52‘s. . , 9157‘ 6’“ El \ \ MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY AR ES H m lllll’llHilllliii rim ll 3 1293 00562 9310 ll This is to certify that the dissertation entitled AN INVESTIGATION OF THE CONDITIONS AFFECTING THE TEACHING OF COMPOSITION IN AN INNER-CITY ELEMENTARY SCHOOL, GRADES KINDERGARTEN THROUGH THREE: A DESCRIPTIVE STUDY presented by Shirley Mae Holmes has been accepted towards fulfillment ofthe requirements for Ph.D. Teacher Education degree in % . Major prof [hue October 20, 1988 MSU is an Affirmative Action/Equal Opportunity Institution 0-12771 lIBRARY Michigan State University l 'u.“» ” a“- *h“ 4.. AN INVESTIGATION OF THE CONDITIONS AFFECTING THE TEACHING OF COMPOSITION IN AN INNER-CITY ELEMENTARY SCHOOL, GRADES KINDERGARTEN THROUGH THREE: A DESCRIPTIVE STUDY BY Shirley Mae Holmes A DISSERTATION Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Department of Teacher Education 1988 U\ U) ABSTRACT AN INVESTIGATION OF THE CONDITIONS AFFECTING THE TEACHING OF COMPOSITION IN AN INNER-CITY ELEMENTARY SCHOOL, GRADES KINDERGARTEN THROUGH THREE: A DESCRIPTIVE STUDY BY Shirley Mae Holmes The purpose of this study was to examine the writing program for primary-grade children in an inner-city school and to observe what problems, supports,- and constraints existed that influenced, facilitated, and/or impeded the composition component of the language arts curriculum as delivered in that school. The four central research questions addressed in this study were: ls What problems do inner-city children face in learning to write? 2. What problems in teaching writing do teachers face in an inner-city school? 3. What supports exist for teaching writing in the primary grades in this inner-city school? 4. What constraints exist for teaching writing in the primary grades in this inner-city school? Shirley Mae Holmes The writer sought to answer these questions by applying the 15 key factors for effective writing instruction identified by Farr and Daniels in Wage Diversity and Writing instruction (1986). The 15 factors provided the conceptual or theoretical framework for the study. This research was descriptive in nature, as opposed to testing hypotheses. The first section of the study involved gathering and analyzing national, state, and local school documents on writing. The remainder of the project involved observing five primary-grade classrooms, grades kindergarten through three. Data sources included field notes, classroom observation datalogs, interviews, questionnaires, writing samples, and other school artifacts. The major findings include the “following: (a) writing as a process of composing an original thought was not emphasized; (b) the teacher and pupils perceived the practice of handwriting, both manuscript and cursive, as writing; (c) any paper on which words were written was perceived as writing; (d) the use of textbooks and worksheets dominated the writing curriculum; and (e) teachers evidenced a general lack of knowledge about the latest research in teaching composition. Shirley Mae Holmes The researcher concluded that the socioeconomic status of the pupils had far less bearing on the status of the writing program than did the fact that the writing program did not comply with the latest research about the factors that constitute effective writing instruction. Copyright by SHIRLEY MAE HOLMES 1988 Dedicated to God; my daughter, Kimberley Anne Holmes; and my son, Marc Devereaux Holmes. vi ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I wish to express my heartfelt thanks and deepest gratitude to the persons most responsible for the completion of this research project and doctoral dissertation. Without, the support, encouragement, assistance, and expertise of the following individuals, this study would not have been possible. The central-office administrators of the local school district graciously granted permission for me to conduct the study. The principal cooperated fully with the project, and the participating teachers and their students were very cooperative and indispensable during the classroom observation phase of the study. Dr. Sheila Fitzgerald, guidance committee chairperson, dissertation director, and major advisor, provided expert advice and many helpful suggestions. She committed numerous hours to the development and completion of this study. Her guidance was indispensable. Dr. James Anderson provided encouragement and was instrumental in helping me keep this study within manageable limits. His professional expertise through the years has been very helpful. vii Dr. Charles Blackman was very supportive, giving me encouragement whenever needed. His creative insight is greatly appreciated. Dr. Arden Moon contributed greatly to the completion of this study. His professional suppdrt and generous, insightful comments were very helpful. . Dr. Louis Romano also helped me limit the scope of the research project at the outset of this study and thus provided me with the impetus for my next research project. My children, Kimberley iAnne Holmes and JMarc Devereaux Holmes, sustained me with faith and love during this major stage of my life. Their tolerance and encouragement also enabled me to complete this endeavor successfully. I am deeply grateful to Susan Cooley for her expertise in editing and typing this manuscript. She provided valuable insight and helpful comments. Finally, I am indebted to the many teachers and professors who have instructed me and the many other individuals who were supportive through the years. My sincere thanks extend to everyone, and may God bless and keep each one of you in His care. TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF TABLES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . LIST OF APPENDICES O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 0 Chapter I. II. III. INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Background of the Study . . . . . . . . Purpose of the Study . . . . . . . . . Research Questions . . . . . . . . . . Importance of and Rationale for the Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Delimitations of the Study and General- izability of the Research Findings . Definitions of Key Terms . . . . . . . Summary and Overview . . . . . . . . . REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE . . . . . . . . Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . The Writing Development of Young Children 0 O O O O I I O O O O O 0 Writing in the Inner-City School . . . summary 0 O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 0 DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY . . . . . . . . . Introduction . . . . . . . . . Definitions of a Descriptive Study Demographic Characteristics of the Study Setting . . . . . . . . . . Selection of the Attendance Center Description of the School Setting Selection of the Participants . . . The Research Instruments . . The Questionnaires . . . . Interviews . . . . . Methods of Data Collection . ix Page xii xiii U'IU'IH H 0‘ 57 57 57 59 60 64 65 67 67 68 7O IV. Documents . Personnel Summary . Introduction Analysis of Collected State Curriculum Guide for Writing District Curriculum Guidelines for Composition . State-Mandated Tests . . District-Mandated Tests . Commercial Materials Provided by the District Commercial Materials Provided by the Teacher . Materials Made by the Teacher . Analysis of Questionnaire Data Composite of Administrators’ Question- naire Data ANALYSIS OF THE DATA . . . . Teacher Questionnaires . Student Questionnaires . Analysis of Oral Interview Data . Composite of Administrator Interview Data Teacher Interviews . . . Student Interviews . . . Analysis of Classroom Observation Data as Corroborated Associated With Instruction . Factor Factor Factor Factor Factor Factor Factor Factor Factor Factor Factor Factor Factor Factor Factor Summary . Omdmmbwwlfl 10 11 12 13 14 15 by the 15 Effective Key Factors Writing Documents Page 70 72 8O 81 81 81 81 83 87 88 88 89 95 99 99 106 110 115 115 120 124 126 126 128 138 139 141 145 145 146 146 147 148 148 148 149 149 150 Page V. SUMMARY, FINDINGS, CONCLUSIONS, IMPLICA- TIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS . . . . . . . 152 Summary of the Study . . . . . . . . . . 152 Findings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154 Research Question 1 . . . . . . . . . . 154 Research Question 2 . . . . . . . . . . 160 Research Question 3 . . . . . . . . . . 163 Research Question 4 . . . . . . . . . . 172 Other Findings . . . . . . . . . . . . 180 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181 Implications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184 Recommendations . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186 Suggested Areas for Further Study . . . . 188 APPENDICES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189 BIBLIOGRAPHY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 332 LIST OF TABLES Table Page 1. Number of Students Per Classroom . . . . . . 66 2. Overview of Participating Teachers . . . . . 107 3. Designations of Pupil Participants . . . . . 110 4. Pupils’ Responses to Item 5: "How often do you write at school?" . . . . . . . . . 112 5. Pupils’ Responses to Item 6: "How often do you write at home?" . . . . . . . . . . 112 6. Pupils’ Responses to Item 12: "Do you read at school? When?" . . . . . . . . . 114 7. Fifteen Factors Checklist: Teachers’ Perceptions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122 8. Number of Different Writing Samples . . . . 132 xii LIST OF APPENDICES APPENDIX Page A. CORRESPONDENCE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189 B. QUESTIONNAIRES, INTERVIEW FORMATS, PARENTAL CONSENT FORMS, AND TEACHER VOLUNTEER-PARTICIPANT LETTER . . . . . . 191 C. STATE DOCUMENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208 D. LOCAL SCHOOL DISTRICT DOCUMENTS . . . . . . 221 E. DIAGRAMS OF CLASSROOMS . . . . . . . . . . 252 F. SAMPLES OF CHILDREN’S WRITING, BY GRADE LEVEL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257 G. CLASSROOM VISITATION CALENDAR . . . . . . . 319 H. CHECKLIST OF THE FIFTEEN FACTORS ASSOCIATED WITH EFFECTIVE WRITING INSTRUCTION (FARR & DANIELS, 1986) . . . 320 I. SUBJECT SCHEDULE . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321 J. SCHOOL LIBRARY SCHEDULE . . . . . . . . . . 323 K. "BATTLE OF THE BOOKS" REPORT FORM . . . . . 324 L. SAMPLE FIELD NOTES FROM RESEARCHER JOURNALS: FIVE PARTICIPATING CLASSROOMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325 M O BUSY BOOK 0 O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 3 3 o N. Aa TO Zz FACSIMILE . . . . . . . . . . . . 331 xiii CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION gagkground of ghe sgudy Writing is an important skill for everyone, particularly minority students. The ability to compose also necessitates an ability to think clearly, rationally, and coherently. To develop and enhance this essential skill, all students need time for writing. However, minority or nonmainstream children are the main ones who are deprived of writing time. Smith (1984) stated: Right now in many elementary schools, the children who need 'opportunities to write the most for linguistic development, for cognitive development, and for literary learning, are seldom given opportunities to write. This includes all children in grades kindergarten through three, children in minority groups, the children of the poor, and children assigned to low or remedial classes. (p. 34) The issue of illiteracy in America has been discussed at length during the past several years. However, although it is important to remember that illiteracy is prevalent throughout American society, it is the nonmainstream segments of the population who are affected the most--namely, children in the urban areas of medium- sized and large cities. Children in these attendance areas have the lowest literacy levels in the country. Logically, then, if educators are to increase the rate of literacy in America, they should start with these pupils. The importance of writing as it relates to literacy has been documented (Calkins, 1983, 1986; Clay, 1975: Graves, 1983: Murray, 1968: Tway, 1985). IReading' and writing are closely intertwined, and as pupils become more proficient in one of these skills, their proficiency in the other often increases. Because nonmainstream pupils have the most difficulty gaining literacy and need the most help, it seems logical that administrators, teachers, and other education personnel should concentrate on teaching composition to these children. Attention should be given to identifying pertinent factors that may aid or hinder the writing program for these youngsters. Teachers in inner-city schools face many challenges. The job of teaching is a difficult one, at best. But, coupled. with. the. environmental, cultural, and societal problems associated with many inner-city schools, the task of teaching becomes monumental. Thus, researchers also must examine the conditions affecting the teaching of writing from the teachers’ viewpoint. Inner-city children face many problems as they participate in their daily educational activities. Some of’ these jproblems stem from social, cultural, and environmental factors beyond their control. Other academic difficulties are caused by mainstream educators’ /\ resistance to the validity of their dialect. Smitherman (1977), Labov (1968), and others have attested to the fact that nonmainstream dialects have definite systems of linguistic rules. Use of a dialect can be a factor in the rate at which a child acquires written literacy, but it need not be a deterrent for the young child unless his/her teacher views it as such (Heath, 1983: Markham, 1984; Smitherman, 1977, 1981). Educators are charged with the responsibility of teaching composition skills, not just to mainstream pupils but also to those who are socially, linguistically, and culturally' different. Darnell (1974) listed. three techniques teachers can use in helping nonmainstream pupils develop literacy: 1. Adopt a warm, positive attitude toward the pupils’ unique cultural differences. 2. Use the children’s rich cultural experiences as a base on which to develop literacy. 3. Select curriculum materials with which the pupils can identify. Recent researchers have built on this theme. Farr and Daniels (1986) isolated 15 key factors associated with effective writing instruction for linguistically different children. These factors are as follows: 12. 13. 14. 15. Teachers who understand and appreciate the basic linguistic competence that students bring with them to school, and who therefOre have positive expectations for students’ achievements in writing. Regular and substantial practice in writing, aimed at developing fluency. The opportunity to write for real, personally significant purposes. Experience in writing for a wide range of audi- ences, both inside and outside of school. Rich and continuous reading experience, including both published literature of acknowledged merit and the work of peers and instructors. Exposure to models of writing in process and writers at work, including both teachers and classmates. Instruction in the processes of writing: that is, learning to work at a given writing task in appropriate phases, including prewriting, drafting, and revising. Collaborative activities for students that pro- vide ideas for writing and guidance for revising works in progress. One-to-one writing conferences with the teacher. Direct instruction in specific strategies and techniques for writing. Reduced instruction in. grammatical terminology and related drills, with increased use of sentence-combining activities. Teaching of writing mechanics and grammar in the context of students’ actual compositions, rather than in separate drills or exercises. Moderate marking of surface-structure errors, focusing on sets or patterns of related errors. Flexible and cumulative evaluation of student writing that stresses revision and is sensitive to variations in subject, audience, and purpose. Practicing and using writing as a tool of learn- ing in all subjects in the curriculum, not just in English. (pp. 45-46) According to Farr and Daniels, using these principles properly should enable teachers to enhance their pupils’ progress in composition literacy. EQIQOSB O: the Study The purpose of this study was to examine the writing program for primary-grade children in an inner-city school and to observe what problems, supports, and constraints existed that influenced, facilitated, and/or impeded the composition component of the language arts curriculum as delivered in that school. Research Questions The four central research questions addressed in this study were: 1. What problems do inner-city children face in learning to write? 2. What problems in teaching writing do teachers face in an innerfcity school? 3. What supports exist for teaching writing in the primary grades in this inner-city school? 4. What constraints exist for teaching writing in the primary grades in this inner-city school? The writer sought to answer these questions by applying the 15 key factors for effective writing instruction identified by Farr and Daniels in Language WW (1986)- The 15 factors provided the conceptual or theoretical framework for the study. o a e and a i o e u The data generated in this study may be useful not only to teachers of composition and, consequently, their pupils, but also to other educators in the school system. Principals, language arts supervisors, directors of curriculum and instruction, assistant superintendents in charge, of instruction, and. board of education. members should find the results of this research helpful as they continue to search for methods to improve the writing program and general education of the-pupils in their charge. More research is needed on the status of the writing curriculum and the composition process in inner-city schools. It is hoped the present study will help alleviate that need. Clark and Florio (1982) addressed the need for such research in a study they conducted for the Institute for Research on Teaching at Michigan State University: The first suggestion for further research is a call for more thick description of children’s writing in context. Before the field can put together the beginnings of a developmental picture of the acquisi- tion of written literacy, we need, to document the teaching of writing at grade levels other than second, third, and sixth. Other potentially impor- tant setting differences include bilingual classes, inner-city schools, and special teacher training and background. (pp. 192-93) Nonmainstream pupils have special needs that educators must address as they work with these youngsters. This is true in all curricular areas, not just in composition. Therefore, one of the more important aspects of this study is that it may add to the body of literature about the need to accept the rich linguistic backgrounds nonmainstream students bring with them when they enter the formal education scene. Teachers can use this diversity to build a foundation to help inner-city children gain oral as well as written. literacy in the major dialect. In reviewing the related literature, no study was found that examined the primary-grade writing program of a school, especially one in an area known to have many educationally and culturally disadvantaged students. Tb this end, the writer chose to do a descriptive study that would allow her to observe the conditions that affect the teaching of composition in an urban school. Delimitatigns of the Study and Generalizability of the Research Findings The classroom-observation component of the study was delimited to approximately one month. The research was further confined to an analysis of the writing program of the primary grades (K—3) in one elementary school located in the inner-city area of a medium-sized urban school district in Michigan. Because an inner-city school was scrutinized, the findings and results generated from this investigation may not be applicable to rural or suburban attendance centers and not necessarily to any other school. Definitions of Key Terms The following terms are defined in the context in which they are used in this dissertation. Compositionlwriting. Composing or writing is: the process of selecting, developing, and arranging ideas effectively. The process requires students to write in a variety of forms (e.g. letters, poems, stories) for a variety of purposes (e.g. to inform, to persuade, to describe, to entertain), and for a variety of audiences (e.g. peers, teachers, parents). (Michigan Department of Education and Michigan Council of Teachers of English, 1983, p. 1) Graves (1973) defined composition as "any writing intended to be at least a sentence unit that was completely composed by the child" (p. 33). Similarly, Calkins (1986) described composition as "an act of composing meaning" (p. 144). Carlson (1970) viewed writing as a "total act of expression" (p. vii), and Good defined creative writing as "original prose or poetry composed by children and young people" (p. 653). According to Stewig et a1. (1974): In creative writing, children are asked to make up, invent, devise, originate, or in some other way respond to a stimulus. The response may be a poem, a short story, a descriptive paragraph, or a play. The important element is that the child encounters the motivation and using his own ideas, builds upon it. (pp. 193-94) e - ' o . An inner-city school is "an attendance center whose students are mainly children of the urban poor, largely black and minority children" (Riessman, 1976, p. 1). Good (1973) defined an inner-city school as: technically, any school located in a long-established city as opposed to being in one of the newer surrounding suburban school systems: in practice the term is used only for those schools within the city located in predominantly low socioeconomic areas. (p. 302) Language arts curricuig . Huenecke (1974) wrote that: The 'term "language arts" includes the primary communication skills of reading, spelling, and speaking, as well as such unifying skills as creative writing, drama, and interpretive listening. (p. 29) Good (1973) defined language arts as: a group of school subjects, the chief purpose of which is to teach control and proficiency in the use of the English language: commonly includes reading, language (oral and written), speech, spelling and handwriting. (p. 328) Moffett (1983) offered the following definition of language arts: Defined by communication concepts, language arts is a set of two productive and two receptive activities-- speaking and writing, reading and listening--one pair for the verbalization of experience (comprehension and composition) and the other pair for the transcription of speech (literacy). (p. 13) W. An effective writing program has the following components: "emphasis on practice and process in writing, inservice programs, school-wide 10 emphasis, and administrative support" (Holbrook, 1984, p. 2). Summary and Overview Chapter I contained an introduction to the nature of the problem of writing as it relates to inner-city school children. The purpose and importance of the study were discussed, as were the delimitations and generalizability of the research findings. Research questions posed in the study were stated, and definitions of key terms were given. Chapter II is a comprehensive review of the literature on two main topics: (a) the writing development of young children and (b) writing in the inner-city school. The methodology used in this study is explained in Chapter III. The two major sources from which data were gathered-~personne1 and. documents--are discussed in detail. Chapter IV contains an analysis of the data gathered in the study. The data analysis is divided into four parts: (a) analysis of pertinent documents, (b) analysis of questionnaire responses, (c) analysis of interview responses, and (d) analysis of classroom-observation data as correlated with the 15 key factors associated with effective writing instruction (Farr & Daniels, 1986). 11 Chapter V includes a summary of the research findings and the conclusions drawn from those findings. Possible implications of the study are addressed. Recommendations for practice and for further research are also given. CHAPTER II REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE W Chapter II contains a review of the literature pertinent to this study. The material is presented in two sections. Section one is a review of literature on the writing development of young children in general. In section two, literature related to the young black writer in an inner-city school is reviewed. The Writing Development of Young Chiidren The young child enters school with many linguistic skills that are then transferred to the more complex skill of writing or composition. Young children have been surrounded by language since birth and have become quite skilled users of language by the time they begin school (Mellon, 1981). Read (1971) and Bissex (1980) documented the child’s acquisition and use of language in natural contexts. From the beginning of their lives, children hear language being used naturally. Consequently, the first stage in the development of literacy is listening, followed by speaking, reading, and writing (Lundsteen, 1979). 12 13 Lundsteen (1979) defined listening as the process by which spoken language "is converted to meaning in the mind" (p. 1). Young children first follow this process and then attempt to put these sounds on paper. Lundsteen addressed the commonalities between listening and writing. She *wrote. of "the internal listening that accompanies writing and the already mentioned common background, including vocabulary" (p. 14). The ability to use vivid words to describe sounds he/she hears is important in a young child’s writing development. Lundsteen quoted several studies (Cooper, 1965: Heider' & Heider, 1940: Ratliff, 1971) showing the negative effects of deafness on children’s writing ability. These studies revealed that "compositions of the deaf, which show less unity in style, less variety, and less use of probability, resemble those of hearing children about three years younger" (p. 14). Children are spoken to in their homes and are actively encouraged by their parents as they make their first utterances. They begin to associate speech with print early in their literacy development. Researchers have shown a positive relationship between a child’s being read to and his/her development in written language. Sutherland, Monson, and Arbuthnot (1981) wrote: Parents, teachers, librarians, baby-sitters, all of us who work with children, can enrich our lives as well as those of children when we provide and encourage delight in hearing a good story read aloud well. Pleasurable experience in listening can create 14 interest in books that carries on through years of adolescence and adulthood. Listening can also provide natural opportunities for development of a listening vocabulary and acquaintance with English syntax. When you read to children, you give them a chance to hear an author’s style, to identify with well-developed characters, and sometimes to try to predict the direction the plot will take in tomorrow’s installment. Most important of all, you help them to know good books and poems in a relaxed warm atmosphere. (p. 516) Cianciolo (1981) spoke of the importance of selecting: well-written, imaginatively illustrated picture books that are of interest to children of all ages and backgrounds. . . . Picture books which will provide children with enjoyable, informative, and discriminating literary experiences, foster the habit of reading, and initiate an appreciation for and an understanding of the beautiful and creative in the graphic arts. (p. xiv) Children need to hear the power of words and experience the images that these words inspire. From these oral/aural experiences, young beginning writers can expand their knowledge about literacy. Graves ( 1983) wrote that: Reading different authors aloud also provides different voices and topics for the children to sample. The objective is not to have the child write and illustrate like Robert McCloskey, Beatrix Potter, or Marguerite Henry. Rather, the objective is to enjoy the plots, the fantasies, the taste of words, to be stimulated by the drama of events. The children may try some of the author’s forms of expression, ways of illustrating. Fine, but it is their choice. Often the children don’t know they are using elements from literature. Since they have a strong sense of story and drama, and have heard the rich voices in the writing, they have the urge to produce literature. Children do this in many areas of their lives: they watch the dribbling and strong headers of the soccer pros and rush to the playground 15 to experiment. An adventure drama sends them exploring the fields and woodlands, claiming the land for king and queen. It becomes theirs because they choose and experiment on their own. Once again, climate and tone are provided by the teacher’s reading, and the children’s reading and sampling of literature written for them. (pp. 29-30) Moffett and Wagner (1983) stressed the importance of reading orally to children. In the third edition of their text, under the category "Listening to Texts," they wrote: Long before they are able to decode or read aloud themselves, children should hear good oral presentations of all kinds of literature that bring out the rhythm, music, imagery, and sound play of poetry and serve as a model of good speech articulation. Love of language is first fostered through the ear, not the eye, and from infancy onward children need to be fed good literature. Since young children or reluctant readers of any age are introduced to a very high proportion of their working vocabulary through oral rather than reading experience, listening to oral readings of literature is a very effective way to ease them into the vocabulary development that will make the reading process easier. (p. 154) Because reading and writing are interrelated,the writing process will also be easier. The "Lap Method Approach" (Moffett & Wagner, 1983) is a good means of fostering the young child’s written literacy and language development. The authors described this method as one that emphasizes sentence continuity by having the child follow a text ”with the eyes while hearing the text read aloud" (p. 417). Moffett and Wagner described he actual process of the lap method as follows: What happens when a person follows a text while hearing it read is that she matches off speech with print very grossly at first and then more and more 16 finely. Gradually she analyzes the big blocks of print, discriminates among the different words, and narrows her synchronizing focus down more and more-- from the whole page or paragraph to the sentence, then to the phrase or word, then eventually to each of the forty-odd phonemes of English. (p. 427) The lap method has its beginnings in the home, when a parent holds a child on his/her lap and reads aloud to the child while the youngster follows the text with his/her eyes. Fitzgerald (n.d.) wrote, "The lap method helps the child experience joy in reading with someone he loves: it gives the auditory and visual stimuli that connect print to what he knows, speech" (p. 3). Besides imitating the speech and oral patterns they hear, children make generalizations about language and internalize rudimentary rules of the language system. As Bissex (1985) 'noted, "children. spend several years learning about print before they enter first grade" (p. 103). Educators can assess the extent of this early knowledge and provide experiences to build on this existing literary foundation. Farr (1984) pointed out that young children’s writing development does not occur in successive, discrete, age- related stages. Written literacy is acquired holistically as children experiment with language daily. They constantly process the data they receive from their environment and employ this information in much the same way adults do. According to Farr, "writing should be seen 17 as a precess, and it should be seen as a natural part of ia_n_gpege, and not as an artificial extension of ’real’ (i.e., oral) language" (p. 128). Harste, Burke, and Woodward (1984) studied young children between the ages of three and six to learn about their acquisition of written language. Using the "child as informant" technique, they found that educators can learn much about children’s written literacy by observing young children in natural language-usage settings. In addition to substantiating other researchers’ finding that children have the beginnings of literacy before they enter the formal school setting, the authors identified eight key concepts that they perceived to be essential in understanding children’s literacy and literacy learning. These concepts' are: "organization, _ intentionality, generation, risk, social action, context, text, and demonstration" (p. 81). Harste et al.’s explanations of these concepts are given in the following paragraphs. 