually arrived at after a needs assessment has been conducted. This
paper has made such an assessment, as well as identified program and
curriculum objectives, in Chapter 5.

It wand be realistic to recognize at the onset of evaluation, that

training is but one factor that contributes to rural development

97

success. Thus, the attainment of the program objectives will not
necessarily mean an increase in project success rate. mat easily lends
itself to evaluation are the stated curriculum objectives that are the
focus of our evaluation effort.

It will be recalled, from Chapter 5, that cirrimlum objectives
consist mainly of knowledge, mental skills, interpersonal skills, and
attitude change. To know whether these objectives have been attained,
requires evaluation of the student while in the program, upon immediate
cmpletion of his studies, and at least one point following graduation.

An important point to be made is that the planning of the

evaluation effort should be simultaneous with that of program objectives

during the planning phase of curriculum design.

Col lectiril nformation

 

Gathering evaluation data occurs before, during, at the end, and
after the education program. Figure 1 shows when data are to be
collected for the MARD program. The gathering of such data can be part
of the different types of evaluation, e.g. , needs assessment, program
planning, implementation or process, and outcome (or product)
evaluation.

A needs assessment can be described as a systematic appraisal of
the type, depth, and scope of problems as perceived by study targets or
their advocates. Program planning evaluation, cm the other hand, are
studies of: the extent and location of problems for intervention, ways
that targets can be defined in Operational terms, and whether the
proposed intervention is suitable. Implementation and progress

evaluation refer to the adequacy of organizational arrangements and

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

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99

resources in carrying out the program objectives and whether they are,
indeed, reaching the target clientele (sometimes called 'honitoring").
Outcome (or product) evaluation, on the other hand, attempts to measure
whether the intended change on the target clientele has been
accomplished or, more succinctly, whether the program objectives have

been met. Youker (1982) presents this model in graphic form as:

needs aIsessment

program planning \

Impleren tion Progress

evaluation evaluation

\ om... /

product evaluation

Data can be collected through observations, interviews,
questionnaires, discussions, tests, and workshop exercises.

For the MARD program, data about the student will be collected
prior to formal admission to the program, i.e., a workshop seminar
currently exists whereby, through tests, discussions, informal
interviews and questionnaires, the student's training needs are
established. For example, the following information can be collected
to determine training needs :

l. the student's academic or professional background or
qualifications:

2. his present post and responsibilities;

3. his day-to-day tasks in order to carry out those
responsibilities;

4. his training expectations or what types of learning he Topes
to have;

100

5. the value of training to him in terms of career mobility; and

6. his perceived contribution to his organization after training.

Youdale (1982) has utilized these questions to evaluate prospective
trainees of the Mananga Agricultural Management Centre in Swaziland.

Through discussions and interviews, the MARD staff can also obtain
some "sense" of the values and attitudes towards rural development of
the student. What could really be an innovation to the system would be
the taking of the Myers-Briggs Personality Indicator (Myers-Briggs,
1976) to enable the student to monitor his progress, as well as prcmote
closer interaction with fellow students. The Myers Briggs process gives
the student some insights of himself, i.e., tells him whether he is more
of an introvert or extrovert, uses his intuition more than his senses in
dealing with his enviroment, inclined towards being more judgerental,
and more of a thinker, etc.. Other tests, such as those that require
identification of key concepts in rural development management, can
likewise be employed to determine training needs.

One very important source of data at the planning stage would be
the students' organization. Through their letters of recommendations,
we can get a "glimpse" of their expectations for the student and
training needs (more so if the student is enjoying a scholarship).

Data will be collected, likewise, during the entire course of the
educational program pertaining to subject-matter content and methods
(this is institutionalized for all courses offered by the University).
They usually focus on course content improverent as well as methodology.
The most common tool for doing this is a questionnaire that has both
specific and (pen—ended questions. This type of evaluation focuses on

the process of education for both the student and the teacher. It is

101

basically a stage for assessment whether objectives are being currently
met.

At the end of the program, two types of evaluation will be
designed. One evaluation will be done immediately following the

corpletion of all the requirerents for graduation; the other is a tracer

study that will focus on the student and his organization

ENaluative Criteria

 

The objectives described earlier (i.e., knowledge, skills, and

 

attitude change) will be evaluated using the criteria formulated by

 

Malcolm Knowles and erployed by Youker (1982) :

1. reaction (student feelings):
2. learning (ability to perform);
3. behavior (on the job): and

4. results (organizational performance) (see Figure l) .

Reaction evaluation involves gathering data about how the students
are responding to the educational program as it takes place, i.e. , what
they like and don't like the most or least (positive and negative
feelings). These data can be obtained through group discussions,
interviews, and questionnaires conducted at the end of individual
courses and at the end of the program.

Learning evaluation involves gathering data about the principles,
facts, and techniques acquired by the student. This involves using
pre—tests and post-test measures designed to measure gains resulting

from the learning experiences. Performance tests are indicated for

102

skill learning, e.g., project writing, interviewing for staffing,
handling conflict situations, etc. . Standardized "information recall"
tests or problem-solving exercises can be used to gauge knowledge.
Attitude learning can be measured by devices such as attitudinal scales,
role playing, and simulations.

Behavior evaluation involves gathering data aboat actual changes in
what the student does after the training program as compared with
before. Some sources of this kind of data include: productivity or
time-motion studies, observation scales (for use by supervisors,
collegues, and subordinates), self-rating scales, diaries, interview
schedules, and questionnaires.

Result evaluation involves gathering data usually found in the
routine records of the organization, e.g., records on costs, efficiency
grievances, absences or tardiness et . . Data from program and ccmrunity
leaders is also included and is valuable.

It is important to remember that the main difficulty in evaluation
is sufficiently controlling the variables to be able to demonstrate that
it was the training that is mainly responsible for any changes that have
occurred. It is, therefore, recomended that control groups be used.

Newstrom (1978) has presented a framework as depicted in Figure 2
as a guide to how often evaluation should be conducted, the value of

information, and the difficulty of assessment of the above criteria.

103

 

Criterion WUE OF HELP FREQUENCY OF USE DIFFICULTY OF ASSESSVIENT

 

 

 

Reaction lowest Relatively Frequent Relatively Easy
learning

Behavior

Results Highest Relatively Infrequent Relatively Difficult

 

Figure 2. The Newstrom (1978) Evaluation Framework.

Evaluation Process

 

Before the formal admission of a student into the program, a summer
workshop is necessary as a pre—evaluation phase conducted by the staff.
In this phase, the objectives, requirements, outlines, methods, and
materials of the program are made known. Prospective students will be
exposed to some tests measuring their aptitude, interests, and
qualifications for the educational program.

During the program, periodic evaluations (at the end of each
semester) will be conducted to correct any problems. Basically, they
will check on the achievement of course objectives and methods. This

will be conducted by the staff and students.

104

Upon completion of the program, the student will be evaluated to
measure his learning and to identify changes in the curriculum,
methodology, materials, and staff performance. Again, this will be
accotplished by the students and the staff.

After two and five years respectively, the evaluation will again be
conducted to determine behavioral change and to change the future colrse
of the program. Staff members or a student working for a dissertation
can do this activity. Interested outsiders or agencies can also be
tapped for evaluation. Basically, the graduate's supervisors will be
interviewed, the graduate sent a survey-questionnaire, and a tracer
study utilized. During this phase of evaluation, the student will be
asked whether the knowledge and skills he has acquired as a result of
education has been useful. His response will be validated by his

immediate superiors .

Using Evaluation Results
The process of evaluation is continous and is made dynamic and
meaningful through the feedback process. An example of such a process
is presented in Table 4. Throughout the course of the program,
evaluation is conducted to ascertain whether objectives are being met or
need reformulation. Such a process attempts to harmonize student needs ,
organization needs, and education program needs .
Nadler's 1977 model adapted by Youker (1979), is useful to look at
in terms of the evaluation process and can be adapted for use by MARD.
Such a model provides for continous use of data from the evaluation

process towards program improvement .

105

 

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106

Conclusion
The evaluation model just presented needs to be validated. mat has
been attempted so far is the fashioning of a broad framework for
evaluation which requires fleshing out by the rest of MARD's staff.
What is significant is that, at this point, there is a plan (as
presented here), regarding how the evaluation of the MARD program could

be undertaken.

CHAPTERVII

THE EDUCATION OF RURAL DEVELOHdENT MANAGERS IN PERSPECTIVE

The purpose of this Chapter is to: 1) summarize the main findings
of the study: 2) present conclusions and implications of such findings;
3) present the limitations of the study; and 4) present policy and
research recommendations directed towards the improvement of management

education and training of middle-level rural development managers .
Summary

Study Purposes and Objectives

 

To recapitulate, this study has been undertaken with the purpose of
improving the managerial capabilities, through management education, of
current and future field implementors/middle-level rural develOpment
managers. Specifically, the purposes were to:

1. identify the training needs of middle-level managers of rural
developrent programs:

2. propose a curriculum design intended to strengthen the
master ' 3 program in rural development management at UPLB;

3. develop an evaluation proposal for managetent education that
can be applied to UPLB; and

4. propose future research suggestions--intended to improve the
current program, as well as to further knowledge in management
education and training.

This involved: the identification of middle-level rural
development managers in the Philippines: the identification of the
important concepts, ideas, skills and attitudes that have to be

incorporated into the educational design, and the determination of how

the training program should be conducted and evaluated.

107

108

To accomplish the above objectives, the following activities were
undertaken:

1. Past and current literature on the tasks and roles of field
implementors of rural development were reviewed (with an
emphasis on the Philippines);

2. Through the literature review, important concepts, skills, and
attitudes that shoild be incorporated in a curriculum design
were identified:

3. Management education models were examined, including that of
UPIB, thereby evolving a model to strengthen it; and

4. An evaluation model was proposed that is applicable to the
UPLB educational program.

Findings /Observations

 

The study reinforces the observation that, the concept of
development has changed, i.e., from definitions that centered solely on
economic terms to a more holistic and interdisciplinary concept,
involving social and political gains on an individual or collective
basis. Thus, no longer is develOpment measured strictly in terms of
increases in the Gross National Product (GNP), but also reflects a
concern for the degree to which wealth is distributed evenly among a
broad spectrum of society.

Corollary to the above finding is that in most develcping nations,
the Philippines included, are adopting the integrated strategy towards
rural deveIOpment as part of over-all national development strategy.
This strategy is perceived as the best means to achieve the goals of
development as defined today.

The study also doomented the lack of, and an increased desire for,
citizen participation in the planning, implerentation, and evaluation of
development projects. The study itself makes a case for citizen

participation as a necessary ingredient for program and project success.

109

The study shows that currently there is no position called "Rural
Developrent Manager" or a position description for a person involved in
such activities. It has been observed, however, that middle-level
managers are often project managers or persons assigned on detail duty
as project managers.

A very significant finding of the study is that the rural
development manager has three areas of equal, often conflicting concern
namely: the community, his agency, and the project. The knowledge,
skills and attitudes required of a rural development manager identified
in the study are derived from these areas of concern.

The curriculum design model of education best suited for MARD, as
shown in this study, is the 7-step curriculum process using an
andragogical approach. This model contains features that are consistent
with current findings in the field of training managers for rural
development.

A final point that can be drawn from the study is that the
administrative culture is a crucial variable in the training of rural
managers. Specifically, the selection of the concepts, skills, and
attitudes of a rural development manager should be largely relevant to
the administrative ollture.

