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I 1, (.11, I. f-é¢J./$"' riff I” 7y, hmwo'wy 1,, 5,, . ~ i,1,.$o~.'~"N'-u,t_;rfi;’,I .. «gr; 912421;,”425," M ~~_ , ; .(xz‘w-“Z/ :v'on; ”If: ’76.), 421,- 12% {$1 7 I!” ”5%? mm. a355, . 1' , A. . 1 ; , IIIIIQEII W ”(A ‘- .I, , I, ' 3'3 ._ s ', - :1“::,‘~';; ‘4. VI , i, . . . 4. , , , . , “>1... r‘v . 7 "‘r1IIIII.I"‘ "I: :V? ’IC. I193 lo. '3; ‘ '13le 220% 5 i 1‘“ lllmlmWllIllllllllllllllllllllll I ll ll. 321 93 00539 3339 LIBRARY Michigan State University This is to certify that the thesis entitled DIFFERENCES IN RADIO FREQUENCY ASSIGNMENTS BETWEEN NATIONS: A CORRELATIONAL ANALYSIS presented by Regenie F. Ch. Frgser has been accepted towards fulfillment of the requirements for Master__o£...rAi:1-.s_ degree in Wnicat i on Major professor Date May 6, 1988 0-7639 MS U is an Affirmative Action/Equal Opportunity Institution )VIES‘.J RETURNING MATERIALS: Place in book drop to LIBRARIES remove this checkout from .—3---. your record. FINES will be charged if book is returned after the date stamped below. m. ‘-'~ p-vr n k‘ ' (1?. i . \. ‘ '~ ' :4 r‘ . :4“ .- in A ‘ J!“ i Kw" ' b lhmlqfig DI! DIFFERENCES IN RADIO FREQUENCY ASSIGNMENTS BETWEEN NATIONS: A CORRELATIONAL ANALYSIS BY Regenie F. Ch. Fraser A THESIS Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of MASTER OF ARTS Department of Telecommunication 1988 DIE pl; (11 na ar Vi a. c. ’1 r 'l (‘1 i A,“ [.‘~")..\ (2 . l £3 ABSTRACT DIFFERENCES IN RADIO FREQUENCY ASSIGNMENTS BETWEEN NATIONS: A CORRELATIONAL ANALYSIS BY Regenie F. Ch. Fraser This exploratory study attempts to understand com- plaints ‘made by' Third. World. Countries, alleging 'unfair distribution of radio frequencies recognized by the Inter- national Telecommunication Union. This study combines historical analysis, comparative analysis, relationship analyses, and contextual analysis. Differences in technological development explain most variance (R=75%) in the number of frequency assignments to all countries in the global analysis. A regional analysis (Asia, Europe-Africa, the Americas) shows frequency assignments differ from region to region. An analysis of selected countries in the Americas presented a different set of variables most correlated to frequency assignments, thus affirming the importance of contextual analysis. The First Come, First Served principle, and the policy concerning Modification, Cancellation and Review of Entries in the Master Register of the International Telecommunica- tion Union are analyzed for their role in frequency assignments. Copyright by Regenie Fisenta Christine Fraser 1988 Dedicated to The Telecommunication Corporation Suriname ii «J pos: com} frii gait did any pare lari the sibi mY sis1 Mav: to , have empi grar durj the: h daYs ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I would like to thank a number of people who made it possible for me to attend Michigan State University and complete this thesis. First of all, I would like to thank my very dear friend, Walter Greaves whose assistance was crucial in my gaining acceptance into Michigan State University. Walter did far more to help me than I could reasonably expect from any other friend. A very special place is reserved for my parents and family when throughout the years and particu- larly during my stay at Michigan State University, provided the support which made all the successes of my life pos- sible. Here I would like to acknowledge them individually; my parents, Louis and Romana Fraser; my brothers and sisters and their families; Ramon, Iwan, Henna, Marlene, Mavis and Floyd. To the Organization of American States, I would like to express my thanks for the financial assistance that they have extended to me. I must also thank my once and future employer, the Telecommunication Corporation Suriname, for granting me leave of absence and financial assistance during my stay at Michigan State University. In order to gather data necessary to complete my thesis, I visited the ITU Headquarters in Geneva for four days. I would like to thank the following people for the T.‘."-v assis Head the I Depar Entry Chief Telecl da Si? 'fl_ withoi sors. tee er and Ac for h. theSis assistance they provided, while I was there: Mr. M.D. Sant, Head of the Office of the IFRB, Mr. J. Balfroid, Head of the Registration and Publications Division and Operations Department of the IFRB, Mr. J. Lewis, Head of the Data Entry and Validation Division of the IFRB, Mr. R. Fontaine, Chief Public Relations Divisions and Editor-in-chief, Telecommunication Journal, as well as Mrs. Jane Pellaux- da Silva and Mr. Kaiss El Hay of the ITU Library. Success at the graduate level is quite impossible without the guidance of concerned and thoughtful profes- sors. In this regard, my sincerest thanks go to my Commit- tee Chair, Dr. B. Mody; Committee Member, Dr. C. Steinfield and Academic Advisor, Dr. J. Straubhaar. Finally, I would like to thank the following friends for having lent me their time in the preparation of this thesis, Anthony Cheeseboro and Louis Rankine. iv mpg TABLE OF CONTENTS List of Tables List of Figures Introduction Organization of Study mm: Page vii viii 1 2 FRAMEWORK OF INVESTIGATION 3 Problem Statement .3 Purpose 6 Terminology 7 Hypothesis Formulation 8 Rationale for Hypothesis and Methodology 9 .Method of Measurement and Relevance of Variables 10 .Data Collection 13 Notes Chapter 1 15 AN INTRODUCTION TO THE ITU 18 What is the ITU? 18 Historical 19 Composition and Purpose of the Union 22 Structure and Organization of the Union 24 .Membership 24 .One Nation One Vote Voting Principle 25 .Institutions 28 International Frequency Registration Board 28 .Origin 28 .Structure 30 .Duties 30 Notes Chapter 2 33 FREQUENCY ASSIGNMENTS AND FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION GLOBALLY AND REGIONALLY 35 Internationally Recognized Frequencies 35 Procedures for the International Coordination, Notification and Recording of Frequency Assignments 35 .ITU Policies Guiding Frequency Assignments 38 Overview of Worldwide Distribution 46 Inter-Region Comparison 50 Overview of Distribution in Region 1 52 Overview of Distribution in Region 2 56 Overview of Distribution in Region 3 59 Summary and Conclusion 62 Notes Chapter 3 64 Chapt Chapt Chapt Qh§2§g3_1: RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN FREQUENCY ASSIGNMENTS PER COUNTRY AND SELECTED CHARACTERISTICS 66 Report on Worldwide Analyses (N=168) 68 Notes Chapter 4 77 §n§p§§;_§: RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN FREQUENCY ASSIGNMENTS AND SELECTED CHARACTERISTICS IN REGION 1, 2, AND 3 78 Report on Region 1 Analysis (N=83) 78 .Case Study: The USSR 83 Report on Region 2 Analysis (N=37) 85 Report on Region 3 Analysis (N=48) 88 Summary and Conclusion 91 W RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN FREQUENCY ASSIGNMENTS AND SELECTED CHARACTERISTICS: A CLOSER LOOK AT SELECTED COUNTRIES IN REGION TWO 94 The Caribbean 94 .Cuba 95 .Dominican Republic, Jamaica, 97 .Haiti 98 Central America and South America 99 Central America 99 .Nicaragua and Panama 99 South America 101 .Brazil, Argentina, and Mexico, 101 .Suriname 105 North America 106 .The United States and Canada 106 Summary and Conclusion 108 Notes Chapter 6 110 Qh§p§§:__: SUMMARY, RECOMMENDATIONS, AND CONCLUSION 111 Postscript: Suggestions for Further Research 118 APPENDIX A: Disparity of Telecommunication Services Worldwide 119 APPENDIX B: The History of the ITU 120 APPENDIX C: Radio Frequency Allocation Regions 121 APPENDIX D: Symbols Designating Countries or Geographic Areas 122 APPENDIX E: Total Numbers of Assignments Listed by Administration 129 APPENDIX F: Officials Interviewed at ITU Headquarters in Geneva Switzerland 133 APPENDIX G: The Twenty European Countries that Started the ITU 134 BIBLIOGRAPHY 135 vi mice—7 Tab 1 LIST OF TABLES Frequencies not Reflecting Actual Usage The Top Twenty Frequency Users ITU Members in Descending Order of the Number of Frequencies Assigned to Each Cross-region Frequency Assignment Region 1 ITU Members in Descending Order of the Number of Frequencies Assigned to Each Region 2 ITU Members in Descending Order of the Number of Frequencies Assigned to Each Region 3 ITU Members in Descending Order of the Number of Frequencies Assigned to Each Correlations Among Independent and Dependent Variables Worldwide (N=168) Reliability Analysis - Scale (technological development) Correlations Among Independent and Dependent Variables in Region 1 (N=83) Correlations Among Independent and Dependent Variables in Region 2 (N=37) Correlations Among Independent and Dependent Variables in Region 3 (N=48) vii Page 42 45 48 51 54 57 60 70 75 79 86 89 Figure 4 Figure 5 LIST OF FIGURES Members of the ITU and the Structure of the Union The ITU in the United Nations Histogram of Number of Frequencies Assigned to ITU Members in Region 1 up to September, 1987 Histogram of Number of Frequencies Assigned to ITU Members in Region 2 up to September, 1987 Histogram of Number of Frequencies Assigned to ITU Members in Region 3 up to September, 1987 Page 20 23 55 58 61 quite input ments well attem and e queue; becau; for l telec, INTRODUCTION The dynamic pace of modern society is unimaginable and quite probably, untenable without all the facilitating inputs of modern telecommunication. Radio frequency assign- ments are vital and necessary for national development as well as for international telecommunication. This thesis attempts to set forth demographic, sociographic, geographic and econometric reasons for the variance among radio fre- quency assignments between nations. This is important because radio frequency assignments are vital and necessary for national development as well as for international telecommunication. cons stud the tier Dist ITU cies wor] men1 tes Of: 335‘ Rag and Con; fre Var ORGANIZATION or STUDY Chapter One entitled the Framework of Investigation, consists of the problem statement, the purpose of the study, the hypothesis, the rationale for the hypothesis and the methodology. Chapter Two is called An Introduction to the Interna- tional Telecommunication Union (ITU). Chapter Three, Frequency Assignments and Frequency Distribution Globally and Regionally, discusses the basic ITU principles guiding internationally recognized frequen- cies and analyzes the differences in frequency assignments, worldwide and on a regional basis. Chapter Four, Relationships Between Frequency Assign- ments Per Country and Selected Characteristics, investiga- tes the relationships of selected variables to the number of frequency assignments per country. Chapter Five deals with relationships between frequency assignments and selected characteristics in Region 1, Region 2, and Region 3. Chapter Six, Relationships Between Frequency Assignments and Selected Characteristics: A Closer Look at Selected Countries in Region Two, analyzes the context in which the frequencies assigned to selected countries in the Americas were obtained. Chapter Seven is the Summary, Recommendations, and Conclusions. E-’ Th1 ITUtm inequ; catio assig compa a she diffe ment are a ROI, 3 Prob] Th f0Cus natio Proxi tion Ac. hatio] wot-1d Chgpggz 1 FRAMEWORK OF INVESTIGATION Problem, Purpose, Terminology, Hypothesis, Rationale and Methodology The differences between frequency assignments among the ITU member nations constitutes some of the most apparent inequalities in the field of international telecommuni- cation},2 An examination of the statistics of frequency assignments to developing nations will reveal that, in comparison with frequency assignments to developed nations, a sharp quantitative difference exists (see Table 3). The difference is great, and if criteria of economic develop- ment and levels of technological and industrial advancement are accepted as determinants, then, the discrepancies are not surprising. Problem Statement The ITU's structural and policy guidelines have been a focus of concern for some developing country ITU member nations. An apparent disparity is evidenced in the ap- proximately 90 to 10 percent ratio in frequency distribu- tion between the developed and the developing nations.3 According to Bowie's analysis (1984), the developing nations, which together accounts for two thirds of the world's population: possess less than 10 percent of the radio natio frequ 4 radio spectrum. This has left the less populated developed nations with the lion's share (90 percent) of the radio frequency spectrum.4 The notification and registration of radio frequencies with the ITU's International Telecommunication Registration Board, is customarily and traditionally handled on a "first come, first served" basis. Essentially, "first come, first served" indicates that whoever develops a use for a given frequency first and notified IFRB of this intended use establishes a claim to protection from harmful inter- ference. One direct consequence of this practice is that countries which are making advances in economic and technological development require and acquire spectrum space earlier than countries that are less industrially and technologically developed. In other words, the industrial- ized nations which are active in the innovation and application of communication technologies, naturally apply for the frequencies when their technological advancements necessitate. Therefore, these countries almost always acquire frequencies before lesser developed nations are in a position to make requests for similar frequencies. The problematic impact of such a mode of frequency acquisition is not too difficult to decipher: the bulk of the frequency assignments have been assigned to the developed countries. Masmoudi (1984) has nOted that a mode of acquisition as mentioned above implicitly contains a de fagtg hegemony 5 and a tendency to perpetuate an imbalance and dominance by certain states. Access to the radio spectrum is, gg_1agtg, based on industrial, technological, economic and power politics. Countries without acknowledged strengths in these national appurtenances are relegated to a consumer status which engenders an extreme vulnerability to the dictates of the more developed nations.5 The nations who have traditionally been the victims of this imbalance have also, traditionally regarded the existing assignment mechanism as inadequate. These concerns have been manifested in a series of adjustment efforts proposed by these disadvantaged nations in frequency management conferences since 1959. The 1959 World Admin- istrative Radio Conference dealt with the revision of the Radio Regulations. In this conference, proposals were tabled which aimed at achieving changes in the areas of: a. European long and medium wave broadcasting satellite frequencies and b. orbital positions for satellites belonging to various member nations. While this was achieved in Region 1 and 3, between 1974 and 1975 respectively, no concessions, adjustments or accommodations took effect within the nations of Region 2. The 1981 regional medium wave con- ference failed to reach a decision on a proposal to reduce channel spacing. The primary reason for this failure was attributed to political disagreement between ir SE all th . .P I. 9 ‘ I'VE th fr 11m hax Drc has 6 Cuba and the United States of America. In 1985, the Space WARC(World Administrative Radio Conference) was required to pursue an objective which would guarantee ”equitable access" to orbit and frequency spectrum resources for all nations.6 Though studies have been carried out to examine the disparity of spectrum assignments, few studies have been carried out to identify the genesis of this disparity. This exploratory case study attempts to understand com- plaints made by Third World Countries, alleging unfair distribution (of assignments) of radio frequencies, by the International Telecommunication Union. The study will attempt to investigate the validity of these complaints. Purpose This study, in the broadest sense, deals with issues of international radio spectrum assignment. In a specific sense, it is a study about parity in frequency assignment among the ITU members of Region 2. It is expected that this study will facilitate the general understanding of the existing ITU structure and its policies guiding frequency assignments. This then will lead to a better understanding of the reasons behind ITU member nations having varying and different sometimes, allegedly dis- proportionate, numbers of frequencies. Howkins (1979:11) , has correctly asserted that the radio spectrum can be um- misu. inte is t that reqx sca‘ Ter tio COU an fre con fre tic ist REg fUr1 38$ “91' inCJ 7 misused when used too much, particularly when the result is interference. Conversely, the spectrum is wasted when it is used to little. Among his main conclusions he made note that, "more than any other resource, perhaps, the spectrum requires careful management. It requires it on a global scale, yet to a fine degree.7 Terminology According to the ITU the terms for frequency distribu- tion are: allocation for services: allotment for areas or countries: and assignment for stations.8 An assignment (of a radio frequency channel): is the "authorization given by an administration. for a radio station ‘to ‘use a radio frequency or radio frequency channel under specified conditions."9 This thesis is concerned only with certain frequency assignments to radio stations. From this defini- tion we learn that frequencies are assigned by the "Admin- istrations"1° and not by the International Frequency Registration Board (as commonly understood). One of the functions of the IFRB is, "the processing of the frequency assignment notices."11 The world has been divided into three geographical regions for the allocation of frequencies. These ITU regions are: Region 1, constituting Africa and Europe, including the USSR: Region 2 is essentially the Americas, including Greenland: and Region 3 is Asia (Asiatic USSR 8 excluded) and Australasia.12 Appendix B gives a schematic presentation of these three regions. Region 2, comprising the .Americas (North. and. South), and some .Atlantic and Pacific Islands, provides a good area for the assessment of the genesis of the disparity in frequency assignments. Region 2 has the fewest total number of ITU members (N=37), as compared to Region 1 (N=83) and Region 3 (N=48). As a consequence spectrum space shortage in Region 2 is less of a problem than in the other regions. Because of this fact differences in frequency assignments in Region 2 can be more easily/objectively assessed. My interest of Region 2 is also personal in nature. Specifically, I am a native of Region 2 and I will be working in this region in the foreseeable future. Hypothesis Formulation The confluence of a number of variables would seem to exert influence in the ITU frequency assignment mechanism. These factors are: 1. Age of the Nation 2. Length of Membership in the ITU 3. Political Alignment of the Nation 4. Number of Telephones 5. Number of Radios 6. Number of Television Sets 7. Number of Daily Newspapers in Circulation per 1000 people 8. Number of Computer Units (only for Latin America) 9. Kind of Economy 10. Gross National Product 11. Per Capita Income 12. Population Size 13. Country Size 14. Education My major hypothesis is: A nation's political alignment, economic and tech- nological development, its economic and. political history, size of population, geographical area and national literacy level will be highly correlated to the number of frequencies registered with the International Telecommunication Union. Rationale for the Hypothesis and.Methodology We believe that these variables will be highly corre- lated to radio frequency assignments because according to Masmoudi (1984), access to the radio spectrum is de fiagtg based on industrial, technological, economic and power politics.13 Additionally, the older nations tend to be older members of the ITU, which in turn seem to be in- dustrialized and highly literate. Furthermore, most highly populated and large countries appear to have relatively large numbers of frequencies. 