hum." I-|_ . ICHI IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII . m A- IIIITIIIHIlllllllHIHHIIIHHIEEINllllilllIHIIIIHIIIlllll 1 cu .. 3 1293 00551 4611 - LIBRARY Michigan State University This is to certify that the dissertation entitled A PARTICIPANT-OBSERVATION STUDY T0 DESCRIBE AND EXPLAIN NHAT DCCURS IN A BEHAVIOUR AND ADJUSTMENT CLASS presentedby MARY CEC I LE SDNNE has been accepted towards fulfillment of the requirements for PH.D. “Win EDUCATION , % Majé professor Date %’/ %’// MS U is an Afi'mnative Action/Equal Opportunity Institution 0-12771 MSU ‘ M RETURNING MATERIALS: Place in book drop to LIBRARJES remove this checkout from “ your record. FINES will be charged if book is returned after the date stamped below. 5fi9’3 L .c' Cali-“:0 ..7 t‘ ”ire-£- $17311 A PARTICIPANT-OBSERVATION STUDY TO DESCRIBE AND EXPLAIN WHAT OCCURS IN A BEHAVIOR AND ADJUSTMENT CLASS BY Mary Cecile Somme A DISSERTATION Submitted to Michigan State University in partiai fulfiilment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY College of Education Department of Educational Administration 1988 w expiain 1 Justment that gui posed of Months a been Off placemer tbehavjc Student ObserVat I’ 72> / If 75' .p— é§,/ ABSTRACT A PARTICIPANT-OBSERVATION STUDY TO DESCRIBE AND EXPLAIN WHAT OCCURS IN A BEHAVIOR AND ADJUSTMENT CLASS By Mary Cecile Somme This exploratory study was designed to describe and explain what occurs in a Special Education Behavior and Ad- justment Class. Specifically, the exploratory questions that guided this research were: 1) Do the students who are identified as having a behavioral exceptionality have anything other than the exceptionality in common? 2) What themes emerge in the Behavior and Adjust- ment Class? 3) What are the teacher’s beliefs about education which support his perspective? 4) How do the students respond to what occurs in a Behavior and Adjustment Class? The Behavior and Adjustment Class studied was com- posed of six students between the ages of ten years, five months and twelve years, five months. The six students had been officially identified by a system—wide Identification, Placement and Review Committee (I.P.R.C.) as having a 'behavioral’ exceptionality. In order to gain the perspective of teacher or student (insider), methodology employed was participant- observation. The researcher visited the class as often as possible ow. sources were documents, : The and Adjustms variety of c modificatior classroom ts ClaSSroom IE beliefs abo Students' pe This Drovides abc Class‘flhe 5 provides knc “8° Signifl that Can be studied: as Dract1CeS 1n Specja] Educ Itj Mary Cecile Somme possible over a period of two and a half months. Data sources were fieldnotes from participant—observation, documents, photographs, and casual conversations. The study found that what occurred in the Behavior and Adjustment Class--the active engagement in learning, a variety of control techniques, the ongoing evaluation and modifications by the teacher-~was associated with the classroom teacher’s and/or students’ perspective. The classroom teacher’s perspective was shaped by his goals and beliefs about education as well as his interactions. The students’ perspective was shaped by symbolic interaction. This study is significant for the knowledge it provides about what occurs in one Behavior and Adjustment Class--the activities, processes, and interactions. It provides knowledge of the 'culture’. Indeed, the study is also significant for its implications for possible changes that can be made in the Behavior and Adjustment Class studied, as well as for the implementation of educational practices in other Behavior and Adjustment classes, other Special Education classes and regular classes. It is necessary, however, that caution be exercised in generalizing from this particular case. Although a case study is concerned with particularization rather than generalizability, some of the findings might be generaliz- able to other classes. Copyright by MARY CECILE SOMME 1988 DEDICATION To my husband, Charles, and children, Charlyn, Cathryn Ann and Chris, with love. I have ence. and have s ment is (31' my childrev Barents; Clouthier I Sabbatical teaCher‘ 1 the Study the ClaSs the Stud, 8.: Louis R0” cornrmtteE and Dr. l to Dr. F! ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I am indebted to many people who over the years have encouraged me in my endeavors, have believed in me, and have supported me. Among these, special acknowledge- ment is directed to my family: my husband, Charles, and my children--Charlyn, Cathryn Ann, and Chris-~and my parents; to my colleagues and friends, especially Claude Clouthier and John DeFazio. I am indebted to my employer who granted me a sabbatical leave to pursue doctoral studies; and to the teacher, teacher’s aide, and students who participated in the study, as well as the principal of the school of which the class was a part, all of whom must, by the nature of the study, remain anonymous. Special recognition is extended to my advisor, Dr. Louis Romano, for his assistance and inspiration; to my committee members: Dr. Howard Hickey, Dr. Lonnie McIntrye, and Dr. Keith Groty for their support and guidance; and to Dr. Philip Cusick for initial feedback of my proposal. Sincere appreciation is extended to a companion doctoral student, James Schulte, who continually challenged me to develop fully; and to Jessie Ann Zabolotny who competently typed my work and assisted in so many other ways. vi CHARTER I. INTFZ II. III. Iv, Purp: Expic Defir Conce Limit Slgni Summa REVIE ther ther. Summa METHQ BaCkg This TABLE OF CONTENTS CHAPTER I. II. III. IV. INTRODUCTION Purpose. ..... . .............................. Exploratory Questions .......................... Definition of Terms ............................ Conceptual Framework and Methodology Conceptual Framework ...................... Methodology ............................... Limitations of the Study ....................... Significance ................................... Summary.... .................................... REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE Literature on the Effects of School Failure.... Literature on Ethnographies Introduction ..... . .. ................... Symbolic Interaction ........ . .......... Participant- -Observation Studies ........... summary. ..... .IOIIOOOIIIOIOOOOI. OOOOOOOOOOOOOO METHODOLOGY Background of the Study ...... . ......... . ........ This Study Researcher’s Interest in Ethnography ....... Ethical Considerations.............. ..... .. Methodology. ..... . . ........ ........ Issues of Reliability and Validity ......... PRESENTATION OF THE DATA The Setting Introduction ........................... . ...... .. The School ........ . ............... . ........ The Classroom .............................. vii PAGE [0000101 NN-fi AA 14 19 21 25 35 36 39 42 44 47 51 52 52 The , The C The T A Typ Inter V. CONCLI The F The 3, The TI The F1 Imoh. Summa The Actors Mickey .................................... George .................................... John ................. . .................... Jack. . .. ........................... The Teacher’s Aide ........................ The Teacher ..... ..... .......... . ......... . The Curriculum Introduction .............................. Active Engagement in Learning... .......... Various Control Techniques.. .............. Evaluation and Modifications... ...... ..... The Teacher’s Goals................ ....... ..... The Teacher’s Beliefs .......................... A Typical Day in the Behavior and Adjustment Class ............. Interactions ................................... V. CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS The First Exploratory Question ......... . ....... The Second Exploratory Question ..... . .......... The Third Exploratory Question.. ............... The Fourth Exploratory Question.. ............ .. Implications ................................... Summary.... .................. . ......... ........ EPILOGUE PERSONAL REFLECTIONS ............. . ............ APPENDICES APPENDIX A - PARENTAL CONSENT FORM.. .......... APPENDIX B - CONSENT FORM.... ................. APPENDIX C - TEACHER CONSENT FORM ............. BIBLIOGRAPHY ....................................... viii 57 61 63 65 66 70 72 75 75 76 83 85 88 92 95 111 113 116 121 130 136 140 142 144 145 146 147 TABLE LIST OF TABLES TABLE PAGE 1 Summary of School Characteristics Related to the Students ............... 73 2 Summary of Personal Characteristics of the Students ...................... 74 3 x of Students with Characteristics Related to Home. ........... ......... 117 4 x of Students with Characteristics Related to School. ..... . .......... 117 ix LIST OF FIGURES FIGURE PAGE 1 Classroom Layout.... ............ 53 0.”. be st, “‘1 an CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION PUFQOSG In Ontario, since the enactment of Special Education legislation, which became effective in September, 1985, educators have experimented with various organiza- tional structures to deal with students who are identified as having a ‘behavioral’ exceptionality. This exploratory study investigated a self- contained Special Education Behavior and Adjustment Class-- one organizational structure-~to describe and explain the behavior, interactions, and activities that occur. The researcher employed case study design to investigate the Behavior and Adjustment Class. The Behavior and Adjustment Class studied was composed of six students between the ages of ten years, five months and twelve years, five months. The six students had been officially identified by a system-wide Identification, Placement and Review Committee (I.P.R.C.) as having a 'behavioral’ exceptionality. It was the researcher’s goal to develop an under- standing of what occurs in a Behavior and Adjustment Class --to describe and explain the behavior, interactions, and activities that take place. FBSBBTCT 1'5. a ver key dues Expiain Exploratorygguestions Erickson points out that fieldwork or "qualitative research" that centers its attention on classroom teaching is a very recent phenomenon in educational research. The key questions in such research are: "What is happening here, specifically? What do these happenings mean to the people engaged in them?"1 explain The researcher sought data which would describe and the following exploratory questions: 1) Do the students who are identified as having a behavioral exceptionality have anything other than the exceptionality in common? 2) What themes emerge in the Behavior and Adjustment Class? 3) What are the teacher’s beliefs about education which support his perspective? 4) How do the students respond to what occurs in a Behavior and Adjustment Class? Definition of Terms The Education Act defines an "exceptional pupil“ as ...a pupil whose behavioral, communicational, intellectual, physical or multiple exception- alities are such that he is considered to need placement in a special education program by 1Frederick Erickson, "Qualitative Methods in Research on Teaching," in The Handbook of Research on Teaching, 3rd edition, edited by Merlin C. Wittrock, (New York: MacMillan Publishing Company, 1986), p. 124. 2 and/or 50: In GQSTQnate Tar It thaf 1980 2 1 C - TOFQntE‘ Ed‘JCatio: Yer k. . Ha an Identification, Placement and Review Committee...2 A behavior exceptionality is "emotional disturbance and/or social maladjustment." It is further defined as A learning disorder characterized by specific behavior problems over such a period of time, and to such a marked degree, and of such a nature, as to ad- versely affect educational performance; and that may be accompanied by one or more of the following: a) 'an inability to build or to maintain interpersonal relationships; b) excessive fears or anxieties; c) a tendency to compulsive reaction; d) an inability to learn that cannot be traced to intellectual, sensory, or other health factors, or any combin- ation thereof.3 Culture refers to "a way of life belonging to a designated aggregate of people."‘ Interaction, according to Charon, ”refers to the fact that individuals interpret each other’s acts and 2The Education Act, Revised Statutes of Ontario, 1980, Chapter 129, Sec.1(1), Government of Ontario, (Toronto: The Ontario Government Bookstore, 1983). 3Sgecial Education Handbook, (Toronto: Ministry of Education, 1984), p. 48. ‘John J. Honigmann, Understanding Cultuga, (New York: Harper & Row Publishers, 1963), p. 3. then CC ordere: about t nature. "A rese While: being S then come to align their acts in relation to each other."5 A gersgective is defined by Shibutani as "an ordered view of one’s world--what is taken for granted about the attributes of various objects, events and human nature."