Most developing countries have been forced to adopt the colonial
system of administration. As such, the structures and processes that
are present carry the cultural assurptions of the colonizer's society.
Management concepts and principles from the west have been constantly
used to sustain such structures and processes. This phenorenon usually
leads to a "split-level" type of administration that does not really

give way to the rediscovery of traditional modes of management.

110

Conclusions and Implications

An important conclusion, also an imperative, that can be drawn from
the study is the need to train current and future rural development
managers in the newer conceptions on development, specifically, rural
development and the integrated approach.

The above conclusion heavily implies the need for goverment and
national leaders of Third World nations to understand this change and
reﬂect such an understanding in the formulation of government policies.
The design and implerentation of programs and projects, for example,
must reflect the broader and multiple objectives of development.
Without an overarching policy or set of policies designed to reflect
commitment to develOpment goals, the training of managers would be an
exercise in futility. Another far reaching implication is for
educational institutions to reflect such an orientation in their
curriculum. College students, upon completion of their education, must
have an understanding of the multi-faceted nature of man and society,
realize the merit behind simultaneous and equal development of its
components, as well as develop integrating and synthesizing views of
man, society and techrology.

The above implications are likewise relevant to the successful
implerentation of an integrated approach to rural development . Such an
approach requires training in coordination and integration. This
further implies the necessity for administrative reform, specifically,
structural transformation of the bureaucracy and a restructuring of the

present methods of delivery of goods and services.

111

Another conclusion that can be drawn from the study is that the
rural developnent manager needs to be traimd in community development
techniques and processes. This demands a personal ccmmittment, as well
as an inclination, from the manager to believe that only through the
development of a community's capability to decide for itself can
development be meaningful and truly achieved. Such a commitment should
be developed during the training program if initially absent and shonld
be visible if not felt at this stage. This further implies that
government and national leaders should be truly visible with their
commitment towards more citizen participation.

In support of previously stated conclusions, there is also a need
to define, in a position description, the tasks of a middle-level
project manager. This implies that the government should establish such
a position description and determine how such managers can be
incorporated into an already existing pool of higher career civil
servants. This move would further professionalize middle-level
managers.

Another conclusion that can be drawn from the study is the need to
train managers as generalists. Such an orientation and training is
needed considering the three areas of his concerns. It is possible for
sore managers, by virtue of their position or mission, to be either
maintenance—oriented or developmental. Yet, the desired breed of
manager is one who would be able to perform a delicate balancing act,
i.e., between his areas of concern that may be in conflict or within an
area that may have conflicting goals. Thus, the training of managers
imply not only producing specialists in eadn of the areas of concern but

generalists in the management of such areas, given complementary or

112

conflicting goals. This implies the generation of more knowledge about
how the managers can perform such a conplexity of functions. It further
implies the design of stronger incentives to motivate the managers to
perform well under these extrerely difficult and confusirng situations.
This further implies a well-thought system of coordinated research and
information among universities and training institutions, both locally
and internationally.

Another conclusion that can be drawn is that the training of
managers shonld be well grounded on the model used in the study. The
model, as designed, incorporates both the conceptual and empirical
aspects of curriculum developtent. This allows for conceptual irputs as
dictated by the field of study and student inputs.

The adoption of the model requires the pooled efforts of the MARD
training staff as well as that of the University. The necessity of
having an evaluation design, other than what currently exists has been
argued strongly. Resonrces have to be marshalled and organized for the
type of instruction model prescribed. Nbst resources are geared toward
the pedagogical approach and are therefore ill-suited to the
andragogical model proposed in this study. Trainers have to be trained
in such an approach and students have to be likewise educated. In a
culture that respects authority, the andragogical approach could be
threatening to administrators and students .

The study has also shown that the rural development manager is
quite different from his western counterpart in outlook, goals,
technology, and environment. Therefore, a final conclusion that can be
drawn from the study is the need to train managers with concepts,

skills, and attitudes that are indigenous to him. This strongly implies

113

that the transferability of western managerent concepts and principles
should be seriously questioned by those institutions engaged in
managetent education or training. Furthermore, that awareness of the
importance of administrative culture as an important variable in
managerent training should be promoted. Filipino administrators and
intellectuals, for example, must rediscover indigenous value and belief
systets and deronstrate how they can be made relevant to the managerial

process .

Limitations

There are three ways by which a study of this nature could have
been conducted, i.e., largely conceptual, wholly empirical, or a
combination of both. The design of a curriculum requires the
comnbination of both erpirical and conceptual approaches in order to be
meaningful. Thus, while the conceptual approach would focus on the
strength of the disciplines, the design would be validated (or fine
tuned) by the clients or students using the empirical approach. The
study has been largely conceptual due to a number of familiar
constraints, i.e., time and money.

The instances of success in the workplace using the model presented
in this study has not been adequate. There has been no exhaustive study
pointing to the fact that a curriculum design of the nature proposed in
this study has resulted in behavioral change among workers .

Then, there is the problem of the field itself, i.e., there is no
agreerent on terminology and system of coordination within arnd among the
different disciplines. This makes the task of synthesizing materials a

major effort in itself.

114

Recomrendations
First of all, it is important to realize that it is difficult to
suggest systematic solutions toward the improvement of managerial
capacity in rural development management aronnd the world. Conditions
may vary greatly from one country to another; considerable regional
differences also exist. Therefore, the recomendations that will be
made have to be taken in their appropriate context .

There are two types of recomendations that can be made as a result
of the study. One pertains to the improvetent of research and training
of middle-level rural develqnment managers. The other pertains to how
the present management of rural development can be improved. The

following are the recomendations :

1. Future studies on the subject could be improved if field
managers, (in the Philippines, for example) are surveyed. A comparative
survey of field managers from other develqaing countries woﬂd also be
an improvetent. This recommendation fulfills the earlier need for the
conduct of a more meaningful study by combining both theoretical and
empirical approaches toward client needs identification. Oonsequent ly,
the evaluation design presented in this study can be made more

meaningful through validation.

2. Research is needed in the area of community management or
indigenous management systems in the developing comtries. Researchers
should observe and document, for example, how local people manage

cormunity affairs (such as a fiesta).

115

3. Research is needed on how integrated programs and projects
could be better coordinated. Toward this end, MARD staff and students,
for example, can make proposals to conduct evaluation research for
agencies with rural development projects. This, incidentally, provides
opportunities for growth and learning to the trainers of the educational
program as well. Assignment to a ministry or an on-going project,
either as consultant or case writer, would likewise help achieve both

objectives .

4. There should be a system of information sharing among and
between agencies, private or public, involved in management education
and training. Trainers arnd training institutions must make each other
aware of improvements in the quality of materials and teaching

methodologies of management subjects. Seminars and newsletters for the

above purposes conld immediately be started.

5. There is a need to discover, for most developing countries at
least, an indigenous philosophy of development. Mast of the concepts on
development, as articulated by the leaders of the third world, are
echoes of western ideals. Such a philosophy that need to be evolved
should contain elements from the past as well as current realities.
Thus, attitudes about techrology and the economy should be rethought
along the lines of "small is beautiful". The spiritual dimensions of
development likewise needs to be explored and discussed. Towards these
ends, scholars of a country should pool their efforts toward identifying
indigernous values and seeing how they can be logically arranged with

present realities to constitute a philosophy of develcpment.

116

6. There is a need for a carefully crafted public policy that
focuses on the development of strong and capable decision-making
comunities. The goverments of develcping comtries can, for instance,
build into the design of any public program the requiretent of having a
citizen participation scheme as well as a strong evaluation mechanism.
Such a policy would deronstrate the sincerity of the government to share

its broad powers with the people. Such a visual commitment conld

likewise inspire public servants toward serving the public.

7. It has been a bias of this paper that rural development
managers conld, in very significant ways, spéed the pace of development.
By virtue of their position alone, they could effect significant changes
with the goal of strengthening comunities. It is necessary that they
concentrate on building model communities that can be replicated in
other areas of the comtry. Their approach should be the strengthening
of the decision-making capabilities of a cormunity withont resorting to
the conflict approach with the powers that be. Experience has shown
that projects that are economic in nature help communities develop their
capability to decide things for themselves. The change agent should
therefore utilize this as an approach to impart techniques for

decision-making.

Final Contents
There is increasing awareness of the importance of political will
as a factor for rural development success. Indeed, in most deve10ping
comtries, the political and administrative leaders control the vast

resources required for a successful transformation of the rural areas.

117

It is therefore appropriate to say that development could be effected
with the help of these leaders. Conversely, they are also responsible
for its failures.

There is a strong possibility that most of the recommendations
made in this paper cannot be implemented in some, if not most,
countries. Mentioned earlier were differences in culture and
environment as well as development priorities. Devolution of power,
decentralization, and citizen.participation are issues that most leaders
are sensitive to: it can mean the gradual decline of power. It is
usually something to pay "lip service" to, but not actually desire.

Yet, if developing countries are to "catch up" with the:
industrialized nations, leaders must be willing to experiment with
these concepts and utilize indigenous resources to resolve issues in

favor of their people.

APPENDICES

Appendix A .

 

   
   
  

 

   
  
   

W

 

“ﬁlial
'9‘ W \ "mum:

’— /

 

 

Appendix:

Concepts

—Central to
Community
Development—

(in “Community Development
Concepts, Curriculum Training
Needs, a task force report to
the Extension Committee on
Organization and Policy,
National Association of State
Universities and Land—Grant
Colleges. University of
Missouri-Columbia, MP—424)

'l‘hc pruclicc ol‘ communin dcvclopnncnl I\
guidcd by ccrIuin Iimc-provcn conccpls l‘hc
mos! rclcvnnl ol‘ Ihcxc nrc dcscnhcd in llII\
scclion‘

All communily dcvclopmcnl workcrs should
have in good general undcrslmnding ol‘ each ol'
the conccpls discussed in Ihis scclion. 'l'hmc
specializing in u speciﬁc licld of community
dcvclopmcnl will also wmnI un in-dcplh undo:
slunding ol' sclcclcd conccpls. ()Ihcr pcrsons.
such as community leaders and conccrncd L'lll-
Lcns wiIh 1m inlcrcsI in Ihc dcvclopmcm of
Ihcii' communin. will sznI lo gain in gcncrul
undcrslunding of sclcclcd conccpls‘

COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT

Community

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mcnslons To some ll dcnolcs .u \pullm uc'n
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119

only spatial boundaries in common to those
which consist of a commonality of interest
among persons living in widely-dispersed loca-
tions.

To the layman. a community is the place
where people live. work. play. go to school and
church. buy the things they need. and interact
with each other in a variety ofways. Not many
years ago. people did all ofthese things within
a well-defined geographic area. Today, people
may live in one community, go to school or
church in another, make their purchases in
several, and work and play in still other com-
munities.

The concept of a community implies one or
more groups of people interrelating for the at—
tainment of goals in which they share a com-
mon concern. A new village water system, for
example, may involve but a few dozen blocks
and less than a hundred families. But a special-
ized health facility. may involve several coun-
ties and several hundred thousand citizens.
Hence, the definition of the community de-
pends upon the nature of the concerns which
people have in common. Another way of
stating this concept is that the issue or con-
cern defines the community. The community
development professional needs to understand
this concept in order to apply the appropriate
model to a given situation.