10 e e V The numbers of frequencies were measured in terms of the total number of assignments registered by the ITU, per country. This variable is the focus of the inquiry, in light of the complaints of some Third World Countries that a disproportionate part of the radio frequency spectrum has been assigned to the First World, while they (the TWC's) do not have enough frequencies to work with. In his study, Masmoudi found that the Third World uses 10% and the First WOrld, 90: of all the available frequencies.14 The variables Age of the nation and the Length of each nation's membership in the ITU15,16 were considered influential because we initially observed that the older nations are also old members of the ITU. Most are in- dustrialized or industrializing, some were colonizers, and as a category, they use large numbers of frequencies. On the other hand, the new nations started joining the ITU immediately after gaining their independence in the period which stretches from. the 1940s tol the late 19603 and onwards. These nations are in the developing stage and they also use small numbers of frequencies. Political alignment was categorized as: pro-west, nonaligned or socialist.17 Since this variable has a nominal scale, an Anova test was conducted. This variable is important since political alignment must be juxtaposed with the apolitical but technical nature of the ITU, in all 11 instances. We predict that this variable will be highly, positively, and significantly related to the number of frequency assignments. It is suspected that this will be the case because the industrialized Western nations generally have higher per capita incomes and. higher economic and technological developments than the countries of the Eastern Bloc and the non-aligned movement. Under- standably, these pro-western nations are the members of the ITU that contribute more to the maintenance of the ITU. The level of technological development was measured in terms of numbers of ‘telephones, radios, and. television sets. Additionally, the circulation of daily newspapers and, for Latin-America only, the numbers of computer units in use, were measured. The size of the GNP's and per capita incomes were included in the correlation analysis. The kind of economy was classified into industrial market economies: high income oil exporters: East European non-market economies: middle-income developing economies and: low-income develop- ing economies.18 This variable was also analyzed through a Anova test because it is a nominal scale variable. Kind of economy seems to be related to the number of frequency assignments because the most economically advanced nations tend to have the highest numbers of frequencies. Size was measured on two dimensions: population, and land area in sq. mi. There are two major reasons for 12 the inclusion of these variables. First, the number of people, in and the geographical area of a country appears to influence the number of frequency assignment (see Region 2, chapter 3). Second, arguments based on a combination of the variables population size and land area were offered as rationales for the exercise of more votes in the ITU.19 These factors might soon be offered as rationale for access to more frequencies. Education was measured by charting literacy rates in percentages of the populations. This variable was included because of its potential relationship with the level of economic and technological development in a country. Four different yet complementary theoretical frameworks are combined in this research. These frameworks are: a. historical analysis b. comparative analysis c. relationship analyses d. contextual analysis The historical analysis shows how the establishment of the ITU and its policies came about over time. The comparative analysis demonstrates the differences in number of frequency assignments to ITU members worldwi- de. Additionally, an inter- and intra-region comparison is made. The relationship analyses show how different variables are correlated with the number of frequencies assigned to 13 the ITU members. These analyses were done for the countries around the world (N=168), Region 1(N=83), Region 2(N=37) and Region 3(N=48) . Furthermore, the variables (factor) which explain the most variance in the number of frequency assignments are identified and further analyzed. The contextual analysis shows the different reasons in different contexts (countries), as presented in chapter 6. Dag—Colman Data for this thesis came from two sources. These are: secondary literature available in the library and primary data collected at the ITU Headquarters in Geneva, Switzer- land. My secondary literature consists primarily of books, theses, as well as articles found in trade and scholarly journals. The quantitative information (total numbers of frequencies and length of membership in the ITU, excluded) ‘was obtained from The World Development Report 1987 of the ‘World Bank and The World, Almanac and Books of Facts 1987/1988. The main data received from the ITU consists of: . a list of the total numbers of frequency assignments per ITU Region, country by country. . the text of the International Telecommunication Convention of Nairobi, 1982, supplemented by the Radio iRegulations parts One and Two, Geneva, 1986. . the IFRB Documents of the Seminar on Frequency 14 Management and the Use of the Radio Frequency Spectrum and the Geostationary Satellite Orbit, Geneva, 1986. . meetings with several staff members of the IFRB (list provided in Appendix F) A significant highlight of my data-gathering visit to the ITU Headquarters involved being "walked-through” the entire process of notification, examination, coordination and registration of radio frequencies, by a senior IFRB staff member (see chapter 3). After collecting the information on the variables outlined above, the Pearson Product-Moment Correlation was applied. The question to be answered here, is: To what degree does the number of frequencies (x) assigned by the ITU to its members, show interrelationships with the above mentioned independent variables (y)? This correlation was done first for 168 countries across all regions of the world, and then, on a regional basis (Region 1 - N=83, Region 2 - N=37 and Region 3 :- N=48) . Because the variables Political Alignment and Kind of Economy consist of categories and not of numbers, an Analysis of Variance Test was conducted on them to find their significance to frequency assignments, in the global sample. In this sample all the independent variables except for the two categorical variables (Political Alignment and Kind of Economy) also underwent a Multiple Regression Analysis Test . 15 Using the symbol r to represent a coefficient of correlation, the research hypothesis is stated as: rxy # 0 That is, it is predicted that the variables x and y have a correlation that differs from zero in either a negative or a positive direction. The null hypothesis is: rxy - 0 The significance level is set at p .05 16 Notes Chapter 1 1. David E. Honig, "Lessons for the 1999 WARC." Journal_of_gommunisation (Spring 1980).9- 50- Hudson estimated that 90% of the spectrum is controlled by 10% of the world's population and that the Third World with 75% of the world's population, have only 7 percent of the world's telephones. 2 . The Centre for Telecommunications Development of the ITU notes that 15% of world population uses 85% of telecommunication services (see Appendix A). 3. Mustapha Masmoudi, The New World Igformariog Qrder. World Communication. A Handbook. George Gerbner and Marsha Siefert, Editors. (New York: Longman Inc., 1984), pp. 19-20. 4. Nolan A. Bowie, wrgc Third Wgrld Positigns and Adhigygrgnrs. World Communication. A Handbook, George Gerbner and Marsha Siefert, (Eds.) (New York: Longman Inc., 1984), p. 425. 5. Masmoudi, p. 15. 6. Sydney A. Head, W r roadc s S s s Cgrpararive Analysis (California: Wadsworth Publishing Company, 1985), pp. 138-139. 7. Ibid, p. 131. 8. International Telecommunication Union, Eddid Regdlaridns (Geneva: General Secretariat, 1986), Art. 1, p. RRl-3. Specific Terms Related to Frequency Management W (of a frequency band): Entry in the Table of Frequency Allocations of a given frequency band for the purpose of its use by one or more terrestrial or space radiocommunicarion seryiges or the rddid_a§rrdngmy service under specified conditions. This term shall also be applied to the frequency band concerned. Aildjgirerr (of a radio frequency or radio frequency chan- nel): Entry of a designated frequency channel in an agreed plan, adopted by a competent conference, for use by one or more administrations for a terrestrial or space radiogdmmd- in one or more identified countries or geographical areas and under specified conditions. 17 Assignmenr (of a radio frequency or radio frequency channel): Authorization given by an administration for a radio srdridn to use a radio frequency or radio frequency channel under specified conditions. 9. Ibid, Art. 1, p. RRl-B. : One or more transmitters or receivers or a combination of transmitters and receivers, including the accessory equipment, necessary at one location for carrying on a W. or the radio W serxice. 10. Ibid, Art. 1, p. RRl-l. Admirisrrgridn: Any Governmental department or service responsible for discharging the obligations undertaken in the Convention of the International Telecommunication Union and the Regulations(CONV.). 11. Ibid, Art. 10, p. RRlO-l. 12. Ibid, Art. 8. p. ans-1. 13. Masmoudi, pp. 14-27. 14. Ibid. 15. International Telecommunication ‘Union, .Li§&§__22§ MW (Geneva: Archives U-I-T-. 1955), pp. 1-14. 16- Jean-Lac Renaud The__Qhaaging__22namis§__of__the tr e omm t 01 n 0 ° - .'- . Analysis 9: Development Assistande. Dissertation for the Degree of Ph. D. Michigan State University, 1986, p. 332. 17. Thomas In Me. Phail WW 9 - . 01.; o o ._ l' ._ .|l_ll_! 1 0! (Beverly Hills: Sage Publications Inc., 1981), p. 251. 18. World Bank The_Eor1d.Dexelonment_ssnort_12§1 (New- York: Oxford University Press, 1987), pp. 197- 199. 19. Congress of the United States, Badid_£regdendy_y§e are a a- eae _u-ac - f on 9- o 2 ion 1 . _ ;-- . ggnferend__df_1212 (Washington D. C.: Office of Technologi- cal Assessment, 1982), p. 117. 9112mm AN INTRODUCTION TO THE ITU Twenty three years ago, in 1965, the International Telecommunication Union (ITU) celebrated. a Ihundred-year period of its existence as well as a period of consistently having had the largest membership of all intergovernmental organizations. It was the first intergovernmental organiza- tion to be established.1 What is the ITU? The ITU presently consists of one hundred and sixty two member countries (see figure 1), which are referred to by this Union, as "Administrations". These Government representatives meet periodically in conferences and draw up by mutual agreement, rules, regulations and recommenda- tions regarding the management of telecommunication services.2 The Union has about 600 full-time staff members whose job is to contribute to the reinforcement of the ITU regulations on a daily basis. These activities take place in the Union's Headquarters in Geneva, where these Union officials are accommodated, including the Secretary- General and his Deputy, the members of the International Frequency Registration Board (IFRB) , the Directors of the International Consultative Committees(CCITT and CCIR) , engineers, administrators, linguists, secretaries, and 18 19 other specialists. These are just the paid staff of the ITU, they do not constitute the Union. The member countries collectively are the International Telecommunication Union, or just, the Union.3 Figure 1, gives a schematic presenta- tion of the Union's structure described above. Historical The ITU began in the early days of telegraph com- munication. Its genesis predates the invention of telephony or radio; events which occurred in 1876 and 1919 respec- tively. Telegrams, sent by wire, were then limited to points within a country, so there was no need for interna- tional cooperation or agreements. However, as services were extended and telegrams were exchanged between countries: international agreement became necessary in regard to compatible types of equipment which should be deployed: the type of coding which should be used: the rates that should be charged for the telegrams, and in regard to juridical questions then raised by telegraph wires crossing national borders. Therefore, in 1865, the first telecommunication convention was adopted and the first telegraph regulations were written in Paris, in a conference of twenty European countries (see Appendix G). Subsequent to that time there has been tremendous growth in telecommunications of all kinds, in regard to distances spanned, as well as the types of intelligence and Members of the ITU and the Structure of the Union THE 162 ITU MEMBER COUNTRIES meet every 5 you" or 10 at a V Plonlpotontlury Coal-rout. thu ii the supreme atharIty ol the Umon, ulI-malely IeIpomIble tor ali oolncy. nd whlh revue: the Convontlon 0 «II the two membon ol Secretary-General the I'll and and the Daemon ol the CC Deputy Secretary-General elect: the Admlnlstrotlvo can 01“ Memben winch '11 H 23 Alg'nanmar Bulgov-o '-.-: Aloamo Dull-n: Fmo D! ‘m Algeno Burma 0- in: Angola Burundi - Lara: Anugua and Barbuda Byelowwo Dd k: Argenrma Camevoon DH b73521 AuItrcl-a Canada M 'r« AumIa Cope Ver I“ -_- Bahamas Central Airgun Rep. Efl 21:: Iahvam Chad 8 by. Bangladesh Cbtle I! Barbados Chino Eh a: fielguum Colombo F'— 2?; Belae Comma: 5-H 7 a Semn Con o 5-2 1:25 Fol-no Conn lies 5* : Both-Iona Cote d'lvoire G‘- I: Braxxl Cuba 58.1 I; EvuneI Dorunalom Cyprus 50., '9 partklpcto "I I. World Admlnlnratlve Conference: for Ielegraph and telephone whueh let/0e lelegloph and Telephone Regulohom lav radio Much‘ rah Rod-o KW who dlruntho . .,.,.,,...,... UTWM a meet: In annual ten-on. when It actI lor the PlenIootenlIory Conferente between the loner imeet-n 91; u u o suvpervneil the udmmutvat-ve lunttfum and ’ (o aIdInnIeI the arm IIIe ol rper- l Uheodquaonen In monent orgom at ITU Geneva u Adapted from "INTERNATIONAL TELECOMMUNICATION UNION WHAT IT DOES, WHAT IT IS, . Exnternaln and “legal repreIenIatIon of the . Pulalnmng and manogemen nloi led"! col co- . Provmon at Iezretarucn of (unfelencu . Afmmlstvohon, fine In . M:mberihnp prolotol. l \ GENERAL SKCREIAIIAI 1, Co- ordmaIIon and publ-(ahon ot Ielecom - mun IcotIon Ierv-ce data needed tor opera- 1, hon oise operotnon and related development gr um me IloI developmg countne rn,puter center- new-auger Q tween stat-om They“ anda ucblu IntarmoIIon Ierwces. '"d HOW IT WORKS" A I--~ Shana Jamaica Malto Ponomo South Alrico United Kingdom a: ‘ ireece Japan Mauritania Papuo New Guinea Spain United States m Srenodc Jordon Mauritius Paraguay Sri LanIIo Uruguay _ iuoIemolo Kenya Mexico Peru Sudan USSR 1" iumeo Kiribati Monaco Philippines Suriname Vatican '7" tamed-Bissau Korea (Rep. ol) Mongolia Poland Swaziland Venezuela '“ iuyono Kuwait Morocco Portugal Sweden Viet Nam '5 loati Loo P.D.R. Mozambique Qatar Switzerland Yemen (A1.) “-"Honduros lebonon Namibia Romania Syria Yemen (P.D.R. ol) lungory Lesotho Nauru Rwanda Tanzania Yugoslavia :eland Liberia Nepal Saint Vincent and Thailand Zaire idio Libya Netherlands the Grenadines Togo Zambia * idonesio Liechtenstein New Zeolond Son Marina Tango Zimbabwe 3 on (lilomic Luxembourg Nicaragua Soo Tome and Principe Trinidad and Tobago Republic of) Madagascar Niger Saudi Arabia Tunisia to at: Malawi Nigeria Senegal Turkey '8 elond Malaysia Norway Sierra Leone Uganda Joel Maldives Oman Singapore Ukraine oly Mali Pakistan Somalia United Arab Emirates (as at 1 March 1987) eglonal Admlnlstrottve 718' Conferences ist- td administrative arrangements for I I I l participate (along with recognized private operating agencies whose poniciporion is approved by the Member country which recognises them) in the work of the ;’ é- CCII (CIT! (International Telegraph and Telephone Consultative Committee) (International Radio Consultative Committee) which hold Plenary Assemblies normally every 4 years, which set up Study Groups to study technical. operating and torill questions and issue Recommendations on them, and convene World and Regional Plan Committees meetings to facilitate co-ordinoted development of international telecommunication services. 21 information which are transmitted. The American, Alexander Graham Bell, invented the telephone in 1876 and soon there was a demand for international telephone calls. Consequent- ly in 1885, the first ITU provisions for international telephony were made in a conference in Berlin. Twenty years later, in 1895, the historic first experiments in radio communication took place, followed by the first Interna- tional Radio Conference in 1906, in Berlin.4 Since 1906, a continuing series of conferences have progressively extended the scope of international com- munications by wire and by radio, and have provided for many additional telecommunication services such as fixed (point-to-point) , mobile (ship-to-shore, air-to-ground, etc), navigational aids to ships and aircraft, national and international broadcasting, television, data transmission, and more recently the introduction of space techniques in radio communication.5 For a step by step treatment of the history of the ITU, refer to Appendix B of this thesis. The 1850's had seen rapid development and proliferation of public telegraph correspondence within the national boundaries of all major European countries. However, there was little international telegraphic correspondence. The sight of telegraph wires from two neighboring nations, coming to a common border and there terminating: each on its own side, within its own national boundaries: (this sight) was not uncommon. Obviously, this situation was 22 crying out for a remedy. Common international links had to be forged. In order to address this intolerable situation and directly seek a solution: the French Imperial Govern- ment, in 1864, sent invitations ‘to all. major' European countries, proposing the convening of a conference whose main theme would be to hammer out conventions which would provide a uniform international telegraph system. The following year, 1865, saw the birth of an organization whose purpose was to facilitate international cooperation in telecommunications, named the International Telecoms munication Union.6 Composition and Purpose of the Union The ITU, one of the most universal international organizations, is currently comprised of 162 members. In 1947 this Union became a specialized agency of the United Nations by an agreement which established its role in the field of telecommunication regulation, recognized under the United Nations umbrella.7 The ITU which existed before its affiliation with the United Nations (U.N.), is shown in figure 2 in its relation to the U.N. The ITU differs from other specialized agencies of the U.N. partly because its basic structure and policies are laid down in a Convention instead of a Charter. A Convention is easier to change than a Charter.8 The purposes of the Union as laid down in Article 4 of FIGURE 2 5...... .8. 3.... .. 9.8a .25.... .n. .. new 62 a... i 8.5.3.... 8.....2 3...... 58. 8...... 3.3.1.90 38...... 12.3.2... v.83 2.) oil 83.3.5.5 3:31.830 01 28.3.34 .~.eule....eu.u.e. OD:- sa..-.aau5 fiend-233?. 2.6.... 92.3 Cl ”5...: ae..n!¢eiguu.uh €333.26. 3:? 003... .38. 382...... as: Ol ave-.00 3.. ‘3 8.3... 30 EPA...” 96. OJ l. “H...” “in; 8.3.3.... . .8... .58.... .3... ..... . .2. 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A l t .8... .8. .5... .. 88.8.2 .286 r50 0.. iiiiiiii he... he... .18... 3.8.... <9: 0 £88313]... 3.90%.}.0 883.83 1.1.82. 1.. ‘86 £83888 1... 8.» . . nut-Sine .. ................................... x. o 8888...... 8...... .86 . , .e i .3339 ‘ t 8......80 a... .95.... .._l 88.. .3830 . it; 332 $0883 hala- uu'b sues-8|..- .ea...z $815 but: .IL eel—>9 I :8. 8......8... 8...... 3...... 36...... . >35... 8...... 3...... 28.9.... . 8.3.... .. 8.3.3.90 . 8...... 3...... 1. .e 8.... .38.... .35.... 8.... 8...... 3...... 