1. W. Patterns in children’s reading and writing behaviors which seem to reflect, in their genesis, a common set of cognitive processing decisions on the part of the language user and learner. For example, we found that when asked to write, young children make markings which reflect the written language of their culture. We interpret these data to mean that the psycholinguistic processes in written language use and learning are sociologically rooted. These data support the notion that young children are written language users and learners long before they receive 18 formal instruction and that they actively attend to written language: in short, there is literacy before schooling. (p. 82) 2. W- An expectation on the part of language users and learners that written marks are cultural objects, or signs, which signify. Even before children have determined what a particular written mark may sig- nify, their responses reflect a basic understanding of written marks as cultural objects which have a sign potential. (p. 108) 3. n V S. In use, language is an open system which permits the maintenance and generation of meaning. To say that written language is an object which functions as a sign is to suggest that the system is infinitely open. What the language user takes the sign to mean is a function of his or her purpose and background of experience. Language as a sign can sign different things to different people, or even different things to the same person on different occasions. (p. 118) 4. nisr Taking. Language is inherently social. Because the trail of marks we leave during the writing process makes language users vulnerable, engagement in the process can scare both participants and observers. When this happens, withdrawal from the process can occur. Since access to the process can only be gained through involvement in the process, strategies which allow language users to set aside perceived or real constraints and which permit engagement on the language user’s terms are central to growth in literacy. (p. 130) Without risk there can be no exploration or discovery of the generative potentials of literacy. (p. 192) 5. W. Language is, by its very nature, social. Not only do writers assume they have readers, and speakers assume they have listeners, but interaction with real or supposed social others involving all of the 19 expressions of language is an integral part of any instance of the language and the language learning process. (p. 193) 6. gontexr. The language process does not function unless or until a language user imposes context. To fail to contextualize is to fail to understand. There is no such thing as decontextualized print. Linguistic signs exist only in a social cognitive setting. (p. 151) 7- M- From a cognitive processing perspective the basic unit of language is "text." "Text" presupposes a reader or a writer actively involved in making a unified chunk of meaning from experiences involving language. (p. 164). In the production of signifying structures in order to mean in writing, a surface text is created. This surface text is different from the real text which remains in the head of the originator. When someone else reads this surface text in search of signifying structures and interprets their signifi- cance, a new text is born. (p. 194) 8. Demonstrations By "demonstration" we mean a display of how something is done. As applied to written language and written language learning, any literary event provides a variety of demonstrations which are available to language learners through the actions of the participants and the artifacts of the process. The learning of these demonstrations involves the active mediation of the language user. (p. 180) Two earlier writers reached conclusions similar to those of more recent researchers on the writing development of young children. Hildreth (1936) traced writing growth in children from the ages of three to six. Her work "defined five stages ranging from aimless scribbles to well-marked units closely approximating 20 actual letters" (p. 243). A similar study by Wheeler (1971) found. that. children’s ‘writing followed. this progression: "designs, pictures, letters, words in isolation, word phrases, words in sentences, and finally symbols" (p. 244). The children in both of these studies had received no formal writing instruction; they had taught themselves. These studies and others were reported by King and Rentel (1979). The American society is print oriented. Young children are snrrounded by print. Before they begin their formal schooling, they are aware of printed forms and soon learn that "those funny little marks" on signs, cereal boxes, fast-food logos, book and magazine pages, and so on, stand for something. Preschoolers are so eager to learn that they begin to imitate the printed forms by making "letters/words" of their own. To the adult, this "writing" is simply scribbling. Hewever, it has meaning to and can be "read" by the young writer, who anticipates that the adults in his/her environment can "read" the message, too. One of the earliest documented case'studies about the young child’s development of written literacy was done by Scollen and Scollen (1981) with their two-year-old daughter, Rachel. In this study of emergent literacy of preschool children, the writers found that Rachel progressed from orally telling her experiences to 21 "writing" them down and "reading" them aloud. She fully expected that her ”writing" had meaning. This finding was further documented by Clay (1975), who found that children expect adults to be able to "read" what they have "written" (i.e., scribbles). In her work with five-year- old children, Clay noticed the following steps in the writing development of young children: scribbling, tracing over a teacher’s copy, copying underneath the model, and writing down one’s own ideas without a copy. The child progresses from knowing that letters represent sounds and writing these letters, to writing words, then short phrases, and finally complete sentences. More specifically, Clay listed the different stages of written language of which young writers must be aware as they develop their written literacy: 1. To understand that print talks. 2. To form letters. 3. To build up memories of common words they can construct out of letters. 4. To use those words to write messages. 5. To increase the number and range of sentences used. 6. To become flexible in the use of sentences. 7. To discipline the expression of ideas within the spelling and punctuation conventions of English. (pp. 11-12) Clay cited 13 principles and concepts that children learn as they develop written literacy. Those principles and concepts, along with a brief description of each one, are as follows: 22 l. The Sign Concept-~Although realizing that "a sign carries a message," children have problems when they "fail to move beyond the stage of producing signs" (p. 63). 2. The Message Concept--"The child at this stage realizes that the messages that he speaks can be written down" (p. 63). 3. The Copying Principle--”Some letters, some words, and some word groups must be imitated or copied in a slow and laborious way to establish the first units of printing behavior" (p. 63). 4. The Flexibility Principle--"Left to experiment with letter forms, children will create a variety of new symbols by repositioning or decorating the standard forms" (p. 63). 5. The Inventory Principle--Five-year-old children "took stock of their own learning so systematically that they spontaneously made lists of what they knew" and "arranged or consciously ordered their learning" in structured inventories (p. 64). 6. The Recurring Principle--"The tendency to repeat an action has the obvious advantage of helping in the establishment of quick, habitual response patterns, and it probably produces pleasant feelings of competence" (p. 64). 7. The Generating Principle--An easy way to extend one’ s repertoire is to know some elements, and to know 23 some rules for combining or arranging these elements. One can then produce many new statements in an inventive way" (p. 64). 8. The Directional Principle--"Language is written in two-dimensional space according to a set of printer’s conventions which the adult writer or reader takes for granted. For correct behaviour to occur the child must start at the top left, move from left to right, and return to a left hand position under the starting point, establishing a top to bottom progression" (p. 64). 9. Reversing the Directional Pattern--"It is common to find mirror writing at this stage . . . because the child has selected a starting point towards the right-hand edge of the page" (p. 65). 10. The Contrastive Principle--"It is a feature of language that contrasts can be made between units at several levels . . . --contrasts between shapes, meanings, sounds, and word patterns" (p. 65). 11. The Space Concept--When a young child progresses "from writing single words to writing words in groups," he/she may have a problem realizing that "a space must be used to signal the end of one word and the beginning of another" (p. 65). 12. Page and Book Arrangement--Wh‘en a child "runs out of page and cannot fit his word or sentence on the 24 line or on a page . . . he tends to fill the left-over spaces with his left-over utterances, ignoring at that moment the directional principles" (p. 65). 13. The Abbreviation Principle--"It is an important and advanced achievement because the child who intentionally uses an abbreviation probably understands that the letters of abbreviations ’stand for’ words and could be filled out or expanded into full forms. letter and word concepts are established and their interrelationships understood" (p. 65). Ames, Gillespie, Haines, and Ilg (1979) listed the developmental stages in the young child’s ability to copy forms. They cited the following norms .for writing name and letters: 4-1/2 years: Prints one or two recognizable letters 5 years: Prints first name 5-1/2 years: Prints first name and first letter of last name 6 years: Prints first and last names (girls) 6-1/2 years: Prints first and last names (boys) Before age four, young children try to "write" using scribbles, particularly circles, as they attempt to show their intentions through written literacy. Another revealing investigation about the development of written literacy in young children was a case study about a three-year-old preschooler named Anna (Haussler, 25 1985). The researcher followed Anna’s developing ideas about written literacy through the fellowing stages: understanding the functions of print, using context in reading, using print cues, and knowing how to handle books. The guiding question directing the research was, "What do three year olds know about written language?" (p. 74). In stage one, "understanding the function of print," Anna demonstrated her knowledge about “the function of print in her immediate environment in a naturalistic way. She was able to read the letters TWA (Trans-World Airlines) wherever they appeared. The three-year-old subject also demonstrated rudimentary knowledge of beginning consonants ("graphophonic correspondence for the initial consonants," p. 75) by reading her parents’ names whenever she saw them in print. The second stage, "using context in reading," showed Anna’s ability to read print that she encountered in her environment: labels on grocery items, road signs, and advertisements. When the child saw a particular artifact associated with something familiar to her, she was able to "connect" this item to something familiar in her environment and read it. In stage three, "using print cues," the author related how Anna used "a variety of graphic strategies to construct meaning for the printed signs around her. These 26 strategies included using print to name and using the cues of configuration and graphophonic correspondence to respond to text" (p. 77). Items on which Anna used these strategies were a milk carton, a department store shopping bag, and a large road sign depicting the letter A. In the last stage, ”knowing how to handle books," Anna exhibited her knowledge about book handling by differentiating between the front and back of a book and knowing to read print from left to right and top to bottom. The researcher, who was also Anna’s mother, used Clay’s (1973) Sand Test to assess Anna’s knowledge in this area. As a result of this study, Haussler concluded that young children are able to react to print at a very young age when they. are surrounded by a print-saturated environment. "Children do not leap from illiteracy to an understanding that our writing system is alphabetic when they receive their first phonics lesson," stated Bissex (1985, p. 101). Having been exposed to a print-saturated environment long before they begin formal schooling, children know that print conveys meaning. They have a developing concept of the functions of the written language, based on early experimentation with letter formations, representations, and sounds. 27 According to Ferreiro’s (1982) research, the young child begins to develop written literacy by using a single letter or shape to represent an object; The youngster then proceeds to eennine several shapes to represent his/her thoughts. Sometime during his/her experimentation with writing, the child discovers "the correspondence between writing and speech, first reasoning that letters represent syllables. and, finally, sounds" and invented spellings (Bissex, 1985, p. 101). The child’s explorations result in further discoveries about his/her language system. The young child conceptualizes this sizable knowledge of written literacy before entering school. Calkins (1986) observed young writers at work as they engaged in the writing process. She divided the composing process into four steps: rehearsal, drafting, revision, and editing. Then she proceeded to discuss each stage in terms of the youngsters’ grade level. Calkins observed specific characteristics for each group, but some necessary overlapping existed because children differ developmentally. In the following pages, highlights of Calkins’s research are presented in outline form. I. 28 Kindergarten-First Grade (ages 5 and 6) A. Rehearsal l. Rehearses by drawing 2. Basically operates in the present rather than the future 3. Doesn’t think about topics 4. Most of the child’s meaning is carried by the picture 5. Drawing may help children with the problem of topic selection Drafting 1. Beginning writing with initial consonants only 2. Using initial and final consonants, with a sprinkling of other consonants included 3. Using a letter to represent each sound in a word 4. No spacing between words--not sure where one word ends and another begins 5. Shows "voice" by darkened letters, oversized print, or capitals 6. Use of exclamation marks and quotation marks 7. Use of speech during writing provides a scaffolding within which text can be con- structed 8. First graders write more than kindergarten- ers--longer pieces 9. Write attribute books first, then personal narrative pieces Revision 1. "Adding on" to their stories 2. Rearranging the pages in their books D. 29 Editing 1. 2. Separating words--inserting dashes, dots, dashes, one word to a line Concern for spelling rather than for content II. Second Grade A. Rehearsal 1. 2. Loss of self-confidence: suffer "writer’s block" Concern over "the right way" of doing things--correctness 3. Talking takes the place of drawing--most children find it easier to embed meaning in a written text rather than in a drawing/ picture 4. Peer interviews should be encouraged Drafting 1. Some children write more than in first grade: some write less 2. Spend more time on margins and headings than on their stories 3. Finish "writing" quickly 4. Voice is shown through ”and thens" and col- loquialisms 5. Writes "chain-of-events" stories (bed-to-bed stories) 6. Writes in patterns 7. Concern about conventions, form, pattern, and ”real books" a. Fancy capital letters on the first page b. Dedications c. ”About the Author" pages III. 30 d. Blurbs on the back cover e. The table of contents f. Chapters g. Subheadings h. Captions underneath pictures C. Revision 1. 2. Love "add-on" revisions using scissors, tape, and arrows Love revision "activity," but don’t quite understand the real meaning of revision D. Editing: Can respond to an editing checklist devised by the teacher Third Grade A. Rehearsal 1. Overconcern for correctness and convention Take fewer risks Reach "the third-grade plateau" Care very much about their audiences Tendency to choose "giant topics" and dis- cuss them with friends Need help to focus their topic-~usually too broad B. Drafting 1. 2. Topics usually involve incidents from their lives Write tightly structured pieces--"chain of events" Stories reflect the chronology of life events rather than their responses to those events 31 4. Tend to produce one-track, systematic, and even-paced narratives 5. Tendency to overdo things 6. Transitions, which require distance, con- trol, and an ability to shift gears, seem hard for these children C. Revision 1. Revisions tend to be merely corrections 2. Will experiment with different leads under teacher’s guidance 3. "Chain of events" narratives 4. Tendency not to think in their heads, but must write everything down on paper D. Editing: Same as second grade--can respond to an editing checklist prepared by the teacher In an earlier study, Calkins (1983) traced the writing development of one child, Susie, as she began writing and gained increased proficiency in written literacy. At the beginning of the research, eight-year- old Susie tended to write, edit, revise, and perform other writing operations in a linear fashion. Later, as her writing growth continued, she began to view composition as a series of recursive actions. Her writing development reflected this new growth. From this two-year case study, Calkins made generalizations and applied them to other third- and fourth-grade writers and their writing development. The author documented Susie’s writing growth in three areas: 32 development of "an executive function," internalization of “concrete physical strategies," and development of "a wider and more flexible field of concerns" (p. 55). Although there are several accepted versions of the writing process, for the purpose of this study, the writing phases or stages were delineated as follows: 1. Prewriting stage: generating ideas and vocabu- lary, dramatic experiences, and artistic experiences. 2. Drafting stage: actual writing or composing. 3. Sharing stage: sharing piece with peers and/or teacher. 4. Revising stage: Proofreading, editing, and reor- ganizing thoughts. 5. Publishing stage: making books and displaying the writing. The writing process is not necessarily linear, as it appears on a list. Writing is a recursive operation. The literature reviewed in this section revealed that the young child has the beginnings of literacy when he/she begins school. Educators can ascertain what young children already know when they first enter school and build on that knowledge. Moffett and Wagner (1983) recommended the following school activities to build on youngsters’ basic literacy foundation: 33 l. The opportunity to learn to read and write should be offered children at every age from three on. . . . Encouraged, yes; surrounded with literacy materials and books, occasions to get involved, people who can help him seize the occasions, yes. (p. 405) 2. Enrich the environment so that children can be constantly manipulating interesting objects and comparing them for their shapes and sounds, among other features. (p. 406) ' 3. Children need to be talked with, read to, and taken places. They need direct experience with some of the physical and social things that books talk about. They need to handle books, turn the pages, and look at pictures. They need to find out what writing and reading have to offer-- discover the pleasure and information in books, become aware of environmental writing such as signs. (p. 407) It may be difficult for one teacher to do all of these activities with a classroom of 30 young children, and a classroom aide may not be available. However, more advanced pupils can help the underdeveloped children in their literacy efforts. Moffett and Wagner referred to this as "pupil cross-teaching" (p. 407). Such activities may include reading to the children, conversing (peer talk) with them, engaging in dramatic play and social games, helping them with the "letter formation and spatial orientation in books" (p. 407), and interacting in other small-group activities. Moffett and Wagner listed a number of primary literacy activities” Main activities include the following: 10. 11. 34 Reading while listening Dictating while listening Watching audiovisual presentation Reading to teacher Transcribing tape Punctuating unpunctuated texts Spelling self-diagnosis Performing texts Taking live dictation Matching letters Forming letters The classroom games intended to develop include: 1. Card decks Game boards Bingo Dice Scrabble-type Letter-moving devices Stamps and letters Word cards Crossword puzzles Tic-tac-toe "Tap and Say" "Word Touring" Anagrams literacy skills 35 14. "Get the Point" 15. Spelling games According to Wagner (1985) , "The teacher needs to provide an environment rich with resources for making language connections" (p. 558) . She recommended several classroom activities for the development of young children’s emerging literacy. These include: diaries, learning journals, records of observations, [writing] true and invented stories, [participating in] small group tasks, such as generating a list of questions for research, responding to first drafts of writing, discussing the meaning of stories or poems, deciding how to prepare a group report, editing one another’s work for publication, and planning a reader’s theatre or other type of rehearsed reading (p. 558). Wagner continued: School environments for integrated learning must be safe and structured, with ample opportunities for long periods of reading, writing, and carrying on task- or topic-oriented conversations in the classroom. Teachers can serve as models by engaging in all of these activities with their students. (p. 559) All of these activities serve to enhance young children’s language acquisition. W ' i ' nn - 't c 00 Writing is an important skill for everyone, particularly minority students. Being a good writer means that one has acquired the basic ability to communicate with others. Nonmainstream students are the ones most in need of the skills required to communicate effectively. 36 They are in the minority and have fewer opportunities than mainstream children to advance in American society. One of the main functions of the public school system is to help children become functional participants of society. Black parents want their children to have better opportunities and skills than they had, to succeed academically, and then to move into the mainstream for economic reward. Many parents simply lack the time, knowledge, and skills necessary to help their children develop written literacy. Minority students who want to advance socially and economically, but who lack the basic skills, must have help to gain the tools needed for access to the economic reward system, which is controlled by the majority. Such aid usually comes through the school system. However, seeking monetary success through better jobs and other advancements does not mean that nonmainstream students want to be denuded of the richness of their own culture or to be divested of the important contribution of 1 their cultural backgrounds. All students need time for writing in order to develop and enhance this essential skill. However, minority or nonmainstream children are often deprived of writing time. Well-meaning educators, believing that these children lack the "basic skills," emphasize drill 37 and fill—in-the-blank. exercises that intensify the fragmented learning these children receive (Farr & Daniels, 1986: Moffett, 1983). This procedure is just the opposite of what they and mainstream pupils need: a holistic approach to the language arts. As inner-city children pursue their daily educational activities, they face many problems stemming from social, cultural, and environmental factors beyond their control. These problems include high mobility rates, unstable family units, and low-paying or nonexistent jobs. Other negative circumstances include poor health; lack of books, magazines, paper, and other literacy materials at home; lack of transportation; and residences in deteriorating neighborhoods characterized by crowded living conditions and a high crime rate. Such pervasive problems adversely affect the child’s adjustment in school, particularly his/her linguistic and cognitive development. A major cultural factor operating in the academic milieu is the requirement, usually unstated, that the minority child adjust to the middle-class value system of the school. In many instances, the value system the children bring with them to school and return to after dismissal is in direct conflict with the values and beliefs educators are projecting as they strive to prepare these children for their roles in the larger society. 