Development

Development is the process of progressive
change in attaining individual and community
interests or goals. Development can occur
through increased knowledge, understanding
and skills; additional resources; or a better aI-
location of existing resources. From an eco-
nomic view-point, development is generally
measured in such terms as per capita income,
investments, and income distribution. Socially
and culturally, it is measured in terms of quality
of living, institutional and organizational struc-
tures, accessibility to those structures by citi-
zens, and increases in the range of choices.

Community Development Process

The Community development process in-
volves an open system of decision making
whereby those comprising the community. use
democratic and rational means to arrive at
group decisions and to take action for en-
hancing the social and economic well-being of
the community.

'l‘hc process is predicted on the following
pi‘cniisesz'

l. People are capable of rational behavior.
2 Signiﬁcant behavior is learned behavior.

.1. Significant behavior is learned through
interaction.

4. People are capable of giving direction to
their behavior.

5. People are capable ofcreating. reshaping
and inﬂuencing their environment.

The process is based upon the following philo-
sophical values and beliefs:

I. People have the right to participate in
decisions which have an effect upon their
well-being.

I‘x)

. Participatory democracy is the superior
method ofconducting community affairs.

3. People have the right to strive to create
the environment which they desire when
it does not infringe upon the rights of
others.

4. People have the right to reject an ex-
ternally-imposed environment.

5. Maximizing human interaction in a com-
munity will increase the potential for
human development.

6. Implicit within the process of interaction
is an ever-widening concept of com-
munity.

7. Every discipline and/or profession is
potentially a contributor to a commu-
nity's development process.

8. Motivation is created in humans by as-
sociation with their environment. includ-
ing mankind.

.9. Community development as a field of
practice is concerned with developing the
ability of people to deal with their en-
vironment.

 

'These Community Development premises, values and
beliefs are elaborated upon more fully by Don Littrell
in his publication. The Theory and Prut'ti't'i' uf(‘miimimi'tr
Development. Extension Division. University of Mis-
souri. Columbia.

120

The process involves the following ele-
ments:

Cooperation the deliberate effort of people
to work together to achieve common goals.

 

Conﬂict—a natural outgrowth of people
dealing with social. economic. and political
issues. Conflict can be directed into productive
channels and used as a real learning-reasoning
process.

 

Stratification the natural interests. values.
beliefs. abilities and societal and economic
positions of people having differing life styles.
experiences. and expectations. It can produce
differences of opinion and conflict but can also
be a major element of “cross-fertilization“ of
ideas. skills, beliefs. and values. As such. it can
produce a superior product in community de-
velopment.

Representationz—implies that the group
representative is recognized by his constit-
uency as a legitimate spokesman. It does not
imply that anyone from a social. economic, or
ethnic group can say that he "represents" the
group. The key element of representation is
that the constituency selects its representative
internally rather than having its “representa-
tive" selected externally.

 

Participation“ involves having a voice in
decision making as it evolves. not after de-
cisions are made. It means that everyone has
equal right to participate in decisions affecting
them. It also means that the community has a
moral obligation to assure and to encourage
equal access to decision making to as wide a
cross section of the community as possible.
Participation implies that both the “pros" and
the ”cons" on any issue are equally legitimate.
The end result of such interaction is improved
decisions if measured in terms ofwhat the com-
munity desires.

Compromise—involves giving up something
or modifying a position in order to gain some-
thing ofhigher value. Groups and communities
are comprised of individuals of varying in-
terests. thus complete consensus is seldom
achieved. In contrast to consensus. com-
promise recognizes that individuals and groups
with differing interests can work effectively
together without being wholly in agreement.

 

’For a more detailed discussion of representation and
participation see Hahn, Alan I tin/ens in local
l’olitics: Nonl’ai'ticipalion and llnicpieseiitatioii."
Journal of the (ummumtv Ili‘l‘t’lit/Iltlt'lll \Htlt’lt Vol
l. No. 2. Fall. I970 ((‘olumbia. Mi. (Humanity l)e

velopmenl Society)

Inﬂuence seeks to modify contrasting in-
terests to reach a working compromise. It
is in sharp contrast to "power” which attempts
to control behavior or resources.

 

Holistic View of Community—-emphasizes
the functional and organic relationships among
cultural. social, physical, political. and eco-
nomic interests which comprise the com-
munity. This view recognizes that changes in
one area of community life affect other areas
and that the total effect of proposed changes
should be critically analyzed as a part of the
community development process.

Integration Generally. agencies and or-
ganizations function according to their special-
ities. Each has its unique competence and ob-
jectives in some particular sector of com-
munity life. The holistic approach encourages
them to integrate their plans and activities
together into the ongoing planning and activi-
ties of the communities they are attempting
to serve. Thus, each contributes according to
its interest and ability.

 

Non-Directive Approach involves helping
people decide for themselves what their needs
are and assisting them in a rational decision-
making process to determine what. ifanything.
can be done to satisfy these needs. It is in
direct contrast to persuading people to accept a
solution or a course of action imposed by an
outside ”authority.“

 

 

Decision Making is the rational process of
defining a situation. establishing a solution.
and implementing it. It involves analysis ofthe
situation (problem or opportunity). analysis of
alternative solutions. and establishment of
goal(s) and priorities through fact finding.
study, establishment ofan agreed-upon course
of action. implementation of this action. and
evaluation ofthe outcome in terms ofthe goal.
Decisions are made in each step ofthe process.
and the process is inherent in each of these
steps.

Community development is a continuous
process and not a trouble-shooting operation
directed only at solving immediate problems.
It seeks (through practical learning situations)
to increase the competence ofcitizens to deal
with both present and future issues. It is an
educational process in which people learn by
“doing the things that need to be done and
which they wish to do." Development implies
movement or steady improvement rather than
only spasmodic activity associated \\ ith "prob-
lem solving.” Community development is an
on-going effort. No community ever really

121

"arrives." There is no good stopping point,
and continuity is a natural outgrowth of the
community development process.

In summary, the community development
process brings people interested and con-
cerned about an issue together to study and
act upon the issue at whatever level at which
decision making is necessary. It involves co-
operation, participation. representation, con-
flict, compromise and inﬂuence. and often
includes stratification. It recognizes the valid-
ity of different values, interests, and the
holistic nature of community issues.

Sources of additional information relating to
these concepts include the following:

References: Batten. T. R. and Madge, The
Non-Directive Approach in Group and Com-
munity Work, Oxford University Press.
London, I967.

Cary, Lee, Community Development as a
Process, University of Missouri Press,
Columbia, Missouri. I970. 213 pp.

Hahn, op. cit.
Littrell, op. cit.

Phifer, Bryan and List. Fred. Community De-
velopment: A New Dimension of Extension,
University of Missouri. Columbia, Mo., l97l.

3] pp.

Sanders, erin T.. The Community. Ronald
Press, New York City. I966. pp. 504 - 523.

Wallace, L. T.. and others, ECOP Report,
Community Resource Development, Federal
Extension Service. Washington. D. C.. I968.

Warren, Ronald L.. Community Action and
Community Development. Rand McNally.
Chicago, Illinois. 1963, pp. 303 - 339.

Wileden. Arthur. Cmnmunit)’ Development—

The Dynamics ofP/ttnned ('hunge, Bedminster
Press, Totowa, New Jersey. I970. 306 pp.

LEARNING CONCEPTS

Behavioral Change

BehaVIoral change. \\ lictliei in iiidivnluals oi
groups. is a change It) thinking feeling oi
atCIitm. Sttclt change mas also he tlelinctl as .i

change in knowledge iiiideistamling or skills.

Behavioral change is a manifestation of new or
increased inﬂuence on the individual or group.

Early work in the field of behavioral change
grew largely out of psychology. More recently
sociology and socio-psychology, as well as
anthropology, have contributed to the study
and understanding of behavioral change, es-
pecially in the area of group relationships
and group behavior.

At least two institutions offering masters
degrees in community development include in
their curriculums one or more courses in group
behavior and interpersonal relations. These
are studied in the context of community de-
velopment work. Community development
workers must be familiar with all the subtleties
of individual behavior and group processes if
they are to help groups realize their full poten-
tial.

The concept of behavioral change is basic to
the community development eﬁ'ort. Develop«
ment itself implies change. Therefore, change
—in a desired direction—is greatly sought
after and highly prized by the professional
community developer.

An example of behavioral change might be
drawn from the typical school financing crisis
in which bond issues have been consistently
voted down by the people. Finally, the school
board may decide, through a series of public
meetings, to involve citizens in open discus-
sion of the issues. The discussions are not de-
signed to ”sell“ the public on the school
board‘s position. but rather for the citizens to
get answers to questions on which there has
been misunderstanding.

Out of this new environment of mutual
searching comes a compromise proposal
which, while not enthusiastically received. is
acceptable to all. When the revised measure
is voted upon, it carries, because. in a sense.
the citizens have helped to frame it. Both the
school board and the voting public behaved
quite differently after having to take each
other into account. Establishing the conditions
in which this “meeting of the minds" can
take place is the work of the community de-
veloper—whether the “meeting" is between
individuals or between groups.

lt’ti/I'H'm t‘\ \IPHC. Mlelittt‘l. “it Put hit/«'L‘i
U/ lnIi-i/n'rmnul lit'liut'mr. Penguin Books
('ox and Wynian. lfl'l). lotidon. l-iiglantl

122

Lippitt, Ronald and others. Dynamics of
Planned Change. Harcourt Brace and Com-
pany, New York, I958.

MacGregor, Douglas. The Human Side of

Enterprise. McGraw Hill Book Co., New
York, I960.
Stogdill, Ralph, Individual Behavior and

Group Achievement, Oxford Press. New

York, I959.

The Teachable Moment

The concept of the teachable moment points
out that real learning is based upon the per-
ceived need of the Ieamer. Facts can be taught
in the abstract, but they are only learned when
the learner feels the need to apply them to his
own situation. Thus, to try to teach principles
of community development when there is no
perceived need on the part of the learners be-
comes only an exercise—not a learning ex-
perience.

The teachable moment usually occurs after
the learners have gone through the process of
identifying a felt need and feel the need for
additional knowledge or skill to deal with the
situation. It is at this point that the community
development worker can best teach the subject
matter appropriate to help the learners analyze
the situation. weigh alternatives, and arrive
at group decisions.

Regardless ofone‘s background. the motiva-
tion to learn based upon a perceived need
is the strongest influence in learning. The con-
cept of the teachable moment is derived from
education and psychology and evidenced
through observation of real-life learning ex-
periences. It is especially relevant to adult ed-
ucation since adults do not have the peer pres-
sure or motivation for learning that the youth
in the classroom has.

The concept ofthe teachable moment is es-
sential to education in community develop-
ment. In its simplest terms. it means starting
with the learners (audience) where they are and
moving to larger community considerations as
the learners perceive the need to relate their
felt need to other factors influencing this need.

References: Brunner. DeS.. and others. An

()vervieii' of Adult lidmation Research,
Chicago. Adult Education Association of
U.S.A.

HaVighursl. Robert J.. Human Here/opment
and Education. New York. l.ogmans, (irec.
and Co., I953.

Powell. John Walker. Learning Comes onge.
New York. Association Press. I956.

Pressey. S. L., and Kuhlen, R. (3.. Psy-
chological Development Through the Life
Span. New York. Harper and Bros., I957.