° Participant-Observation is defined by Persell as "A research method in which the researcher does observation while taking part in the activities of the social group being studied.“7 A Special Education Program means, in respect of an exceptional pupil, an educational program that is based on and modified by the results of continuous assessment and evaluation and that includes a plan containing specific objectives and an outline of educational services that meets the needs of the exceptional pupil.a 5Joel M. Charon, Symbolic Intaractioniam, (Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1979), p. 152. 6Tamotsu Shibutani, "Reference Groups as Perspectives,“ in Symbolic Intaraction: A Reader in Social Psychology, edited by Jerome G. Manis and Bernard N. Meltzer, (Boston: Allyn and Bacon, 1967), p. 161. 7Caroline Hodges Persell, Undegatanding Sociaay, (New York: Harper & Row Publishens, Inc., 1984), p. 638. 8Sgecial Education Handbook, p. 14. 0 (l J 1nv£ Symt 15c 1t 1 inve tual 1Tlllel ObSer SOCla Dfenc in 5: RQSe’ Or . qr Umye Conceptual Framework and Methodology Concaptual Framawork The conceptual framework underlying the reported investigation can be characterized by the theory of symbolic interaction.9 According to this view, no behavior is divorced from the social and cultural context in which it is embedded. Bogdan states that the subject of the investigation, be it an organization or individuals, is not reduced to isolated variables or hypotheses, but rather an attempt is made to look at it in context, from a comprehensive perspective.‘° Methodology As might be expected on the basis of the concep- tual framework of the study, the theory of symbolic interaction postulates the method of participant— observation as the most likely methodology to access the social and cultural context as well as the behavioral phenomenon being investigated. 9Herbert Blumer, "Society as Symbolic Interaction," in Human Bahavior and Social Processes, edited by Arnold Rose, (Boston: Houghton-Mifflin Company, 1966). 1°Robert Bogdan, Participant Obaervation in Organizational Saatinga, (Syracuse, New York: Syracuse University Press, 1972), p. 1. Slnc r686 on r The advantages of participant-observation (sometimes referred to as "field study" or "ethnographic educational research“) have been discussed by social psychologist, Leonard Berkowitz.“ As noted by Berkowitz, an advantage of the methodology is that it is realistic since data are gathered in a natural setting rather than in the artificial confines of a laboratory setting. Beekman, too, argues convincingly for field research. She states that in a field study: We want our subjects to be partners in the research enterprise. Our research is meant to be dialogical, as we want to give our subjects a voice.‘2 She contends that participant-observation is based on respect for the child; that, in order to understand children’s experiences we need to observe them directly...If we really want to explore themes of the lived-world of children, the best way is to share the actual life of children.‘3 Beekman asserts that by being in the field one "will participate in the drama of life itself"; one is "able to perceive the atmosphere"; meaning of what one is 11Leonard Berkowitz, A Survay_of Social Psychology, 2nd edition, (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1981). 12Ton Beekman, "Stepping Inside: On Participant Experience and Bodily Presence In The Field," Journal of Education, Vol. 168, No. 3, (1986), p. 41. 13Ibid., p. 40. DBIS move COOS f" U - x ..7 t0 doing is not "as a concept, but as concrete time and space dimensions“; one is able to ”discover the social and personal meanings of one’s informants"; and one is able to move "interpretations closer to real life and its consequences.”H Furthermore, the method has the advantage of frequently having a good deal of heuristic value (of being suggestive of further research) because a natural setting is always rich in operating variables. Such richness contributes to the development of multiple ideas concerning the variables of interest. Since this study involved the collection and recording of data about a particular case, the Behavior and Adjustment Class, it employed case study design. Blum and Foos contend that case study design presents a "wealth of information" about a particular group or phenomenon and is "excellent for generating hypotheses.“‘5 Blanche Geer has succinctly summarized the procedures of participant-observation as follows: A participant observer in the field is at one time reporter, interviewer, and scientist. 0n the scene, he gets the story of an event by questioning participants about what is happening HIbid., pp. 42-45. ‘5Milton L. Blum and Paul W. Foos. Data Gathering; Experimantal MathodavPlua, (New York: Harper & Row Publishers, Inc., 1986), p. 216. and why. He fills out the story by asking people about their relation to the event, their reactions, opinions, and its significance. As an interviewer, he encourages an informant to tell his story, or supply an expert account of an organization or group. As a scientist, he seeks answers to questions by setting up hypotheses and collecting data with which to answer them.‘° In this study, the research questions (delineated as "exploratory questions") were answered via a number of procedures common to the method of participant-observation. Specifically, answers were formulated on the basis of the following data sources: 1. fieldnotes from participant-observation; 2. casual conversations with students, teacher, teacher’s aide and pertinent others; 3. documents; 4. photographs; and 5. library research. The researcher spent as much time as possible in the setting over a two to three month period. She spent approximately a quarter of a day, three or four times a week. She observed in the setting and participated in the events of the classroom--assuming the role of student or teacher (participant-as-observer). 16Blanche Geer, "First Days in the Field," Sociologists at Work, edited by Phillip E. Hammond, (Garden City, New York: Doubleday, 1964), p. 383. It Without its extraneous possible 1r. data and ob. rather than Ari: lack of Sta mVQStlgatc than disru; StandardizE Statistica‘. A t be "ab'ie to 135611 9,3 to be 58nsi Th] it provIdes 17T Excerience Limitations of the Study It must be noted that the methodology is not without its drawbacks. Firstly, the strict control of extraneous factors possible in laboratory studies is not possible in the field. Thus, interpretations of collected data and Observances must be correlational or associative rather than causal in nature. Another drawback of the selected methodology is its lack of statistical measurement precision. Since an investigator wants the setting to remain natural rather than disrupted by his or her presence, the extensive standardized methods of data gathering crucial to statistical measurement precision cannot be undertaken. A third limitation is that the researcher needs to be "able to write a good narrative where the breath of life is still perceptible."17 In addition, the researcher needs to be sensitive and insightful. Significance This study is significant in terms of the knowledge it provides about what occurs in a Behavior and Adjustment 17Ton Beekman, "Stepping Inside: 0n Participant Experience and Bodily Presence In The Field," p. 44. Class exami cent! stanc a Be‘ of ti 5Y8: Dice (Ne. 10 Class. There appear to be no or few studies that have examined behavior, interactions, and activities that occur in a Behavior and Adjustment Class. According to Spradley, "Cultural description, the central task of ethnography is the first step in under- standing the human species.”18 Ethnographic research of a Behavior and Adjustment Class, then, provides knowledge of the particular culture that exists in that class. Spradley states that, Perhaps the most striking feature of human beings is their diversity ...If we are to understand this diversity, we must begin by carefully describing it.19 Moreover, the study can provide the educational system with information as to the extent of system goal attainment in terms of building interpersonal relation skills in its students with ‘behavioral’ exceptionalities. By using the method of participant-observation, the study allows a broad view of the multiple factors operating to foster or to obstruct the development of students’ inter- personal skills. Thus, the system is able to get a picture of what is currently going on in terms of 18James P. Spradley, The Ethnographic Intagviag, (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1979). p. 10. 19Ibid., p. 10. foste ‘bena ODSBF CODCL lnfor part- Quen' eXpl. many rese Clas The DOG) 11 fostering interpersonal relations in students with ’behavioral’ exceptionalities. According to Ball, "The orientation of participant- observation research is toward discovery."2° Jordan concurs. She claims that classroom ethnography can provide information that helps "generate and shape new classroom practices," and "produces ongoing feedback about how particular classroom practices are working."2‘ Conse- quently, the study has significance in that the broad view explored in the research should allow for the generation of many ideas which may be explored and tested by future researchers interested in Ontario’s Special Education classes for students with ‘behavioral’ exceptionalities. The study may be said to serve as a stepping stone toward a body of research aimed at improving the goal attainment of Special Education classes for children with 'behavioral’ exceptionalities. Furthermore, the study may reveal the usefulness of ethnographic educational research. 208. J. Ball, "Participant Observation,“ The International EncyclopadiaZOf Education; Research and Studiea, (Toronto: Pergamon Press, 1985), p. 3782. 21Cathie Jordan, "Translating Culture: From Ethnographic Information to Educational Program," Anthropology & Education anrtagjy, Vol. 16, (1985), p. 111. —4 what OCCJ EXDIO’atl Class was Ology, a behavior the disad measureme laborator SOurces 1 casual cc Summary This study was designed to describe and explain what occurs in a Behavior and Adjustment Class. The exploration of what occurs in a Behavior and Adjustment Class was conducted using participant-observation method- ology, a methodology with the advantages of observing behavior in a natural setting and heuristic value, and the disadvantages of general rather than precise data measurement and lack of stringent control possible in laboratory settings. Data were gathered from several sources including fieldnotes from participant—observation, casual conversations, documents, and photographs. 12 1.». school fa: Tr what occur of the Hi investiga‘ 8 failure 1' behavior, Rubin alld an lmDOrt literatur- A graphic 1: CHAPTER II REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE This chapter reviews literature on the effects of school failure and on ethnographies. This study was carried out to describe and explain what occurs in one Behavior and Adjustment Class. A review of the literature could find no previous reports of investigations in Behavior and Adjustment classes. Since research by Kauffman shows that "school failure is a frequent concomitant to maladaptive behavior,"1 and studies by Morse, Cutler and Fink and by Rubin and Balow2 concur that school failure seems to play an important role in maladaptive behavior, a review of the literature on the effects of school failure is given. Additionally, since the study employs the ethno- graphic technique of participant-observation, a review 1Kauffman, J., Characteristica of Children’s Behavior Diaordaga, 3rd edition, (Columbus, Ohio: Merrill, 1984), reported in "The Learning-to-Fail Phenomenon as an Obstacle to Mainstreaming Children With Behavioral Disorders,“ by Robert A. Gable, Scott R. McConnell, and C. Michael Nelson. Monograph in Behavioral Disordaga, (Arizona State University, Teacher Educators for Children with Behavioral Disorders and Council for Children with Behavioral Disorders, Summer 1985), Vol. 8, p. 19. 2Robert A. Gable; Jo M. Hendrickson; and Clifford C. Young, report this in "Materials Selection and Adaptation: Strategies for Combating Curriculum Casualties Among the Behaviorally Disordered," Monograph in Behavioral Disorders, p. 10. 13 of liter states t academic pr0V1hci the Scho. Shack. 