38 Morine and Marine (1970) addressed this problémyh%\ which has implications for administrative personnel as well as for teachers: The particular difficulty with educating inner-city children as opposed to middle-class children is that the middle-class child comes to school having been told a great deal about his role in school. The inner-city child, on the other hand, has to learn his role upon arrival in school. He needs to try out a variety of behaviors to find out which one is the one that gets him attention. We [educators] need to set up and define roles that will enable the child to attain the ends we have set up for him. We need, then, to support him with attention at any time he is playing the desired role. (p. 13) Another factor adversely affecting minority children is the lack of parental role models in the area of writing. Children need to see the significant adults in their lives engaged in the task of writing or composing. Many researchers have spoken of the importance of modeling in the writing development of young children (Ascher, 1982: Burrows & Lundsteen, 1976; Graves, 1983). If the modeling aspect of writing is so important for students of the dominant culture, one can only conclude that inner- city students, who are experiencing so many negative conditions beyond their control, need even more of this type of positive adult influence. Inner-city children’s writing and other academic difficulties are exacerbated by mainstream resistance to the validity of their dialect. The use of a dialect can affect how quickly a child acquires written literacy. Yet it hit se p0 la th Ed 19 de a: Er WE la 39 it is the teacher’s attitude toward the language of the bidialectical student, rather than use of a dialect per se, that is important. The teacher must be warm, positive, and appreciative of the rich diversity of language backgrounds nonmainstream students bring with them into the classroom environment (Alexander, 1985; Edwards, 1985; Johnson, 1985; King & Karlson, 1982: Scott, 1985: Smitherman, 1975, 1981, 1985: Turner, 1985). Everyone speaks a dialect, although some people may deny this fact. Shuy (1967) wrote that "many Americans are unaware that they and their friends speak a variety of English which can be called a dialect. Many even deny it" (p. l). Perrin (1972) noted, "All of us speak a dialect (or several dialects), though we may not realize that we do, since our neighbors for miles around speak the same way we do" (p. 90). Barnitz (1980) defined dialect as "a language system identifiable to a particular geographic area (regional dialect) and social class (social dialect)" (p. 780). According to Perrin (1972), a dialect is a language system that has distinct characteristics differentiating it from the language spoken by people in different regions of the same country. Linguists agree that the United States has three major dialects: Northern, Midland, and Southern (Perrin, 1972: Shuy, 1967). These dialects differ from region to region in three major ways: voc dia by ' of con is inc The sys thi who Soc tha inf sta COg Spe emr not tic Ver V35 4O vocabulary, usage, and pronunciation. The particular dialect addressed in this literature review is that spoken by basically low-income black children in inner-city areas of most major cities in the United States. For the past 15 years, there has been an ongoing controversy about whether Vernacular Black English (VBE) is a legitimate language and whether its users are incompetent linguistically, verbally, and intellectually. The position taken in this study is that the language system or dialect is legitimate and that people who speak this dialect are not intellectually inferior to those who speak Standard English or other dialects. Research findings have supported this position. Sociolinguistic. researchers have proven systematically that it is erroneous to regard children who use VBE as inferior. Bereiter and Englemann (1966) disagreed, stating that users of VBE are deficient linguistically and cognitively. In fact, VBE is a language system that has specific phonetic and syntactic rules, which its users employ. This rule-governed system is merely different, not deficient (Labov, 1972b: Steffenson, 1978). VBE is rich in content and style, and children who use it are very verbal, usually outside of the classroom. It is in the classroom that minority children who use VBE face their greatest problem: Their language is di cl by ch re in pr in th an in an fe ch he ma 1a Sit Cor 41 different from the Standard English spoken in the classroom. In most cases, their dialect is not accepted by the teacher, who is a significant other in all children’s lives. Educators are charged with the responsibility of educating the society’s children and inculcating the values that society deems necessary for productive citizenship. When a teacher detects an "error" in a child’s speech pattern or in his/her written work, the automatic response is to "correct" the child. Farr and Daniels (1986) stated that: American school teachers also have a strong professional tradition as guardians of the genteel culture, especially as it is reflected in polite, standard language. Every school teacher--not just those specifically assigned to teach English and language arts--feels some sense of duty to uphold correctness in speech and writing. (p. 49) Racial issues have proven to be factors in the interrelationships between linguistically diverse pupils and their teachers. On the other hand, black teachers may feel an additional responsibility to "correct" black children’s dialectical speech patterns in an effort to help their identity group achieve success in the mainstream culture. Many sociolinguists believe that to reject a person’s language is to reject the person him/ herself. Steffenson (1978) contended that the teacher’s race may be a significant factor in considering dialect within the context of the classroom. In fact, teachers’ attitudes 42 and expectations have been found to be major factors affecting student achievement. Researchers who have done extensive research on effective schools have documented this finding (Brookover et al., 1982: Edmonds, 1979: Lezotte, 1979). A landmark case pertaining to teachers’ attitudes toward and acceptance of minority children who use nonstandard English was Martin L. King School Children v. the Ann Arbor School Board. The case concerned 15 (later 11) low-income black school children from the Green Road housing project, located in the upper-middle-class community of Ann Arbor, Michigan. The lawsuit centered on two major issues: (a) the children were not being taught to read, and (b) they were being subjected to psychological damage by nonaccepting teachers. At the time of the lawsuit, there was one black teacher on the faculty. The remainder of the teaching staff was white. These low-income pupils were also being placed in special classes and given such labels as emotionally impaired, learning disabled, mentally deficient, and so on. Geneva Smitherman, a speech professor at Wayne State university and an expert on linguistics, was the chief witness for the children. She successfully established the case for accepting black dialect as a legitimate language system. Equally important, she addressed the issue of better 43 teacher preparation in understanding and accepting the children’s speech. Not every black person uses VBE, although 80% to 90% of the blacks in America today speak Black English (Dillard, 1972). However, most 'blacks who do use nonstandard English can also use Standard English when the occasion calls for it. Therefore, children must be taught to "code-switch" (Smitherman, 1977). Middle-class black children receive such instruction at home; low-income children do not. Many of their parents are poorly educated and do not speak Standard English themselves. Consequently, educators :must fill this void. and teach these children when to use each type of English. Moffett and Wagner (1983) recommended the following tactics to increase the oral and written literacy of pupils who use nonstandard English. Teachers should have children: 1. Converse constantly with Standard English speak- ers. 2. Listen to tape-recordings of Standard English as they follow the text with their eyes. 3. Role-play speakers of the major dialect. This gives them a chance to experience another dialect community without rejecting their own. 4. Participate in small peer groups. 44 5. Serve as an audience for performances by others using the standard dialect. 6. Write small skits and participate in them. In W (Brooks, 1985), teachers can find other suggestions for helping dialectically different youngsters. Some of those ideas are: 1. Having children listen to the teacher read aloud in the standard dialect. 2. Having pupils listen to and view films, slides, and film strips. 3. Showing children movies of famous Black Ameri- cans, such as Dr. Martin L. King, Jr.--especially his speeches. 4. Providing lots of good literature. 5. Providing numerous opportunities for reading and writing. 6. Having pupils participate in small discussion groups. As stated. before, ‘the importance of listening to recorded Standard English texts has been strongly recommended (Brooks et al., 1985: Moffett & Wagner, 1983: Smitherman, 1977). NOnmainstream children who speak VBE as labeled by Labov (1972) can best be helped to learn the standard dialect by exposing them to speakers of Standard English, whether in person or through recordings. Moffett and Wagner particularly advocated that linguistically 45 diverse children listen to tape recordings of Standard English as they follow the text with their eyes. This is an effective, nonthreatening way to increase the oral and written literacy of minority children. America’s children--black, white, brown, yellow, and red--are her greatest resource. Every opportunity must be taken to help them grow up to be active, well-educated, and productive members of society. Minorities, especially' low-income: ones, need. the school’s aid and acceptance. To paraphrase author James Baldwin, one cannot expect a child to learn when his whole being, through his language, has been rejected.. Educators are charged with the responsibility of teaching composition skills, not just to mainstream pupils but also to. those students who are socially, linguistically, and culturally different. Darnell (1974) noted three ways teachers can help nonmainstream students develop literacy: (a) adopt a warm, positive attitude toward the students’ unique cultural differences: (b) use the children’s rich cultural experiences as a base on which to develop literacy; and (c) select curriculum materials with which the pupils can identify. Later researchers have built on these general suggestions. Most recently, Farr and Daniels (1986) isolated 15 key factors associated with effective writing 46 instruction for linguistically different children. A brief description of each factor is presented in the following pages. 1. "Teachers who understand and appreciate the basic linguistic competence that students bring with them to school, and who therefore have positive expectations for students’ achievements in writing." (p. 45) Educators, especially teachers who work so intimately with children, must become aware of the dissemination of the linguistic research relating to nonstandard dialects. The data have proved the importance of teacher attitude in teaching writing to speakers of nonstandard English (Perl & Wilson, 1986). Students need to feel that they are acceptable in their teachers’ eyes. To reject a child’s language is to reject the child him/herself. 2. "Regular and substantial practice in writing, aimed at developing fluency." (p. 45) Children need to write approximately 50 to 60 minutes every day (Graves, 1983) . The more the children write, the greater their rate of fluency. Minority students often lack opportunities to write outside of school. Therefore, it is imperative that teachers provide regular class periods for composition. 3. "The opportunity to write for real, personally significant purposes.” (p. 45) For writing to become the deep learning experience it should be, children should be allowed to choose their own topics. When they are given this personal choice, they 47 tend to write more than if they were given a list of topics and told to choose one and write about it (Graves, 1974). Also, as Graves noted, "Children who are fed topics, story starters, lead sentences, even opening paragraphs as a steady diet for three or four years rightfully panic when topics have to come from them" (p. 22). Young children, both mainstream and linguistically different ones, tend to choose topics about which they have some knowledge for their written compositions. They take particular pride in sharing this knowledge with others. Another factor to consider when youngsters choose their own topics is that some children may choose a subject they do not know much about, but are interested enough in the subject to want to learn more about it. This enthusiasm is vital because the young writer can research his/her topic, thus increasing the child’s store of knowledge. The use of textbook "leads" and duplicating masters limits a child’s writing. The youngster simply may not be interested in the current topic selected as a writing subject. 4. "Experience in writing for a wide range of audi- ences, both inside and outside. of school." (p. 45) When one is writing to a specific audience, one usually has a specific intention or purpose in mind. The 48 content of the composition varies according to the audience to whom the writing is directed. Children should have an opportunity to write to many audiences or different types of readers (Calkins, 1983: Farr & Daniels, 1986; Moffett, 1983: NCTE, 1969). The teacher is usually the one and only audience or receiver of most young children’s writing. This situation needs to change because young authors, mainstream as well as nonmainstream, need the experience of writing for peers, parents, community leaders, and others. Composing for various audiences fosters growth in writing. 5. "Rich and continuous reading experience, includ- ing both published literature of acknowledged mgrit and the work of peers and instructors." (p. Much has been written about the importance of surrounding children with a rich print environment to provide them with resources and experiences to draw upon when they begin to write (Graves, 1983: Moffett & Wagner, 1983). Youngsters from homes in which written literacy is not emphasized especially need to have these experiences provided by the school. 6. "Exposure to models of writing in process and writers at work, including both teachers and classmates." (p. 45) Young writers need to see how the writing process "flows" from beginning to end. Then they will become aware that the act of composing is not necessarily a 49 smooth process leading to a direct end. The writer may make many different copies before displaying the finished product or presenting it to an audience. Inner-city pupils, who may be experiencing writing problems relating to their dialect, should see pieces of writing with cross- outs, arrows, corrections, and other editing marks. This is essential because they are not only learning how to put their ideas down on paper, but they are also learning to do so in a dialect different from their own. The task is much more difficult for such children and for their teacher, but it is not insurmountable (Markham, 1984). Children tend to see adults as omnipotent--powerful in all respects. In the area of writing, they rarely see works in progress. They see the finished product and have no idea of the doodling, false starts, crumpled pages, and so on, that actually accompany the art of writing. To a child, a piece of writing was instantly created by a powerful adult. Graves (1983) wrote: Think of children: they have seen even fewer writers compose. Ask children how adults write. Their replies blend concepts of witchcraft and alchemy. Children suggest that when adults write, the words flow, arrive "Shazam!" on the page. Like the Tablets, words are dictated to us from on high; we only hold the pen and a mysterious force dictates stories, poems, and letters. The better the writer, the less the struggle. (p. 43) Nonmainstream children have even fewer opportunities to see writing-in-progress. Therefore, like majority 50 children, they are unaware of the trials of the writing craft. The young black dialect writer may make systematic errors in his/her writing, and if the teacher is not acquainted with the latest research in writing and covers the child’s paper with red marks and negative comments, the youngster’s self-esteem suffers. Being of the minority in America, the child may already have problems with acceptance in school and in the larger society. A negatively received piece of writing only exacerbates the child’s adjustment in school and attitude toward writing. 7. "Instruction in the processes ,of writing; that is, learning to work at a given writing task in appropriate phases, including prewriting, drafting, and revising." (p. 45) Teachers can organize a writing workshop or studio (Graves, 1983) in their classrooms to teach the five stages in the writing process: prewriting, drafting, sharing, revising, and publishing. Then, by modeling the process him/herself, the instructor can instruct the children in how to work in each different phase. 8. "Collaborative activities for students that pro- vide ideas for writing and guidance for revising works in progress." (p. 45) Graves’ s (1983) writing workshop method, with its emphasis on sharing, peer editing, and small group work, can be used effectively in collaborative activities. The studio approach allows children to work creatively 51 together, sharing' ideas, editing' each. other’s ‘writing, and, in general, learning from each other. 9. "One-to-one writing conferences with the teacher." (p. 45) The writing conference (good for all students) can help inner-city students, who may feel alienated in the middle-class school structure, become more comfortable with their classroom teacher. As they begin to feel comfortable and more self-confident about having their writing, language, and thus, essentially, themselves accepted, their attitudes toward writing and other aspects of the school curriculum will become more positive. 10. "Direct instruction in specific strategies and techniques for writing." (p. 46) Besides being presented with adult models and viewing pieces of writing in various stages of completion, children need to be taught specific tips that writers use when composing. For example, minority students should be given the necessary help in translating dialectic idioms or differences in verb tenses into Standard English. The teacher must be careful in providing such help so as not to make the writer feel rejected. 11. "Reduced instruction in grammatical terminology and related drills, with increased use of sentence combining activities." (p. 46) Researchers such as Hillocks (1986) have shown that endless drilling in learning the parts of speech and countless hours of diagramming sentences have not produced 52 better writers. Sentence combining, on the other hand, has been proven successful as an alternate approach to learning grammar. The method involves letting children combine short "kernel" sentences into progressively longer and more complex ones. 12. "Teaching of writing mechanics and grammar in the context of students’ actual compositions, rather than in separate drills or exercises." (P- 45) The best text to use in teaching writing is the child’s writing itself because the youngster has chosen an interesting topic and transcribed on paper his/her own ideas and feelings about this subject. The result is an intensely personal piece of writing in which the child has a keen interest. In wishing to share this work with others, the child will want to present it at its best. Consequently, he/she will voluntarily correct errors, maintaining a high level of interest while doing so. In the first grade, it is common to teach young children manuscript writing or printing and to allocate instructional time for this purpose. Cursive writing is traditionally introduced in grade three, and children are taught correct letter formation. Schools traditionally assign time to practice handwriting skills, although time for composition may not be specified. Composition, however, is not handwriting practice. Children need time to develop proficiency in both of these 53 essential subjects. In fact, when children are allowed to write for actual audiences and for real purposes, they become excited about and interested in what they are composing. The message becomes important. They then want to share their writing with others. When it is pointed out to them that the message must be clear to their audience, they will voluntarily assume the responsibility to form their letters correctly, correct errors, and make their work neat and legible. Concern with mastering the formal conventions of writing and using excessive school time for their purpose can be categorized under "writing to master the conventions of writing" (Farr & Daniels, 1986, p. 53). The four remaining major purposes of writing, as stated by Farr and Daniels, are "writing to learn, writing to communicate, writing to express the self, and writing to create" (p. 53). 13. "Moderate marking of surface structure errors, focusing on sets or patterns of related errors." (Po 45) When pupils receive a composition that the instructor has corrected extensively in red, they tend to feel embar- rassed and doubtful about their writing ability. (”Some minority___pupils may interpret extensive“corrections—"as a Hue--1—____ _ __., .-._.._- fl _ further rejection of themselves in an already threatening, /o \l cold emotional environment that may exist in their school./ Moderate correction of errors, sensitively offered, can 54 allow the student to retain some feeling of self-worth in relation to his/her writing. Also, analyzing patterns of errors and allowing the child to work at-eliminating them one group at a time can make the task of revision seem less insurmountable. 14. "Flexible and cumulative evaluation of student writing that stresses revision and is sensitive to variations in subject, audience, and pur- pose." (p. 46) Premature evaluation of children’s writing may lead them to think that once a piece of writing has been graded, it is finished, never to be returned to again. A writing folder with pieces of work completed and in progress can be compiled and used in teaching children how to revise their work. Students should also engage in various types of writing for many different audiences. The purposes of this writing should vary, also. 15. "Practicing and using writing as a tool of learning in all subjects in the curriculum, not just in English." (p. 46) Writing-across-the-curriculum (Britton et al., 1975) entails using writing as a teaching-learning tool in all subject areas. In the elementary school, this means that children daily use writing skills in some way in their lessons from the other disciplines. Integrating composition with the other subjects is easier for the elementary teacher, who usually teaches in a self- contained classroom, than it is for the secondary teacher. 55 The elementary teacher has the same group of students in the classroom all day and teaches them all subjects. This facilitates the correlation of writing with other curriculum activities and allows for more flexibility in scheduling the time needed for integrating writing. As stated previously, integrating writing with other subject areas can be accomplished fairly easily in a self- contained classroom because the teacher has the same students all day and instructs them in all subjects. Scheduling the large blocks of time needed for writing is also simplified. Writing is an excellent tool for learning content in subjects such as science and social studies (Sanders, 1985; Tchudi & Tchudi, 1983; Thaiss, 1986). According to Farr and Daniels (1986), proper use of these key principles should enable teachers of minority children, as well as other youngsters, to enhance their pupils’ progress in composition literacy. Finally, Holbrook (1984) summarized the research done by Goldberg (1984), Graves (1978), and Howard (1984) to illustrate, also, some classroom characteristics for an effective writing program. The characteristics are as follows: (1) opportunity for students to write frequently, even in the primary grades, with delayed or "as needed" instruction in grammar; (2) teachers writing with students; (3) students learning to write for many audiences and in many modes, including those 56 required in content area classrooms: and (4) nonthreatening evaluation of student writing with emphasis on revision rather than correction. (p. 21) Summary The review of literature was presented in two sections. Section one discussed the writing development of young children in general. Young children possess more linguistic knowledge than is generally realized when they enter the formal school environment. It is the teacher’s challenge to discover and build on that knowledge. Section two explored the literature about the young black dialect writer. Studies have shown that the dialect spoken by linguistically diverse children is not an inferior form of language. It is just different from that spoken by the majority culture. Vernacular Black English (VBE) has its own system of rules, and it should not be a deterrent to the black child’s learning ability unless the educational system makes it so. CHAPTER III DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY 0 uc The design of the study is explained in this chapter. A descriptive-analysis approach was used because it allowed the researcher to fulfill the purpose of the study: to observe and describe the primary-grade composition curriculum of an inner-city school and to delineate the problems and supports that the teachers and pupils might encounter in the daily performance of their writing program. Definiriens e: n Deeeriptive Stngy Isaac and ZMichael (1981) said. the purpose of descriptive research is "to describe systematically the facts and characteristics of a given population or area of interest, factually and accurately" (p. 46). They went on to state that descriptive research is used in the literal sense of describing situations or events. It is the accumulation of a data base that is solely descriptive--it does not necessarily seek or explain relationships, test hypotheses, make predictions, or get at meanings and implications. (p. 46) 57 58 Van Dalen (1979) made the following statements about descriptive studies: 1. Descriptive data are usually collected by administering' questionnaires, interviewing subjects, observing events, or analyzing documentary sources. Descriptive studies range from simple surveys that do little more than ask questions and report answers about the status quo to studies that present explicit statements about the relationships between variables which approach the level of the explanatory hypotheses one finds in experimental research. In status desc i t've s rve s, investigators do not try to relate one variable to another. They merely search for accurate information about the characteristics of particular subjects (Ss), groups, institutions, or situations or about the frequency with which something occurs. (p. 285) When trying to solve problems, researchers in educational, governmental, industrial, and political organizations often conduct surveys. They collect detailed descriptions of existing phenomena with the intent of employing the data to justify current conditions and practices or to make more intelligent plans for improving them. Their objective may be not only to ascertain status but also to determine the adequacy of status by comparing it with selected or established standards. (p. 286) Since cultures, communities, students, and schools differ from one another and no culture is absolutely uniform in nature, descriptive data can mirror only particular aspects of specific events or conditions in a given setting. (p. 347) "Research involving the collection of data for the purpose of describing conditions as they exist is called descriptive or etatus researen" (Sax, 1968, p. 288). Sax further stated that "in descriptive research an account of the current status of some person or problem is obtained 59 without the investigator’s influencing or controlling his subjects, events, stimuli, or materials” (p. 324). Finally, in the Dictionary of Edncetion, Good (1973) defined the descriptive method in research as the general procedures employed in studies that have for their chief purpose the description of phenomena, in contrast to ascertaining what caused them or what their value and significance are (according to some, the term should be restricted to status studies, including simple surveys; according to others, the term is extended to include descriptions of change, such as historical studies or growth studies). (p. 174) Demographic gnaracteristics of rhe Study Senting The researcher chose an inner-city elementary school in a medium-sized industrial city in Michigan as the study site. She conducted an in-depth study of that school’s writing program for grades kindergarten through three (the primary grades). The city, with a population of approximately 80,000 residents, is surrounded by several more affluent suburban conclaves. The 1980 Census Report gave the population figure as 77,508 people. The breakdown, according to racial origin, is as follows: White 44,468 Black 27,555 American Indian, Eskimo, and Aleut 399 Asian and Pacific Islander 185 Other 4,901 This medium-sized city has experienced a decrease in population commensurate with the typical ”white-flight" 6O syndrome of the late 1960s and the 19708. Many white families left the city to live in the surrounding suburbs and exurbs, leaving most of the minorities to reside in the inner city and its immediate environs. The 1970 Census Report showed a population of 91,847 compared to 77,508 in 1980. This represents a decrease of 14,339 people. The majority of the labor force comprised private wage and salary workers, 19,537. Government workers ranked second with 4,035 persons, and self-employed workers comprised the third highest number, 779. The data given are estimates based on a sample. The mean income for city residents of this population sample was $16,914, whereas it was $24,131 in the surrounding suburbs and rural areas. Three income types were categorized in the Census Report. For the 19,193 households with earnings, the mean income was $18,929. Social Security was the major source of income for 7,826 households: the mean Social Security income was $4,158. The 5,639 families on public assistance had a mean income of $3,413 per household. These data were reported for 1979 (1980 Census Report). e ct' o e A nd ce e te The local school district selected for the study is known throughout Michigan and nationally for its many 61 progressive and innovative educational programs and services. Some of these programs and services include: 1. 10. 11. 