Diffusion and Adoption

The diffusion process is a concept which
helps to explain the experiences individuals
have in learning about and accepting new
ideas. practices, skills, and attitudes. Research
on this concept has provided useful knowledge
on the major sources of information people use
in various stages of the process, the rate of
adoption of new knowledge or skills among the
general population and among specific groups
of people, and the ﬂow or diffusion of in-
formation from one group to another.

Information on the diffusion process has
come largely from anthropology and sociology,
particularly rural sociology. The model des-g
cribed here is based upon more than 35 re-
search studies and brought together into a use-
ful conceptual framework by the Subcom-
mittee for the Study of the Diffusion of New
Ideas and Practices ofthe North Central Rural
Sociology Committee. This work was first
published by George M. Beal and Joseph
Bohlen of Iowa State University. Many sub-
sequent research studies on the subject have
since been published. Outside of the field of
rural sociology. Katz and Lazarsfeld are per-
haps the best known students of the diffusion
process—especially in the field of medicine.
where their findings largely verify those related
to the diffusion of agricultural technology.

The diffusion process and its practical use
has particular usefulness to community de-
velopment workers in understanding the char-
acteristics of those who are generally most
receptive to new ideas. those less receptive.
and how others regard innovators. early adop-
ters, the early majority. the majority. and non-
adopters. The concept appears to have value
in understanding community attitudes and re-
ceptiveness to change. It also provides insights
into informal teaching methods most ap-
propriate for persons ofdifferent social charac-
teristics.

The utility ofthe concept to Extension com-
munity development workers is threefold. It
helps them:

I. To have a better knowledge and under-
standing of the stages people go through

.123

as individuals in adopting or accepting
new ideas and practices;

is)

. To recognize the difference in various
groups of people in relation to the dif-
fusion process: their characteristics. rate
of acceptance of ideas. and main sources
of information;

3. To better understand the educational
_ methods to use in reaching and influenc-
ing particular audiences.

References: Rogers. Everett. Diffusion of In-
novations, The Free Press, I962.

The Diffusion Process. Special Report No. I8,
Agricultural Extension Service, Iowa State
University, I959.

Katz, Elihu, and Lazarsfeld, Paul, Personal
Inﬂuence, The Free Press, I955.

Lionberger, Herbert F.. Adoption of New
Ideas and Practices. Iowa State University
Press, I96I.

The Science of Human Communication, Edi-
ted by Wilbur Schramm. Basic Books. New
York. I963.

Problem Solving

The problem-solving process provides a
logical sequence of steps for analyzing situa-
tions, arriving at rational decisions, and carry-
ing out action. The problem-solving process
centers around the decision-making process.
Schein distinguishes two basic cycles of activ-
ity—one which occurs prior to an actual de-
cision and one which occurs following a de-
cision to take a particular action.” The first
cycle that leads to a decision consists of:

I. problem formulation (getting the idea);

2. generating alternative solutions (gather-
ing data);

3. analyzing the consequences of alternative
solutions (weighing alternatives).

In most problem-solving situations, a critical
step in the process is that of problem formu-
lation or identification. A considerable amount
of diagnosis often is required to separate prob-

 

1'Schein. Edgar H.. Process Consultation: Its Role in
Organization Development. Addison-Wesley Publishing
Company. Reading Massachusetts. I969. Chapter 5.

Iems from symptoms. Hence. decision makers
must have a clear understanding ol the particu-
lar goals and objectives that are being pursued.

The second cycle follows the decision to
take action and involves the followmg steps:

I. Planning for action.
2. Implementing the action.

3. Evaluating the outcomes (which might
lead back to the initial step of problem
formulation).

Effective communication is of particular im-
portance in group problem solving and must
be established and maintained in order to ar-
ticulate community problems, to arrive at
rational decisions. and to carry out appropriate
action.

SOCIOLOGICAL CONCEPTS

A staff member functioning in community
development needs to think about and under-5
stand the environment within which he works
and to know how to effectively cope with that
environment in order to instigate change. The
task of helping people to plan for and obtain
desired goals of their community is facilitated
by understanding the conceptual framework of
the social system and by applying these con-
ceptual skills to a model of planned change.

A model of planned change might include the
following phases:

I. To map relevant social systems.

2. To initiate ideas through one or more
systems.

3. To secure legitimation for ideas.

4. To diffuse ideas to the larger social sys-
tems.

5. To plan for objectives.

6. To take action to obtain objectives.

7. To evaluate outcomes.
These sociological concepts help people to
close the gap between “what is“ and “what
ought to be" in their communities.

The sociologist focuses on group behavior:

the relationships among individuals as they in-
teract to accomplish group goals. In fact. any

124

society consists of the arrangements that peo-
ple in a circumscribed geographic location in-
herit or generate to solve their common prob-
Iems. They develop institutions to collectively
carry out programs and activities. Sociologists
have developed a body of concepts to aid in
understanding and predicting these relation-
ships among people, to understand how people
organize themselves to solve common prob-
lems, and how groups adapt to various en-
vironments. Hence, sociology is a science of
group behavior. The social engineer who at-
tempts to assist in bringing about social change
should understand various sociological con-
cepts which will sensitize him to group be-
havior and provide insight to variables which
inﬂuence the outcome of group efforts.

It is readily apparent that a group can be
viewed in terms of several frames of reference:
as a population of individuals. as a system of
authority, as a system of likes and dislikes.
as a system of communication or diffusion of
information, or in terms of group maintenance
or group goals. The concept which combines
these major frames of reference is the social
system model.

Social System

A social system is a conceptual model of
social organization designed to help one visu-
alize that certain human collectives or groups
are systems whose parts are interdependent
and which, as unities. are in turn interlinked
with one another through mutual dependen-
cies. The prerequisites for a social system
are two or more people in interaction, directed
toward attaining a goal, and guided by patterns
of structure and shared symbols and expecta-
tion. Society is viewed as a social system,
made up ofcomponent groups and subsystems.
and functioning through a series of operations
necessary for its survival (recruitment of new
members, boundary maintenance. communi-
cation, allocation of power, resources, and
prestige). A social system must adjust to
internal and external changes if it is to keep
its identity and its ability to accomplish its
goals and to compete with other systems which
might challenge it. Each part is related to
another part and the system as a whole. Pro-
cesses can be studied in terms of their origin
within the system and their effects on the sys-
tem. Or in terms of how external changes in-
troduced into the system modify the behavior
of persons and groups within the system. The
community development worker uses the
social system model to view the structural
aspects of society as well as the social pro-
cesses.

Social systems can be identified by observ-
able patterns of behavior and interaction. The
concept applies to both large and small groups
and permits analysis of individual elements
and processes ofthe group as a totality. Social
systems can be considered as concrete. inter-
active social structures such as a family, a com-
munity group, or a local church congregation.
At a more abstract level, social systems may be
viewed as a pattern of relationships which pre-
vail from generation to generation and from
one region to another entirely apart from the
specific persons within the system. For ex-
ample, the Catholic Church could be regarded
as a social system with separate local congre-
gations making up the subsystems.

For a social system to survive or operate
with some degree of effectiveness. there are
certain minimal functional requirements.
These are: provision for biological reproduc-
tion and survival, socialization of new mem-
bers, motivation of members to carry out
socially necessary roles and maintenance of
some degree of social order.

The observable consequences of social
phenomena that results from the action of a
part or whole of a system is termed functional.
Consequences which are helpful or useful and
increase or maintain admustment or adapta-
tion to the system, are the functional conse-
quences. Consequences which are harmful or
impede the increase or maintenance of adapta-
tion or adjustment are termed dysfunctional.

The concept, social system, can be used by
the community development educator as an
analytical tool to study society and the learner.
For example, before a community develop-
ment effort is undertaken by a given com-
munity, those involved must know something
about the community. A starting point could
be a study of the community to identify its
social systems. The next step would be to
clarify the objectives of each social system.

To more adequately understand social sys-
tems, it is necessary to examine a number of
elements common to all social systems. These
elements include belief, sentiment, objectives
or ends, norms, position, role, rank, power
and sanction, territoriality and facility. These
elements comprise the structure and goal or-
ientation dimensions.

References: Bertrand, AIVin. Basic Sociology:
An Introduction to Theory and Method. Apple-
ton.

Loomis, Charles P. , Rural Social Systems and

125

Adult Education, Michigan State University
Press. I957.

Merton, Robert K., Social Theory and Social
Structure, Free Press, I968.

Monane, Joseph H.. Sociology of Human
Systems, Appleton.

Parsons, Talcott. Social Systems, Free Press,
I95l.

Social interaction

Social interaction is the reciprocal relations
between people in the social system. Social
interaction is a symbolic process conducted by
human beings who employ verbal and physical
gestures which have a special meaning. Inter-
action may be formal or informal, friendly or
antagonistic. Response of some type may be
elicited. Four characteristices of interaction
are: plurality of actors, communication be-
tween the actors by means of symbols, a dura-
tion or time dimension possessing a past, pres-
ent, and future. and some objective which
may or may not conincide with the actor or the
objective observer who studies behavior. In-
teraction may develop into several forms rang-
ing from cooperation to conflict over means
and objectives.

References: Bertrand. Alvin. op.cit.

Gouldner, Alvin W., and others, Modern
Sociology: An Introduction to the Study of
Human Interaction, Harcourt. Brace. I963.

Loomis, Charles P., op.cit.

Merrill, Francis E., Society and Culture. (3rd
ed.), Prentice-Hall, I965.

Communication

Communication is the process of transmit-
ting culture in the system. Human communica-
tion should be conveyed to a person or per-
sons so that the messages sent and received
are equivalent, that is, both the sender and
receiver have the same understanding of the
message. Only by feedback can the sender de-
termine effectiveness of communication.
Thus. communication is a two-way process.
Human communication is accomplished
through learned signs or symbols that mani—
fest the part of the culture which is referred
to as language. Language enables man to com-
municate beyond the level of feelings to that of

highly involved abstract ideas. The purposes of
communication are to inform and to motivate.
Communication involves a sender, a message,
a medium and a receiver. The sender should
recognize that the receiver responds not only
to the message, but also to the medium through
which it is sent. Communication can be face-
to-face or impersonal, using mass media such
as radio, television, newspaper, magazine, or
letter.

The concept, communication, is basic to the
leaming-teaching process. The adult educator
can use the concept of communications as the
sender through the selection of the message,
giving it effective treatment. and choosing the
methods of teaching.

References: Berlo. David K., The Process of
Communication, Rinehart and Winston Holt,
New York. I960.

Bertrand, Alvin, op. cit.

Frutchey, Fred R. ”The Learning-Teaching
Process," in H. C. Sander‘s The Cooperative ‘
Extension Service, Prentice-Hall, I966.

Reeder. R. L.. and others. A Proposed Con-
struct for Two-Way Communication in Re-
source Development, Iowa State University,
Cooperative Extension Service, Ames. I970.

Organizational
Boundary Maintenance

Organizational boundary maintenance
refers to how the system maintains its own
identify. So'me societies literally build walls
around themselves; others build symbolic
walls which keep out the norms and values
of a larger society. Boundary maintenance is
evident in groups such as the Armed Forces,
religious groups, and secret societies. The
identity of the system is maintained through
such devices as secret passwords, uniforms,
professional ties, employment status, and
tenure. It is important that the community
development educator recognize the functions
and dysfunctions of maintaining boundaries.
Also, if we are familiar with the factors form-
ing boundaries in social systems, we are in a
much better position to penetrate these social
systems with programs ofchange.

