<_-..,.. v .»..~~ .em. ..,\-.“‘._ - .h' ,c. 'l run» ‘ ' ‘4 ' 4 ' A r ‘1 , ; W ‘ ‘. .. ,, i' ‘ w l , l I. I ’ 4 I ‘ . .‘I‘ c ‘ .. , ’ V I ,. ' . ’ . ’ ‘ . . , 4.. ,‘ . . . ‘ 4 I ._ -- .. . ‘v . ~ ‘.,., . ‘ r U I I ' k' ’( [Ill-(3w ~r (,9 o s I w x' a MICHIGAN STATE UNI IFIVE I I/ Ill/III”Milli/III!!!III/III/I/I 3 12 0558 4838 3 l LIBRARY Michigan State University I! This is to certify that the dissertation entitled AN ETHNOGRAPHIC STUDY OF AN OFF-CAMPUS PHYSICAL EDUCATION PROGRAM presented by Charles Theodore Ramsby ' has been accepted towards fulfillment of the requirements for Ph.D. degree in the School of Health Education, Counseling Psychology and Human Performance Maj . r professor Date May 20, 1988 MS U i: an Affirmative Action/Equal Opportunity Institution 0-12771 MSU BEIURNING MATERIALS: Place in book drop to LIBRARIES remove this checkout from —:——. your record. FINES will be charged if book is returned after the date stamped below. liafififfii0’4i ' .. :Wse ‘ MAI/'3 02004 30 “'p £20504 AN ETHNOGRAPHIC STUDY OF AN OFF—CAMPUS PHYSICAL EDUCATION PROGRAM By Charles Theodore Ramsby A DISSERTATION Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY School of Health Education, Counseling Psychology and Human Performance 1988 I", I] [I f‘/ d‘\ ABSTRACT AN ETHNOGRAPHIC STUDY OF AN OFF-CAMPUS PHYSICAL EDUCATION PROGRAM By Charles Theodore Ramsby Physical education has long been aware of the need for society to investigate and evaluate the broad spectrum of available leisure activities and to make intelligent and healthful use of its leisure time. Now that society has recognized the need for more healthful activity, physical education has found it difficult to meet the growing demand for leisure instruction. The problem has been the inability of physical education to effectively bridge the gap between the limitations of the school program and society's leisure expectations. This study examined an existing cooperative physical education program for the purpose of describing the administrative structure, the implementation procedures, and the identification of those characteristics that influenced student involvement. An ethnographic method of research was used, employing an inductive approach and emphasizing the subjective beliefs held by the participants. This approach allowed the researcher to observe and document program characteristics and activities as they occurred, thus yielding a detailed description of the program and its participants. For a period of three months, the researcher observed an Off-Campus Physical Education Program, gathering information from participant—observation notes, formal and informal interviews, and analysis of archival records, pamphlets, guidebooks, and newspaper articles. The Off-Campus Physical Education program examined in this study was developed in response to community appeals to broaden the scope of activities available to their children and attempt to eliminate the duplication of student effort in physical activities. This program was structured similar in many respects to the traditional Cooperative Education model. Participation in the program was voluntary, financed by the parents of each student, and limited to certain approved activities. All of the off-campus activities were conducted in environments that were solely designed for that purpose. The support and/or influence of a significant other was shown to be an important part in a student's decision to participate in one of the approved activities. Although participation was primarily confined to the Grade 6-8 age group, the concept contained potential for growth as a medium through which secondary schools may better meet the individual leisure— lifestyle needs of their students. Copyright by CHARLES THEODORE RAMSBY 1988 To my Father and Mother, Charles and Julia Ramsby, who encouraged my participation in this endeavor, but were not able to live to see this day. And, To my sons, Chad and Aaron, who are continuing to endure many days and nights without their father as a result of this effort. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The creation of doctoral dissertation is an arduous undertaking that requires a tremendous amount of persistence, determination, and teamwork. The production of this dissertation has certainly been no exception. What has been exceptional in this endeavor, however, is the level of commitment that was exhibited by the doctoral committee team members. Therefore, I would like to take this time to individually thank each one. I am very grateful to Dr. Sam Reuschlein, as committee chairman, for his special attention to the details required in the writing of this manuscript. Special thanks goes to Dr. James Buschman, project director, for his knowledge, wisdom and direction during the collection of the data. I am also indebted to Dr. Paul Vogel and Dr. Robert Hatfield, both of whom contributed to the success of this research through their genuinely personal interest, advice, and encouragement to pursue the research to the finish. Finally, I give my sincere appreciation to my wife, Pauline. During this ordeal she literally put more blood, sweat and tears into her efforts to keep the household together than the completion of this degree could ever recoup. ii TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF TABLES. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . LIST OF FIGURES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . CHAPTER I THE PROBLEM . . . . . . . . . . CHAPTER CHAPTER Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . Need for the Study. . . . . . . . . . Purpose of the Study. . . . . . . . . Research Questions. . . . . . . . . Procedures and Methodology. . . Definition of Terms . . . . . . . . Delimitations . . . . . . . . . . . . II REVIEW OF LITERATURE. . . . . . Introduction. . . . . . . . . . Related Research on Physical Education and Learning . Foundations of Cooperative Education. Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . III METHODOLOGY . . . . . . . . . . Research Questions. . . . . . The Ethnographic Research Method. . . The Research Site . . . . . . . . . . Negotiation of Entry. . . . . . . . . Data Collection . . . . . . . . . . . Data Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . Rights of Confidentiality . . . . iii vii p—o ©m\IO\Ule-‘ ll 12 18 22 24 24 24 25 27 29 32 34 CHAPTER IV PRESENTATION OF DATA. . . . . Guidelines for Physical Education . . The The CHAPTER V State Requirements. . . . . . . . Prairie Pride Requirements. . . . Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Off Campus Physical Education Program Development of the Program. . . . Base Course Cost. . . . . . . . . The Coordinators. . . . . . . . . Guidelines of, Application for, and Admission to the Program . . . The Monitoring System . . . . . Visitations. . . . . . . . Participation in the Program. . . Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . Activities and Their Participants Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . Competitive Swimming. . . . . . . Discussion . . . . . . . . Golf. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Discussion . . . . . . . . Dance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Discussion . . . . . . . Figure Skating. . . . . . . . . Discussion . . . . . . . Gymnastics. . . . . . . . . . . Discussion . . . . . . . . Tennis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . Discussion . . . . . . . Equestrian Activities . . . . . . Discussion . . . . . . . . Parental Views. . . . . . . . . . Discussion . . . . . . . . Physical Fitness and Academic Achievement in the Off—Campus Program. . . Discussion . . . . . . . . Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, IMPLICATIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS . . . . . . Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . The Findings. . . . Question One. . . . . . . . . . . Question Two. 0 O O O O O O O O 0 Question Three. . . . . . . . . .» Question Four . . . . . . . . . . Question Five . . . . . . . . . Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . Implications for Practice . . . . . . Recommendations for Further Research. iv 35 35 35 37 41 42 42 47 48 49 53 54 57 6O 64 64 64 69 7O 75 77 83 85 9O 92 96 98 103 106 110 112 115 117 121 123 127 127 128 128 131 137 139 140 143 146 148 APPENDIX A Prairie Pride School District Enrollment Report. . . . . . . . . . 149 APPENDIX B A Day in the Life of An Ethnographer: Sample of Transcribed Observations. . . . . . 151 APPENDIX C Factors Influencing Continued Participation in an Activity. . . . . . . . . 160 APPENDIX D Average Course Cost Per Student Per Semester. . . . . . . . . . . 162 APPENDIX E Position Guide: Coordinator - Off-Campus Physical Education. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163 APPENDIX F Off-Campus Physical Education Program Guidelines and Application. . . . . . . . . . 168 APPENDIX C Off-Campus Physical Education Information Folder. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174 APPENDIX H Agency Visitation Plan for Off—Campus Physical Education . . . . . . . . 182 APPENDIX I Physical Fitness Comparison Charts. . . . . . 183 LIST OF REFERENCES. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189 LIST OF TABLES TABLE 1 Diagram of Prairie Pride Physical Education Program. . . . . . . . . . 39 TABLE 2 Off-Campus Cumulative Totals. . . . . . . . . 58 TABLE 3 Mean Achieved Percentile of Off-Campus and Regular Physical Education Students in Grades 7—12 on the State Physical Fitness Test. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120 TABLE A—l Prairie Pride School District Enrollment Report As of September 23, 1983. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149 TABLE A—2 Prairie Pride School District Enrollment Report As of October 3, 1983 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150 TABLE C—l Factors Influencing Continued Participation in an Activity. . . . . . . . . 160 TABLE D—l Average Course Cost Per Student Per Semester. . . . . . . . . . . . . 162 TABLE H—l Agency Visitation Plan for Off-Campus Physical Education . . . . . . . . 182 vi FIGURE FIGURE FIGURE FIGURE FIGURE FIGURE I-l I—2 I—3 1—4 I-S 1—6 LIST OF FIGURES Arm and Shoulder Strength and Endurance. Boy's Flexed Arm Hang . . . . . . . . Arm and Shoulder Strength and Endurance. Girl's Flexed Arm Hang. . . . . . . . . Abdominal Strength and Endurance. Boy's 2-Minute Bent-Leg Sit-ups . . . . Abdominal Strength and Endurance. Girl's 2-Minute Bent-Leg Sit-ups. . Cardio-Respiratory Endurance. Boy's lZ-Minute Walk-Run. . . . . . Cardio-Respiratory Endurance. Girl's lZ—Minute Walk-Run . . . . . . vii 183 184 185 186 187 188 CHAPTER I THE PROBLEM Introduction From its early beginnings to the time of this publication, modern physical education has gained a phenomenal amount of knowledge in support of the contributions of physical activity to human health and well—being (Seefeldt, 1986). Published surveys have indicated that participation in physical activity by adults is at an all-time high (Miller Lite Report, 1983). Despite this knowledge, the reported lack of participation by our youth and the curtailment and elimination of physical education programs continues to plague our schools. Any educational program should expect to experience several systematic curriculum revisions to capitalize on newly developed knowledge and improve the curriculum. Too often, however, the end result of curriculum revisions in physical education is the mere substitution of one activity for another. Because physical education has always followed the activity preferences of our society, rather than providing the leadership to help shape those preferences, activities were not usually included in the curriculum until they had been popular for a period of time in the private sector. For example, aerobic dance and cardiovascular units were replacing calisthenics and muscular fitness units at the time of this study, and individual Sports were replacing the team—oriented activities. Quite often, the end result was a physical education curriculum that was not much different than it was thirty or forty years ago (Siedentop, 1980). Consequently, in an age where accountability was asked of all subject matters, physical education has been unable to respond adequately. The demand for more leisure time activity by our society has placed an emphasis on the development of lifetime sports skills. Until a few years prior to this study, secondary school physical educators were the primary group charged with meeting those demands. Efforts within the schools to adapt to the instructional needs of this active lifestyle resulted in the diversification of the physical education curriculum to accommodate a large variety of activities. However, the spectrum of leisure activities was so large that most school systems found their facilities and personnel inadequate. This placed many physical educators into situations where they were teaching one or more activities in which they were not competent, to large numbers of students, in limited amounts of space, and over short periods of time. Therefore, a large number of schools did not offer many leisure activities, or settled for inferior representations that did little to enhance the value of physical education. At the same time, this growing emphasis in leisure time activities by adults created an awareness of the private sports industry within our society (Miller Lite Report, 1983). The additional development of specialized facilities, and the continued improvement in the quality of instruction within this industry, prompted many to recognize that the private sports industry had become a viable competitor for sports instruction. The impact of the learning environment on education has long been underscored by psychologists (Wilcox, 1987). In view of the constraints and limitations placed on physical education within the school facilities, it would seem to be most advantageous for physical educators to make every attempt to utilize the private sports industry as a resource, instead of viewing it as a competitor. For years, schools and businesses had been uniting in a cooperative effort through vocational and distributive education channels. Under the guise of Cooperative Education, the prolonged existence of these joint efforts is an indication of the effectiveness of this type of learning system (Ohio State University National Center for Research in Vocational Education, 1977). The cooperative education model has the potential to support the diversified leisure interests of our students and their society. By examining the types of experiences that a school system and the private sports industry may encounter during a cooperative physical education effort, educators may gain a better understanding of how beneficial the private sports industry could be in broadening and improving the physical education curriculum. Through the ethnographic research method, the outsider has the opportunity to become, in part, an insider, to describe the events as they take place, and to have the chance to understand the perspectives of the insiders and learn from their experiences. Need for the Study At the time of this study, physical educators were aware of the importance of allowing individuals an opportunity to make intelligent and healthful use of their leisure time. They were also aware of the importance of allowing individuals to investigate and evaluate the broad spectrum of leisure activities, and to determine which ones were relevant to their lifestyles. In an effort to point the way, Bain (1980) suggested that the purpose of physical education had changed from its primary provider function to a more secondary model in which its duty was to "socialize the student into the role of participant." To accomplish this, Bain (1980) stated that students must be allowed to (8) define the role of "participant" in a way that they see it as attractive and relevant to themselves, (b) acquire the skills and knowledge associated with that definition, and (c) adopt that definition and make it part of their personal lifestyle. The problem, however, was that physical education did not know how to effectively bridge the gap between the limitations of the schools and the expectations of the society. For years, schools and businesses had been uniting in a cooperative effort through vocational and distributive education channels. The prolonged existence of these joint efforts was an indication of the effectiveness of this type of learning system (Ohio State University National Center for Research in Vocational Education, 1977). What was needed, however, was a better understanding of how physical education might work together with the sports industry in a joint effort to specifically serve the student. There were several possible advantages that could be gained from utilizing the cooperative education model in physical education. Two of the more significant advantages included (a) providing businesses with the opportunity to expose their products and services to a potentially untapped source of patronage and (b) provide students with the opportunity to explore their leisure interests, to test their aptitudes, to develop skills and knowledge, and to specialize in the lifetime leisure activities of their choosing. In a setting that was designed specifically for leisure-time sports activities, and under the direction of qualified professionals from both education and the private sports industry, students might possibly be able to gain a better understanding and appreciation of their leisure needs and to develop the skills.necessary to make an easier adjustment into the role of participant after graduation. Purpose of the Study A review of the literature, at the time of this study, revealed that the public saw physical education as an increasingly irrelevant aspect of schooling (Bain, 1980; Benson, 1982; Melograno, 1980; Paese, 1983; Siedentop, 1980). Siedentop (1981) stated that the two major factors contributing to this perception were: 1. Many of the physical skills and activities that high school students learned were acquired outside of the school. This was mainly due to the fact that the private sports industry had become affordable to many middle class families and because these activities were not taught, or were not taught well, in the schools. 2. Students gained less knowledge and skill in physical education than in any other course offered in the high school curriculum. The primary purpose of this study was to examine an existing cooperative physical education program in order to describe its administrative structure (e.g., the rationale for the program, the implementation procedures, and the effects of the program as they were perceived by the participants), and secondly, to describe those characteristics which influenced student involvement in the program. The examination and description of a cooperative physical education program, may provide insight into how well schools and communities work together in this type of cooperative environment, and yield information helpful to others considering the implementation of cooperative education into their physical education programs. Research Questions The major research questions being asked were, "What is taking place in this cooperative physical education program?", and "What is it like to be a participating member in an cooperative physical education program?" It was apparent, however, that several underlying research questions would need to be answered to begin to understand the potential of this program for more general use. These included: 1. Why did the school district elect to develop this type of program? 2. How did this school/community instructional program operate? What areas of the program held the greatest potential for success? The least potential? 3. For what reasons did businesses want to participate in this program? For what reasons did they not want to participate? How did they perceive the effects of this program? 4. What conditions (e.g., administration of the program, quality of instruction, and quantity of participation) must have been met for the school to allow businesses to participate in the program? 5. What was the cooperative physical education classroom instruction like for the student? How was it different from regular physical education? Procedures and Methodology The principle information-gathering methods used to answer these questions were (a) participant observation, (b) review of the program's records, and (c) formal and informal interviews with students, teachers, administrators, parents, and off—campus personnel. Initially, it was necessary to talk to the people involved in the program, listening very carefully for statements of attitude, belief, and value that were offered in an unsolicited manner, and to record this information in a precise manner. This information, containing as little interpretation as possible, was then analyzed in a reflective manner by the researcher, and often resulted in additional questions about specific aspects of the program which needed to be observed and documented. From these additional questions, other questions were derived and answered until a thorough understanding of the program was gained and information regarding the research questions was sufficiently gathered. The gathering of this information was accomplished by using a tape recorder during formal and informal interviews, and a small notebook for the recording of words and phrases which described the minute-by-minute activities of the observations. Within a matter of hours these tapes and recorded notes were expanded to a written narrative designed to reflect a thorough and concise anthology of each interview and observation. The ethnographic approach was deemed particularly appropriate since this method allowed the researcher to observe and document program characteristics and activities as they occurred, thus yielding a detailed description of the program and its participants. This description, based primarily on empirical evidence, would form a foundation upon which other physical education researchers could investigate the usefulness of cooperative physical education programs. For practitioners, a description of the administrative nature of off—campus programs, and the benefits derived from the student's involvement in them, may provide useful, and perhaps generalizable, insights for further development of cooperative physical education programs. Definition of Terms 1. Activity: A sport or physical exercise pursuit not offered through the regular physical education program, but available in an off-campus setting. 2. Cooperative Education: A learning model whereby the student, an independent employer, and a school district function together to provide the student with vocationally—oriented learning experiences. 3. Ethnography: The collection of qualitative data at a research site through such methods as notetaking, interviewing, videotaping, and audiotaping. Also known as fieldwork. 4. Informant: A person who voluntarily supplies information. 5. Lead Teachers: Those individuals who act as liaisons between the physical education teachers in the district and the Director of Drug, Health, and Physical Education. 6. Leisure: Free time away from work or other duties. 7. Lifetime Sports: Physical activities that individuals can pursue for an entire lifetime. 8. Off-Campus Agency: A private business, club, organization, or facility not associated with the school district, whose purpose is sport or recreational activity for a fee. 9. Off—Campus Coordinator: That person who is responsible for (a) coordinating and monitoring the Off-Campus activity programs of the students, (b) developing and maintaining district—agency relationships, (c) publicizing and defining the program, (d) evaluating the program, and (e) integrating the Off-Campus Physical Education into the district-wide physical education program. 10. Off-Campus Facility: Same as Off—Campus Agency. 11. Off—Campus Instructor: An individual or individuals associated with an off—campus facility, who have the responsibility of providing the instruction to the off—campus students. 12. Participant Observation: The process of data collection at a field site that focuses on watching, listening, and making a record of the events and people being studied. 13. Participant: Those individuals who are taking part in an off-campus physical education activity. 14. Triangulation: The process of testing one or more sources of information against other sources for the purpose of obtaining a balanced interpretation of the information. Delimitations At the time of this study, ethnography, or participant observation, was considered by educational sources, to be the most appropriate method for this type of study. Dean, Eichorn, and Dean (1967) said that, "...a major characteristic of participant observation and interviewing in the field is its non-standardization of method..." which allowed the researcher to elicit data from the informant's viewpoint. Unlike the structure and focus of a scientific study, the lack of standardization in ethnography gave the researcher the flexibility to gather data in many different sites over a long a period of time. In addition, it gave the researcher an opportunity to 10 see how the individual informants handled their daily lives in a variety of situations and activities. Therefore, the combination of methods employed by ethnography were considered to be a strength. Since the cooperative effort between the private sports industry and physical education was unique, 8 review of literature failed to produce any research about such efforts. Under the premise that this study was the first of its kind in this educational environment, the researcher elected to limit this study to those questions that best described what was going on in this program. Although the participant observation method utilizes a small sample and therefore may not be generalizable, it can be debated whether any study dealing with social phenomena is universally generalizable. Nevertheless, the production of generalizable results was not a consideration in the development of the research questions in this study, or in the collection of the data. Since this study was the first of its kind in a cooperative physical education program, the research questions, and subsequent collection efforts, were focused on trying to understand this program. It is hoped that the descriptions in this study will provide a base of knowledge from which further development, research and testing of other cooperative physical education programs may develop. CHAPTER II REVIEW OF LITERATURE Introduction During the 1960's significant amounts of money were spent on programs in hOpes of bringing about lasting educational reform. However, widespread changes have not been documented (Melograno, 1980). In the decade of the 1970's, concerns for accountability in education were heard, and the teaching profession in general became the target for those attacks. Consequently, the image of education suffered during the 1970's. Much of the financial support from local, state and federal sources was withdrawn, forcing schools to make changes in their budgets by reducing their staffs and course offerings in areas that were considered expendable. Unfortunately, physical education suffered heavy losses, especially in the elementary programs. In a day and age when physical fitness and the demand for more leisure activities was one of society's major goals, it would have been easy to blame administrators and school boards for the elimination of physical education programs. However, some educators felt that most of the fault lay within the way physical education activities were structured, the methods in which they were taught, and the general inability of physical education to produce or document defensible results. Many noted professionals have suggested that if physical education programs did not improve soon, there could be further curtailments. Some professionals have gone so far as to suggest that physical education would be completely eliminated from the 11 12 school curriculum since many of the skills and sport activities were learned outside of school in the private sector. Realization of the truth in this last statement brought about several changes in physical education that were designed to compete with this phenomenon and attempt to provide evidence that physical education was producing results (Paese, 1983). Related Research on Physical Education and Learning Although physical education has claimed to be for the "education of all" (Mosston & Mueller, 1974), the very nature of the structure under which it operated revealed that the curricular experiences were not designed for the education of all physical education students, thus making it very difficult to meet the individual needs of students. As an example, in a field study of academic learning time in physical education, Metzler (1980) found that: 1. Students in the average physical education class in the high school setting spend seventy-three percent of their time not engaged in physical education content. Thirty percent of that time was spent waiting for something to happen, 20% was in some form of transition between activity, 13% was in lag time within an activity (e.g., changing sides of the court), 6% was in management, and 4% of the time students are off task. 2. Only 27% of the allocated class time was spent in physical education content by students. Ten percent of this time was spent engaged in cognitive development (e.g., rules, strategy), and 7% of the time was spent in indirect engagement (e.g., spotting, waiting for a pass during a drill). Only 10% of the time were students engaged in doing a motor response, and only half of that time (5%) were they engaged in doing a motor response at a high success level. 13 Thus, in a typical secondary physical education class of forty-five minutes, students were engaged in successfully performing a motor skill for an average of only two and one—half minutes per class. This very strongly indicated that physical education should look toward other methods and means for providing instruction, and suggested that Siedentop's (1981) statement, relative to physical education students achieving less than other courses offered in the high school curriculum, was accurate. Carroll developed a model of school learning which stated that the degree of learning was a function of the time the student actually spends on the act of learning relative to the amount of time needed (Block & Burns, 1976). Carroll believed the time spent was determined by the student's perseverance, opportunity to learn, and the time needed to learn. Perseverance was defined as the amount of time the student was willing to spend engage actively in learning; opportunity to learn was defined as the classroom time allotted to learning. Maslow (1970) stated that it was the individual's perception of a need that was the key to motivation and learning. As long as an individual "perceived" that a need was not met, that need had the capacity to motivate the individual to achieve. It followed, then, that to increase the amount of time an individual spent actively engaged in learning, the subject matter to be learned must be closely related to the individual's perceived needs. In addition, the amount of classroom time allotted to learning must be maximized to allow the individual to actively engage in learning, and this, according to Metzler (1980), was lacking in physical education. 14 Carroll also believed that the time needed to learn was determined by the student's aptitude for the subject, the quality of instruction, and the ability to understand this instruction. He viewed student aptitude for a given subject as the amount of time the student would require to learn the subject to a given level under ideal instructional condition, rather than the level to which a student could learn the subject in a given amount of time (Block & Burns, 1976). The quality of the student's instruction and the ability to understand that instruction were conceived by Carroll as interactively determining the additional time required to learn the subject under less than ideal conditions (Block & Burns, 1976). If the quality of instruction were high, then the student would readily understand and would need little learning time in addition to the time demanded by the student's aptitude. But if the quality were low, then the student would have difficulty understanding and would need additional learning time. Carroll's model also clearly stated that if students were normally distributed with respect to aptitude for some subject, and all students were given the same instruction, then achievement measured at the completion of the subject would be normally distributed. Influenced by Carroll's model, Bloom (1976) reasoned that if students were normally distributed with respect to aptitude, but the kind and quality of instruction and learning time allowed was made appropriate to the characteristics and needs of each learner, a large majority of students would achieve mastery of the subject. However, if educators were able to control the kind and quality of instruction provided and were able to eliminate the time factor completely, how would they determine the characteristics and needs of the learner? 15 Bloom's (1976) theory of school learning stated that there were basically three clusters of interdependent variables which, if properly attended to, would enable schools to reduce the individual differences in learning. For the student, he identified two characteristics that they must bring to the learning situation——cognitive entry behaviors and affective entry characteristics. Cognitive entry behaviors are the background knowledges which have already been learned by the student, and that are the basic prerequisites to the learning to be accomplished. The lack of background knowledge, or the presence of inappropriate background knowledge, hinders the learning process, as was effectively shown in a study by Slinger, Anderson, and Smith (1982). Pretest data from the fifth grade class they were studying showed that the students began a unit on light with several important preconceptions about light and how we see. The textbook they were using stated that they saw because light bounced off of objects to their eyes. All but one of the 19 students thought of light as something which "shined on" or "brightened" objects, or believed that ' or "focused on" the objects themselves. The result their eyes "saw' was that the teacher had an exceptionally difficult time in changing the students perceptions, particularly since the text contained no material that could help students abandon their misconceptions. The second, and perhaps most important, variable—-affective entry characteristics-—involved the extent to which the student was, or could be, motivated to engage in the learning process. Of utmost importance was internal motivation. Peterson and Swing (1982) demonstrated this in their study which utilized stimulated—recall to help determine the 16 thought patterns of students during the learning process. Although all of their subjects, when observed, appeared to be attending to the task itself during instruction, the findings showed that the greater amount of achievement was made by those students whose thought patterns were on task. What this indicated was that positive, internally motivated thoughts could have an effect on a student's aptitude for a given subject matter, and reduce the amount of time needed to learn the subject to a given level. Learning has been defined as a relatively permanent change in performance or performance potential as a result of practice or experience (Kerr, 1982). Therefore, in order for a change to take place, learners must recognize a need for a change, and internally manipulate their thought processes toward that need. But, how do educators get students to recognize those needs and react accordingly? Jensen (1969) and Bloom (1976) both agreed that the entry behaviors and characteristics which students brought with them into a learning situation were the products of man-made environmental characteristics--the home and the school. The home, especially during the age period of about two to ten, helped children develop language patterns, the ability to learn from adults, and some of the qualities of need achievement, work habits, and attention to tasks which were basic to the work of the schools. While homes varied greatly in their ability to develop these characteristics, there were some homes which did a superb job of develOping these, and other related characteristics (Bloom, 1976). Studies, such as those reported by Bloom (1976), indicated that what adults did in their interactions with children in the home was the major determinant of these characteristics, rather 17 than the economic level of the parents, their level of education, or other status characteristics. Taggart, Taggart, and Siedentop (1986) also showed that the interactions of parents with their children could affect student motivation and ability to learn. In the study of a cooperative parent—teacher—student Home-Based Activity Program (HBAP), parents were trained to encourage and supervise their children's non-school physical activity. The data revealed that the cooperative effort raised the level of health fitness in children. McPherson (1978) supported this concept when he stated that the most important factor affecting motivational thoughts was the influence of "support from significant others." He stated that individuals were more likely to participate in activities in which their friends and family engaged with them, or in which they at least received encouragement to participate. By providing individuals with an opportunity to pursue a common activity with friends and/or relatives in an environment appropriate for that activity, a more positive attitude toward that activity can be developed. To lend support to this theory, and Carroll's conceived interaction between the quality of instruction and additional learning time, Majasan (1972) produced a study in which he hypothesized that an instructor communicated better with those students whose beliefs on key matters concurred with his or hers. Using a bipolar scale which he developed, Majasan studied students from several introductory psychology courses and found strong positive relationships in achievement for those students who were matched with instructors of similar beliefs. What this indicated was that for those high-achieving 18 students, the instructor acted as a "significant other" which enhanced their ability to understand that instruction and to shorten the time they needed to learn the material. It is important to note that while physical education was principally concerned with the learning and performance of motor skills, most learning theories were not based on motor skills. In fact, much of the early direction for psychomotor learning was provided through the interpretation of other learning theories (Kerr, 1982). It is widely known that the medium of physical movement serves the individual well, and is of significant importance. Researchers in psychomotor learning are seeking answers to the question of how we learn motor skills (Kerr, 1982). However, it seems logical that the psychomotor characteristics that students brought with them into a learning situation also were products of their man-made environments. In the process of studying who participates in an off-campus, cooperative physical education program, and why, it might be determined which man-made environmental characteristic, the home or school, contributed the greatest to that decision. Foundations of Cooperative Education Cooperative education has, traditionally, been aimed toward career and vocational goals. It is a method of instruction which involves and unites the school and community employers in a cooperative educational effort. In cooperative education, the learning experiences encountered by students, through related academic classes at school and on—the-job training, were carefully coordinated 19 and supervised to assist the student in gaining occupational competence (Ohio State University National Center for Research in Vocational Education, 1977). Cooperative education programs are designed to serve those students who are interested in a specific occupational career cluster, are willing to work and learn, want assistance in adjusting to the world of work, or need help in acquiring occupational training. A total cooperative education program consists of the following four parts: (a) The general education courses needed for graduation, (b) the cooperative—related instruction classes which pertain to each student's career objectives and on—the—job training, (c) part-time employment where they participate in learning experiences which develop and refine the occupational competencies, and (d) participation in the appropriate vocational youth group or organization. All of these experiences are organized and coordinated by the student, an employer, and a teacher-coordinator. Cooperative education programs are identified by several important characteristics. The National Center for Research in Vocational Education (1978) has identified the following characteristics: 1. Student participation in a learning situation. 