14 of literature related to ethnography is also presented. Literature on the Effects of School Failure What do children who ‘fail’ gain? Sybil Shack states that studies indicate that children gain very little academically, if anything, by repeating a year: Studies...show with interesting regularity that in most cases...the repetition is of little value in raising standing permanently. Some children show slightly more success during their second year in a grade, but later in their school careers demonstrate little gain as a result of the repetition when their achievement is compared with that of other pupils of similar ability and achievement who were permitted to continue without repetition.3 The authors of the 1968 Report of the Ontario Provincial Committee on Aims and Objectives of Education in the Schools of Ontario, Livin and Learnin , concur with Shack. They write, It has been found that children repeating the same classroom routine a second time rarely advance their knowledge more than two or three months in the ten months of exposure...Slow achievers, it has been found, accomplished more if they were promoted with their age group.“ 3Sybil Shack, Armed With A Primeg, (Toronto: McClelland and Stewart Ltd., 1965), p. 116. ‘Report of the Ontario Provincial Committee on Aims and Objectives of Education in the Schools of Ontario, Living and Learning, (Toronto: The Newton Publishing Co., 1968), p. 62. rat the Chi far \- WC 6136 QJE H -3 m I Q) m 15 An examination of the data comparing seventh grade pupils in schools with high ratios of overageness and low ratios of overageness, according to Cook, indicates that the, ...ranges of two sets of schools are surprisingly similar and that the promotional policies have not material- ly affected the range of achievement.5 Research carried out by Bocks also discovered that children who were retained gained little academically. In fact, they may have achieved less than if they had been promoted.6 Not only does a child seem to gain little advantage academically by repeating a year, more serious is the question of his self-concept. According to Wrightstone, Nonpromotion affects the personality of the pupil unfavorably. Clinical studies of children who have failed, show that there is a loss of self-confidence. Self- respect is undermined. The feeling of security, so necessary to mental health, is usually weakened and feelings of infer- iority are increased.7 5Walter W. Cook and Theodore Clymer, "Acceleration and Retardation," Individpalizing,Inatruction, Sixty-First Yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Education, Part I, (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1962). p. 199. 6William M. Bocks, "Non-Promotion: A Year to Grow?" Educational Leadership 34, 5 (February, 1977), pp. 379—383. 7J. W. Wrightstone, Class Organization for Instruction, What Research Says to the Teacher, No. 13, Washington D.C., N.E.A. (May 1957), p. 5. Such a w. himself schoolwo- children IO DUI Tl retentiol adjustmei We tro. discoura; worried a Vl'e‘ws of TGSUlts - tYDlCal - perCejVe 999r3.1o In their C \ pron E w, 16 A child’s self-concept is altered by failure in such a way that he is inclined to lose confidence in himself and have much lower desires for attainment in his schoolwork and in what he hopes to become. Nonpromoted children, thus, tend to set lower goals for themselves and to put forth less effort rather than the contrary. Prescott asserts that research has indicated that retention has unwholesome effects upon the behavior and adjustment of the child. The nonpromoted child exhibits more troublesome behavior, more inattentiveness, and more discouragement than the promoted child. In addition, he worried about his failure.° Prescott seems to express the views of others, such as Buhler, who believe that failure results in guilt feelings and unhappiness.9 Goodlad found that students who were older than the typical age for the class in which they were placed were perceived as less popular than their regularly promoted peers.‘° Morrison and Perry support Goodlad’s findings. In their studies, they administered sociometric question- naires to students from grades four to grades eight. __ 8D. A. Prescott, The Child in the Educative Egppeaa, (Toronto: McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1957), p. 435. 9C. Buhler, Childhood Problems and the Teacher, (New York: Greenwood Press, 1969), p. 114. 1°John I. Goodlad, "Some Effects of Promotion Upon Social and Emotional Adjustment of Children," Journal of Experimental Education 22(4), (1954), pp. 301-328. Morrisor oloer tr median f scored t retentic They aor grade 51 decrease increase 17 Morrison found that 86 percent of the students who were older than the typical age scored below the sociometric median for their class; Perry discovered that 90 percent scored below the median.“ A study by White and Howard in 1973 concluded that retention was significantly related to lower self-concept. They administered a 100-item self-concept inventory to grade six students in North Carolina. Self-concept scores decreased as the number of grades the pupils failed increased.12 Maurie Hillson claims that, Those who are promoted usually do better, make better progress, indicate better mental health habits and adjustments than do their peers who are retained.13 Bossing also concluded that retention harms the students. Furthermore, he found a positive correlation between school failure and high school dropout rates.H k 11I. E. Morrison and I. F. Perry, "Acceptance of Overage Children By Their Classmates," Elementary School Journal 56, (1956):217-220. 12ERIC Clearinghouse on Educational Management, "What Do You Know About Grade Retention and Social Promotion?" NASPA Bulletin 63, (May 1979):136-138. 13Maurie Hillson, "Continuous Progress Education," Change and Innoyation in Elementary and Secondary Organization, (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston Co., 1971), p. 60. 1‘Lewis Bossing, "A Review of the Elementary School Promotion/Retention Dilemma," ERIC Ed. 212 362, p. 2. literatur llOllDl‘Oan‘ ture, tn comparir the orig Wai- Tl academi attitud on the Indeed1 readlng Studje. reDeatr they 11 emotjol the 0u1 18 Frazier, however, indicates that repeating a grade may be justified in the case of a student who has missed a great deal of school or who is very immature.‘5 Goodlad’s findings, however, disagree.‘° Holmes and Matthews identified studies in the literature that were potentially relevant to the issue of nonpromotion. From more than 650 studies in the litera- ture, they used forty-four in a meta-analysis--a method of comparing promoted and nonpromoted students by pooling of the original data found in various studies in a systematic way. They examined the effects of retention (failure) on academic achievement, personal adjustment, self-concept and attitude toward school. They found that the promoted group on the average achieved higher than the nonpromoted group. Indeed, in each of the subareas examined (language arts, reading, mathematics, work study skills, and social studies), failure had a negative effect on the pupils who repeated. In the area of personal adjustment (under which they identified three subareas: social adjustment, emotional adjustment, and behavior), they concluded that the outcomes for promoted pupils were more positive than 15Karen A. Williams, "What Research Says About Grade Retention and Academic Achievement," (Bethesda, Md.:ERIC Document Reproduction Service, ED. 259 840, 1985), p. 2. 16John I. Goodlad, "Some Effects of Promotion Upon Social and Emotional Adjustment of Children," pp. 301-328. for T‘ (v nee cohC‘ stud a:i 96' pos hum. is l qua? Simb: Or in 0T 80! States phenom, [ffeCtS 0 Show p, ..0“ H3 18 ‘ I‘ 19 for retained or nonpromoted students. In addition, negative effects of nonpromotion were evident in self- concept and attitude toward school held by nonpromoted students. Thus, students who were promoted fared better in all areas than those who repeated.17 Literature on Ethnographiea Introduction There have been "two major theoretical perspectives" in the social sciences. One perspective, positivism, is also known as experimental, statistical, numerical, or quantitative research. A second perspective is known as naturalistic, as well as "ethnographic, qualitative, participant observational, case study, symbolic interactionist, phenomenological, constructivist, or interpretive."1a Positivism "seeks the facts or causes of social phenomena with little regard for the subjective states of individuals"; the naturalistic perspective or phenomenology "is concerned with understanding human 17C. Thomas Holmes and Kenneth M. Matthews, "The Effects of Nonpromotion on Elementary and Junior High School Pupils: A Meta-Analysis," Review of Educational Research, (Summer 1984), Vol. 54, No. 2, pp. 225-236. 18Frederick Erickson, "Qualitative Methods in Research on Teaching," p. 119. bed aV' itse hol i [1‘ ( 9 Fu! 2O behavior from the actor’s own frame of reference.“19 As Bogdan asserts, qualitative methodology "directs itself at human settings and individuals in them holistically."2° Joan E. Sieber reinforces this. She asserts that "Ethnography is the study of people and their culture."21 She claims that, The fieldworker stays in the habitat of the host culture for an extended period of time and becomes closely acquainted with one or more members of that culture.22 Furthermore, Sieber contends, The fieldworker participates in the host culture, and strives to understand it, to learn as far as is possible to speak, think, feel, perceive, and act as a member of that culture, and yet to examine and describe it critically from the trained perspective of his or her own discipline and culture.23 As mentioned, holistic ethnographers want to know about the culture in order to appropriately interpret behavior. According to Evelyn Jacob, they 19Robert Bogdan and Steven J. Taylor, Introduction to Qualitative Research Methode. (New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1975), p. 2. 2°Robert Bogdan, Participant Observation in Organizational Septinge, p. 1. 21Joan E. Sieber, ed., The Ethice of Social Research Fieldworke,Regulationa__nd Publication, (New York: Springer-Verlag, 1982). p. 1. 22Ibid. 231bid. 008 of: Pane (Spri 21 are interested in a more focused theor- etical framework or problem but want to make certain that their study is grounded in the particular setting being studied.24 According to Bogdan, The purpose of the method (participant- observation) is to develop understandings of complex social settings and relation- ships. It assumes that an important way, and perhaps the only way, to understand some areas of social life is to immerse oneself with others in that social arrangement.25 As Brophy and Good assert, "If classrooms are to be understood, the social aspects of classrooms must be dealt with."25 They claim that, Quantitative studies help to suggest general patterns of behavior (eg. How do fourth grade teachers get achievement gains?), whereas qualitative studies help to explain why some- thing occurs in a particular classroom.27 Symbolic Interaction Underlying the methodology of participant- observation that is evident in ethnography is the theory of symbolic interaction. As Palonsky states, 2“Evelyn Jacob, "Qualitative Research Traditions: A Review," Review of Educational Research, Vol. 57, Number I, (Spring 1987). D. 13. 25Robert Bogdan, Participant Observation in Organizational Settinge, p. 4. 26Jere E. Brophy and Thomas L. Good, LookingeIn Classrooms, (New York: Harper & Row Publishers, 1984), p. 60. 27Ibid., p. 82. Pal the He 1 CONS that Invest In An I (PM, , 0. 3. 22 This view considers man’s social inter- action with his fellow man to be the creating and sustaining force of any group or societal concept of what is real.23 Palonsky asserts that, if an individual wants to explore the social reality of individuals or groups, he should subject himself to the dynamics of the social environment and actually become part of the group as it engages in the processes of creating and sustain- ing that reality. The participant-observer methodology allows the researcher to assume the role of a participant in the social setting and engage in the interactions of individuals and groups. He is able to take part in the group interactions which create the social reality for that group.29 Blumer, the chief proponent of symbolic inter- action, states that each of the individuals in a sit- uation is an actor and that each actor is constantly interpreting a situation. Man is an actor who acts upon the meaning which he attaches to other persons’ actions. He defines and redefines other persons’ actions; he constructs and reconstructs other persons’ actions.3° Man employs symbols and they are these symbols that give meaning. They are these symbols that make human 28Stuart B. Palonsky, "A Participant Observer Investigation of the Students and Their Social World In An Urban, Integrated and Innovative High School." (Ph.D. Dissertation, Michigan State University, 1974), p. 3. 