References: Bertrand, Alvin. op. cit.
Loomis, Charles P., and Beegle. J. Allan.
Rural Sociology: The Strategy of Change.
Prentice-Hall. I957.

Merrill. Francis Ii... op. cit.

126

Decision making

Decision making involves choices made
from a set of alternatives. It refers to
selecting the most desirable action to con-
tribute to the solution of a problem. The
steps in the decision-making process are:
defining the problem. collecting significant
facts, listing possible solutions, evaluating
alternatives. setting priorities, implementing
and evaluating the action.

A principal task of the community develop-
ment educator may be to help a group estimate
consequences of alternative solutions. Also he
can help the group integrate solutions rather
than compromise. The goal is to reduce avail-
able, alternative courses of action to solution
reached by consensus.

References: Loomis, Charles P., op. cit.

Wassennan, Paul, and Silander, F. S., De-
cision Making: An Annotated Bibliography,
Cornell University, I964.

Socialization

Socialization. Through it the individual ac-
quires the social and cultural heritage of his
society. It is a process of social interaction
in which the individual acquires ways ofthink-
ing. feeling, and acting essential for effective
participation within a society.

Through socialization. one becomes a func-
tioning member ofa group. In essence, one is
transformed from a separate identity into a
group member through the process of sociali-
zation.

The adult educator needs to be aware that
often inappropriate socialization results when
a person or people move from one cultural
setting to another. This is especially true when
persons move from rural areas to cities or from
one region to another; they are likely to react
in ways considered strange or deviant by
members of their new culture.

References: Bertrand, Alvin. op. cit.

Bredemeier, H. C., and Stephenson, R. M.,
Analysis of Social Systems, HR&W, I962.

Loomis, Charles P., and Beegle. J. Allan. op.
cit.

Merrill, Francis E., op. cit.

Social Control

Social control refers to the process which
limits behavior of people in social systems.
When behavior becomes deviant or intoler-
able, it is brought back into the established
limits through the exercise of sanctions.

Adult educators may use means of social
control in initiation of programs. For example,
in the community the church is an important
means of keeping its members in line. Con-
sequently, by working through the church and
getting the positive sanction of the church,
the community development educator may be
more effective in initiating and bringing about
planned change in this particular community.
Identification of organizations which can
legitimize and lend support is a required skill.

By knowing what positive sanctions are im-
portant to the group—such as praise, public
recognition, election to office—the community
development educator can exert positive pres-
sures within the community to counteract op-
position. In some areas, praise goes a long
way; in others, it is confused with flattery and
received suspiciously, especially from new-
comers. Or again putting one person in the
limelight may make others envious and less
cooperative.

To eﬁ'ectively use social control. the com-
munity development educator needs to realize
that social control mechanisms need not be
undemocratic and are necessary for communi-
ty life. The effective controls should be kept
in the hands of the followers. not surrendered
to dictatorial ambiguous leaders.

References: Bertrand, Alvin, op. cit.

La Piere, Richard T.. A Theory of Social
Control, McGraw-Hill. I954.

Martindale, Don A., American Social Struc-
ture: Historical Antecedents and Contem-
porary Analysis, Appleton, I960.

Social Change

Social change is. in a general way, a con-
tinuous process which is manifested in altera-
tions in social relationships. Social change may
start in any part of the social system through
changes in the external (pattern) of the group,
alterations in its physical environment. techni-
cal organization or even in its internal system
(pattern) and will have effects of a greater or

127

lesser order on all these. People everywhere
are constantly changing their ways. Generally.
people resist changes that appear to threaten
basic securities or changes they do not under-
stand.

The sources of change may come from
forces outside the society or from forces within
it.

Since no society is wholly integrated or com-
pletely static. there are always points of ten-
sion or strain as potential sources of change.
These strains. which are often the result of
change as well as its source. may take many
forms such as role conflict. divergent values,
social deprivation. competing interest. and the
inability to achieve socially valued goals with
the available means. They emerge from the
workings of accepted institutions and estab-
lished values or are related to various kinds
of changes already taking place at other points
in the culture or social structure.

The concept of social change can be ob-
served in the changing patterns of the emerging
American family system. The recent change
in the status of women is perhaps the most far-
reaching. This change is manifested in more
equal educational opportunities. in increasing
employment equality, and in an increase in the
range of social opportunities and contacts
for women.

Through instigated social action, social
change may be brought about that will maxi-
mize satisfactions for members ofa social sys-
tem. Social action occurs in the neighborhood,
community, formal systems. etc.

References: Beal, George M., Social Action
and Interaction in Program Planning.

Bertrand, Alvin, op. cit.

Chinoy, Ely 5., Society: An Introduction to
Sociology, rev. ed., Random, 1967.

Social Movement

A social movement is one mechanism for
bringing about change in a society. It generally
involves a group of people whose goal is to
change attitudes or behavior of the larger soci-
ety. Its main features are: a distinctive per-
spective and ideology. a strong sense of soli-
darity and idealism. and an orientation to
action. Stresses and strains in the society are
potential sources of goals for social move-

ments. Examples of social movements are:
educational programs designed to change
values and beliefs, civil rights movements.
and national socialism in pre-war Germany.
Community development workers need to be
constantly aware of social movements on the
horizon. These movements may be functional
or dysfunctional for the program.

References: Bertrand, Alvin, op. cit.
(4th ed.),

Boyardus, Emory. Sociology.
MacMilIan, I954.

Broom, Leonard, and Selznick, Philip. Princi-
ples of Sociology, Harper Row. I970.

Chinoy, Ely S.. op. cit.

Heberle, Rudolf, Social Movements: An Intro-
duction to Political Sociology. Appleton. I969.

Merrill, Francis E., op. cit.

GEOGRAPHIC CONCEPTS

Region

The word region has many meanings. But in
recent years it has been increasingly applied to
an area larger than a county and more often
a multi-county area. Some states have ad0pted
the title Regional Planning Districts for those
sub-areas of government larger than a county.

Originally the concept ofregions was largely
related to geography but represented much
larger areas than those defined above. The cur-
rent inﬂuence of economists. sociologists.
political scientists, and community developers
has been to reduce the region to an area
small enough to be traversed by its citizens
from the borders to the center in approximately
one hour by car. Such areas are organized to
encourage cooperation between various local
governments of the area and the concerned
citizens. and for the better use ofthe area‘s re-
sources. The region thus defined serves a daily
and weekly need of the people of the area for
services that cannot be provided by their in-
dividual communities.

Community developers are constantly faced
with the problem of small and often declining
populations and their need for social services
and commercial functions which can only be
provided by the pooling ofefforts to share the
cost and to provide the demand that will justify
the service.

128

While a minimum population may be neces-
sary to support a given service. it is also true
that the service must be within acceptable dis-
tance of the consumer to be of value. Thus the
hour radius from a regional center has special
significance to rural America.

References: Denney, Hugh, Decongesting
Metropolitan America: A Method for Identify-
ing Growth and Service Centers, Columbia,
University of Missouri, I972, 132 pp. illustra-
ted. .

Fox, Karl A. and Kumar, T. Krisha, Delineat-
ing Functional Economic Areas, Research and
Education for Regional and Area Develop-
ment, Iowa State Press. Ames. Iowa, I966,
pp. l3-55.

Central Place

The Central Place Theory has been inten-
sively studied by economic geographers, but
it has also received the attention of sociolo-
gists, economists and others.

Citizens have tended to establish a pattern
of social and commercial services around a
central place convenient to their common use.
In the course of history, changes in population
distribution will cause some central places to
lose their significance and others to become
more important. Unless the services are sub-
sidized by the larger society. they must adjust
to the rise or fall of populations.

Recognition of the central place in an area
with the greatest promise is necessary to en-
able the residents to concentrate limited re-
sources to produce maximum effect on an area.
A counter theory is to disperse resources
throughout an area. In either case, the com-
munity development professional and resi-
dents need to understand the significance of the
central place.

Reference: Denney, Hugh, op. cit.

Functional Area

The concept of a functional area or viable
community is that there is a certain economic
and population base necessary to provide ade-
quate public and private services, facilities,
and job opportunities for the people ofthe area.
During the early I900's less than l00 square
miles and a few thousand population provided
the necessary base in rural America fora viable

community. Today. with much higher expecta-
tions and travel ten times as fast as during the
early part ofthe century, a much larger popula-
tion and geographic area is required in the rural
areas.

It is important that those working in the area
of community development have a thorough
understanding of what is required to provide
the base necessary to support the public and
private services, facilities, and job opportuni-
ties expected by the local citizens. In addition
to knowing the base necessary to support a
viable functional economic area, it is also im-
portant to understand the alternatives for form-
ing viable communities which include: (a) co—
operation between units of government, (b)
consolidation of functions, (c) contracting of a
function.

References: Denney, Hugh, op. cit.
Fox, Karl, op. cit.

Phillips, G. Howard, and Bottom, John 8..
“Report I—Socio-Economic Activity Cen-
ters,” Ohio Appalachia Regional Community
Study, Ohio State University. Columbus.
I968. 36 pp.

POLITICAL CONCEPTS

Political Culture

Political culture consists of the patterns of
perceptions. orientations. attitudes, expecta-
tions, values and skills which are current in the
population regarding political symbols, roles.
organization, actions and other pertinent as-
pects of the political system.

Political sub-culture refers to identifiable
cultural patterns regarding political life which
are associated with special groupings. i.e.,
an ethnic group which can be differentiated
from the predominant modes of the population
taken as a whole.

The concept of culture is most closely
related to anthropology. Much work in ef-
fectively using this specialized application of
the culture concept to understand and deal
with political action. organization. and other
phenomenon depends upon anthropological
theories and information. Political scientists,
however, have been most active adapting the
concept of cultures for improved analysis of
politics and attempting to integrate political
culture into a systems framework.

129

The community development professional is
constantly involved with establishing situa-
tions and learning opportunities related to the
complex interactions among a broad range of
citizens, political officials, governmental units.
public bureaucracies. and State and Federal
programs. These interactions are substantially
conditioned by the content ofthe political cul-
ture of each segment ofthe participants. Even
the very approach of the community develop-
ment professional to his task' is connected
to the content of the political culture he him-
self has assimilated.

The concept of political culture helps bring
the dimension of attitudes and effective or-
ientations to the level ofconsciousness. Thus.
the community development professional can
take these essential elements into account and
deal with them intelligently.

In dealing with political situations. the com-
munity development professional often will
find it useful to have command of concepts
concerning some “ideal types" of political
cultures. Elazar has defined three broad types
of political cultures applicable to the United
States. These are individualistit'. moralistic.
and traditional.

I. The individualistic political culture em-
phasizes minimal government and a mini-
mum of governmental interference in the
private sector of the economy.

2. The moralistic political culture puts a

great deal of emphasis on improving the .

community or commonwealth; govern-
ment action is encouraged to accomplish
this improvement.

3. The traditionalist culture emphasizes a
strong commitment to an existing social
and political order and is primarily as-
sociated with the pre-commercial era of
the South.

Using these political cultures or various com-
binations of them, e. g.. moralistic-individual-
istic; individualistic-moralistic, provides rudi-
mentary typology helpful in understanding
the dimensions of local political culture.

References: Dohm, Richard R.. Political Cul-
ture of Missouri, Providing Public Services
Series. Extension Division, University of
Missouri-Columbia MP228, Columbia,
Missouri, l97l.

Dtihm. Richard R.. Reform/root Within; The
Development of the ('ity Administrator Form
of Government in Small Missouri ("ities.