2. Work-related classroom instruction. 3. Part—time work in a training station on the basis of career objectives. 4. Receipt of school credit and pay for training. 5. Constant school supervision. 6. Participation for a full year. 20 Of these characteristics, constant school supervision is the most difficult to accomplish. Therefore, it is necessary that the teacher—coordinator work closely with the school administration and the employer in developing and supervising the cooperative program. Several basic principles of cooperative education have been identified (Schatz & Frey, 1977). Although each is a separate entity, all are necessary for the effective operation of a cooperative program. First, and foremost of these principles, is cooperation between schools and employers, as it does not occur automatically. Minzy (1974) cites three characteristics of business organizations which at least partially explain their reluctance to cooperate. They are: 1. Most formal groups are more motivated to protect their own "empire" than to serve the community and, at best, are interested in only modest change. 2. Most agencies and institutions have a high degree of autonomy which they do not desire to share with others. 3. Most groups relate quality to dollars, and there is a constant effort to compete for money and recognition. Because of these characteristics, groups tend to be self-serving with their ultimate goal being that of protecting the organization's programs. Since the objectives of each organization may be different, the duty of the teacher-coordinator is to minimize the competitive stance and organizational loyalties that prevent people from seeing the benefits of working together. Secondly, it is necessary to have a neutral local agency, or organization, which has no special "gain or benefit" to be derived from a cooperative education venture. Such an organization is perceived as a non-competitor. The development of an 21 "advisory committee" comprised of administrators, faculty, interested parents and other community people may be the best way of obtaining this neutral organization. The advisory committee provides the program with a group of people that may apply a problem-solving approach for the common good of all concerned. Once a hospitable environment has been developed, and the needs and services of the program are established, the collection of, and access to, all possible resources is important to the successful development of the program. Every effort should be made to include all possible resource groups, and to draw upon them, as well as the academic faculty, to fill the range of program needs. After identification of the target groups (e.g. the students) has been made, and what this group needs to learn is established, all that remains to be determined is the kind of structure which best serves the interests and concerns of that target group. Two important factors that must be considered in formulating this structure are: (a) The nature of the linkage between the institutional and agency groups, and (b) the model of organization for structuring, implementing and funding such a program. Identification of these factors is important in that it establishes the specific responsibilities of each group. Through the evolution of these boundaries in the planning stage, attitudes and procedures are produced which are essential for the positive outcome of the program. It becomes the teacher—coordinator's responsibility to see that this internal consistency is maintained. Public relations is another important and integral part in the continued success of a cooperative education within any community. The co—existence that a cooperative program undertakes with business people 22 leads to a degree of visibility within the community that is not normally found in education. The cooperative education program must maintain continuous public relations in an effort to (a) inform the public of its purpose and maintain a positive image within the community, (b) reinforce the standards of the program, and (c) attract those students who will most benefit from the work experiences the program was designed to provide. Because cooperative programs do provide opportunities for students to become satisfied with their work experiences (Tauber, 1980), the same level of success opportunities should be afforded students in their choice of lifetime leisure activities. The success of this model in vocational education, however, does not assure its usefulness in physical education. This study examined the cooperative education model as it pertained to physical education in an effort to determine its suitability for this educational field. Summary From the research presented to this point, it is apparent that in order to continue to play a significant role in schooling, physical education may benefit from the development of a secondary curriculum that will: 1. Provide students with an opportunity to fulfill their "perceived needs" in a manner which will allow them to become the best persons they are capable of being in any activity; acquiring a high level of skill, knowledge and understanding about each activity; and developing aesthetic appreciation for those activities. 23 Provide the kind and quality of instruction which will compliment each student's background knowledge and will stimulate motivation, thus increasing aptitude and decreasing learning time (Carroll, 1963). Provide an open and flexible program with environments which will invite and encourage "support from significant others." Allow the learning time of each individual to vary in order to maximize the opportunity for mastery of the subject. Although that seems like an extremely difficult request for any academic discipline, a closer look at learning models reveals that cooperative education has the potential to fill physical education's needs for a new operating structure. CHAPTER III METHODOLOGY Research Questions The following questions would suggest the use of ethnography as the research methodology most appropriate for this study: 1. Why did the school district elect to develop this type of program? How did this school/community instructional program operate? What areas of the program held the greatest potential for success? The least potential? For what reasons did businesses want to participate in this program? For what reasons did they not want to participate? How did they perceive the effects of this program? What conditions (e.g., administration of the program, quality of instruction, and quantity of participation) must have been met for the school to allow businesses to participate in the program? What was the cooperative physical education classroom instruction like for the student? How was it different from regular physical education? The Ethnographic Research Method Another name for ethnography is "fieldwork" (Agar, 1980), and over the past ten years, educators have slowly come to realize the potential importance of this type of research and its possibilities for education. The term itself belongs to anthropology and has a long tradition of providing basic descriptions of the ways of life of interacting human groups (Agar, 1980). It involves (a) intensive and 24 25 long-term participation in a field setting, (b) careful recording of what happens in the setting through the writing of detailed field notes and the collection of other kinds of documentary evidence (e.g. audiotapes, videotapes, memos, records), and (c) subsequent analytic reflection on the documentary record obtained in the field (Erickson, Florio, & Buschman, 1980). In a descriptive manner, ethnographic research attempts to provide the outsider with the opportunity to learn the perspectives and information shared by insiders by becoming, in part, an insider. Ethnography is able to do this because its methods are flexible and varied, with its outcomes grounded in observational data. Schools are social organizations, and the programs which they offer are a part of that milieu. Because the off-campus cooperative physical education concept was one that has not been examined closely, the ethnographic research method was best suited for this study by virtue of the amount of time it provided the researcher to view the conditions which prevailed within the program. This method provided the researcher with more opportunities to develop an observational data base that would serve to answer the research questions proposed in Chapter 1, and possibly serve as a foundation for future research of an experimental nature. The Research Site To study the cooperative education model in physical education required the researcher either to find a community that was willing to expend the time, energy. and money necessary to develop the program, or 26 to locate a community that had already established a program. The most economical and efficient alternative was the latter. Although the concept of cooperative education has been in existence for many years, the idea of its use in physical education is one that has not received much attention. This was demonstrated by a review of published works that failed to produce any substantial literature on cooperative education in physical education. In the process, however, it was discovered that the Prairie Pride School District, located on the southwestern plains of the United States, had implemented an Off—Campus Physical Education Program that incorporated the cooperative education model (Meredith, 1979). Situated at the northern end of Oil County, the City of Prairie Pride was an affluent suburb of metropolitan Oil City, with an estimated population of 57,000 people. At the time of this study, the Prairie Pride School District maintained four high schools, ten junior high schools, and 36 elementary schools (see Appendix A). Although the district had reported a drop in enrollment for the fifth straight year, Prairie Pride's 33,000 students made the school system the tenth largest district in the State. Students in the Prairie Pride School District received a firm basic education, as well as an individualized education program, to accommodate their needs. The district's educational philosophy stressed academics with a student—centered approach and with widely diversified curriculum offerings. Although Prairie Pride itself was not an industrial region, its proximity to Oil City, which had a highly diversified and technological economy, made it an attractive area for its predominantly white, upper-middle class residents. At the time of 27 this study, the average cost of a home in Prairie Pride was in excess of $90,000, which was well above the national average. The building codes which have been adopted over the previous ten years, however, brought the average cost of new construction to over $120,000, with some construction costs going as high as $250,000 (P. L. White, Century 21 realtor, personal communication, October 8, 1983). The population and industrial growth in Prairie Pride, and the 011 County area, had primarily come in "spurts over the last 20 years" according to Mr. Al Davis, a life-long resident (personal communication, September 28, 1983). At the time of this study, the growth had reached the northern border of the county, but was continuing to expand in the northwest sector. An example of a typical construction endeavor in this area was the exclusive housing development called Los Caballeros, which after three years of existence became nationally known for its professional golf and tennis tournaments. The growth in Prairie Pride and Oil County, however, did not go without its consequences. The rapid expansion had (a) made the county's expressways obsolete almost before they were completed and (b) created a heated debate about the possibility of busing in the northeast section of Prairie Pride to relieve overcrowding in the elementary and high schools. Negotiation of Entry Initial correspondence with the Prairie Pride School District began in July of 1981 with a letter of inquiry to Ms. Martha 28 Staubauch, Director of Physical Education. The primary purpose of this letter was to gain additional information about their Off-Campus Physical Education. Ms. Staubauch responded in August of that year with a letter that briefly explained the program and a copy of the Off-Campus Physical Education contract. In the spring of 1982, negotiation of entry into the school district began with a telephone call to the district which revealed that Ms. Staubauch had left the school district and that Ms. Peggy Ostriker was now the Director of Health and Physical Education. Ms. Ostriker indicated that my request to conduct external research in the Prairie Pride School District should be directed to Dr. Shirley Austral, Director of Research and Testing. Ms. Ostriker offered to make the necessary inquiries, and responded with the appropriate application forms in September of 1982. On May 31, 1983, a research proposal was submitted to the Prairie Pride School District. Dr. Austral returned a letter on June 8, 1983 that indicated that my application had been received, and that the Research Committee would meet on June 14, 1983 to consider the request. On July 21, 1983, a telephone call to Dr. Austral was made regarding the status of the proposal. At that time, Dr. Austral indicated that the Research Committee was having difficulty in meeting, and that the proposal had not been reviewed. On August 19, 1983, the researcher received a telephone call from Dr. Austral indicating that the research proposal had been approved, and that an official letter was forthcoming. The original proposal requested a data collection starting date that corresponded with the opening day of school. With approval of the study coming just three 29 days prior to the first day of school, September 12, 1983 was selected as an alternate starting date. Data Collection The purpose of this study was to examine an existing cooperative physical education program in order to describe its rationale, implementation procedures, and effects as they were perceived by the participants. Specifically, the research questions included: 1. In Why did the school district elect to develop this type of program? How did this school/community instructional program operate? What areas of the program held the greatest potential for success? Least potential? For what reasons did businesses want to participate in this program? For what reasons did they not want to participate? How did they perceive the effects of this program? What conditions (e.g., administration of the program, quality of instruction, and quantity of participation) needed to be met for the school to allow businesses to participate in the program? What was the classroom instruction like for the student? How was it different from on-campus physical education? order to accomplish the purposes of this study, it was necessary to talk to the people involved in the program, listening very carefully at first for statements of attitude, belief, and value that were offered in an unsolicited manner, and to record this information in as precise a manner as possible. This information was then analyzed in a reflective manner by the researcher, and often 30 resulted in additional questions about specific aspects of the program which needed to be observed and documented through observation, review of the program's records, and formal and informal interviews with students, teachers, administrators, parents, and off-campus personnel. From these additional questions, other questions were derived until a thorough understanding of the program was gained and information regarding the research questions sufficiently gathered. According to Schatzman and Strauss (1973), observational notes are statements that render meaning to events experienced principally through watching and listening. They should contain as little interpretation as possible, and possess the pieces of evidence that will be necessary to answer the research questions. To be of value, the observational notes must be as accurate and detailed as the researcher can construct them. To ensure the accurate collection of these data, the researcher underwent extensive training in ethnographic data collection techniques. Since these observational notes are confidential and not intended for the perusal of the subjects, it was necessary to record the notes as inconspicuously as possible. This was accomplished by using a tape recorder during formal and informal interviews, and a small notebook for the recording of words and phrases which described the minute—by—minute activities of the observations. Within a matter of hours these tapes and recorded notes were expanded to reflect a thorough and concise anthology of each interview and observation, and transcribed onto computer diskettes in the manner shown in Appendix B. Because of the three—month time limitations of the study and the fact that the Off-Campus program serves approximately 150 secondary 31 students in one of eight activities spread over 34 different agencies, it was impossible to study each student and agency in detail. Generating a random sample from the program participants was inappropriate for ethnographic techniques since it would have severely hindered the progress of an accurate and detailed description of the program by limiting the researcher's access to unanticipated leads and other potentially relevant sources. Throughout the study, the researcher made every effort to observe as many agencies as possible, and interview as many program participants, and clusters of participants, as time and their availability permitted. This technique provided the researcher with an opportunity to identify and maintain communications with those subjects who were willing to cooperate fully throughout the study. In an effort to control bias, these selections were made with an attempt to include such relevant population factors as ethnic composition, socio—economic status, grade achievement levels, as well as the popularity and physical difficulty of the activity. The most difficult question to answer in ethnographic research is "How much data is enough?" Each observation is different from every other observation. Each time a researcher observes a phenomenon, new information is gained. The ethnographic "rule of thumb", however, suggests that when the data produced ceases to be useful in solving the research questions, it is time to consider exiting that field site. In this study, that rule prevailed as the principle criterion for leaving an observation site. To compensate for the delayed start of the study, the researcher concentrated on the background information, document review, and initial interviewing of administrators and teacher-coordinators during 32 the first week of the study. Once this was completed, the study was expanded to include interviews with more than 90 students, teachers, administrators, agency personnel, and parents. The participant— observation phase which included over 170 different people, began simultaneously with this interview process, and was well underway by the second week of the study. Data Analysis The analytic strategy that was applied was based on the belief that the analysis of data should begin when the first data are obtained (Schatzman & Strauss, 1973). Analysis done in this way allows for the adjustment of observational strategies and the controlling of emerging ideas by checking or testing these ideas as they occur. The bulk of the data collected consisted of observational notes (participant— observation) which captured the substance of what was going on during the observation (see Appendix B). In addition, the researcher systematically prepared theoretical and methodological notes as the field observations were recorded on computer disk. Theoretical notes are self-conscious, controlled attempts to derive meaning from any one or more observational notes, and serve as the major source of linkage between the data that was collected and the formulation of hypotheses that address the research questions (see Appendix B). Reflecting upon what has just been experienced, the researcher links these theoretical notes and hypotheses to the data, and other observations or experiences that may have been encountered, in an attempt to answer the research questions. From this analytical reflection, vignettes or short stories 33 were developed that described and summarized these linkages. These vignettes are used in Chapter IV to present the findings in a manner that is designed to allow the reader to become an insider, in part, in an effort to assist in understanding the administrative nature of the program. Methodological notes are statements that consist mainly of reminders and instructions which researchers make to themselves (Schatzman & Strauss, 1973). These notes serve as a means through which researchers guide studies and ensure the thoroughness of their research (see Appendix B). In the observation of the program, a specific pattern of behavior may emerge which effects student involvement each time that behavior occurs. From the empirical data collected through observation, a hypothesis may be developed which, when linked with other propositions being formulated, will help to explain these patterns of behavior and/or involvement. For example, in determining those characteristics which influence student involvement, the interview responses of student participants (see Appendix C) revealed a pattern which lead the researcher to hypothesize that the influence of a significant other was important for student involvement in that activity. The researcher must then seek to confirm or disconfirm this and other hypotheses based on the evidence and/or testimony from multiple sources, observations and interviews. Finally, the researcher must weigh these facts against the quality of the sources from which they were received, and the researcher's relationship with those sources, to determine the soundness of that particular hypothesis. If several of these sources 34 show related findings, whether negative or supportive, then convergent validity is established. The combination of methods employed in this study (e.g., participant-observation, formal and informal interviews, document collection, and document review) provided multiple sources of information that lead to the triangulation of evidence and the convergent validity needed to answer the research questions. The data analysis was done from more than 500 pages of observational notes, transcriptions from 30-hours of interview tapes, many archival records, pamphlets, guidebooks, and newspaper articles. Rights of Confidentiality From the beginning of the study, the researcher made every attempt to exhibit ethical sensitivity toward the subjects in order to prevent damage to them or their scholarly community. At all times the rights, interests, sensitivities and privacy of the informants were safeguarded, and all research objectives were communicated to those individuals involved. To maintain the confidentiality that has been developed throughout this study, any and all names used in this publication are of a fictitious nature. CHAPTER IV PRESENTATION OF DATA Guidelines for Physical Education State Requirements At the time of this study, State law required that physical education he taught in all public schools. The elementary school schedule should include physical education with the instructional time allotment determined by a school district needs assessment and by diagnosis of individual pupil competencies and deficiencies. In the secondary schools (Grades 7—12), physical education must be offered the full six years. Accreditation standards required a minimum of 130 clock hours of physical education for Grades 7—8, and 1—1/2 units (e.g. 55—minutes per day for three semesters) in Grades 9-12 for graduation. Students in Grades 9-12 received up to 4 units of credit in physical education toward graduation. The State Education Agency, which was the governing body that established the accreditation guidelines, did not specify the program of activities that was to be taught at each grade level, but did recommend areas of instruction which it felt were appropriate. The State Education Agency stated that middle/junior high students should be provided with the opportunity to build upon the basic movement skills, learned in the elementary grades, and to acquire new skills, knowledge, and attitudes in the areas of (a) aquatics, (b) career education, (c) fitness and conditioning, (d) gymnastics, (e) individual and dual sports, (f) outdoor adventure activities, (g) rhythms and 35 36 dance, and (h) team sports. From these varying experiences, the students should begin to specialize in activities of their own choosing. The high school physical education program should expand on the newly acquired skills, knowledge, and attitudes developed in the middle/junior high grades by providing activity progression toward -advanced levels in the same areas, but with more individualized experiences, career exploration opportunities, and encouragement of lifetime recreational and fitness activities. The State Education Agency also provided guidelines for the development of an alternative plan, which when approved by the district board of trustees, allowed individual students to be graduated without fully meeting the physical education requirements. Under the guidelines of this alternative plan, individual students could participate in courses or activities, such as band, cooperative vocational programs, and vocational shop programs, that contributed to physical fitness. In addition to the alternative plan, the State Education Agency allowed schools to provide a limited amount of regular school time (one period per day) for the practice of interschool competitive athletics and for the conditioning or training programs associated with those competitive teams. However, the provisions of these alternative plan guidelines had been misinterpreted and misused by many school districts, including the Prairie Pride School District. According to Mr. Paul Harris (personal communication, November 23, 1983) of the State Education Agency, the original intent of the alternative plan was to allow seniors who had schedule conflicts to 37 graduate by substituting another course or activity that had physical fitness value for their physical education credit. Over the past 15 years, that idea had grown into the wholesale substitution of athletics, band, and drill team for physical education. Mr. Harris stated that the State Education Agency would like to return to the point where actual physical education courses could not be substituted for, however, he did not see that happening in the near future. He added that the State Education Agency was working to eliminate this problem, and had introduced a bill to the State Legislature which, among other things, would limit the physical education substitution to only those activities, such as athletics, marching band, and drill team, that provided "real physical fitness". Prairie Pride Requirements At the time of this study, the Prairie Pride School District closely followed the minimum physical education requirements set forth by the State Education Agency, and offered courses in all of the recommended areas except outdoor adventure activities. Although there was no formal physical education program in Grades 1—3, students received physical education activity that was planned and directed by the primary classroom teachers with consulting assistance from the building physical education specialist. The emphasis of this program was on locomotor and non—locomotor skills, rhythms, and basic stunts/tumbling which permitted opportunities for self—discovery. Students in Grades 4—6 were instructed by a physical education specialist in a curriculum of basic movement activities that included games and lead-up activities for sports, rhythmic activities, and 38 developmental gymnastics (see Table 1). Physical fitness concepts and testing were introduced at this level, as well as a fifth grade swimming skills evaluation test. Although the State Education Agency guidelines call for daily physical education instruction, students in Grades 4—6 received a minimum of 45—minutes of instruction on alternating days. The Prairie Pride School District utilized the middle-school concept that placed Grades 7—9 in the same building. Students in Grades 7-8 were required to take one semester of physical education at both the seventh and eighth grade levels. The curriculum included a review of sport skills, and emphasized the appreciation of strategy, social interaction and the responsibility of teamwork in team sport activities (see Table 1). Students in Grades 9—12 were required to take three semesters of physical education credit for graduation. All students were required to take Physical Foundations as one of their three semesters of physical education credit. The main array objective of this course was to explain the importance of and the procedures for attaining physical fitness. Students were permitted to select the remaining two semesters of physical education from an array of lifetime activity electives. Approved courses were available in gymnastics, dance, advanced lifesaving, personal development, team sports, and individual lifetime sports (see Table 1). Students could not repeat a course for required credit, but were allowed to do so for elective credit, as a means of maintaining their fitness levels and extending their skills. The Off-Campus Physical Education program was offered for those students in Grades 7-12 who desired to develop a higher level of skill 39 Table 1 Diagram of Prairie Pride Physical Education Program Grades 9-12 Physical Foundations Gymnastics Dance Team Sports Volleyball Basketball Soccer Softball Advanced Lifesaving Adv. Sports Medicine Phys. Fitness Testing Grades 7—8 Personal Development Jogging Soccer Weight Training Flag Football Figure Contour Exer. Volleyball Lifetime Sports Basketball Archery Gymnastics Badminton Floor Hockey Golf Softball Tennis Grades 4-6 Track Table Tennis Wrestling, Weight Swimming Track and Field Training Bowling Basic movement, stunts, Rhythms Ice skating individual challenges Phys. Fitness Testing *Off-Campus Recreational activities *Swimming—Special Ed. *Off—Campus *Swimming-Special Ed. *PARTNER program *Swimming—Special Ed. Ages 9 - 12 Ages 13 - 14 Ages 15 — 18 * Optional Programs 40 in an individual activity not offered in the regular physical education program. This program was a cooperative arrangement between the school district, the student, parents, off-campus instructor, and an off-campus facility. The Off-Campus Physical Education program was offered for required credit only, and students were permitted to enroll for up to three semesters of credit. The program was designed for those students who wished to excel in an area not made possible by the regular curriculum. Students in the Off—Campus Physical Education Program were required to spend a minimum of ten hours each week in their activity. Because a broad spectrum of activities was comprehensively offered in the regular curriculum, the Off-Campus students customarily pursued unique activities such as ballet, horseback riding, karate, racquetball and ice skating. Students in Grades 7—8 were also allowed to participate in golf, gymnastics, swimming and tennis, since it was not offered in the middle school curriculum. Prairie Pride also offered the Partner Program, an adaptive physical education program designed to meet the needs of those high school students requiring individualization in physical education. The program utilized one—to—one teaching through the use of peer—tutors who participated as partners while under the supervision and direction of the physical education instructor. Students in the class developed skills in recreational activities as well as learning the basic concepts for developing physical fitness and health. Students in Grades 9—12, who were participating in athletics, cheerleading, marching band, and drill team, were granted physical education credit for their efforts in those areas under the State Education Agency alternative plan guidelines. Students in work—study 41 programs and those who had a medical excuse, were allowed to request a waiver from participation in physical education. In addition, students in the Off—Campus program were not allowed to be simultaneously enrolled in the regular physical education classes for required credit. Summary From the brief descriptions of both the State Education Agency and Prairie Pride School District physical education requirements, there is evidence of a conscientious and purposeful effort to provide the community's school children with a well—rounded and meaningful physical education program. The State Education Agency, like many other educational agencies, had tried to establish guidelines that would provide direction for its school districts without infringing on district's rights to determine the educational experiences their students would receive. Although the State Education Agency did not specifically identify the program of activities to be taught at each grade level, it did encourage varying experiences within the different areas of instruction. The State Education Agency's emphasis on varying experiences and encouragement of exploration and specialization was, at the time of this study, a sign of a progressive and individualized approach toward physical education and lifetime recreational activities. However, the State Education Agency's willingness to be flexible resulted in the abuse of one of its programs, the alternative physical education plan. As was stated earlier, the alternative plan allowed seniors who had schedule conflicts to graduate by substituting another course or 42 activity that had physical fitness value for their physical education credit. Over the years, lack of strict enforcement of this alternative plan resulted in the wholesale substitution of other activities for physical education. Although it was not within the scope of this study to determine the propriety or injustice of these actions, it is important to note that the substitution of alternative activities for physical education is not a highly regarded practice by physical education professionals around the country. Additionally, it is important to note that as the reader progresses through this study, an underlying relationship between the abused alternative physical education plan, the emphasis on sports, and the development of the Off-Campus Physical Education program will emerge. The Off—Campus Physical Education Program Development of the Program In the early 1970's, the physical education program at Prairie Pride was almost entirely oriented toward physical fitness. At the same time, the physical education trend across the country was moving toward co—educational and lifetime sports activities, and Olga Korbut, a young Russian gymnast, was making that sport very popular in the United States. As a result, gymnastic clubs and other sport clubs were beginning to develop in the Oil County area, and parents were asking why their children needed to take physical education when they were already spending so many hours each week in sports club activities that were fundamentally sound in their teachings. 