3...... mounmw anomaaz poems: 0:. am can ass 23 24 the International Telecommunication Convention (the Convention), signed at Nairobi, on 6 November 1982, are: a. to maintain and extend international cooperation between all Members of the Union for the improvement and rational use of telecommunications of all kinds, as well as to promote and to offer technical assis- tance to developing countries in the field of telecommunications; b. to promote the development of technical facilities and their most efficient operation with a view to improving the efficiency of telecommunication services, increasing their usefulness and making them, so far as possible, generally available to the public: c. to harmonize the actions of nations in the attainment of those ends.9 Structure and Organization of the union The ITU's structure and organization as seen in figure 1; is based on the provisions of the latest version of the International Telecommunication Convention, namely that of Nairobi, 1982. Membership Each independent nation can be a member of the ITU. Since the world's first extensive international telecom- munication networks were in Europe, the ITU was originally a' European body. But soon after de-colonization and national independence the growing number of the so-called "new nations” has increased the present number of member nations of the ITU to 162, of which the majority are from the Third World. The 162 member countries of the Union are 25 also listed in figure 1. Article 2 of the Convention 1982, describes the "Rights and Obligations of Members" of the ITU as follows: 1. Members of the Union shall have the right and shall be subject to the obligations provided for in the Convention. 2. Rights of Members in respect of their participa- tion in the conferences, meetings and consultations of the Union are: a. all Members shall be entitled to participate in conferences of the ‘Union, shall be eligible for election to the Administrative Council and shall have the right to nominate candidates for election to any of the permanent organs of the Union; b. subject to the provisions of Nos. 117 and 179, each Member shall have one vote at all conferences of the Union, at all meetings of the International Consultative Committees and, if it is a Member of the Administrative Council, at all sessions of that Council: c. subject to the provisions of Nos. 11710 and 179,11 each Member shall also have one vote in all consulta- tions carried out by correspondence.12 " 'on V t " r' c The most controversial right of the ITU members is the "one nation, one vote" principle that was adopted from the ‘United Nations, of which the ITU is a specialized agency. The "one nation, one vote" principle also applies in several other specialized agencies of the United Nations, such as the United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural Organization(UNESCO) , the International Labor Organization (ILO) and the Law of Sea Conference.13 Despite the wide acceptance of the "one nation, one vote" 26 principle, it remains controversial within the ITU. Why is this so? The United States and some other developed nations argue that they are greater users and larger investors in telecommunications. They also contribute more money to the ITU than most developing nations.14 So, they reason, they deserve more voting rights than nations which have not been able to attain their level of growth. Furthermore, such factors as land area and population have been offered as a rationale for more votes.15 The power indicated by the numerical majority of the developing nations since de-colonization under the ”one nation, one vote" principle; is deceptive. Undoubtedly, these countries realize that if they consistently vote for policies which are contrary to the wishes of the developed world, such course of action, may result in future dif- ficulties. The developed nations have power beyond their actual membership numbers due to their substantial volun- tary monetary contributions to the maintenance of the ITU. The developing nations implicitly understand that these voluntary contributions are contingent upon policies that are generally acceptable to the developed nations. During ‘the Plenipotentiary Conference. of‘ Nairobi in. 1982, the ‘United States offered to increase its training assistance to developing countries, establishing the United States Training Institute. This was done in order to increase support for the United States among the Third World 27 Countries which had recently cast votes unfavorable to the United States' policies. The level of disagreement between the United States and the Third World was serious enough for the United States to consider withdrawal from the ITU. The United States' Office of Technological Assessment discussed the possibility of establishing "... a more congenial grouping of developed countries as a forum for coordination to avoid radio interference, and simply ignore other countries" (USOTA, 1982: 19).16 Also, it proposed the modification of the one nation, one vote principle "to give more weight to the developed countries". Furthermore, the OTA discussed the utility of increased regionalization in order to delimit the impact of deci- sions, to specific geographical areas.” To further complicate matters, it must be remembered that among the developing nations themselves, there are differences such as, political alignment, population, land area, level of economic development and technological development. The converse of this is also true. For example, the US and the USSR are often adversaries over many issues. However, on the subject of "one nation, one vote” they agree that the greater users of radio frequencies and investors in telecommunications technology, merit more votes than the technologically less advanced nations.18 Despite appearan- ces to the contrary, the developing nations find themsel- ves strapped within the constraints of low economic and 28 technological development. This thesis will help to explain how these phenomena intervene in the application and acquisition of radio frequencies. mm The organization of the ITU, (Figure 1) and stated in Article 5 of the Convention, is composed of four permanent organs, the General Secretariat, the International Frequen- cy Registration Board (IFRB), the International Radio Consultative Committee (CCIR), and the International Telegraph and Telephone Consultative, Committee (CCITT). Additionally, the ITU's functions are fulfilled by three non-permanent organs: the Plenipotentiary Conference, the Administrative Conferences, and the Administrative Council. Although all these institutions each have their own struc- ture and purposes, their work is integrated. Of the organs just listed, the IFRB is the one crucial to this study. Therefore the IFRB will be described in further detail in the next section. The.Internationa1 Frequency Registration Board (IFRB) Origin In the early years of radio, matters involving the :noxious interference of radiowaves emanating in one country and spilling across national borders into another country 29 (or countries) were negotiated directly between governments and solutions and settlements were sought at that level. The dimensions of this problem of spillover and noxious interference expanded exponentially with the meteoric rise of the use of radio broadcasting and telecommunication. This piece-meal approach to settling the problem of international radio interference soon proved to be woefully inefficient and so other pragmatic ways of arriving at solutions were sought. It was in that spirit that a conference was convened at Atlantic City in 1947. By this time it was clear to all concerned that the best way to, handle these vexing problems arising out of national use of the radio spectrum was to adopt a coordinated, internation- al approach to the use of radio frequencies. Obviously, protocols had to be devised and policies adopted which, embodying the force of International Law: would, to the benefit of all concerned, put an end to the anarchy which had developed in international use of radiowaves. In this fashion, the idea for cooperation and harmony among nations in their peaceful use of the radio spectrum was given incarnation as the IFRB. From the outset therefore, the IFRB was created to handle notification, examination, coordination and registration of frequencies. According to the new philosophy, each national government; 'Administra- tion' in the ITU nomenclature, would notify intended use of a frequency to the IFRB. It is necessary to know that 30 stations not capable of causing harmful interference to those of another country need not comply with any ITU arrangements (see chapter 3 for frequency assignment procedure). W The constitution and essential duties of the IFRB are laid down in article 10 and 57 of the International Telecommunication Convention. The IFRB consists of five independent members, elected by the Plenipotentiary Conference.19 All these members must be technically qualified in the radio field. To ensure equitable distribu- tion amongst the regions of the world, these members are elected carefully from candidates sponsored by countries that are members of the ITU. "The members of the Interna- tional Frequency Registration Board shall serve, not as representing their respective countries, or of a region, but as custodians of an international public trust."20 m The essential duties of the IFRB, exactly as stated in the International Telecommunication Convention are: a) to effect an orderly recording and registration of frequency assignments made by the different countries in accordance with the procedure provided for in the Radio Regulations and in accordance with any decision which may be taken by competent conferences of the Union, with a view to ensuring formal international recognition thereof: 31 b) to effect, in the same conditions and for the same purpose, an orderly recording of the positions assigned by countries to geostationary satellites; c) to furnish advice to Members with a view to the operation of the maximum practicable number of radio channels in those portions of the spectrum where harmful interference may occur, and with a view to the equitable, effective and economical use of the geostationary satellite orbit, taking into account the needs of Members requiring assistance, the specific needs of developing countries, as well as the special geographical situation of particular countries; d) to perform any additional duties, concerned with the assignment and utilization of frequencies and with the equitable utilization of the geostationary satellite orbit, in accordance with the procedures provided for in the Radio Regulations, and as prescribed by a competent conference of the Union, or by the Administrative Council with the consent of a majority of the Members of the Union, in preparation for or in pursuance of the decisions of such a conference: e) to provide technical assistance in making prepara- tions for and organizing radio conferences in consultation, as appropriate, with the other per- manent organs of the Union, and with due regard for the relevant directives of the Administrative Council in carrying out these preparations; the Board shall also provide assistance to the developing countries in their preparations for these conferences; f) to maintain such essential records as may be related to the performance of its duties.21 Basically, the IFRB's duties were assigned to two major areas at the 1947 Atlantic City Conference. These areas are 2 It was given the power to study problems dealing with international frequency management when so requested by administrations and it was given the power to cancel frequency assignments that were not placed into operation within two years following the date of receipt of the first notice, or that had been out of use for a period of three years, but only if it obtained the agreement of the administration which 32 had notified them.22 (see also chapter 3, pp. 37-44). g It should also be noted that if an Administration decides to use or continues using a frequency that the IFRB has found in conflict with its policies for the use of frequencies there is nothing that the IFRB can do. The IFRB was not given any power whatsoever to make a determination on the legal merits of disputes which may occur over harmful interference cases. If called upon by an Admin- istration, the IFRB could assist the disputants to come to a mutual arrangement. To this extent the IFRB is to help and suggest, but not to decide.23 In succeeding chapters we will see how the IFRB executes the primary tasks relating to the notification, examina- tion, coordination and registration of frequency assign- ments. We will also see how these internationally recog- nized radio frequencies are distributed. among the ITU Members and how these frequencies are related to the afore- mentioned variables: globally, regionally and in Region 2, country-by-country. ..... crapcoma. 33 Notes Chapter 2 1. DOC. SEN IFRB 1/86-E, p. 1. 2. The basic regulations of the ITU are laid down in the International Telecommunication Convention of Nairobi, 1982 and the Radio Regulations 1986, part 1 and 2. 3. Doc. SEN IFRB 1/86-E, p. 1. 4 . Ibid. 5. Ibid. 6. Jean-Luc Renaud, s n elec mmun' a ' U i : c v o e s 's . Dissertation for the Degree of Ph. D. Michigan State University, 1986, p. 37. 7. Doc. SEM IFRB 1/86-E, p. 2. 8. Renaud, p. 330, ”Note about Convention and Charter". 9. International Telecommunication Union, W al_Iels2emmuai2atign_an_enfiQn_2f_Nairebi (Geneva: General Secretariat, 1982), Art. 4, p. 3. 10. Ibid, Art. 15, no. 117, p. 16. .A Member which is in arrear in its payments to the Union shall lose the right to vote as defined in Nos. 10 and 11 for so long as the amount of its arrears equals or exceeds the amount of the contribution due from it for the preced- ing two years. 11. Ibid, Art. 45, no. 179, p. 29. From the end of a period of two years from the date of entry into force of this Convention, a signatory government which has not deposited an instrument of ratification in accordance with No. 177 shall not be entitled to vote at any conference of the Union, or at any session of the Administrative Council, or at any meeting of any of the permanent organs of the Union, or during consultation by correspondence conducted in accordance with the provisions (of the Convention until it has so deposited such an instru- ment. Its rights, other than voting rights, shall not be affected. 12. Ibid, Art. 2, p. 2. 34 13. Congress of the United States, W o1! ana-eme . ”9&6 - 0H 9 0 0 2°” 1 :1! 0 Configrgngg_gf_1212 (Washington D. C.: Office of Technologi- cal Assessment, 1982), p. 117. 14. George A. Codding, Jr and Anthony M. Rutkowski, ‘ 1 ’9! ’1 3' "."'.l 3. '1 l‘! .! lt!’ 1° 1:122:15: (Washington st. . ARTECH HOUSE, INC. , 1932), pp. 186-187. 15. Congress of the United States, p. 117. 16. Sydney Head, Analysis. (Belmont: wadsworth Publishing Company, 1985), p. 140. 17. Ibid. 18. Congress of the United States, p. 117. 19. International Telecommunication Convention of Nairobi, Art. 10, pp. 9-10. 20. Ibid. 21. Ibid. 22. Codding, p. 120. 23. Ibid, 119. 91313331.; FREQUENCY ASSIGNMENTS AND FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION GLOBALLY AND REGIONALLK Internationally Recognized Frequencies This chapter examines information gathered from the Master International Frequency Register(MTFR) of the ITU's Headquarters. The MIFR is a file in which the IFRB lists frequencies which will be assigned by its Administrations to stations in countries which have submitted notification. I must note here that the MIFR does not contain a complete listing of all the frequencies in use in any particular country. Mainly internationally recognized frequencies are listed in the MIFR. Consequently, only the number of fre- quencies with international recognition are used in this study. The following procedure will shed light on which frequencies are notified to the IFRB, and which the IFRB registered in the MIFR with the right to enjoy internation- al recognition . dures f the I te na ' 1 o d atio ti ic t o o d en ss First, according to the provisions of the Radio Regula- tions, any intended use of a frequency, by an Administra- tion (with certain specific exceptions) shall be notified 35 36 to the IFRB, together with its technical characteristics: a. "if the use of the frequency concerned is capable of causing harmful interference to any service of another administration; c. if the frequency is to be used for international radio communication: or d. if it is desired to obtain international recognition of the use of the frequencies.'1 Second, the IFRB will examine the notice for the following: a. its conformity with the Convention, the Radio Regulations and other pertinent Agreements and Arrangements b. its probability of causing harmful interference to an assignment already recorded and enjoying international recognition. Third, the favorable findings, ie. those notifica- tions which are in conformity with the Regulations and will not cause harmful interference: these would result in the recording of the frequency in the MIFR, with the right to international recognition. If the findings are unfavorable, that is to say, not in conformity with the Regulations or can cause harmful interference to an assignment already recorded and enjoying international recognition: the IFRB will return the notice to the Administration for recon- sideration and search for a solution.3 The first rule, conformity with the applicable interna- ‘tional Law, was proposed by the United States and provides a basic precept for the IFRB's frequency assignment policy. It simply states that any requested frequency adheres to 37 the various procedures stated by the IFRB. This rule has been relatively uncontroversial because the Administrations understand that consistent guidelines for frequency assign- ments are necessary for harmonious relationships between the various members of the ITU. Also the IFRB helps those nations that need assistance in avoiding infractions of the regulatory procedures stated in the Convention and the Radio Regulations. As stated in chapter 2, if an Admin- istration insists on using a frequency that the IFRB finds against the applicable regulations, there is nothing the IFRB can do, as it was given no power of enforcement. The second rule, 'Earlier use and notification to the IFRB', is one of the most controversial issue concerning international telecommunications debated both within and outside the ITU for more than 40 years. According to Codding (1982) , frequency management issues have always been the most controversial topic among ITU Members since the Atlantic City Radio Conference of 1947.4 This rule can be applied if after the technical examination, the IFRB finds that there is a probability of the requested frequen- cy causing harmful interference to an assignment already recorded and enjoying international recognition. According to an interview with members of the IFRB, this rule is never immediately applied after the first technical examination. One of the main tasks of the IFRB in this process is the coordination of unfavorable cases. When such 38 cases arise the IFRB seeks to help the Administrations find other frequencies, or else, facilitates contact with the country whose frequency might suffer harmful interference. If the efforts of the IFRB result in an impasse, the request of the country seeking a new frequency assignment must yield to the nation which already has a frequency with international recognition. Therefore the 'Earlier use and notification to the IFRB' rule is only used as a last resort. However, it is probably in the context just described that this rule came to be called the "first come, first served" rule. The principle of first-come, first-served: presented relatively few problems in the period after the invention of radio, until World War 2. The post-War era saw the emergence of many new nations out of the former European colonies. These new nations, generally speaking, immediate- ly joined the ITU upon gaining independence. The ITU found itself confronting a situation that it had not been designed to handle. It should be borne in mind that the ITU was created to meet the needs of twenty European countries (Appendix G). The problems that the newly independent nations encountered in the ITU are amply illustrated by Scantlebury's following statement: "It was this system that the new states encountered when they became independent in the 1950's and 39 1960's. It had its primary focus on the maintenance and improvement of an already establish international telecommunications network. The system and the ITU were dominated by the major Western trading nations, and it functioned mainly to meet their requirements and perceived needs".5 Consequently, in the first hundred years of the ITU, only one major elected official of the ITU was not a citizen of Western Europe or the United States. That individual was Marco Aurelio Andrada of Argentina, the Secretary General from 1954 to 1953.5,7 ’ The new members of the ITU found themselves with domestic situations markedly different from those of the older members of the ITU. In short, the new nations, generally, had poorly developed international communication systems, their regional communication networks were virtually non-existent and their international linkages consisted mainly of connections to the former metropolitan powers. Responding to the demands of the new members of the ITU, who now constituted a majority, the ITU implemented its own development fund. Some developed member nations of the ITU willingly contributed thousands of dollars, in addition to providing invaluable technical expertise, to this special developmental fund of the ITU.8,9 The ITU technical assistance program was able to bring about sig- nificant improvements in the telecommunication systems of many of its new members. Despite its achievements, the development program of 40 the ITU was not without its drawbacks. New problems surfaced, noticeably in the area of frequency assignments. Apparently, the same process which brought the development of communication networks in the new nations, also served to increase their need for more frequencies. The acquisi- tion of frequencies has been complicated by the fact that one of the ITU's basic principles is "first come, first served". In essence the ITU had to deal with the fact that countries already had control of certain frequencies. Since the ITU had no way of forcing countries to give up their frequencies, the ITU simply settled on the principle of recognizing the first country to control the frequency as it rightful owner. In doing this the ITU was able to maintain its authority as a legitimating body without alienating powerful member states. This situation trans- lated itself into the "first come first served" principle. The "first come, first served" principle of the ITU has, arguably been an inappropriate and inequitable basis of distributing the radio spectrum. Masmoudi (1984) , points out that the first-come, first-served principle contributes in a major fashion to the disparity in frequency assignment which exists between the First World and the Third World.10 Another policy that is said to inhibit the number of frequencies available to the Third World is the policy concerning "Modification, Cancellation and Review of Entries in the Master Register". 