School of Business and Public Administration.
University Extension Division. University
of Missouri-Columbia. Columbia. Missouri.
I970.

Elazar. Daniel J.. American Federalism: A
View Front the States. Thomas Y. Crowell
Company. New York, I966.

Political System Functions

The concept of political system functions
involves the notion that basic operations are
common to all political systems and that
every political system must have capacities to
perform these fundamental tasks. one way or
another. in order to remain an effective sys-
tem.

Final determination has not been made. and
probably cannot be made. as to the most ap—
propriate functions for consideration as basic
political system tasks. Though it must be con-
sidered tentative, a group of seven functions
has proven of great use in developing under-
standing of political systems operation. These
basic political system functions are discussed
below:

Political socialization and recruitment is the
process in which the population is inducted
into the political culture. The sets of attitudes.
values, feelings towards the political system as
a whole. its various roles. and the role required
of incumbents to provide a level of legiti-
macy to the political system among the politi-
cally relevant population must be communi-
cated and imparted to the people. In addition,
the political system requires some people to
participate as incumbents of roles within it.
e.g., voter, political party committeemen,
political information communicator. etc.

Interest articulation is the process of giving
expression to the concerns. needs. and de-
mands that exist within the society. This may
involve explicit formulation of claims and/or
more latent behavioral or mood clues which
are transmitted into the political system.

Interest aggregation is the process of bringing
together. combining. and accommodating
various claims and demands. This is applied to
the more inclusive level of the aggregation
process. For example. inter-actions of this
type between individuals and small groups
would most likely be considered under interest
articulation. while the drawing together of
interest in a pressure group. political party.

130

or citizens council would be considered at the
level of interest aggregation.

Political communication is involved in all func-
tions, but classifying it as a special function
is helpful in looking for political communica-
tion channels which may be diffused through-
out the system. It is such a crucial function that
a separate classification is warranted. In
modern political systems. there are often high-
Iy differentiated and specialized political com-
munication networks.

Rule making is basically similar to the tradi-
tional legislative function. However, there is
no notion that this function is restricted to
legislative bodies and formal-legal structures.

Rule application is basically similar to the tradi-
tional executive function. Like rule making,
there is no notion that rule application is re-
stricted to the formally designated officers and
organizations in the operating political system.

Rule adjudication is similar to the traditional
judicial function. Again there is no restric-
tion that this is performed only in the court
subsystems or designated quasi-judicial
agencies.

These basic political science functions are
closely associated with functionalism. Political
science has been concerned with functions in
its oldest theory. The tendency until recently
was to concentrate on the output functions,
i.e., rule making, application, and ajudication.
The greater concern with the input functions
like socialization and recruitment has come
fairly directly from anthropological and socio-
logical theory. Major anthropologists and soci-
ologists have done a great deal recently with
application of functionalism to analysis of
society and social structures.

The main help these concepts provide to the
community development professional is that
they give a framework in which to perceive
many ofthe processes in which he is involved.
The input functional categories of political
socialization-recruitment, interest articula-
tion, interest aggregation, and communica-
tion are particularly helpful because much of
the educational work in the ﬁeld relates to de-
veloping citizens‘ capacities to perform in the
system and to carry out these functions. Dif-
ferentiation of these functions conceptually
can aid in sharpening the focus of the field
education efforts.

Community development professionals are
concerned with providing opportunities to

communities to increase the level and quality
of participation on the part of the citizens. As
such. they are often engaged with a reordering
of the socialization and recruitment process
to better fit the needs ofthe citizens so they can
become better prepared for direct involvement
in the decision-making systems.

Reference: Almond, Gabriel A., “A Func-
tional Approach to Comparative Politics."
in The Politics of Developing Areas, Almond
and James Colemen, editors, Princeton Uni-
versity Press, New Jersey, I960.

Demand and Support Inputs

In a general system’s framework, the system
operation is conceived as having three basic
components: input; conversion; output. In
connection with political system, the input
component can be classified by use of the con-
cepts: demand inputs and support inputs.

Demand inputs are those types that make re-
quests upon the political system that require '
processing to produce some specific output.
For example, segments of society may:

I. demand specific allocations of goods and
services;

2. demand regulation of some specific type
of behavior;

3. demand opportunities for participation
in the political system; or

4. demand communication and informa-
tion.

Support inputs are those types that help main-
tain the system and assist it in its operations.
rather than requiring a response in the form of
an output. For example, citizens may:

I. provide material support, e.g., pay taxes;
2. obey laws and regulations;
3. participate in the system, e.g., vote;

4. give deference to public authority and
symbols.

Most disciplines have contributed to de-
velopments in the system's concepts. The
wide use ofthe system theory has provided, in
fact. a common ground that facilitates inter-
disciplinary efforts and has permitted use of
basic concepts across traditional disciplinary

131

lines. Any work done within a system frame-
work depends heavily upon all the disciplines
that have system-related concepts. The first
major development of the demand inputs and
support inputs concepts as applied in the con-
text of political system was done by a political
scientist, David Easton.

The community development professional
will be involved in controversial situations and
will be well aware of specific demands that
are being made ofthe political systems or sub-
system by particular elements of the popula-
tion. Because of the intensity and visibility
of such events. without the demand and sup-
port input concepts as tools, the professional
can easily overlook a whole and vital area of
political life—the arrangements, goods. at-
titudes, actions and energies that keep the
political system functional or contribute to
making it dysfunctional.

Community development. of course, de-
pends upon the stresses and tensions generated
by demands from citizens to provide the dy-
namics for growth toward maturity. Yet a com-
munity cannot handle the dynamics ofdevelop-
ment unless it can create and maintain a re—
sponsive. ﬂexible. and effective system of
decision making and implementation. The
political structures are often the critical sub-
systems of the community in many areas of
concern. The differentiation of support and
demand inputs helps the field worker provide
a broader and more appropriate range ofeduca-
tional experiences. It will help in creating
learning situations relative to both becoming
effective in securing specific desired outputs
and in providing the necessary resources re-
quired to maintain adequate system per-
formance.

References: Almond, Gabriel A., Powell, G.
Bingham Jr., Comparative Politics: A De-
velopmental Approach, Little, Brown and
Company, Boston. I965.

Easton. David, A Framework for Political
Analysis. Prentice-Hall. Inc. Englewood
Cliffs. New Jersey, I965.

ECONOMIC couceprs

Certain economic principles and concepts
have proven valid for use in community de-
velopment. These concepts provide useful
constructs for analysis and are essential to
rational decision making. (‘ommunity de-
velopment professionals should be familiar

with these concepts and their practical appli-
cation as tools to assist in community decision
making. These selected concepts and lists of
references are included as a guide.

Marginal Analysis

Marginal analysis is a basic economic prin-
ciple. The term ”marginal" in an economic
sense means “additional" or the last incre-
ment added or produced. For example, “mar-
ginal cost" means whatever the cost of the
last unit of production adds to the total cost.
Ifthe total cost offive units is $I00 and the total
cost ofproducing six units is SI IS. the marginal
cost of producing the incremental (sixth)
unit is SIS.

Several useful economic concepts are based
on the marginal principle. Diminishing returns
is a principle that can be applied to problem
solving in almost every phase of community
development. The principle itself states that
output will increase with each added input
(holding other factors constant) to some point‘
beyond which the added input will contribute
less and less to the total output.

Economic diminishing return is similar to the
principle of diminishing physical returns ex—
cept that inputs and outputs are expressed in
dollar values instead of physical units. The
dollar value ofthe output resulting from the last
unit of input applied represents the marginal
revenue product of the last unit of input.
Similarly marginal resource cost is the dollar
value of acquiring and using the last additional
units ofinput. Comparing the costs and returns
associated with the last unit of resource used,
the most rational allocation ofthe resource will
occur when the last unit hired results in the
marginal cost equalling the marginal return.

The equa-marginal principle explains how
to equate or maximize the use of a scarce re-
source or output. The equa-marginal principle
states that a scarce resource should be al-
located between competing uses so that the re-
turn from that resource is equal for all uses.
This is especially relevant in community de-
velopment to evaluating possible allocation of
scarce resources among competing facilities
and services.

The principle ofsuhstitution is similar to the
principle ofequa-marginal returns. In the equa-
marginal principle. a single input is equated
between competing uses. whereas the princi-
ple of substitution states “that if the quantity

132

of output is constant it is economic to sub-
stitute one factor of production for another
if the new combination of resources costs less
than the former."

Opportunity Cost

Opportunity cost is an important considera-
tion in the analysis of regional or an area econ-
omy. Brieﬂy stated, opportunity cost, in
economics, means the opportunities that must
be foregone in order to use resources for a
given economic activity. The concept is criti-
cal in regard to numerous facets of community
development, both public and private. In the
public sector, the expenditure of tax revenues
always involves opportunity costs in terms of
alternative benefits or program impacts that
must be foregone in order to fund a particu-
lar public project.

Relating to the interrelationships among
economic phenomena are the concepts of com-
plementary. supplementary. and competitive
activities. Complementary enterprises or
activities are those that. in the production of
one product, enhance or increase the produc-
tion of another product. An example in com-
munity development would be the improve-
ment of a city's water supply which would in-
crease its capacity for industrial development.

Supplementary activities or enterprises are
those which are possible or feasible as a result
ofthe other being present. An example in com-
munity development might be using a street
maintenance crew that would ordinarly be un-
deremployed on park development and up-
keep as well.

Competitive activities or enterprises are
those actually vying for the same resources;
the production or presence of one is at the ex-
pense of the other. In community develop-
ment, where most of the activities are financed
from local tax revenues, this concept is impor-
tant, for needed activities must be determined
and priorities set.

References: Barlowe, Raleigh. Land
Resource Economics, Prentice-Hall, Inc.,
Englewood Cliffs, N.J., I963, Chapters I2,
I3. and I4.

Bradford, Lawrence A. and Johnson, Glenn
L., Farm Management Analysis, John Wiley
and Sons Inc., New York, I953, Chapters II
and I2.

Castle, Emery N. and Becker, Manning H.,

Farm Business Management. The MacMillan
Company. New York. London. I962. Chapter
3.

McConnell. Campbell R.. Economics Princi-
ples, Problems and Politics. Fourth Edition,
McGraw-Hill. New York. I969.

Miemyk. William H., Input-Output Analysis,
Random House. New York. I965.

Nourse, Hugh 0., Regional Economics, Mc-
Graw-Hill, New York, I968.

Vincent. Warren H.. Economics and Manage-
ment in Agriculture. Prentice-Hall, Inc.,
Englewood Cliffs, N.J., I962, Chapters 3,4,5,
and 6.

Economics of Size

Size. in an economic sense. refers to a
specific level of specific inputs or outputs.
Size of a community is generally expressed in
terms of population.

Economies ofsize is a useful concept in com-
munity development in that certain savings
can be made or physical efficiency can be
gained by increasing the size. A good ex-
ample might be in solid waste disposal. One
small town or rural community may not
be able to financially afford an adequate sani-
tary landfill, but by consolidating into a coun-
ty or multi-county effort the cost per family
might be greatly reduced for a facility that
would meet the proper standards for sanitary
disposal and pollution abatement. Many public
facilities and services can fit the same criteria.