43 During this period, which also saw many school districts suffer from financial setbacks, the Prairie Pride school board made the decision to add gymnastics to the curriculum over the next several years. Dr. Clarence Silver, the Director of Physical Education at the time, saw that "there were a few wholesome activities that we were not offering in our schools because we did not have an adequate number of people trained to provide this experience for the kids." With private clubs being developed in the area, he reasoned, Why do students have to get their physical activity and experience only in the confines of the gymnasium. Can't we be a little more flexible in our outlook and outreach, and can't we begin to work with them as partners in extending our curriculum in this way. Would it not make more sense for us, as a school district that was strapped financially, to look at some of the community offerings that were already here, and to see if we could work with them in an effort to control certain criteria which we had to maintain. The Off—Campus Physical Education Program at Prairie Pride was developed as the result of an emphasis on lifetime leisure activities, and the recognition that the physical education curriculum did not include some activities that were prevalent in the community. As the district began to conceptualize this idea, it looked for some outside agencies that would work within the school framework, and agree to document, monitor, grade, and uphold other educational standards in their establishments. This entailed developing a curriculum plan that was very similar to what was done in the school's programs. The developmental task became the responsibility of Dr. 44 Silver and two physical education teachers, Ms. Martha Staubauch and Mr. Glen Gill. One criterion that was established in the beginning was that the off-campus activities had to be such that they were not offered by the school, since they did not want to be competing with existing school programs. Since the physical education program was quite comprehensive, this immediately eliminated many of the activities that were available in the community. In order to impress upon the students that they wanted the program to be successful, the developers established a minimum weekly participation requirement that was double the normal amount of time spent in a regular physical education class. The program was not designed solely for the "gifted student", but was intended to attract those students who were "serious" about their activities. In effect, then, the program was designed to develop a high level of skill in a manner similar to athletics. Once the concepts and procedures were set in the minds of those developing the off-campus program, the developers did not limit the program to just those activities which that were not present in the physical education program, but they began to look at the community resources that could be brought in to enhance the physical education programs. It was brought to their attention that ice skating and ballet students were getting up very early in the morning and working more vigorously than they would have in the regular physical education classes. The question, says Dr. Silver, then became "why can't we give credit for that?" Dr. Silver said that the district wanted to maintain high standards throughout the physical education program, and that one of 45 the aspects that was conspicuously absent from some of the agency programs was vigorous activity. Would this, he wondered, allow the off-campus program to become an escape for some children who did not want to work as hard as they would in the physical education program? Because the school district already required pre- and post—activity fitness testing of all physical education students, they also required the testing of all off—campus students as a means of documenting their fitness and ensuring that they were getting sufficient levels of activity. Once the concepts of the program had been formulated and the curriculum plan had been developed in the spring of 1978, it was presented to the State Education Agency. Dr. Silver personally explained the program to the Agency, who looked upon it as being "radical." After a few sessions of defending the district's position and ensuring the State Education Agency that the school district was willing to provide the necessary personnel to monitor the program, they agreed to allow the school district to pilot-test the program for one year. Dr. Silver recalled that the State Education Agency was confident that Prairie Pride could handle the program sufficiently, but was concerned about state—wide dissemination. In order to maintain uniformity within its programs, the State Education Agency could not allow Prairie Pride to have a program that could not be offered to other school districts. The State Education Agency was also concerned about liability, especially with the possibility that outside instructors might not be as safety conscious as regular teachers. To seek the answer to that question, Dr. Silver stated that he went to the 46 school district's attorneys, and was pleasantly surprised to find out that the district's liability was no greater for the proposed program. In fact, the Prairie Pride school district was able to assume no liability at all, because the program had been structured in such a way that (a) it was in the jurisdiction of an agency outside of the school, (b) the student was there by personal or parental choice, (c) it was outside of the regular school day, and (d) it was an activity program that the school deemed was worthy of credit. During the first year, the school district investigated the background of the agencies and the instructors to assure the State Education Agency that they were qualified. The school district also submitted the lesson plans developed by each agency prior to the start of each agency's program. Dr. Silver stated they were so committed to making this program work that they screened the agencies very closely, making on site visits and interviewing the agencies and instructors for this opportunity. At the end of that first year, the district was able to provide the written documentation and evaluation reports needed to persuade the State Education Agency to permit the continuation of the program. The only real problem that was encountered during the first few years was defending the new program from the cost standpoint. At one point in the early 1980's, the off—campus program was almost eliminated. It had begun to receive some recognition in the newspapers and there were some complaints about its high costs. At that time, the off—campus program had the second highest cost per student ratio in the district; trailing only the vocational education program. Ms. Staubauch stated that the high cost was due to the fact that district 47 off-campus coordinators had to make many observations of the agencies during those first few years to make certain that they were doing what was expected of them. Dr. Silver stated that because Prairie Pride had been able to provide a wide range of specialized programs for its students, he was able to defend the program by making analogies with other gifted and high cost programs that were offered, such as football and Senior English. Base Course Cost While the off—campus program may have suffered from high cost in the developmental stages, the current operating costs were far below those of the regular physical education program (see Appendix D). Ms. Peggy Ostriker, Director of Drug Abuse, Health and Physical Education, attributed this to the fact that there were no equipment purchases necessary for the off—campus program, other than office supplies, postage, forms that were printed, and material that was sent to the parents. The amount budgeted by the director for the 1983-84 school year included travel expenses, which Ms. Staubauch indicated were the primary reason for high costs in the beginning stages. In addition, Ms. Staubauch stated that the cost of $1.80 per student per semester for the Off-Campus program was an increase over last year's budget. She stated that no money was budgeted for the off—campus program last year because, "They [the coordinators] told me they didn't need it." The salaries of the coordinators and other physical education teachers were not reflected in the average program costs because the school district did not place those expenses under departmental budgets. The Off-Campus coordinators were considered Lead Teachers, or 48 Master Teachers, with assigned support duties commensurate to those positions. In addition to their regular teacher salary, the off—campus coordinators received a $740 per year supplement for their work in the Off-Campus program. The Coordinators In addition to its originator, Dr. Clarence Silver, the Off-Campus Physical Education program has come under the direction of two directors and six coordinators in its short existence. Dr. Silver headed the Department of Health and Physical Education at the time of the program's inception. Ms. Martha Staubauch and Mr. Greg Gill, both physical education teachers, were also instrumental in the development of the program and became the first program coordinators. Mr. Gill eventually returned to normal physical education teaching and coaching duties, and Dr. Silver and Ms. Staubauch left the school district to join the Oil City Aerobics Center. Ms. Mary Ann Fountaine and Mr. Dave Hale also served briefly as coordinators before leaving the school district. In an effort to make budget cuts in 1982, a new superintendent of schools eliminated the Director of Health and Physical Education position and placed it under the guidance of the Health and Drug Education Director, Ms. Peggy Ostriker. At the same time, Mr. Art Hollister, who had been teaching and coaching in the Prairie Pride School District for the past sixteen years, filled the vacated Off—Campus coordinator position. In 1983, Ms. Jenny Newcomer was hired as assistant coordinator and Lead Teacher for the secondary physical education staff, filling the position vacated by Ms. Fountaine. 49 The Off-Campus Physical Education Coordinators were directly accountable to the Director of Drug Abuse, Health and Physical Education. The responsibilities of the Coordinators (see Appendix E) included (a) receiving and processing student applications, schedules, and activity reports, (b) administering the State Physical Fitness Test and communicating the results to all students in the program, (c) observing student activity and maintaining records of student participation, (d) requesting and receiving grade reports from off-campus agencies and instructors, and (e) evaluating and tabulating the program results. Guidelines of, Application for,_ and Admission to the Program At the time of this study, the Off—Campus Physical Education Program was open to students in the secondary schools (Grades 7-12), and could be taken only as part of their required physical education credit. Admission into the program followed the completion and approval of a series of brief application forms. Admission to the Off—Campus Physical Education Program required each student to secure the Off-Campus Physical Education Program Guidelines and Application Form (see Appendix F) from their respective building guidance counselors. To be considered for any given semester, the application must have been completed and returned to the counselor no later than the first week of that semester. Under most circumstances, this was done during the winter and spring of the previous year when the students pre—registered in courses for the upcoming year. 50 The application form described the nature and purposes of the program, those activities that were acceptable, the activity requirements, and the responsibilities of the student, parents, the off-campus agency, and the off—campus instructors. Once the application was approved by the counselor and building principal, it was sent to the Director of Drug Education, Health and Physical Education where it was examined by the Off—Campus Coordinators. Each application was reviewed individually, and had to completely meet the program requirements to be accepted. Applications that were designed to (a) meet student scheduling problems, (b) allow early graduation, (c) allow a student to miss physical education at school because of a dislike of a teacher or school program, or (d) require more than two hours of weekend participation were not approved. At the time of this study, the background and qualifications of the off-campus instructors were not questioned. The rationale for this was based on the assumption that if an instructor was in business, or had been hired by an agency for that purpose, that instructor must have a working knowledge of the activity he or she was promoting. Participating off—campus agencies were not questioned, either, unless an agency was one that had not been utilized in the program before, or there was some doubt as to whether the proper facilities were available. In such cases, a visit to the agency by an off—campus coordinator was made to determine the acceptability of the facilities before final approval was given. Upon acceptance into the program, each student's guidance counselor, parents, and off—campus agency was notified in writing by the off—campus coordinator. 51 Enclosed with the letter of acceptance to the parents was an Off—Campus Physical Education Credit Agreement, that was to be signed by both the student and his/her parents. The agreement explained in detail the responsibilities that the student was expected to meet in order to receive credit for each semester of participation in the activity. These responsibilities included: 1. Participation requirements for the specific activity. 2. Taking the State Physical Fitness Test during the fall and spring of the participation year. 3. Submission of an Activity Report at the end of each nine week period that outlined the progress that had been made. The letter of acceptance to the agency included an Instructor Agreement that informed the agency of their responsibility in (a) assisting the student in establishing an appropriate and reasonable activity schedule, (b) submitting a written outline of program objectives and activities when requested, (c) keeping accurate attendance records, (d) forwarding of periodic progress reports, and (e) making grade recommendations. During the first few weeks of the school year, three introductory meetings were scheduled. Attendance at one of these meetings was mandatory for each student, and was designed to provide specific information about course requirements. Each meeting was chaired by the off—campus coordinator, Mr. Art Hollister, who was assisted by Ms. Jenny Newcomer, Secondary Lead Teacher and assistant off—campus coordinator. As the students entered the meeting, they were given an information folder (see Appendix G) that contained all of the forms that were to be returned during the school year. These forms included: 52 (a) the dates of the required physical fitness testing; (b) a Special Achievement Form used to recognize outstanding performances in their respective activities; (c) an Activity Schedule that, when completed and returned to the off—campus coordinator, reflected the actual times of participation in their respective activities; (d) a daily calendar, or sign-in sheet, that was kept at the agency for tracking actual participation time; and (e) a Change of Status Form which was used whenever there was a change in the student's activity schedule. When discussing the contents of the information folder at each meeting, Mr. Hollister emphasized the importance of taking the physical fitness test. Mr. Hollister stated that: If illness or something else prevents you from taking the test at those times, then it is the responsibility of the parent and student to see that it is done. The best way to do that would be through the building physical education teacher. It is not the physical education teacher's responsibility to see that it is completed. Additionally, at each meeting, Mr. Hollister reiterated the purpose of this program, reaffirming the fact that the Off—Campus Physical Education Program was: not just for the average student, and I think that you do understand that. . . . Because the average student, if they were to participate in golf, or gymnastics, or whatever it might he, could go ahead and spend their time in a physical education class, and every now and then, put in a few hours after school or before school. But for those of you in the off-campus program, we understood that it is going to be lO—hours per week, and if you are putting that much time into an activity, we feel that you deserve to receive physical education credit. . . . The 10 hours must be arranged so that eight of those hours have to be Monday through Friday. No matter how many hours you put in during 53 a weekend, you are only allowed to count two of those hours for your total of 10 hours. . . Some students think that they can get in and not apply themselves. That is not the purpose of the program, and I hope that you will help us communicate to other people the purpose of the program. It is definitely for those that want to achieve, and are very interested in obtaining something in one special area. If they are going to devote that much time to that area, then we feel that we can allow them to have physical education credit. Acceptance into the program was not a guarantee of retention in the program for the full year. Retention was based on the fulfillment of the requirements. Students not meeting their obligations were dropped from the program and given a "No-Grade". The school district did not keep statistics of the number of students dropped from the Off—Campus program. A review of the 1982—83 off—campus records, however, indicated that 26 of the 160 students who had participated in the program either on a 1/2 year or full year basis, received a "No—Grade". "A summary of those reasons included: (a) moved to new school district, (b) low grades in other subjects, (c) transferred into athletics, and (d) never started the activity in the first place. Only two students from the 1982—83 school year were removed from the off—campus program because of lack of attendance. Mr. Hollister stated that students in the past have received failing grades, but believes that those grades were instructor decisions based on student efforts. The Monitoring System The most difficult aspect of the Off—Campus program to execute was the monitoring of the program participants in their agency activities. The primary purpose of the monitoring system was to impress upon the 54 students and the community that the school district was serious about the pr0per functioning of this program. Having the coordinators physically present at the agency facilities on an irregular basis was the most effective method of relaying that message. To assist in the monitoring process, the school district developed a visitation system (see Appendix H) that utilized more than one coordinator to monitor on the progress of the students. The system specifically described the minimum number of agency visitations per semester, and the maximum number of agencies and students to be handled by any one coordinator. In the Off—Campus Physical Education Program Guidelines and Application form (see Appendix F), the school district established a maximum distance that an off-campus agency may be located from the Administration Building. An explanation for limiting this distance to 15 miles was not conclusively determined in this study. It was believed, however, that some district liabilities for its administrators may have been involved in the decision, as well as, coordinator travel time considerations for visitation purposes. Under optimal conditions, each agency would have been observed a minimum of five times. At the time of this study, the school district was operating under Plan 2b (see Appendix H), which provided for one and a half staff members, and fewer observations of established off—campus agencies. Visitations As soon as all of the applications had been processed and the number of a encies for the current ear's off—cam us ro ram were Y 55 determined, the agencies were proportionately divided between the two coordinators according to the proximity of each agency to a coordinator's home. Because Mr. Hollister was the principal coordinator of the program, he had responsibility for the majority of agencies, and assigned Ms. Newcomer approximately one-third of those agencies. During the course of the year, it was the responsibility of each coordinator to make periodic visits to those agencies to (a) check on the regularity of student participation, (b) observe and talk with the students and instructors about the participation, and (c) reinforce the school district's commitment to a successful off-campus program. The following passage highlights one of the many agency visitations made during the course of the year, and shows how brief most visits were. Monday, October 3, 1983 3:00 p.m. Arriving at the Long Branch Western Training Center, which is almost 15 miles from the Prairie Pride Administration Building, one of the ranch hands says that neither of the two female students who participate in the program are here at the moment, but will be in approximately half an hour. Mr. Art Hollister, the off-campus coordinator, goes into one of the stable barns where there is a desk along one of the walls. He gets the sign-in sheets out of a desk to look at them, and leaves one student a note to get her activity schedule turned in. 3:10 p.m. Traveling over some more back roads, Mr. Hollister comes to the place where the City of Flatbush swim team works out. This is a combination public school and city recreation facility which has a State age group swimming team in which some of the Prairie Pride students participate. There is no one there. Mr. Hollister guesses that they must have been at some sort of inservice day today. 3:25 p.m. We continue south, arriving at Sherwood Forest Golf Course. Mr. Hollister asks for the sign—in sheets which are sitting on the counter in the pro shop. Looking through them, Mr. Hollister finds that one female student has not been recording her attendance. He asks the pro there why? The pro indicates that she has never held a 56 club in her hand before, and was not sure of what she should be doing to get started. The pro also says that they have been late in getting organized and that did not help her. He adds that she is out on the putting green at this moment. Mr. Hollister finishes looking at the sign—in sheets. He says that the folders for some students were not there. 3:50 p.m. On the way out, Mr. Hollister decides to stop and visit with the students. He talks briefly with a few boys on the green, and then asks a young lady how things are going. She says fine. He asks her to make sure she gets her activity schedule turned in. She replies that scheduling problems with her instructor has made her calendar hard to solidify. 4:00 p.m. The next stop is another riding stable. This facility is not very large. It has two buildings, with only one looking suitable for housing horses. There are three students in the vicinity at this time, with no instructor in sight. Mr. Hollister spends just a few moments talking with them. One student, a girl, is on the telephone, the other two are both rather quiet-acting boys. Mr. Hollister asks them what they have been learning lately. One boy names off a few things that sound like stable management and Showmanship. Back in the car, Mr. Hollister says that this is a new agency and "you can't tell a book by its cover", but he will be keeping an eye on them. As can be seen from this passage, monitoring the off—campus program has not been without its difficulties. During a subsequent observational visit to Sherwood Forest Golf Course, Mr. Hollister checked the sign-in sheets and noticed that a few of the students from Pinetree Junior High were not getting their time in. As he looked through the folders, he made notes to himself that read: November 2, 1983 Trent Bellamy - last day Oct. 25 Scott Gulch — last day Oct. 20: write a paper Jim Kirtpatrick - last day Oct. 25 Alex Flihegh - last day Oct. 26 Charity Bowes - not enough hours Roger Wheatfield — last day Oct. 26 Walter Brody - not enough hours; last day Oct. 27 and notes to two students that read: 57 Steve Krackow: If you plan on receiving a grade, you must get your Activity Schedule in, and put in ten hours a week. Pat Butler: Must make up sick days from week of Oct. 20. From these passages it can be seen that the calenders, or "sign—in sheets" as they were called, served as the primary, but not exclusive, source of information on these visits. The notes that Mr. Hollister made to himself were used as points of reference on later visits. The visitations, themselves, served as a practical tool for monitoring activity and maintaining contact with all participants. Participation in the Program As previously stated, the Off-Campus Physical Education Program was open to students in the secondary schools (Grades 7—12), and can be taken only as part of their required physical education credit. The program has had as many as 160 students in 11 activities (see Table 2). At the time of this study, the program served over 143 students in 7 activities through 35 different agencies. In relation to the total number of students in the overall physical education program, the off-campus program handled a very small percentage. Based on a total of 5,206 physical education students in Grades 7-12 (taken from the State Physical Fitness Test results for the fall of 1983), the program served approximately 2-percent of the physical education student population. Student participation in the Off—Campus Physical Education program was totally funded by the parents. The school district did not Table 2 Off-Campus Cumulative Totals Year: 1977 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982 1983 -78 -79 —8O -81 —82 -83 -84 Students in Program: 71 96 117 69 151 160 143 Types of Activities: 8 8 11 11 9 9 7 Students per Activity: Competitive Swim 33 52 48 33 32 34 33 Golf 1 3 4 10 21 4O 27 Ballet 19 19 16 2 4 15 24 Figure Skating 10 14 17 7 16 17 12 Gymnastics 2 3 3 1 21 3O 19 Tennis 2 15 22 Equitation 1 9 4 6 7 6 Racquetball IO 1 2 Rollerskating 3 3 3 1 Diving 5 3 1 Karate 1 2 1 Physical Therapy 2 Boxing 1 Cycling 1 Fencing 1 Synchronized Swim 1 Weight Training 1 Number of Agencies —- 21 3O —— 35 38 35 Number of Instructors —— 32 41 —— 42 —— 55 Note: Records are incomplete and/or annual reports not available. Programs totals indicate 160 students, however, the records show that 15 dropped out before the end of the year. available. No other records of drops 59 interfere in the financial matters of the activities. Since the program was optional and designed to meet the needs of those students who had already gained a high level of achievement in special interest areas not provided by the school, the district saw this program as a means by which they could prevent the duplication of student effort, without costing the school district a tremendous amount of money. Instruction in these activities was left to the off-campus instructors and agencies, and was geared to the pace of the individual student. Some activities, however, were required by the district to have a minimum of 90-minutes of "private instruction" each week. The rationale for this policy was to make it easier to monitor the less structured activities and ensure that the students were following the original intent of the program, thus preventing abuses. Mr. Hollister, the off—campus coordinator, stated that in some activities, such as horseback riding, golf, and tennis, the instructor could not be with the students all the time, especially when there are more than three students. In other activities, like swimming and ballet, where the situation required the instructor to be present in the classroom all the time, the 90—minute per week private lesson requirement was not as crucial. As mentioned earlier, many activities were not allowed because they were offered in the regular physical education program, however, a few of those activities were not full-year courses. As a result, some activities taught in the regular program were utilized in the Off—Campus, but restricted to those periods when they were not offered in the regular physical education program. Mr. Hollister stated that 60 this fact was a principal reason for the slight decline in the 1983-84 enrollment. Summary Physical education programs are structured such that the experiences that are offered are not designed for the education of all physical education students. This, therefore, makes it difficult to meet their individual needs (Mosston & Mueller, 1974). Dr. Clarence Silver, former Director of Physical Education at Prairie Pride and founder of the Off-Campus Physical Education program, also recognized this deficiency in secondary school physical education programs. Through his interactions with parents and community members, Dr. Silver saw that there were some wholesome activities within the community that the school physical education program was not able to offer. Armed with the question of "Why does one have to get their physical activity and experience only in the confines of the gymnasium," Dr. Silver set out to develop a means through which the school and community could work together to bring these wholesome activities to the district's students. From the evidence presented in the previous chapter, there was never any intention or attempt on the part of Dr. Silver or the Prairie Pride School District to develop the Off—Campus Physical Education Program in the mold of the traditional cooperative education model. However, with the exclusion of a few cooperative education components that were irrelevant to the Off-Campus program, the two models are very similar. 61 Being aimed toward career and vocational goals, cooperative education has been designed to serve the student. Its method of instruction united the school and community employers in a cooperative educational effort. As stated in Chapter Two, cooperative education programs have been identified by several important characteristics (The National Center for Research in Vocational Education, 1978): 1. Student participation in a learning situation. 2. Work-related classroom instruction. 3. Part—time work in a training station on the basis of career objectives. 4. Receive school credit and pay for training. 5. Constant school supervision. 6. Participation for a full year. The Off—Campus Physical Education program was also designed to serve the student. However, since it was aimed at developing a higher level of skill in a recreational activity, the important characteristics were slightly different: 1. Student participation in a learning situation. 2. Receive school credit for training. 3. Constant school supervision. 4. Participation for a minimum of one full semester (maximum of 3 semesters). Since the direction of the Off-Campus program was toward recreation, the work-related classroom instruction, the part-time work experience, and pay for training were not appropriate components. 62 In both cases, the most difficult characteristic to accomplish was the constant supervision of the program. A close working relationship was necessary between the student, the teacher—coordinator, the school administration, and the employer, in order to successfully develop and supervise the cooperative program. Actual on—site observation of the students was done by the off-campus coordinators on an irregular basis. The primary purpose of the observation was to impress upon the students and the community that the school district was serious about the proper functioning of this program, and irregular observations was the most effective method of relaying that message. At the time of this study, the program had grown to the point that it was utilizing 35 different community agencies. To facilitate adequate observation of the students in each of these locations, the agencies were proportionately divided between one full—time coordinator and one half-time coordinator, according to the proximity of each agency to a coordinator's home. During the course of the year, it was the responsibility of each coordinator to make periodic visits to those agencies to check student progress. Although this monitoring system was a sound strategy for observing the progress of the off—campus program, it did not go without its abuses. As can be seen from the data presented in this chapter, there were periods in some student's activity calendars where attendance on a regular basis was lacking. In most all cases, that time was made up over the course of the semester. Whether or not that was directly related to the visits of the off-campus coordinators is unknown. However, a review of the Off—Campus Physical Education 63 records showed that over the entire existence of the program, only two students were removed from the program because of lack of attendance. Although this summary portrays the Off-Campus Physical Education program to be a complex and paper-laden production, the school district claimed that this program maintained the lowest cost per student ratio of any activity in the physical education curriculum (See Appendix D). This was due principally to the fact that all of the activities in the off—campus program were hosted in locations away from school property, thus relieving the school district of the responsibility of purchasing supplies and maintaining equipment. Additionally, if the previous year was taken into consideration, when no funds were budgeted, the cost per student ratio would fall to below one dollar per student per semester. This cost per student ratio was misleading, however, when the overall cost of participation in an activity was calculated. As was stated earlier, financing student participation in a private sports agency was the responsibility of the parents. In the following pages, it will become apparent that these costs could become rather high. Given the economical affluence of Prairie Pride, as described in Chapter III, such an expense may be affordable within this community. However, the parental liabilities needed to sustain participation may make the implementation of the Off—Campus Physical Education program, as described here, difficult in other communities. 64 The Activities and Their Participants Introduction In the context of a naturalistic society, the people, places and things that make up that society are so deeply interwoven that they become impossible to separate. So it was with the activities of the Off—Campus Physical Education program, for they were dependent on the interactions of the students who participated in them, the agencies that provided the facilities, and the instructors who did the teaching. For that reason, the presentation of the activities in this study will encompass only those aspects of participation that relate to the off—campus program, and attempt to describe the nature of the involvement of the program participants in those activities. The discussion at the end of each activity presentation extracts the key issues brought forth in the data. Competitive Swimming. At the time of this study, Oil County was known for its year—round, competitive State Age Group Swimming program (SAGS) that provided an opportunity for any individual, regardless of age, to compete. Since swimming was offered as a comprehensive program in Grades 9-12, only students in Grades 7-8 were accepted into the off—campus swimming program. At the time of this study, students in the program were competing at various levels in one of four pool sites. A majority of students (26) were part of the SAGS program operated by the City of Prairie Pride through their Recreation Department. Five students were part of the less competitive YMCA program, and two were in the City of Flatbush SAGS program. 