12. The Successful Schools Project (S3 P) The Academic Achievement Program (A2 P) The Assertive Discipline Program The Program for the Creative and Academically Talented--elementary students The Center for the Arts and Sciences--secondary students Early Childhood Education Department The Lifelong Learning Center--adult and continuing education Instructional Theory Into Practice (ITIP)-- teacher training program Clinical Supervision--teacher-evaluation program The Learning Center--handicapped students The Education Center--handicapped students The Career Opportunities Center-- vocational education Other activities offered by this district for pupils are: 1. Reading Is Fundamental (RIF) Battle of the Books Competition Young Writers’ Conference City-wide Spelling Bee Science and Engineering Fair The Math Olympics 62 7. The Math Pentathlon 8. The Mid-Michigan Minority Engineering Program In addition, one elementary school in the district was recognized by the 0.8. Department of Education in 1986 as one of the 210 outstanding public. schools in the nation. Three other elementary schools have been named by the Michigan Department of Education as among the most improved in the nation. The district has 24 elementary schools, 5 junior high or intermediate schools, and 2 large, comprehensive high schools serving approximately 17,000 students. Six other buildings or centers offer additional services and learning experiences to students from the district, as well as those from outlying districts. Administration of the attendance. centers is divided into 48 separate departments within the central office complex: each is supervised by a department head reporting to the appropriate superintendent. Before initiating the research project, the researcher had to obtain approval to conduct the study from Michigan State University. This was accomplished through the University Committee on Research Involving Human Subjects (UCRIHS), which reviewed the research proposal. This intensive review and subsequent approval were necessary before initiating any research involving the use of human or animal subjects or hazardous 63 materials. The researcher received written approval from UCRIHS on May 7, 1987. (See Appendix A: Correspondence.) The researcher, a black teacher at another school in the district, began the search for a research site during the 1986-87 school year. She contacted the principals of three elementary schools and described the proposed study to them. This initial contact yielded two possible research sites. The researcher chose one of these schools and began to communicate with the principal through telephone calls and written requests through inter-office mail. After having chosen a study site, the researcher wrote to the Assistant Superintendent of Administration and Personnel, asking permission to conduct the study. Such permission was granted. Originally, the investigator had planned to conduct the classroom observations, distribute the questionnaires, and conduct the interview sessions during the month of May. However, because of the spring testing schedule, central office administrators thought May would not be a good time to gather the data. They suggested that the research be conducted during the summer or the early fall. Collecting data during the summer was not feasible because the purpose of the investigation was to study the primary- grade writing program of .an elementary school in operation. Observing students and the writing instruction in a summer school setting would not have yielded 64 appropriate data for the study. Thus, the researcher decided to begin data gathering in the early fall. The month of September was eliminated as a possible time to begin classroom research because the teachers and students needed time to adjust to a new school year, solidify schedules, and otherwise settle into the regular classroom routine. Permission was granted to enter the classrooms in October. Qescrintion of the Scnooi Setting The elementary school selected for the study is located on a relatively quiet street. Railroad tracks lie on the western boundary, past an expressway interchange. The expressway system is also visible on the northern edge of the site. Three hundred one students, grades kindergarten through six, were enrolled in the school at the time of the research. These students were supervised and taught by a male principal and ten regular classroom teachers. Three resource teachers were on the staff to serve those students who needed extra instruction in reading and mathematics. One special education teacher was based at the school. Other supportive personnel included the school secretary, the lunch hostess, two lunch aides, one general aide, and two custodians. Although she was not listed on the school roster, a library aide worked at the 65 school during the time of the study. These personnel data were derived from the 1986-87 Staff Directory of the participating school district. The school plant is a large (33,796 square feet), two-story red brick building that was built in 1936. It is surrounded by a 2.5-acre grassy area. Adjacent to the school property is a city-owned park that bears the same name as the school. This park, being so close to the school campus, seems to extend the school lawns, giving the site a verdant, parklike appearance. The researcher visited the research site several times. on week-ends to note the location of the playground equipment and to make diagrams and sketches of the setting. Seleetion er tne Partieinnnts The study required the cooperation of five teachers and the students in their classrooms. One kindergarten, one first grade, one second grade, one third grade, and one third/fourth-grade combination classroom were included in the study (see Table l). The researcher began the teacher-selection process by arranging a visit with the building principal on August 27, 1987, during the preservice teacher-preparation week. She explained the purpose of the study and the methodology to be used. The principal suggested that the researcher come to the school building and explain the study to the 66 primary-grade teachers. The researcher complied with this request at a faculty meeting on September 8, 1987. The teachers agreed to participate in the study by signing their names on the briefing outline and indicating the time of day they taught writing--whether during the morning or afternoon session. Table l.--Number of students per classroom. Teacher Grade(s) Pupil Participant Taught Enrollment A Kindergarten 27/23 B First 21 C Second 26 D Third 25 E Third/fourth 23 During the remainder of September, the writer visited the research site and obtained class lists and schedules. On October 1, 1987 , she distributed file boxes to each classroom: these contained a writing folder for each child. On the same day, she distributed the teacher- volunteer participant letters, the parental consent letters, and the informed consent forms. (See Appendix B.) Because the purpose of the study was to investigate the conditions affecting the teaching of composition in the primary grades, the group of participating teachers included only the five primary teachers in this school and 67 the children under their immediate supervision. Ten children were selected at random for surveying and interviewing, one boy and one girl from each of the participating classrooms. In addition, the researcher collected all of the field-writing samples of these ten children. To ensure their anonymity, the five boys were assigned odd numbers for identification purposes: the girls were designated by even numbers. The privacy of the five participating teachers was protected by assigning each one a letter, according to their grade level, as follows: kindergarten--A, first--B, second--C, third--D, and third/fourth combination--E. The five classroom instructors distributed the parental consent letters and informed consent forms to all the pupils in their classrooms. The researcher returned to the school several times to collect signed forms and to bring additional letters and forms to replace those that had been lost. e s c st ents The Qnesrionneires The three administrator questionnaires (Assistant Superintendent for Elementary Education, Language Arts Coordinator, Principal) were designed to obtain an overview of the primary-grade composition program, a specialized view of writing and its place in the K-3 68 curriculum, and a perspective of the writing program in operation, respectively. The administrators were asked the same six questions, although the items were worded somewhat differently to reflect each individual’s position in the school district. The teacher questionnaire was divided into two parts. Part one was designed to obtain information about the teacher’s professional background and training in composition. Part two asked for a description of the teacher’s current writing program and the curriculum materials employed in that program. The student questionnaire also had two parts. Part one contained eight questions concerning the children’s writing habits and attitudes toward writing. Part two included four questions about the children’s reading habits and attitudes. nte 'ews Interviews were conducted with the three administrators during the second and third weeks of the observation period. The purpose of the interview was to amplify their answers to questionnaire items and to ascertain their knowledge about current research and practices concerning writing. Part one of the interview contained two introductory questions designed to expand on questionnaire answers and elicit additional information 69 concerning composition. Questions concerning awareness of the latest research in writing comprised part two. The questions were derived from the book Lnngnage Diversity eng Writing Insrrncrion (Farr & Daniels, 1986). In this book, the authors listed 15 key factors associated with effective writing instruction that apply to both nonmainstream and mainstream children. The researcher analyzed the 15 factors and devised five general questions geared to the district and the building levels. The teacher interview was also in two sections. In addition to the two introductory questions asked of the administrators, teachers were asked two further questions. The first question, "How did you learn to write?" explored the teacher’ 5 personal experiences with writing. The second item, "Describe how you would teach a class of children to write if you didn’t have any restraints--an ideal situation," sought to obtain information about the teacher’s philosophy of writing and ideas about the writing curriculum. All of Farr and Daniels’s (1986) 15 factors were addressed in the teacher interviews because those factors are particularly meaningful for instruction. Questions on these key factors constituted section two. The questions for the student questionnaire and interview were the same and were discussed earlier in this section. This portion of the data collection was 7O initiated and completed during the second and third weeks of October. Samples of all the research instruments are included in Appendix B. e ods o a a Documents State decumenrs. The researcher wrote many letters requesting various state documents. She made numerous telephone calls to personnel in various offices in the Michigan State Department of Education in Lansing. Examples of correspondence dates and the documents requested are given below: November 30, 1986 Available writing materials December 20, 1986 Final copy of the Revised Writing Objectives (K-12) March 11, 1987 Michigan Essential Goals and Objectives for Writing April 4, 1987 State Teacher Certification Requirements October 14, 1987 The Writing Education Inter- pretive Report October 26, 1987 The Michigan Educational Assess- ment Program Writing Test Items November 11, 1987 1982-83 Michigan Educational Assessment Program Writing Edu- cation Interpretive Report November 11, 1987 Writing Assessment Manual and Student Booklets November 11, 1987 "Using the Primary Trait System for Evaluating Writing" by Ina Mullis, NAEP, 1980 71 January 12, 1988 NCTE: Guidelines for the Prep- aration of Teachers of English Language Arts These and other documents were examined to glean information about state and district guidelines and expectations, as well as teachers’ choices regarding the primary-grade writing program. Lgeai schgoi gistrict geennenre. The researcher checked. files, ‘wrote: letters and reminder’ notes, made numerous telephone calls, and visited several key personnel to obtain the school documents reviewed for this study. The documents obtained include the school district’s language arts philosophy, a draft of the language arts goal statements, partial contents from the Kindergarten Curriculum Guide, partial contents from the Handbook of Language Arts Objectives (grades one through six), three documents relating to the local school district’s philosophy regarding effective schools, and three pages about the Academic Achievement Program (A2 P). (See Appendix D: Local School District Documents.) Also, the researcher obtained three elevations, or diagrams, of the school plant. c ts . The researcher collected teacher materials primarily during October 1987. She made additional visits to the research site to collect documents in November and December 1987 and January 1988. Most of the data collected were in the original form. 72 However, in some cases, the researcher had to make sketches and diagrams of the artifacts. Xerox copies were made of some material. These materials include copies of pupils’ textbooks and teachers’ manuals, samples of the duplicating masters used in instruction, Workshop Way folders, a "Busy Book," and a template of the cursive alphabet ranging from Aa to 22. Personnel Questionnaires. After gathering documents, preparing the research instruments, and making several visits to the attendance center, the researcher formally entered the research setting. During the preservice teacher- preparation week, the research instruments were printed and prepared for distribution to the study participants. On October 1, 1987, the researcher distributed the file boxes, writing folders, parental consent letters, informed consent forms, and teacher volunteer-participant letters to the teachers. Collection of the completed forms began on October 2 and continued through the following week. The researcher delivered the questionnaire to the principal at the research site. She called the other two administrators, the Assistant Superintendent for Elemen- tary Education and the Language Arts Coordinator, to explain the purpose of the study and the questionnaire, and to request their cooperation and set a time for a 73 follow-up: interview. The: district -administrators’ questionnaires were distributed during the first week of October. The researcher sent the questionnaires for the Assistant Superintendent for Elementary Education and the Language Arts Coordinator via inter-office mail. The principal’s questionnaire was placed in a large envelope and given to him during a visit to the research site. The principal’s questionnaire was returned on October 12. The researcher collected the other two administrators’ questionnaires on October 21, before their respective interviews. After allowing the five teachers time to collect the parental consent forms, the researcher gave them the teacher questionnaires on October 9. They were explained to each instructor. Originally, the completed questionnaires were to have been returned to the researcher at her school base through inter-office mail. However, because she was on-site, she was able to collect the questionnaires from the four teachers who completed all aspects of the study as they had agreed to do. The dates on which the teacher questionnaires were returned ’ were as follows: 74 Teacher A--kindergarten October 13, 1987 *Teacher B--first grade October 19, 1987 Teacher C--second grade October 15, 1987 Teacher D--third grade October 23, 1987 Teacher E--third/fourth grade October 16, 1987 The older primary-age children involved in this study could already read and write, so they completed their questionnaires independently. These were two second graders and four third graders--two from the third-grade room and two children from the third/fourth-grade combination classroom. Thus, six pupils completed the questionnaires by themselves. The researcher helped the kindergarteners and the first graders complete their questionnaires. She read them the questions on both the writing and the reading questionnaires and recorded their answers. The writing questionnaire was administered in a: medium-sized anteroom next to the school office. When approached by the researcher about a possible research location, the principal had supplied this spacious, brightly lit area, which was furnished with a low, round table and eight chairs. The room had two large double doors that, when closed, afforded the student respondent and the researcher privacy. *On this date, Teacher B declined to participate. However, the pupils in her room continued to participate in the study, and the researcher was able to collect their writing samples and questionnaires and to conduct the writing and reading interviews as planned. 75 The reading questionnaire sessions were mainly conducted in the hallways, which were quiet after the pupils had entered their classrooms. The two kindergarteners and the two first graders were surveyed on the first floor where their classrooms were located. The six second and third graders completed their reading questionnaires in the second-floor corridor of which their classrooms were situated. The students completed their writing questionnaires on the following dates: Student 1--kindergarten (a.m.) October 12, 1987 Student 2--kindergarten (p.m.) October 13, 1987 Student 3--first grade October 13, 1987 Student 4--first grade October 12, 1987 Student 5--second grade October 12, 1987 Student 6--second grade October 12, 1987 Student 7--third grade October 13, 1987 Student 8--third grade October 12, 1987 Student 9-dthird/fourth grade October 12, 1987 Student 10--third/fourth grade October 12, 1987 All ten children completed the reading surveys one week later, on October 19, 1987. Ingerviews. The district administrators’ interviews were conducted at various times because of the relatively flexible nature of their schedules. Although filled with sundry administrative details, their work day is not as constricting as that of a classroom teacher, who must constantly supervise a group of children unless the youngsters are with other supportive school personnel. The interview times were arranged by telephone. 76 Because it is difficult to conduct an interview and take notes simultaneously, the researcher requested and received permission to tape record the interview sessions with the three administrators. The first session, with the Language Arts Coordinator, was slated for 8:00 a.m. on October' 21, 1987, at. the district’s Instructional and Staff Development Center. Later that morning, the researcher interviewed the building principal in the library of the research site. Both of these interviews took place as scheduled. Due to a schedule mix-up, the researcher was not informed that the Assistant Superintendent for Elementary Education had cleared time in his schedule for an interview the previous day. The researcher learned of this confusion when she called the administrator’s office on October 21. Thus, she made an appointment with him for 11:15 a.m. and conducted the interview that day. i In an effort to save the administrators’ time and to prevent possible loss of questionnaires, the writer collected the completed questionnaires when she arrived for the scheduled interviews. After allowing teachers time to complete the questionnaire, the researcher' began to arrange an interview schedule. She drafted a form containing each teacher’s name and room number. Then she made a grid showing the days, dates, and time periods for art, music, 77 physical education, library, and morning teacher- preparation period (8:10-8:40 a.m.). The teachers could choose when they would like to be interviewed. These forms were circulated during the week of October 12. The interviews were scheduled as follows: Teacher A--kindergarten Monday, October 19, 1987 9:30-10:00 a.m. *Teacher B--first grade Monday, October 19, 1987 10:45-11:15 a.m. Teacher C--second grade Friday, October 23, 1987 9:00-9:30 a.m. Teacher D--third grade Friday, October 23, 1987 10:00-10:30 a.m. Teacher E--third/fourth grade Friday, October 23, 1987 12:00-12:30 p.m. The student interviews asked for the same information as did the questionnaires. The interview procedure was discussed earlier in this chapter. Classrgom observetiene. Data were also collected during 50 hours of observations in the participating classrooms. A classroom-visitation calendar was developed for each class after the teacher had indicated which half-day period she taught writing. Each class was observed for several hours each week, and the observation data were duly recorded in the corresponding class log *Teacher B declined to participate in the interview. 78 each day. Diagrams the researcher made of each of the studied classrooms are included in Appendix E. The five logs in which the researcher recorded the classroom- observation data are described more fully in the next section. While collecting data, the researcher also looked for conditions that affected the teaching and learning of composition in each classroom. Examples of such conditions are the time allotted to writing (Calkins, 1983: Farr & Daniels, 1986: Graves, 1983: Tway, 1984), the emotional (Haley-James, 1981) and physical climate (Calkins, 1983: Tiedt, 1975) of the classroom, the availability (Graves, 1983: Tiedt, 1975) and suitability of the writing-program materials, the importance of writing as noted in the curriculum guides, and the amount of emphasis the district placed on writing in relation to the total curriculum. These conditions. are part of the foundation of a successful writing program. However, the primary method of analysis used in this study was the framework or schema developed from Farr and Daniels (1986). s h s. For each of the five participating classrooms observed, the writer purchased a large spiral- bound notebook. These notebooks were divided into the following three sections, into which the appropriate 79 elements were placed: "Classroom Observations," "District-Provided Materials,” and "Teacher-Provided Materials." Inside the front cover of each notebook, the researcher placed a class list (supplied by the principal during the preliminary preparation period) and a calendar noting all classroom observation times and dates for the month of October 1987. (See Appendix G.) Inside the back cover of each notebook, the researcher affixed a checklist of the 15 key factors unique to effective writing instruction, as developed by Farr and' Daniels (1986). During the classroom observation periods, the researcher checked whether the salient factor was observed ("+") or not noted ("-"). A grid was also included, showing each teacher’s/classroom’s observation dates. The researcher brought the five notebooks to the school with her each day and duly recorded the appropriate notations. gesearcner rield nores. The researcher kept an ongoing journal of research field notes. She filled and emptied this loose-leaf binder several times during the months of data collection. Each time the researcher emptied the journal, she organized, analyzed, and stored its contents in large file boxes. 80 Summarx The design and methodology of .the study were presented in this chapter. The chapter began with definitions of descriptive research, followed by a description of the study setting. Procedures for selecting the attendance center and the study participants were also described. The research instruments and data- gathering techniques were discussed in detail. Chapter IV contains an analysis of the data gathered in this study. CHAPTER IV ANALYSIS OF THE DATA Introgucrien Chapter IV provides a detailed analysis of the research data. The analysis is in four parts. Section one contains a discussion of the data found in the various documents collected by the writer. Information gleaned from the three different questionnaires is contained in part two. Interview data obtained from the administra- tors, teachers, and students are included in section three. The results of the classroom observations are presented in section four. Anaiysis of Coiiecteg Docunenrs grate Curricnium guide for Writing As of April 14, 1987, in response to a letter mailed by the researcher, it was found that Michigan does not have state teacher certification requirements for writing. However, in October 1985, the Michigan State Board of Education adopted a document written by the Michigan Council of Teachers of English, entitled "Michigan Essential Goals and Objectives for Writing." The eight- page document includes a philosophy of writing based on 81 82 the latest in research and practice on the teaching of composition, which stress using the 'writing process (Graves, 1983) as the preferred method of writing instruction. Objectives are given separately for the five listed stages in the writing process: (a) prewriting, (b) drafting, (c) revising, (4) proofreading, and (e) publishing. A section on "Writing Instruction and its Implications" is presented. Further section headings include "Points to Consider in Evaluating a Writing Program," "The Role of the Administrator in the Writing Program," "The Role of the School Board in the Writing Program," and a bibliography for the use of teachers, administrators, school board members, and others interested in the teaching of writing/composition in Michigan public schools. The 1983 Writing Educetion Ingerpretive Report, sponsored by the Michigan Department of Education for the Michigan Educational Assessment Program (MEAP), was another publication analyzed by the researcher. The document is addressed to the needs of all children and does not single out minority students and their needs in writing. The report presented the results of a statewide- sample testing of the writing skills of pupils in grades four, seven, and ten. The stated purpose of the testing was "to gather reliable and useful information about what students know and can do in the important communication 83 skill area of writing" (p. 1). Students in 18 schools from 18 school districts across the state were tested. The districts included both large, urban schools and smaller ones. The writing assignment consisted of two short timed essays on expressive writing and persuasive writing, the two primary traits selected. The use of language and mechanics was selected as the secondary trait assessed in this writing test sample. The writing assessment results indicated that the writing skills of the Michigan students sampled were very poor and suggested that prompt remedial action was required by all segments of the educational community as well as society at large (see Appendix C: State Documents). District Curricuinn euigeiines for Cenposirien The Langnage Arts Currieulum guide for the school district in this study, from which the following objectives were taken, was developed during the 1982-83 school year. The goals of the language arts program of , the local school district studied are divided into nine strands. The strands and the code letters for each are listed as follows: 1. Grammar and Usage 2. Mechanics 3. Penmanship “636) 84 4. Word Study WS 5. Reference and Study Skills RS 6. Literature Appreciation LA *7. Composition C 8. Speaking and Listening SL 9. Spelling S The ensuing section offers a description of the objectives of the composition strands in the primary grades, kindergarten through third. Kingergnrren. In this school district, the kinder- garten language arts objectives are defined in a separate document entitled gingergarren Eduenrion Cnrriculnm Guidelines. Listed under "cognitive objectives" is a section labeled "representation." This section is further subdivided into two parts: "Symbols" and "Language: Signs." In the symbols category, the young child is expected to be able to: 1. Use body to represent objects (pantomime). 2. Use objects to represent other objects. 3. Utter sounds to represent an object. 4. Create three dimensional models. 5. Create two dimensional representations. The goals enumerated for the language level are: l. The child will be able to name common objects in the environment. 2. The child will be able to talk about the physical world of immediate environment. 3. The child will be able to talk about people, places, and events in immediate environment. 4. The child will be able to use language to solve problems. *Composition is only given as one strand. The subskills of composition, spelling, handwriting, and so on, are given equal status. 5. 6. 85 The child will be able to use language to draw conclusions. The child will be able to use language to make generalizations. (p. 17) In a passage marked "Reading: Resource/Literary Strand," the kindergarten student is expected to: l. 2. 3. In Respond with interest and enjoyment to orally pre- sented material. Recite simple nursery rhymes and poems with his peers. Participate in dramatizations of familiar stories and/or rhymes. (p. 25) reviewing the curriculum guidelines, the researcher found no reference to the teaching of writing or composition at the kindergarten level. First grade. The behavioral objectives listed under the "Composition" strand include: 1. The student will develop pre-writing skills by: dictating sentences, organizing class experience stories, dictating personal stories and illustrating stories. The student will write a sentence. The student will be introduced to techniques of jproofreading: content, sentence structure, grammar and usage, spelling, and mechanics. Second grnde. Six objectives related to writing are enumerated for pupils in this grade level. They include: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. The student will be exposed to pre-writing skills: choosing a topic and writing a draft. The student will write original sentences. The student will be introduced to paragraph construction: topic sentence, supporting sen- tences, and sentence sequence. The student will write original selections: stories and poems. The student will be introduced to the correct form in writing: invitations, thank-you notes, and friendly letters. 6. 86 The student will use the techniques of proofreading: content, sentence structure, gram- mar and usage, spelling, and mechanics. wee. The seven writing goals specified for the tertiary grade are that the student will: 1. The nature. to teach Practice pre-writing skills by: choosing and narrowing a topic: gathering information, both fact and opinion: taking notes: expanding the vocabulary to include descriptive, sensory, and appropriate words: and writing a rough draft. Write original sentences: telling, questioning, and explaining. ' Construct paragraphs using: topic sentence, sup- porting sentences, sentence sequence, and transi- tional words. Write original selections: stories and poems. Be introduced to the elements of a story: setting, plot, and character analysis. Use the correct form in writing: invitations, thank-you notes, friendly and business letters, addressing envelopes, and book reports. Be introduced to techniques of proofreading: content, sentence structure, grammar and usage, spelling, mechanics, and revision. curriculum guidelines are comprehensive in However, no mention is made of how the teacher is the objectives. The writing-process approach is not addressed in this document. During the 1986-87 school year, a committee called the Language Arts Advisory Committee developed a new language district. arts philosophy and a draft set of goals for the The goals for the writing component of the program are 3 1. 