Diseconomies of size is also possible. Every

level of economic activity or institutional ar-

rangement has a maximum effective, or eco-
nomically efficient size. A business, industry,
school or city can become so large that man-
agement becomes less effective and the eco-
nomies gained by consolidation, added inputs,
or assembly line procedures are lost because
of ineffective supervision, absentee decision
making, etc. The community development
worker can use these concepts in helping the
community increase its efficiency. Through
their combined experiences, optimums may
be established.

References: Bradford, Lawrence A. and John-
son, Glenn L., op. cit.

Castle, Emery N. and Becker. H. Manning,
op. cit.

133

McConnell, Campbell R., op. cit.

Vincent, Warren H., op. cit.

Inter-Industry and
Input-Output Analysis

Inter-industry analysis provides an excellent
approach to area or regional economic struc-
tural analysis. Applied empirically, the inter-
industry framework indicates the level of vari-
ous area economic activities as well as the
economic interrelationships linking the numer-
ous sectors of the area or regional economy.
Data organized in an inter-industry framework
provide much of the empirical input required
for input-output analysis.

The principle features of input-output anal-
ysis are that it permits a detailed presentation
of the production and distribution character
istics of individual industries within a region
and the nature of the interrelationships among
them and other sectors of the economy. Based
on an understanding of the level of economic
activity and inter-relationships among sectors
of an area or regional economy, input-output
analysis is a powerful tool for estimating the
impact of planned activities upon the economic
structure. Thus input-output techniques can
assist significantly in decision making regard-
ing allocation of resources and economic de-
velopment.

Multiplier Analysis

To measure the impact of change in the
economy, multiplier analysis is often used.
The multiplier indicates the magnitude of
change in overall economic activity resulting
from direct change in one sector of the econ-
omy. Expressed as a ratio, the multiplier mea-
sures all effects—direct and indirect—to the
direct effects of the change. There are a num-
ber of multipliers that are useful in explaining
the total change resulting from changing a
specific economic variable. These include:
economic base multiplier, income multiplier,
employment multipliers, and input-output mul-
tipliers.

The multiplier concept is of particular con~
cern to policy makers and community de-
velopment workers who are responsible. for
various public programs and who wish to de-
termine the impact of a proposed public ex-
penditure or program. The multiplier concept
can give an indication ofthe cumulative impact
of a change in a key economic variable.

References: Barlowe, Raleigh, op. cit.

Castle. Emery N. and Becker, Manning H.,
op. cit.

C iriacy-Wantrip, Siegfried V., Resource Con-
servatitm, University of California, 1952, p.
5|. '

lsard, Walter, Methods of Regional Analysis:
An Introduction to Regional Science. The
MIT Press, Cambridge, I960.

Leftwich, Richard H., The Price System and
Resource Allocation, Third Edition, Holt,
Rinehart and Winston, New York, I966.

Leontief, Wassily, Input-Output Economics.
Oxford University Press, New York, 1966.

Liebhobsky. H. H., The Nature of Price
Theory, The Dorsey Press, Inc., Homewood,
Illinois. 1963.

McConnell. Campbell, R., op. cit.
Miemyk. William H. op. cit.
Nourse, Hugh 0., op. cit.

Sloan. Harold S. and Zurcher, Arnold J..
op. cit.

Interregional Competition

International, national, state, and local
economic conditions bear heavily upon the
economic development ofa particular region or
community. The fact that local economies are
linked to other larger economic units means
that events in one may have important reper-
cussions on the other. Therefore, it is im-
portant that the community development
worker be aware of the historical development
of his area of concern and be knowledgeable
of the local, regional, and national factors that
have generated the kinds of economic relation-
ships developed.

References: lsard, Walter, op. cit.
Leftwich, Richard H., op. cit.

Nourse, Hugh 0., op. cit.

Benefit-Cost Analysis

Benefit-cost analysis is a means of testing
project quality and of selecting those projects

134

that are most desirable with respect to eco-
nomic efficiency. Estimation of benefits and
costs for alternative projects indicates
whether or not the ratio of benefits to costs
justifies the development; hence it serves as
an aid to decision making. As a type of
economic analysis it is designed to ascertain
the extent to which economic resources such
as land, labor. and materials are more or
less effective than if the project were not
undertaken. It is a concept that can be used
in community development work to evaluate
alternative employment of resources or to
assist in setting project priorities. It em-
phasizes the economic efficiency of resource
use.

References: Barlowe, Raleigh, op. cit.
lsard, Walter. op. cit.

Vincent, Warren H., op. cit.

FEASIBILITY CONCEPTS

In the task of facilitating citizen involve-
ment. decision making. and carrying out ac-
tion, the community development professional
must understand the concept of feasibility in-
cluding the various criteria which determine
feasibility. Within the context of community
decision making, numerous ideas and schemes
are offered as alternative solutions to identified
community problems. These alternatives may
have social. economic. political and institu-
tional implications, all of which must be anal-
yzed.

Feasibility can be described as capable of
being done or carried out in a practical and
reasonable manner. Feasibility can best be
understood by considering its components.
i.e., the physical. economic, administrative.
political. and cultural ones.

Physical feasibility simply means: “Can it be
done?“ With modern technology. a task, a
project. or structure can probably be built or
accomplished. But the basis of this concept
should stress the practicality ofthe feat. Dams,
buildings. and roads are possible from an en-
gineering and construction standpoint, but may
not be the best solution. When several al-
ternatives are physically feasible, then one or
more of the other criteria will become the criti-
cal factor.

Economic feasibility in our system is one of the
most important aspects of this concept. A
project may be physically possible, but ifit is

too costly in terms of time, money or other
resources in relation to the expected return,
then it probably is not economically feasible.
In making an economic feasibility study,
several economic concepts are involved.
These are opportunity costs, benefit-cost ratio.
and the proper use of interest by amortiza-
tion or discounting.

Political feasibility indicates that a proposal
must be within the present legal boundaries
or that proposed legislation would be accept-
able to the voters and/or legislators so that
the plan or program could be implemented.
Often the final test in community development
as to political feasibility comes in the form of
a bond issue where the public is asked to go
into debt for the sake of a specific project.

Cultural feasibility is meeting the standards of
criteria of a local community or of the major
ethnic grOUp of that community. Often a
practice, program, or structure that is normal
or standard on a state or national level is unac-
ceptable to a local group. As an example, high
rise apartments may be acceptable by state’and
area planners, lawmakers. and the general
public but would be unacceptable in one ofthe
same region's local rural towns.

Administrative feasibility is a key consideration
in tax policies and programs. Often a tax
scheme would be a good source of revenue,
but administrative costs exceed the income.
Sales taxes and income taxes both have high
administrative costs and at a local level some-
times approach a nonfeasible status.

References: Barlowe, Raleigh, op. cit.
Ciriacy-Wantrip, Siegfried V., op. cit.

Renne, Roland R., Land Economics. Harper
and Brothers. New York, I947, Chapters l4
and I5.

PROPERTY RIGHTS

The increasing complexity of social insti-
tutions with which the community develop-
ment professional finds his clientele involved
makes it essential that an understanding oflaw
become part of his training program. Among
the legal concepts needed are those ofproperty
and of private and public rights involving prop-
erty ownership and control.

Property is a complicated legal concept. In
the legal sense. property consists not ofobjects
but of man's rights with respect to material

135

objects. In our society. the existence of prop-
erty rights presupposes the presence of:

I. an owner together with other persons
who can be excluded from the exercise
of ownership rights:

[J

property objects that can be held as pri-
vate or public possessions:

3. a sovereign power that will sanction and
protect the property rights vested in in-
dividuals or groups.

Property has two important attributes—it must
be capable of being appropriated and must
have value.

Based on our concept of property. there are
a host of laws. rules, regulations. and ethic
values that must be considered. The com-
munity development professional will deal in
these when carrying out programs with people
on land use, water problems, pollution
abatement, planning, industrial development,
and taxation policies.

A simple problem such as the right-of-way
dispute for a needed community facility may

detct construction for years if the property
rights of the individual and the public are not
clearly understood by all parties concerned.
By understanding these rights. the community
development professional through a public
education program can help bring about a de-
cision.

References: Barlow, Raleigh, Land Resource
Et-tmmnit-s, Prentice-Hall, Inc.. Englewood
Cliffs, N.J., I963. Chapters l2, l6 and I7.

Ciriacy-Wantrip. Siegfried V., Resource (on-
servation, University of California. I952, p.
5|.

Ely, Richard T. and George S. Wehrwein.
Lttntl Economics. The MacMilIan Company.
New York. I940. Chapter IV.

Noyes. C. Reinold, The Institution of Prop-
erty. Logmans, Green and Company Inc..
New York. I936. p. 353.

Renne, Roland R., Land Ectmmnics. Harper
and Brothers. New York, I947 Chapter 14.
pp. ll4-l52.

 

Community Development workers should have a general
understanding of concepts used in education, sociology,

geography, political

science, economics,

and those of

property rights.

 

136

APPENDIX A

Concepts Central to Rural Devel0pment Management

Management

The concept of management is important to rural development.
Management is the process of planning, organizing, leading and
controlliru; the efforts of organization members and of using all other
organizational resources to achieve stated organizational goals. The
organization could be the community, private institutions and public
agencies assigned developmental tasks. Two other major concepts are
important to management; these are the twin concepts of efficiency and
effectiveness. Efficiency is the ability to get things done correctly,
whereas effectiveness is the ability to choose apprOpriate objectives or
the selection of the right things to get done.

The Management Process

 

Management is a process because all managers, regardless of their
particular aptitudes or skills, engage in the following interrelated
activities in order to achieve their desired goals:

1. Planning- is the basic process used to select goals and
determine how to achieve them.

2. Organizing- is the process of arranging and allocating work
among members of the organization to achieve goals.

3. Leading- is working with and through others to achieve
organizational goals.

4“ Controlling- process through which managers assure that actual
activities conform to planned activities.

Principles of Management J
1. Division of Eabor

 

137

2. Authority

3. Discipline

4. Unity of Command
5. Unity of Direction
6. Subordination of Individual Interest to the Common Good
7 Renumeration

8. Centralization

9. Hierarchy

10. Order

11. Equity

12. Stability of Staff
13.1nitiative

14. Esprit de Corps

Resource

Resource is anything that satisfies the needs or wants of civilization.
Resource management is the process of directing or controlling the
production or use of our resources.

Ecology is the study of the earth's "households" including the plants,
animals, micro-organisms, and people that live together as
interdependent components.

RDM 201

138

APPENDIX B

Suggested Courses and Descriptions

Course Description: Public Affairs Management

-(Theory, Concepts, Structures, Processes)

Course Goals:

1)

2)

3)

Systematically introduce students to basic subject matter
that is associated with managing public affairs.

Lay a foundation for student understanding of governmental
operations, development aims and national goals, and
administrative and political structure.

Provide a forum for student understanding of national issues
and concerns as they relate to development.

Course Objectives:

Upon completion of the coursework the student should be able to:

1)

2)

3)

4)

5)

identify and define public management concepts, frameworks,
and models;

identify the structure of the national bureaucracy and have
knowledge of its general functions and processes;

identify current national issues and relate them to concepts
and theories identified earlier in the course;

integrate and synthesize theories and facts pertaining to
the realm of public management in five position papers
throughout the coursework; and

demonstrate awareness of national goals and priorities
through student interaction, and critically examine current:
national issues.