65 Mr. Hollister, the Off-Campus coordinator, indicated that the two students in the City of Flatbush SAGS program were from the same family and had been a part of that program for a long time. He also believed that they lived in the area at one time, and that their mother was active in getting the program started. The City of Prairie Pride YMCA swim program was under the direction of Ms. Sherry Bullion, who was also a teacher and swim coach at Butler High School. Ms. Bullion stated that the skill level in the Prairie Pride YMCA program was not as advanced as the city's SAGS program, but added that the YMCA students got more instruction than SAGS students. As a result, SAGS students were referred to her program from time to time. Ms. Bullion added that they did compete in YMCA meets, and occasionally would compete against the other SAGS teams in lower level meets. The swimming pool at the YMCA is outdoors, and Ms. Bullion said that, "We swim year—round. The only time that we come in is when it's lightning." She added that they may have to close the pool for two months during the winter in the near future, because the projected annual cost of heating the pool for this year was expected to be over budget. Individuals in this program paid $90.00 for three months, which entitled them to use all of the YMCA's facilities, as well as the pool. The Prairie Pride School District provided the two swimming pools that were utilized by the SAGS program. The Lincoln High School pool was located in the northwest portion of the city, while the Butler High School pool was in the northeast section. Mr. Jim Drewery, swim coach in the Lincoln pool program, indicated that the cost of participating 66 in the city SAGS program varied from $20—35 per month, based on the age of the swimmer. For junior high students, it was $30 per month. Mr. Aaron Cotton, a full—time employee of the City of Prairie Pride and swim coach for the Butler pool SAGS program, stated that the swim program at Butler pool had been operating only for a couple of years. The proximity of the pools made it easy for students to participate, and saved on travel. The only exceptions to this, stated Mr. Cotton, were the Senior Development group and the top level National Development team, which consisted of l4-year-olds and older, who worked out together at the Lincoln pool. He added that, "The off-campus program has helped to improve their attendance, because the students had to be there to get their credit." Mr. Hollister stated that this was one of the programs that he could leave alone and not have to check on, because they, "Run a very tight ship here." On one observation visit, Mr. Cotton was overheard to remark, "We crack the whip around here." That remark could be applied to all of the swimming programs observed, as it was a scenario that was repeated over and over again throughout the off-campus swimming data. The vigorous workouts that these students endured during their daily visits were very similar to those encountered in high school athletic teams, and leaves little doubt that these programs were providing good physical conditioning to their participants. Mr. Nick Matthews, who was the Senior and National Development team swim coach and Assistant Athletic Director in the Prairie Pride School District, stated there were many students in the Prairie Pride State Age Group Swimming program that were enrolled in the Off—Campus Physical Education Program. He also emphasized that there were still 67 many who were not. "Laziness on the part of the parents and students," he said, "is part of the reason. They know about the program, but don't do anything about it." He also stated that, in addition to those who have used their maximum of 3—semesters of participation, many students want to be in athletics at the same time and know that they can't get credit for both. For most of those students in the off-campus swimming program, their goals and objectives were as different as the means through which they entered the SAGS program. There were, however, three common themes which surfaced among all those students who were interviewed. First, their participation in the SAGS program came about as the result of the influence of a friend or family member and their own individual desire for recreational self-fulfillment. Second, their ambitions were oriented toward a greater athletic achievement, such as making the Olympics. And third, their entrance into the Off—Campus physical education program was a means through which some of these students could avoid taking regular on—campus physical education courses. The following observation illustrates some of these points. Thursday, November 17, 1983 Margaret Scarpinski and Dee Wiggins are both eighth grade swimmers. When asked who introduced them to the Prairie Pride swimming program, Dee said, "My mother simply asked me if I would like to try out for the swim team, and I said yes." After that, Dee said, she got really interested in it, and has now been on the team for four years. Margaret said that her family has always been into swimming. She added that her brother got her interested, and that this was her third year. When asked why they wanted to get their physical education credit through the off-campus instead of the in the regular program, Margaret said that, "It is a way to get out of [regular] physical education." When asked if she had taken any regular physical education classes, Margaret said, 68 "Yes, but what they were teaching in the regular program didn't interest me." She also said that she knew some people who were in the off—campus program, and felt it would be fun. Dee said that she learned about it from some of her friends, also. She likes physical education, but is in the band, which is a full year of credit. Because she only needed one more elective, she took this instead of the regular physical education. Both girls said that they plan to work for the 1988 and 1992 Olympics. Alice Trumble and Charlene Topinka are also Off-Campus swimmers. When asked how they got started in the SAGS program, Charlene said she started two years ago when her class took their 5th—grade swim test. She said that Mr. Aaron Cotton liked her swimming style and called her parents to see if she would be interested in trying out for the team. Alice said that she started a year ago after her YMCA coach suggested that she find a year-around program, since she liked swimming competitively so much. When asked why they picked the off—campus program to get their credit instead of the regular physical education program, Charlene said that she was not very impressed with regular physical education, adding that they didn't do very much. Alice said that she liked being able to get her homework done, plus she found that it was hard to get to practice on time when she wasn't getting out of school early. When asked what they will do with their skills, both said they were trying for the Olympics. The last swimmer that was interviewed was Kimberly Bryant. She said she started four years ago in 011 City. Her parents got her started because of her liking for the water. Kimberly said that, "Getting a college scholarship is my primary goal, but I'm not eliminating the Olympics." When asked why she took the off-campus program, Kimberly said that it gave her time to study. Through the Off—Campus program's "released-time" option, Kimberly elected to take a study hall instead of leaving school early. Also, she did not like the regular program because, "Of the hassle of changing clothes." With the Off-Campus program, she did not have to worry about the time constraints for changing or the hygiene and personal appearance problems caused from early morning physical education classes. From Table 2, it can be seen that the competitive swimming program has consistently been the most popular off—campus activity. Mr. Nick Matthews, National Development swim coach and Prairie Pride Assistant Athletic director, said that the SAGS program has been very well received by the community, and not only because of its low cost. A testament to its popularity was the Prairie Pride SAGS Awards Banquet 69 program a copy of which was discovered by the researcher during a routine observation. The booklet contained the names of nearly one-hundred participating swimmers from all age groups. Although the awards being presented at the upcoming banquet varied, the bulk of the presentations were participation pins for 1-4 consecutive years of activity in the SAGS program. Many of the swimmers receiving consecutive activity pins were currently enrolled off—campus students. In the back of the booklet was a listing of the swimming records for the City of Prairie Pride. Many of the women's records were held by Sally West, a current Off—Campus Physical Education student. Discussion. McPherson (1978) was cited in Chapter II as supporting the concept that the most important factor affecting motivational thoughts was the influence of "support from significant others." He stated that individuals were more likely to participate in activities in which their friends and family engaged with them, or at least encouraged their activity. Of the five students presented in this study, four were encouraged to participate in the SAGS program by family members. Dee Wiggins, Charlene Topinka, and Kimberly Bryant were inspired by their parents. Margaret Scarpinski was influenced by her brother. The fifth student, Alice Trumble, was inspired by her former YMCA swimming coach. Maslow (1970) was cited, in Chapter II, as stating that it was the individual's perception of a need that was the key to motivation and learning. As long as an individual perceived that a need was not met, that need had the capacity to motivate the individual. The data I suggest that a significant other has the power to incite that perceived need within an individual. 70 Under the guidelines the Off—Campus Physical Education program, admission into the program was to be denied if the application was designed to allow a student to miss physical education at school because of a dislike of a teacher or school program. However, the data show that aspect of the program was nearly impossible to administer. From the responses of the five students reviewed in this study, three had negative feelings for the regular school physical education program. Margaret Scarpinski was "turned off" because she couldn't find an activity that interested her. Charlene Topinka was not impressed because they didn't do much in physical education. And, Kimberly Bryant disliked the personal appearance problems caused by the "hassle of changing clothes". Although these guideline violations were of little significance to the overall operation of the Off—Campus Physical Education program, they do serve to point out that these students recognized that their regular physical education program was not meeting their individual needs. figlf. When the lifetime sports emphasis of the late 1970's was beginning to spread across the country in the early 1980's, the off-campus golf program began to grow. Being limited to students in Grades 7—8, the program reached its peak in 1982—83. Twenty—two of the 40 golf students were enrolled at the public course, Sherwood Forest Golf Course, with the remainder at private golf clubs. At the time of this study, there were more applications than professional instructor time at the public course would allow. Considering the responsibilities of the professional instructors, the public course 71 could only accommodate five students per instructor. Therefore, the decision of who was allowed into the program was based on when the applications were received. Pinetree Junior High had the highest golf enrollment in the district. Mrs. Carla Lutz, 8th Grade counselor at the school, felt that: the kids were trying to tell us that they would like more emphasis, even at the junior high level, on individualized sports rather than team sports. . .and I am not sure that the [regular] junior high [program] was set up to meet that kind of need. Sherwood Forest Golf Course was one of the less expensive agencies in Oil County, but to meet the minimum time requirements for the off-campus program, it cost approximately $45.00/week to participate. Lessons were $9.00 per half hour, plus $1.00 for range balls. Green fees were $5.00 for 18—holes on weekdays ($3.00 after 5:00 pm.) and $7.00 on weekends. The cost for one semester (17 weeks) could range up to $800 ($500 for lessons alone). Interviews with a few of Sherwood Forest's students resulted in the description of a typical week in the program, why these students got into the program, and how they managed to lower costs. Monday, October 24, 1983 Patrick Butler is with Greg Mallox at a clubhouse table. When asked what this coming week was going to be like for them, Patrick said that he will be spending most of his time playing. He wasn't here part of the time last week, so he has to make up for the lost time. Greg says that his lesson will be on Wednesday at 5:30. Patrick says that his is on the same day at 4:00. When asked if those lessons were going to be 90-minutes long, they say no, usually 30—45 minutes. Greg says that the rest of the 72 time is spent in hitting drills the instructor tells them to work on. He adds that the problem is in getting the time with the instructors. They are busy and can't always fit in the 90-minutes, so that has often fallen by the wayside. When asked if they get some kind of discount for participating in the off-campus program, Patrick said they do to some degree. They pay the full price for lessons, but get a break for ball use sometimes. Occasionally, they discount playing time as well. After the boys leave, Alex Flihegh passes by. Inquiring about his schedule this week, Alex says that he and four other people will be having a lesson today at 4:30. He says that he carpools with a group from the Pinetree Junior High area, and they have a lesson together. During the conversation, the cost of the lessons is brought up. Alex says that amounts to about $20 per week for him. He says that his lessons don't take very long because he has been playing golf for years, and shoots in the mid-forties for nine holes. He adds that this is the first year that he has been consistently out of the fifties, and looks forward to making the high school golf team. Out on the practice tee is Charity Bowes. When asked how she likes the game, Charity says that its a lot of hard work, but fun. When asked what a typical week has been like for her, Charity said that she didn't do much last week because she was on crutches. Normally, she spends 1—1/2 hours on the tee and a 1/2 hour on the practice green. She has a been getting a 45-minute private lesson each week because she is behind the rest of the group. Charity says that she has never played golf before. When asked why she decided to get into golf, she says that she doesn't "get a lot of time with her Dad, and this is one of the things he likes to do." She says that she got interested in golf mainly by watching it on TV and going to a few of the area professional tournaments with her Dad. When asked how the Off-Campus program differed from regular physical education, Charity said that this program was harder. She says that it is easier from the standpoint that she can concentrate on one activity, but it was also harder because she gets frustrated trying to hit the ball correctly. In regular physical education, there is someone telling her to do the activities that they want her to do. In the off-campus program, she is learning something that she wants to learn, which makes it more interesting. Mr. Bobby Gladstone, a golf professional at Sherwood Forest, said that Charity Bowes and one other student, Trent Bellamy, were both beginners. He stated that Charity had never played before, and that she had made great progress in the first few months. Trent Bellamy 73 indicated, in a brief interview, that he had been playing for less that a year. Trent added that he got started because his friends played golf. Now he is in golf because he likes it. Mr. Gladstone said that Brian Nelson, who already shoots in the 70's, liked to play every chance he got, and was "going to be a super golfer." In a brief interview with Brian Nelson, he said that he had been playing golf for six years and was trying to make the golf team. Brian also added that a college golf scholarship was a future goal. Mr. Gladstone added that many of the other kids "are all good kids . . . who were in it to be in it." Mr. Steve Johnson, another golf professional, concurred with that statement adding that it was like anything else, some do the work, for others "its a lark." Mrs. Carla Lutz, Guidance counselor at Pinetree Junior High, had similar feelings when she stated that golf seemed to be a "fad" with this year's group of off—campus students (personal communication, December 14, 1983). She emphasized, though, that this was not the typical pattern of participation in her school. It is interesting to note, however, that of the twenty-two students enrolled in the off-campus program at Sherwood Forest Golf Course, nine were from Pinetree Junior High. Because of spatial arrangements and instructor time commitments, golf has had a more difficult time supervising students than some of the other activities, and Mr. Johnson recognized that fact. He stated that, The individual nature of golf makes it difficult to supervise. -The intrinsic nature of the game requires an individual to be responsible for what he was doing . . . [and] that was one of the good things about golf, however, it still needs to be structured. Its hard for us to do justice to what I would like to see the program do. The students need 74 someone who can spend two hours a day with them on the tees. Right now, we can only give them a 30-minute lesson, and we may not see them for the rest of the week. We assign the students stuff to work on, but unless they were serious about the game, its likely that it doesn't get done. Students their age aren't going to do anything without someone there watching them, unless they really want to; and when you are that age, you don't know what you want to do. Mr. Johnson felt that it might work out better if there was a set "block of time each week, where each instructor could have 4—5 students. He stated that at Sherwood Forest Golf Course, the normal student-to—teacher clinic ratio was about 8—1. In these clinics, he said, there was plenty of individual attention, practice time and instruction. He added that "the 90—minutes of instruction was not so crucial, but that there needs to be more time where they were all working toward something." Mr. Gladstone agreed that the supervision could be more strict. Both professionals admit that they could be tougher with the students, but it was hard to do with their time commitments. Gladstone believed that each student needed to make a weekly schedule to show the instructor. He said that the instructors did not have time to do that for everyone, adding that the goals and objectives of each week should be individually set by the student. The instructor could then make changes based on what he saw and what he believed the student needed to work on. Mr. Gladstone also saw a need to modify the 90—minute lesson requirement. Each student was different, requiring different uses of their time to improve their skills. As examples, he said that, 75 Students like Charity Bowes could use more than one lesson per week, and others, like Brian Nelson, didn't need to take them as often. Brian would be better off spending most of his lesson money on shag balls, but gets a lesson per week because its required. Discussion. The educational atmosphere of the off—campus golf program was opposite in nature to the rigid structure and hyperactivity of the competitive swimming programs. The relaxed and easy-going environments found at the golf courses were, in part, due to the intrinsic nature of the game. Mr. Steve Johnson, golf professional, stated that the game required individuals to be responsible for what they were doing. He and Mr. Bobby Gladstone both agreed that although this was good for the game of golf, it was not necessarily the best thing for the supervision of the off—campus program. As opposed to the swimming programs, the golf programs did not have individual instructors assigned and present during each and every activity period. This was due mainly to the fact that the golf professionals had other commitments and responsibilities related to their job that prevented them from providing fulltime supervision. As a result, the data, here and in the previously presented visitation section of this chapter, show that there were problems in monitoring the golf program. During a typical week, each student would be with an instructor for approximately one—hour. This was less than the 90—minutes of private instruction required by the off-campus program, but was the maximum amount of time each student could get given the time constraints of the instructors. The remaining nine hours of their required activity time was spent on their own, practicing what was 76 assigned to them by the instructor, or playing the game. For some students like Brian Nelson, who already shot close to par, and Alex Flihegh, who's game had just dropped below fifty, this was an ideal arrangement. For others, like Charity Bowes and Trent Bellamy, who were both beginners, a more structured environment would have been more advantageous. As Mr. Johnson stated, "students their age aren't going to do anything without someone there watching them, unless they really want to, and when you are that age, you don't know what you want to do." In Chapter II, it was stated that, to minimize the competitive stance and organizational loyalties that prevented people from seeing the benefits of joining together, a neutral agency or advisory committee was needed to apply a problem—solving approach for the common good of all concerned. At the time of this study, the school district was dictating the rules and regulations of participation in the off-campus program, and had not attempted to build such a group into the program's administration. From the description of the monitoring problems encountered at Sherwood Forest Golf Course, it appears that some sort of communication and input from the professional staff would be very helpful in making the off-campus golf program more functional and beneficial to all involved. Cost was another factor that was partially responsible for the loose enforcement of the 90-minute instruction requirement. At $9.00 per half hour, the cost of private instruction could have risen to over $100 a month. As the data indicate, there were some unstructured discounts that were allowed by the courses to help reduce the costs. Several students indicated that, although they had to pay full price 77 for instruction, they quite often did not have to do so for range balls and green fees. This was contrary to Minzy's (1974) statement that business organizations were at least partially reluctant to cooperate in such programs because of their constant effort to compete for money and recognition. Despite the potentially high cost of participation, golf was second only to swimming in popularity. From Table 2, it can be seen that the off-campus golf program had grown substantially in the last three years. As 8th Grade counselor, Mrs. Carla Lutz, put it, "the students were trying to tell us that they would like more emphasis, . . . on individualized sports rather than team sports." In examining the Prairie Pride Physical Education program (See Table 1), it can be seen that the curriculum was designed with a very heavy concentration of team sports at the 7th and 8th Grade levels. Like the students in the swimming program, the off—campus golf students generally agreed that regular school physical education was not designed for the education of all. As Charity Bowes indicated: In regular physical education, there is someone telling her to do the activities that they want her to do. In the off—campus program, she is learning something that she wants to learn, which makes it more interesting. . . . Dance. Up until the 1982-83 school year, dance was second only to competitive swimming in the average number of participants per activity (See Table 2). Although tap, jazz, modern, and other dance 78 styles were available, ballet was the most popular dance activity in the off-campus program. Of the twenty—four ballet students in the 1983-84 off-campus program, twelve were in one facility--the de Volois School of Ballet. The stage experience, discipline and professional approach of the young couple directing this school seemed to be the principal explanation for their popularity, as well as numerous opportunities for their students to perform on stage. An excerpt from an activity observation and an interview with co—owner Mrs. Penelope de Volois strengthens that postulate. Thursday, October 6, 1983 6:20 p.m. At the reception desk of the de Volois School of Ballet, a pamphlet about the school and the background of the owners, Travis and Penelope de Volois, is available for anyone who wants one. Both owner.s have had very extensive stage and educational experiences at home and abroad. Travis de Volois is Turkish—born. He began dancing at the age of nine, and his travels have taken him around the world, including performances with the Turkish Ballet and the Royal London Ballet. Mrs. de Volois was born in Oil City, began dancing at the age of thirteen, and eventually earned scholarships to many major New York City companies. She has also traveled the United States, Europe, and the Middle East in touring performances with the New York City Ballet, Joffery Ballet Company, and the Harkness Ballet where she met Mr. de Volois. When asked if most of the dance schools in the Oil City area have the high standards they have set, Mrs. de Volois says that a lot of them "are not as serious about it. Most don't have the professional backgrounds that we have." She adds that not all professional dancers are good teachers, but it is helpful to have the background knowledge gained from those experiences. Mrs. de Volois says that most of the schools that teach tap, baton twirling, jazz, and modern dance "are not qualified." She adds that includes "about 85% of the schools in Oil City." Mrs. de Volois says that, "We take a professional approach to ballet. All students are to take on the role of a professional dancer when they come to class, and if they have long hair it is to be tied into a bun." This approach also includes being prompt, she says. To avoid interruptions, any student who is ten minutes late for class is instructed not to come in. 79 6:45 p.m. After talking with Mrs. de Volois, she says that she will be starting a class in approximately lS—minutes, and takes me to the large dance room where Mr. de Volois was working with the "Company class", which was preparing for the upcoming Octoberfest. Mrs. de Volois says that their school is the only school in Prairie Pride that offers their students an opportunity to perform in "company productions" throughout the year. 7:07 p.m. Mrs. de Volois comes to the studio room and says that they are starting in the other room. As she walks into the room something happened that she didn't like. I don't know what, but she did discipline someone by saying, "I don't want to see that again." 7:08 p.m. The class, which contained all junior high students, was underway. Mrs. de Volois starts them in the same manner that Mr. de Volois was working his students. They are doing different exercises, though, and finishing in a bent-knee, two—legged balance. After one drill, Mrs. de Volois goes through the door to Mr. de Volois' room and comes back with some powder which the students put on their feet. I notice that one boy is not dressed in the proper attire. He has on a red jersey, red shorts, white knee socks, and black ballet slippers. He also is not too sure of himself. A timing of a few of the exercises indicates that they range from 1 to 1-1/2 minutes with about 30-seconds for Mrs. de Volois to demonstrate in between. Changing the music took a little longer. Mrs. de Volois walks around the room as she talks the students through each of the exercises. I find it difficult to understand what she is saying with the music playing, but the students seem to have no difficulty. Mrs. de Volois stops the class to point out marks on the slippers of one female student. She says that this is from not getting her feet into the right position. She emphasizes to everyone where the movement and position should be. Mrs. de Volois says "second side", which means to do the exercise with the other leg, facing the opposite direction. Between exercises, Mrs. de Volois begins to demonstrate another foot movement. Two girls are whispering along the back wall. Mrs. de Volois says, "Please listen, I'm talking." She turns and gives them a stern look. I think she saw them in the mirror rather than heard them talking. After a short period of exercises, Mrs. de Volois stops class again because another little girl is having trouble. Mrs. de Volois says that she didn't practice, but the girl says yes by nodding her head. Mrs. de Volois asks her to do the movement alone. Then Mrs. de Volois says, "practice it 5 million times at home before I see you again." Her point is that they are to practice at home as well as at the dance studio. 7:38 p.m. Mrs. de Volois moves one of the girls to give a smaller girl some more room. I notice that the students are starting to show some perspiration. 80 7:43 p.m. The class takes a break for stretching purposes. The girls are doing splits and other exercises that look like they require some flexibility. The boys are not doing those, but they are stretching the legs. Mrs. de Volois assists one girl in doing a stretching exercise correctly. After that, Mrs. de Volois goes to another girl to assist her. 7:57 p.m. The class is doing a jumping exercise which requires a bent-leg finish. There is a loud thud and I look to see a girl sitting on the floor and holding her knee. She is crying and the injury appears to be painful. Mrs. de Volois goes to get her husband. He looks at it and says that it is alright, thinking that she bumped it. Mrs. de Volois says that she may have landed on it wrong. He goes to get some ice, and returns shortly with a frozen ice cup that was stored in the refrigerator. The injured girl gets up and walks to the edge of the room and sits down to put the ice on her knee. Nanette Slater, a high school off—campus student with visions of becoming a professional dancer, reinforced Mrs. de Volois' position by stating that, "My mother looked long and hard for a good school." When asked if that was the reason that she was dancing here, Nanette Slater said that, "This is the best dance school in Oil City. He [Mr. de Volois] hasn't got the greatest personality, but he knows his stuff, and is aware of what was out there in the world of ballet." Ballet is commonly thought of as a female activity. However, in the de Volois School of Ballet, there were many male students of all ages. The following passage describes how John Benson, along with his younger brother Nick, and Joe Johnson developed their interest in ballet, and how John Benson maximized the use of the "released time option". Wednesday, October 10, 1983 7:10 p.m. John Benson comes out of the dressing room. He, his brother Nick Benson, and Joe Johnson sit on the 81 benches near the reception desk, still dressed in their tights. Shortly after they started talking, an opportunity to ask how they got into dancing arose. John Benson started ballet in the summer of 1982. He wasn't serious about it until this year, when he decided to take the off—campus physical education. When asked if that had any bearing on his decision to become serious about dancing, he replied no, saying that he probably would have taken ballet seriously anyway, but adds that he is a ninth-grader and felt that his time would be better spent taking Latin in place of physical education. He figured that, if he took physical education, he would be spending "nine hours a day in exercise." He elected not to take the "early dismissal option" and enroll in the Latin class instead. John said that his mother got him interested in ballet. His aunt taught dance and got his mother into it. After watching her perform, he became willing to try it. Nick Benson is John's younger brother. He has been dancing for eleven months. When he saw his mother performing, he said, "I can do that." His mother then went out and bought him some shoes and tights, and he said, "I had to try it then." Joe Johnson was not in the off—campus program, and has been dancing for only three weeks. In physical appearance, he looked more like someone who would enjoy automobile mechanics rather than dance. When asked how he got started, he said, "I got interested over a year ago when I was watching a rehearsal at the school. I thought it over for this past year and decided to give it a try." He said that he was a friend of John, but discounts the fact that John has influenced his decision to try ballet. 7:26 p.m. John Benson said that they were waiting for the company rehearsal that started at 8:30 and went until 9:30. Nick Benson said that he was hungry and wanted to go to the grocery store nearby and get something to eat. Everyone else agreed, and decide to go with him. Ms. Helen Tucker of the Oil City Ballet had been dancing since she was four, and began teaching in college while earning a degree in psychology. That was when she decided that she enjoyed it, and she has owned the Oil City Ballet for the past year and a half. Ms. Tucker said that she has worked to make it a "quality—oriented school". She hired the best teachers, and added that she has paid "top dollar" for that quality. The school did not have tap or jazz dancing because the 82 floor was very expensive and tap shoes would ruin it. In addition, she said that tap and jazz dancing "brings in a clientele of kids who just want to horse around." Ms. Tucker said ballet was a much more serious activity because it was a harder technique to learn. Ms. Tucker saw ballet as a tool to teach other things, such as what it meant to have a goal and how to work for that goal. She encouraged her students to go to college. "To be a professional dancer", she said, "takes a lot of dedication. It is a hard life with a lot of travel, and not a great deal of pay." While the intent of the off-campus program was to allow students to specialize in an activity, that concept was not always gotten across. Ms. Tucker had one off-campus student, Linda Sleighker, whom she said, "Is very good with the students in that she picks up cues from me on how to talk to them and handle them." Ms. Tucker said that, "Linda is always there on time, and I need her help and assistance this year because the classes are growing. I need the assistance of someone. . .if I have a large class I can't get to all of the students, and therefore, someone can assist me in doing that. I think it is a benefit to give a teenager a responsibility outside of [the] home, where [they] know [they] are needed. If it is something that [they] enjoy doing,. . .its great." She adds that Linda enjoys ballet, and that, "Whatever it takes to keep children away from the drugs, and other evils is beneficial." Linda Sleighker said that she was here four days per week, although most of the other students come only twice a week. Her ambitions included becoming a stage performer, and then teaching ballet in her own studio. 83 Aside from the grueling nature of ballet, it is an activity that is also expensive. The off-campus program required students to take a minimum of eight hours of lessons each week. Dance classes in the six off—campus agencies ran from one to 1-1/2 hours in length, and ranged in cost from $50—70 per week. Mrs. de Volois recognized that ballet was expensive, and said that most schools price their lessons to encourage students to take as many classes as they can. She said, "Our top price is $51.00 per week, which includes a minimum of four classes per week. If they come for more, we don't mind." Discussion. In the previous off-campus activities presented in this study, there was little doubt about the qualifications of the agencies instructors. The swimming programs were required, by law, to hire trained and certified instructors. To be hired as a professional golf instructor, it was imperative that one be a member of the Professional Golf Association (PGA). At the time of this study, membership into the PGA required an individual to graduate from an extensive and competitive training program. However, that was not the case in dance. As Nanette Slater, a high school off-campus student, stated, "My mother looked long and hard for a good [ballet] school." At the time of this study, only the reputation and experience of the agencies and their instructors provided any certainty of a quality program. The two agencies presented in this study, the de Volois School of Ballet and the Oil City Ballet, were agencies that were at opposite extremes in relation to reputation and experience. The de Volois School of Ballet, which had half of the off—campus dance students, was owned and operated by a couple that had extensive stage 84 experience. The Oil City Ballet, on the other hand, was owned and operated by an individual who, while earning a college degree in psychology, decided that she wanted to teach dance. The data show also that the differences in experience between the two agency owners was visible in their approach toward ballet. Within the de Volois School of Ballet, there was a very disciplined and professional approach. Students were expected to be on time, in proper attire, and with their hair tied up if necessary. The emphasis within this agency was clearly set toward developing the skills needed to be a stage performing dancer. Within the Oil City Ballet, developing stage performing dancers was not a top priority. This philosophy was reflected in the frequent use of Linda Sleighker, the only off—campus student at this agency, as an assistant instructor. Although Linda Sleighker's major goal was to become a ballet instructor, it was not the intention of the off—campus program to place her in a situation where that vocational objective could be reached. From the data presented, it was evident that a majority of her time was utilized in working with other students rather than perfecting her own skills. Like the students in the other activities presented in this study, the role of the "significant other" played an important part in a student's decision to participate in ballet. However, for a young male to participate in an activity that has been stereotyped as being feminine, one would expect that significant other to be more than just a peer. Such was the case with John and Nick Benson, whose aunt and mother were active dancers. 