2. Assist the students in the development of the powers of comprehension, critical thinking, and fluency in the expression of ideas. Assist students in becoming responsible for what they say and write. 87 3. Assist students in the acquisition of basic skills, inquiry skills, and communication as these relate to writing. 4. Identify and correct writing difficulties. 5. Assist students in understanding that writing is thinking, and that thinking may be expressed and clarified by writing. 6. Assist students in making language choices wisely, that is, how things may be put and how things should be and can be taken. 7. Develop and expand to the maximum the repertory of language resources one can employ--from vocabulary to punctuation, phrasing and sentence structure, to style and dialect, points of view and compositional form. 8. Develop and extend to the maximum the fluency, facility, pleasure, and depth with which one can write. . 9. Develop and expand to the maximum the range, depth, and refinement of the inborn thinking operations (classifying, generalizing, inferring, and problem-solving) as they relate to writing. The stated goals would seem to indicate a growing awareness of the recent research that has been conducted in the area of composition. State- n at s At this time, there are no spere-mangared tests for composition. However, as mentioned before, the Michigan State Board of Education has developed and pilot tested a writing test for the Michigan Educational Assessment Program (MEAP) . This test, for pupils in grades four, seven, and ten, is available for reproduction and use by local school districts throughout Michigan. An assessment-administration manual for the aforementioned grades is also available. 88 District-Mandated Tests The local school district does not have a requirement for the testing of composition at the primary grade levels. Commercial Meteriais Erovideg by The Dietriet At the kindergarten level, the local school district provides, in addition to the regular classroom supplies, 14 "Big Books." These are very large, colorful books that the teacher can place on a stand or easel, to use with a group of children. The "Big Books" provided by the district are: l. Bridwell, Norman. Qlifford’s Femiiy. 2. Brown, Margaret Wise. Where Have Yon Seen? 3. Chase, Edith Newton, and Reid, Barbara. The New Saby Calf 4. Field, Eugene. WynkenI Slynken, ang Nod. 5. Gelman, Rita Golden. Cets and Mice. 6. Gelman, Rita Golden. nore Spaghetti, I Say; 7. Gelman, Rita Golden. Tny Can’t T Ely? 8. Handy, Libby. pass for a Week. 9. Kalan, Robert. Sump, Ereg, Junp. 10. Lear, Edward. The Owl and the Pussycat. ll. Matthews, Louise. Suncnes ang Sunenes of Bananas. 12. Oppenheim, Loanne, and Reid, Barbara. av o Seen Birds? 13. Wells, Rosemary. Neiey Horn. 14. W. Because writing and reading are two interchangeable, closely related skills, using these books can become a valuable part of prewriting activities and give children listening experiences that enrich their intuitive knowledge of written language. 89 Other than the established reading, language, and spelling textbooks and reading workbooks, no materials are provided for the teaching of composition in the other grades. The teachers have ample paper supplies, pencils, and crayons. Plenty of ditto paper is available for reproducing worksheets for student use. A duplicating machine was located in a small room next to the school office and is used extensively by the teachers. Commercial Materials Provided py tne Tencner 'n r e . The kindergarten students received writing instruction in a program based on a text purchased by the teacher: Anne H. Adams, Mary L. Johnson, and Judith M. Connors, uc s 'n d a d Writing: Tne Readiness Coneept pf rne mrnre (Glenview, 111.: Good Year Books, 1980). This program stresses a developmental approach to teaching reading and writing to young children. Youngsters should not be pushed into a rigid, formalized program, the authors argue. Instead, they should be allowed to develop at their own pace, drawing on the wealth of literacy that they already know when they enter the formal environment of the classroom. According to the authors, The Success program incorporates (l) the child’s vocabulary, (2) printed words from familiar items in the child’s environment, and (3) a flexible structure 90 that enables the teacher to develop program content that 'varies each. day' based on student input. Students improve their reading/writing abilities almost as naturally as they once learned to speak and listen. (p. ix) For further clarification of the objective of the program, the basic assumption is stated as follows: "The Success in Kindergarten Reading and Writing program is based on the assumption that reading and writing are integral parts of a kindergarten student’s life and are not separate entities apart from or foreign to the child" (p. 1). This approach emphasizes a holistic view of young children’s emergent literacy. It also recognizes that young children have been exposed to a variety of experiences within their print environment and have become quite skilled language users before they enter the formal school environment. The basic assumption is stated at the beginning of Chapter One, "Getting Ready to Teach the Success Program." This chapter introduces the objectives, materials, and other information that the classroom instructor needs to implement the curriculum. Each succeeding chapter discusses the module in depth, giving a more detailed description of how to present the material to young children. . The program is divided into four basic modules. The following excerpt from the text, ”Overview of Lesson Components," best explains the rationale for each module: 91 The Success lessons are found in Appendix One, and there is a lesson for each of 180 school days. A lesson consists of three modules scheduled for approximately twenty minutes each: Picture/Word Association Module, Alphabet Module, Story Time Module, and the Oral Language/Reading Module, taught on an individual teacher-to-student basis at a convenient time during each day. Each module emphasizes a different approach to introduce children to the knowledge of written letter symbol combinations and comprehension of written words, phrases, and sentences. Because the approaches differ, provision is made in the program for balance, reinforcement, and variety of instruction. In addition, internal emphases within each module change to incorporate new dimensions as the kindergarten year progresses. Here is how the modules differ, achieving the balance and variety of components within the Success program: The Picture/Word Association Modules emphasize the concept of reading words for tangible items, such as "air conditioner vent, ears, brown," and intangibles such as "love" and "sharing" associated with pictures, instead of simply "reading pictures" without an organized approach. The Alphabet Modules, most of which are correlated with art, emphasize the concept of writing a sequence of letters to form words. The words are volunteered from members of the class rather than from a predetermined published list. The Oral Language/Reading Modules emphasize the concept of an individual child watching his or her words being written and used in oral expressions by another person. These modules are taught on an individual teacher-to-student basis at any convenient time during the school day. The Story Time Modules emphasize the concept of listening to an adult read stories while stressing categories of words that the students hear in the stories. The four modules in the Success program incorporate traditional reading/writing readiness components, such as the use of pictures, art, puppets, stories, and the students’ own self- expressions. In addition, these modules provide a base plan that correlates these components and affords the expansion of their dimensions. . . . Teacher expertise is highly valued in this program. In fact, no two teachers will teach any 92 module exactly alike. Teachers should develop the module in a teaching style comfortable to them and enjoyable to the students. It is important, however, that the base format of each module be followed. . . . The Success program recognizes the fact that each teacher has the intelligence and expertise to make unique contributions to improving the instructional program. The base structure of the Success modules [is] intended to make it easier for teachers to incorporate activities into an educationally sound framework that includes an introduction to reading and writing. (pp. 1-3) These four modules, encompassing Chapters Two through Five, provide instructional guidelines for teachers. The last chapter, Chapter Six, presents "Information for Parents" who wish to provide constructive educational activities for their children at home. The Power Writing program, discussed later in this chapter, was also named as a commercial resource in this instructor’s writing program. Rirsr grede. The teacher did not complete the questionnaire, Part II of which was designed to focus on the individual teacher’s writing program and materials. Specifically, the following questions were asked: 9. Describe your writing program at this level. 10. What commercial curriculum materials are you cur- rently using in the teaching of your writing program? 11. What is your opinion of the usefulness of these curriculum materials? 12. What teacher-made curriculum materials are you currently using in the teaching of your writing program? 93 13. What is your opinion of the usefulness of these curriculum materials? 14. What changes or improvements would you like to see in the writing program in this school in 1 year? 3 years? 5 years? 15. Additional comments: During classroom observations, the researcher did not note the use of any commercial materials beyond the presence of the reading, spelling, and language workbooks and the ordinary classroom materials (paper, pencils, crayons) provided by the school district. Seeond grnde. This teacher listed two commercial resources on the questionnaire as forming the basis of her classroom’s writing program: (a) the power writing manual, Write for Bower, by J. E. Sparks: and (b) "Daily Writing Activities," a set of duplicating masters available from Frank Schaffer Publications. The duplicating masters comprise story starters in a calendar format designed to provide a child with a writing topic for each day of the school year. The material is available for grades one through four. Tnirg_g_re_d_e. In addition to the spelling and language textbooks used daily in the classrooms, the teacher named the Power Writing manual as a resource. The aspects of Power Writing that apply to grades two and three are Stages 1-2-3 . . . Powergraph 122. Each stage is comparable to a grade level, and mastery of Stage 1 is 94 required before moving to each successive stage. A complete listing and description of each stage is given on pages 99-103. Other commercial materials used in the writing program were two collections of duplicating masters, "Let’s Write Cursive" by Evelyn Randolph (Hayes School Publishing Co., Inc.) and "Cursive Letters and Numerals" published by the Milliken Publishing Company. The teacher also listed Roens gnilgren Enjey (The Instrucror) as an additional source. Tnirdzfourtn-grage eombinarinn. Although this was a third/fourth-grade combination room, the composition program had not been divided into two separate and distinct sections. However, the children observed during the classroom visitations and selected for the interviews, those who completed questionnaires, and those whose writing samples were collected were third graders. The classroom teacher had purchased two Frank Schaffer publications, "Effective Writing Skills for Grades 3-4" and "Learning to Write Paragraphs, Grades 3- 5." The lessons presented in these two resources emphasize the mechanics involved in teaching composition. In the former, pupils are guided in a step-by-step procedure aimed at writing effective paragraphs, developing proofreading skills, and improving their use of punctuation and capitalization procedures. By answering the five questions per worksheet page in five complete 95 sentences, the children are thus led into writing a complete paragraph, which is the stated objective of this packet of materials. The topics are preselected, and the teacher has permission to photocopy the worksheets. Examples of these worksheets are included in Appendix H. Materiais nade py tne Teecner Kindergarten. For the past two years, the kindergarten instructor has used "Busy Books" with her young pupils. These books are constructed of large, lined "kindergarten-sized" paper stapled within two colorful 12" x 18" construction-paper sheets serving as covers (see Appendix M). The children write stories in these large booklets and then illustrate their stories with a picture in the space provided at the top of each sheet of paper. Sometimes the teacher writes a word such as "caterpillar" on the first line of each student’s book. Then the children are to copy the word, write their story, and make a drawing of the object. At other times, the children choose their own topics and then write about the subject. A seasonal theme or concept may serve as the impetus for the compositions. During the month of October, when the researcher was observing in the classroom, the stimulus was the bulletin board decorated with the theme of Halloween. Many of the young writers drew pictures of 96 ghosts, witches, pumpkins, skeletons, bats, and other familiar objects associated with this time of year. Other children drew pictures of their houses, families, and themselves. Every child in the classroom had his/her own "Busy Book," but for purposes of classroom. management and instructional objectives, only about six to eight children worked at the writing center at any one time. Ample supplies of pencils and crayons were supplied at the center for students’ use and choices. While these children worked at the writing center, the remainder of the youngsters worked in small groups at the other ten centers: (a) books, (b) puzzles, (c) painting/easel, (d) snack, (e) listening, (f) art, (9) surprise, (h) games, (1) science, and (j) the rice station--the mathematics and science center where the children engaged in various discovery activities, i.e., comparing different sizes and shapes; measuring volume using different-sized containers of rice, sand, or water: and so on. Hanging tags, labeled and suspended from the ceiling, designated each center of activity. The rice station, however, was identified by a star. There was also a large playroom with child-sized furniture and 97 appliances. It was supplied with toys, dishes, and other objects to stimulate the children’s imaginations. The "surprise" center usually had a prewriting activity placed on the tables, which had room for four children. During one afternoon observation session, the observer noted the children working with clay dough and plastic shapes of objects and numbers. They were busily engaged in discussing topics for their writing, which was to come later in the half-day session. First grade. The first-grade teacher did not complete the questionnaire or consent to the interview. Second grede. No teacher-made curriculum materials were employed in teaching the writing program. Third grade. According to the answer to Item 12 on the questionnaire, no teacher-made materials were employed in teaching writing in the classroom. However, the researcher noticed several cursive alphabet strips made of oaktag placed on the round table at the back of the room. These were not commercial materials: they were hand-made strips with the upper- and lower-case letters of the alphabet written on them--from Aa to 22 (see Appendix N, which contains a facsimile of the material). 0 - t' . The teacher listed seven folders that she constructed as a part of a Workshop Way learning-center-concept inservice session that she 98 attended as the teacher-made writing curriculum materials used in her program. These folders included: 1. Base Words--Write the base (root) word on the line. 2. Counting--Write the numbers between the two num- bers listed. 3. Homophones--Write a sentence using the homophones of these words. 4. Likes/Opposites--Put [S] beside the pair of words that mean the same and [O] beside the pair with opposite meaning. 5. Money--How much money? 6. Multiple Meanings--Choose the best meaning for the underlined word. 7. Writing Numbers--Write each number in word form. Pilon (1979) described the Workshop Way as: a system of education, a network of six elements designed to nourish child development through the use of content in classrooms. The six elements are: a. physical environment created. so ‘that. peer interpersonal relationships and willingness to risk working will not be left to chance, a social environment. created. so 'that the quality of "non- threatening" will not be left to chance, a daily self-concept vocabulary project, a daily whole class personality lesson, parental involvement, and use of time and content to safeguard human dignity during learning and growing. All of this makes possible the development of the whole child for all children, each according to his/her own timing and way. (p. i) The observer did not see the folders displayed or used during this month-long phase of the data collection. Although these materials were listed as curriculum materials for the writing program, subsequent analysis showed that they were not directly related to writing. As a group, the three administrators expressed concern about and great interest in the state of the composition component of the district’s primary-grade writing program. The school district was in the process of changing its writing curriculum for the primary grades. At the time of the study, each teacher developed his/her own writing program and implemented it in the classroom. As a result, there ‘was a lack of conformity and cohesiveness in the writing curriculum. However, the Power Writing program was being considered as the vehicle for improving students’ writing skills and for providing cohesion and structure throughout the district. Power Writing, a writing theory developed by J. E. Sparks (1982), is a highly structured approach to teaching composition. The approach is based on a numerical system, in which words, phrases, sentences, and paragraphs are assigned a specific value or "power." The student is to advance progressively through the 12 levels or stages as he/she moves toward mastery of the stated objective of the program, which is to become proficient in expository writing. 100 According to Sparks, Power Writing has two unique features: 1. Power Writing assigns a numerical value to words, phrases, sentences, and paragraphs: lst power for the main idea: 2nd power for a major detail: 3rd power for a minor detail: and other powers as they explain preceding powers. 2. Power Writing divides the teaching of writing into 12 stages, roughly comparable to grade levels, starting with three-sentence paragraphs and culminating in seven-paragraph essays. (p. E5) The different stages of Power Writing are explained in the following paragraphs (Sparks, 1982): stages 1-2-3 . . . Powergraph l 2 2 Students are given the lst Power sentence and must add two 2nd Power sentences to complete a 3- sentence paragraph. Put the word LELO in the lst Power sentence through Stage 7. Vary the patterning of the lst Power sentence given students. Students must write two complete sentences with periods and capital letters. Stage 4 . . . Powergraph l 2 2 Students create their own lst Power sentence. 2nd Power transitions, signals, semaphores Conventions 1-8 stage 5 . . . Powergraph l 2 3 2 3 3rd Power transitions Conventions 1-9 Stage 6 . . . Powergraph l 2 3 2 3 Conventions l-lO Stage 7 . . . Powergraph 1 2 3 2 3 Conventions 1-10 Sentence Patterns 1-6 Stage 8 . . . Powergraph l 2 3 2 3 2 3 Put the word rhree in lst Power sentences through Stage 12. Conventions 1-10 Sentence Patterns 1-12 Stage ONNl-‘N HUUNU 101 Moving the lst Power sentence to dif- ferent positions 3 l 2 3 1 2 3 3 3 2 3 NNHUN NOONNU NNUQN Conventions 1-10 Sentence Patterns 1-19 Stage 10 . . . Essay 1 2 2 2 Paragraph a Stage 8 at the lst power and each of the 2nd Power sentences. Conventions 1-10 Sentence Patterns 1-26 Stage 11 . . . Essay 1 2 2 2 Stage 10 expanded to a minimum of 3 sentences per paragraph. Conventions l-lO Sentence Patterns 1-33 Stage 12 . . . Essay 1 2 3 2 3 2 3 Conventions l-lO Sentence Patterns 1-39 Powerstorming Powerstorming, or brainstorming, capitalizes upon the vocabulary of Power. Providing opportunities for thinking and talking before writing, it develops in five steps. 1. At the left margin of a sheet of notebook paper, place a Power Idea. A Power Idea, a group of words, furnishes the fecus for the content of a paragraph. Each Power Idea has a Power Word, the word that will unlock the details. Underline the Power Word. In a brainstorming session, draw from stu- dents a list of specific details from the Power Word. The teacher writes these on the board: students copy them. Try to have everyone in the group contribute. Each writer will need only two of these details to start with, but he should have a variety of choices. Note that these details will contain most of the spelling words that the student will use in writing his paragraph. 102 4. The teacher turns the Power Idea into a lst Power Sentence and writes it under the notes. Illustrate various ways to word this sentence, a la patterning. 5. Students contribute the two 2nd Power Sen- tences to complete a 3-sentence paragraph of 122. The teacher writes these on the board: students copy them. Teachers in every subject can do this Powerstorming on any Power Idea. Powerstorming may result in a model paragraph of any length: 122 - 12323 - 1232323 - Essay 1222. Adyenrages of living in Century City: 1. shopping mall 2. high-rise apartment building 3. Century Plaza Hotel 4. outdoor concerts at ABC Center 5. restaurants 6. Shubert stage theatre 7. movie theatres 8. walking convenience 9. proximity to Beverly Hills, UCLA, LAX 10. nearness to ocean Living in Century City has at least two advantages. For one, the outdoor shopping mall provides a pleasant place to spend a Sunday afternoon. For another, the Shubert Theatre offers the latest in Broadway musicals. What two possible advantages. does living in Century City provide? With at least two conveniences, Century City makes an ideal place to live. If I had to select a Los Angeles suburb as a place to live, I would choose Century City for two reasons. Century City, located just west of Beverly Hills, offers two special advantages for Southern California living. (pp. 126-28) As with any program, Power Writing has its strengths and weaknesses. The strength lies mainly in the fact that it is a highly structured program, providing continuity for the students’ writing progress. In his "Prolegomenon" (a Greek term used by Sparks that means "preface"), Sparks stated: 103 This book, W. develops five concepts about Power Writing: Power Writing assigns a numerical value to words, phrases, sentences, and paragraphs: lst Power for the main idea or topic sentence: 2nd Power for a major detail: and 3rd Power for a minor detail. Power Writing starts at mastery of a 3-sentence paragraph and progresses, in easily-mastered 12 stages, to 7-paragraph essays. ' Power Writing teaches you to communicate ideas through well-designed, simple, striking prose. Power writing sharpens your writing skills with practical techniques for achieving brevity, unity, coherence,clarity,and action. Power Writing strives for the goal of 100% literacy. This book, Write for Power, emphasizes three special features of Power Writing: Power Writing will review all of the grammar and punctuation that you will need to reach the goal of 100% literacy. Power Writing will teach you to use effectively 39 Sentence Patterns that will help you to write precisely what you mean. Power Writing will provide stage-by-stage personal guidance in development of your individualistic style. (p. vi) The major weakness of Power Writing is that it is too highly structured. Writers need flexibility in choice of topics, time, and problem solving in order to exercise their creativity during the composing process. Another weakness of the program is the limitation of the writer to just three sentences during the early stages. Writers should be allowed to write as much as they want on a topic of their own choosing. An examination of Sparks's "Enchiridion of Conventions of Form and Literacy" (p. 129) yields further data about the differences between Power Writing and process writing. The ten conventions, the first eight of 104 which should be mastered as part of Stage 4, are as follows: 1. Use ink. 2. Have one-inch margins on all four sides of the paper. 3. Control neatness (no crossouts or ink erasures). 4. Indent the opening sentence of a Powergraph one inch. 5. Write complete sentences. 6. Use proper grammar. 7. Spell correctly. 8. Punctuate properly. 9. Eliminate the word "there" from the beginning of a sentence. 10. De-emphasize the use of the verb "to be": is, am, are, was, were, be, being, been. These differences can also be construed as weaknesses of Power Writing because they can impose constraints on the writer. By contrast, process writing approaches suggest that getting ideas down on paper should be emphasized first, especially with inexperienced writers. Concern with forms and conventions will come later as the work is prepared for publication (Calkins, 1983, 1986: Graves, 1983: Murray, 1985). 105 One administrator expressed concern that the program may be too structured. Additional concerns administrators expressed included lack of teacher preparation for teaching composition, lack of time for writing practice in the daily classroom schedule, and a lack of articulation about writing between elementary and secondary instructors. Another problem mentioned by one adminis- trator was the lack of minute correction of errors on composition papers, yet authorities in composition would not agree that children's writing should be corrected (Farr & Daniels, 1986). The specific responses noted on the questionnaire are as follows: Administrator 1 said: There are several weaknesses in the writing program. The first is a lack of consistency in the writing curriculum across the district. The second is a lack of formal teacher preparation both in terms of their own writing competence and of their preparedness to teach writing. The third is a lack of time for practicing writing. Plus there is not an assessment of writing related to the instructional techniques used in the primary grade classrooms. Administrator 2 commented: I think it would benefit both programs [secondary and primary] for members of each group to sit down and find commonalities between the programs (I think there are many). I also feel a meeting would allow the members to articulate the flow of these portions of the curriculum. Administrator 3 said: Most written work done by students is not carefully checked for errors. The writing of students is not monitored as math problems are. 106 Future plans for improving writing throughout the school district included providing teacher inservice sessions at the Instructional and Staff Development Center, integrating writing instruction into all the district's special programs (bilingual education, compensatory education, gifted education, special education, and so on), providing opportunities for more student participation in worthwhile district-initiated writing activities such as Books by Kids, and developing a local recognition program for outstanding writing teachers as well as for excellent student writers. The district also planned to investigate and implement a program to assess children's writing at the primary level. Teacher Questionneires The questionnaire designed for the teachers was in two parts. The major objective of part one was to gather data about the teachers' writing background and training in the teaching of composition. The teachers' elementary school teaching experience ranged from three years to nine years: the mean number of years of teaching experience was 6.8. The highest degree earned was the bachelor's degree (see Table 2), although two teachers had taken more classes beyond the baccalaureate degree. 107 Table 2.