29Ibid. 3°Herbert Blumer, "Society as Symbolic Interaction.“ Educ Mich ' Ir ~L§£ 23 interaction unique. They are these symbols that are cri- tical; they are these symbols that make man different from lower animals. As Remender states, "The symbol enables man to respond in terms of his definition of the situation...“31 Manis and Meltzer state the central propositions of Symbolic Interaction as follows: 1. Mind, self, and society are most usefully viewed as processes of human and interhuman conduct. 2. Language is the mechanism for the rise of mind and self. 3. Mind is an importation of the social process, that is, of interaction. 4. Human beings construct their behavior in the course of its execution, rather than responding mechanically to either external stimuli or such internal forces as drives, needs, or motives. 5. Human conduct is carried on primarily by defining of situations in which one acts. 6. The socialization of the human being both enmeshes him in society and frees him from society. The individual with a self is not passive but can employ his self in an action from group definitions.32 31Peter A. Remender, ”Symbolic Interaction and Education: Some Marginal Notes," (A Ph.D. Dissertation, Michigan State University, 1971), p. 82. 32Jerome Manis and Bernard Meltzer, Symbolic Interaction, (Boston: Allyn and Bacon, 1967), p. 495. aCCord llcl. raw~i (n 24 The Symbolic Interactionist asserts then that an individual has a self. Not only does an individual being act and react towards others; he acts towards his self reflectively. A human being makes self-indications--a process of defining and redefining oneself. Action is then a series of self-indications; it is a dynamic process. Society is composed of human beings who have selves, and who interact. According to Kinch, the theory of Symbolic Inter— action has three basic propositions: 1. The individual’s personality--the distinctive patterns of behavior that characterize him as an individual-- results from and is reinforced by his day-to-day association with those about him. 2. The individual’s behavior or conduct follows a direction that is the result of reciprocal give-and-take of inter- dependent men who are adjusting to one another. 3. The culture of the group is a reflection of those agreements about proper conduct that emerge and are reinforced by man’s continual communication as people collectively come to terms with life’s conditions.33 As a man interacts, he chooses a course of action in accordance with his perspeCtive. 33John W. Kinch, Social Peychology, (New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1973), p. 11. Earticipant—Obeervation Studiee The participant-observation methodology is a useful tool to learn about group behavior, social interaction, and collective perspectives. It originated during the nineteenth century when anthropologists carried out studies to learn about primitive societies. The anthropologist went into the field to observe and to live in the society. He recorded his observations and then analyzed these. Ethnographic studies that have been carried out are numerous. Most famous 'general’ ones unrelated to educa- tion include: Stpeet Corner Socieey; Ipe,Urban VillagersI Group and Claee in thevLife of Italian-Americana; Tally’s Corner; Five Familiee; La Vida; and Asylums. In 1943, Whyte published his Street Corne:,$ociepy. This classic described the political and social structure of an Italian slum in urban Boston. The main question that guided Whyte’s investigation was: "What makes a man a big shot and by what means is he able to dominate the little guys?”34 Whyte gathered his information by living in the Italian community for three and a half years and participa- ting in its social and political activities. He was care- ful to report what he observed and not to judge the activities. 34William F. Whyte, Street CorneL_Society, (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1943), p. xix. 25 CE 81 26 Gans, from October 1957 to May 1958, carried out a field study of an urban Italian community in order to develop an understanding of the life of the poor people who lived there. According to Gans, My main research interests were two: to study a slum and to study the way of life of a low income population. I wanted to know what a slum was like and how it felt to live in one.35 Tally’e Corneg, a book which discusses a field study that spanned an eighteen month period, originated from a doctoral dissertation by a student of anthropology. It analyzes the life of 'lower—class’ Negro males. The author, Liewbow, states that, The focus was on the man as father, husband or other family member, but there were, by design, no firm presumptions of what was or was not relevant. In this sense, there was no detailed research design; the intention was frankly exploratory.36 Oscar Lewis, an anthropologist, has conducted many participant-observer studies. In one, he wanted to under- stand the way of life of five Mexican families who had made a transition from life in a rural area to life in an urban area of Mexico City.37 In another. he examined the f8MllY 35Herbert Gans, The Urban Villagers. Group and Class in the Life,of Italian-Americans, (New York: The Free Press of Glencoe, 1962), pp. ix-x. 36Elliott Liewbow, IaJTy’e,Corner, (Boston: Little, Brown and Company, 1967), p. 10. 37Oscar Lewis, Five Familiee, (New York: The New American Library, Inc., 1959). exa 1an alt he 27 life of Hispanic peoples.38 Goffman used participant-observation methodology to examine "social situations of mental patients and other inmates." Goffman, in his book Asylums, states that although he did not take the role of the hospital inmate, he was able to explain the reality of life as an inmate from the inmate’s perspective. He reports, It was then and still it is my belief that any group of persons--prisoners, primitives, pilots, or patients--develop a life of their own that becomes meaning- ful, reasonable and normal once you get close to it, and that a good way to learn about any of these worlds is to submit oneself in the company of the members to the daily round of petty contingencies to which they are subjected.39 Ethnographic research has become increasingly employed by educators over the past twenty years. Among the most notable educational ethnographies are: Small Town Teacher; Anatomy of Edupational Innovation: An chaniza; tional Analysis of an Elementary School; The Man in the Wffice: An Ethnography; Making cheering; Life _Lp_§laeegppme; The Com lexitiee of an Urban Classroom; West Haven; The Egalitarian Ideal and the Amegjcan High School; and Learning tocLabor. 38Oscar Lewis, La Vida. (New York: Random House, 1965). 39Erving Goffman, As lums, (Garden City, New York: Doubleday and Company, 1961), pp. ix-x. 1| A 11$ 8\ 28 Gertrude McPherson, a sociologist, reports a field study that she conducted covertly in a New England school where she was a teacher. In Small Town Teacheg, McPherson describes the focus of her study: I am looking at the teacher from her own point of view. I am concerned with the teacher’s expectations for herself, for pupils, for parents, for the administra- tion, and with her responses to the ways in which she defines the expectations of others toward her.‘° Smith and Keith tell about being participant- observers in an elementary school which was considered innovative. They investigated patterns of leadership and how change affected the school.41 Wolcott’s book, The Man in the Principal’e Office; An Ethnography, describes the principal as a person; the principal’s 'formal’ and ‘informal’ encounters; the "socialization of the principal"; and the impressions that various people--the secretary, teachers, pupils, the superintendent, and parents—-have of the principal on which the case study is based. It also describes "A Day in the Life" of a principal. Wolcott states that, "the purpose of the study is to describe and analyze the elementary school ‘OGertrude McPherson, Small Town Teacheg, (Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1972), p. 7. 4‘Louis Smith and Pat Keith, Anatomy of Educational Innovation: An Organizational Analyeie oanp Elementary School, (New York: John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1971). or' ob: an r). a) a?) DC TC Bc 29 principalship from a cultural perspective.”2 Becker, Gear, and Hughes used participant- observation methodology in their study of the grade point average perspective of undergraduates at a university.“3 Philip Jackson in his book, Life in Claeeroome, describes everyday life in elementary classrooms. His purpose, he claims, is simply to arouse the reader’s interest and possibly to awaken his concern over aspects of school life that seem to be receiving less attention than they deserve.‘4 Smith and Geoffrey provide a social psychological analysis of the complexities of classroom life in The Complexitiee of an Urban Classroom.45 Smith spent a year as non-participant-observer in Geoffrey’s elementary class- room; Geoffrey took the role of participant-observer. Both kept daily field notes and analyzed the events. The book, West Haven, is an ethnographic account of activities that occur on a daily basis--recorded over a ‘ZHarry F. Wolcott, The Man in the Principal’s Office; An Ethnography, (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Inc., 1973). p. xi. 43Howard S. Becker, Blanche Geer, and Everett Hughes, Making the,Grad§. (New York: John Wiley and Sons, 1968). HPhilip Jackson, Life in Claeeroome. (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Inc., 1968), p. vii. 45Louis M. Smith and William Geoffrey, The Complexitiee of an Urban Classroom, (Chicago: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Inc., 1968). oer SIX the [Lia '1‘ 8y. CL; In‘ C . VII u . H 30 period of nine months-—in a preschool classroom through a sixth grade classroom in a biracial elementary school which the author, Norris Brock Johnson, names West Haven. ‘West Haven’ is located in the rural midwest. Johnson states that the purpose of his book is to describe the social and cultural reality of everyday classroom life and to note the conditioning effect of the process of elementary schooling on children.‘6 His thesis is that "public schools and school classrooms are a small society and culture--a way of life into which children are initiated and conditioned to adhere." In other words, “classroom life...is a vehicle for the social and cultural conditioning of children.”7 Social conditioning is the process by which children are "pressed to become part of an ongoing group of people occupying a specific geographic territory; that is, to become part of a society." Cultural conditioning is the process by which children are compelled "to adopt...the classroom culture as their own." Johnson claims that every system of education has two common vehicles for social and cultural conditioning: initiation and rites of passage. Initiation marks the beginning of a long process in which a 4°Norrie Brock Johnson, West Haven. Claeeroom Culture and Society in a Rucal Elementary School, (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1985), p. 3. ‘7Ibid. ‘fi‘ C child passa under life. DY t? at Mr each and 0r h, ChOl term: diffe VIGws 31 child is entered into the society and culture. Rites of passage are the "sets of age-related experiences...people undergo in being conditioned to adopt, by stages, a way of life."‘° He stresses that students are conditioned to order by the school’s emphasis on temporal and spatial co-ordination, routine housekeeping tasks, ranking, the reinforce- ment of student self-control, compliance and obedience, regimentation, coming to attention, and waiting. Preschool session events and activ— ities emphasize the initial ordering of student- to-student and student-to-teacher patterns of relationship fundamental to the ongoing way of life of the classroom as a society.49 Johnson contends, "A pervasive ideal that teachers at West Haven have is the belief in the perfectibility of each individual child,‘ which means that "given enough time and attention, each child ought to be able to develop his or her maximum potential." He says, that "The reality of schooling, though, is mass education, what Philip Cusick terms the "batch processing" of students."50 Johnson mentions that in the middle grades, ”student age and ability groupings are becoming further differentiated." He alleges that teachers have varying views on school retention, question the utilization of 431bid. ‘9Ibid., p. 51. 