41 Whenever it appears to the Board(IFRB) from the information available that a recorded assignment has not been brought into regular operation in accordance with those basic characteristics, the the Board shall consult the notifying administra- tion and, c 0 ts eeme , (underlining added) shall either cancel, or suitably modif , or retain the basic characteristics of the entry.1 The Third World Countries make critical reference to the practice, often indulged in by the rich technologically advanced First World Countries, of hoarding frequencies acquired by means of the "first come, first served" device which are then held for’ years unused. The developing nations complain quite strongly that these hoarded frequen- cies further diminish their access to the availability of additional frequencies to serve their present and future needs. However, in 1974 the IFRB designed a procedure "... to determine which frequency assignments to international links in the Fixed service recorded in the Master Register (M.A.) no longer reflected actual usage of the radio spectrum in the 3 to 30 MHz range, with a view to making the necessary changes or cancellations ..." Thanks to the cooperation of administrations, the following changes have been made between 1977 and 1979. 42 TABLE 1 Frequencies not Reflecting Actual Usage Entries Entries Subject Marked Entries to Entries Used Maintained this Cancel- Occasion- Unchanged Year Inquiry led ally 1977 7896 5613 1481 802 100% 71.08% 18.76% 10.16% 1978 1271 491 447 333 100% 38.6% 35.2% 26.2% 1979 1204 635 154 415 100% 52.7% 12.8% 34.5% Compiled from the Reports on the Activities of the ITU 1977, 1978 and 1979.12 Further research is needed. to know' if the ITU' has continued to apply this procedure since 1979. Also, a study of the proportion of frequencies falling under the above described inquiry, would undoubtedly prove to be of great ‘value to students of telecommunications as well as of the nations of the world. It is important to note that the IFRB was able to only change the status of frequencies in those instances were national administrations were amenable to cooperation. Obviously, this fact served to constrain the IFRB's ability to alter any under-utilized frequency. The IFRB's limited ability to change existing irregularities, stems from its lack of coercive power. As if to further confound the situation, the ITU 43 promulgated Conventions which encouraged Administrations to adopt high levels of communications technology in order to obtain the frequencies they need. Exactly, as stated in Article 33 of Convention Nairobi, 1982: Rationale Use of the Radio Frequency Spectrum and of the Geostationary Satellite Orbit 1. Members shall endeavour to limit the number of frequencies and the spectrum space used to the minimum essential to provide in a satisfactory manner the necessary services. To that end they shall endeavour to apply the latest technical advances as soon as possible. 2. In using frequency bands for space radio services Members shall bear in mind that radio frequencies and the geostationary satellite orbit are limited natural resources and that they must be used efficiently and economically, in conformity with the provisions of the Radio Regulations, so that countries or groups of countries may have equitable access to both, taking into account the special needs of the developing countries and the geographical situation of par- ticular countries.13 The expenses involved in acquiring, installing, operating and maintaining high technology telecommunication systems, are prohibitively beyond the national needs or economic capabilities of many newly independent countries. These constraints, did not apply to older, richer, technological- ly-developed nations. So, here we see the discriminatory nature of the "first come, first served" principle in operation. Due to historical, economic, technological and political reasons, the newer ITU members find themselves at a disadvantage, because countries already well 44 established, for example as international broadcasters and employing high powered transmitters have an advantage over newcomers to the scene. From the prospective of these newer nations therefore, the first-come, first-served principle seems unfair. It appears to legitimize an existing situa- tion, which was already exclusionary of the newer coun- tries. Essentially, the great economic advantages of the industrialized nations allowed them to exploit technology at a pace that is not even remotely feasible for the vast majority of the new ITU members. The consequence of this situation was that these advanced industrialized powers were able to acquire large numbers of frequencies for a wide variety of purposes, such as communications, military and surveillance uses. World Superpowers such as the United States and the USSR are the primary' users of frequencies . Table 2 shows the number of frequencies that are being used by the 20 largest frequency users. In his study of spectrum management, Porat (1980) estimated that the United States and the USSR, having only 15 percent of the world's population, use 50 percent of the spectrum.14 Our research indicates that these two nations have 255691 frequency assignments, that is approximately 25 percent of the total number of frequencies with intern- ational recognition around the world. In conclusion, there are two mechanisms responsible for 45 the lower numbers of frequencies assigned to Third World Countries: An historical disadvantage, their date of de- colonization, and a present day disadvantage: their inabi- lity to propose the latest technological applications. TABLE 2 The Top Twenty Frequency Users 1. United States 209199 20.8% 2. Argentina 100533 10.0% 3. Canada 53855 5.4% 4. France 51564 5.0% 5. United Kingdom 51350 5.1% 6. German Fed. Rep. of 50617 5.0% 7. The USSR 46392 4.6% 8. Mexico 38509 3.8% 9. Brazil 32975 3.3% 10. German Dem. Rep. of 30268 3.0% 11. Australia 24200 2.4% 12. China 22977 2.3% 13. Austria 18244 1.8% 14. India 16810 1.7% 15. Denmark 15656 1.6% 16. Japan 14994 1.4% 17. Indonesia 14379 1.4% 18. Norway 14197 1.4% 19. New Zealand 14124 1.4% 20. Uruguay 11116 1.1% total(N-20) 966909 96.3% the rest(N-148) 37029 3.7% Total 1003938 100% Compiled from the Total Number of Frequency Assignments ted by Administration, Appendix E). per’ September 24, 1987 (see 46 Overview of WOrldwide Distribution The following prima facie disparity of the assigned frequencies worldwide shows that the MIFR lists 1003938 frequencies with international recognition. Appendix E is a copy of the information received from the ITU, from which Table 3 is compiled. The countries are arranged in descend- ing order according to the number of frequencies assigned to each. An idea of the differences in assigned frequencies can be gained by examining the number of frequencies assigned to: . The World Superpowers: the United States with 209199 and the USSR with 46392 frequencies. . The Federal Republic of Germany with 51350 and the Democratic Republic of Germany with 38509 frequencies. . Argentina with 100533, Brazil with 32975 and Mexico with 38509 frequencies. . India with 16810 and China with 22977 frequencies. . Panama with 4745 and Nicaragua with 297 frequencies. . Cuba with 4015, Jamaica with 137 and the Dominican Republic with 492 frequencies. ., Nigeria with 1668 and South Africa with 3307 frequen- cies. . The Republic of Korea with 2188 and the Democratic Republic of Korea with 50 frequencies. . Suriname with 402 and Guyana with 223 frequencies. 47 . Haiti with 48 and Comoros with 55 frequencies. This varied list of countries provides an opportunity to view the great differences in frequency assignments among ITU members. The relationships and variations between frequency assignments and selected characteristics will be analyzed through Pearsons Product-Moment Correlation and Multiple Regression Analysis in chapters four and five. The analyses will be applied on a country-by-country basis to Region 2 in chapter 6. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. 33. 34. 35. 36. 37. 38. 39. 40. 41. 42. 43. 44. 45. 46. 47. ‘ TABLE 3 ITU Members in Descending Order of the Number of Frequencies Assigned to Each United States Argentina Canada France United Kingdom German Fed. Rep. of USSR Mexico Brazil German Dem. Rep. of Australia China Austria India Denmark Japan Indonesia Norway New Zealand Uruguay Italy Spain Chile Saudi Arabia Sweden Pakistan Yugoslavia Panama Finland Cuba Netherlands Turkey Poland South Africa Columbia Philippines Bolivia Czechoslovakia Switzerland Iran Portugal Korea Rep. Bangladesh Algeria Zaire ‘ Mozambique Belgium 209199 100533 53855 51564 51350 50617 46392 38509 32975 30268 24200 22977 18244 16810 15656 14994 14379 14197 14124 11116 10427 8575 8247 8167 7800 6411 5141 4745 4313 4015 3804 3633 3377 3307 3274 3198 3176 3114 2809 2501 2191 2188 2093 2006 1897 1880 1850 48. 49. 50. 51. 52. 53. 54. 55. 56. 57 58. 59. 60. 61. 62. 63. 64. 65. 66. 67. 68. 69. 70. 71. 72. 73. 74. 75. 76. 77. 78. 79. 80. 81. 82. 83. 84. 85. 86. 87. 88. 89. 90. 91. 92. 93. 94. Greece Peru Vietnam Nigeria Burma P. New Guinea. Madagascar Thailand Jordan Venezuela Mongolia Morocco Ireland Bahrain Rumania Ivory Coast Congo Oman Malaysia Ethiopia Chad Guatemala Ghana Mauritania Senegal Singapore Iraq Israel Angola Ecuador Egypt Tanzania Zimbabwe Iceland Libyan Cameroon Kenya Tunisia Qatar Bulgaria Hungary Sudan Gabon Paraguay Malta Zambia Cape Verde 1837 1769 1736 1668 1663 1608 1558 1541 1484 1447 1315 1354 1264 1242 1234 1228 1148 1119 1093 1065 1036 979 975 913 899 877 868 863 862 845 792 783 768 742 719 712 712 698 666 622 602 592 582 579 566 513 512 49 TABLE 3(CONT'D.) 95. Dominican Rep. 492 143. Barbados 88 96. Honduras 468 144. Se chelles 88 97. Sri Lanka 465 145. So omon Islands 84 98. El Salvador 462 146. Eq. Guinea 82 99. Mali 451 147. Trin. 5 Tab. 80 100. Central Af. Rep. 418 148. Luxembourg 78 101. United Arab Em. 413 149. The Gambia 78 102. Fiji 404 150. Costa Rica 72 103. Somalia , 403 151. Tonga 64 104. Suriname 402 152. Comoros 55 105. Cyprus 400 153. Maldives 50 106. Uganda 352 154. Korea P.D.R. 50 107. Niger 351 155. Haiti 48 108. Kuwait 342 156. Antigua & Bar. 45 109. Afghanistan 315 157. St.Vin. & Gren. 43 110. Sierra Leone 312 158. St. Lucia 42 111. Burkina Faso 306 159. Vatican City St. 39 112. Lebanon 301 160. Naura 38 113. Nicaragua 297 161. St. Chr. & Nevis 37 114. Liberia 283 162. Grenada 32 115. Yemen P.D.R. 251 163. San Marino 32 116. Botswana 245 164. Dominica 31 117. Syrian Arab Rep. 235 165. Brunei 31 118. Guyana 223 166. Brunei War 31 119. Yemen Arab. Rep. 217 167. Bermuda 11 120. Guinea-Bisau 214 168. Anguilla 1 121. Kiribati 200 122. Guinea 187 123. Bahamas 186 Total 1003938 124. Togo 186 125. Djibouti 185 126. Benin 154 127. Albania 150 128. Mauritius 145 129. Lesotho 141 130. Rwanda 138 131. Jamaica 137 132. Malawi 121 133. Kampuchea 119 134. Monaco 117 135. Tuvalu 116 136. Burundi 116 137. Sao Tome & Principe 114 138. Vanauta 113 139. Swaziland 110 140. Belize 109 141. Lao P.D.R. 104 142. Nepal 97 The ITU consists of 162 members. The N in this study is 168 because 6 territories controlled by their ex-colonizers are registered under their own country name. 50 Inter-Region Comparison This section provides a brief inter- and intra-region comparison of the number of frequencies assigned to, different countries by the ITU. The ITU classifies its 162 member nations into three Regions. Region 1 consists of Europe, the USSR and Africa. Region 2 is the Americas and some Atlantic and Pacific Islands. Region 3 is comprised of Asia and the South Pacific. All of the countries which comprise the three Regions are listed in the Tables 5, 6 and 7, in descending order according to the number of frequencies assigned to each. To illustrate the differences in the frequencies assigned to ITU Member nations more clearly, the countries are set out per region in histograms (Figures 3, 4 and 5). To compile these histograms, the number of frequencies, per Administration, were divided by 1000. It is of interest to note that there exists a marked difference in the number of countries comprising both Region 2 and Region 3, as compared to the number of countries contained in Region 1. Region 1 consists of 83 countries. Region 2, 37 countries and Region 3: 48 countries. The spectrum space shortage in Region 1 as compared to Region 2 is largely due to the density of countries in a small geographic area. In the words of Head: "The 27 countries of Western-Europe constitute the most densely covered broadcasting area of the world, with only 6 percent of the worlds population but 19 51 percent of its broadcast receivers, all crowded into only about 3 percent of the land area".15 Despite the discrete allocation of each country to one individual Region, we have seen instances in which coun- tries belonging to a particular region hold frequencies in at least one other region. These seven countries are represented in at least one other region: TABLE 4 Cross-region Frequency Assignments Countries Region 2 Region 1 Region 3 United States 209199 ---------- 10526 ----------- United Kingdom 488 51350 France 2288 51564 Denmark 667 15656 Netherlands 319 3804 Sweden 8 7800 Peru 1769 1 Compiled from the total number of frequency assignments, listed by Administration, per September 24, 1987 (see Appendix E). The IFRB rationale which helps us to make sense of these apparent anomalies was furnished by Mr. J. Balfroid, Head of the Registration and Publications Divisions and Operation Division of the IFRB. Mr. Balfroid explained that territorial and diplomatic reasons lie behind these cross- region assignments. Partly, this rationale makes sense, because most of these countries still have territories 52 in other regions than the one in which they are located. In other words, the frequencies of those territories (for example colonies) are registered under the name of the metropolitan governments. Upon initial examination, it seems odd. that. only' these seven countries have cross- regional frequency assignments for' diplomatic and ter- ritorial purposes. Further research is needed to explore the range of factors and applications of frequency assign- ments that explain their use in multiple regions by ex- colonizers and present day superpowers. The roots of strong American representation in Region 3 can be traced back to the acquisition of the Hawaiian Islands in the 1880's as well at that of the Philippines in 1898 as an outcome of the Spanish American War. This is in congruence with the official IFRB explanation of cross- or multi-region frequency ownership based on territorial and diplomatic grounds. The historical process of the United States frequency acquisition behavior overtime, and its use of these frequencies is a topic that we _recommend for future research. Overview of Distribution in Region 1 The USSR the largest member country in geographical area, in Region 1, ranks fourth on the list of frequency assignments (Table 5) France, the United Kingdom and Northern Ireland, and West Germany, all smaller Western 53 European nations: rank ahead of the USSR in number of frequencies assigned to each. A number of smaller European nations follow the USSR. European nations, as well as the USSR rank among the twenty nations with the greatest number of frequency assignments. In addition to Europe and the USSR, Region 1 contains the continent of Africa. The number of frequency assign- ments in Africa presents a stark contrast to the situation in Europe. Most African states have less than 1000 frequen- cies each assigned to them. In fact 34 African countries have less than 1000 frequencies each. This range extends from Ghana with 975 to the Republic of the Gambia which has a mere 78. A notable exception to the pattern of frequency assign- ment in Africa is South Africa. The high number of frequen- cies assigned to South Africa is probably attributable to its high level of technical and economic development. The association between these factors and the number of frequencies assigned will be investigated more thoroughly in the next chapters. 54 TABLE 5 Region 1 ITU Members in Descending Order of the Number of Frequencies Assigned to Each 1. France 51564 46. Bulgaria 00622 2. United Kingdom 51350 47. Hungary 00602 3. Germany Fed. Rep. of 50617 48. Sudan 00592 4. USSR 46392 49. Gabon 00582 5. German Dem. Rep. of 30268 50. Malta 00566 6. Austria 18244 51. Zambia 00513 7. Denmark 15656 52. Cape Verde 00512 8. Norway 14197 53. Mali 00451 9. Italy 10427 54. Centr.Af.Rep. 00418 10. Spain 08575 55. Somalia 00403 11. Sweden 07800 56. Uganda 00352 12. Yugoslavia 05141 57. Niger 00351 13. Finland 04313 58. Sierra Leone 00312 14. Netherlands 03804 59. Burkina Faso 00306 15. Turkey 03633 60. Botswana 00245 16. Poland 03377 61. Guinea-Bissau 00214 17. South Africa 03307 62. Guinea 00187 18. Czechoslovakia 03114 63. Togo 00186 19. Switzerland 02809 64. Djibouti 00185 20. Portugal 02191 65. Albania 00150 21. Algeria 02006 66. Benin 00154 22, Zaire 01897 67. Mauritius 00145 23. Mozambique 01880 68. Lesotho 00141 24. Belgium 01850 69. Rwanda 00138 25. Greece 01837 70. Malawi 00121 26. Nigeria 01668 71. Monaco 00117 27. Madagascar 01558 72. Burundi 00116 28. Morocco 01354 73. S. Tome & Pr. 00114 29. Ireland 01264 74. Swaziland 00110 30. Rumania 01234 75. Lao P.D. Rep. 00104 31. Ivory Coast 01228 76. Seychelles 00088 32. Congo 01148 77. Eq. Guinea 00082 33. Ethiopia 01065 78. Gambia 00078 34. Chad 01036 79. Luxembourg 00078 35. Ghana 00975 80. Comoros 00055 36. Mauritania 00913 81. San Marino 00032 37. Senegal 00899 82. Brunei War 00031 38. Egypt 00792 83. Vat. City St. 00030 39. Tanzania 00783 40. Zimbabwe 00768 41. Iceland 00742 Total 374150 42. Libya 00719 43. Cameroon 00712 44. Kenya 00712 45. Tunisia 00698 55 United Kingdom France_____3v Germany Fed. Rep. USSR German Dem. Rep. Number of Frequencies Austria Denmark Norway Italy Spain Sweden Yugoslavia Finland Netherlands l i Vatican City St. a. .:M.o<~.p P—-THJMafl£rs———4 FIGURE 3 : Histogram of Number of Frequencies Assigned to ITU Members in Region 1 up to September, 1987 (This histogram was reduced from its original size) 56 Overview of Distribution in Region 2 The five largest countries in Region 2 have the greatest numbers of frequencies assigned to them. In descending order, according to the number of frequency assignments, the countries are: the United States, Argentina, Canada, Mexico and Brazil (Table 6). However, in descending order, according to their geographical area they are: Canada, the United States, Brazil, Argentina and Mexico. It seems like their may be a strong relationship between the size of a country and the number of frequencies assigned to each. Further analysis shows that: 1. Most smaller developing nations in this region have less than 1000 frequencies to work with. 2. Among the top five nations with the largest number of frequencies are two industrialized and three newly- industrialized developing nations. 