--Overview of participating teachers. Highest Number Teacher Degree Grade(s) of Years Participant Earned Taught of Teaching A B.S. Kindergarten 7.5 B First C B.A. Second 3.0 D B.S. Third 9.0 E B.S. Third/fourth 8.0 Only two of the teachers who responded to the questionnaire had had any preparation for teaching composition. One instructor had had 12 hours of undergraduate course work in writing. The other had had four credit hours of undergraduate writing courses. Neither of the two respondents had had any graduate preparation in teaching composition. In response to the item concerning attendance at inservice and conference sessions, one teacher listed a Power Writing training session. Another anticipated attending the training on Power Writing in the near future. Although the actual sessions were not specified, the terms "6 hrs." and "1" were written in the answer spaces by the two remaining teachers who completed the questionnaire. Part two of the teacher questionnaire was designed to obtain a description of the instructors’ writing program 108 objectives and the materials used for each of the primary grades, kindergarten through three. As stated before, each teacher had her own individualized writing program. Some of the responses garnered from the questionnaire included: Classroom 1: "Oral language, letter’ identifica- (Kindergarten) tion and formation, independent writing" Classroom 2: No response (First grade) Classroom 3: "I have a book called W ' ' (Second grade) Power that the district furnished." Classroom 4: "We don't have a writing program as (Third grade) such. However, I'm using commercial materials: spelling textbooks, lan— guage textbooks, and power of writ- ing (district provided)." Classroom 5: "Currently, we are writing sentences (Third/fourth and are developing these sentences grade) into paragraphs." From the variety of responses, one may conclude that the composition program was indeed diverse. One of the two teachers who had received some training in teaching composition showed rudimentary knowledge about children’s oral language development and saw oral language development related to written composition. The researcher substantiated this statement during the classroom observation sessions. The teacher (Teacher A) often spoke of writing in terms of what she had learned in a recent graduate course. She planned future activities, 109 both prewriting and writing, for the young children in her charge. The other teacher (Teacher E), who had had some additional graduate course work in writing, concentrated mainly on the mechanics of composition. She relied quite heavily on the use of worksheets to help her pupils compose more effective sentences and paragraphs. This was in keeping with the stated goals of the instructional leader of that school, who wanted to see improvements in the children’s sentence and paragraph structure as well as increased proficiency in expository writing in the primary and upper grades. The other instructors were also vitally interested in teaching their pupils the rudiments of the writing craft. Teachers A, C, D, and E listed commercial materials that they had purchased and used extensively with their pupils to improve their writing, which could be construed to indicate their continuing interest in their pupils’ writing growth. Questionnaire responses to Question 14, "What changes or improvements would you like to see in the writing program in this school in: 1 year? 3 years? 5 years?" included a desire on the part of Teacher D for "a writing textbook for each student." Teacher E’s response to the same question was: 110 I would like to make sure each student can write a complete sentence which will later result into a complete paragraph before passing to the next grade with 80% accuracy. I’d like to see students writing with ease within this period of time [3 years]. Wigwam Ten students, two from each classroom, were selected to respond to the questionnaires. The ten students selected, as well as the majority of the pupils enrolled in the school during the time of the study, were black. For purposes of anonymity, the five boys were assigned student numbers 1, 3, 5, 7, and 9. The five girls were given even numbers: 2, 4, 6, 8, and 10 (see Table 3). The purpose of the student questionnaires was to elicit data about the children’s feelings and attitudes toward writing. Table 3.--Designations of pupil participants. Teacher Grade(s) Student Participant Taught Numbers A Kindergarten l and 2 B First 3 and 4 C Second 5 and 6 D Third 7 and 8 E Third/fourth 9 and lo 111 On the whole, the children exhibited positive feelings toward writing. In fact, each of the ten students responded "Yes,” without further elaboration, to Question 1, "Do you like to write?” However, their perceptions of writing were based primarily on what learned students of composition would call "handwriting." Very few of the youngsters studied spoke positively of writing as an act of composition--a writing down or recording of one’s thoughts. To them, writing was basically an exercise of "letter practice." One might say that the students’ perceptions of writing were composed mainly of three things: (a) practicing the formation of letters, both manuscript and cursive: (b) finishing story- starters and paragraphs furnished in the spelling and language textbooks: and (c) completing commercial worksheets. Tables 4 and 5 list the ten students’ responses to Item 5: "How often do you write at school?" and Item 6: "How often do you write at home?" It appears that the majority of the respondents did most of what they perceived as "writing” at school. Two of the children’s answers (Students 5 and 6) seem to indicate a lack of perception or understanding about the question. They did not clarify their answers, however. Table 4.--Pupils’ responses to Item 5: 112 write at school?" ”How often do you Pupil Grade Gender Response 1 K Male "5 times" 2 K Female "2 times" 3 1 Male "About an hour" 4 1 Female ”A lot" 5 2 Male "I dot no"a 6 2 Female "Lot" 7 3 Male "11 times” 8 3 Female "To 3:00" 9b 3 Male "A lot’s of times" 10b 3 Female "A lot" Table 5.--Pupils’ responses to Item 6: aChild’s spelling. bThird/fourth-grade combination classroom. write at home?" "How often do you Pupil Grade Gender Response 1 K Male ”3" 2 K Female "3 times" 3 1 Male "10 minutes" 4 1 Female "Only a little" 5 2 Male ”Good" 6 2 Female "Any" 7 3 Male "When I write homework" 8 3 Female "In the night" 9a 3 Male "In the night" 10a 3 Female "None" aThird/fourth-grade combination classroom. 113 Because of the interrelated nature of writing and reading (Lundsteen, 1979) , the researcher included four questions on the questionnaire to obtain information about the students’ reading habits and feelings about reading. These questions paralleled those asked about writing. They were: "Do you like to read?" (Item 9), "What kinds of books do you like to read?" (Item 10), "Do you read at home? When?" (Item 11) , and "Do you read at school? When?" (Item 12). All ten students responded affirmatively to the question concerning whether they liked to read. library books were the favorite books of six of the children, whereas three pupils chose their reading textbooks as their favorite source of reading material. Student 10 preferred to read "cartoon books" during her leisure time. Most. of ‘the respondents indicated that the afternoon, right after school, was when they spent time reading at home. The pupils’ responses to Item 12, "Do you read at school? When?" are shown in Table 6. To give a more precise picture of the students’ ideas about reading at school, their responses are cited verbatim--as the second and third graders wrote them on the questionnaires and as the kindergartners and first graders dictated them to the researcher. 114 Table 6.--Pupils’ responses to Item 12: "Do you read at school? When?" Pupil Grade Gender Response l K Hale 2 K Female 3 1 Male 4 1 Female 5 2 Male 6 2 Female 7 3 Male 8 3 Female 9a 3 Male 10a 3 Female "Yes. I read over there [pointing to Book Corner] when we get in." "Yes." "Yes, when it’s time to-- reading time." "Yes, when we get a little homework." "Yes, in the morning." "Yes, in the morning." "Yes, after I get through with my work." "Yes, in reading class." "Yep, when I don’t have nothing to do." "Yes, at reading time and when I come in to my seat." aThird/fourth grade combination classroom. As noted before, every child had a positive response to reading, although two of them (Pupils 3 and 8) seemed to associate reading solely with the reading class. A third child (Pupil lO) expressed ambivalence about knowing what "reading" meant. The first part of her answer clearly showed that she associated reading with a specific 115 class period (reading time). However, the rest of her response indicated that she knew that reading could be done at times other than the scheduled time periods. Her differentiated response may indicate she had a clearer perception than the other respondents of what reading is. Pupils l, 7, and ,9 showed an inclination to classify reading as a "leisure" activity, something to do when other class work was finished. The responses of Pupils 5 and 6--"Yes, in the morning"--may mean the children also associated reading with the reading class. Reading was usually the first subject taught in the mornings. Although some researchers disagree (Davis, 1987) it is generally thought that children are able to respond better to reading instruction when they have had a good night’s sleep and have eaten breakfast. Pupil 4 indicated that the amount of assigned homework influenced her reading time ( "Yes, when we get a little homework"). Pupil 2, a kindergartner, did not elaborate on her answer. This portion of the study allowed the researcher to seek further information from administrators about answers to questions on the written survey. Part one (Questions 1 116 and 2) gave the respondents an opportunity to expand their answers or to add a specific point(s) that they thought was relative to the study as it affected writing at the building or district level. Only one respondent expanded on Question 1: that involved the implementation of the Power Writing program. Strengths and weaknesses of the program were addressed on the questionnaire. The additional notation was the expressed concern that more dialogue and articulation were needed between teachers at the elementary level and those at the secondary level of instruction (K-6 and 7-12). The response was, in part: There had been no articulation between the elementary and secondary as to what was going on, and probably the weakness that is going to be most problematic is the articulation. I don’t think there’s really a problem with continuity with K-6 to 7-12, but it would be nice if there had been some discussion as to what was going to happen before, so that everybody could be ready and in place, philosophically, together. Part two of the interview sought to ascertain administrators’ knowledge of current research and practices relative to the study of composition. Only five questions were addressed, and all three administrators were asked identical questions. The only variable was that for two of the administrators, the Assistant Superintendent for Elementary Education and the Language Arts Coordinator, the questions were geared for district- wide analysis. The third administrator, the principal, 117 was asked the questions as they pertained to the building he supervised. The five items were chosen because, although specific, they still applied to a general analysis of a school district’s writing program and to the writing curriculum of a particular building. All 15 of the essential factors listed by Farr and Daniels (1986), which form the foundation of this study, pertained to the classroom teachers’ work as they interact with their pupils. This information is discussed later in the chapter. The remainder of this section contains a discussion of the administrators’ responses to the five questions posed in part two of the interview. Question 1 was, "Do you understand and appreciate the basic linguistic competence that young children bring with them to school, and have positive expectations for young children’s achievements in writing?" All of the administrators answered this question affirmatively. They expected that students in the participating building as well as young children in the entire district would achieve greater proficiency in writing. The Power Writing program, which was being implemented at the primary-grade level throughout the district, was viewed as the chief means to achieve this goal. 118 Question 2 asked, "Are the primary-grade children in the district/your building provided with sufficient time to practice their writing?" The answers were affirmative. Two respondents again mentioned Power Writing as the chief means of obtaining and maintaining this objective. The daily use of the spelling, language, and'reading textbooks provided ample time for creative writing, according to the third administrator. Question 3 was, "Do the primary-grade children in the district/your building have the opportunity to write for a variety of audiences?" All three administrators thought that the primary-grade children had many opportunities to write for different audiences. Mention was made of the children’s participating in a pen pal activity with students in other school districts. This activity, while beneficial to all students, will be particularly good for the nonmainstream children in this urban school district if they can correspond with mainstream children in a suburban district. Their teachers can use the activity to help the children, who may be employing dialectical usages in their writing, to "correct" or change these differences into the Standard English used by their pen pals. The learning accomplished through this writing activity will be more lasting because the children learn as they do something they enjoy. 119 Other audiences the administrators mentioned included parents, grandparents, and other family members: various politicians; community leaders: classmates and other children in the building: and known and unknown audiences in various local, state, and national writing contests. Question 4 asked, "Are workbooks and ditto sheets used in the district/your building to teach writing mechanics and grammar, or are the children’s own compositions employed for this purpose?" Historically, at both the district and the building levels, the teachers had used workbooks and ditto sheetsto teach young children the mechanics of writing and grammar. At the time of the study, however, there was increasing use of the children’s own compositions, which is in keeping with the latest research on writing. One administrator expressed this view. Another stated that although both commercial materials (workbooks and ditto sheets) and the students’ original compositions were used, the primary emphasis was on the children’s own compositions. The third administrator reported that the teachers used ditto sheets to teach grammar and writing mechanics, a fact that was verified in this study. Question 5 asked, "Has writing been made an integral part of the entire curriculum, not just in the language arts?" The administrators generally thought that writing had been integrated into the entire school curriculum. In 120 the researcher’s data, however, few "other" writings, those not written as a class assignment, were filed in the children’s writing folders. This finding is discussed more fully in the Analysis of Classroom Observation Data section under Factor 15. Ieaehe; Iggezyiewe As in the administrator interviews, Question 1 ("Is there any answer from the questionnaire that you would like to expand?") and Question 2 ("Is there anything concerning the writing program that you would like to add or discuss that was not covered or mentioned on the questionnaire?") were intended to give the teacher interviewees an opportunity to answer a question in more detail or to add information germane to the study of composition. The other two introductory questions were designed to supply different data. Question 3 requested additional information about the teacher’s background and early personal experiences with writing: "How did you learn to write?" The item "Describe how you would teach a class of children to write if you didn’t have any restraints--an ideal situation" sought data about the teacher’s personal ideas about writing and the teaching of composition. Teachers voiced two needs in part one of the interview: (a) the desire for a writing textbook to teach 121 writing in an orderly fashion and (b) the need for a writing curriculum. It was generally thought that there was no district-wide writing program--each instructor designed and taught her own curriculum. Responses to Question 3 yielded little additional information. The teachers remembered having received traditional instruction in writing (i.e., handwriting instruction). They had done very little creative writing in school, a fact that follows the national norm then and now (Applebee, 1981: NAEP, 1981). Responses to Question 4 revealed that the teachers would ideally conduct their writing programs basically the way they were doing at the time of the study. The 15 questions asked in part two of the interview were adapted from Farr and Daniels’ 8 W d W ‘ ' st (1986) and were intended to elicit data about the participating teachers’ knowledge of the current research and practices in writing instruction. These factors provided the theoretical or conceptual framework for data analysis. The checklist shown in Table 7 was compiled from the teachers’ answers to the interview questions. It represents the teachers’ perceptions of how much they knew about recent research and practices in writing instruction. In the section entitled Analysis of Classroom Observation Data as Corroborated by the 15 Key Table 7.--Fifteen factors checklist: JJZZ teachers’ perceptions. Factor A (K) Classroom 3 (1) c (2) n (3) E (3/4) Teachers who understand and appre- ciate the basic linguistic compe- tence that students bring with them to school, and who therefore have positive expectations for students’ achievements in writing. Regular and substantial practice in writing, aimed at developing fluency. The opportunity to write for real, personally significant purposes. Experience in writing for a wide range of audiences, both inside and outside of school. Rich and continuous reading expe- rience, including both published literature of acknowledged merit and the work of peers and instructors. Exposure to models of writing in process and writers at work, includ- ing both teachers and classmates. Instruction in the processes of writing: that is, learning to work at a given writing task in approp- riate phases, including pre- writing, drafting, and revising. Collaborative activities for stu- dents that provide ideas for writing and guidance for revising works in progress. 123 Table 7.--Continued. Classroom 3 C E Factor A D (K) (1) (2) (3) (3/4) 9. One-to-one writing conferences with the teacher. + - + + 10. Direct instruction in specific strategies and techniques for - + + — writing. 11. Reduced instruction in grammatical terminology and related drills, - + + + with increased use of sentence combining activities. 12. Teaching of writing mechanics and grammar in the context of stu- dents’ actual compositions, rather + - + + than in separate drills or exer- cises. 13. Moderate marking of surface struc- ‘ ture errors, focusing on sets or + - + + patterns of related errors. 14. Flexible and cumulative evaluation of student writing that stresses revision and is sensitive to varia- - - + - tions in subject, audience, and purpose. 15. Practicing and using writing as a tool of learning in all subjects + - + + in the curriculum, not just in English. Note: The 15 factors were taken verbatim from Marcia Farr and Harvey Dani-ls. W (Urbana. 111.: National Council of Teachers of English, 1986). Key: + . Belief that factor was present in her classroom. - = Belief that factor was not present in her classroom. 124 Factors Associated With Effective Writing Instruction, the data are discussed in detail. tu e t w All ten of the children who were interviewed responded positively to the question, "Do you like to write?" However, it became clear as the interviews progressed that some children had no clear idea of what writing is or of what makes a good writer. There was some confusion about the difference between writing as a composing process and the practice of handwriting as penmanship. Some of the responses to the question "What kinds of writing do you like to do?" illustrate this dichotomy: Student 3: "Number writing, spelling" Student 4: "Like to draw pictures, like to write my ABC's" Student 5: "A, B, C" Student 7: "Math" Of the other children’ 8 responses, only Student 8 indicated some knowledge of what writing is: Student 1: "I like to write dogs and make men, draw my mama and color my whole family" Student 2: "Write a house: make a little girl" Student 6: "Draw" Student 8: "Story" 125 Student 9: "Drawing pictures" Student 10: "Drawing pictures" Student 4 presented an interesting contrast in that the first part of her answer ("like to draw pictures") reflected part of the writing that she had done in her classroom. She, a first grader, and her classmates had drawn pictures and then dictated a sentence about them to the teacher as part of a language experience lesson (see Appendix F). The second part of her response ("like to write my ABC’s") reflects the emphasis placed on handwriting, an emphasis noted in all of the classrooms studied. Interestingly, all ten students said "yes," they were good writers (Question 4), even though they could not describe with certainty the qualities or attributes that constitute a good writer. Host of the answers reflected some aspect of the handwriting process. Student 4 gave a typical answer: "Because when I get some paper, I don’t go out of the lines, and I trace." The children studied had pencils in their hands most of the school day, but they were "writing" as a means of completing written assignments from their textbooks: practicing the alphabet: writing words for numbers, days of the week, 'and months of the year: and completing workbook pages and worksheets requiring one or two words for each question (and sometimes sentences) reproduced 126 from commercial materials. In both the questionnaires and the interviews, the pupils said they wrote "a lot." In response to Question 5, "How often do you write at school?" a third grader (Student 8) wrote on her questionnaire that she wrote "to 3:00." On only two occasions, the researcher heard teachers give students the assignment to write an original story. According to the interview and questionnaire responses, however, the children thought that they were writing "all day," which they were, in a broad sense of the word. ADAWMW rateg 9y ghe 15 Key Feetors Associeged Wit E e 'v i ' s n In this section, each of the '15 key factors associated with effective writing instruction (Farr & Daniels, 1986) is restated and then correlated with the research data. Factor 1 Teachers who understand and appreciate the basic linguistic competence that students bring with them to school, and who therefore have positive expectations for students’ achievements in writing. Teachers’ acceptance of the pupils in their charge was evident in all five classrooms studied. The researcher noticed neither overt nor covert rejection of children during the 75 hours spent in classroom observations and interview sessions. Four of these female 127 teachers were black and the majority of their pupils were also black: race identity' may‘ have lbeen a factor contributing to this acceptance. The kindergarten teacher, a white female, however, was very warm and accepting of her young pupils, who were also black. In response to Question 6 on the questionnaire, which concerned dialect, each responding teacher said she could not speak. a dialect other than Standard English. Evidently, they were not aware that everyone speaks a dialect (Perrin, 1972). In conjunction with Question 6, Question 7 asked if this dialect was used with the children. The respondents said "No." If the teachers were unaware that they did indeed speak a dialect, perhaps they would not realize or recognize when they were using that dialect. According to the responses to Question 8, none of the teachers had had any training in dialect differences and their influence on young children’s learning. Without some knowledge about the linguistic research done in the area of nonstandard dialects, instructors would find it difficult to distinguish dialectical rules and forms in the children’s speech patterns and written compositions. Thus, the teacher acceptance that the researcher observed was primarily their acceptance of the personalities of the young children themselves. Research 128 about effective schools has shown the importance of teacher acceptance and high expectations in the teaching of young children (Brookover et al., 1982). To reiterate, although some of the children spoke and wrote with a marked dialectical pattern, the researcher observed no negative responses to those linguistic differences. In faCt, she noted that some of the teachers exhibited the same dialectical patterns spoken by their students. Fac r Regular and substantial practice in writing, aimed at developing fluency. Three of the stated future goals for the writing program in this school were that students improve their composition skills in the following areas within the stated time frame: (a) "better sentence structure at all grade levels" (one year), (b) "better paragraph structure at all grade levels" (three years), and (c) "more expository writing at all grade levels" (five years). Because these were building-wide goals, the primary grades were naturally included in this plan for writing improvement. To achieve this goal, various means were observed, most notably the use of the spelling, language, and reading textbooks at the second- and third-grade levels. Each spelling text has 36 lessons. Six of these (6, 12, 129 18, 24, 30, and 36) are review lessons, which have a "story-starter" under the "proofreading" section. The remaining 30 lessons provide for writing in a section entitled "Let’s Write." In this section, children are required to finish a story in which the idea or first sentence is given. Sometimes they are. asked to use as many of their spelling words as possible in their stories. A complete story is occasionally given, and the children are required to write and use their own words to fill in the blanks in the story. At other times, the pupils are told to write one sentence on a given topic or to write a two-line rhyme using word pairs that are supplied. The language textbooks for grades two and three are organized into units: each unit has a series of lessons on composition. The lessons are intended to develop students’ skills in ‘writing sentences, paragraphs, stories, and book reports. The assignments are highly organized, and the children complete the lessons as instructed. No provisions were made for the teaching of writing (no section marked "writing" or "composition") in the teachers’ editions of the early basal readers. At this level, writing was accomplished mainly through the several workbook pages that followed each story. Each student had his/her own reader and workbook. The higher level readers 130 had numerous lessons for writing compositions. For example, the researcher reviewed each of the teacher editions thoroughly and found, beginning in Level 10 (grade three), the following pages on which composition lessons were featured: T-64, T-152, T-156, T-185, T-212, T-228, T-252, T-255, T-260, T-288, T-318, T-367, T-368, T- 370, T-381, T-383, T-422, and T-442. The teachers’ manual for the Level 11 basal reader is divided into two volumes for easier handling. Volume one, in use in the third-grade and third/fourth-grade combination classrooms during the period of observation, contained four pupil lessons on composition and one page for the instructor on teaching composition. volume two, which the children would use later in the school year, had ten pupil lessons on composition. The teachers also made extensive use of commercial duplicating materials as a means of teaching writing. In these lessons, students were required to "compose" paragraphs based on answers to lead questions in which, if the student followed the written directions, he/she would eventually write a complete paragraph. (See Appendix F: Samples of Children’s Writing, By Grade Level--Student 9: Worksheet entitled "You are the teacher.") Other ditto sheets filed in the students’ writing folders were actually handwriting practice sheets. Some of these sheets allowed youngsters to practice the basic 131 handwriting strokes, such as slant lines and circles. Others required the children to practice certain letters of the alphabet. Table 8 shows the kinds and quantities of writing materials that were filed in the writing folders. An explanation of each category follows: 1. Drawing: Any original art work done by the child. 2. Handwriting: Papers with basic handwriting strokes and letters of the alphabet. 3. Language: Papers based on assignments from the language textbook. 4. Other: Papers labeled with the names of other subjects: newspaper clippings with letters of the alphabet circled on them. 5. Reading: Papers based on reading assignments. 6. Spelling: Papers with lists of spelling words or sentences on them. 7. Story: An original composition. 