85 Figure Skating. From the very beginning of the off-campus program, figure skating attracted a steady stream of students. Averaging a consistent 13—14 students per year, figure skating was perhaps the most difficult to master of all the off-campus activities. The meticulous nature of the sport dictated that the figure skater have a motivational desire to accomplish more than what seemed humanly possible. Because of this, the figure skating program had the greatest number of "professionally oriented" students in the off—campus program. There were three ice-skating rinks in the Oil County area, all of which were located in major shopping malls, and operated by a California—based franchise organization. Since all of the rinks were easily accessible to the public and public skating produced the greatest amount of income for the facilities, the prime hours of each day were reserved for that purpose. This meant that off-campus students and other serious skaters had to practice in the early morning or late evening to be able to secure enough ice time and practice space. For those that wanted to attend, "free-style" skating lessons and practice began at 4:45 a.m. each morning. At 6:30 a.m. the ice was scraped clean for the figure-eight "patch" sessions. At 8:15 a.m. and 10:00 a.m. the process was repeated. Even skating at 4:45 a.m. did not guarantee a person that they would have sufficient space on the ice to practice. Mr. John Lake, skating instructor at Diamond Galleria Mall, said that a typical daily load went from 15 students at 4:45 a.m., to 22 students at 6:30 a.m., and dropped to less than 10 students for the 8:15 a.m. "patch" session. For the off—campus student who had an hour 86 of released—time from school in the morning, this meant that they could practice at the later sessions when there were not as many skaters on the ice. Of the twelve off—campus skaters in this study, nine were morning skaters. Mr. John Lake said that the late afternoon was primarily for "low level" skaters, with the exception of many of the better elementary students. He said that as the interest builds within a student, the instructors encourage them to come once or twice a week in the morning. "For the most part," he added, "morning skaters have all reached certain testing levels, and have decided to pursue the skating sport professionally." To reach that point, however, a skater must master the "free-style" and "patch" skill areas of skating, and one cannot fairly evaluate the meticulous nature of this sport without looking closely at what goes on during the day to day development of these skills. Golden Towers Mall skating professional, Ms. Pauline Ferrar, stated that the objective of figure—eight, or patch skating, was "perfection." Skating a correct pattern (ideally a perfect circle), she said, was the first step. To complete the figure—eight, the circle must then be retraced again. The following excerpt from the data describes the ritual of the "patch" session and the exacting precision that was expected. Monday, November 7, 1983 6:36 am. Cathy Covert and Cloe Wikert, both off—campus students, are just starting to draw their figure—eight circles on the ice with their scribes. There are five other girls there also; three are high school age, one junior high, and one elementary. 87 6:44 Cathy begins in the middle of the figure—eight where the circles intersect. Cloe Wikert is doing the same. Cathy is skating on one foot around the circle, trying to do the drill as though she were attempting to pass a skill test. She gets half-way around and then starts over. She uses her blades to make slash marks at the top and bottom of the figure-eight. This time she reverses her foot position on the marks as she does the figure—eight drill again. 6:51 Cathy leaves the ice, then returns two minutes later with her mittens. Three of the other skaters also have their mittens on. 6:56 Cathy makes her scribe smaller and draws a figure—eight inside one of the larger circles. Then she begins to skate the smaller figure—eight, trying to be very precise. . 7:10 Cloe has moved to a spot on the ice where no one has skated this morning. She begins to skate a practice test. Without the use of the figure—eight to guide her, Cloe pushes off on her right foot, gliding in a slow and deliberate circle to her left. She places her left foot out in front, using it for balance and to assist in steering a straight course around the circle. Once the circle is done, she immediately puts the left foot on the ice, pushing off with the right foot and completes the figure—eight by circling to her right on the left foot. Without stopping, Cloe retraces her pattern a second time in the same manner. 7:13 There are only two people left on the ice, Cloe and Ms. Ferrar. All of the other girls are sitting in the dressing area, resting and waiting for the freestyle practice session. Ms. Ferrar begins to look very closely at the skate marks created by Cloe's test. Toward the top of the figure-eight circle, Ms. Ferrar bends down on one knee and points to several spots where Cloe's skate strayed away from a perfect circle. After examining the marks, Ms. Ferrar talks with Cloe, stressing the correct hand position for better balance and emphasizing the use of the arms to change direction. Maintaining body control was the most important aspect of these exercises. Ms. Ferrar said that the wavering pattern of the skate marks and the exactness of the tracing was an indication of the amount of body control that a skater has. She stated that there are a total of nine different patch tests which get increasingly more difficult with each level. She added that skill level and age of the individual 88 were the primary means through which skaters were evaluated for competitive purposes. One might think that the label, "freestyle skating", would imply a leisurely—paced skating period where individuals could have a good time, however, these sessions were far from leisurely. Alternated between patch sessions, freestyle sessions were used for practicing stunts and routines. The following vignette recounts a typical free-style session and demonstrates how physically punishing the learning of stunts and routines can be. Thursday, November 10, 1983 7:15 am. Most of the skaters are off the ice, changing their skates for the freestyle session. Two of the four instructors are still giving patch lessons. 7:30 All the students, approximately 22, are back on the ice, skating around until they find an open area to do their stunts. The ice rink radio is turned to a rock station. The pattern of movement is clockwise around the rink, with stationary spins and stunts being done in the middle. . 7:34 Carolyn Glover, an off—campus student, attempts a difficult stunt, takes a spill, slides across the ice, and just sits there. Another male skater helps her up and talks with her for a few seconds. When he leaves, she pauses to compose herself before skating again. 7:44 Sally Lowdner, another off—campus student, is in the center of the ice doing sit-spins. Demonstrating a stunt for another high school skater, Carolyn Glover takes another spill and returns to talk for a brief second before continuing on. 7:48 The male high school skater that helped Carolyn up earlier, attempts a triple-axle. He lands on the ice rather hard and slides into the boards as though he had been checked in a hockey game. Skating professional John Lake talks to the boy about doing a triple-axle. He takes the boy to a section of the viewing stands and uses a step to emphasize the height that the he needs to get before he can do the jump. 7:50 The music for one of the high school girl's routine is put on the tape player. Her instructor is videotaping the routine, which has several tough spins. Sally and Carolyn have stopped skating and are watching the video tape player as the routine progresses. Other students 89 continue to skate, but are careful not to get in the way of the high school girl. 7:58 The rink manager begins to drive the zamboni onto the ice in order to prepare for the next patch session. Sally and all other skaters leave the ice. In addition to the demanding physical nature of the sport, figure skating was also very expensive. All of the instructors that were interviewed indicated that the serious skating student spent more than lO—hours per week in practice and lessons. To meet the minimum requirements of the off—campus program, a student spent approximately $47.00 per week for ice time and $36.00 per week for private lessons. This easily put the cost of figure skating at $300-400/month. Combine these costs with the added travel expenses for state, regional and national competition, and it becomes obvious that the ambitions of these students reach far beyond the leisure and lifetime sports concept. This, said Ms. Ferrar, was the primary reason that many of the recreational skaters in Prairie Pride were not in the off-campus program. An interview with two competitive skaters revealed how they got started in skating, and how their ambitions lead to some resourcefulness which allowed them to take full advantage of the off—campus system. Friday, November 11, 1983 8:55 a.m. Carolyn Glover and Sally Lowdner have come off the ice and are sitting by themselves in the dressing area. When asked if they are leaving early today, both answer no. When asked what possesses them to get up every morning to go skating, Carolyn says that she wants to be an Olympic competitor when she grows up. Sally wants to do that and be a skating instructor. When asked how they got started, Carolyn says that a friend of hers asked if she 90 wanted to go with her to her skating lessons. She added that after she got interested, her girlfriend dropped out. Sally says that she just wanted to try it a couple of years ago, and has been skating ever since. Both girls say that they like the off—campus program very much. Under normal circumstances, off—campus students are allowed to come to school an hour late. When asked why they don't have to return to school at 9:00 a.m., Sally says that they go to the same school and neither one of them are taking any elective courses this year which means that they have a study hall during the second hour. Sally says that they have made an arrangement with the principal and the teacher that enables them to report to the study hall at the end of the period. This gives them additional time which means that they don't have to get up as early in the morning as the other skaters. While there was no doubt that many skaters have top level competitive ambitions, the instructors were realistic about their chances of becoming champion skaters. Mr. Lake said that, "The competitive nature of the skating business creates the emphasis on becoming a champion skater." The prime reason for this was the fact that each instructor was an independent contractor with the facility, and the ability to produce a champion was paramount in developing a strong clientele and making a successful living. Ms. Ferrar stated being an Olympic champion, "Is as much luck and timing as it is ability." She added that although some have unrealistic goals of being Olympic champions, a career as a skating instructor was within reach for most. Discussion. As with golf, figure skating had an intrinsic nature that required the individual students to be responsible for their actions. Although confined to a much smaller area than golf, figure skating still required the student to be responsible for the solemn, I repetitious practice of their figure-eights during the 'patch" 91 sessions and the physically abusing "freestyle" sessions. When combined with the meticulous concept of "perfection" in skating, and the very early morning practice sessions, it becomes apparent that self—motivation was a key factor in a decision to participate in figure skating. Of equal importance, was the high cost of participation. Within the figure skating industry itself, there was a keen sense of competition for clientele. As skating professional Mr. John Lake stated, the competitive nature of the skating business created the emphasis on becoming a champion skater. The production of champion skaters was important in developing a strong clientele and making a successful living for the instructors. Associated with developing a strong clientele and making a successful living, were increased costs for the potential champion skater to secure a reputable instructor. Averaging in excess of $300.00 per month, figure skating was one of the most expensive activities in the off-campus program and, as Ms. Pauline Ferrar stated, was the primary reason that many of the recreational skaters in Prairie Pride were not in the off-campus program. This excessive expensive brought into play a new emphasis for the role of the significant other—-that of financier. Although those figure skating students interviewed indicated that support from a significant other was an important factor in their becoming involved in the figure skating, it also was an important factor in maintaining that participation. This factor alone explained why nearly everyone that participated in the off—campus figure skating program had made the decision to pursue the skating sport either competitively or professionally. 92 Gymnastics. As was stated at the beginning of this chapter, the public's interest in gymnastics, created by the success of Olga Korbut in the mid-1970's, led to the development of a number of gymnastic clubs in Prairie Pride and its surrounding communities, and to the development of the Off—Campus Physical Education Program. Because gymnastics eventually became a part of the regular high school physical education curriculum in the Prairie Pride high schools, the off campus gymnastics program was limited to the students in Grades 7-8. At the time of this study, 19 junior high students from Prairie Pride were participating in the off—campus program at five locations. Nine were participating at Oil County Gymnastics, four at Prairie Pride Gymnastics, two each at Flatbush Gymnastics, Inc. and Downtown Gymnastics Club, and one each at Bright's Recreation Center and Midtown Gymnastics & Skate Center. The popularity of these gymnastic facilities could be seen by the number of students that were participating on a regular basis from around the county. On the average, each facility hosted approximately 100 students per day. The popularity of these facilities was also reflected in the fact that gymnastics was one of the more reasonably priced activities in the Off—Campus Physical Education program. The cost of participation in these programs ranged from $22/month for one lesson per week, to $50/month for up to four lessons per week. Students who participated on a team basis paid approximately $60/month for that privilege. Nevertheless, the success of these gymnastics facilities was not based solely on the trendy interests of the public, but on very good, fundamentally sound teaching and training in physical fitness, as well 93 as gymnastics techniques. Each facility was well staffed to handle children of all ages, and provided ample space for activity and sufficient equipment for proper participation and safety. Although these facilities were designed for gymnastic instruction, they were viewed by their owners as more than a sports facility. Mrs. Brenda Marvin, owner of Oil County Gymnastics, described her facility as a motor development program. She said that they concentrated on fundamental motor skills, especially with the very young children, because "it helps improve their coordination and their willingness to learn more difficult skills." She added that she found this to be especially true of those young children who had documented learning disabilities. In addition, she added that those children who started gymnastics at a young age had more success as they got older than those children who started later in life. The primary reason for this, she cited, was the fact that those students who started late did not have the background they needed in physical fitness training which, in turn, left them weak in some muscular areas and unable to perform many activities. The following passage emphasizes Mrs. Marvin's point. The types of stunts routinely done by the competitive gymnastics team members were not the type of stunt that could be completed by an inexperienced gymnast. Monday, October 31, 1983 5:25 The girl's gymnastics team, which is a mix of junior high and high school students, finishes their warm—up. They move to the free exercise mat and begin doing cartwheels and back walk—overs. 5:30 Many of the team girls have advanced to doing flips and cartwheels without putting their hands on the mat. 94 Mrs. Marvin tells them to form two lines and do the flips in a diagonal across the mat. The students move right into it. 5:35 Sue Lightfoot and Bonnie Gordon, both junior high girls, exhibit smooth, fluid movements in their exercises. Sue does a number of handsprings, and finishes with a double-back somersault. 5:45 Brad comes over to help spot for Bonnie. She does a handspring combination finishing with a double-somersault. The difficulty of the stunts they are attempting shows that they are both advanced gymnasts. Gymnastics appeared not to be the type of activity that could be readily enjoyed later in life, and was perhaps the only off-campus activity that was not lifetime sports oriented. When asked how he felt about that, Mr. Kelly Verdun, owner of Prairie Pride Gymnastics, said that did not matter to him because, Our greatest achievement is to give children the confidence they need to be able to perform in front of people without the fear of failure. Gymnastics develops the strength, agility, and coordination of the whole body, which would allow most of the students in our program to hold their own in any other activity. That, in itself, is a worthwhile goal. The goals of the gymnastic facilities and those of the students, however, were not the same in many cases. Where the gymnastics facilities were striving to develop physically well—rounded individuals, the following passage shows that the students had higher aspirations. In addition, it was interesting to note that the influence of a "significant other" was still prominent in their answers. 95 Tuesday, November 15, 1983 6:25 Angela Marx and Linda Fundt are sitting on a vaulting horse. When asked how they got started in gymnastics, Linda says that her mother just signed her up when she was three. Angela said that in the 5th grade all of her friends were in gymnastics. When asked what they plan to do with their skills, both said they wanted to make their high school teams. Making the Olympics was also mentioned. When asked if they were taking gymnastics in place of physical education, Angela said that she liked the released time, but could get along without it. Linda said that it helped her get her homework done. She said that they usually finish practice at 9:00 p.m. When asked if they have taken physical education in school before, Angela says no. Linda shook her head yes. 6:30 Ann Bulger and Carrie Christian join in on our conversation. When asked how they got started and what they planned to do with their skills, Carrie said that her mother started her in gymnastics when she was three, but that she had expressed some interest by that time. She wants to try for the Olympics, and then teach gymnastics. Ann said that she started dancing at another facility when she was three. They had tumbling there as well, and she liked that better. Ann said she didn't get serious about it until she was six. Theresa said that she started when she was three, but really isn't sure who got her into gymnastics. She remembers watching a lot of it on television. She added that she took a year off to try ice skating, but didn't like it. This was more of a challenge, she said. Although qualifying for the Olympics and becoming a professional gymnastics instructor were mentioned, the most prominent goal of these students was to make their respective high school gymnastic teams. When this objective was examined by the researcher, it was discovered that enrollment in gymnastics in high school physical education classes was low, and competition for positions on the high school team was keen. This seems to support Mrs. Marvin's statement that those children who started gymnastics at a young age had more success and desire to continue in the activity than those children who began experiencing gymnastics later in life. 96 Discussion. The popularity of gymnastics at the time of this study was one of the key reasons for the development of the Off-Campus Physical Education program. Ironically, except for the last three years, participation in the program has been sparse (See Table 2). At the time of this study, there was no possible way to determine what caused this effect. However, a potential explanation may be found in looking at the goals of the off-campus gymnastics students in this study, and the school district's plan for development of a gymnastics program. As was stated earlier in Chapter IV, the Prairie Pride School District began a lengthy process of phasing into gymnastics at the same time that the Off-Campus Physical Education program was being developed. With an allowance of approximately four years to gear up the Prairie Pride program to the competitive standards of other gymnastic programs within the State, the Prairie Pride School District would begin fielding competitive school teams at approximately the same time that the off—campus gymnastics program began to grow in numbers. From the interviews gathered in this study, there was a distinct feeling developed that a high priority among the off—campus gymnastics students was to develop enough skill to make their respective high school gymnastics teams, and possibly the Olympics. In visiting all of the gymnastics facilities in the Oil County area, the most visible aspect of these facilities was their competitive orientation. The description of the facilities provided in this study, and the activities that were found within these facilities, clearly pointed in that direction. However, the owners and instructors of these gymnastics facilities did not believe that triumphant competitive 97 teams were the key to their success. Mrs. Brenda Marvin, owner of Oil County Gymnastics, described her facility as a motor development program, and emphasized that they concentrated on fundamental skill development. Mr. Kelly Verdun, owner of Prairie Pride Gymnastics, supported Mrs. Marvin's position when he said, "Our greatest achievement is to give children the confidence they need to be able to perform in front of people without the fear of failure." The most disconcerting part of this discovery was the realization that these gymnastic facilities were teaching the very fundamental activities that should be taught in elementary physical education programs. Paese (1983) suggested that, if there were not significant improvements within the school's programs, physical education could be completely eliminated from the school curriculum because of the private sports industry's instructional capabilities. Judging from the average number of students these facilities were reaching on a daily basis—-which was over 100 students-—there were a lot of people in the Prairie Pride community who already felt that way.‘ At the beginning of this chapter, it was documented that the emphasis of Prairie Pride's elementary physical education program was on locomotor and non—locomotor skills, rhythms, and basic stunts/tumbling. It was also noted that these activities in Grades 1-3 were planned and directed by the primary classroom teacher with consulting assistance from the building physical education specialist. It seems unfortunate that Prairie Pride has either overlooked or ignored the possibility of utilizing the expertise of the gymnastics sports industry to supplement their elementary physical education program. With the limited amounts of time, space, and resources that 98 are commonly found in elementary physical education programs, it would certainly be advantageous for Prairie Pride to capitalize on this community resource either through an Off-Campus Physical Education program for elementary students or some other mutual arrangement. Tennis. It was stated earlier in this chapter that the off-campus physical education program was conceived in the late 1970's at a time when there was great public interest in co—educational and lifetime sports activities. Tennis was an activity which certainly met those requirements, and did, indeed, make significant gains in popularity across the country at that time. Because of this popularity, many of the tennis facilities in Oil County experienced increased enrollments in their organized tennis development programs. Although there was a lot of similarity between facilities in the instructional approach to teaching tennis, the intensity of each individual program was primarily determined by the social status of the facility and the philosophy of the tennis professional. Two of the highly intense programs were at Prairie Creek Country Club and Tumblewood Racquet Club. Both were private clubs which had year-around, multi—level development programs targeted for the "serious student." The fall session was lO-weeks long and was divided into two groups-~Future Champs and a combination Tournament and Championship Junior Development group. The Future Champs group consisted of a range of students from 13-14 yr. olds who were trying out for their school teams to those who just came out of the Intermediate lessons and were really novices (9—11 year olds). 99 The Tournament group was comprised mostly of high school team players who wanted to keep their game sharp, but had decided that tennis was not their entire lifestyle. The Championship group consists of players who were "championship qualified." That meant that these students were ranked in this State or nationally, or were eligible to become ranked. To those students, tennis was their lifestyle. These students played in about 30 tournaments a year, generally two or three a month, and traveled around the state and country to play in those tournaments. During the fall, the Future Champs group totaled about 70 students in each facility and met on Tuesdays and Thursdays from 4:30 to 6:30 pm. This development group entered into a combination play and instruction program that allowed students to change back and forth from play to instruction each day. The winter session was a six—week course in January and February for those students who really want to get out in the cold to play tennis. The spring session was eight weeks and ran from mid—March to mid—May. In the summer, these Junior Development students worked two hours a day, Monday—Thursday, for the entire summer. Prairie Pride Tennis Center and Gemini Park Tennis Center were both public tennis facilities which ran similar programs, but put differing emphases on the game of tennis. Ms. Mary Corks, tennis professional at Prairie Pride Tennis Center, was a protege of Mrs. Milchovich from Prairie Creek Country Club. Her program was structured similar to the one at Prairie Creek Country Club.' Because of the intense nature of the tennis program, Ms. Corks nearly cancelled her 100 commitment to the Off—Campus Physical Education Program. She found that, . . .too many kids wanted in the off—campus program because it sounded neat, and they wanted out of school to come to tennis. Two years ago we had a very social program with only a few kids that really wanted to work. Eventually, it became obvious that those who were here socially were taking away from those who wanted to work. Ms. Corks said that to make the off-campus program a successful for the individual student requires a considerable amount of commitment and independent work. Realizing that eliminating the off-campus option was not fair to those who were willing to make that commitment, Ms. Corks has taken the approach of hand—picking a select group of her students each year and asking them if they would be interested in participating in the off—campus program. Gemini Park Tennis Center also had a Junior Development program. However, since this facility had only a few "serious" young tennis players, Mr. George Zveda, tennis professional, took a more recreational approach to his program. In Mr. Zveda's program, students came for 1—1/2 hour lessons twice a week for three weeks. The level of ability of the students determined what was accomplished in those sessions. As an example, Mr. Zveda said that the Beginners worked on the forehand, backhand, serve and scoring. The more advanced groups got into the strategy and playing of singles and doubles. In the summer, Mr. Zveda had an Advanced program where he, personally, selected the students to be in it. These were tournament 101 level students; ones that he knew were at that ability level, had state ranking, or were trying to become ranked. This, he said, was more like the coaching that you would get on a high school team. There was a lot of drilling, playing and physical conditioning. One major difference between Mr. Zveda's program and those of the other facilities was the course length. While the other instructors preferred the longer ten—week sessions, Mr. Zveda opted for shorter courses. He felt that three weeks was an adequate amount of time to spend in any one group level. His primary reasoning was that any sport can "burn kids out", and he felt that three weeks was an appropriate length of time to allow students to decide whether they liked the activity or not, and then possibly change activities. Mr. Zveda added that, After that three—week time, if the student wants to continue, they will have an opportunity to move up to another group. Some students progress quicker than others, and if you have a program that goes ten weeks, they have a tendency to get bored because the other students are below them and they cannot move on. Mr. Zveda stated that his summer advanced program went for eight weeks, only because he knew the abilities of each student. In addition, he said that most of his group lessons were canceled during the winter because the weather conditions made it difficult to get groups together. He added that, During the winter, most of the advanced students usually get out and play on their own, which is what they really need. They will take private lessons once a week or every two weeks. The 102 problem [with Beginners] is that they will not want to play regularly in the cold, so they will have to start over in the spring anyway. Mr. Zveda found that those students who did get into the off—campus program already had good playing ability. The primary reason, he felt, was the cost factor. He said that when tennis is played for a long period of time, such as a ten—week class period, it becomes expensive. Parents of beginning students "would not spend the money to commit their children to an activity in which there was risk of that student losing interest after a short period of time, and finding themselves stuck for another nine—weeks or longer." On the average, Mr. Zveda said, an off—campus student at one of the tennis facilities was receiving two hours of private instruction at $22.00 per hour. Ball machine rental was $6 per hour, and was used nearly every day. That put the cost of participation into the range of $40-60 per week. In a four—week period, that amounted to $200-250 to take tennis in the off—campus program. "Not many parents are willing to just pay some guy the money, so they can see if Johnny is going to be a good tennis player," he stated. As with most of the other off—campus activities which hear an expensive price tag, the professionals at these tennis facilities do what they can to alleviate the cost of participating in the off—campus program. Ms. Corks cut costs by charging off-campus students one-dollar per day for court and ball machine rental. Mr. Zveda would let a student use the ball machine without paying for it as long as he or she did not abuse the privilege. Mrs. Milchovich incorporated the 103 "private lesson" into the regular Junior Development program to lower expenses. Although Mr. Zveda saw the school's reasoning for requiring the minimum numbers of hours of private lessons per week, he said that it did not help the student at all, because he or she has to take what was learned in those lessons, work on it, and apply it to his or her playing. He added that he has had people talk to him about the off-campus program and become discouraged because of the cost. In the past three years, he said, Gemini Park Tennis Center has had between 50-100 different students from Gemini Junior High, which is just across the parking lot, who have taken lessons in his Junior Development program. To add credence to Mr. Zveda's statements, the off—campus records showed that in the previous two years only two students used this facility for off-campus physical education purposes. Mr. Zveda felt that the supervision of the students in the off-campus program should be the responsibility of the school, however he also felt that the tennis professionals needed to have more input into the program for the off-campus students. He said that, "the ability of each individual should be taken into account in deciding who gets private lessons and who does not. Naturally, a beginner would need more private lessons than a more advanced player." Discussion. Throughout the presentation of the data in this study, the overriding purpose of the Off-Campus Physical Education has been to provide an opportunity for students to develop a higher level of skill in an individual activity. Although it was not considered to be a program for the gifted, it was designed with the serious student in 104 mind. Because of this narrow focus, the off—campus program only reached approximately 2-percent of the school district's 5200 physical education students. To this point, only the data presented in the golf section hinted at the possibility that this philosophy was good. Statements made by Mr. Bobby Gladstone and Mr. Steve Johnson, golf professionals at Sherwood Forest Golf Course, reflected the problems they encountered in working with those students who were "in it just to be in it". As Table 2 shows, tennis did not become popular in the off-campus program until 1982. There is no way to determine why this phenomenon occurred. At the time of this study, however, tennis was the only off-campus activity that required a partner of equal ability in order to participate. Anyone who has attempted to play the game of tennis on a regular basis with hopes of obtaining a reasonable amount of enjoyment from the experience knows the value of that "significant other." It soon became clear that the one major advantage these development programs had was that they allowed players to participate at age and ability levels that best suited their needs. The action that Ms. Mary Corks, tennis professional at Prairie Pride Tennis Center, took supported the school district and the golf professional's position. Ms. Corks nearly cancelled her off-campus commitment because her program was being inundated by social players, who in turn, detracted from the serious student's opportunity to learn. Although Ms. Cork's program was not as tightly structured as the tennis program at the private Prairie Creek Country Club, she did recognize that it took a lot of commitment and independent work to learn the game of tennis correctly. Consequently, she took a unique approach to the 105 off-campus program and began recruiting students into the program from within her clientele. On the other hand, the data here also suggest that, with some modification, the off—campus program could successfully reach a larger number of students. The tennis program at Gemini Park Tennis Center was centered around the use of three—week courses instead of the more popular ten-week sessions. Because of the cost factor in participating in lengthy tennis sessions, Mr. George Zveda, tennis professional, felt that the shorter course was an appropriate length of time for students to decide whether they liked the activity or not. For Mr. Zveda, this concept worked well. Nearly 100 students from nearby Gemini Junior High School were currently enrolled in his Junior Development program. In contrast, only two students in the past couple of years have been enrolled in the off—campus program at this facility. As was stated earlier in this chapter, the general organization of the Off-Campus Physical Education program is closely aligned with the traditional cooperative education model. In Chapter II, it was stated that, to minimize the competitive stance and organizational loyalties that prevented people from seeing the benefits of joining together, a neutral agency or advisory committee was needed to apply a problem— solving approach for the common good of all concerned. At the time of this study, the school district dictated all of the rules and regulations of participation in the off-campus program, and had not attempted to build such a group into the program's administration. Contrary to the published research on cooperative education, the Off-Campus Physical Education program has functioned very well without a neutral agency's input. Although Mr. Zveda and golf professionals at 106 Sherwood Forest Golf Course were the only instructors from the thirty-five agency programs who openly recognized a need for additional input into the off-campus program, the discussion presented here seems to indicate that such a step may be necessary if the program is to continue to grow. Equestrian Activities. Being geographically located in the southwestern plains of the United States, horses and horsemanship have been an integral part of Prairie Pride's heritage; however, the natural urbanization and modernization of the community and surrounding county has removed the horse from its prominent place in this western culture. This was evidenced by the fact that throughout the existence of the off-campus program, not more than nine students were enrolled in equestrian activities for any given year. At the time of this study, only six students from Prairie Pride had elected to participate in the program. Columbia Academy of Riding and Long Branch Western Training Center, both western riding stables, each had two students enrolled, while Ranchero de Los Caballeros and the Oil County Polo Club, both english riding facilities, each had one student enrolled. Although this off-campus program was open to all students in grades 7-12, interest in pursuing horsemanship activities was very low. In a candid interview with Linda Hammer, an off-campus student from the Long Branch Western Training Center, it became clear that cost was a prohibitive factor. 