3. In Region 2, the United States dominates with 209199 frequencies of'a total of 478569 4. Argentina with 100533 frequencies, has roughly twice as many frequencies as Canada which has 53855. 5. Mexico has the highest number of frequencies among the Central American countries. 6. Brazil has the most frequencies in South America. 7. Cuba has the most frequencies in the Caribbean. 8. Eight smaller Caribbean territories trail behind Haiti, which itself has 48 frequencies. 57 TABLE 6 Region 2 ITU Members in Descending Order of the Number of Frequencies assigned to Each 1. United States 209199 2. Argentina 100533 3. Canada 053855 4. Mexico 038509 5. Brazil 032975 6. Uruguay 011116 7. Chile 008247 8. Panama 004745 9. Cuba 004015 10. Colombia 003274 11. Bolivia 003176 12. Peru 001769 13. Venezuela 001447 14. Guatemala 000979 15. Ecuador 000845 16. Paraguay 000579 17. Dominican Republic 000492 18. Honduras 000468 19. El Salvador 000462 20. Suriname 000402 21. Nicaragua 000297 22. Guyana 000223 23. Bahamas 000186 24. Jamaica 000137 25. Belize 000109 26. Barbados 000088 27. Trim. 8 Tob. 000080 28. Costa Rica 000072 29. Haiti 000048 30. Antigua 8 Barbuda 000045 31. St.Vinc.8 Gren. 000043 32. St.LuCia 000042 33. St.Chris 8 Nevis 000037 34. Grenada 000032 35. Dominica 000031 36. Bermuda 000011 37 . Anguilla 000001 Total 478569 58 United States W m o "-4 Argentina ‘ g “‘ m E u o 'g 2 Canada Colombia Cuba Anguilla Bolivia FIGURE 4 : Histogram of Number of Frequencies Assigned to ITU Members in Region 2 up to September, 1987 (This histogram was reduced from its original size) 59 Overview of Distribution in Region 3 Also in Region 3, the largest countries have the greatest number of frequencies. In descending order of the number of assigned frequencies these nations are: Austral- ia, China and Japan (Table 7). Region 3 is comprised of 48 countries. Ranging in size from China, India and Australia to Kuwait, Tonga and the Maldives. Furthermore: 1. Most of the smaller, developing nations in this Region have less than 1000 frequencies to work with. 2. The largest developed and newly industrialized nations use from 14 to 24 times more frequencies than the developing nations. 3. The People's Republic of China ranks second on the list of greatest frequency users. 60 TABLE 7 Region 3 ITU Members in Descending Order of the Number of Frequencies assigned to Each 1. 2. 3. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. 33. 34. 35. 36. 37. 38. 39. 40. 41. 42. 43. 44. Australia China India Japan Indonesia New Zealand Saudi Arabia Pakistan Philippines Iran Korea Rep. of Bangladesh Vietnam Burma Papua New Guinea Thailand Jordan Mongolia Bahrain Oman Malaysia Singapore Iraq Israel Angola Qatar Sri Lanka United Arab Emirates Fiji Cyprus Kuwait Afghanistan Lebanon Yemen P.D.R Syrian Arab Rep. Yemen Arab Rep. Kiribati Dem. Kampuchea Tuvalu Vanuata Lao P.Dem.Republic Nepal Solomon Islands Tonga 24200 22977 16810 14994 14397 14124 08167 06411 03198 02501 02188 02093 01736 01663 01608 01541 01484 01315 01242 01119 01093 00877 00868 00863 00862 00666 00465 00413 00404 00400 00342 00315 00301 00251 00235 00217 00200 00119 00116 00113 00104 00097 00084 00064 45. 46. 47. 48. Maldives 00050 Korea P.D.R. 00050 Naura —00038 “Brunei War 00031 Total 151219 61 Australia China India Japan Indonesia New Zealand Number of Frequencies Saudi Arabia Pakistan Philippines Korea Rep. of Iran Brunei War %* ITU1flmmers 4 FIGURE 5 : Histogram of Number of Frequencies Assigned to ITU Members in Region 3 up to September, 1987 62 Summary and Conclusion This Overview of Frequency Distribution revealed that: . Most smaller developing nations in Region 1, 2 and 3, are using less than 1000 frequencies per country, as compared to most developed nations. . Most of the large and newly industrialized developing nations rank in the top twenty users. This group includes the USSR, China, Cuba, Mexico, Brazil and India. . Worldwide, regardless of region, the pattern of frequen- cy assignment shows most, if not quite all, of the developed industrialized nations to be in the top twenty frequency users (see Table 3). . The United States has many more frequencies in use than all other countries in Region 2, it uses about 50% of the total number of frequencies assigned in Region 2. In conclusion, we can say. that there appears to be a positive association between the number of frequency assignments and the level of economic and technological advancement of a country, as well as the size of the population and the size of the geographical area. The United States, with the largest number of frequency assignments in the world also has the highest economic and technological advancement. Additionally, the United States is among the twenty nations with the largest populations and land areas in the world. The next chapters will show if 63 these apparent relationships, as well as the correlations with other selected characteristics are true. The above-mentioned variables interrelate with the following two ITU policy mechanisms to produce the dif- ferences in frequency assignments: the First Come, First Served principle and the policy concerning Modification Cancellation and Review of Entries in the Master Register. 64 Notes Chapter 3 1. International Telecommunication Union, Basia Ragalagisns (Geneva: General Secretariat, 1986), Art. 13, p. RRl3-1. 2. DOC. SEN IFRB 3/86-E, p. 1. 3. Ibid. 4. George A. Codding, Jr. and Anthony M. Rutkowski, 1:. 012‘ on" 1 . 01 1 0! . 9- 0 9° 39:19 (Washington St.: ARTECH HOUSE, INC., 1982), p. 215. 5- Marcia Scantlebury (Ed- ). Reaching__fgr__§ee_truml WABQ' 12 (San Jose: Impreso Por Imprenta Nacional, 1982), p. 271. 6. Ibid. 7. Jean-Luc Renaud, The Changing Dynamics of the International Telecommunication Union: An Historical Analysis of Development Assistance. Dissertation for the Degree of Ph. D. Michigan State University, 1986, p. 235. Presently, "the high level positions in the ITU are still occupied by officials from the European countries and the USA, and the low level positions by representatives from developing countries." According to an ITU delegate "it is very difficult for delegates of a Third World nation to be promoted to a position previously occupied by somebody from the industrialized world, particularly in specialized organs like the CCI's." 8. Ibid, p. 272. 9. Codding, p. 293. Other sources of income for telecommunication development projects have always been minor, including income from the ITU's own development fund. As reported earlier the contributions ‘to ‘this fund. have :never’ been large, the United States still refuses to contribute to it. (see also pp. 284-297). 10- Mustapha Masmoudi. The_.New__flerld__lnfgrmatiea sagas. World Communication. A Handbook George Gerbner and Marsha Siefert (Eds.) (New York: Longman Inc., 1984) pp. 14-27. 65 11. Radio Regulations, Art. 13, p. RR13-13. 12. International Telecommunication Union, 1978, 1979, and 1980, o v es 0 7 ana__1212 (Geneva: General Secretariat, 1978, 1919 and 1980), pp. 25, 21 and 25 respectively. 13. International Telecommunication Convention of Nairobi, p. 23. 14. Honig, p. 50. 15. Sydney Head, Ecru—2W Analysis. (Belmont: Wadsworth Publishing Company, 1985), pp. 19-200 sham RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN FREQUENCY ASSIGNMENTS PER COUNTRY AND SELECTED CHARACTERISTICS In order to understand the reasons underlying observed differences in frequency assignments among ITU members, as seen in chapter 3, a first step was to investigate the relationship of selected variables (listed below) to number of frequencies per country. It is understood that a strong statistical correlation between variables is no indication of causality. These correlation matrixes merely generate significant associations between variables for exploration on a country-by-country basis, in chapter six. In this study, the number of frequencies is the depen- dent variable and all of the following variables are independent: 1. Age of the Nation 2. Length of Membership in the ITU 3. Political Alignment 4. Number of Telephones 5. Number of Radios Technological Development 6. Number of Television Sets 7. Number of Circulation of Daily Newspaper 8. Number of Computer Units(only for Iatin America) 9. Kind of Economy 10. Gross National Product 11. Per Capita Income 12. Population Size 13. Country Size 14. Education In other words, it is hypothesized that these selected independent variables are thought to be related to the 66 67 number of frequencies assigned to each country. In order to have consistency of terminology in the interpretation of the magnitude of the correlation, the following rough guide, suggested by Guilford will be used: <.20 slight: almost negligible relationship .20-.40 low correlation: definite but small relationship .40-. 70 moderate correlation, substantial relationship .70-. 90 high correlation: marked relationship > .90 very high correlation: very dependable relationship1 Additionally, following the guidelines suggested by Kerlinger: if the coefficient of correlation is less than .30 at the .05 level, the relationship will be considered statistically not significant.2 This chapter will attempt to explain the relationships between the frequency assignments to ITU members and the aforementioned independent variables. First, a report is given of the relationships worldwide. Because the variables Political Alignment and Kind of Economy consist of categor- ies and not of’ numbers, an..Analysis of ‘Variance test (Anova) was conducted on them, to find their significance to frequency assignments. Second, all the independent vari- ables except for the two categorical variables (Political Alignment and Kind of Economy) underwent a Multiple Regression Analysis test. Third, the Reliability of the factor (technological development) which explains the most variance in the number of frequency assignment was analyzed. 68 Report on WOrldwide Analyses (N=168) Five of the selected characteristics (variables) mentioned in the hypothesis are positively and significant- ly related to the number of frequency assignments to ITU members, worldwide (Table 8). First we will examine the relationships between political alignment, kind of economy and frequency assignments, then some of the correlations will be discussed. W. The means of the three different categories of political alignment: pro-west, socialist and non-aligned are 8981 (Ne92), 4368 (N=30), and 1204(N=41), respectively. Although there are :noticeable. differences between the average number of frequencies assigned to these categories of countries, there is no significant relation- ship between the number of frequencies and the political alignment of a country (Sig. of' F =.909). The insig- nificance of this relationship can be explained by an examination of the list of frequency assignments. Of the worlds ten largest frequency users, at least two are socialist in their political alignment, the remaining are pro-west (see Table 2). The absence of the non-aligned countries among the worlds' largest frequency users can be explained by the fact that they are all Third_ World Countries, while many of the socialist and pro-western nations are of the Second and First World. Kind of Economy. This variable was shown to be 69 significant, because it separates economies on a basis that directly parallels specific levels of economic development. The inaanasalsn, of Political Alignment and Kind of Economy has also been shown to be insignificant with regard to the number of frequencies assigned. We believe that the insignificance of the interaction of these two variables stems from their fundamentally different nature. While Political Alignment has various levels of economic and technological development within two of its three catego- ries, Kind of Economy rigidly separates nations on the basis of development. DBH 0:“ cw ewcmuon me. am. mm. mm. ma. mm. mm. mm. ma. me. mm. 150: nausea .~H an. mm. as. oo. om. «N. ma. Ho.u Ho. «a. acoauoz mo< .HH no. Nu. «a. «N. me. am. oo. oo. an. acououfin .oH oamoom oooH poo muoommmzoz on. ma. om. me. an. om. No. on. aaqoo.uo * .o mm. mm. mm. mm. mo. mm. mm. u>a uo e .o mm. as. mm. mm. so. on. magnum no u .a 8 m on. mo. 3. am. no. monoem no. .o u osoosH T mm. no. mo. on. oueomo moo .m do. an. mm. .m.z.o .q am. am. none econ .m om. coauoaoooo .~ mmfio Icocvoum mo * .a HH oH o o a o m e n m H moanofiuo> 33qu 00:67.83 moanguflw ucoocoeoo new ucoocoeoocn econ—4 ncoHumaouuoo 70 71 Lang_a;sa. The size of a country exhibited a substantial correlation with number of frequencies assigned (see Table 8). This relationship is understandable because the following six nations with land masses of 3 million square miles or more are among the twelve largest frequency users: the USSR(8.6 million, much the largest), Canada(3.8), China(3.7), the United States(3.5), Brazil(3.3) and Australia(3).3 The incidence of large frequency assignments among large countries is logical because a big country would need many frequencies to transmit information to its distant regions. The gzass Nagional EEQngtififlfil shows a marked relation— ship with the number of frequency assignments (r=.83). We believe that this association is directly related to the high correlation between GNP and the indicators for the factor, technological development (number of telephones (r=.95), number of radios (r=.88) and number of television sets (r=.99)) WW. Because of the marked to very dependable relationship between the number of frequencies and the number of telephones, radios and television sets, we decided to scale these variables into one factor: the level of technological development. This correlation does not tell us if the number of telephones, radios and television sets in. a (country leads to the acquisition of more frequencies. However, the 72 interrelationship of these three variables with the number of frequencies assigned indicates that the level of tech- nological development corresponds with the number of frequencies. We draw this conclusion because, as stated earlier: the ITU must be notified by any member country that intends to obtain international recognition, for the use of a frequency.4 This means that only if a nation intends to use a certain frequency, or is actually using such a frequency: can that frequency be assigned to that nation. All in all, these positive relationships are understandable because, worldwide, it is noticeable that the higher the number of telephones, radios and television sets possessed by a country: the greater is the number of frequencies which that particular country uses. The converse is also true. The continent of Africa which has the lowest penetration of telephones worldwide (Africa 1.8 telephones per 1000 inhabitants, world 27.4 telephones per 1000 people), also has the lowest number of frequencies worldwide.s 811W- The proportion of variance in the number of frequencies explained by the factor technological development is .75332. This means that about 75% of the variance in the number of frequencies is explained by only the factor technological development (consisting of number of telephones, radios and television 73 sets), of a nation. The importance of technological development to frequency assignments can be readily ascertained by a short examination of the following: 90% of all telephone calls originate or terminate in the United States.6 Less than .5% of the world's telephones are installed in 50 African States.7 The next independent variable which explains the most variance in the number of frequencies, is age of nations. The age of the nations, plus technological development: together are explaining a total of about 77% of the variance in the number of frequency assignments. If technological development alone explains 75%, then the variable, age of nations explains 2% of this variance. The age of the nations is the second most dominant variable in explaining the variations in the number of frequency assignments because older nations tend to be those countr- ies which have been free of foreign domination for a longer period of time than the newer nations. Therefore, these nations have been in a position to pursue independent communication policies which have allowed them to develop their own telecommunication networks over time. This historical process does not apply to the newer nations which have achieved their independence more recently. The initial motivation behind the older nations joining the ITU was their need for international coordination in the construction and operation of their telecommunication 74 networks. According to Scantlebury, "a rapid and reliable means of linking the major cities of Europe was important to governments and individuals, but it was essential to the commercial and trading interests of the time. The ITU was the instrument that was created to achieve this goal."8 The high costs of telecommunication facilities has favored telecommunication growth in the older nations because the older nations were able to implement the expansion of their telecommunication networks incrementally. New nations however, have found themselves in a position of having to develop in a very short period of time, communication systems equivalent to the systems that have been developed in the older nations over a period of several decades. According to the result of our Multiple Regression Analysis, no other single factor over and above technologi- cal development explains more than 2% of the variance in the number of frequency assignments. Not even GNP does that. GNP is the variable that in addition to technological development has shown to be the most highly correlated to the number of frequencies. Because of the high correlation between Technological Development and GNP (the r's are .95(Telephones), .88(Radios) and .99(TV's)), GNP seemed to effect frequency assignments highly. Our regression analysis has shown that technological development alone explains 75% of the variation in frequency assignments. A matter of interest is the fact that GNP explains 73% of the variation in frequency assignments if technological 75 development is excluded from the analysis. So, technologi- cal development and GNP are explaining (almost) the same variance in the number of frequency assignments. These two , variables are overlapping in their explanations of frequen- cy assignments. ;- a! , of e . or - ,,o a: : zcv- .Su‘! This factor has a marginal but adequate reliability in estimating the number of frequencies (alpha = .76). The variables of which technological development consists have shown the results as in table 9. TABLE 9 Reliability Analysis - Scale (Technological Development) Corrected Item Squared Alpha Total Multiple If Item Variables Correlation Correlation Deleted Number of Phones .8920 .8578 .6712 Number of Radios .8835 .7822 .9568 Number of TV Sets .9084 .8754 .6314 Reliability Coefficients 3 items Alpha = .7629 Standardized Item Alpha = .9580 An examination of the reliability coefficients, if each of the variables would be deleted shows that the number of radios would be the least reliable variable to predict the number of frequencies in a country. The alpha is .9568 when 76 the number of radios is deleted from the study. In other words the reliability goes up, from .7629 to .9568, when we delete the number of radios from the study. The number of radios is the least reliable variable because of a number of reasons. First of all, radios are the least expensive of the three categories of receivers which define technological development in this study. The low price of radios, nowadays, makes them readily available to large segments of the population of all countries. Secondly, since AM and SW radio transmissions can be received over very long distances, deliberate and inciden- tal transborder broadcasting is a very common occurrence. Therefore, a country does not need to have a large number of frequencies to have a large number of radio receivers. Radiolisteners in many parts of Africa, Asia, Latin America and the Caribbean often have difficulty catching their own national broadcasting stations, but they turn with ease to foreign stations such as the British Broadcasting Corpora- tion, Voice of America, Radio Free Liberty, Radio Moscow and Radio Netherlands. Since the number of radios has been shown to decrease the reliability of the factor, technological development, for predicting the number of frequencies: in a subsequent study we would delete this variable from our study. 