139

RDM 201
Public Affairs Management (Theory and Processes)

Course Content:

I

II

III

IV

Public Affairs Management in Perspective

a. Introduction to Public Affairs Management
b. Rural DeveIOpment Management

Foundation Concepts in Rural Development Management

a. Devel0pment
b. Region
. Rural

c
d. Planned Change
e Resource Devel0pment and Management

Approaches to RDM

a. Approaches/Ideologies to Rural DeveIOpment
b. Integrated Rural Development

Strategies of RDM

a. Focus on Politico-Administrative machineny for planning and
implementation

b. Focus on Rural Resource DevelOpment

Issues in Public Affairs Management

Course Format:

Class lectures and focused group discussion on assigned readings.

Five position papers will be submitted as requirements for the course.
T0pics will be on issues of national importance.

3 credits

RDM 202

140

Course Description: Public Program Management

(Concepts and Processes)

Course Goals:

1)
2)

3)

To introduce the student to Public Program Management.

Lay a foundation for student understanding of the planning
and implementation of a public program in rural deveIOpment.

Provide a background for understanding projects.

Course Objectives:

Upon completion of the coursework the student should be able to:

1

2)

3)

4)

identify the concepts and issues central to program
management as well as the national agencies involved in
program planning and implementation;

critically analyze the rationale and mode of implementation
of the many programs in rural develOpment;

critically evaluate the phases of program management through
carefully selected local and international case studies; and

synthesize and integrate current issues with concepts and
processes identified earlier into a project paper that will
focus on the redesigning of a national program in one of its
aspects (e.g., client analysis in program planning).

141

RON 202
Public Program Management

Course Content:
I Introduction
a. Scope
II Program Management in Rural DeveIOpment
III The Environment of Program Management

a. Institutional linkages
b. General Environment Impact

IV Policy Framework

a. Basic Justification and Objectives of Government Programs
b. Public Policy and Policy Analysis
c. An Overview of Project Management

V Program DeveTOpment

a. Program Identification

b. Program Design

c. Rationality Criteria and Standards
d. Client Analysis

e. Program Approval

VI Program Implementation

a. Organizational and Administrative Aspects

b. Resource Mobilization and Allocation
c. Program Budgeting
d. Critical Elements for Program Implementation

Course Format:

Class sessions will be a mixture of lectures by the instructor,
presentations by resource persons invited to class, and class
discussions.

At the onset of the course the student will select a public program
in rural develOpment. During the course, the student will identify and
analyze the phases of program develOpment. At the end of the course the
student will submit a program change map consisting mainly of a client
analysis, organizational arrangement for implementation, and an
evaluation design. At the end of the course students will also be
expected to report to class their findings.

3 credits.
Prerequisite: Public Affairs Management

RDM 203

142

Course Description: Project DevelOpment and Management

Course Goals:

1)
2)

3)

To introduce the student to Project Management.

Lay a foundation for student understanding of the processes
involved in project management.

Provide skills for project management.

Course Objectives:

Upon completion of the coursework the student should be able to:

1)

2)

3)

4)

5)

identify the project cycle and the different activities
covered in each phase;

prepare a detailed work plan that will include the
preparation, analysis, and calculation of a critical path
network;

prepare components of a project proposal, e.g., market
analysis, technical analysis, organizational analysis, etc.;

perform calculations involved in the above mentioned
components, e.g., discounting, cost-benefit, cash flow
analysis, etc.; and

demonstrate the ability to synthesize and integrate
knowledge and skills learned through submission of a project
prOposal on any rural develOpment activity.

143

RON 203
Project Development and Management

Course Content:

I Introduction

a. Rationale
b. Concepts and Methods
c. Nature of Plans, Programs and Projects — Past and current

projects in rural develOpment or resources
11 Phases of Project Development

a. Identification
b. Preparation

c. Financing

d. Reappraisal

III Project Feasibility Study

Market Study

Technical Study
Financing Projects
Financial Analysis
Operational Feasibility
Economic Analysis

"hCDQOU’D’
no. o. 0

IV Strategies for Implementation
V Project Evaluation

a. Benchmark for Evaluation
Course Format:

Instructor lectures and structured work group experience on a
project feasibility study of a rural development project (e.g. well
construction, irrigation, etc.). At the end of the course, a group
output in the form of a feasibility report will be submitted.

3 credits
Prerequisite: Public Program Management

RDM 220

144

Course Description: Concepts and Principles of Community DevelOpment

Course Goals:

1)

2)

3)

Systematically introduce students to basic subject matter
that is commonly associated with the field of Community
Development.

Lay a foundation for student participation in other
community develOpment courses.

Provide a forum for professional growth for students with
and without Community Deve10pment field experience.

Course Objectives:

Upon completion of the coursework the student should be able to:

1)

2)

3)

increase their knowledge of the important concepts, issues,
principles, frameworks, and models in the CD field;

critically analyze and evaluate basic CD subject matter and
issues; and

to synthesize course material as the basis for application
in future coursework/research/career activities.

145

RDM 220
Community Development (Concepts and Principles)

Course Content:

I CD in Perspective

a. Introduction to CD
b. Historical Background of CD

II Foudnational Concepts in CD

a. DevelOpment
b. Planned change
c. Community

III Approaches to CD

a. The Approaches in Overview
b. Introduction of the Major Approaches

IV Strategies of CD

Toward Effective CD: Focus on the Change Agent

Toward Effective CD: Focus on the Target System
Introduction to Change Agent Strategies

. Techniques commonly used in the phases/stages of the CD
process

QOUQ’
O. 0

Course Format:

Instructor lectures, focused group discussion, individual reports.
Discussion of basic readings and position paper.

146
RDM 221
Course Description: Planned Change in Community Development
Course Goals:

1. To systematically introduce the student to the requisites of
planned change and innovation.

2. Lay a foundation for student understanding of the change
process as a necessary pre-requisite to field research or
activities.

3. Provide a forum for interaction with other students.

Course Objectives:

Upon completion of the coursework the student should be able to:,

1. identify the steps involved in innovation and recall the
heuristics at each step;

2. familiarize and execute techniques associated with each step
in problem diagnosis (e.g., delphi technique, nominal group
technique, brainstorming, etc.); and

3. design a change map for an organization or a community.

147

RDM 221
Planned Change in Community DevelOpment

Course Content:
I Case Studies of Change Agents in Action

II The Stages of Planned Change
Building a Relationship

. Acquiring Relevant Resources
Choosing the Solution
Gaining Acceptance
Stabilizing the Innovation

(DQOU'Q
O. I 0

Course Format:

The course will be divided into the steps involved hitme
introduction of an innovation. Students will be given tests before each
step to reinforce memory recall of the steps and heuristics involved.
Each session there will be focused group discussion where each other's
design map is updated and evaluated. At the end of the course, the
student should have a completed change map. Efforts will be made to
invite the heads of agencies or organizations to provide feedback on the
map toward the end of the course.

3 credits
Prerequisite: Concepts and Principles of Community DeveTOpment

148

RDM 222

Course Description: Special T0pics in Community Devel0pment

Course Goals:

1. To expose students to approaches/techniques that are often
employed in the CD process.

2. To promote the devel0pment of student skills in the CD
process.

Course Objectives:
Upon completion of the coursework the student should be able to:

1. perform skills related to the conduct of CD programs (e.g.,
how to conduct meetings, seminars, write funding prOposals,

etc.); and

2. integrate and synthesize the experiences of those in the
field conducting CD, and critically evaluate the concepts
and theories previously learned in the light of such
experiences.

149

ROM 222
Special T0pics in Community Development

Course Content:

I
II
III
IV

Introduction to CD Research

The CD Professional as a Research Consumer
The CD Professional as a Research Producer
Leadership in CD

Social Impact Assesment

Course Format:

Focused group discussion, individual presentation of reports on

selected topics, role playing, simulation, games, etc. Topics may
change based on participants' needs and new trends in the field. '

3 credits
Prerequisite: Planned Change in Community DevelOpment

RDM 210

150

Course Description: Organization and Management Theory, Concepts and

Principles

Course Goals:

1)

2)

3)

Systematically introduce students to basic subject matter
that is associated with the field of organization and
management.

Lay a foundation for student participation in other
management courses.

Provide a forum for professional growth for students with
and without a management background.

Course Objectives:

Upon completion of the coursework the student should be able to:

1)

2)

3)

to increase student knowledge regarding important management
concepts, issues, principles, frameworks, and models;

to encourage student interaction as it pertains to a
critical consideration of basic management subject matter;
and

to provide students with an Opportunity to synthesize
material as the basis for application in future
coursework/research/career activities.

151

RDM 210
Organization and Management (Theory and Concepts)

Course Content
I Management and Organization in Perspective

a. Introduction to Organizations and Management
b. The evolution of management theory

11 Foundational Concepts in Management

a. Principles of Management
b. Functions of Manaeers

III Approaches to the Study of Organization

 

a. Individual, group, organization
b, Task, roles, attitudes

c. Systems

d. Specific areas of specialization

IV Managerial functions

a. Planning

b. Organizing
c. Leading

d. Controlling

V Issues in Management and Organization

Course Format:

Instructor lectures, group discussion, and use of local case
studies. Five position papers on management issues will be required.

152

RDM 211

Course Description: Decision Making Concepts and Tools

Course Goals:
1) Expose students to concepts and tools of decision-making.

2) Develop student skills in utilizing tools for
decision-making.

3) Develop student attitudes and behaviors required for
national decision-making.

Course Objectives:
Upon completion of the coursework the student should be able to:
I. perform problem-solving techniques or analysis;

2. synthesize concepts and integrate course materials with case
studies and;

3. work with groups in arriving at decisions.

 

153

RDM 211
Decision Making Concepts and Tools

Course Content:

I

II

III

IV

Conceptual Foundation for Decision-Making

 

a. Problem finding, choice making, decision making, and problem
solving

b. Traditional and Modern Techniques of Decision-Making
Decision-Making Models Under Conditions of: E“
a. Certainty i
b. Risk
c. Uncertainty

I
Aids for planning and problem solving 1
a. Management science
b. Forecasting

c. Gantt charts, PERT, CPM

Operations Management

a. Importance
b. Major features
c. Decision areas that go into the design

Course Format:

Case studies, model analysis and role playing will be used heavily,

together with class lectures.

3 credits
Prerequisite: Organization and Management

154

RON 241
Course Description: Data Collection in DevelOping Countries

Course Goals:

1) Expose students to systematic research proposal making,
problem analysis.

2) Expose students to field realities in collecting data and
conducting research.

3) Equip students with capability to design a proposal.

Course Objectives:
Upon completion of the coursework the student should be able tozt
1) design a project prOposal;

2) identify the different methods for data collection in
developing countries; and

3) integrate and synthesize the relevant course materials.

155

RDM 241
Data Collection in Developing Countries

Course Content:

I Introduction
II Preparation of Research Proposal
III Sampling Principles and Techniques

IV DevelOping the Survey Plan
V Execution of the Survey Plan
VI Measurement Problems in Ag. Data
VII Data Handling and Analysis
VII Computer Aided Analysis
IX Report Writing and Documentation
Course Format:
Instructor lectures and focused group discussions. The student is
expected to contribute to class by sharing his research experiences in

LDC's. Professional researchers will be invited to class to share
research experiences.

156

RON 500
Course Description: Seminar in Rural DeveTOpment Management

Course Goals: To provide the student a forum for an exchange of ideas
and experiences.

Course Objective:

At the end of the course, the student should be able to generalize,
synthesize, and integrate his particular rural development experience.

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157

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