8. Worksheet: Commercial materials duplicated by the teacher and completed by the child. The researcher observed different activities in the kindergarten and first-grade rooms. On Monday, October 5, the morning kindergarten class was learning about the letter "p." The 24 children were seated in three rows 132 mN o m o o m o o m cH HN o NN o N HN o o m a v H m H o m N o m m m o m H H H N H m b N m N o m 0H m H N m H v m m m v m o N m o o o o o o o v H v o o o o o o o m H m o o o o H o w o M N o o o o H o m o m H wmwuw ..o.m -.mem -mmwx ....o .WMMM .mwwwm. -www. ....o ......m .mmHoEmm osHuHus acmHoMMHo mo HonEsZII.m OHQmB 133 on the rug in front of the teacher, who was seated on a chair. At her side was a chart stand with a large piece of newsprint tacked to it. She had drawn a picture of a pickle and led the discussion about the beginning sound of the word "pickle." Then she made a "p" in one corner of the paper: first a circle and then a straight line. After further discussion, she made three more "p’s," each in another corner of the paper. For a warm-up activity, the children watched the teacher pantomime an imaginary "p" in the air with her forefinger. Then they stood up and made imaginary "p’s" in the air with their forefingers. The teacher moved to the side of the rows and told the children to stand up, turn around, and face her. She told them, "I want you to practice writing a "p" with your finger on the back of the child in front of you." The children did so. Then they were told to turn in the other direction and make a "p" on the back of the other child. After further discussion, the teacher pointed to the picture of a pickle and asked if the children understood what they were to do. Several children raised their hands. One answered that they had to make a picture of the pickle and then make a "p" on their paper. The students were instructed to return to their work tables and complete the lesson. At each child’s seat, the 134 teacher had placed a piece of lined paper and a crayon. The children began working as the teacher circulated around the room, helping some children and checking each pupil’ s paper. After the teacher had checked a child’s paper, he/she could then turn the paper over and draw a picture. (See Appendix F: Samples of Children’s Writing, By Grade Level: Kindergarten, Students 1 and 2, for examples of this exercise.) At 9:17 a.m., the teacher rang a small bell. The children stopped and said in unison, "Stop, look, and listen," which apparently was this teacher’s signal for getting her students’ attention. Then the teacher announced that the children had about three more minutes to finish their "p’s." Proceeding to the listening center, the instructor put on a recording of a familiar nursery rhyme. The children completed their assignment, singing along with the record as the teacher moved around the room and collected the papers. At 9:22 a.m. , the children returned to the rug area for another activity. In a succeeding episode (Thursday, October 29), the 21 pupils present in the afternoon kindergarten session were seated on the rug in front of their teacher, who was teaching them about the letter "u." After discussion, the children returned to their seats. At each place, the teacher had placed a 6" x 6" newspaper clipping and a fine—point felt-tip marker. The children were to find and 135 circle all the "u’s" on the piece of newspaper. The activity ended at 12:53 p.m. Children in the first grade drew pictures of assigned themes and either printed the ideas on the paper themselves or had the teacher write the sentence for them. For example, the reading and spelling workbooks provided the impetus for the class assignment on Tuesday, October 6. The episode can best be illustrated by reading the notes the researcher made in one of her logs: 9:21 a.m.: Children were instructed to look at page 13 in their spelling workbook. Teacher told students that they were not to write in the books yet. The lesson was on the "Nn." Teacher demonstrated "Nn" on the chalkboard. 9:25 a.m.: Teacher went to cupboard to take out reading workbooks, passed them out, and instructed students to close spelling books. [From 9:03 a.m. to 9:21 a.m., the class had been reviewing the "Tt."] "We are studying the "n" sound." 9:31 a.ma: Children were directed to put everything in their desks except their reading books. [Rationale stated for not writing in workbooks was that students did not know how to make their alphabet letters yet. Ditto sheets were used exten- sively.] 9:38 a.m.: Discussion of picture in reading workbook--page 18. 9:48 a.m.: Teacher made "e" on the board, the "d," and finally "N" to elicit the name "Ned." 9:54 a.m.: Teacher went to cupboard and got a news- paper. Discussion about where newspapers can be bought. Chalkboard demonstration: "press," "dress," "rest." 10:02 10:03 10:13 10:19 10:21 10:24 10:44 10:54 136 Children were introduced to next activity verbally. Bathroom break. Recording: "The First Talking Alphabet." Students had large cards and were following verbal directions by speaker on recording. Teacher left room to cut paper; pupils continued with exercise. Teacher returned. Large 12" x 18" manila drawing paper was passed out to each student. Teacher instructed them to draw pictures of things that start with "n." Teacher asked a child about his picture and asked if he would like for her to write a sentence for him about it. She went to the board and wrote: "The north wind blew the nest over the rainbow." Child will copy sentence from board onto his paper. This was referred to as a "story." The class then discussed the picture as the child held it up at the front of the room. Teacher asked child if he wanted to write the sentence on his paper (with a black marker) or if he wanted her to do it. He wanted her to do it. Children placed completed pictures on round table at the back of the room. The teacher was to print the sentence on the drawings for them later. [See Appendix F: First Grade.) The district-provided textbooks were employed as the foundation for the writing program in grades one through three. They were used as a springboard for virtually all of the writing ideas and activities noted during the period of classroom observation. 137 On another day, Wednesday, October 14, the first graders drew pictures of anything related to Halloween. That afternoon, several children stood up in front of the room and "shared" (i.e. , explained what they had drawn) their pictures. The children had a choice as to whether they shared their drawings with their classmates. They were not compelled to do so. At 1:15 p.m., the teacher said, "Tomorrow you will write stories about your pictures." The sharing contin- ued. The last child presented his picture at 1:18 p.m. Pupils were told that they must write a sentence for their pictures. The teacher admonished, "Boys and girls, don’t go home and copy a sentence from a book. We want something original, even if you make an error. We can straighten it out tomorrow." The activity ended at 1:28 p.m. These proposed language-experience stories represent what teachers of composition would call "writing." During the observation period, the children in the five classrooms observed were not given an opportunity to write a composition on their own, choosing a topic of interest to them. Nearly all "paper and pencil" activities noted in the classrooms were in response to prechosen assignments. The textbooks were the primary 138 source of writing stimuli, followed closely by commercial writing materials. EQELQI_2 The opportunity to write for real, personally sig- nificant purposes. During the observation period, the researcher noted no instance when the children had an opportunity to write something personal and of interest to them, nor did they engage in writing for a real purpose, as defined by Farr and Daniels (1986). The findings confirm those of other researchers--that most of the writing that children do in school is related to school-based tasks such as completing workbook pages, writing to complete textbook assignments, taking tests, writing' dictated spelling sentences, completing worksheets, and doing Workshop Way exercises. Farr and Daniels referred to this as "writing to show learning" (p. 53). Handwriting' practice, incorrectly but commonly referred to as "writing," was done daily in several of the participating classrooms. The spelling book was the starting point of the handwriting exercises, supplemented by worksheets. 139 EQQLOI 4 Experience in writing for a wide range of audiences, both inside and outside of school. Students in the participating classrooms generally wrote for the teacher as sole audience because the writing was done to complete textbook assignments. In two classrooms, students were encouraged to share their work with their peers. Pupils in the first grade were given an opportunity to stand up, display their pictures, and talk about them. The children appeared to enjoy this experience. On Thursday, October 29, the children in the third/fourth-grade classroom talked about the paragraphs they had written the previous day. The teacher had announced a "sharing time" commencing at 10:30 a.m. The paragraph topic concerned learning a new activity. The assignment was a commercial worksheet with several questions that the pupils had to answer. Upon completing the exercise, the children should have had a complete paragraph. A few children, one boy and-four girls, came forward voluntarily and read their paragraphs to their peers. The instructor asked good questions of the other students in the room to elicit responses to the five paragraphs that had been read. One question, "What did you like about that student’s paragraph?" gave the children an opportunity to offer positive feedback to the writer/reader. These kinds of activities provide young 140 writers with an audience other than the teacher and themselves. An interview with the principal elicited a variety of responses concerning activities that students in the school had done that school year before the study and would be doing in the months to come. The pupils had written get-well notes for classmates who were ill. On holidays and special occasions such as Valentine’s Day and Mother’s Day, pupils would make cards for their parents, grandparents, and other family members. Community organizations sometimes sponsored writing contests in which the pupils could participate. The'pupils in grades one through six, including children in the special education classes, had written scripts for a radio program entitled "Who Am I?" The assignment asked the children to write short literary sketches about famous Black Americans: the answer to the riddle was given shortly after the sketch was read. This activity was done the previous year during February, which is commonly known as Black History month. Other activities included writing compositions for the Young Writers’ Conference. The children also engaged in the city-wide Battle of the Books writing competition, which substantiates the reading and writing connection (Lundsteen, 1979: Tway, 1985) . Some youngsters wrote articles to the local newspaper during elections or to comment on a contemporary issue being 141 discussed locally or nationally. School trips were also mentioned as subject matter for compositions. One must remember that some of these activities are seasonal in nature, and even though writing in such contexts was not observed during the month of October, it is fully conceivable that the children will engage in these activities at appropriate times during the school year. Even so, writing seemed to be a special event rather than a regular occurrence in the classrooms observed. ac 5 Rich and continuous reading experience, including both published literature of acknowledged merit and the work of peers and instructors. The school at which the study was conducted, an attendance center serving 301 students, has a large, beautifully maintained library, which is located on the first floor of the two-story school building. The library is fully carpeted and well-stocked with children’s books, many of which are new. There are reference works of several kinds. Maps, globes, magazines, newspapers, and other visual aids and materials are available for use by the faculty and the students. The library is staffed by a library aide who works there daily. In addition to managing the book collection, the aide coordinates the Battle of the Books contest, 142 which is a district-wide reading competition for elementary students. The aim of the contest is to have students increase their reading ability and growth in literature in a fun-filled and exciting manner. Each classroom in the school is assigned a special library period (see Appendix J: School Library Schedule). The kindergarten classroom studied had a 15-minute session in the library each week. The students in grades one, two, and three were scheduled for a 30-minute period each week. During this time the students, supervised by their teacher and the library aide, choose books to check out for one week. Also, the library aide sometimes shows a filmstrip to the children. She did this on Tuesday, October 13, for the afternoon kindergarten class. The children enjoyed "The Gingerbread Boy" presentation. Four of the five classrooms studied had books, other than textbooks, available in the room for the children to read. In few instances, however, did the children go to get a book while the researcher was observing. It appeared that they rarely had time to do any extra reading. They were kept "on task" doing textbook assignments. Each student had a library book in his/her desk, though, that he/she could read whenever all assignments were finished. 143 "Story Time" was listed on the daily class schedule (see Appendix I: Subject Schedule). However, the observer noted the oral sharing of literature by the teachers in the kindergarten and first-grade rooms only. Quite possibly, stories were read aloud to the children in the other classrooms during nonobservation periods. Children in the kindergarten room were exposed to an environment rich in print. In addition to the hanging tags designating learning centers in the room, many classroom objects were labeled. On one long wall there were 24 large teacher-made newsprint posters displaying themes from the Picture/Word Association Module in the commercial textbook purchased by the teacher. At the book corner, furnished with a book stand, rug, and two vinyl bean bag chairs (red and blue), the young children were exposed to the following books: Qus ahd the Baby Ghost, Peter and the elf, gus Wes e Friendly ghost, gebbi ts ahg Skunks ahg Speoks, Georgie te the Beseue, Georgie and the Noisy Ghost, Qiiffiord’s heiioween, fieergie’s Haiioween, fies Wes e Gergeoes Ghoet, and fieergie W- The pupils in the kindergarten classroom also enjoyed listening to familiar story classics, such as "The Elves and the Shoemaker," "Rapunzel," and "The Gingerbread Man." These stories were on a recording that the children heard through headsets. The children could follow the text, 144 using the story books that were placed on the table along with the other listening materials. There was room for two children at the listening center, which was used daily. As noted earlier, some additional books were available for the children in four of the participating classrooms. These books were placed on bookshelves and, in one room, in plastic bins. The classrooms were generally bright and cheerful, with several eye-catching bulletin boards displaying commercial teaching materials designed to enhance learning. Dictionaries were available for student use. For one example, when the researcher entered the third/fourth-grade classroom on Thursday, October 29, she noted the presence of 22 hot-pink WeheterLe_1htermegiete_nietieherie§ on some shelves in the classroom, which had not been there previously. Teacher E explained that she had found the books downstairs and had brought them up two days earlier for her students’ use. The print environment was also enhanced in the third- grade classroom. The instructor had created and labeled several learning centers around the classroom. Although surrounded by published literature, the students were focused on completing their textbook assignments. After finishing their assigned tasks, a few 145 of the pupils read their library books, which were kept in their desks. The children in the study did not have an opportunity to read written works by their peers and their teachers. Their chief exposure to reading was through the basal reading textbooks and the books in the extensive school library. Eector § Exposure to models of writing in process and writers at work, including both teachers and classmates. The young children in this study had the opportunity to see their peers "writing," i.e., using a pencil to complete assigned lessons and other activities. They saw their teachers completing the numerous clerical tasks associated with maintaining a classroom. However, they did not see writers engaged in the actual process of composing (Graves, 1983) because the writing process was not taught in any of the five classrooms. In no instances were the teachers observed demonstrating their own writing of a composition to share with their classes. ac 0 Instruction in the process of writing: that is, learning to work at a given writing task in appropriate phases, including pre-writing, drafting, and revising. The writing process (Graves, 1983) was not being taught in the classrooms under study. 146 Limit—8. Collaborative activities for students that provide ideas for writing and guidance for revising works in progress. The writing workshop method, as explained by Graves, would be the most effective means of providing students with collaborative activities for composition. However, no awareness of this method or of any of the recent research done in writing was evident. One exception noted was in the kindergarten room when the teacher spoke of having the children engage in prewriting activities when they were playing with clay dough at the Surprise Center on Tuesday, October 13, during the afternoon observation session. On an earlier occasion, Monday, October 4, this teacher had spoken about invented spelling and her move (and the district’s) from the use of workbooks toward early childhood developmental activities. The researcher gleaned this information at the end of that morning’s observation period. Eaetor 2 One-to-one writing conferences with the teacher. As the children were working on their various assignments, teachers monitored their progress. They moved around the room, helping students who needed additional assistance. There were no one-to-one writing 147 conferences with the teacher because the writing process was not being used. W Direct instruction in specific strategies and techniques for writing. The researcher observed direct instruction in handwriting practice in one classroom. The children were learning cursive writing, and the teacher was modeling for them at the chalkboard. In another classroom, pupils received instruction about writing sentences and paragraphs. The lessons were introduced in the language textbook and reinforced with commercial worksheets. Assignments were introduced in the traditional "presentational" mode, which, according to Hillocks (1984), is characterized by: (1) relatively clear and specific objectives, such as to use particular rhetorical techniques: (2) lecture and teacher-led discussion dealing with concepts to be learned and applied: (3) the study of models and other materials that explain and illustrate the concept: (4) specific assignments or exercises that generally involve imitating a pattern or following rules that have been previously discussed: and (5) feedback coming primarily from teachers. The presentational mode is undoubtedly the most common mode of instruction in composition. (p. 133) Because the writing process method was not used, the teachers provided no direct instruction in specific writing strategies, such as choosing a topic, peer editing, sharing a first draft, and so on. Children were 148 taught according to the instructions in the teachers’ editions of the district-provided textbooks. mu Reduced instruction in grammatical terminology and related drills, with increased use of sentence combining activities. The mechanics of grammar basically were taught as part of the reading, spelling, and language lessons. Besides using the textbooks, instructors used worksheets and the chalkboard for modeling purposes. The researcher did not observe the use of sentence combining activities. Factor i2 Teaching of writing mechanics and grammar in the context of students’ actual compositions, rather than in separate drills or exercises. The children in the participating classrooms were instructed in the mechanics of grammar and other aspects of writing within the context of the regular textbook lessons. These assignments formed the foundation of the writing program. Duplicated materials were also a major part of the program. Original student compositions were not used. W Moderate marking of surface structure errors, focusing on sets or patterns of related errors. As noted in Table 6, very few original compositions were filed in the pupils’ writing folders. Corrections 149 generally were not made on the work (see Appendix F: Samples of Children’s Writing, By Grade Level). Feetor 15 Flexible and cumulative evaluation of student writing that stresses revision and is sensitive to variations in subject, audience, and purpose. The writing workshop approach (prewriting, drafting, sharing, revising, publishing) was not in operation in the five participating classrooms. Therefore, the researcher did not observe the important aspect of supervising an original composition from start to finish. Neither did she observe evaluation of pupils’ writing, as recommended by Farr and Daniels (1986) and others. Fector 15 Practicing and using writing as a tool of learning in all subjects in the curriculum, not just in English. Interview questions yielded positive responses about this factor, yet writing across curriculum subjects was not observed in any classroom. Several papers, however, about other subjects were filed in the 'writing folders. These included papers with number words written on them (mathematics) and a paper listing parts of the ear (science). There were no reports, however, showing the critical thinking that can result from researching a topic from social studies, for example. According to interview responses, a science fair had been held the previous 150 school year. The children had conducted experiments and written compositions about the results of those experiments. The observations took place during the month of October, which is still early in the school year. Perhaps more writing-integrated activities would be planned and instituted as the school year progressed. 52mmezx In this chapter the data were presented in four sections. The various documents collected for the investigation were discussed in the first section. State artifacts were discussed first, followed by the local school district materials. Finally, materials purchased and made by the five participating teachers were reviewed. Sections two and three contained questionnaire and interview data from the three administrators, four of the five teachers, and the ten student participants. In the fourth section, the classroom observation data were analyzed according to the 15 factors associated with effective writing instruction as detailed by Farr and Daniels (1986). The entire research project is summarized in Chapter V. Conclusions drawn from the study findings are set forth, and implications of the research are discussed. 151 Finally, recommendations are made for practice and for future research. CHAPTER V SUMMARY , FINDINGS , CONCLUSIONS , IMPLICATIONS , AN D RECOMMENDATIONS Summa S u This study was designed to scrutinize the writing program in the primary grades of an inner-city school. Writing, as a curriculum discipline, has been largely ignored as a priority nationally. Consequently, children have not learned to write well. This is even more true for nonmainstream children, who populate most urban schools. The present researcher sought not only to describe the primary-grade writing curriculum of one inner-city school, but also to observe what conditions existed that enhanced or impeded the teaching and learning of composition in that school. The four central research questions explored in this study were: 1. What problems do inner-city children face in learning to write? 2. What problems in teaching writing do teachers face in an inner-city school? 3. What supports exist for teaching writing in the primary grades in this inner-city school? 152 153 4. What constraints exist for teaching writing in the primary grades in this inner-city school? Chapter II contained a review .of the current literature about writing. Section one was a discussion of the written literacy of young children in general, and section two contained information about linguistically diverse children, particularLy the young black writer of dialect in an urban school setting. The study methodology was descriptive analysis, in which the researcher observed a particular situation and sought to describe the actual state of the composition curriculum. The conceptual or theoretical framework used as the analytical tool was a checklist of the 15 key factors associated with effective writing instruction, as developed by Farr and Daniels (1986). Data were collected in two phases. First, the researcher spent many months collecting national, state, and local idocuments related to the teaching of composition. These materials were examined in detail. The second part of the investigation involved actual classroom observation, questionnaire distribution and analysis, and interviews with three administrators, four teachers, and ten students. The students were interviewed twice, first concerning their writing habits and attitudes and second to ascertain their feelings about reading. These three major activities, classroom 154 observations, questionnaire distribution and analysis, and interviews, consumed approximately 100 hours. The research data were presented and analyzed in Chapter IV. The four data sources were (a) collected documents, (b) questionnaires, (c) interviews, and. (d) observations. The findings are discussed more fully in the following section. E' 2' s In this section, each of the four central research questions is restated and is then answered according to the data obtained in this study. Researeh Question 1 What problems do inner-city children face in learning to write? Assertive diecipline. Using the assertive-discipline paradigm ascribed to by the school under study has several positive aspects: fewer rules, fairness, uniform procedure, known consequences, reward system, and so cum One factor, however, hindered pupils’ writing development: the limitation on pupil movement within the classroom. Pupils did not have the freedom to move around the classroom to get writing materials (folders, markers, staples, special publishing materials). Assertive discipline, while it may solve some classroom management 155 problems, probably would hamper children in a good writing program. Qieeereeh_ergehiretien. Good classroom organization fosters effective classroom instruction. Pupils need to know classroom guidelines, and their daily classroom routine needs to have a certain amount of predictability. Writing materials should be available and placed so that the pupils have easy access to them. Room arrangement is also important. The transition from one activity or lesson to another should take place in an orderly manner. In general, good classroom management was evident in three of the classrooms, fair in one, and marginal in one. W The BMW does not have stated objectives for writing. For grades one through three, the current curriculum guides list objectives for composition (see Appendix D: Local School District Documents). The objectives appear to be sound and encompass the area of writing mechanics, yet they do not wholly reflect the recent research on the process of achieving these objectives. New language arts goals currently being reviewed show evidence of more recent knowledge regarding the teaching of composition. Because the current composition objectives do not reflect the latest in writing research, the children were not being exposed to this new research: thus their writing development was hindered. The writing workshop or studio 156 methodology is regarded by composition authorities to be an effective means of helping young children become proficient in composition, but it is not implemented in the classrooms in this study. '5 'ct i ' 'es. Composition for primary-grade children was not a. high priority in this school system until last year. Consequently, young children were not encouraged to write on an integrated, district-wide basis, although some had been writing under the direction of their own classroom teachers. Now that the school district has placed many progressive, educational enrich- ment plans into effect, and these programs have been recognized locally, throughout Michigan, and nationally, attention has been drawn to the teaching of composition. With the district providing the leadership and establishing the priorities, the problem of children not receiving adequate, research-based instruction in writing will probably be alleviated soon. c o c s s . The school studied in this project was constructed in 1936. The classrooms, although not overly small, reflect the building plans of that period. They are not as large as the classrooms in newer, more modern schools in the district. With the exception of the large kindergarten classroom, the participating classrooms were relatively crowded. The students did not 157 have enough space to move around. Perhaps a writing center could be established in every classroom, but the space would be limited, and the requisite mobility would be somewhat restricted. Bower Writi g. A major weakness of the system’s newly proposed Power Writing program is that it denies children the ownership of their own writing ideas and creativity. Topics are selected for them, even though researchers have found that children write more if they are allowed to choOse their own topics. Thus, in Power Writing, children are deprived of one important aspect of the writing process: the growth and expanded thinking that all writers experience when they are allowed to reflect about. what they know, brainstorm. possible subjects, narrow their choices, and eventually commence drafting a piece of writing. Another problem posed by the Power Writing program is that it circumscribes children’s writing in terms of length. Children are to begin writing in "bits and pieces," words, phrases, sentences, paragraphs, and finally an entire composition. In contrast, children should have the time and the freedom to choose their own topics and to write as long and as much as their creativity allows them. 158 In summary, the Power Writing program can thwart a child’s creativity while it seeks to provide a structured model with which to teach writing. WW. Correc- tions in spelling were noted by the teacher on the few original writing samples included in the study, e.g., "bekus" to "because." This could be construed as a natural reflexive action on the teacher’s part. The researcher did not observe the teachers giving dialectical instruction or examining students’ errors to see if they formed a particular pattern. Nonacceptance of dialect did not surface as a problem, possibly because four of the five participating teachers in the study and the principal were of the same racial background (black) as the students. The one white teacher included in the study was very warm and accepting of the minority children in her classroom. e c e re t’ . The five teachers in this study had little background in teaching composition. It is hardly possible to do an effective job in any area without adequate preparation. Thus, the children in this study were not receiving writing instruction as recommended by the leading researchers in the field. They were, however, being taught in accord with the traditional manner of teaching handwriting and spelling. 