77 Notes Chapter 4 1. Frederick Williams, s n h s ' s (Austin: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1981), p. 132. 2- iFred N- .Kerlinger. E2undation§__of__fiehaxieral Rassazsn, (New York: Holt, Rinehart and. Winston, Inc., 1973), p. 200. 3.Sydney Head, 0 IN2rldl_juzauameetingi__a__£_mearafixe Analysis (Belmont: Wadsworth Publishing Company, 1985), p. 258. 4. International Telecommunication Union, Basis Bagnlaalsns (Geneva: General Secretariat, 1986), Art. 13, p. RRl3-l. 5. Compiled from statistics from the United Nations. Communication 181, Telefonos, pp. 1018-1021. For the countries, in the different groupings, that did not report information in 1981, the most recent reported data was used. 6. John Williamson, ”Africa Telecom '86. ITU Examines Telecom Disparity Between Countries." Islannsny (October 27, 1986): 60. 6. Richard E. Butler, "The ITU's role in world telecom development and information transfer". Telanhgny (August 22, 1983): 80. 8. Maria Scantlebury, Baasning fa: Snecarum: WARC'zg (San Jose: Impresa en Costa Rica Hecho el deposito de ley, 1982), p. 270. 9022:2131 RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN FREQUENCY ASSIGNMENTS AND SELECTED CHARACTERISTICS IN REGION I, 2 and 3 The previous chapter of this thesis dealt with the rela- tionship between the number of frequencies and the indepen- dent variables mentioned in the hypothesis, on a worldwide basis. This chapter will examine these same relationships regionally. The association between the selected indepen- dent variables and the number of frequencies in Region 1, Region 2, and Region 3 will be examined. Furthermore, the major findings of the worldwide analyses will be applied to each region. Report on Region 1 Analyses (N=83) Pearson's correlation coefficient 'r' provides a measurement tool for the values presented in Table 10. The strengths of relationships between the number of frequen- cies assigned to ITU member nations, and the selected variables: is revealed. From these correlations, we learned that for the ITU iMembers in. Region. 1, the number of frequencies correlates high to very high with the same variables found on a worldwide basis: the GNP and the Number of Telephones, Radios and Television Sets. Let us look at some of the meaningful findings in this region, which consists of Europe, the USSR and Africa. 78 TABLE 10 oaH on» c« maemuon no. no. so. em. on. om. mm. on. oH. «a. be. :50: amazon .«H av. mm. ma. ma. vv. «v. Hm. mo.l mo. em. mcowumz omd .HH Np. mm. mm. we. mm. mm. mo. na. av. >0mumu«q .OH demoed oooH nod muomommamz me. am. mm. Hm. mm. on. on. mm. %HHMQ HO w .m mm. mm. mo. mm. mm. Hm. Oh. mumw >8 HO w .w on. ma. mo. om. om. as. moaoom no a .s on. oo. as. No. no. monono no a .o OBOOCH oH. oo.n Ho.u an. avenue pom .m om. so. me. .m.z.o .o em. on. none page .n mm. coauoaoooo .N memo Icosqoum no a .H HH OH m m b m m e n N H mOHQMMMQ> Ammuzv H COAOOm :fi mmabmfiuo> ucoocmmmo can ucmosmmmesH mcoad meaduoaouuoo 79 80 ulsaazy. The correlation values of the age of the nations in Region 1 and the length of their membership in the ITU show a moderate and substantial relationship with the number of frequency assignments. This correlation is very meaningful, because many of the oldest ITU members are to be found in Europe. In fact, it was twenty of these same countries who established the ITU in 1865, which makes them naturally, the oldest members of the ITU, with 123 years of membership. Seniority, in terms of ITU membership has facilitated the acquisition of large numbers of frequencies, by historical accretion, over time. Table 5, sets forth the countries in descending order of frequen— cy usage. Most of the ITU Members with the smallest numbers of frequencies are newly independent. These nations started joining the ITU, after gaining their independence in the 1960's. Table 10 tells us that the nannla;lan_slas of Region 1 countries tends to be substantially correlated with the number of frequencies assigned to these countries. The highly populated countries also have the most frequencies. The USSR and several Western European nations are included in this category (Table 5) . In contrast, the majority of African nations have much smaller populations as compared to their European counterparts and the USSR. An exception is South Africa, which in comparison with other countries in Africa has a very large frequency 81 assignment. This position can be explained at a number of levels. South Africa has a relatively large population. A large population will generally require the use of many more frequencies as opposed to a small population. Also, undergirded by its exploitative apartheid system, South Africa, in comparison ‘with other .African countries in Region 1, has achieved a relatively high level of economic prosperity and technological development. The correlation between the number of frequencies and GNP, and the number of telephones in Region 1 suggest marked, definite, and highly significant relationships. Technological development alone explains 75% of the variation in frequencies as- signed. South Africa also sits strategically astride the sea lanes from the Atlantic to the Indian Ocean and beyond to the Far East. Economically, South Africa is enmeshed in the fabric of all the 'Western IEconomies. It. might be allowed that these factors do impact positively in South Africa's favor to secure for South Africa the great number of frequencies which it enjoys. The high correlation between frequencies and QNE can be explained by the fact that nearly 100% of the industrial- ized European nations are included in the top twenty list of frequency users (Table 2). Countries with high GNP's are the ones which are in a position to make heavy investment in their telecommunication systems. This investment leads to the application for and the acquisition of frequencies. 82 W. The correlation of this factor, consisting of the number of Telephones (r=.87), Radios (r=.71) and Television Sets (.70), with the number of frequency assignments shows marked relationships. These relationships are very realistic because nearly 100% of the nations with high technological development are also the nations with high numbers of frequencies in Region 1(see Table 5) . Of all the twelve independent variables the number of telephones has the highest correlation (r=.87) with the numbers of frequency assigned. The telephone density in Europe is 41.8 telephones per 1000 people, while in Africa it is 1.8 telephones per 1000 people. The figure worldwide is 27.4 telephones per 1000 people. Africa lags behind with 25.6 telephones per 1000 people below the worldwide average. These findings support the fact that most African countries have less than 1000 frequencies each assigned to them. This contrasts with the European nations and the USSR among which there is the extreme case of one country, France, which has 51564 frequency assignments and an African country, Comoros, which has 55. These findings are supported by the Multiple Regression Analysis worldwide that the technological development and the age of a country explain approximately 77% of the variance in the number of frequencies assigned. 83 W In pursuing further the area of investigation opened up here, it is time now to see how the aforementioned applies to the USSR. Upon an initial examination of table 2, one is able to note an interesting comparison between the number of frequencies assigned to the USSR and the number of frequencies assigned to some of the larger Western European countries. Historical analysis has shown how a number of factors have interacted with the technological development to produce the number of frequencies currently assigned to the USSR. The first factor is historical. The Bolshevik Revolution occurred during the period immediately prior to the development of radio. At the time of the Revolution, the USSR was a poor country which seemed not to have the resources to spend on the development of radio. To further exacerbate matters, the Russian Civil War took place in the 1920's. The Russians also had to contend with the invasion of American and Japanese troops during the time of their Civil War. Solving such basic problems as hunger took precedence over the development of radio. Then there were the chilling political, social and economic conditions during Stalin's Regime. World War II soon followed and the USSR suffered tremendous civilian casualties. In short, the first 30 years of the Soviet Union's existence were not conducive to the development of extensive domestic radio networks. The historical forces just outlined, did play a 84 significant part in shaping the nature and extent of the development of telecommunication in the USSR. Other factors have also played a decisive role. The nature of the Government of the USSR delimits the extent of the social and economic role of telecommunication. Radio and televis- ion communication are strictly, centrally controlled by the State and of course works against the sort of prolifera- tion which eventuated in the market economy countries of the West, for example in Canada and the United States. It must also be remembered that the general public of the Soviet Union has a significantly smaller income than their Western counterparts, therefore, they are not able to spend as much money on the purchase of consumer, telecommunica- tion equipment. After India, the 'USSR. has the second largest film industry in the world. Since these films are primarily for domestic use, they probably provide a substitute for more extensive television broadcasting. Finally, it is also possible that the Government of the USSR does not wish to develop an extensive domestic, consumer-driven telecommunication network, because it wishes to restrict the channels of information available to its population. All of these factors go a long way to explain why the USSR applied for and uses a relatively small number of frequencies in comparison to most of the Industrial Market Economies in Region 1. 85 Report on Region 2 Analysis (N837) We will examine only briefly, the relationships between the number of frequencies and the independent variables used. in this study’ because. selected. countries in 'this region will be dealt with in greater detail in chapter 6. Table 11 shows that in addition to GNP and the factor technological development, population and land area are also highly correlated to the numbers of frequencies assigned in this Region. Presently, a cursory examination of some of the relationships will be undertaken. mm. The fact that most of the older nations and older members of the ITU in this Region have the highest number of frequencies stems from the longer period that these nations have had to develop their telecommunication networks in an environment free from colonial control. The United States, Argentina, Brazil, Mexico, Chile and Panama have all been independent nations for many years and they also joined the ITU many years ahead of the newly indepen- dent nations in the Americas. v o o ic . Similar to both the worldwide and the Region 1 situation, the correlation with the number of television sets, radios and telephones, shows a very dependable relationship with the number of frequencies assigned to these nations. These correlations make sense because the five countries with the most TABLE 11 DBH 0:» cw menu numbed: me. so. oo.u mm. mm. ma. «H.n as. Nm. mo. mo. an. suocoq.na mcowumz on.1 ma.1 mm. mm. on. do. hw. hm. He. ma. nn. 05¢.ma mm. cm. mm. mm. be. NN. em. ma. wH.I mu. woououwa.aa mamoom i oooH you name Immmamz on. em. om. Hm. mm. am. we. oo.1 oo. aafimo.oa mm. mm. mm. mm. mm. Hm. om. om. rmuom >B.m mm. mm. mm. mm. am. no. mo. cacaomm.m on. mm. mm. hm. mm. om. «mocosm.h no. Nb. mm. 00. we. OEOOGH mu Ifiemo uwm.o mm. mm. om. mm. .m.z.o.m mp. no. me. send ocmq.v mm. on. .oom.n «mum» do. noosoo.~ «moan nauseoum.u NH Ha OH m m h m m e n N H Odnmwuo> Asmnzv N scammm ca moaemfiuo> ucopcmooo one ucoocoeoocH 5:084 msofiuoaouuoo 86 87 televisions, radios and telephones: the United. States, Canada, Argentina, Brazil and Mexico also have the highest numbers of frequencies in this region. One of the reasons why nannlaslsnL_Lana_azaa_ana_§N£ are significantly, highly and. positively correlated to the number of frequency assignments, is largely due to the interrelationships of all these variables with the factor technological development, which has been proven to explain most of the variation in frequencies (R2=.75). In many instances the relationships between these variables are virtually perfect (see Table 11). 88 Report on Region 3 Analysis (N848) Region 3, which is comprised of Asia and the South Pacific, shows different degrees of relationships in many variables when contrasted with Regions 1 and 2 (see Table 12) . The highly correlated variables in descending order are Land Area (r-.82), Population (r=.66), Per capita Income (r=.60). Hlsaszy. The almost negligible relationship of the age of the nations in Region 3 to the frequencies assigned becomes clear if we look at the ages of the countries in this region. We find most of them to be young nations, except for China and Japan, which were never colonized. The lack of correlation is also due to unique circumstances in each case. China was never entirely colonized while India was colonized for about 200 years. Further evidence indicates, that the nannlaalan_slas_ana ana_gaag;annlsal_slaa of the countries is much more highly related to the number of frequency assignments than GNP and technological development (see Table 12). With the excep- tion of Australia, the 5 greatest frequency users in Region 3 are China, India, Japan and Indonesia (Table 7). All of these are large countries with populations in excess of 100 million. TABLE 12 DBH may :a mwcnuon mv. om. om. nv. mm. Hv. mo.l mv. on. mm. mm. 150: sum:on..- oo. HH.I ma. oo.l no. wH.I mo. no. Ho. 00. mcofiuoz om< .HH mm. mm. 50. mm. om. om. vo. vo.l vH. aomuoqu .OH mamoom oooa nod muoeoemsmz mo. vH.| NH. mo. mo. ma. n~.| an. adamo mo * .m mm. vm. an. hm. mm. mm. mm. mumm >8 HO m .m oo. oo. om. so. on. on. moaoom no * .a as. om. mo. mo. on. oozonm no 4 .o maoocH me. no.: oH.u oo. ouaeoo pom .m om. mm. om. .o.z.o .8 ms. am. «one econ .n oo. coauoaoooo .m moan Icosvoum no w .H dd 0H m m h m m v m N H mOHnmwum> Amvuzv n scammm cw moanowum> ucmpcmmwo use ucmocmampCH wooed meowuoaouuoo 89 90 WW. only in this region is the correlation of the GNP and the number of frequen- cies low to moderate. The reasons for these variables being of less significance in Region 3 as opposed to Regions 1 and 2, is due to the presence of the two outliers, India and China. Although these two countries are low-income developing economies they are the most populous countries in the world (approximately 40% of the worlds population). In addition to their large population, these two countries are also two of the three largest nations in Region 3, in terms of geographical size. Population and land area have proven to be much more related to frequency assignments in this region than in Regions 1 and 2 because of the sheer number of people in this region (approximately 60%). 91 Summary and Conclusion Worldwide, technological development and GNP have shown to be the most dominant variables influencing the number of frequency assignments. In Region 1, these same two variables: the degree of technological development, followed by GNP show marked relationships. A Region 2, however, presents a scenario in which, in addition 'to the :marked relationships of GNP .and tech- nological development: very high correlations are found with the population size and geographical areas of the countries. Region 3, presents a different pattern in degrees of relationships between the selected variables and the number of frequency assignments. However there is some similarity with Region 2. The most highly associated variables were geographical size followed by the size of the population. The variables: literacy, age of the nation and length of membership in the ITU showed to be low to moderate related to frequency assignments. There is usually a substantial correlation between literacy and the variables measuring technological and economic development. In Region 1, technological and economic development are the most significant variables because Region 1 includes two large subgroups of Industrial Market and 92 Non-market economies, as well as large subgroups of middle and low income developing economies. In fact, Region 1 includes the largest numbers of Industrialized Market Economies and low income developing economies in the world. Population, in contrast to Region 2 and 3 is much less important in Region 1. In Region 1, only two countries out of 83 have populations in excess of 100 million. In essence, Region 1 is composed of small to moderate sized countries which exhibit great ranges in economic develop- ment. The result of this situation is that economic and technological advancement have a much greater effect on applications for and assignments of frequencies, than population. Region 2 and Region 3 are similar in that most nations in both regions have similar economic status. In Region 2 only one nation is low-income developing: and only two are Industrialized Market economies. Region 3 has only three Industrialized Market Economies out of 48. However, the majority of nations in Regions 2 and 3 are classified, according to the World Bank, as middle-income, developing. The Overall similarity of the majority of economies in Regions 2 and 3 tends to place more emphasis on different variables such as land area and population. In other words, countries with large populations and land areas in Regions 1 and 2, tend to have large frequency assignments. Small nations tend to have small numbers of frequencies assigned. 