107 Monday, October 14, 1983 4:00 p.m. Arrived at Long Branch Western Training Center and found Linda Hammer sitting on a fence at the south end of the ranch giving a lesson to another girl. During this often interrupted interview, Linda said that everyone at this stable "shows" their horses, and that there were a lot of "little things" to learn. When asked how much a lesson costs, Linda says $15/hour. When asked if she was charging this current student that rate, she said yes, but since she worked for the owner of the stable, the cost of her lessons was deducted from her salary. She said that all of the money that she makes goes back into the Long Branch Western Training Center one way or the other. Linda added that she is out here everyday from about 1:30 until dark. When asked how she got started with horses, Linda said that they used to live next to a girl who owned a horse, so Linda's parents bought her one. She began showing her horse when she was 5 years old, but has gotten more involved in the last few years. She added that Margaret, the owner, has taught her just about everything in the last 2 years, and now she was specializing in the new things that they pick up at shows. When asked how expensive it was to own a horse, Linda said that it runs from $200-350/month to board and train a horse. She added that many of the horses at the Long Branch Western Training Center are owned by groups of businessmen who use them mostly for tax purposes. Linda said that horses aren't as cheap as they used to be. She said that breeding was the primary reason. She said that the horse her student was currently riding costs about $20,000. She added that the cost of her horse was about $2,000, because he did not have the "breeding" that the others do. Not counting the cost of the horse set, Linda felt that horseback riding was still the most expensive leisure activity available. Linda said that with continuous shoeing, shots in both the fall and spring, equipment purchases, entry fees and travel costs for every weekend that the horse was shown, it would be difficult to maintain the activity on an "average income". Fortunately for her, Linda said that her father owned a mortgage company and had an above average income. When asked how often they show the horse, Linda says every weekend. Every activity in the off—campus program had its participation costs. Unfortunately, horseback riding ranked among the most expensive activities in the program. Based on just the costs of boarding and 108 training a horse, other activities such as golf and figure skating were comparable to equestrian activities. When the cost of all the peripheral and incidental expenses needed for participation was added, horseback riding appeared to be much more expensive. Linda Hammer indicated during the interview that she was putting all of her earnings from teaching riding back into her horse and the lessons that she would take. The opportunity to earn as you learn was perhaps the single most important advantage that riding students had over other students in the off-campus program. In any equestrian environment, it takes a great deal of effort to properly maintain a horse. Mrs. Betsy Morse, owner of Columbia Academy of Riding, said that their training program was divided into three basic parts: riding, classroom instruction, and stable management. She added that of those three categories, stable management was the most important and time consuming. The off-campus students spent a great deal of time caring for their individual horses and assisting with the care of the other horses in the stable. Although these students were not paid for this work, their efforts were reflected in lower instructional and stabling costs. Behind stable management, Mrs. Morse ranked riding and classroom instruction as equally important activities at their facility. In the classroom, all areas of horsemanship were addressed, especially those which related to the general care and health of the horse. Such topics as proper feeding, causes and symptoms of disease, and grooming techniques were discussed in addition to proper riding styles. "Without the knowledge to properly care for a horse," Mrs. Morse said, "all the riding skills a horseman possesses will be of no value, 109 because they eventually will a horse which is in such poor health that it does not show off their riding ability." According to Mr. Art Hollister, the off-campus coordinator, the place of horseback riding in the curriculum has been questioned throughout the existence of the off—campus program. He often remarked that these students were spending more time working than they were learning to ride. Our brief site visits to the Columbia Academy of Riding stable supported that belief. Monday, October 3, 1983 4:00 p.m. The next stop on Mr. Hollister's schedule is Columbia Academy of Riding. This is a small riding stable out in the middle of nowhere. It has only two buildings, with only one looking suitable for housing horses. There are only three students around at the time we arrive, and no instructor is present in the immediate area. Mr. Hollister spends just a few moments talking with them. One student, a girl, is on the telephone, the other two, both boys, are acting rather sheepishly —-— like they had just been caught doing something they weren't supposed to do. Mr. Hollister asks what they have been learning lately. Bryan Steele, an off—campus student, names a few items that sound like stable management and Showmanship activities. 4:15 p.m. Getting back into the car, Mr. Hollister says that this is a relatively new agency, and he feels that it is "kind of shaky". Wednesday, November 2, 1983 3:58 p.m. At the Columbia Academy of Riding, Bryan Steele and Mike White, both off—campus students, are standing around the office just as they were the last time that we visited. They are not very talkative boys, so we didn't stay very long. Mr. Hollister says that the more he comes out here, the less he thinks they are learning. He says, that it seems that they are working more than they are learning to ride. 110 When compared to activities such as swimming or golf, where the effects of learning can be seen through improved visual movements of the body, horseback riding does become a questionable activity. From the description given by Mrs. Morse, however, a major part of learning horsemanship as a life-long activity is the work involved in keeping a horse. When asked how he felt about the fact that horseback riding was not as physically demanding as some of the other off—campus activities, Bryan Steele said that, "in terms of cardiovascular endurance, it isn't, but, there is a certain amount of muscular strength needed to stay on the horse in proper riding fashion——and for pitching hay." Finally, with horseback riding and ballet being the only two activities open to high school age students, it was not surprising to find that four of the six students in horseback riding at the time of this study were of high school age. What was surprising, however, was to find that only one of those four students was aware of the fact that an off-campus physical education program existed prior to entering high school. In Linda Hammer's case, she didn't find out about it until she was in eleventh grade. She indicated that she didn't remember ever getting any information about the program in junior high. Linda said she saw it in the curriculum materials, then asked her counselor about it. She added that her counselor had to call Mr. Hollister because she didn't know anything about it either. Discussion. At the time of this study, physical fitness was the major emphasis within the Prairie Pride physical education program. At the same time, horseback riding was viewed as the least fitness—oriented activity in the off—campus program. However, if one took a close look 111 at the riding lessons, classroom instruction, and stable management activities that were discussed by Mrs. Morse of the Columbia Academy of Riding, it would be seen that horseback riding provided as much physical activity as golf. Mr. Hollister, the off—campus coordinator, also saw horseback riding as a work environment rather than an educational one. In defense of that view, Mrs. Morse's remark about the time-consuming need for proper care of a horse, parallels the need for a golfer to practice on the driving range or putting green. To a golfer, that practice serves as the medium to improve their game and get lower scores. To a horseman, the proper maintenance of the horse serves as the medium through which their riding ability is displayed, resulting in better showings at riding competitions. As was stated earlier in this chapter, the Off—Campus Physical Education program varied from the traditional cooperative education model in that it did not endorse part—time employment or on-the-job type of training for students participating in the program. However, for every private sports agency presented in this study, some level of expense was incurred by the off-campus students or their parents in order to receive instruction. From the data presented throughout this chapter, the agencies and instructors were willing to informally cut the cost of participation, where feasible, to make those learning experiences as inexpensive as possible. In the case of horseback riding, which ranked among the most expensive activities, some creative measures were utilized to make the off—campus program requirements affordable. 112 At the time of this study, an essential ingredient in a successful riding establishment was the ability of that facility to train and care for the riding animals of independent groups and individuals. Naturally, this was done for a fee. As the data presented here suggest, the cost of maintaining a horse is high. In addition, the cost of hiring the necessary personnel to complete this task was expensive. Therefore, several off—campus riding facilities assigned the care of other horses to their off-campus students as part of their learning process, and offered reduced training and stabling costs in exchange. The net effect was positive for both participants. The off—campus students lowered their costs, and the riding establishment increased its profit through lower salary expenses. Parental Views From the very beginning of the off—campus program, and throughout the presentation of the data in this study, the emphasis of participation has been on meeting the special needs of those students who want to excel in areas not made possible by the regular physical education curriculum. Inferences have been made which indicate that the program's intention was to assist students in reaching Olympic or national goals. For some students and families, such goals were realistic. Prairie Pride has produced numerous individuals who have received national recognition for their athletic prowess; many of whom were participants in the off—campus program. For those students, keeping up with school and personal social activities, as well as a competitive schedule, was something that was often hard to do. Many 113 times the ambitions of these parents and young athletes dictated the elimination of other important "people interactions." Mrs. Georgia Glover, whose daughter Carolyn had Olympic and professional skating ambitions, said that her daughter did not have all the interactions with people that the other students had. "Consequently," she said, "Carolyn is sometimes referred to as snobbish and stuck up." To Mrs. Glover, the off—campus program provided an opportunity to maintain the disciplined schedule of an athletic career and keep up with many of the social activities. Occasionally, the ambitions of parents and young athletes were carried to the extreme. Such was the case of a young sixth-grade figure skater from Oil City, who did not have the opportunity to participate in an off—campus physical education program, and was ultimately taken out of school to aid the pursuit of her Olympic goals. November 1, 1983 Mr. Robert Liddy is the grandfather of a very successful young figure skater from Oil City. It was surprising to learn from him that her parents had taken the girl out of school, and that she was getting her school work by correspondence. He said that it was the same type of program that the Olympic athletes take to keep up their studies while they are training in Colorado. Mr. Liddy said that they had some problems with the physical education teacher in her school, which resulted in his granddaughter straining some leg muscles, thus setting her skating back six months. Mr. Liddy said that when the superintendent couldn't guarantee that the problem would be corrected, they went to the State Education Agency, and were granted approval to take classes by correspondence. When asked if he felt that an off-campus program in their school district could have helped avoid the problem, Mr. Liddy said that he was aware of Prairie Pride's Off-Campus Physical Education program, and was very positive about it. He added that, "It would have given us an alternative to taking her out of school." 114 The actions taken for Mr. Liddy's granddaughter were not recommended, not even by the professional skating instructors in this study, nor was this an isolated case. Other cases involving high school seniors and elementary students were encountered during the course of this study. This passage does, however, illustrate how the Off-Campus Physical Education concept could be used to meet the special needs of students. All of the parents interviewed in this study felt fortunate to have the off-campus program in the Prairie Pride school district, but many had reasons other than competition. Some parents were using these activities as a means to help develop their children socially and emotionally and to assist them in alleviating the intense pressures to excel that were placed on the teenagers in this Prairie Pride's affluent society. For Mr. and Mrs. Jim Bryant, parents of swimmer Kimberly Bryant, the swimming program was a means whereby their daughter could meet a new set of friends, giving her a wider circle of acquaintances to choose from, and hopefully avoid some of the adolescent problems that may occur later. Mr. Bryant added that, "Right now, the main objective that my wife and I have is getting her through junior high." Mrs. Glover concurred with this. She saw her daughter's skating as a means through which she could make sure that her child "steered a straight course". She said, "I'm not trying to make a 'goodie-two- shoes' out of her [Carolyn], but it does manage to keep her off the streets and out of trouble." Cathy Covert, also an ice skater, exemplified how these physical activities could help a child develop emotionally and socially. 115 Cathy's mother, Mrs. Glenda Covert, said that she was very shy and withdrawn until she started taking skating lessons. She stated that Cathy will never be a champion skater, and she knows that. Mrs. Covert added that: .Cathy knows her situation. She has learned to win and lose, and knows that she is not going to be a winner in this sport. This is like therapy for her. She has grown tremendously as a person because of this activity. We spend $300-4OO a month on skating, but feel that it is worth it, because we probably would have ended up spending that much on a therapist anyway. Mrs. Covert felt that their purpose was every bit as important as those who are going for Olympic medals. She said that: When Cathy is grown, we want a mature person who is able to function in this world. Through the off—campus program, Cathy has been able to pursue an activity that she likes, developing at her own rate, and for purposes other than athletic competition. School physical education doesn't always allow this, especially for those students who are not as emotionally and socially advanced as other students their age. Discussion. In the historical development of the off-campus program, presented at the beginning of this chapter, the pressure to eliminate the duplication of effort in physical education activities was apparent, especially from the parents of students participating in the competitive gymnastic facilities. Consequently, the emphasis of the off—campus program, in its early stages of development, was toward meeting the special needs of those students who were attempting to excel in areas outside of the regular physical education curriculum. 116 At the time of this study, however, there appeared to have been some shift in perspectives. Throughout the data presented in this study, the majority of students have maintained that their reasons for participating in their activity and the off—campus program fell into two categories: (a) athletic competition on the high school or national level, and (b) preparation for vocational careers in their activity. This was consistent with the original intention of the off-campus program. Although some parents still adhered to the belief that their children were destined for athletic fame, many parents were seeing more realistic objectives. Several parents in this study were utilizing the off-campus program for social and emotional development of their children. Mrs. Georgia Glover and Mr. Jim Bryant were examples. Mrs. Glover, mother of Olympic hopeful Carolyn Glover, believed that the off-campus program gave her daughter an opportunity to maintain the rigorous schedule she needed for her athletic career and keep up with many social activities she would otherwise miss. Mr. Bryant, father of swimmer Kimberly Bryant, said that he and his wife didn't really care about the athletic prowess of their daughter. Their sole purpose was to increase the circle of acquaintances their daughter came in contact with, and hopefully avoid many of the social problems that occur in growing up in an affluent society. For figure skater Cathy Covert, the off-campus program was the means through which an otherwise shy and withdrawn child could develop emotionally. Having found an activity that she liked, Cathy's parents were able to use that activity as the medium through which she could 117 grow socially and emotionally. Although it was recognized that the off-campus program was not the primary reason for this result, it did provide an extra hour each day for this development. Physical Fitness and Academic Achievement in the Off—Campus Program The Prairie Pride School District viewed physical fitness as the axis of its physical education program. In an effort to document the fitness of its students, the school district administered physical fitness tests in the fall and spring of each year to students in Grades 4—12. The purpose of the fitness testing in Prairie Pride was to diagnose possible physical weaknesses in students, to identify students with acceptable levels of fitness, and, above all, to motivate all students to achieve excellence in physical fitness through self-improvement. Developed by the Governor's Commission on Physical Fitness and endorsed by the State Medical Association, the State Physical Fitness Test was designed to assess student fitness in three basic components: 1. Muscular strength and endurance of the arms and shoulder girdle as measured by the flexed arm hang. Utilizing the reverse hand grip on a horizontal bar, the student raised the body from the floor until the chin was above the bar, holding this position to exhaustion or for a maximum of 110 seconds. 2. Muscular strength and endurance of the abdominal region was measured by the bent—leg sit—up. The student, lying in a supine position with knees bent and feet held flat on the floor by an assistant, sits up and touches the outside of both knees with both elbows and returns to the lying position. The test was executed to 118 exhaustion within a 2—minute limit. A point was awarded each time the knees were touched. 3. Cardiorespiratory endurance was measured by the 9—minute/ 12-minute walk-run. The test was administered on a carefully measured track which was marked in 55—yard increments. The 9-minute walk-run was administered to Grades 4-6 only. Only one trial was permitted per test day, and the tests were administered in an order that reduced the influence of fatigue on the performance of the other tests. Scores, as well as the building location, test date, height, weight, and, student identification number were individually recorded on computerized scan cards. Records of the evaluations of students were contained on computer printouts and filed in each building and in the Administration Building. Parents were provided with a report card of the results and an explanatory letter from the Director of Drug Abuse, Health and Physical Education after each testing. The report card contained cumulative information that allowed for comparisons to be made from previous performances, as well as offering suggested exercise activities. Students reaching the 50th percentile in all categories of testing were awarded a certificate of achievement. A State Physical Fitness patch or medal was awarded to those reaching the 75th and 90th percentiles, respectively. It was through these awards that the physical education department first became aware of the fact that the Off-Campus Physical Education students were more physically fit than the regular physical education students. 119 A telephone interview with former Off-Campus Coordinator and Director of Health and Physical Education, Martha Staubauch, revealed that the idea that off—campus students were more physically fit than the other students came about through her awareness of the number of awards those students were receiving. Ms. Staubauch said that she never made a formal comparison, but knew that many of the off—campus students were scoring in the upper percentiles, and quite often in the 90th percentile or higher. To establish some empirical evidence to support the hypothesis, the current off-campus coordinator, Mr. Art Hollister, volunteered to develop comparison charts (see Appendix I) using the physical fitness data collected from the 1983 fall testing. The mean percentiles (see Table 3) for these tests showed that the average student in the off-campus program scored higher than the average student in the regular program. Mr. Hollister noted that in a couple areas in the comparison charts (see Appendix I), the off-campus students fell below the regular students, but added that with the low numbers of off-campus students in some categories, one low score would pull the whole category down. Two factors surfaced during the course of this study that help to explain these results. Ms. Staubauch noted that, at the time of her directorship, over half of the students in the off—campus program were competitive swimmers, and the amount of time they put into training could have been the reason why they excelled. Over the existence of the off—campus program, competitive swimmers have comprised 40% of the total off—campus student population. The competitive swimmers in this study, however, embodied only 23% of the off—campus student population. 120 Table 3 Mean Achieved Percentile of Off-Campus and Regular Physical Education Students in Grades 7-12 on the State Physical Fitness Test Physical Fitness Test Students Flexed Bent-legged lZ-Minute Group Tested * Arm Hang Sit-ups Walk-Run Males Off—Campus 54 76.077 83.077 49.308 Regular 4682 56.385 58.385 33.846 Females Off-Campus 63 76.588 96.857 72.688 Regular 4316 51.824 74.357 63.063 Note: * Average number of N, based on available data. 121 Dr. Silver, the original developer of the Off-Campus program, suggested a second explanation for this phenomenon. He believed that the data did not indicate that the off-campus program had any effect on student physical fitness. It did, however, say that the program attracted a very ambitious and disciplined person. "Our standards forced that somewhat," he said. "We required 10 hours per week, and that right there mandates commitment." He felt that "it [the off-campus program] attracted the student who was probably already there [physically fit]." The efforts to establish the physical fitness superiority of the off—campus students resulted in many comments that indicated that these students were as strong academically as they were physically. In another telephone conversation with Ms. Staubauch, she again stated that no comparisons were made, but added that the swimming and ballet students were good academically. She believed that this was primarily due to the fact that these students were "achievers", and had to individually learn how to manage their time in order participate in those time—consuming activities. Dr. Austral, Director of Research and Testing, was approached concerning the grade point averages of the off-campus students in an effort to secure additional data to support this belief. She stated that the collection of such data would be impossible, primarily because it would be taxing on an already overburden counseling staff, and would violate the agreement that was made in the original research proposal. Discussion. In Chapter III, the methods of data collection and analysis for this study were described. Quite often the empirical 122 data, collected through observation, resulted in additional questions about specific aspects of the study that needed to be observed and documented through additional observation, review of archival records, and/or formal and informal interviews. From this additional information, a hypothesis may be developed that the researcher must seek to confirm or disconfirm. Such was the case with the question of physical fitness and academic achievement. It was never the intention of this study to show that students in the Off-Campus Physical Education program were academically brighter or more physically fit than other students. As a consequence, this study was not in a position to do any fitness testing or secure the grade point averages of the off—campus students to confirm or disconfirm such hypotheses. From the information presented above, it was the general consensus of the coordinators that the off-campus students were more physically fit than the regular physical education students. The statistical figures in Table 3 look impressively in favor of the Off-Campus Physical Education program. Mr. Hollister stated that the low numbers of off-campus students in some categories could have negatively affected the results. However, there was no random sampling or other scientific approach used in these comparisons. Therefore, the low off-campus student population also could have positively affected the test results. When considering the fact that only two percent of the entire physical education student population was in the off-campus program, and that the number of regular physical education students tested greatly outnumbered the off-campus students (see Appendix I), there was 123 a distinct possibility that the low numbers of off—campus students could have positively changed the outcome. Nevertheless, the physical fitness test data, and the testimony of the principal off—campus coordinators, provided evidence that the Off-Campus Physical Education program was accomplishing its goal of attracting the serious student who had the desire to achieve a higher level of proficiency in a specific activity. Summary At the time of this study, only seven different off—campus activities were participated in by the students of Prairie Pride School District. Of those seven activities, four (swimming, golf, tennis, and gymnastics) were commonly found in the secondary physical education programs of many school systems. Although the content of the lessons taught in the facilities of the off—campus program were similar in many respects to those found in on—campus physical education programs across America, there were some significant differences in the results that were achieved. As was noted in Chapter II, Metzler (1980) stated that only 27% of the allocated on—campus class time was spent in physical education content. The remaining time was spent in some form of off-task activity. In most on-campus physical education programs, the before- and after-class locker room preparation was a major part of that off-task activity. For the off-campus students locker room preparation was not a problem. Since all of the off-campus activities took place outside of the school day, it was not necessary to take allocated class time from 124 these activities for locker room preparation. This situation existed for all of the off-campus activities, but was especially important in swimming, figure skating, dance, gymnastics, and tennis, where changes in clothing are required for participation. Having the necessary time available either before or after school to prepare for these activities meant that the entire class period could be utilized for more intense activities directly related to the student's needs. In addition, the elimination of the daily locker room ordeal helped alleviate the pressures of time constraints placed on the students in on—campus programs, as well as the worries, frustrations and complexes brought about by hygiene and personal appearance problems associated with early morning physical education classes. All of the off—campus physical education activities were conducted in environments that were solely designed for that purpose. These realistic situations provided students with the opportunity to participate in an activity they perceived to be important to their lifestyle. It placed these students in an environment that was conducive to the learning of that activity, under the direction of individuals who were totally prepared to teach those students. Quite often these settings provided the off—campus students with educational and social experiences that could not be reproduced in the regular physical education programs. As an example, tennis is an activity that requires a partner of equal ability in order to participate with any reasonable expectation of enjoyment. In a regular physical education class, where court space is limited and skill levels vary greatly, there is a slim probability of being paired with someone of equal or better ability on a consistent basis. In a community 125 tennis facility, however, more court space and a greater number of people with similar interests and abilities is available to allow players to participate at age and ability levels that best suit their needs. Maslow (1970) stated that it was the individual's perception of a need that was the key to motivation and learning. As long as an individual "perceived" that a need was not met, that need had the capacity to motivate the individual to achieve. All of the off-campus students presented in this study participated in their individual activities as a result of a perceived need. For most, that need was the desire to achieve the necessary skill to qualify for some form of athletic competition. For others, it was the skill preparation they needed for a vocation. Regardless of the perceived need, the parents of these off—campus physical education students played a key role in their continued participation. Acting as McPherson's (1978) significant other, the parents were the primary source of encouragement for these students. In addition to playing an emotionally supportive role, the parents were the financiers of these activities. Ranging from $30 per month for swimming to over $400 per month for figure skating and horseback riding, parents were making substantial investments in their children's activities with aspirations of deriving more than just athletic skill. Olympic hopeful Carolyn Glover was an excellent example. Her mother believed that the off-campus program gave Carolyn the opportunity to maintain the rigorous practice schedule she needed for her athletic career and still keep up with many social activities she would otherwise miss. 126 Fortunately, each of the 35 off—campus agencies in this study recognized the need to reduce the cost of participation in some way to make meeting the requirements of the off—campus program financially feasible. In a move that was diametrically opposed to Minzy's (1974) concept of equating "quality to dollars", these off-campus establishments either set their rates at a level where they could be affordable by the parents in the community (e.g., competitive swimming and dance), or overlooked charges that were not significantly important (e.g., golf and tennis). In any case, there was a willingness by these agencies to forego capitalizing on the short—term profit in an effort to stimulate a long—term relationship with the off—campus clientele and potentially increase participation from other members and non—members. CHAPTER V SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, IMPLICATIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS Introduction This study was conducted for the purpose of examining an existing cooperative physical education program in order to describe its administrative structure, including the rationale for the program, the implementation procedures, the effects of the program as they were perceived by all participants, and those characteristics which influenced student involvement in the program. An ethnographic method of research was used, employing an inductive approach and emphasizing the subjective beliefs held by the participants. The specific means used to collect, record and organize data included (1) participant—observation notes, (2) formal and informal interviews, and (3) analysis of archival records, pamphlets, guidebooks, and newspaper articles. For a period of three months, from September 12 to December 15, 1983, the researcher observed programs and interviewed participants in the Prairie Pride School District Off-Campus Physical Education Program. During this time, observations were made of the students in their program activities. Interviews were used as an important source of information and as a means of clarifying and reinforcing the data gathered from observations and archival records. Physical education has had a long history of not being able to demonstrate how its programs are of value in daily life (Vogel, 1986). 127 128 A principle cause of this problem has been a lack of knowledge about how to bridge the gap between the existing limitations of school programs and the expectations of the society. This study was undertaken to examine a program which appeared to have accomplished that task. This chapter contains a summary and discussion of the major findings of this study and the conclusions drawn from those findings. The Findings Research Question One WHY DID THE SCHOOL DISTRICT ELECT TO DEVELOP THIS TYPE OF PROGRAM? Although Prairie Pride itself was not an industrialized city, its proximity to the highly diversified and technological environment of Oil City made it a very attractive and affluent residential area. Through its four high schools, ten junior high schools, and 36 elementary schools, Prairie Pride not only built its school system into the tenth largest district in the State, but also earned the reputation of being one of the most progressive. The district's educational philosophy stressed a firm basic education through a studentecentered approach toward academics that included a widely diversified curriculum and individualized education programs. Additionally, the State Education Agency, which was the governing body that established the accreditation guidelines, was also progressive in its thinking. In a manner similar to other state governing bodies, the State Education Agency did not specifically identify the program of activities which were to be taught at each 129 grade level, but recommended areas of instruction it felt were appropriate. The State Education Agency did, however, state the objective of these instructional areas in such manner that progressive educational programming was not eliminated. The State Education Agency also provided guidelines for the development of an alternative plan, approved by the district board of trustees, that allowed individual students to be graduated without fully meeting the physical education requirements. Under these guidelines, individual students had the opportunity to participate, for credit, in courses or activities outside of the established physical education curriculum that contributed to physical fitness. Such activities included athletics, band, drill team, cooperative vocational programs, and vocational school programs. In addition to the alternative plan, the State Education Agency allowed schools to provide one period per day of regular school time for the practice of interschool competitive athletics and for the conditioning or training programs associated with those competitive teams. In the 1970's, when Russian Olympian Olga Korbut was making gymnastics a very popular activity in the United States, parents in Prairie Pride began asking why there children needed to take physical education when they were spending so many hours each week in private sports activities outside of school that were fundamentally sound. Dr. Clarence Silver, the Director of Physical Education at that time, took a close look at the parent's complaint and found that there were a some activities not offered in the Prairie Pride physical education curriculum that were wholesome and physical in their nature. 