5°Ibid., p. 175. 32 letter grades, have differing "explanations of the reasons for student classroom success and failure (which) polarize around the color of the teacher."51 Johnson makes a potent point: If one wanted a mechanism for sorting new generations of citizens into the potentially advantaged and the potentially disadvantaged, one could do no better than to invent the stratified culture and society of ordinary public school classrooms.52 Johnson reveals that as one progresses through the grades there is "a gradual reduction in the number of discrete classroom events"; ”more classroom time (spent) on work related activities"; "more different kinds of activity occurring"; "a slight reduction in time spent on meals/recess"; and "more complex pattern of scheduling classes."53 With the latter, "teachers lose a great deal of power," ”more teacher time is spent on required bureau- cratic tasks such as taking roll, collecting lunch money, and filling out permission slips for individual student activities." He says that teachers blame the “upper grade pattern of schooling for the bureaucratic intrusions and disruptive students," and for the less amount of time spent 51Ibid., p. 180. 52Ibid., p. 183. 53Ibid., p. 244. 33 on academics than in lower grades.54 Cusick’s book, The Egalitarian Ideal and the American High School, examines the "structure of three public secondary schools." He puts forth the thesis that "the keystone of that structure is their commitment to an American version of the egalitarian ideal" which he ex- plains is "to provide each student with an opportunity for social, political, and economical equality."55 Cusick’s purpose is to use the descriptions and accounts to develop "an abstracted model of the structure common to those schools to explain (his) thesis." He defines structure as "the abstracted coherence that makes sense of the disparate elements." He states that While there are, of course, differences among the three (public secondary schools) ...all three share a similar structure and that general structure can be used to understand the behaviors and events that occur in those places. And since the three schools are similar “to most secondary schools," the abstracted model "may contribute to our understanding of secondary schools in general.“55 Cusick states that from the original orientations of the studies, common elements emerged--behaviors, 5‘Ibid., p. 245. 55Philip Cusick, lpe Egalitarian Ideal and the American High School, (New York: Longman, 1983), p. 1. 5°Ibid., p. 4. 34 structure, and social values--to combine into a "coherent and intelligible whole" (structure), and the "linchpin of the structure in all three schools was the commitment to the egalitarian ideal." He argues this thesis well. The book, Learnipg to Labor, consists of two parts. The first part "presents an ethnography of the male white working class counter-school culture" and the transition of the group, ’the lads’, from school to work. The second part is ‘more theoretical’; ...it analyzes the inner meaning, ration- ality and dynamic of the cultural process recorded earlier (in Part I), and the ways in which they contribute, on the one hand, to working class culture in general, and on the other, more unexpectedly, to the maintenance and reproduction of the social order.57 Willis writes that the main purpose of his book is "to cast some light on the process by which working class kids get working class jobs." He presents a plausible theory and explains it well--"how kids, through their own activity and ideological development reproduce themselves as a working class."50 A secondary purpose of his book is, ...to examine important and central aspects of working class culture through the concrete study of one of its most revealing manifestations-- 57Paul Willis, Learnipg to Labor, (New York: Columbia University Press, 1977), p. vii. 58Ibid. 35 young non—academic, disaffected males and their adaptation to work as a crucial and privileged moment in the continuous regener- ation of working class cultural forms in relation to the most essential structure of society--its working relations.59 Summary In summary, no research could be found on Behavior and Adjustment classes. Since those students in a Behavior and Adjustment Class have been identified as having a 'behavior’ exceptionality and thus demonstrating mal- adaptive behavior, and since research findings support the notion that maladaptive behavior is associated with school failure, a review of the literature on the effects of school failure is reported. Additionally, since the study carried out was ethnographic in nature, a review of the literature on ethnographies is given. 59Ibid., p. 2. CHAPTER III METHODOLOGY This chapter outlines background information, the researcher’s interest in ethnography, ethical considera- tions and methodology as related to this study. Background of theeStudy Special Education classes in Ontario are designed for the "exceptional pupil” as specified in the Education Act.1 However, the term "exceptional" is truly an umbrella term inclusive of the following exceptional groupings: 1. behavioral exceptionalites which refer to social maladjustment and/or emotional disturbance; communicational exceptionalities: autism; speech, hearing, and language impairments; and learning disabilities; intellectual exceptionalities--giftedness and retardation; physical exceptionalities: orthopaedic and/or physical handicaps; and, visual impairment; multihandicapped which includes two or more of the foregoing exceptionalities. The Ontario Ministry of Education encourages school boards to have a continuum of service that would provide as full a range of placements as possible 1 he Education Act, (R.S.O.), Chapter 129, Subsection 1(1). 36 37 to meet the needs of exceptional pupils. The primary focus in the development of such a range of placements is to provide an exceptional pupil with the strengths and capabilities needed to return to a regular classroom or achieve success in a specified setting.2 The continuum of service ranges from assistance in the regular classroom, to withdrawal on a part-time basis by a special education teacher, to a specialized instructional setting. Some pupils may not have responded to traditional methods of help; some students may need a "more highly specialized setting" which permits greater student-teacher interaction and more emphasis on individual needs.3 Some Ontario school boards are experimenting with a specialized instructional setting-~a self—contained class- room--for students identified by an Identification, Placement and Review Committee (I.P.R.C.) as having a 'behavioral’ exceptionality. The Identification, Placement and Review Committee (I.P.R.C.) is a committee that each school board in Ontario must establish in order to identify exceptional pupils. The purpose of the I.P.R.C. is to determine whether or not a child is exceptional; to place exceptional pupils in the proper level of service, and to review the progress of exceptional pupils at least once a year. 2Special Education Handbook, p. 48. 3Ibid. 38 The parent, or principal upon written notification to the parent, makes the referral of a student to the I.P.R.C. Parents are encouraged to attend and participate in the I.P.R.C. meeting that concerns their child. Usually the principal presents the brief case study of the child-- describing the nature of the problem and the level of service deemed necessary. Pertinent information, such as the individual assessment, is part of the case study given to the I.P.R.C. Often other personnel from within the system or from an outside agency present reports to support or document the case study presented by the principal. Parents may also make presentations. The identification of the exceptionality is the first decision of the I.P.R.C. The next decision involves the level of service. Level I service is the regular classroom with a modified program. Level II service is the resource withdrawal program and Level III service is a self-contained special education class or facility. All involved in the identification and placement are advised in writing almost immediately after the decision. Parents are requested to sign a form to indicate their agreement with the particular identification and placement of their child. (Should the parents not agree with the identification or placement, they may appeal the decision in writing within fifteen days to the Secretary of the school board. A statement outlining their 39 disagreement with the I.P.R.C. decision must be included. Within thirty days, the board must appoint an Appeal Board to review the decision of the I.P.R.C.).4 As the Special Education Handbook. 1984, states, The opportunity for a specialized setting allows for greater pupil-teacher interaction and a greater focus on individual needs.5 In the reported study, observances were made in a Behavior and Adjustment Class. Such a class is a Level III service, a self—contained class, which serves exceptional children identified by an I.P.R.C. as having a 'behavioral’ exceptionality. Thie Study Researcher’s Interest in Ethnography jfi This writer became interested in ethnography while carrying out a study as part of her doctoral course work at Michigan State University. Having conducted a field study, the researcher realized the benefits and insights that could be gained using ethnographic methodology. Additionally, because of the researcher’s background and interest in the social sciences and education, she decided to carry out a qualitative study in an educational ‘Ibid. 5Ibid. 40 setting. In order to ‘get a good handle’ on a study, she decided to carry out a participant-observer study in a classroom which had a small number of students. Since the maximum number permitted by legislation in a Behavior and Adjustment Class is eight,° the researcher decided that in- depth information could be gained about many areas. In addition, because of the small class size, she felt that she might more easily obtain the perspective of the students and/or teacher, and learn the culture of the classroom. Furthermore, during her nineteen years as educator, the researcher had noticed that the number of special education self-contained classes had increased. Because of her particular interests in school failure, student behavior, and special eduction, the researcher felt that a naturalistic field study of a Behavior and Adjustment Class might be significant for the school system. Heshusius has pointed out that, Special Education has suffered from positi- vist indoctrination more than other disciplines. The children we serve need to be quantified and ranked outside of normality before they can even receive special attention.7 51pe Education Act, Regulation 262, Section 25(35). 7Lous Heshusius, "Pedagogy, Special Education, and the Lives of Young Children: A Critical and Futuristic Perspective," Journal of Education, Vol. 168, No. 3, (1986), p. 2. 41 In the last few years holistic thought has gained momentum. As Heshusius states, holistic thought sets forth a set of assumptions about the nature of reality and the nature of knowing that stress the interdependency of the whole and the apparent parts of any system or entity.8 Special education educators want to know how children feel about school failure; how they react; how they feel about being in special education self-contained classes. Special education educators want to know what happens in special education classes; what teaching strategies are beneficial. Heshusius reports that Manen contends that a primary task of an educator is to be "thoughtful" and an educator will act more thoughtfully if he knows "what the lived experience" of the child is. Heshusius queries, "How can one be thoughtful if one does not know how the students really perceive their lives?"' It seemed to this writer only logical that, in order to truly understand what occurs in a Behavior and Adjustment class, one needed to observe and participate in the life of that class; one needed to 'be’ one of that class; one needed to 'experience’ the class; one needed to interact with the people in the class. 