93 Another reason for the different correlational values found in the three regions and the global sample stems from the different total numbers of ITU Members in each of the samples. The global sample and the Region 1 sample ex- hibited similar relationships, while the Region 2 and Region 3 sample also showed similar associations between the number of frequencies and the highly correlated independent variables: technological development, GNP, population size and land area. The similarity between the Region 1 and the global sample is closer than the similar- ity of the other' two regional samples and. the. global sample, because Region 1 is closer in sample size to the global sample than to the other regions. It should be noted that the two smaller samples (Region 2 and 3) also bear closer similarity in their relationships than they do to the larger samples. §h§2§§£_§ RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN FREQUENCY ASSIGNMENTS AND SELECTED CHARACTERISTICS: A CLOSER LOOK AT SELECTED COUNTRIES IN REGION TWO Now we have seen the difference of spectrum assignments within the ranks of the Members of the ITU. We have also looked at differences inherent within and between each of the three ITU regions. Let us turn our attention to Region 2 specifically. As previously mentioned, Region 2 is comprised of North America, Central America, South America and the Caribbean. An analysis of selected countries in Region 2 will show different reasons underlying the applications for, and the assignment of frequencies. Selected countries in, first, the Caribbean, second, Central and. South..America, and, third, North America will be examined. The Caribbean The British, French and Dutch, dominated the early development of broadcasting in many of the Caribbean Islands. This domination resulted in the setting-up of broadcast systems which until now continue in centripetal relationships with metropolitan Europe. These Caribbean communication systems still seem to be more connected to Europe than with each other. Until the present, Caribbean communication links still serve the ‘94 95 needs of interests external to the region. The systems are configured in such a fashion that it is easier and cheaper to reach London, Paris and Amsterdam, than it is to talk between most of the neighboring countries in the Caribbean. For instance, in 1985 the cost of a telephone call from Suriname to Amsterdam was about $ 3.33 per minute while a telephone call to any country in the Caribbean was at least $ 4.44 per minute.1 This external orientation seems to have constrained considerably the development of broadcast- ing systems in these islands: this despite the proximity of the American model, which saw the birth of private commer- cial broadcasting in 1920. An example is Jamaica, where private British. business started radio in 1939.2 The introduction of radio broadcasting in this island may have coincided with the beginning of World War 2. An exception to this pattern was Cuba. 2223 Cuba, the largest island in the Caribbean, has few com- munications problems. This island is one of the nations in which radio broadcasting started in the 1920's3 , shortly after the United States where it began in the fall of 1920.4 Then, Cuba's broadcasting was managed similarly to the United States' model, with privately owned stations. In the early 1950's,"Goar Mestre, an entrepreneur of great flair and imagination", developed a network that served the 96 entire island, making Cuba, ”the first country in the world where television was available to the entire population." (Dizard, 1966: 52)5. With an historic event like this, it is small wonder that Region 2 presents a correlation of .90 (see table 11) between the number of frequencies assigned and the number of television sets . Additionally we found that the number of television sets is the most reliable predictor of frequency assignments. Again, it is not surprising to find that Cuba has the highest number of frequency assignments in the Caribbean. After the Cuban Revolution in 1959, Fidel Castro, Premier of Cuba, con- verted the broadcasting system to one of complete govern- ment control, modelled on that of the USSR.6 In other words, Cuba's advantage in its broadcasting system is a product of the era prior to its revolution in 1959. Today, Cuba's highly developed.broadcasting system is aided by the USSR and Eastern Europe, its political allies. Because of this, Cuba can afford to broadcast to worldwide audiences in Spanish, English, French, Creole, Guarani, Quechua, Portuguese and .Arabic. Although‘ Cuba's target audiences are generally in the Western Hemisphere, programs are beamed to other areas as well.7 In addition to the technological and economic develop- ment of Cuba, if we add the factors of population size and land area, it is understandable why Cuba has the largest number of frequency assignment in the Caribbean. Population 97 and land size have shown to be the third and fourth variable most associated with frequency assignment in Region 2 (see table 11). Wis The fact that the Dominican Republic is the second largest frequency user in the Caribbean, is congruent with this country's position, second to Cuba in terms of popu- lation size and geographical size. Remember, population size and land area are highly, positively and significant- ly related to the number of frequency assignments in Region 2. measles Jamaica's frequency possessions profile fits neatly with only one main Region 2 parameter: this being country size. Smaller countries such as Barbados and Trinidad 8 Tobago also are seen to have small numbers of frequency assignments. Other factors which possibly affect the small number of frequency assignments in these young nations are the legacy of foreign (ex-colonial) interests in, and control over certain segments of their broadcasting industry. There is also the aspect of government ownership of broadcasting systems in Jamaica, which as has been shown elsewhere: tends to have a negative affect on frequency assignments (in terms of numbers of frequencies acquired). 98 Haiti Because of prevailing conditions of poverty, Haiti has not been able to develop a vital telecommunication infra- structure which would lead to that country acquiring a large number of frequencies. However, the factors of population size and land area which have been shown to be high correlating factors 'with the number' of frequency assignments: (these factors) seem to work in Haiti's favor as could be expected from the correlation. 99 Central and South America The pattern of frequency assignment in Central and South America, stands in sharp contrast to the pattern found in the Caribbean. One main cause for this difference in pattern is the fact that most Latin American countries attained their independence in the 19 century and were able to develop their own particular economic systems. On the other hand, many countries in_the Caribbean, in particular the ex-British territories, did not gain their independence until the 1960's. Broadcasting, which naturally involved the use of radio frequencies, played a major role in the economic development of these countries. Also the broad- casting system of Central and South America were influenced by the United States' private, free enterprise system, with minimal government control. Central America N' and a Both Nicaragua and Panama started with privately operated broadcasting systems. In Nicaragua presently the communication media are owned by the Government, while Panama has private commercial ownership. The major reasons for examining Nicaragua and Panama simultaneously are threefold. One, these nations have a history in which the United States has influenced their present level of development. Two, these nations have critical strategic 100 positions in latin America. Three, they have similar-size populations. Despite the fact that Nicaragua is the largest of the Central American Republics and is 1.7 times larger than Panama: Panama has almost 16 times more frequencies than Nicaragua. Over the past 40 years Nicaragua had. been constantly involved in Wars. In 1972 a catastrophic earth- quake destroyed major portions of Managua, Nicaragua's capital city. Catastrophes of this kind might have had a negative impact on the national (economic and technologi- cal) development and by extension, may well have had a negative effect on Nicaragua's acquisition of radio- frequencies. Pearson Correlation presents high correlations between frequency assignments and factors such as tech- nological and economic development. Furthermore, the Nicaraguan media is, presently, government owned and controlled. States with government owned and controlled media systems tend to have fewer stations, than states with private systems. The high number of frequencies assigned to Panama is a matter of interest. In all likelihood, Panama's large number of frequencies is directly related to the great influence of the United States' investment there. The US was the major force behind the construction of the Panama Canal. During World War 2, the United States began a build- up of military installations in the Panama Canal Zone. The 101 great American influence encouraged commercial develop- ment. Consequently Panama became very important as a regional banking center and as an international center for shipping registration. As with many other countries, an environment of concentrated commercial development has a positive affect on the development of telecommunications. South America r a n e In this section, we will examine the reasons for the number of frequencies assigned to Brazil, Argentina and Mexico. Although. Mexico lays geographically in Central America, we decided to discuss this country with South- America, because of Mexico's similar characteristics with two other' Region. 2 ITU ‘members, Brazil and .Argentina. These three countries have geographic, historic, political and economic similarities. - They are the greatest frequency users in Latin America - They are the largest countries in Latin America - They are the most populated Latin American countries - They are middle income developing economies - They are also ”newly industrialized developing nations" - They have the same political alignment - They all got their independence in roughly the same period of time, Brazil in 1822, Argentina in 1810-1819 and Mexico in 1822 102 - These three nations are leaders in national telecommunication investment in Latin America - They each have the task of serving remote and sparsely populated regions - Furthermore, Brazil, Argentina and Mexico all started radio broadcasting in the 1920's - Finally, they have a combination of both government and private/commercial media ownership. Now that we have seen what these three countries have in common, let us look at the nature of the differences underlying the varying numbers of assigned frequencies. With reference to what we have seen in chapter 5, the factor technological development, the variables GNP, population and land area are the most dominant factors associated with radio frequency assignments in Region 2. Argentina, with the smallest population and second in geographic size: uses 2.6 times more frequencies than Mexico and 2.1 times more frequencies than Brazil, which covers nearly half of South America. Since the overall distribution of economic benefits is higher in Argentina than in Brazil and Mexico we believe that the proportional- ly higher GNP is the primary variable affecting the numbers of frequencies assigned to Argentina. Argentina had been much more prosperous in the first half of the 1900's, than it is currently. The reasons for Argentina's early prosperity are as follows: 103 "Large-scale Italian, German, and Spanish immigration in the decades after 1880 spurred. modernization, making Argentina the most prosperous, educated, and industrialized of the major Latin American nations. Social reforms were enacted in the 1920's, but military coups prevailed 1930-1946, until the election of Gen. Juan Peron as President."8 Until the present, Argentina's standard of living is much higher than Mexico and Brazil. Mexico shares preeminence in the region in terms of investment in telecommunications. Mexico has more frequen- cies in use than Brazil, another leader in Latin America, in terms of national telecommunications investment. Brazil has 1.7 times more people than Mexico while Brazil's geographic area is 4.3 times larger than Mexico. Brazil launched Brazilsat, its own domestic satellite in 1985. Mexico launched Morelos, its own domestic communication satellite in 1986. Brazil appears to have made greater use of Brazilsat, than Mexico has made of Morelos. Mexico has problems with the full application of its satellite. Since Brazil has more effectively used Brazilsat, the Brazilian Domestic Satellite, then Mexico has been able to effective- ly use Morelos the Mexican Domestic Satellite. A country's use of satellite communication would seem to have the affect of reducing the need for reliance on larger numbers of internationally assigned frequencies. The Report on the Activities of the ITU (1977) also states that: The Board considered, that the use of other high- capacity telecommunication media such as satellite networks, submarine cables, etc. meant that there was less need for frequencies in the HF bands (3-30 MHz) 104 for’ handling traffic on international links. The Board therefore decided to apply the above-mentioned investigation procedure (sas snante; z:au§no;'s noas) and to examine the frequency assignments to Fixed service stations recorded in the Master Register on behalf of countries which, according to the infor- mation available to the Board,were also using other telecommunication media.9 In addition, the Secretary of Telecommunication Services of the Brazilian IMinistry of Communication, Eng. Jose Bastos Mollica, stated in an interview conducted with him, by this writer, at the ITU Headquarters in Geneva, that the Brazilian Domestic Communication Satellite has solved most of the frequency' problems of Brazil. The finding' that technological development explains 75% of the variation in frequency assignments reinforces the advantage gained by Brazil in their frequency management. Brazil has one of the most developed radio broadcast systems in the world, linking most parts of the national territory by radio. Only slightly smaller than the ‘United States, Brazil ranks second in the world in number of radio stations. Brazil also easily rates as the most dynamic expanding market in the region. In other words, the reasons why Mexico is using more frequencies than Brazil lie partially in Mexico's underused satellite technology. 105 Suriname Tiny Suriname (in terms of population and land area), continues to maintain a higher standard of living than most of its neighbors. Only Venezuela, The Bahamas, Trinidad and Tobago and Barbados have a higher per capita income than Suriname, placing Suriname fifth among the Caribbean and Latin American nations. As shown in chapter 5, table 11, there is a substantial relationship between the number of frequencies and the per capita income of the countries in Region 2 (rs .6791). 106 North America WW These two nations together are using most, 54.4%, of the frequencies assigned to all ITU members in Region 2. The United States and Canada are among the most populous nations in Region 2, with the United States being by far the most populous country in the Region. Also these two countries are the largest in geographic area in this Region. It is in North. America ‘where ‘the strength. of‘ this study's findings are most clearly demonstrated. In other words, all the variables which are highly related to frequency assignments are present in The United States and Canada (GNP r=.89, Population r=.86 and Land area r=.75). Moreover, the factor technological development explains 75% of the variance in frequency assignments. In addition to all the above mentioned statistical relationships which affect the large number of frequencies assigned to Canada and the United States, the following can be noted concerning satellite communication in the United States and Canada as opposed to Brazil. Brazilsat is owned, by Embratel, which in turn is owned by the Brazilian Government. In North. America there are ‘many privately owned satellites that are used for commercial purposes. Consequently, the use of satellite communication in the United States and Canada is much more commercially oriented 107 than the use of the only Brazilian satellite: Brazilsat. Research has shown that when the broadcasting systems are government owned the assigned frequencies tend to be less. 108 Summary and Conclusion This chapter has shown that in congruence with chapter five, the factor: technological and the variables GNP, population size and geographic area, have high correlations with the number of frequency assignments per country in Region 2. However, variance exists in the manner in which these four factors are weighted among the different coun- tries. In the Caribbean, we found frequency assignment to be mostly affected by the unique historical experience of the different nations.The most obvious example of this paradigm is Cuba, which benefitted from its historical connections with the United States' economy and continued to improve on its endowments after it changes its political orientation. In Central America, economic factors were the key to understanding frequency assignments. In essence, the loca- tion of Panama made it the ideal location for a Pacific to Atlantic Canal. This in turn encouraged a great deal of investment, and drew the attention of military strategists in the United States. In contrast to Panama, Nicaragua attracted mainly agricultural investment. As a consequence of that situation, it did not experience the same pattern of development of its communications system, nor a scale of development similar to that of Panama's. Among the major countries of South America, economic and technological development appeared to be the 109 determining factor for acquisition of frequencies. This can be seen most clearly in the case of Brazil, which has the fewest number of frequencies but also has the most complex system. As was said earlier, the level of economic and techno- logical development in Canada and the United States effec- tively put them in a class apart from the other nations in Region 2. Several reasons can readily explain preponderance of frequencies in these two countries. Among these factors are the large size of the two countries. Additionally, both are members of the NATO, which supports their strategic use of radio. Also the United States has a huge population. Finally, the telecommunication systems of these two countries are among the most advanced in the world. 110 Notes Chapter 6 1. Telecommunicatiebedrijf Suriname, Islafoangias yssz Suriname 1255;12aa (Paramaribo: TELESUR, 1984) p. K-L. 2 - Sydney Head. Will's analysis. (Belmont: Wadsworth Publishing Company, 1985), p. 3. Ibid, p. 14. 4. Ibid, p. 14. 5. Ibid, p. 27. 6. Ibid, p. 28. 7 . Donald G . Moore , The_Imp2rtence.2f.1:desemmunisa: ti2n__t2.2.2Ldern_laiin_America Thesis for the Degree of Master of Arts, Michigan State University, 1982, pp. 77-78. 8. The_E9rld_Almana2_and_noek§_of_£acts (New York: An Imprint of Pharos Books. A Scripps Howard Company, 1978), pp. 652-653. 9. International Telecommunication Union, Ranar§_an_ana V _ ‘ Q ‘11. 0!; ‘ 01:11-! ;_ o, ’0! lazz (Geneva: ITU, 1978), p. 25. Cheated SUMMARY, RECOMMENDATIONS, AND CONCLUSION Sharp numerical differences are evidenced in the assign- ments of frequencies to different ITU member nations. To understand these disparities, it is essential to have a working knowledge of the factors and actors involved in the assignment of internationally.recognized frequencies. It is also necessary to be familiar with the procedures, policies and structural guidelines of the International Frequency Registration Board(IFRB), the permanent organ of the Inter- national Telecommunication Union(ITU) , which is empowered to register frequency assignments. At the outset of my research into this topic, I already had fully developed preconceptions about what I would find concerning the practices of the IFRB. In the beginning, I had pictured the IFRB as an organ which was less than enthusiastic in its concern for the needs of the non- western world. ‘ After my brief visit to the ITU Headquarters in Geneva, Switzerland, where I had the pleasure of’ meeting and conversing with Mr. M.D. Sant, Head of the Office of the IFRB, I came to realize that my preconceptions were based on a less than full understanding of the ralssn_dlsans_ana odus er n of the ITU. Furthermore, consultation with 111 .112 the chairperson of my thesis committee, Dr. Bella Mody, convinced me of the need to approach my research with an open mind. Anyone, it turns out, can acquire a good, working knowledge of the IFRB, by becoming familiar with the provisions of the International Telecommunication Convention of Nairobi, 1982 and the complementary ITU Radio Regulations of 1986, part One and Two. The findings of this study suggest that the number of frequencies assigned to a country is, for the most part, directly related to that country's degree of technological development, the degree of economic development, the population size and the geographical size. In other words, all these variables are highly, positively, and signifi- cantly correlated to the number of frequency assignments. A global analysis of 168 countries shows that the factor technological development, consisting of the number of telephones, radios and television sets, is significantly correlated with frequency assignments. The interrelation- ship between technological development and GNP caused these two variables to overlap in the explanation of the variance in frequency assignments. When technological development is removed, GNP explains 73% of the variation in the assigned frequencies. The variable which, in addition to technologi- cal development, explains the most variance (77%) in frequency assignments is age of the nation. The reason for the older nations' larger number of frequencies stems from 113 the longer period of time that these countries have had to gradually implement their communication networks, whereas the newly independent nations have had to developed theirs in a shorter period of time. To my surprise the relationship between political alignment and frequency assignments was not significant. Our analysis of the three categories of political alignment (pro-west, socialist and non-aligned), indicates that varying levels of technological development are found among both pro-western and socialist countries. However, the significance of the kind of economy for frequency assignments is not surprising. Whether a country is industrial market, east European non-market, high income oil exporter, middle income developing or low income developing, separates economies on a basis that directly parallels specific levels of technological and economic development. Regional analyses show the following: Region 1 fits the worldwide pattern, that GNP and technological development affect technological development the most. In Region 2, in addition to the factor technological development, the variables population, land area and GNP, all affect frequency assignments, highly. In Region 3, in addition to the factor technological development, the variables population, land area and GNP all affect frequency assignments highly. 