130 Recognizing that there were some differences between what the community valued and what the school district could afford to do with its present staff, facilities and economic condition, Dr. Silver capitalized on the progressive nature of both the Prairie Pride School District and the State Education Agency. Utilizing the rationale for the State Education Agency's alternative plan and the key emphasis of the interschool competitive athletic conditioning program, Dr. Silver developed a plan that was flexible enough to encompass the broad spectrum of physical activity not currently provided by the school district, yet stable enough in its foundation to eliminate duplication of activity, legal ramifications, or exorbitant administrative costs. Although there was no evidence in the data to suggest that the creation of the Off—Campus Physical Education program was the result of political pressure from community parents, it could very well have been a major influence. Certainly, the permissiveness of the State Education Agency, the region's overall emphasis on athletics, and the progressive nature of the school district were key ingredients in the development of this program in Prairie Pride. The economic affluence of this community allowed many families to participate extensively in programs and activities outside of the school district's jurisdiction. This fact may have provided a forum from which a variety of possible reasons could be found for justifying the off—campus program. 131 Research Question Two HOW DID THIS SCHOOL/COMMUNITY INSTRUCTIONAL PROGRAM OPERATE? WHAT AREAS OF THE PROGRAM HELD THE GREATEST POTENTIAL FOR SUCCESS? THE LEAST POTENTIAL? The Off-Campus Physical Education concept was based on the accreditation of student participation in leisure-lifetime activities found within the private sports industry of Prairie Pride. The program was aimed at students who wanted to develop a higher level of skill in activities not offered in the school district's secondary physical education curriculum. Although the program was supervised by the Prairie Pride School District, it was structured in such a way that (a) participation was in the jurisdiction of an agency outside of the school, (b) the student was there by personal or parental choice, (c) participation was outside of the regular school day, and (d) participation was in an activity program that the school district deemed worthy of credit. Student participation in the Off-Campus Physical Education program was totally funded by the parents. The school district did not interfere in the financial matters of the programs. Since the program was optional and designed to meet the needs of those students who had already gained a high level of achievement in special interest areas not provided by the school, the district saw this program as a means by which they could prevent the duplication of student effort, without costing the school district a tremendous amount of money. From the school district's perspective, the off-campus program may have been expensive during the developmental stages, however, the operating costs were far below those of the regular physical education program ($1.80 per student per semester) at the time of this study. 132 Ms. Peggy Ostriker, Director of Drug Abuse, Health and Physical Education, attributed this to the fact that there were no expenses necessary for the off—campus program, other than office supplies, postage, printed materials sent to the parents, and travel expenses for the coordinators. Another factor that kept the overall cost of the program low was the fact that the school district did not place salary expenses under departmental budgets. The off—campus coordinators were considered Lead Teachers and given duties relative to that title. In addition, they were paid a stipend for their work in the off-campus program. The Off-Campus Physical Education Coordinators were directly accountable to the Director of Drug Abuse, Health and Physical Education. The responsibilities of the Coordinators included (a) receiving and processing student applications, schedules, and activity reports, (b) administering the State Physical Fitness Test and communicating the results to all students in the program, (c) observing student activity and maintaining records of student participation, (d) requesting and receiving grade reports from off-campus agencies and instructors, and (e) evaluating and tabulating the program results. To be accepted as a student in the Off-Campus Physical Education program, each applicant had to completely meet the program requirements. Each application was reviewed individually, and had to completely meet the following program requirements: (a) be individual in nature and not comprehensively offered by the physical education or athletic department at the student's school, (b) provide the serious student an opportunity to obtain a high degree of skill in a certain activity, (c) be instructional in nature, (d) provide a minimum of 133 three activity days per school week for a minimum of seventeen weeks each semester, (e) provide a minimum of ten hours of student participation at the instructor's agency each week, and (f) be at an agency which was located within 15 miles of the Prairie Pride Administration Building. Applications that were designed to (a) meet student scheduling problems, (b) allow early graduation, (c) allow a student to miss physical education at school because of a dislike of a teacher or school program, or (d) require more than two hours of weekend participation were not approved. Upon acceptance into the program, each student's parents, guidance counselor, and off—campus agency was notified in writing by the off-—campus coordinator. Included in the letters of acceptance were simple agreements that explained in detail the responsibilities of the respective parties. An information folder was developed and issued to each student at a mandatory meeting that was held during the beginning of each semester. Contained in this information folder were (a) the dates of the required physical fitness testing, (b) a Special Achievement Form used to recognize outstanding performances in their respective activities, (c) an Activity Schedule that, when completed and returned to the off-campus coordinator, reflected the actual times of participation in their respective activities, (d) a Calendar Book that was kept at the agency for tracking actual participation time, and (e) a Change of Status Form that was used whenever there was a change in the student's activity schedule. To maintain control of the off—campus program, the school district developed a visitation system that utilized more than one coordinator to monitor the progress of the students. The system 134 specifically described the minimum number of agency visitations per semester, and the maximum number of agencies and students to be handled by any one coordinator. During the course of the year, it was the responsibility of each coordinator to make periodic visits to those agencies (a) to check on the regularity of student participation, (b) to observe and talk with the students and instructors about the participation, and (c) to reinforce the school district's commitment to a successful off-campus program. Although not totally effective, this system proved to be useful in maintaining the integrity of the off- campus program. In the seven year history of the program, only two students were removed because of lack of attendance. Table 2 shows that competitive swimming has been the most popular activity throughout the history of the off—campus program. Ballet and figure skating have also been consistently popular. The data in Chapter IV also shows that these three activities were the most highly structured in the off-campus program. The constant, direct, instructor supervision found in each program, coupled with the vigorous workouts of competitive swimming, the disciplined business—like approach to ballet, and the perfectionist demands of figure skating, made each of these activities easy to administer. Gymnastics and tennis were additional activities whose popularity did not grow at first, but were highly structured programs and candidates for long-term existence within the off-campus program. At the other end of the spectrum, the most openly criticized activity was horseback riding or equitation. The loose-knit, "laid—back" atmosphere which surrounded this activity gave a distinct first impression that was often not favorable. Unlike the other 135 off—campus activities, where the effects of tight instructor supervision and skill learning could be easily seen, the equestrian environment was less complex and not as physically demanding. The art of properly maintaining a horse was repetitious and, quite honestly, not worthy of constant instructor supervision. In fact, for most young people, the daily routine of caring for a horse would be very boring and monotonous. Add to this the tremendous expense of purchasing, maintaining, and showing a horse, and it becomes evident that a special personality and family profile are needed to maintain participation. Because of these facts, horseback riding is not the type of off—campus activity that could become increasingly popular. Horseback riding should be worthy of continued support in the off- campus program mainly because it is an individual activity that can not be easily taught within the regular school program. Golf was also a loosely structured activity which had difficulty in maintaining supervision. Again, unlike the more highly structured off-campus activities, the golf instructors had other commitments and responsibilities related to their positions that prevented them from providing fulltime supervision. During a typical week, each student could expect to have the full attention of an instructor for approximately one hour. The remaining nine hours of their required activity time was spent on their own, practicing what was assigned to them by the instructor, or playing the game. As the golf professionals indicated, this was an ideal arrangement for the advanced student. For the beginners, however, they felt a more structured atmosphere would have been more beneficial. 136 Rather than working with the off-campus agencies and instructors to bring the relaxed operations up to the off-campus program's expectations, the school district invoked a 90-minute per week private instruction rule on the less structured activities. Each student was required to have at least 90-minutes of one-on-one instruction for each week of off-campus participation. The purpose for this policy was to make it easier to monitor those less structured activities and ensure that the students were following the original intent of the program. From the perspective of those agencies and instructors in the field, this requirement had limited usefulness. Since most of the students in the program had already attained a high degree of proficiency in their activity, the only effect this regulation had was in raising costs. Although this off—campus program has been flourishing in a cooperative education mode without the input of a neutral agency, as suggested in the cooperative education research literature, it would be in the best interest of the program to take a close look at establishing an off—campus advisory committee. A committee of educators, community leaders, agency instructors, and parents could be utilized to apply a problem—solving approach for the common good of all concerned. Additionally, it would be in the best interest of the off-campus program to take a close look at its basic structure. The physical education curriculum of Prairie Pride (See Table 1) is comprehensive in nature. Concentrating on team activities in the junior high and individual sports at the high school level, the secondary physical education curriculum provided a wide range of activities. With the off—campus program being offered only as required credit, and oriented 137 toward individual sports, the variety of available off-campus activities was very narrow and predominantly limited to junior high students. A more liberal approach that provided elective credit, or allowed the exploration of advanced campus courses through the off-campus format, would make the program more meaningful to the high school age group. Also, under the current regulations which limit off—campus participation to three semesters, it is possible for junior high students to miss a majority of the social and team-oriented activities found in the regular physical education curriculum. Taking the emphasis off of the required credit at the junior high level and increasing the high school potential, as mentioned above, would provide a more balanced off-campus program, and ensure that every student received a well-rounded education. Research Question Three FOR WHAT REASONS DID BUSINESSES WANT TO PARTICIPATE IN THIS PROGRAM? FOR WHAT REASONS DID THEY NOT WANT TO PARTICIPATE? HOW DID THEY PERCEIVE THE EFFECTS OF THIS PROGRAM? Businesses saw the Off—Campus Physical Education program as a unique opportunity to develop long—term growth. Participation in the off-campus program not only meant a substantial time commitment in order to meet the requirements of the program, but it meant a substantial financial commitment as well. Because the financial burden was shouldered by the parents of these students, it was easy for the off-campus agencies to see that if costs were not controlled in some fashion, continued participation would be limited. As a means of encouraging participation and assisting in easing the financial burden, 138 most agencies discounted certain costs and, where feasible, overlooked others. Not only did the curtailing of expenses aid in easing the financial burden for the off-campus students, but it served as a marketing tool as well. Through these gestures, the off-campus agencies provided positive reinforcement to the students and parents that encouraged them to continue their participation. In addition, students and parents, who had positive feelings about the agencies they were associated with, were more likely to tell other individuals interested in the same activities. Minzy (1974) stated that business organizations were reluctant to participate in cooperative programs, such as Off-Campus Physical Education, because of their autonomous nature and constant effort to compete for money and recognition. For those business organizations presented in this study, autonomy, money and recognition continued to be priorities. However, these organizations found that the off-campus program was not a threat to their "empire". In fact, their willingness to participate in the off-campus program illustrated their understanding of the potential this program has for promoting their activity and, thereby, maintaining and increasing their clientele. The effects of participation in the off-campus program varied from one activity to the next. In competitive swimming, for example, the off—campus program did little to increase the size of an already very popular community activity. However, according to City of Prairie Pride swim coach, Mr. Aaron Cotton, it did assist in improving the attendance record of its participants. In activity programs like golf and tennis which had a minimum private instruction requirement, the 139 off-campus program served to increase the revenues of these agencies. Within those agencies that hosted only a small number of off—campus students, there were no visible benefits in participating nor were there any for not participating. During the course of this study, only one agency expressed a concern about the negative effects of the off-campus program. Ms. Mary Corks, tennis professional at Prairie Pride Tennis Center, nearly cancelled her commitment to the off-campus program because it was becoming so socially oriented that it was taking learning time away from those who really wanted to learn. Ms. Corks, eventually, resolved this problem and began recruiting students for the off—campus program from within her clientele. Research Question Four WHAT CONDITIONS (E.G., ADMINISTRATION OF THE PROGRAM, QUALITY OF INSTRUCTION, AND QUANTITY OF PARTICIPATION) MUST HAVE BEEN MET FOR THE SCHOOL TO ALLOW BUSINESSES TO PARTICIPATE IN THE PROGRAM? The off-campus agencies were public and private sports industry programs that were not more than 15 miles from the centrally located Prairie Pride administration building. This criterion was established as a means of controlling the growth of the off-campus program for safety, as well as public relations reasons. Since the offices of the off-campus coordinators were housed in the administration building, the establishment of a maximum distance assisted in reducing the travel time between agencies for the coordinators, as well as for the parents and students. In addition, this encouraged the use of those sports programs within the Prairie Pride community. 140 During the original development of the off—campus program, the backgrounds of these agencies and their instructors were examined closely. Their facilities were evaluated for educational acceptability, and written lesson plans were required in advance to ensure an appropriate educational performance level. Beyond the initial development year, only those facilities that had not been previously utilized in the off—campus program were required to submit lesson plans and undergo a facility evaluation. In most cases, approval of a new off-campus facility was left solely to the judgment of the off-campus coordinator. While this system worked well and should be continued, an option to require annual curriculum outlines from borderline facilities was available. At the time of this study, the background and qualifications of the off-campus instructors were not questioned. The rationale for this was based on the assumption that if an instructor was in business, or had been hired by an agency for that purpose, that instructor must have a working knowledge of the activity he or she was promoting. In swimming, golf, and figure skating, certification as a qualified instructor within that activity was required by a national governing body of that industry. Research Question Five WHAT WAS THE COOPERATIVE PHYSICAL EDUCATION CLASSROOM INSTRUCTION LIKE FOR THE STUDENT? HOW WAS IT DIFFERENT FROM REGULAR PHYSICAL EDUCATION? At the time of this study, only seven different off—campus activities were participated in by the students of Prairie Pride School District. Of those seven activities, four (swimming, golf, 141 tennis, and gymnastics) were commonly found in the secondary physical education programs of many school systems. Although the content of the lessons taught in the facilities of the off—campus program were similar in many respects to those found in on—campus physical education programs across America, there were some significant differences in the results that were achieved. Because all of the off—campus activities took place outside of the school day, it was not necessary to take allocated class time for locker room preparation. This situation existed for all of the off-campus activities, but was especially important in swimming, figure skating, dance, gymnastics, and tennis, where changes in clothing were required for participation. Having the necessary time available either before or after school to prepare for these activities meant that the entire class period could be utilized for more intense activities directly related to the student's needs. In addition, the elimination of the daily locker room burden helped alleviate the pressures of time constraints placed on the students in on—campus programs, as well as the worries, frustrations and complexes brought about by hygiene and personal appearance problems associated with early morning physical education classes. All of the off—campus physical education activities were conducted in environments that were solely designed for that purpose. These environments provided students with the opportunity to participate in activities they perceived to be important to their lifestyle. In addition, it placed these students in environments that were conducive to the learning of those activities, and under the 142 direction of individuals who were hired specifically to provide such instruction. Quite often these settings provided the off—campus students with educational and social experiences that could not be reproduced in the regular physical education programs. As an example, tennis is an activity that requires a partner of equal ability in order to participate with any reasonable expectation of enjoyment. In a regular physical education class, where court space is limited and skill levels vary greatly, there is a slim probability of being paired with someone of equal or better ability on a consistent basis. In a community tennis facility, however, more court space and a greater number of people, with similar interests and abilities, allow players to participate at age and ability levels that best suit their needs. Maslow (1970) stated that it was the individual's perception of a need that was the key to motivation and learning. As long as an individual "perceived" that a need was unmet, that need had the capacity to motivate the individual to achieve. Unlike a regular physical education class where students are often there because they have to be, all of the off—campus students presented in this study participated in their individual activities as a result of a perceived need. For most, that need was the desire to achieve the necessary skill to qualify for some form of athletic competition or vocation. Regardless of the perceived need, the parents of these off—campus physical education students played a key role in their continued participation. Acting as McPherson's (1978) significant other, the parents were the primary source of encouragement for these students. In addition to playing an emotionally supportive role, the parents were 143 the financiers of these activities. Ranging from $30 per month for swimming to over $400 per month for figure skating and horseback riding, the parents of these off-campus students were making substantial investments in their children's activities with aspirations of deriving social, emotional and psychological growth, as well as athletic skill. Conclusions Based on the findings of this study, the following conclusions were drawn: 1. The Off—Campus Physical Education program had a very narrow activity focus, but contained the potential for growth as a medium through which schools may better meet the individual leisure—lifestyle needs of their students. Encompassing only 2% of the total Prairie Pride physical education population, the off-campus program was purposefully designed to attract students who were actively involved in sport activities outside of the school district. The emphasis on athletics and athletic achievement in this state was a major reason for the narrow focus. The progressive, but laissez—faire, attitude of the State Education Agency was also instrumental in the development of the Off—Campus Physical Education Program. Under the guise of physical education, the off-campus program capitalized on the State Education Agency's liberal views toward athletics and their alternative plan for physical education substitution to help students develop a high level of physical skill in a manner similar to competitive sports. The State Education Agency 144 guidelines for an alternative plan allowed individual students to participate in courses other than physical education that contributed to physical fitness. In addition, the State Education Agency allowed schools to provide one period per day for the practice of interschool competitive athletics, and for the conditioning or training programs associated with those competitive teams. In most physical education circles around the country, this was an approach that was not highly condoned. Despite the narrow focus of this program, the off-campus concept has the potential for growth in a variety of activities to supplement and/or compliment existing physical education curricula, thus taking the first steps toward bridging the gap between the limitations of school physical education programs and the expectations of society. With some curricular adjustments, similar to those outlined in the findings, the off—campus program could reach students who are not current enthusiasts of a specific activity, but have a perceived need to identify a leisure activity relevant to their lifestyle. 2. The Off-Campus Physical Education Program model was similar in many respects to the traditional Cooperative Education model. As stated in Chapter II, cooperative education programs have been identified by several important characteristics (The National Center for Research in Vocational Education, 1978): a. Student participation in a learning situation. b. Work-related classroom instruction. c. Part—time work in a training station on the basis of career objectives. d. Receiving school credit and pay for training. e. Constant school supervision. f. Participation for a full year. 145 The Off-Campus Physical Education program was also designed to serve the student, however, the important characteristics were slightly different. Since the direction of the Off—Campus program was toward recreation and not a vocation, the work—related classroom instruction, the part-time work experience, and pay for training were not included as appropriate components. Horseback riding was the only off—campus activity in this study that exhibited any of these latter characteristics. The research literature in Chapter 11 suggests that successful cooperative education programs utilize neutral local agencies, or advisory committees, that have no special gain or benefit from a cooperative education venture. Such committees are perceived as non-competitors and serve as a clearinghouse for issues that need to be resolved for the common good of the program participants. At the time of this study, the Prairie Pride Off—Campus Physical Education program had been functioning very well without the use of an advisory committee. However, the data in this study suggests that greater communication between the school district and some of the less structured activities may be needed for the continued smooth operation. The introduction of an advisory committee could serve as the focal point from which the weaker off-campus programs may be developed, thus strengthening the entire off-campus curriculum. 3. The support and/or influence of a significant other played an important part in a student's decision to participate in an activity. McPherson (1978) stated that the most important factor affecting motivational thoughts was the influence of "support from significant others." He stated that individuals were more likely to participate in 146 activities in which their friends and family engaged with them, or at least encouraged their participation. The interviews with the off—campus students throughout this study have revealed that some form of support from a friend, relative, or parent, was responsible for their continued participation. In addition, the data indirectly point toward the environment of the private sports industry as a source of support. These facilities were specifically designed for their activity, and placed the student within a physical and social environment that supported each student's perceived needs. Implications for Practice This study raises several issues for administrators of the Off—Campus Physical Education program, and others who might implement a similar program, concerning the continued prosperity of the program. 1. Despite the intentional narrow focus of the current off—campus program, steps could be taken to enlarge the number of active students and broaden the curricular offerings of the Off—Campus Physical Education program without diluting the professionalism that is currently associated with the program. As has been stated, the program limits its participation to only those activities that are not taught in the student's school building. With a comprehensive physical education program available in the high schools, this philosophy eliminates many students from participating. Rather than allowing the off-campus program only to complement the regular physical education program, it would seem beneficial to broaden its scope to include advanced courses that build upon the high school activities. 147 2. A re—examination of the purpose of the off-campus program is needed to determine whether its function is to serve the physical education curriculum or the athletic program. This study showed that the individual participants had differing views of the program's purpose. For the school district, the Off—Campus Physical Education program was designed to provide a means through which students could earn physical education credit for their non-school activities and assist in eliminating the duplication of effort. Students saw the off—campus program as a means through which they could develop their athletic skill for competitive reasons. Parents viewed the off-campus program as a medium through which their children could grow physically and emotionally. These differences in perception indicate a possible drift from the program's original intent and needs to clarified for future growth. 3. A reassessment must be made relative to whose responsibility it is to development the off—campus program guidelines. Minzy (1974) stated that business organizations enjoy a high degree of autonomy and are not anxious to share it with others. The cooperative education model described in Chapter II suggested that it was the school district's responsibility to minimize that competitive stance and show these business organizations the benefits of working together. To do that, the model recommended the development of a neutral local agency or advisory committee that could apply a problem—solving approach for the common good of all concerned. This study has shown that sports industry organizations are willing to work together, however, their input into the design and operation of the off—campus program has been non-existent. 148 Recommendations for Further Research Although the findings and generalizations of this study were based on a small segment of Prairie Pride School District's Off-Campus Physical Education Program total population, they were helpful in revealing the administrative nature of the program, the implementation procedures, and the effects of the program as they were perceived by those participants. Further studies of the Off-Campus Physical Education concept at this location and others are needed to determine the generalizability of the off-campus concept. Some potential studies may include: 1. Examine the short— and long-term effects of participation on the students, the agencies, and the general physical education program. 2. Compare the strengths and weaknesses of this off— campus program to other forms of cooperative physical education programming. 3. Determine the practical use of the off-campus concept in smaller, less affluent, and rural communities. These studies, and others, would add to the knowledge and understanding of the full potential of the cooperative physical education model and its use in education. In addition, such research could contribute to the understanding of physical education's role in the educational process. APPENDICES 149 APPENDIX A Prairie Pride School District Enrollment Report Table A-1 Prairie Pride School District Enrollment Report As of September 23, 1983 SCHOOL K—6 7 8 9 10 11 12 TOTAL INDIAN HILLS AREA Indian Hills HS 661 639 590 1,890 Plains JH 284 307 239 830 Indian Hills JH 390 356 378 1,124 Elementary 3415 3,415 Subtotal 7,259 BUTLER AREA Butler HS 963 887 721 2,571 Prairie JH 307 312 286 905 Bell JH 389 399 367 1,155 Gemini JH 432 425 410 1,267 Elementary 6045 6,045 Subtotal 11,943 PRAIRIE PRIDE AREA Prairie Pride HS 692 672 686 2,050 Pinetree JH 240 285 302 827 Prairie West JH 216 224 222 662 Elementary 2605 2,605 Subtotal 6,144 LINCOLN AREA Lincoln HS 664 649 697 2,010 Prairie North JH 285 317 268 870 Cedar JH 281 300 318 899 Northwest JH 238 238 254 730 Elementary 3555 3,555 Subtotal 8,064 GRAND TOTALS 15620 3062 3163 3044 2980 2847 2694 33,410 Table A—2 150 Prairie Pride School District Enrollment Report As of October 3, 1983 11 12 SCHOOL K—6 7 8 9 10 TOTAL INDIAN HILLS AREA Indian Hills HS 658 638 589 1,885 Plains JH 283 311 237 831 Indian Hills JH 390 357 379 1,126 Elementary 3405 3,405 Subtotal 7,247 BUTLER AREA Butler HS 960 890 721 2,571 Prairie JH 298 313 285 897 Bell JH 385 397 366 1,148 Gemini JH 431 423 410 1,264 Elementary 6044 6,044 Subtotal 11,924 PRAIRIE PRIDE AREA Prairie Pride HS 689 669 680 2,038 Pinetree JH 242 288 307 837 Prairie West JH 217 227 220 662 Elementary 2601 2,601 Subtotal 6,138 LINCOLN AREA Lincoln HS 666 646 699 2,011 Prairie North JH 285 317 268 870 Cedar JH 281 300 318 899 Northwest JH 238 239 255 732 Elementary 3560 3,560 Subtotal 8,072 GRAND TOTALS 15610 3050 3172 3045 2973 2843 2689 33,382 151 APPENDIX B A Day in the Life of an Ethnographer: Sample of Transcribed Observation >1:Q°=#:@{-fl PO TN MN Data Sort Keys Location Participant(s) Involved Activity Undertaken Date Paragraph Delimiter Participant-Observation Note Theoretical Note Methodological Note (Date and paragraph number with each note) 152 $ ADM @ ADM-1 # Interview #1 & Thursday 9/22/83 PO 9-22-83 25 10:00 am. Discover that meeting with ADM—1 has been cancelled because of a computer breakdown at the RWJH Wellness Center. This created problems in their stress testing of faculty and staff. Meeting was rescheduled, by ADM-1 for next Tuesday at the same time. *- PO 9—22-83 26 After leaving ADM-1's office I stopped by RC2's office which is just across the hall. She asks for my telephone number because ADM-1 wanted to know if she had it so that she could cancel the meeting. I have it to her. She then said that she was going to do some observations this afternoon and that I could go along. We could meet at the swimming pool at BHS, which was her first stop and then I could ride with her. Left shortly thereafter to go to go to RWJH and finish the record review. )L a $ RWJH @ RC1 # Record Review & Thursday 9/22/83 PO 9—22-83 27 10:40 am. RC1 was at his desk working on some of the physical fitness testing materials. I get the box of records down and begin to review them. PO 9—22-83 28 As I am looking I run across a number of records that were not approved. Most are refused because they are too many hours of public or group instruction. Letters attached to some of them indicate that they must have a minimum of 6 hours of private instruction. Others were rejected because they did not fall under the guidelines of the off-campus program. Ice hockey was one rejected on that basis. K TN 9-22-83 29 As I am typing these notes, I recall that at least 30 minutes of each lesson must be in private from. This was reaffirmed by RC2 in today's observations, but I did not observe that, nor do I believe that I would have if I had stayed the whole class period. This minimum requirement is something that should be looked at seriously. '7" 153 P0 9-22—83 30 Later I see some records of students that have dropped out of the program. I ask RC1 about dropouts. Can they re-enter the program the next year after dropping out. He says there is no strict policy, so that's up for discussion. It depends on the situation and the individual, he guesses. If they go out in good graces, it would be O.K. I ask if his has happened. RC1 says yes, for stable problems and other good reasons which would cause a student to have to drop. Last year he had to remove one golf student because the student wasn't going to class - not signing in and the instructor said he wasn't doing what he was supposed to. RC1 added that the student was a 9th grader, and not eligible to enter that program the next year, because golf is not offered for high school students. *- PO 9—22—83 31 11:45 I left to go home and make some more phone calls to principals and get ready for a 1:30 interview. * $ NJH @ JHPS # Interview #1 & Thursday 9/22/83 PO 9-22-83 32 1:30 See data file PRINCIPAL INTERVIEWS for information regarding the visit with JHP5. '31- $ BHS and TSB @ RC2 # First Observations & Thursday 9/22/83 PO 9-22-83 34 4:20 The clock in my car said that I was on time, but the clock in the pool hallway read differently. I will go by the one in the pool. RC2 is lot here yet. I find the pool to be quite warm and decide to stand outside and wait for awhile. I check inside periodically to see if anything is going to start. * 154 PO 9-22-83 35 A sign on the door to the pool reads: COR Swimmers All administrative fees must be paid "this week". ($12 — includes USS re-registration) I notice that 24 boys and girls are in the pool. Some are swimming laps and others are playing. * PO 9-22-83 36 The pool is in a new building that sits behind a rather new high school. The inside is very well decorated in the school colors (mostly green), plus there is some very nice video tape equipment which I notice is putting out some excellent color. * PO 9-22-83 37 4:28 The swim coach calls the group together. Some kids are talking while the coach is demonstrating how he wants them to work on their arms for the crawl stroke. After a short time he pauses until it gets quiet. I am standing in the doorway to the pool and can't hear everything that he says. I do hear that they will be doing a number of laps and then watch some video tapes at 5:25. It is 4:32 when the laps begin. * PO 9-22-83 38 The coach is supposed to be COR#1, whom I'm told is a graduate of MSU. Another boy sticks his head in the door where I am standing and says, "See ya Saturday COR#1." The person who is running this swim nods his head. * P0 9-22—83 39 4:37 The phone rings in the office. Another girl dressed in a white dress answers it and looks around puzzled. She looks at me and asks who I am. I tell her and she says that it is for me. RC2 is on the other end, tied up with another phone call for an inservice day she has to plan. She says to sit tight and she will be there as soon as possible. *- PO 9-22-83 40 I decide to go in and sit on the bench to observe the class. I am wondering