8Ibid., p. 29. 9Ibid. Ethical Coneideratione After deciding in the summer of 1987 to study a Behavior and Adjustment Class, the researcher met with the Superintendent of Education to explain the study and to seek his permission. Upon receiving a positive response, she spoke with the teacher of the class who enthusiastically endorsed the study. The teacher stated that she was welcome to visit the class at any time. The researcher then met with the principal to explain the general purpose of the study, and to ask his permission to carry out the study. Also, in order that she not 'upset’ routines or disturb him, or events in the school; in order that she might be as inconspicuous as possible, she requested free access to the school and particularly the classroom. (Gaining free access seemed to be reasonable since the classroom has its own entrance at the rear of the school and quite a distance from the office. As a matter of fact, the classroom is the only one with an entrance directly to the outside. It would be possible for one to come and go quite easily). The principal consented verbally to the request. Having received verbal permission from school authorities and determining that the study was feasible, this writer submitted her proposal to her dissertation committee and to the University Committee for Research in Human Sub- jects (UCRIHS). While awaiting approval for the study from UCRIHS, she decided to initiate pre-field study activities. 42 43 Richardson contends that initial field research activities might be done before the formal study begins in order ”to gain personal acceptance."l° Pre-field study involved visits to the class to participate in some of the activities. These visits helped to establish rapport and when the researcher was able to formally commence the field study, she had the advantage of being accepted as a member of the group. Upon receiving notification from UCRIHS that her proposal had been approved, she then met with the parent(s) or guardian of each of the boys as well as each of the boys and explained the research: its purpose, procedures, and duration of participation. A written informed consent signed by each of the boys’ parents or guardian was obtained. (See APPENDIX A). The study was then explained to the teacher’s aide and school counsellor. Their written permission and the written permission of the Superintendent, principal and teacher (who had previously given verbal permission) were obtained. (See APPENDIX B and APPENDIX 0). Upon completion of the study, "ethical proofreading" 1°Stephen A. Richardson, "A Framework for Reporting Field-Relations Experiences,“ in Human Organization Research, edited by Richard N. Adams and Jack J. Preiss, (Homewood, Ill.: Dorsey Press, 1960), p. 27. 44 of the dissertation as suggested by Carole Gaar Johnson‘1 was conducted by the teacher of the Behavior and Adjustment Class, as well as by the principal of the school in which the Behavior and Adjustment Class is located. Methodology As mentioned, most of the data in this study were gathered through the participant-observation methodology. According to Gold, there are four basic roles that the participanteobserver may assume while doing field research: Complete Participation--The true identity of the complete participant in field research is not known to those whom he observes. [Role pretense is employed.] Participant-as—Observer--Both field worker and informant are aware that theirs is a field relationship. [The fieldworker attempts to be an 'insider’--an accepted and normal member of the group.] Observer-aa-Participapa--[This role] is used in studies involving one-visit interviews. It calls for relatively more formal observa- tion than either informal observation or participation of any kind. It also entails less risk of "going native." Complete Observer--The complete observer role entirely removes the field worker from social interaction with informants. Here a field- worker attempts to observe people in ways which make it unnecessary for them to take 11Carole Gaar Johnson, "Risks in the Publication Fieldwork,“ in The Ethice of Social Reseagch, edited by Robert F. Kidd, (New York: Springer-Verlag, 1982). 45 him into account.12 Since this investigator wanted to interact with the members of the class and wanted to find out what occurs in a Behavior and Adjustment Class from their point of view and since this researcher’s presence was known, "Participant-as— Observer" was the role employed. Participation in the setting took place during the day. The observations and casual conversations were then recorded at the end of each day. In addition, documents were used--both school documents and system documents-—and, photo- graphs taken. A review of the literature on participant- observation studies and on the effects of school failure was carried out using library research. The researcher visited the class as often as possible, over a period of two and a half months during the school year. Most visits were usually 'spontaneous’ with the researcher 'popping in’ whenever she was able; some visits, however, were planned at the request of the children or teacher. Visits lasted from twenty minutes to a full day with most visits lasting a quarter of the day. To reiterate, data sources were fieldnotes from participant-observation, documents, photographs, casual conversations, and library research. 12Raymond Gold, "Roles in Field Observations," in Sociological Methods. A Sourcebook, edited by Norman K. Denzin, (Chicago: Aldine Publishing Company, 1970), pp. 373- 378. 46 Fieldnotes: At the end of each day, notes were written recording the visits to the class— room, meetings, field trips, and activities, in which the observer participated, and casual conversations (These were typed the following day.) Documente: Confidential documents were obtained both from the school and from the Special Educa- tion Department. These documents included educa- tional assessments, medical reports, behavior rating scales, report cards, and family history. Photographs: These were obtained easily. They were useful for describing the setting and for capturing the many activities which were a part of the teaching-learning process. Qaeyal Conversatione: These occurred at various times and with various people--the counsellor, the principal, the teacher’s aids, the Superintendent of Education, the teacher, and parent(s) or guardian(s) of the boys. Libcary Research: Research was carried out on symbolic interaction, the participant- observation methodology, ethnographies, the effects of school failure, and the ‘behavior’ exceptionality. the r reiei vali ("f _n n 3 (f) reli have you the tha gaii lear Issues of Reliability and Validity Two issues of concern in qualitative research are the reliability and validity of the data collected. Validity refers to the soundness of the data collected. A study is valid if it accurately describes what happened in the set- ting. Reliability is related to consistency. A study is reliable if, had someone else carried it out, he/she would have come to the same conclusions. According to Cusick, "If you have validity, you have reliability.”13 According to Miles and Huberman, the researcher is the "measuring instrument."H Sieber concurs. She asserts that, The fieldworker is the measuring instrument, and the method of gathering information is to create a natural human relationship with one or more members of the group to be studied and to learn their culture by interacting with them, talking with them, and observing them.‘5 This researcher recognized this. She was able to gain the trust of the subjects and to establish rapport. She learned their culture by interacting and observing. To do so, she was, however, careful to follow the advice of numerous 13Philip Cusick, Lecture Notes from EAD 951H Class, Fielg Research Methode In Education, (Mighigan State University, May 5, 1987). 14Matthew 8. Miles and A. Michael Huberman, Qualitative Data Analysis, (Beverly Hills, California: Sage Publications, Inc., 1984), p. 46. 15Joan E. Sieber, "Ethical Dilemmas in Social Research," The Ethice of Social Research, edited by Robert F. Kidd, (New York: Springer-Verlag, 1982). p. 1. 47 ethho tales nohci DEB stuc 48 ethnographic writers. Such advice included not repeating tales or gossip and adopting "a policy of careful, noncommittal neutrality with respect to questions which might be asked me involving anything controversial."1° Homans lists the following six criteria that field studies should meet: 1. Time--the more time an individual spends with a group, the more likely it is that he will obtain an accurate interpretation of the social meanings its members live by. 2. Place-~the closer the observer works geographically to the people he studies, the more accurate should be his inter- pretations. 3. Social Circumstances--the more varied the status opportunities within which the observer can relate to his subjects, and the more varied the activities he witnesses, the more likely the observer’s interpretations will be true. 4. Language--the more familiar the observer is with the language of his subjects, the more accurate should be his inter- pretations. 5. Intimacy--the greater degree of intimacy the observer achieves with his subjects, the more accurate his interpretations. 6. Consensus of Confirmation in the Con- text--the more the observer confirms the expressive meanings of the community, either directly or indirectly, the more 1“Robert K. Bain, "The Researcher’s Role: A Case Study," in Human Onganization Research, p. 151. to ens much in nu the c she 1 equa belo gran nume Vl8h The Star was gath 49 accurate will be his interpretations of them.17 Acknowledging the criteria set out by Homans can help to ensure reliability and validity. The researcher spent as much time, as often as possible, with the group; she engaged in numerous activities both in the classroom and outside of the classroom. She learned the language of the subjects; she tried to develop intimacy with the group by being an equal, by being perceived as neutral and an ‘insider’ and as belonging. Indeed, her participation began to be taken for granted and that she was ‘expected’ to participate in numerous activities lends weight to her belief that she was viewed as an ‘insider’ in a special non-threatening role. The researcher felt that her goal--to develop an under- standing of what occurs in a Behavior and Adjustment Class-- was achieved after about three months when the information gathered became repetitive. Palonsky proposes an additional criterion for good ethnographic research--a variety of data gathering techniques (triangulation).l° The researcher was cognizant of this and, as mentioned, used a variety of data gathering techniques: 17Severyn T. Bruyn, The Human Perspective In Sociology; The Methodology of Eagticipant Observation, (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1966), pp. 181-183. .TBStuart B. Palonsky, 900 Showe:a Year. A Look a; Teachingyfrom a Teacher’e Sideeof the Deea, (New York: Random House, 1986). p. 195. 50 photographs, documents, casual conversations, in addition to participation and observation. L-.. CHAPTER IV PRESENTATION OF THE DATA Introduction As mentioned, the purpose of this study was to describe and explain what occurs in a Behavior and Adjustment Class. The study reports the activities and interactions that took place in the classroom. Since the activities and interactions take place in a particular setting--usually the classroom--the researcher feels that the setting needs to be described. In addition, each of the individuals or actors1 that makes up the group, reacts based on his/her interactions and the interpretations of what the situations mean to him/her. But one’s perceptions are based in part on one’s history. The setting in which the actors engage and the history which each then has, has created his/her social reality. In order to gain an understanding of what occurs in a Behavior and Adjustment Class, the curriculum, the teacher’s goals and beliefs, and a typical day in the Behavior and Adjustment Class are presented. The latter also helps to elucidate interactions. 1Pseudonyms have been used to ensure anonymity. 