114 A country-by-country analysis in Region 2 (the Americas), shows no single factor has predominance across all countries. In each country, a different factor or set of factors has proven itself to be the most dominant. In Cuba, historic events and economic reasons have proven to be the most dominant. The strategic location of Panama had a decisive (positive) effect on its economic development. This confluence, in turn correlates, positive- ly with the frequencies assigned to Panama. This was not the case in Nicaragua. In Argentina economic development enhanced the need for, and use of a larger number of frequencies. The situation in Mexico and in Brazil, is more complex. By itself, the number of frequencies in use in each country was not a good indicator of the advancement of the communication networks. Brazil needs less frequencies because it uses its domestic communication satellite effectively. This is not the case in Mexico. Here a less than optimum use of Morelos, (the Mexican domestic satel- lite) leads to the existence of a relatively greater need for ITU assigned frequencies. The United States and Canada possess more than 50% of all the frequencies assigned to the region because they also possess the region's most advanced economies and. the ‘most advanced communication networks. These countries are also the largest and are among the most heavily populated in Region 2, the Americas. This finding supports contextual theory that would predict 115 that the particular forces in each country are important in each specific case, given distinct history and geography (time and space). In conclusion, the above findings support our prediction that all of the variables used in this study, with the exception of Political Alignment, correlate from slightto very high with the number of frequency assignments of the countries. How do the above-mentioned variables impact on frequency distribution? These factors express themselves through two ITU policy mechanism. These two policies were drawn up before most of the Third World existed as independent states. The first one is ‘the ‘First Come First. Served principle is based on the technological development of the of the ITU Members. This principle tends to give the advantage to technologically well developed nations, since the application and acquisition of radio frequencies is, among other things, based on whether or not a country is able or ready to use the frequency. The second mechanism is the policy concerning Modifica- tion, Cancellation and Review of Entries (frequency assignments) in the Master Register. Due to ITU/IFRB's inability to unilaterally change or cancel these interna- tionally recognized radio frequencies, which do not reflect actual usage, we recommend that: 116 1. Article 13 of the Radio Regulations should be changed by removing the clause requiring the consent of a country to cancel or suitably modify frequencies that do not reflect actual usage: 2. the procedure designed in 1974, "... to determine which frequency assignments to international links in the Fixed service recorded in the Master Register no longer reflected actual usage of the radio spectrum in the 3 to 30 MHz range, with a view to making the necessary changes or cancellations ...", be resumed. The implementation of these two proposals would allow some frequencies, obtained under the first come first served principle, to be transferred from the First World to the Third World. As new technology requiring these frequencies is being adopted by the Third World, a plan for the transfer of the appropriate frequencies would appear necessary in the near future. These actions would he steps towards redressing part of the current frequency-gap between the First World and the Third World. In addition to the ITU/IFRB change its policies and procedures, Third World Administrations need to reconcep- tualize implementation of Telecommunications infrastruc- tures. A major shortcoming in the thinking of many Third World nations faced with setting up governmental structures which promote development either immediately or directly, or over longer time-spans is that telecommunication is 117 thought of as a discrete, stand-alone bureaucratic entity. In fact much more suitable to their purposes of development would be the perception of telecommunication as a catalytic element, an accelerator of the essential growth process of development, in all sectors. The premise of our investigation was based on allega- tions by Third World Countries that the ITU/IFRB does not provide them with their fair share of the radio frequency spectrum. The real cause is the history of the unequal development of the world. The fact is that older techno- logically advanced nations applied for and received the world's frequencies earlier. Whether a country was intend- ing to use or was actually using a frequency, was and is one of the ITU's reasonable prerequisites for the notifica- tion and registration of that frequency. Thus, it is natural that technologically advanced countries would have most frequencies. What is unfair is that the historical disadvantage of colonization has led today's recently independent countries to be technologically disadvantaged, financially constrained newcomers on the scene after most frequencies have been distributed. 118 Bastions; Suggestions for Further Research In the process of' this thesis, ‘we came across the following questions that need further research: .Which proportion(in terms of frequencies assigned) of the radio frequency spectrum does no longer reflect actual use by the administration? Which category of countries are falling under this inquiry? Has the IFRB continued, since 1979, to apply the procedure, which it designed in 1974, to determine which frequency assignments to international links in the fixed service recorded in the Master Register no longer reflect actual usage of the radio spectrum? .What are the factors and applications of radio frequency assignments that explain their use in multiple regions by ex-colonizers and present day superpowers? .What is the historical process of the United States' frequency acquisition behavior overtime, and its use of these frequencies in all three ITU geographical regions? .What are the peculiar circumstances which account for the number of assigned frequencies to specific countries in Regions 1 and 3. APPENDICES _. APPENDIX A FACTS DISPARITY OF TELECOMMUNICATION SERVICES WORLD-WIDE 15% at world population uses 85% 0t telecommunlcatlon services Two thlrds 0! world populatlon have no access to telephone There is a pressing demand for telecommunications in developing countries ‘ PROSPECTS More and better telecommunlcatlon servlces will provide developlng countries wlth opportunities to step up their economic actlvlty. An expandlng global telecommunlcatlons market and trat- tlc flow will also be at advantage to lndustrlal countries. Everybody wlll benetlt tron: Improved communlcatlon ser- vlces and tacllltles accross the world. Source: Brochure of the Centre for Telecommunications Development of the ITU 119 W For frequency allocation purposes. the world is divided into three Regions: region 1. Europe. Africa, Arabia and Russia; region 2. North and South America and Greenland; and regnon 3. South East Asia and Australia. ‘0. a 0 Region @ Region ® @ Radio Frequency Allocation Regions Source: "TELEPHONY'S DICTIONARY. TELECOMMUNICATION WORDS AND TERMS" ‘ 121 APPENDIX D SYMEDIS DBSIGNATING (IXJNIRIEB OR WCAL AREAS MeaningsofthesymbolsusedinColmnnsB, 4BandSB N. B.: The symbols have a geographiCal significance only. The presence of any given symbol designating a country or a geographical area with respect to a frequency assignment to a station is without prejudice to any question of territorial status which may be involved. ‘ _ M Nane of the country or geographical area AAA Shared throughout the world . AAB Shared by several countries, but in a restricted area of the world A34 Aruba . ADL Adelie land Art; Afghanistan (Dancer-atio Republic of) AFS South Africa (Republic of) ' AGL Angola (People's Republic of) AIA Anguilla ' ALB Albania (Socialist People' 5 Republic of) A15 Algeria (Pegple' s Dermcratic Republic of ) AIS Alaska (State of) , United States of America AMS Saint Paul and Amsterdam Islands AND Andorra (Principality of) ACE Western Sahara. ARG Argentine Republic ARS Saudi Arabia (Kingdom of) 'ASC Ascension A'IG Antigua and Barbuda ATN Netherlands Antilles AUS Australia AU'I' Austria AZR Azores B Brazil (Federative Republic of ) BAH Bahamas (Catrionwe'alth of the) BDI Burundi (Republic of) BEL Belgium BEN Benin (People's Republic of) BER Benmda BEA Burkina Faso ED Bangladesh (People's Republic of) BHR Bahrain (State of) ' BIO British Indian Ocean Territory BLR Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic 312 Belize EDI. Bolivia (Republic of) 371' Botswana (Republic of) BRB Barbados am Burma(Socialist Republic of the Union of) B1?!) Brunei Damssalam BIN utan(Kingdom of) HJL Bulgaria (People's Republic of) (December 1986) 1 2 2 DDR Name of the country or geographical area . Central African Republic Canada Caroline Islands Democratic Kanpuchea Chile (except Easter Island) China (People's Republic of) Christmas Island (Indian Ocean) Cook Islands . Colombia (Republic of) 2 Sri Lanka (Democratic Socialist Republic of) Cameroon (Republic of) . . Canary (Islands) ' Congo (People' 5 Republ1c of the) Comoros (Islamic Federal Republic of the) Cape Verde (Republic of) Crozet Archipelago C6te d' Ivoire (Republic of) Costa Rica Cuba Vatican City State Cayman Islands Cyprus (Republic of) Germany (Federal Republic of) German Democratic Republic Djibouti (Republic of) Dominica (Conmonwealth of) Denmark . Dominican Republic . . \ Spain Egypt (Arab Republic of) Ecuador Ethiopia France Fiji Falkland Islands (Malvinas) Finland 123 HKG HNG HOL HTI ICO IFB ' INS IRL 1m IRQ ISL ISR JAR JCN JOR Name of the country or geographical area United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland Gabonese Republic Territories of the United Kingdom in Region 1 Territories of the United Kingdom in Region 2 Territories of the United Kingdom in Region 3 Guadeloupe (French Department of) Ghana Gibraltar Ganbia (Republic of the) : Guinea-Bissau (Republic of) ' Equatorial Guinea (Republic of) Greece . Grenada Greenland . Guatemala (Republic of) Guiana (French Department of) Guinea (Republic of) Guam Guyana Hongkong Honduras (Republic of) Hungarian People ' 5 Republic Netherlands (Kingdom of the) Haiti (Republic of) Hawaii (State of) , United States of America . Howland Island Italy Cocos Keeling Islands This symbol indicates recordings in the Master Register which do not result from a notification, such as allotments and frequencies for connon use, which are entered by the IFRB in accordance with the relevant provisions of the Radio Regulations. It is also used in some cases in frequency Plans for entries in respect of the requirements of administrations not present at the conference concerned. India (Republic of) Indonesia (Republic of) Ireland -.Iran (Islamic Republic of) Iraq (Republic of) Iceland Israel (State of) Japan Jarvis Island Jamaica Johnston Island Jordan (Hashemite Kingdom of) E 124 Name of the country or gegrgahical area Kenya (Republic of) Kerguelen Islands Kiribati (Replblic of ) Korea (Republic of) Democratic People' 5 Republic of Korea Kuwait (State of) Iao Pequle ' 5 Democratic Reptblic Iebanon . Liberia (Republic of) Libya (Socialist Peopl'e' s Libyan Arab Jamahiriya) Saint Incia ' Liechtenstein (Principality of) Lesotho (Kingdan of) ' mxembourg Macao Mauritius Monaco Madagascar (Drawer-atio Republic of ) Madeira Midway Islands Malaysia Maldives (Republic of ) Mali (Reptblic of ) Malta (Republic of ) 'Ihissymbol isusedincoltnmtlBWtoiniicatetheuseofthefrequency assignment for inter—ship communications, by the notifying administration indicated in Column B. Mongolian People' 5 Reptblic Mozambique (People' 5 Reptblic of) Mariana Islands Morocco (Kingdan of ) Marshall Islands Marion Island Martinique (French Department of) Montserrat ' Mauritania (Islamic Republic of) Malawi Mayotte Island Nicaragua New Caledonia and Dependencies Niger (Republic of the) Nigeria (Federal Republic of ) Niue Island Namibia Norway Nepal Nauru (Republic of) New Zealand 1 2 5 M Name of the country or geographical area OCE French Polynesia OMA Oman (Sultanate of) ONC Stations of the "United Nations Military Observer Group in India and Pakistan" 010‘ Stations of the "United Nations Truce Supervision Organization in areas between the Armistice Demarcation Lines at Jerusalem" PAK Pakistan (Islamic Republic of) PAQ Easter Island (Chile) PHI. Philippims (Republic of the) PBX Phoenix Islands PIM Palmyra Island ENG Papua New Guinea PNR Panama (Republic of) ' POL Poland (People's Republic of) FOR Po PRG Paraguay (Republic of) ‘PDC Pitcairn Island PIR Puerto Rico QA'I' Qatar (State of) RE! Reunion (French Department of) ROD Rodriguez . Rm Romania (Socialist Republic of) R134 Rwandese Republic 8 Sweden SCN Saint Christopher and Nevis SIN Sudan (Republic of the) SEN Senegal (Republic of) SE! Seychelles (Republic of) SHN Saint Helena SIM Solomon Islands SLV El Salvador (Republic of) SW. American Sarina ' SM) Western Samoa (Independent State of) SMR San Farina (Republic of) SNG Singapore (Republic of) SCM Sanali Democratic Republic 8PM SaintPierreardMiquelon (mneparUrerttof) SRL Sierra Ieone STP . Sao 'Itrne and Principe (Democratic Republic of) SUI . Sataerland (Confederation of) SUR Suriname (Republic of) SWN Swan Islarris SW2 Swaziland (Kingdan of) SYR SYrian Arab Republic (December 1986) . 1 2 6 SSE REE E2 ééfiééé @fifiééfi Egégéfiégfigé‘fié‘fi E Name of the country or geographical area Turks and (hicos Islands Chad (Republic of) Czechoslovak Socialist Republic Togolese Republic Thailand Tokelau Islands East Timor 'Ibrea (W of) Tristan da Cunha Tunisia Turkey Tuvalu Tanzania (United Republic of) United Arab Emirates . Uganda, (Republic of) Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic Uruguay (Eastern Republic of) Union of Soviet Socialist Republic: The 48 contiguous states of the United States of America (excluding the States of Alaska and Hawaii) Saint Vincent and the Grenadines Venezuela (Republic of) United States Virgin Islands British Virgin Islands Viet Nam (Socialist Republic of) Vanuatu (Republic of ) ' Wake Island Wallis and Futuna Islands Vernen Arab Republic ' Yemen (People' s Deunocratic Republic of) Yugoslavia (Socialist Federal Republic of) Zaire (Republic of) Zambia (Republic of) Zimbabwe (Republic of) 127 W TOTAL NUMBERS OF ASSIGNMENTS LISTED BY ADMINISTRATION TOTAL NUMBER OF ASSIGNMENTS = 1028§62 NUHBER OF ASSIGNMENTS IN REG 2 = 0482807 ARG *** 100533 USA *** 209199_‘_1, PNR *** 004745 MEX *** 038509 B *uu 032975 CHL *** 008247 CAN *** 053855 (3 mm 000488 /> [INK MM 000667»—---—" F *me 002280 ~_—-—> UEN *** 001447 DOM *** 000492 BOL *** 003176 CLM *** 003274 URG *** 011116 CUB ”Nu 004015 SLU *** 000462 HND xxx 000468 JHC nun 000137 BAH *** 000186 CTR unn 0000?2 HTI *N* 000048 EDA %** 000845 PRU **N 001769 GTM %%% 000979 GUY uufi 000223 PRG are 000579 HOL ant->6 000319,“? SUR *** 000402 TRD uxx 000080 BRB *** 000088 6RD *** 000032 ' ATG *** 000045 BLZ *** 000109 NCG *** 000297 SCN *** 000037- DNA *** 000031 LCA *** 000042 IFB um 000474—4 VCT *** 000043 (5 ’ m... ooooeg) «us/Cantu. AIA *** 000001 BER *** 000011- ‘128 129 TOTAL NUMBER OF ASSIGNMENTS = 1028862u ASSGN (REG 1, REG 3).= 0542087. J *** 014994 ' LBR *** 000283 NOR *** 014197 F *** 051564 URS *** 046392 POL *** 003377 USA **N 010526 IND *** 016810 AUG *** 024200 G *** 05.35 D *** 050617 CHN *** 022977 5 xx» 007800 TUR *** 003633 I *** 010427 -BGD *** 002093 PAN *** 006411 ISL *** 000742 ORG NM» 001837 BEL %N* 001850 FOR uufl 002191 TCH mu» 003114 mRC uuu 001354 BUL *** 000622 EOY “uh 000792 HNG N** 000602 BUR kw” 030268 HOL mun 003804 GA' unu 000666 UAR KN» 000413 UNH NRA 015656 E Nuu 008575 150.. 10“" 001264 AUT x** 018244 SUI *** 002809 MNG *** 001315 YUG *** 005141 FNL *** 004313 AFS *** 003307 ARS *** 008167 CPU *** 000512 NOR *** 002188 AGL *** 000862 STP INS NZL SEN MLT ROU THA BRM AFB IRN NLA PHL ZOE CBG ETH 18R PNG UTN L80 8N0 2N8 NCO HUI LUX TON NPL ALG ZAI EDI FtFtLJ OMB TCD CAF CHE BFA CTI GAB GHA JOR HAU MLI UGA FJI NIB SRL -)(--)-.'--)(- *** {46* 9696* **')6 9936* Nit")? 9696* *9?!- *-)(--X- NM?!- 9H(-* *9‘:* *.)(.* *‘X'X- *M-‘X' 902-91")? ”-96% *-X* 9696* 'Xr-X-X- 9696* 9546* sex-at. .x..)(..)(. 906* *** 9696* *** *-)G* -)(--X--)(- 9696* *** *** 96*"! ”NH“ *** «I'M-i *** *** *‘N‘I “96* *** XX"! *‘Xfi 000114 014379 014124 000899 000566 001234 001541 001663 000315 002501 001093 003198 000768 000119 001065 000863 001608 001736 000141 000877 000513 000117 000121 000078 000064 000097 002006 001897 000116 000138 000078 001036 000418 000712 000306 001228 000582 000975 001484 000145 000451 000352 000404 001668 000312 130 'KEN SUN SON COG BEN LBY HUG NGR HTN CYP MOZ YEN CLN SYR TZA GUI BOT TGO NUT NIR IRG DNA LBN TUN UUT GNB ONE COM SLH TUU ONU BHR NRU SEY YHS HLD KRE DJI ALB CUA BRU LAO SUZ IFB SHR PRU DSPBCOLB ENDED OK 969696 969696 969696 969696 9696 )6 969696 9696* 969696 9696'!- 969696 969696 969696 969696 *9696 969696 x..x..)e 969696 969696 969696 9696* 969696 969696 969696 969696 969696 ~X-9696 969696 969696 969696 969696 96 9696 *9696 969696 *fl-‘X‘ 969696 9696* *9696 *96* 969696 *** *9696 *‘K'I' *96-X' *‘X'I' *‘I-N' *** 00071 2 000592 000403 001148 000154 000719 00155”- 000351 000913 000400 ()0 880 000217 ()()()‘%e525 000235 000733 000187 000245 000186 000342 000200 000868 001119 000301 000698 000113 000214 000082 0006 55 00001334 000116 000701 001242 000038 000088 000251 000050 000050 000185 00015 000030 000031 000104 000110 001323 000032 000001 131 o..- 1 an: _ «£6? 7 1 fl APPENDIX F Officials Interviewed at the ITU Headquarters in Geneva 1. 2. Switzerland Mr. M.D. Sant, Head of the Office of the IFRB: Mr. J. Balfroid, Head of the Registration and Publications Division and Operations Department of the IFRB; Mr. J. Lewis, Head of the data Entry and Validation Division of the IFRB; Mr. R. Fontaine, Chief Public Relations Divisions and Editor-in-chief, Telecommunication Journal; Eng. Jose Bastos Mollica, Secretary of Telecommunication Services of the Brazilian Ministry of Communication. 132 APPENDIX G The Twenty European Countries that started the ITU 1. Austrian-Hungarian Empire 2. Baden 3. Bavaria 4. Belgium 5. Denmark 6. Spain 7. France 8. Greece 9. Hamburg 10. Hanover 11. Italy 12. The Netherlands 13. Portugal 14. Prussia 15. Russia 16. Saxony 17. Sweden and Norway 18. Switzerland 19. Turkey 20. Wurtemburg Subtracted from: Documents Diplomatigues de la CONFERENCE TELEGRAPHIQUE Internationale DE PARIS. 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