if I should introduce myself to COR#1 or just takes notes. I decide to take notes. a 155 PO 9—22-83 41 The students finish one set of laps, pause 5 seconds and begin again. I notice two very nice, expensive water polo goals sitting in opposite corners of the pool. The students finish, pause and start again. Some are looking at the wall beside me. I figure there is a timing clock on the wall, and there was. They are starting on "30" and swimming 4 lengths before stopping. It takes the whole group approximately 1-1/2 minutes to swim the 25 yard pool 4 times. * PO 9-22—83 42 Between laps, the COR#l has been saying, "Clean up those strokes." Now he is saying, "Strokes looking good." He is a young (mid-20's), heavy set person with a developing gut. There is a young girl (late teens or early 20's) who appears to be his assistant. She set up the video. * PO 9-22—83 43 Laps end. COR#l says, "Relax, relax." COR#2 asks for quiet. COR#I says to work equally on both their good and bad strokes. In talking about the crawl stroke, he says to "clean up the top of the stroke, underneath will often be in proper position." a PO 9-22—83 44 Students start laps on the backstroke. First length is double-arm backstroke, the others are regular. The strokes that I have seen thus far look very good. * PO 9-22-83 45 COR#I comes over and introduces himself. Says, "Can I help you." I tell him who I'm waiting for. We talk for a minute. I find out that he graduated from the University of Michigan in 1980. He works full-time for the COR. Says that early practices, paperwork and afternoon practice keep him busy. He says that I am welcome to come and visit anytime, and he would be interested in what I find out. He likes the off-campus program very much. He says that students in this swim program earn there credits. * PO 9—22-83 46 I sit down to take some more notes and RC2 shows up. She introduces herself to COR#l, and asks if they have been signing in. COR#I says not really. He wanted to wait and see what RC2 wanted to do with them. * 156 PO 9-22-83 47 While RC2 is talking to some of the students in the program, COR#I says to me that this swim program has only been going for a couple of years on this side of town. There is another group, called the Senior Development group, which works out with the top level National Development team at PHS. The reason for this is that they want those groups to be setting goals together. He adds that the off—campus program has helped their improve their attendance. The students have to be there to get their credit. * MN 9—22-83— 48 Find out more about the Senior Development and National Development swim teams as well as other programs. * PO 9—22-83 49 I as COR#l if this off-campus program has helped bring in additional students. He was not sure, but said maybe a little. Sometimes he has to refer students to other programs, such as the YWCA, because their strokes are not good enough to be in this swim program, but they want to get into the off-campus program. I ask why he does this. He says that this is competitive swimming, and students who need to have the personal instruction to improve their strokes, find it difficult to get the minimum number of hours needed to meet the off—campus requirements. I ask if COR#2 is his assistant, he says yes. She works for COR, also. * MN 9-22—83 50 Determine from COR#l what students get into the competitive program and which go to YWCA instructional programs. Also, ask if the instructional programs meet the 90-minute/week private lesson guidelines. * PO 9-22-83 51 Laps end and students start to dry off to watch the video. COR#l starts to get those off—campus students together so that RC2 can talk with them. RC2 stresses the sign—in sheets. People are moving around and students are anxious to get back to the group. RC2 introduces me but I doubt that many will remember. * PO 9-22-83 52 RC2 asks COR#I where the sign-in sheets are kept. He shows us a file drawer in the office where they are placed. At this point we say our goodbyes and leave. As we start out, COR#I remarks to us that "We crack the whip around here." Once outside, RC2 introduces me to her roommate, who also is the BHS soccer coach and health teacher. * 157 TN 9-22—83 53 If the COR swim team students continue to keep up the pace, like I saw today, for the whole year, there is no doubt that this is an excellent program and they will certainly be in good physical shape. * MN 9—22—83 54 Verify what the cost of the program is. It may be only $12 like the sign said, or there may be some hidden costs. * PO 9-22-83 ‘55 5:30 We start to drive to the next observation. RC2 begins to talk about herself. I start taping this at 5:40. See PERSONNEL BKGRD file for more information. She says that she was in Special Education for six years before taking the coordinators position. a PO 9—22—83 56 5:42 Arrive at TSB. We introduce ourselves to the lady at the desk. She says that the owner is in class now and will be out in 15 minutes. We wait around. Fifteen minutes turns into more than a half—hour. * PO 9—22—83 57 While we are waiting, RC2 says that CORSl has been swimming only a year and a half, and COR#l says she has star quality. RC2 says that there are 8 students in the COR Swim Team, plus 2 more to be added in the spring. I ask how many are in this ballet studio. She counts 11, including several boys. W PO 9-22—83 58 RC2 adds that she went "bopping in" on the ballet class at the DMB studio yesterday and the owner was "down right rude." She also went to the CSB and they were very nice. * PO 9-22-83 59 Thumbing through her notes, RC2 says there is a lot of paperwork in this program. It is hot inside, so we decide to go outside to wait. While outside, TSBSl, a student, recognizes RC2 and says that she as a class at 6:15. RC2 asks if she has turned in her activity schedule, because she doesn't have it. TSBSl says no, not yet. * PO 9—22-83 60 Students are going in and out, some waiting in the lobby for class. RC2 starts to joke about dance people. She is a regular jock. y- A PO 9-22-83 61 I ask RC2 about the amount of private lesson time each student is supposed to get each week. I say that thus far we haven't seen any 158 students getting private lessons, nor do the circumstances look as though they are going to. RC2 says that she is going to have to ask RC1 about that. She does say that for golf they need 30 minutes each time they participate, the rest can be on drills the instructor says they should do. In both visits, there were too many students in the classes to enable any private lessons to take place, no matter how limited. * TN 9—22—83 62 I notice there is some confusion with the sign-in sheets. There appears to be a need for better communication to the students, parents, and agencies as to what they are for. a PO 9—22—83 63 6:25 RC2 and I make our way down the narrow hall to where the dance classroom is. We watch for a while. I notice that the students have worked up a sweat. Class ends at 6:30 and we introduce ourselves to the instructor, TSB#1. She introduces the students who are in the off—campus program, and RC2 says that she wants to talk to them later. We make our way back to the front of the studio, where the instructor shows RC2 where the sign—in sheets are kept. v ‘n‘ PO 9-22—83 64 While RC2 is checking the sign-in sheets, I have an opportunity to ask the instructor if I might be able to observe the students. She says that I would be more than welcome. I also ask her if there is a time during the day that we could get together so that I could interview her. She indicates that she starts classes at 4:00, and that prior to that would be fine. PO 9—22—83 65 RC2 is in the back again talking to some students. I ask one off-campus girl, TSBSZ, when one of the performances are. She says that they will do Nutcracker Suite in December. I ask her when she started dancing. She says 6 years ago, but only 5 years have been at this studio. The first year was before she moved her. I ask her what she plans on doing with her ballet skills. She says that she wants to become a professional. On stage or a teaching professional? She says that she would like to start put on the sage and then go into teaching at the end of her stage career. .V. I‘ PO 9-22-83 66 Back in the car, RC2 says that this studio is very strict about getting there on time. If a student is 10 minutes late, they miss the entire lesson. Also, they insist that the sign-in sheets are the responsibility of the student. W 159 PO 9-22—83 67 Since RC2 is going to a volleyball game at BHS, and it is getting close to starting time, we head back. On the way, she says that there will be a couple of PE teachers there that she would like to introduce me to. I feel that it would be a good opportunity, so I go into the gym with her. Before I leave I meet both boy's and girl's BHS teachers and have gotten their conference period times so that I can arrange an interview. * 160 APPENDIX C Factors Influencing Continued Participation In an Activity Table C—l Factors Influencing Continued Participation In an Activity Activity/ Date Person(s) Why Continuing Student When Started Influenced by In Activity Golf: Patrick Butler Friend Likes golf Greg Mallox Friend Likes golf Alex Flihegh Early age Professional Friends play dated Mother Charity Bowes This year Father plays To be with Dad Trent Bellamy This year Friends Friends play Swimming: Dee Wiggins 4 yrs. ago Mother Olympics Margaret 3 yrs. ago Brother Olympics/ Scarpinski Family involved Alice Trumble 1 yr. ago Teacher High School Swim Team Charlene Topinka 2 yrs. ago Teacher High School Swim Team Kimberly 4 yrs. ago Parents Scholarship/ Bryant Olympics Table C—l (Cont'd) 161 Activity/ Student Date When Started Person(s) Influenced by Why Continuing In Activity Skating: Cathy Covert Cloe Wikert Sally Lowdner Carolyn Glover Gymnastics: Alice Crockett Karen Brokaw Angela Marx Linda Fundt Carrie Christian Ann Bulger Theresa Thompson 2 years ago 2 yrs. ago 5th grade 3 yrs. 3 yrs. 6 yrs. 3 yrs. Horseback Riding: Linda Hammer Bryan Steele Mike White 5 yrs. old old old old old Note: Parents Friend Friend Friend Friend Friend Friends in it Mother Mother Parents Not sure Friend Scouting friends Father taught riding Therapy Olympics/ Teacher Teacher Olympics/ Parent support College Scholarship College Scholarship High School Team/Olympics High School Team/Olympics Olympics/ Teacher Friends in it Competitor/ Parent support Information gathered through informal interviews. 162 Appendix D Average Course Cost Per Student Per Semester Table D—l Average Course Cost Per Student Per Semester Current Proposed Comments Elementary (K—6) 0.25 3.17 Computer error drastically reduced 1982—83 budget. Junior High (7—8) 4.50 6.75 Price increases/item/ student. Underestimated last year. PE Foundations 3.00 6.00 Price increases + Wellness Lifestyle materials Team Sports 2.33 Gymnastics 1.95 2.90 Price increase + materials omitted last year. Dance 1.50 3.00 " " " " " Pers. Develop. 2.70 Lifetime Sports 5.50 Off-Campus PE 0.00 1.80 Materials omitted last yr. Off—campus inadvertently absent from last year's Base Course Cost. Sports Medicine 13.13 Adv. Sports Med. 6.67 Adv. Lifesaving 1.85 Partner PE Trng. 3.00 Partner PE Aid 27.00 Health 1.50 2.57 Repair and replace CPR mannequins Notes: Current Amount building principals may use to order equipment and supplies. Amount budgeted by the Director for this year. Proposed 163 APPENDIX E POSITION GUIDE Coordinator - Off—Campus Physical Education Position Description The Coordinator - Off-Campus Physical Education is directly responsible to the Director-Health and Physical Education. His/her area of responsibility is the Off-Campus Physical Education Program. He/she works closely with counselors, parents, students and professional instructors in determining eligibility, progress and evaluation of each participant. Qualifications The Coordinator shall have completed a master's degree, shall hold a valid State teaching certificate, shall have completed three years of teaching in physical education and shall have any additional professional and personal qualifications as deemed necessary. 3’5 3:: 164 Basic Performance Objectives To interpret, support and implement the overall philosophy of the district through the Off-Campus Physical Education Program. To continually keep administrators, counselors and the public informed of the availability of Off-Campus Physical Education and up-to-date on program guidelines. To coordinate the Off-Campus activity programs of those students under his direction and be accountable for their participation. To develop and maintain cooperative relationships with teachers, counselors, principals, parents and news media. To serve as liason between the school district and the Off-Campus agencies. To direct evaluation of annual reports for the Off-Campus Physical Education Program. To continually review and evaluate the policies of the program and initiate necessary program improvements. To regularly inform the public of the uniqueness and success of the program. To insure that the Off-Campus Physical Education Program is an integral part of the district—wide physical education program. To maintain a program of personal professional growth. '3!- 165 Job Definition Function To administer and coordinate all aspects of the Off—Campus Physical Education Program. Major Areas of Responsibility *- Publicize and define the Off-Campus Physical Education Program to other school personnel and the public. Development and maintenance of district—agency relationships. Accountability for student participation. Direction and coordination of all student—related matters. Evaluation of the Off-Campus Physical Education Program. Integration of Off-Campus Physical Education into the district—wide physical education program. General Duties 4(- Initiate methods for keeping the public and other school personnel accurately informed about Off-Campus Physical Education. Develop any needed forms, reports or guides related to the program. Maintain accurate and adequate records of student participation. Develop a good working relationship with Off-Campus agencies and observe students in activity at the agency. Perform necessary clerical duties to enroll students in Off—Campus Physical Education. Prepare, administer and tabulate evaluation instruments for the program. Prepare annual reports. Plan improvements in the Off—Campus Physical Education Program. Assist the Director — Health and Physical Education as requested. 166 Specific Duties: '1!- 3:: 3:: at: 31‘ 3:: 31‘ ::< Work cooperatively with administrators and school counselors to define and interpret the Off—Campus Physical Education Program and any subsequent program changes. Work closely with the Director - Health and Physical Education to insure that the Off-Campus Physical Education Program accomplishes the goals as established for the district—wide physical education program. Process student applications: obtain necessary approvals; correspond with parents, counselors and instructors about student status; prepare student packets and begin student file. Conduct initial meeting with student. Receive student schedules and activity reports. Administer the State Physical Fitness Test to all students in the program and communicate results to parents. Request and receive grade reports from Off—Campus instructors. Insure that grade report is entered on student permanent record. Observe student in activity and maintain records of student participation. Prepare, administer and tabulate program evaluation instrument. Communicate as necessary with parents concerning student status in program. Initiate changes in program guidelines as necessary. Initiate items of publicity about the Off-Campus Physical Education Program. Assist the Director - Health and Physical Education in in—service programs (regular and equivalency time) and curriculum matters as requested. 167 Evaluation Procedure Performance appraisal will be continuous. A formal evaluation will be scheduled in February of each year. The Director of Health and Physical Education will evaluate in writing, the performance of the Coordinator-Off-Campus Physical Education. Evaluation will include: (1) establishing a cooperative set of objectives to be achieved for one year, and (2) a review of the objectives agreed on at a previous evaluation session. The evaluation sessions should be entered into with agreement that professional growth and development is most likely to occur when both the Director of Health and Physical Education and the Coordinator—Off—Campus Physical Education cooperatively identify strengths and weaknesses and then agree on plans for growth and improvement. A written record will be made of each evaluation session and one copy provided the Coordinator—Off—Campus Physical Education. 168 APPENDIX F Off—Campus Physical Eductaion Program Guidelines and Application EFFECTIVE: Fall Semester 1983 What is Off—Campus Physical Education? Off-Campus Physical Education is a program that will permit students that are interested in obtaining a high degree of proficiency in individual and lifetime activities to receive required physical education credit through an instructional program with an approved Off-Campus facility. Why is Prairie Pride School District offering this program? The Prairie Pride schools have students that are interested in activities that are not offered comprehensively by the physical education or athletic department. This program will allow students to gain credit for their commitment to these off—campus activities. ACCEPTANCE OF STUDENT'S PROGRAM Approval for the acceptance of a student's program will be based upon: -—-Type of activity. The activity must be an individual type activity not comprehensively offered by the physical education or athletic department at the student's school. Programs will not be accepted at agencies that are in excess of 15 miles of the P.P.S.D. Administration, 400 S. Greenville Avenue. —-—Intent of reqpest. The request must indicate a seriousness of the student to obtain a high degree of skill in a certain activity. The request will Egg be approved to (1) meet scheduling problems, (2) allow early graduation or (3) allow a student to miss physical education at school because of a dislike of a school program or teacher. Students in grades 9-12 may participate in the program a maximum of three semesters. Students may not receive elective credit for participation in this program. —~-Nature of program. The student's program of activity must be instructional. The student must be receiving lessons from a professional instructor. 169 --—Number of activity days. The student must attend a minimum of three days during a school week (Monday through Friday) for a minimum of seventeen (17) weeks each semester. All attendance must be at their instructor's agency. —-—Number of activity hours. The student must participate at the instructor's agency under professional supervision in the activity a minimum of ten (10) hours each week. No more than two (2) hours may be counted on a weekend (Saturday and Sunday). Time spent in peer teaching may not be included in the required time. Hours will be logged by the student and accounted for by the Off—Campus facility and the P.P.S.D. coordinator. Additional time requirements for specific activities are outlined on the following pages. ——-Physical Education Limitation. The student can not be enrolled in another physical education class or athletics while participating in the Off-Campus Physical Education Program. 3. 10. 170 DANCE - (Junior High and Senior High) If the dance company has rehearsals weekly, a maximum of two hours of rehearsal time may be counted. The student must take a minimum of eight hours of lessons each calendar week. EQUESTRIAN ACTIVITIES - (Junior High and Senior High) The ten hours must include 90-minutes of lessons. Applications can only be accepted for participation at agencies with a covered riding arena. GOLF - (Junior High) The ten hours must include 90-minutes of lessons. If the student is unable to meet the time requirements due to inclement weather, the hours must be rescheduled and/or additional assignments completed at the discretion of the Off-Campus Coordinators. GYMNASTICS — (Junior High Girls: Fall Semester Only —and Junior High Boys: All Year) Only two of the ten hours may be accounted for at a competitive tournament. ICE SKATING - (Junior High and Senior High) The ten hours must include 90-minutes of lessons and may included a maximum of four (4) hours in Club Skating or Public Session Skating. Only Club Skating will be allowed at agencies other than the instructor's home ice rink. KARATE — (Junior High and Senior High) Only two of the ten hours may be accounted for at a competitive tournament. RACQUETBALL - (Junior High and Senior High) The ten hours must include 90—minutes of lessons. SWIMMING - (Junior High) Only two of the ten hours may be accounted for at a competitive meet. TENNIS — (Junior High Fall Semester Only) The ten hours must include 90—minutes of lessons. If the student is unable to meet the time requirements due to inclement weather, the hours must be rescheduled and/or additional assignments completed at the discretion of the Off-Campus Coordinators. OTHER ACTIVITIES — Guidelines for other activities will be developed as applications are filed. 171 STUDENT RESPONSIBILITIES IN THE OFF—CAMPUS PROGRAM The student must submit the request on the appropriate form (available in the Counselor's Office). The student is responsible for all arrangements with cooperating facility. Upon approval, students are expected to meet with the P.P.S.D. off—campus coordinator to discuss their program schedule. The student is expected to take the State Physical Fitness Test twice during the year at a time and site designated by the off-campus coordinator. The student must return appropriate Schedule and Activity Reports as specified by the off-campus coordinator. The student must meet time requirements of the program. Normal absences are understandable. Excessive absences will be considered on an individual basis. STEPS FOR ADMISSION TO THE PROGRAM NOTE: Counselor should explain the program, especially the student responsibilities, to those students who may be interested in the program. The student should obtain the appropriate application form from the counselor. The student should complete the form, have instructor complete the appropriate portion and return to the counselor. Counselor should sign application, obtain the principal's signature, and forward the application to the Director of Drug Education, Health and Physical Education, Central Administration. Upon acceptance into program, student's parents and counselor will be notified in writing by the off-campus coordinator. All applications for Off-Campus Physical Education must be- returned to the counselor NO LATER THAN THE FIRST WEEK OF THE SEMESTER. The exception to this policy is that a student who is in physical education or athletics may transfer into Off-Campus Physical Education from these courses. 172 APPLICATION FOR OFF-CAMPUS PHYSICAL EDUCATION TO BE COMPLETED BY STUDENT: NAME SCHOOL PARENTS OR GUARDIANS SEX: MALE FEMALE GRADE LEVEL (1983—84) ADDRESS COUNSELOR (1983-84) ' CITY ACTIVITY ZIP DATE PHONE Signature of Parent or Guardian NOTE: In order for this application to be considered for any given semester, it must be returned to the counselor no later than the first week of that semester. TO BE COMPLETED BY THE OFF—CAMPUS AGENCY: NAME OF AGENCY OR FACILITY ADDRESS CITY ZIP PHONE Signature of Instructor 1. Will the student's program meet the time requirements as specified on pages one—four of this packet? 2. Upon approval, will the agency agree to provide the Off-Campus Coordinators an accurate absentee report and a recommended grade for the student each semester? 3. Will the program be open for regular visitation by school officials? 4. Will the program provide adult supervision at all times? 173 TO BE COMPLETED BY SCHOOL OFFICIALS: The student is taking this course for a required physical education credit and he/she will not be enrolled in another physical education class or athletics while participation in the Off-Campus Physical Education Program. COUNSELOR DATE PRINCIPAL OFF-CAMPUS PHYSICAL EDUCATION COORDINATOR APPROVED DATE NOT APPROVED DIRECTOR OF DRUG EDUCATION, HEALTH AND PHYSICAL EDUCATION DATE 174 APPENDIX C Off-Campus Physical Education Information Folder August 25, 1983 Dear Student and Parent/or Parents: There will be an introductory meeting of all Off-Campus Physical Education students at the Prairie Pride Administration Building located at 400 S. Greenville Avenue. Listed below are three different times you may choose to attend: Tuesday, September 13, 1983 7:30 a.m. Adm. Bldg. Room 206 Wednesday, September 14, 1983 7:30 a.m. Adm. Bldg. Room 206 Wednesday, September 14, 1983 4:00 p.m. Adm. Bldg. Room 206 The meeting should take no more than one—half hour providing everyone arrives promptly. Attendance of one of the above meetings is mandatory in order to receive pertinent information relating to your assignment during the semester. Sincerely, Jenny Newcomer, Off-Campus Physical Education Coordinator Art Hollister, Off—Campus Physical Education Coordinator JN/AHzeb 175 August 25, 1983 Dear Student and Parent/or Parents: The State Physical Fitness Test will be given during the Fall Semester for Off-Campus Physical Education students according to the following schedule: Thursday, September 29, 1983 4:00 p.m. Prairie Pride HS Girl's.Gym Saturday, October 1, 1983 10:00 a.m. Prairie Pride HS Girl's Gym Tuesday, October 4, 1983 4:00 p.m. Prairie Pride HS Girl's Gym All Students involved in the Off-Campus Physical Education Program are required to take this test twice during the year. YOu should attend 93g of the test sessions listed above. Students should report to the site by the specified time. Remember that it is not possible to be granted physical education credit without taking this test. The test includes the two minute sit-ups, flexed arm hand and the twelve minute run-walk. Students should wear appropriate clothing and tennis or athletic shoes. The testing procedure should be completed within one and one—half to two hours each date. Students should make arrangements for transportation accordingly. Any questions concerning this fitness test can be directed to your Off-Campus Coordinators who can be reached at 555-8111, Ext. 344 or 555—7472. Sincerely, Jenny Newcomer, Off—Campus Physical Education Coordinator Art Hollister, Off-Campus Physical Education Coordinator JN/AHzeb 176 PRAIRIE PRIDE SCHOOL DISTRICT OFF-CAMPUS PHYSICAL EDUCATION REPORT OF SPECIAL ACHIEVEMENTS NAME SCHOOL AGENCY In order for us to evaluate the effectiveness and the need for the Off-Campus Physical Education Program, we need to record the progress of our students. Please list any special achievements, honors, awards or scholarships which you have received during the year. RETURN TO: Mr. Art Hollister Off-Campus Physical Education Office Prairie West Junior High 1309 Holly Drive Prairie Pride, ST 12345 177 PRAIRIE PRIDE SCHOOL DISTRICT OFF—CAMPUS PHYSICAL EDUCATION ACTIVITY SCHEDULE NAME GRADE SCHOOL COUNSELOR AGENCY INSTRUCTOR Weekly Activity Schedule (indicate beginning and ending time) Monday Tuesday Wednesday Thursday Friday Saturday Sunday Student's Signature Instructor's Signature Parent's Signature RETURN TO: Mr. Art Hollister Off—Campus Physical Education Office Prairie West Junior High 1309 Holly Drive Prairie Pride, ST 12345 178 PRAIRIE PRIDE SCHOOL DISTRICT OFF-CAMPUS PHYSICAL EDUCATION CHANGE OF STATUS I wish to report the following change in my status: RETURN TO: My family has moved. My new address and telephone number is: I have changed my activity schedule either in time, site or instructor. The new information is: I have decided to drop my activity and Off—Campus Physical Education. Student's Signature Ms. Jenny Newcomer Physical Education Department Prairie Pride School District 400 S. Greenville Ave. Prairie Pride, ST 12345 STUDENT SCHOOL SEMESTER SEMESTER GRADE COMMENTS: 179 PRAIRIE PRIDE SCHOOL DISTRICT OFF-CAMPUS PHYSICAL EDUCATION AGENCY REPORTING FORM GRADE LEVEL ABSENCES Grade Scale: 100—90 Excellent to 89-80 Good to Fair 79-70 Fair to Poor 69—below Failure RETURN BY Good T0: Instructor's Signature Mr. Art Hollister Off-Campus Physical Education Office Prairie West Junior High 1309 Holly Drive Prairie Pride, ST 12345 180 PRAIRIE PRIDE SCHOOL DISTRICT OFF—CAMPUS PHYSICAL EDUCATION GRADE REPORTING FORM STUDENT SCHOOL GRADE LEVEL COUNSELOR SEMESTER GRADE ABSENCES Coordinator's Signature DUE: 181 PRAIRIE PRIDE SCHOOL DISTRICT OFF-CAMPUS PHYSICAL EDUCATION STUDENT ACTIVITY REPORT - GYMNASTICS List the skills on which you have been concentrating during this semester. Have you perfected any skills during this semester? If so, what are they? List the skills on which you need to concentrate in the future. List any upcoming performances or competitions. Date ' Time Location List the 4 best results of events (individual apparatus) in which you have competed during this semester. Event Score Finish Place Lifetime Best Student's Signature Instructor's Signature RETURN TO: Mr. Art Hollister Off-Campus Physical Education Office Prairie West Junior High 1309 Holly Drive Prairie Pride, ST 12345 182 APPENDIX H Agency Visitation Plan for Off-Campus Physical Education Table H—l Agency Visitation Plan for Off—Campus Physical Education PLAN 1a PLAN 2a PLAN lb PLAN 2b Maximum Student Number 140 140 105 105 Maximum Agency Number 28 34 28 34 Notes: a = 2 Staff. b = 1—1/2 Staff PLAN 1 - Agency visitation is made five times each semester. PLAN 2 - Agency visitation is made according to the following schedule each semester. 5 visits - All new agencies. All agencies with new instructors. Agencies with 10 or more students. 4 visits - Established agencies with 5-9 students. 3 visits — Second year agencies involved in group instruction. All established agencies with fewer than 5 students involved in non—group instruction. 2 visits — Third year agencies involved in group instruction with fewer than 5 students. All agencies would be required to participate in an orientation session; sign an agency agreement; and submit grade recommendations and an attendance record form. The Off—Campus Coordinators would reserve the right to adjust visitation number for any agency or student in question. 183 APPENDIX I Physical Fitness Comparison Charts o-k_ 5-9. h n — b — h — AGO—Um =0:— _ _ _ . _ . . _ . _ _ _ _ _ _ . . _ _ . \JV_ 4 _ . _ _ . _ _ _ _ . . _ _ _ _ _ . _ . _ . one“ or n. b cin— _ I» .oocmesucm vcm cumcmeuw movaaocm new Eu< a-.. _ P _.wcm: EL< umxoam m.>om Oi¢~ oin— oun— c «— _ t _ . _ . t L . _ _ :0“: saunas “ _ _ _ v00..."- IUBCVSUM" Q“ I I I I I vounoh oucovauw_enon.lllllll noo— uuou uncovaum coau-uavu «qua-us; _ oa- onu— _ .HIH mesmHm Oi- oiou ciou 01¢ oco uuo< . _ . _ . _ . .lL _ y¢<~zwzuau _ n o. noo— aaau uncouaua .u .u ass-auguuo nu ON an on an on he on an 00 no on as on no as no . om oaaucoouoa 184 .wcmm Eu< umxoam m.HCHU .oocmpsvcm can nuwcmuum umuasonm can Eu< oa_ oh. cod and a.” and o- as. _ . _ . .Ik _ . _ r1. . r t .7 b .N-H magmas 2: 0a on oh co on o. "5.053 — p. h p _L1—||b — p F b — nucovsum .u .m nan-300:0 no: I .- noa— 3n.- oucovaum couunuavu anew-b: Swell-Inn: .3..- 2 a on a" an an as n. on an o. no oh 2 on w. a. no am caducoouom 185 oin~ cinu one" 01¢“ _ . _ . _ . _ . D u .mazluflm wmquucmm muscflzlm m.>om .mocmusccm new camcoeum Hmcfleovn< .mIH mpsmwm o :0»: «0:5». -2 5.2 I: 5.: t: o.: 1: $2 to a; as. — b — b — P — ~ — h — n — p — h — .1— rfikzmufigu . n 2 no new .ucouaum .u .a .aaaaouuuo an - - . -nma~ ”use as sconce aucouaum cosy-use» aaoaussa scan moo. “an; . . _ _ _ . _ _ o~ . _ _ _ _ _ _ _ P _ _ -, nu On an cc me u an < . a 00 no as an mm V cm .‘- - - \ I _ . _ _ _ _ _ . _ _ _ co _ . _ _ _ c x . no _ mm oAMuCOOuom 186 .maziufim woqaucmm muDCHZIN m.Huflo .mocmusucm vcm cumcmnum Hmcweovn< .qIH musmwm 8. o: 9: on o: o2 o: o: 2: 2 8 2 8 on 4.58»: .— p — P — b — P _— b —h— P P b — h — h — P b p P h F P .uauvaum .u .m .aaaoo-u.o so - - - -nau_ as.a n .ucouaum cosuquavu snow-kg. soon.ununuuunss~ as.“ o— n— on ma an an ac no . on n n 00 no as as on no co no ’00....ooo'\\ 3.330.630.618 am oaauuoouom 187 cl“. oio~ clo— ._co__um =0:— -----—--------—- p----- .a:m-xam3 muscHZINH m.aom .mocmusvcm secumuwamomloflvumu sun. 5.“. 0-4. _ . _ . _ . an...» .ucucaum .u .a .aasqouuuo an - - - noo— -.u couaoh nueevaum ceaunuauu uno‘ sass nonw Illlllnuo_ Adah \ .0 one_ nun. oun_ nun— _ b _ h F b — :U~= Koaznfi .- ‘ .muH musmflm Gama oi__ nuc< I _ . _ odd” 0. n— cu nu On nn 0. nc on nn on nu oh nu on no an no no .couuom 188 .csmlxamz mUDCHZINH m.HuHU .mocmesccm spoumuflamomloflcumo .ouH oeswwm c-h_ a-m. o-o. 0-x. a-m. o-s. one. s-n~ can. _ o-~_ o-~_ o-_. nuc< _r_._._._rr._._._._._._ 400.5” :0:— :0H= £055.. ... 2 _ . oucuuaum .u .m wane-uuuuo «on I u . Inca. as.» n~ . . 3:33...“ gov-0:3 13:9: :2 [22 :8 H o~ an on O: - --- ne I~ . . - a . nn - — u p on nn on -——-——P---———‘--—_---—----- ‘ no \\ co Oh N. . n“ a , on . I no a .L I cm I no an oawucouuum _ _ _ _ _ . _ o - r _ _ . _ _ _ LIST OF REFERENCES List of References Agar, M. H. (1980). The Professional Stranger. New York: The Academic Press. Bain, L. L. (1980). Socialization into the role of participant: physical education's ultimate goal. Journal of Physical Education, 51, 48—50. Benson, J. A. (1982). An alternative direction for middle school physical education. Physical Educator, 32, 75-77. Block, J. H., & Burns, R. B. (1976). Mastery learning. In L. Shulman (Ed.), Review of Research in Education. Itasca, IL: Peacock Publishers. Bloom, B. (1976). Human Characteristics and School Learning. New York: McGraw—Hill. Carroll, J. B. (1963). A model of school learning. Teachers College Record,.§4. Dean, J. F., Eichorn, R. L., & Dean, L. R. (1967). Observation and Interview. In J. T. Doty (Ed.), An Introduction to Social Research (pp. 274—304). New York: Appleton—Century-Crofts. Erickson, F., Florio, S., & Buschman, J. (1980). Fieldwork in Educational (Occasional Paper No. 36). East Lansing: Michigan State University, Institute for Research on Teaching. Jensen, A. R. (1969). How much can we boost IQ and scholastic achievement?. Harvard Educational Review, 32. Kerr, R. (1982). Psychomotor Learning. New York: Saunders College Publishing. Majasan, J. K. (1972). College students' achievement as a function of the congruence between their beliefs and their instructor's beliefs. Dissertation Abstracts International, 33, 4180-A. ' (University Microfilms No. 73—4548) Maslow, A. H. (1970). Motivation and Personality (2nd ed.). New York: Harper & Row. McPherson, B. C. (1978). The Child in Competitive Sport: Influence of the Social Milieu. In A. Magill, M. J. Ash, and F. L. Smoll (Eds.), Children in Sport: A Contemporary Anthology. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetic Press. Melograno, V. (1980). Physical education curriculum for the 1980's. Journal of Physical Education and Recreation, 5;, 39. 189 Meredith, M. (1979). Expand your program --- step off-campus. Journal of Physical Education and Recreation, 59, 21-22. Metzler, M. W. (1980). The measurement of academic learning time in physical education. Dissertation Abstracts International,_ég, 5365-A. (University Microfilms No. 80-O9,314) Miller Brewing Company. (1983). The Miller Lite Report on American Attitudes Toward Sports. Milwaukee, WI: Author. Minzy, J. D. (1974). The facilitator for others to do their thing. Journal of Health, Physical Education and Recreation,_§5, 36-37. Mosston, M., & Mueller, R. (1974). Mission, omission, and submission in physical education. In G. H. McGlynn (ed.), Issues in Physical Education and Sports. Palo Alto: National Press Books. Ohio State University National Center for Research in Vocational Education (1978). Professional Teacher Education Module Series. Establishing Guidelines for Your Cooperative Vocational Program. Category J —— Coordination of Cooperative Programs. Athens, GA: American Association for Vocational Instructional Materials. Paese, P. C. (1983). Improving secondary school physical education. Physical Educator, 49, 60—63. Peterson, P. L., & Swing, S. (1982). Beyond time on task: students reports of their thought processes during direct instruction. The Elementary School Journal. Schatzman, L., & Strauss, A. (1973). Field Research: Strategies for a Natural Sociology. New Jersey: Prentice-Hall. Seefeldt, V. (Ed.). (1986). Contributions of physical activity to well—being. American Alliance for Health, Physical Education, Recreation and Dance, Reston, VA. Shatz, E., & Frey, L. (1977). Principles and applications of the cooperative model in continuing education. Journal of Education for Social Work,_i3, 91—98. Siedentop, D. (1980). Physical education curriculum: an analysis of the past. Journal of Physical Education and Recreation, 51, 40-41. Siedentop, D. (1981, April). Improvinngotivation and Self-Concept in Secondary Students. Presented at the national convention of the American Alliance for Health, Physical Education, Recreation, and Dance, Boston, MA. Slinger, L. A., Anderson, C. W., & Smith, E. L. (1982). Studying Light in the Fifth Grade: A Case Study of Text-Based Science Teaching. Paper presented at the annual convention of the National Association for Research in Science Teaching, Fontana, WI. 190 Tauber, R. T. (1980). We Know Co-op Work Experiences Work -— But Why? Paper presented at the Annual Co-op Employer Appreciation Dinner, Erie, PA. Taggart, A. C., Taggart, J., & Siedentop, D. (1986). Effects of a home-based activity program. A study with low fitness elementary school children. Behavior Modification, 19, 487—507. Vogel, P. (1986). Effects of physical education programs on children. In V. Seefeldt (ed.), Physical Activity and Well—Being. Palo Alto: National Press Books. Wilcox, R. C. (1987). The Failing of High School Physical Education. Journal of Physical Education and Recreation, 58, 21—25. 191 ll. [lillltl' "11111111111111.1111“