51 The Setting The School The school, Urban City School, is located in the inner core of a small industrial city located in mid-Canada. The school comprises ten self-contained classrooms-~one of which is the Behavior and Adjustment Class. The Classroom The classroom for the Behavior and Adjustment Class is in the basement of Urban City School-~a school which is more than seventy years old. The classroom actually consists of a number of very small rooms in a part of the school known as the ‘dungeon’. It is so named because in order to reach the classroom (in actuality a number of small rooms) from the office or other classrooms, one walks to the basement of the building through a dark dingy narrow area with low ceilings and storage areas. The classroom does have its own entry at the rear of the school. Thus, one side of the classroom leads to the playground. As men- tioned, the classroom is really a series of very small rooms—-in all (see Figure 1). The "main" room is only 7 yards by 8 1/2 yards square. The one wall which has bulletin boards neatly decorated, faces the playground. The one bulletin board with a pink background, white border and cartoon character of Mickey Mouse dressed in 52 ‘ lit 53 (not to scale) Dungeon L Room *’ I Washroom 3 2 . U _ -, r Language Arts Room Main L Classroom r Kitchen 4 J — Activity ' Room Portico J ‘1 FIGURE 1 Classroom Layout 54 black and red in gleeful animation is entitled "Magnificent Math" and refers to place value; next to that bulletin board is another with red "brick" background on which is a shooting star and the words "Welcome Back"; and to the right of that is a bulletin board with a laborer holding up a sign that says “Top Notch Work Ahead.” The three bulletin boards are about the same width and take up the upper half of the wall. Below the bulletin boards is a series of windows covered by beige curtains. Below the window is a radiator. Nestled in the south corner of the room between the door leading to the "Activity Room" and open shelves is a four drawer legal size filing cabinet. On top of the filing cabinet is a brown box and on top of that is a globe. To the left of the door is another bulletin board. The background of this one is baby blue. It is entitled "Looking Good." A beautiful pink swan with black beak gracefully adorns this bulletin board and is adjacent to a sign that says “Person of the Week." Below two ribbons is a person’s name. To the front of this bulletin board sits the teacher’s desk. On it are the usual paraphernalia--books, kleenex, three-hole punch, and paper. To the left is a door leading to the "Language Arts Room,“ a room even smaller than the main room. To the left of the door is a bulletin board used for science. In front 55 of the bulletin board are audio-visual materials: a film- strip machine, a tape recorder and an overhead. The latter is on a cart. Not only do the audio-visual materials face the science bulletin board, they are also positioned in front of the blackboard which extends the length of the classroom. Above the blackboard are two alphabets: one is print script --white on dark green; the other is cursive script--yellow on light green. Above each of the letters is a colorful picture. For example, above the ‘Ff’ is a picture of a fox. Between the two alphabets, near the centre of the wall, are the numerals from 1 to 10; to the right of the numerals is a clock. To the left of the blackboard on the wall, is found the Canadian flag with its two stripes of red on either side of the red maple leaf which is on a white background. Another doorway is found to the left of the blackboard; and to the left of that is found a bulletin board employed for social studies. It is meticulously put up as are all of the other bulletin boards. Below the bulletin board is found a variety of materials--games, lego blocks, books, and rock art. The latter has been labeled by each of the boys and sits proudly atop the shelf. To the left of this bulletin board is yet another door leading to a room in which there are a stove and 56 fridge, a dryer and washer and a sink——all of which appear to have seen little use. A bulletin board entitled "Nutrition“ is found on the far side of this room. And there is one more door, a fifth door, from the “main" classroom. It leads to a small portico in which are hangers for the children’s coats, and a desk which is used occasionally when a child needs "time-out." A door leads from the portico to the outside. Thus the small "main" classroom has five doors leading to other rooms. From the description, one can see that there are numerous bulletin boards brightly and meticulously decorated--some with children’s work and some related to the themes which are being investigated or studied by the students. At the back of the room is a light brown, old, long table with one matching chair and six other chairs. On the table is a puzzle with its many pieces set out and with the picture of the puzzle in full view. Directly in front of the teacher’s desk is a desk at which the teacher’s aide sits when observing or when grading assignments. In front of the aide’s desk, in semi-circle formation and with about a one foot distance between each, are the desks of the boys. The seats are attached to the desk and the tops lift up. The floor is tiled in a bleak yellow shade. As mentioned, there are small rooms off of the "main" 57 classroom. An ”Activity Room" houses two Apple computers, one long table and chairs, and a desk. A bulletin board can be found in this room also. In the "Language Arts Room" which is not only off of the "main“ classroom, but is also adjacent to the "Activity Room" is another long table. A closet in the room houses art materials as do the numerous shelves. Blue curtains cover the window that faces the south side of the playground. The Actors Mickey Mickey was first assessed by the school when he was approximately seven and one half years of age. At that time he was experiencing difficulties in all areas of the grade one program. When tested, it was found that he lost "his train of thought" when asked to respond to questions "out— side his experiences." Although he demonstrated a short attention span, he was persistent. Mickey’s intellectual functioning was described as below average when the full scale score of an individual test of mental ability, the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC—R), was administered. A significant difference was found between Mickey’s verbal and performance scores suggesting a learning disability. It was, therefore, reported by the tester that 58 Mickey be considered for placement in a Learning Disabili- ties Class. However, this recommendation was not acted upon and Mickey remained in a grade one class. Mickey’s report card during his second year in grade one indicated that Mickey was cooperative, demonstrated initiative, courtesy, consideration for others, industry, respect for others, thoroughness in his work and self- confidence. His grades were mostly A’s except for two B’s. According to the teacher’s report, Mickey "was achieving quite well until Easter time,‘ at which time "he seemed to reach his maximum learning point." He missed a week of school at this time because of a bad cough, sore throat, and fever. When he returned, he appeared to be far behind and required one-to—one instruction. A year and a half later, when Mickey had just turned nine years old and was in grade two at a new school, a new referral for educational assessment was made. The reason for the referral was that Mickey was experiencing great dif— ficulty with the academic skills. Testing behavior indi— cated that "Mickey appeared to be well motivated“ and he applied himself to the tasks. Mickey’s profile of overall intellectual function- ing was again within the ‘Low Average’ range on both the Verbal and Performance sections of the WISC-R. It was the recommendation of the report that Mickey continue in the 59 regular stream with support from the Special Education Resource teacher. A report from the next year’s teacher stated that Mickey was a polite, cooperative boy. She stated, however, that Mickey could not read directions nor anything that he had copied from the board. The Special Education Resource teacher concurred. She stated that he put "forth a good effort despite the frustration he has experienced with his school work." A request for identification and placement of Mickey was again submitted. Mickey was identified as a slow learner (an ‘Intellectual’ exceptionality) and placed in a Primary Special Education Class. Comments related to Mickey’s social growth and behavior by the teacher of this class were that he seldom played with the children in the room; he preferred to play with children who were older; he tended to be bossy; he often interfered when he was not involved in an incident; and, he did not always tell the truth. At the end of the school year when Mickey’s place- ment was reviewed, it was again recommended that Mickey be placed in a Learning Disabilities class. Thus, at the age of ten, Mickey travelled to a new class, at a ‘new’ school. Within two months of his new placement, Mickey was suspended for two days pursuant to Section 22 of the 60 Education Act--"Conduct injurious to the well-being of others. Behavior appeared to worsen after the suspension. Mickey defaced the school desks, as well as his own pro- perty; he broke pencils and he crumpled unfinished work sheets. He was also very upset and generally negative about himself, saying that he was ‘dumb’, ‘stupid’, etc.. Yard duty teachers complained about Mickey’s poor behavior. Mickey, whose health had been previously reported as good, began to have upset stomachs and headaches. He began to experience nightmares and to dread going to school. Mickey’s mother took him to a physician who carried out a complete history and physical on him to rule out any organic pathology. By May, 1986, Mickey’s behavior had deteriorated so much so that an Identification, Placement and Review Committee (I.P.R.C.) decided that he should be placed in a day treatment setting for students with emotional disturb- ances. Mickey was admitted the following September. Mickey remained in the day setting for one school year after which time it was felt that he was ready to be re-integrated into the school setting. The first step was the Behavior and Adjustment Class in which the researcher first met Mickey in September, 1987. During the study, the researcher learned that Mickey had been to eight schools. Additionally, she learned that 61 Mickey’s achievement in reading is three years below his chronological peers; his achievement in math is two years behind his chronological peers. George George is a tall, chubby eleven year old of native ancestry. He was first referred for an educational assess- ment when he was six years, seven months old, because he did not seem to show appropriate emotional reactions; he was aggressive at play and showed little remorse for wrongful acts. In addition, his attention span in class was extreme- ly short; he had difficulty expressing verbally what he was thinking; and he showed little pride in his work. Observations of testing behavior at the time state that George was friendly and talkative during the testing sessions. He seemed to have a very short attention span. George remained in the mainstream but was referred a second time for an educational assessment when he was nine years old because he was experiencing great difficulty with the grade two program, even though he had repeated grade one. According to the diagnostician’s report, George was quiet, yet cooperative during the testing. He spoke only when asked a direct question. He seemed to exhibit poor attend- ing skills. The tester further reported that, when George 62 experienced difficulty, he worked more and more slowly and finally would give up by putting his head on the desk. George’s behavior in the school setting was considered severely over-reactive. George was severely distractible, domineering and aggressive. Results of an individual test of mental ability indicated that George’s intellectual functioning was below average. George’s language development, also, was much below average. The report stated that George had received both Resource Withdrawal assistance and counselling for his aggressive and defiant behaviors. Because of George’s great difficulties with the academic work in his class and because of aggressive and over-reactive behavior in both the classroom and schoolyard, an alternative educational program was recommended. George was referred to an Identifica- tion, Placement and Review Committee (I.P.R.C.) meeting at which it was felt that the best placement for George would be in a Behavior and Adjustment Class. Upon examining George’s history further, it was learned that George’s mother and a sister had died in a fire when George was five years old, and that he lived with his grandparents. The report also stated that the inappropriate behaviors appeared to be a result of the trauma of losing his family. 63 The report of the Special Education resource teacher states that repeating grade one “did not appear to provide him with more skills." In actuality, he "failed” grade one again and was transferred to grade two where he continued to struggle with the program. The health report stated that George appeared to have normal vision and hearing. It did state that he suf- fered from frequent colds and coughs. George’s placement in the Behavior and Adjustment Class began in September, 1986. Thus, at the beginning of this study, George had been in the class for almost one and a half years. During the study, the researcher learned that George had been to four schools and that his achievement level in reading and math are three years below his chronological peers . The first indication in John’s file that he had behavioral problems was a letter sent by a doctor to the Coordinator of Special Education when John was not yet six years old, stating that John was a behaviorally disordered child in need of a highly structured management program. The report indicated that John came from a home situation where alcoholism had disrupted normal family relationships. 64 The doctor referred John to a day treatment program because he was easily distractible and had poor concen- tration in school, and he did not respond to discipline at home. According to a report made approximately nine months later, John’s behavior had improved. He was not as loud but tended to pout more. In order to further enhance John’s self-image and improve his social skills, it was recommended that John be involved in the summer program and return in the fall to the treatment centre. At this point, John was assessed by the school board. The Bristol Social-Adjustment Guide (BSAG) rating indicated that John’s behaviors were over—reactive. The tester felt that these occurred because of frustration. John was found to have average to above-average intellectual functioning. A health report indicated that his general health was good. Facts included in John’s file are that, at this time, there had been some traumas in his life. His grand- mother had recently died; his father had returned to the home and married his mother. During the study, the researcher learned that the family unit is frequently in transition. The mother works shift work to support the family. She learned also, that John had been to four different schools and that his academic achievement in math and reading were above that of 65 his chronological peers. A review of John’s placement at the end of the school year when he was eight, recommended placement in a Behavior and Adjustment Class where he is presently. The latest educational assessment confirmed earlier results of average to above-average intellectual function- ing. Testing observations showed John to be pleasant and cooperative during the testing. He seemed to enjoy a challenge and was able to respond quickly. gen Ken is eleven and a half years old, of native ancestry and one of three children. He lives with both parents on an Indian reserve. Home conditions appear to be poor. Ken’s behavior first appeared to cause a problem when he was in grade one which he was repeating. In grade two, when he was nine years old, he was referred for edu- cational testing because he disturbed the teacher and his classmates with inappropriate behavior and because of academic difficulties. The individual ability test indicated that he had average ability; his performance skills were stronger than his verbal skills; and auditory attention and memory were significantly below average for his age. The diagnostician 66 observed that during testing, Ken was very quiet and did not engage in conversation. Interventions attempted after the assessment in- cluded group counselling to teach Ken how to better control his aggressive behavior and to learn c0ping skills in social situations; counselling by a behavioral counsellor, and use of role playing by the classroom teacher. An Identification, Placement and Review Committee (I.P.R.C.) meeting was held a year later because the ag- gressive behaviors and other problems had increased. In- deed, Ken had only recently received a three day suspen- sion. In addition, the principal reported that several parents had called stating that they would transfer their children to other schools unless something were done. The I.P.R.C. decided that placement should be in the Behavior and Adjustment Class. Thus Ken began his second year in the Special Education classroom this past September. During the study, this investigator learned that Ken had been to three different schools; that his achievement in reading and math are at least two years below that of his chronological peers . Steve Steve is eleven years old and of slight build for his age. Steve was first referred for educational testing 67 when he was six years, two months. At that time he was in kindergarten but was referred for testing because, according to the classroom teacher, he was not functioning at the kindergarten level. He had difficulty following simple directions; he had a short attention span; he “lived in a world of his own"; and he had poor speech. The referral for testing had information that stated that Steve’s father felt that Steve had emotional problems due to his early childhood negative experiences. The psychometrician reported that Steve appeared apprehensive, withdrawn and distractible during the in- dividual test of ability. The tester noted that Steve ”directed a considerable amount of energy (building and smashing) toward the pieces used in the Block Design sub- test" (of the WISC-R). He appeared extremely tired near the end of the first afternoon of testing, resulting in poor and inconsistent effort. This was brought to light in the second session when he was capable of producing much more acceptable work. The diagnostician stated that Steve’s demonstrated behavior (distractibility, rocking, and dis- plays of aggression) seemed to suggest evidence of frustra— tion. Furthermore, it was the diagnostician’s belief that Steve had developed discouragement and an inconsistent learning style because of repeated failure and difficulty of the work with which he had to cope. 68 The reports indicate that Steve’s health was normal; his intellectual functioning was at average range or near to low average (with caution suggested in accepting the results because of Steve’s behavior during the testing); his expressive and receptive language was normal; and, his speech was often slurred and difficult to understand. Steve repeated kindergarten; however, according to his file, he experienced considerable difficulty even in his second year of kindergarten. Steve was "transferred" to grade one. Steve was retested less than six months later when he was about seven and a half years old. The diagnostician reported that Steve appeared to be a rather happy-go—lucky child with little achievement drive and an aversion to the more academic tasks. The results of the testing indicated that Steve was functioning intellectually well within the average range, although academically he was two grades below his expected achievement level. The recommendation was that Steve receive much review and drill of the core skill subjects so that he gain mastery and have successful ex- periences which might lead to a desire to succeed. At an I.P.R.C. meeting, it was decided that Steve attend the Special Education Class for students identified as being a slow learner (an ‘Intellectual’ exceptionality). 69 During Steve’s first year in the class, the teacher reported that Steve had made very little academic progress. She also reported that Steve tended to be a loner, had mood swings and could be cruel to other children. She recommended a Behavior and Adjustment Class. The Committee did not agree since the members felt that behavior counselling should be first attempted. Steve remained in the Primary Special Education Class and according to the teacher made good academic and social progress. When the I.P.R.C. met at the end of that school year, it recommended placement in a Learning Dis- abilities Class. Within two months of his new placement, however, a request was submitted for review of his placement because of his disruptive behavior. A new educational assessment was carried out. This time, intellectual functioning appeared to be at the low- average to borderline level. The tester suggested that his slow academic progress was strongly affected by his atten— tional difficulties, his low motivation, and his personal/ social behavioral tendencies. He felt that Steve’s in- consistent performances suggested that, when he applied himself fully to a task, he was capable of near average work. A referral was made to the I.P.R.C. for Steve to be placed in a day treatment setting to assist Steve with his 70 personal/social behavior problems. Steve was admitted to the day treatment school when he was nine and a half years old. After one and a half years, it was recommended that he be returned to the regular school system. This occurred this past September. During the study the researcher learned that Steve had been to six schools; and, his reading and math achieve- ment levels are at least three years below that of his chronological peers. Jack came to the Behavior and Adjustment Class about three weeks after the formal commencement of the study. For a year and a half prior to this placement, he appeared to have progressed well in a Learning Disabilities Class. His behavior appeared satisfactory until two months prior to this placement when he had presented himself as a behavior problem. A request came from the principal and the parent that his placement in the Learning Disabilities Class be reviewed. At an Identification, Placement, and Review Committee meeting, it was decided that Jack be placed in the Behavior and Adjustment Class. A review of Jack’s history reveals that Jack was first referred for testing because of misbehavior when he was in grade one. He was seven and a half years old. 71 The educational assessment report indicates that Jack’s test responses seemed to suggest that Jack doesn’t always understand or comprehend the meaning of orally pre— sented information. Outside noises and visual stimuli present in the testing room distracted his attention. He had a tendency to give up and move on to the next item with little or no apparent effort. The report states that when his way is blocked, he tended to behave out of anger and frustration. Socially, Jack was found to be extremely friendly, polite, courteous, and considerate. His in- tellectual functioning was found to be at an average level. Jack’s language development was found to be normal. Jack was then referred to an I.P.R.C. when he was nine years old and in grade two because of misbehavior. He was placed in a Behavior and Adjustment Class and remained there for two years. At the end of the two years, an I.P.R.C. identified him as Learning Disabled (a ‘Communi- cation’ exceptionality) and he was placed in a Learning Disabilities Class. During the study, it was learned that Jack had been to four different schools; that his achievement level in reading and math are at least two years below his chrono- logical peers. Looking at Jack’s school history, it was found that Jack had repeated grade one, passed on to grade two only to 72 experience academic failure again. During the study, this researcher learned that Jack’s health appeared normal although he does have aller- gies to cats, dogs, feathers, housedust, grass and pollen. She learned also that Jack lives with his mom and an older brother. Interventions attempted to improve his behavior included personal counselling by a Student and Family Counsellor and behavioral counselling by the Behavioral Consultant. The IeacherieyAide The teacher’s aide, Rose Mason, is approximately forty years of age. She has blonde hair and is of medium height and build. Although she has had no previous training working with children who have been identified as having a ‘be— havioral’ exceptionality, she is a mother and does have three children, one of whom had been in a Special Education class. Prior to her engagement in this position, she had been a lunch supervisor in a school and a parent volunteer. 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