159 W- As with assertive discipline and other issues, the use of textbooks as the foundation of a writing program had both positive and negative aspects. On the positive side, writing ideas and topics were provided by the authors of the spelling, reading, and language textbooks employed by the teachers. Besides giving reluctant student writers a subject for their writing, the regular assignments allowed children to have more experience with writing than they would have had if their teachers were uncomfortable about teaching composition and elected not to teach it at all or very rarely. Having the writing segments "built in" to the regular lessons ensured that the children were at least receiving the rudiments of writing instruction. Using textbooks had the drawback of limiting children’s creativity. Perhaps at the very beginning, when children are being taught to make choices, the shy, previously unsuccessful young writer can be given several topics and allowed to write about one. As his/her writing ability and confidence increase, however, the child should be encouraged to select his/her own topics. Having to write exclusively on subjects chosen by others dulls a child’s interest in writing, hampering the acquisition of skills needed to master this important discipline. Time. From the first bell at 8:40‘a.m. to the dis- missal bell at 3:00 p.m., the children in this study were 160 busy completing assignments dictated .by the district curriculum. Teachers and children alike progressed through the daily lesson plans: accommodating interruptions: moving to other areas of the building for music, physical education, and the library session: and attending to all the details of a complex school environment. The youngsters apparently had no time to sit quietly and contemplate, yet good writing requires time for thought and reflection. In addition, children seemed to have no time to write creatively. The school curriculum was very demanding in terms of time. The subtle pressure of required tests was ever present. It has become increasingly difficult for teachers to schedule time to teach composition, and this lack of daily writing practice, according to the recommended methods, was a problem for the pupils in this school. Research Queetieh 2 What problems in teaching writing do teachers face in an inner-city school? [2i srtipti ye etegehts. Every school has disruptive students, and the school under study was no exception. The problem was not severe, however. In fact, the researcher noted only a few children whose behavior caused disruptions in the classroom. In one room, inadequate classroom management was the major factor contributing to 161 disruption. In another, there seemed to be a preponderance of highly spirited children who had difficulty following the teacher’s directives. Classroom management appeared to be a factor in this situation, as well. Perhaps the observer’s presence deterred the teacher from raising her voice and regaining control. Children will take advantage of such situations, and the pupils in this classroom generally did. The strong leadership of the principal and use of the assertive discipline plan kept the problem under control. Individual assistance was available from the Instructional and Staff Development Center in the form of Management Theory Into Practice (MTIP) training sessions. District prioritiee. This school district, which is nationally known for its progressiveness and its innovative educational programs, has long been aware of the importance of writing in the school curriculum, as evidenced by. the composition objectives included in the revised curriculum guides. However, reading and mathematics have traditionally received top priority in the system. Consequently, a cohesive writing curriculum has been lacking. This situation is beginning to change as administrators begin to emphasize the teaching of composition. Until writing has gained a position of high importance officially, the problem will remain for 162 teachers, who are now following their own curricula in writing instruction. ihadegeete preparetioh. Lack of adequate preparation to teach composition is a major problem facing teachers in this inner-city school. They were effectively teaching writing in the traditional fashion, but they lacked training in the new methodologies suggested by Graves (1978) and others. The problem for these teachers remains one of lack of preservice training at the undergraduate level and a lack of inservice training since entering the classroom. Leek of ciassroom spe e. Inadequate classroom space posed a problem for teachers as well as for students. In grades one through the third/fourth combination room, every inch of space was used. The teachers employed extra pieces of furniture to provide storage space and to establish areas for instruction, such as the reading-group area. ngiis’ attehtieh epen. Pupils’ short attention span is a universal problem for teachers everywhere: this school was no exception. Attracting pupils’ attention and keeping them "on task"--focused on their class work--was a challenge for the educators who participated in this study. When children have some control of their own learning and creativity, however, as encouraged in good writing instruction, they have more "staying power." 163 StndenteLettitngee. No matter how interesting or stimulating the instructor makes a lesson, some children will not be interested in school work. This problem, too, challenged the teachers who participated in this research project. Success in writing, however, can contribute to improved attitudes about school. Research Question 3 What supports exist for teaching writing in the primary grades in this inner-city school? e uate ' 5 ° 8. The classroom teachers in this elementary school had ample materials at their disposal to aid in instruction. Supplies and equipment for duplicating educational materials were readily available. Textbooks were provided for each pupil. Pencils, paper, and other classroom needs were in good supply. Besides a well-stocked library, a large variety of teaching materials, supplies, duplicating facilities, and other media were available to the instructors to aid in the teaching of composition. sser ' sc' . Because some inner-city youngsters come from homes where firm and fair discipline is lacking, this school must assume the responsibility for teaching the children basic rules of behavior. Creating and maintaining an atmosphere conducive to teaching and learning were paramount objectives in this school. 164 The assertive discipline program provided the students, teachers, and principal with a systematic structure for improving classroom behavior. Firm rules were posted in the classrooms in full view of the pupils. These rules were periodically reviewed with the children, as the researcher observed in two classrooms. A list of the consequences the child could expect if he/she broke the rules was also posted. In addition, a list of building rules and consequences was placed periodically in the halls throughout the building. The major advantage of this disciplinary system was that everyone knew the rules and the consequences of failure to adhere to those regulations. e 've o s. The primary teachers in this school, as well as all the other educators in this progressive school system, had the added support of the district’s belief in the basic premise of "effective schools" (All children can learn, and schools do make a difference) and the principal’s strong adherence to this philosophy (see Appendix D: Local School District Documents--[City Name] Policy Statement and [City Name] Critical Variables). The school building was superbly maintained. The halls were quiet, orderly, and clean. Within minutes after the pupil-admittance bell rang, the children were in 165 their classrooms, and the corridors were relatively noiseless. The lunchroom, gym, and bathrooms were clean. The school plant is located on a large lot with plenty of space for the children to play. The playground has seven large pieces of equipment, brightly painted in the primary colors. The well-kept grounds provide the school personnel with a pleasant, parklike atmosphere. When one enters the building, one immediately notices the businesslike atmosphere of the surroundings. The school exists for a purpose: that purpose is learning. One senses it immediately upon entering the school plant and passing through the corridors. In addition, the school grounds adjoin a city-owned park. This large area has concrete play modules, several pieces of playground equipment, and several park benches. There are a number of large trees, and the extensive lawns are well maintained. Having this parklike space adjacent to the manicured school grounds considerably enhances the school property. The Effective Schools program and all of the district’s enrichment programs provide a support system for the primary-grade teachers of this school because the various programs encompass all of the grades (K-12) and all of the special programs, such as gifted education and special education, throughout the entire school district. By necessity and by definition, the teachers in this 166 school also benefit from the adoption and administration of these programs. s u ' d . One of the greatest supports that the teachers (primary, intermediate, and secondary) of any school can have is that of a strong instructional leader. This is true of any school, particularly an inner-city school serving nonmainstream children. The elementary school studied had such a leader, one whose strong, firm, and effective leadership could be observed throughout the school building. A major positive feature was this principal’s strong interest in expository writing and his expressed commitment to improving his students’ development in both oral and written literacy. In addition to being the driving force behind the remodeling, furnishing, and equipping of the school’s beautiful library, he regularly reviewed the students’ writing assignments. He found the time to do this despite all of the other duties he had to perform. During an interview with the researcher on Wednesday, October 21, the principal showed her a collection of papers he had received from one of the upper-grade classes. He had been reviewing the children’s papers that morning and was enthusiastic about their writing progress. 167 The principal seldom went out to lunch, preferring instead to spend time in his building. On rainy or otherwise inclement days, the students were required to bring a book with them when they reported to the lunch room. This announcement was made during the 11:26 a.m. public-address-system announcement period on Friday, October 23. The researcher was observing in the second- grade classroom. The primary-grade children were going to talk about their books, sharing them with the entire group of pupils in the gymnasium. The principal took the podium down from the stage and placed it on the gym floor, and the children proceeded to use the microphone to make oral book reports to their peers. The fourth, fifth, and sixth graders reported on current events, using newspaper clippings they had brought with them. This type of activity strongly endorses the "writing is reading/reading is writing" concept of literacy and can effectively reinforce the teachers’ commitment to literacy in their classrooms. The principal’s belief in and adherence to the district’s Effective Schools program also acted as a support for the teachers in this school. For example, public-address announcements were kept to a minimum. Morning announcements were made between 8:45 a.m. and 9:00 a.m., after the 8:40 a.m. pupil-entrance bell. No further announcements were made until 11:25 a.m. , when 168 necessary communications were relayed to the students and the staff. During the month-long classroom observation period, the researcher noted only two instances when the instructional time was interrupted by the public-address system. Each time, the information relayed was essential to the operation of the school. Other interruptions were kept to an absolute minimum. To illustrate: One student came quietly to the rooms to pick up the lunch count and attendance details about 9:00 a.m. Then the student returned with the lunch tickets just before lunch. This procedure was performed quietly and unobtrusively. Likewise, when support personnel came to pick up children for additional instruc- tion, they did so quietly. With these minimum interruptions to the classroom routine, the teachers and students could spend more time "on task." The high visibility of the building’s instructional leader provided important support for the teachers. Children, also, need to see their principal in various locations around the building, and faculty members need to know that their administrator is available for guidance and assistance should the need arise. Litrm. A newly remodeled, fully stocked school library provided the instructors with an excellent foundation to increase their students’ oral and written 169 literacy. The library had hundreds of books, many of them new. The volumes were filed according to the Dewey Decimal System and were arranged neatly on shelves in the large, attractive, carpeted room. Although a certified elementary librarian is desirable, the library was staffed by a full-time aide, who managed the library activities. All of the classes in the school were scheduled for one library period a week (see Appendix J: School Library Schedule). The scheduled sessions were 30 minutes for all- grades except kindergarten, whose library period was 15 minutes a week. The aide maintained the card catalogue and ordered and filed additional equipment and materials for the library. She sometimes showed filmstrips to the children. On Tuesday, October 13, the youngsters in the afternoon kindergarten class saw the filmstrip, "The Gingerbread Boy." During the lS-minute session (2:30 p.m.-2:45 p.m.), children had no opportunity to select books to check out because showing the filmstrip occupied much of the time. In addition to the scores of volumes on the shelves, the library had globes, maps, atlases, dictionaries, thesauri, encyclopedias, and many other resources. The library had a special magazine section and a newspaper section that compared favorably with that of the city’s main library downtown. Additional resources were 170 available in a separate reference room adjacent to the library. W. At the time of the study, the school had an enrollment of 301 students. This relatively small enrollment allowed teachers to have fewer pupils in their charge than is usually the case in inner-city schools. Researchers have shown that a correlation exists between instruction and class size. It has been recommended that teachers of composition have no more than 20 students per class (NCTE, 1975). Self—conteineg classrooms. These teachers had the same students in their charge all day, allowing them flexibility in their teaching schedules. Instruction was scheduled according to the children’s needs and desires: the teachers had only to consider the periods needed for specialized instruction by different teachers in art, music, physical education, and the library. u o - ta . One of the major supports that primary-grade teachers in this elementary school had for the teaching of composition was the availability of support personnel. These additional individuals included the art, music, and physical education instructors. During the time the children were scheduled with these certified teachers, the regular classroom teacher was released from the immediate supervision of her charges. She could use that time to read children’s writing, review 171 writing folders, set up the overhead projector for teacher modeling, publish children’s writing, record and document children’s writing development for parents and administrators, and perform the myriad other duties associated with managing a classroom writing workshop or studio, if the writing process approach was being used. However, it was not during the time of this study. In a sense, the library aide can be considered part of the teachers’ support staff as she does aid in the pupils’ development of literacy. However, the classroom teachers in this school are not released from pupil supervision during library time because the aide, although extremely competent, is noncertified. Although it is not located in the building studied, the district’s new Instructional and Staff Development Center and its staff can be considered part of the support staff for the primary-grade teachers in this study. Among other subject-area coordinators, there is a language arts coordinator whose major duty is to coordinate the school system’s K-12 language arts program. Iextheeke. The primary children in the five partici- pating classrooms had ample educational materials for use during their school day. The kindergartners did not use textbooks, as such. First graders used many soft-cover, consumable textbooks for their studies. Pupils in grades 172 two and three had hard-cover textbooks, except for the reading workbooks. Basically, textbooks provided the foundation of this school’s literacy program, and each pupil had a textbook for each subject, if applicable. The textbooks gave a. sense of security to the teachers, one of whom wanted a composition text that would provide orderly, sequential writing lessons. The textbooks also gave teachers and children a structure for writing through the daily lessons. As mentioned before, the spelling textbooks had a weekly "Let’s Write" section that provided a writing experience for part of each Thursday’s spelling assignment. Although they consumed almost all of the instructional time, the textbooks played an important role in the teachers’ support system. ese s 'o 4 What constraints exist for teaching writing in the primary grades in this inner-city school? ca 111 c ev m o . The Academic Achievement Program was designed for educationally disadvantaged children in grades two through six who needed additional instruction in reading. and mathematics. The program entailed taking these youngsters out of their classrooms on a regular basis during the school year (see Appendix D: Local School District Documents--The Academic Achievement Program). 173 Kindergartners and first graders were not affected by this program. Therefore, during this study, only those children in grades two and three were involved in the program. This involved three of the five classrooms studied: second grade, third grade, and the third/fourth- grade combination room. Although perhaps beneficial to the young children involved, the program caused frequent interruptions in the regular classroom routine for the children and for the teachers. Writing instruction, like all other instruction, had to be halted, restarted, and even retaught to meet one of the basic tenets of the program-- that these children were to continue to receive the same amount of classroom instruction as children not enrolled in the program. The teachers somehow had to meet this instructional and/or district directive. In summary, although realizing some beneficial aspects of this and other compensatory-education programs, most educators were aware of the constraints entailed in meeting the objectives of the programs. heeertiye_gieeipline. Teaching, as well as learning, cannot take place in a chaotic environment. This school and individual classrooms within the school were managed in a calm, firm, safe, and secure manner. The atmosphere 174 was conducive to the school’s business-~the business of learning. The assertive discipline program provided a structure for discipline, which can be sorely lacking in some students from inner-city homes. This lack of discipline is deleterious to an effective school environment and cannot be allowed to continue. In the school under study, this problem was alleviated, if not eliminated, through the regular, systematic application of the tenets of assertive discipline. However, the disciplinary program can be too structured and thus prove to be a hindrance to some aspects of the educational process. For instance, the first rule is invariably "Stay in your seat." This dictum is fine if there has been a class discussion about when students are permitted out of their seats. During writing time, children need the freedom to move around the classroom (to get writing materials, place pieces in their writing folders, consult with their peers and the teacher, engage in. peer editing, share their writing with classmates, and so on). Lack of freedom to engage in these activities, as well as other prewriting and postdrafting* endeavors, can.‘adversely affect young children’s writing. Although the assertive discipline program was helpful in establishing a firm and fair disciplinary procedure and 175 structure, it can have a negative effect on the teaching of composition as regarded by writing specialists. e i t . The first-grade teacher specifically spoke of her need for clerical help on Wednesday, October 14. During this afternoon observation, the 21 children present drew pictures depicting a Halloween theme. They worked on this activity from 12:37 p.m. to 1:28 p.m. While they were engaged in various stages of this activity, the teacher said, "Tomorrow you will write stories for your pictures. I’m in need of parent help." She went on to say that she needed their parents’ assistance to write their stories on the pictures. The kindergarten teacher had a parent aide who came in during the week. st ' -w u ' . Although composition objectives have been a part of the district’s curriculum guides for many years, the subject of writing has not been emphasized. The disciplines of reading and mathematics have received the most attention throughout the system, and they are the subjects measured in the district evaluation program. This is not to say that other subjects have been ignored. They just have not received the same priority as reading and mathematics. Therefore, because the district emphasizes reading and mathematics instruction, the teachers also tend to stress 176 these two content areas. In addition, teachers need help in seeing the value of writing for learning in all subject areas, including reading. W. Power Writing, which some educators have perceived as a teacher support because it is a unified, systematic approach to the teaching of writing, can also be viewed as a constraint in the teaching of composition. The very features that make Power Writing attractive to some educators (uniformity, structure, brevity in the early stages) impose a restraint on the creative teacher of composition, who must accordingly limit his/her pupils’ writing creativity and output. Young children, not just minority student writers, need the freedom to select their own topics and to expand or contract their writings as necessary. Power Writing requires that children write according to established criteria imposed on them by outside forces. The evaluation process is also strictly outlined. Adherence to the program guidelines is a constraint to teachers of composition and consequently to their students. 0 ss a . Although this urban attendance center had a well-stocked library and a reference center containing many resource aids, no professional library was provided for the faculty. Naturally, the teachers had access to all the facilities and materials available in the school plant itself and in the school library. 177 However, a professional library can be a great source of assistance to teachers. Such a library, furnished with books on composition (as well as other subjects), scholarly journals, samples of writing by children and faculty"members, popular' teacher-instruction. magazines, catalogues and brochures listing sources of writing materials and publishers of children’ s work, and, most important, professional textbooks and hand-outs containing the latest research information on writing and the teaching of writing would be an invaluable teacher support. The lack of this educational resource was a constraint on the teaching of composition in this school. MW. Because of the wide range of student reading abilities, the second- and third- grade teachers believe they need to maintain several reading groups per classroom. The kindergarten teacher did not teach formal reading. The first graders were placed in one reading group, as the researcher observed. Reading instruction occupied most of the teachers’ and pupils’ time each morning because every student had to be instructed according to his/her ability grouping. The researcher noted four reading groups in the second-grade classroom, three in the third-grade room, and four in the third/fourth-grade room. During this instructional time, it was essential for the classroom to be quiet and for the 178 children to stay "on task" as the teacher instructed each group in turn. The teachers spent considerable time preparing reading lessons and materials, instructing the several groups, and managing the other students in the classroom. The emphasis on reading instruction limited instructional time and teacher preparation time for other subjects, including writing. In addition, there seemed to be little understanding of the power of writing for teaching reading. o oo o ' . It was the responsibility of the regular classroom teachers to teach all of the subjects of the ‘typical school day: reading, spelling, language, handwriting/penmanship, mathematics, social studies, science, health, and items on the school’s (society’s) "hidden agenda" (manners, citizenship, values, and so on). The teachers in this school district received some help from support personnel for art, music, and physical education classes. When she was available, the library aide might also provide help. For example, if the teacher could not manage a daily story hour, perhaps the library aide would conduct one during the weekly library visit. The full school curriculum and the necessity to adhere to this curriculum in scope, sequence, and content, however, restricted the teaching of composition in this school, as it does in many others. 179 S n ar '2 t sts. Local, state, and national school authorities’ emphasis on pupils’ performance on standardized tests exerted a strong influence on the teaching of all subjects. Fourth graders are tested in the early fall using the Michigan Education Assessment Program (MEAP) as the test instrument. In the spring, the school district’s students are again tested using the California Achievement Test (CAT). Although there is pressure (subtle and unsubtle, covert and overt) on educators at all. levels in this school district to raise pupil performance levels, teachers are particularly cognizant of the demands associated with standardized testing. Instruction is geared mainly to the areas tested. Because reading and mathematics are stressed on tests, these subjects tend to receive the most attention during the school day. Time. The lack of time to teach composition is a major constraint. Closely tied in with this factor are the issues of an over-extended school curriculum, district priorities, and emphasis on standardized test scores. The old adage "There are only so many hours in one day" applies here. With numerous objectives to meet and so many subjects to teach, these teachers will have great difficulty scheduling the large blocks of class time needed to teach composition. Adjustments in expectations 180 in the total content of the school day will have to be considered. W In the classrooms examined in this study, writing as a process of composing an original thought was not emphasized. Instead, the children in grades two and three wrote compositions based on story starters, lead sentences, and preselected topics. During the observation period, the first graders dictated their own original sentences describing their pictures only once. Another time, the teacher provided the sentence for the children’s pictures. She wrote this sentence on the board for all of the pupils to copy. For the kindergartners, writing instruction consisted primarily of introducing letter concepts and practicing the printing of alphabet letters. The teachers and pupils perceived the practice of handwriting, both manuscript and cursive, as writing. The pupils practiced the letters of the alphabet almost daily. These papers were collected, and some were included in the children’s writing folders (see Appendix F: Samples of Children’s Writing, By Grade Level). Any paper on which the child wrote words was perceived as writing. This was in accordance with the teachers’ perception of the researcher’s directions: that teachers file all papers that they deemed to be "writing." 181 Lessons from spelling, language, reading, and Workshop Way assignments were filed in the children’s writing folders. These papers formed almost all of the papers in the folders. The use of textbooks and worksheets dominated the writing curriculum in grades one through three. Daily use of the published textbooks provided a methodical progression of daily writing activities. These activities required the children to complete exercises and, on some days, to write a sentence, paragraph, or story on a prescribed topic. Worksheets from ditto masters also supplied lessons on grammar and paragraph construction. Teachers evidenced a general lack of knowledge about the latest research in teaching composition. The data revealed that recent literature about the teaching of composition had not been disseminated. Instructors were unaware of the luminaries of the writing field and of their research. Conclusions 1. The main problem that the children in this ele- mentary school faced in learning to write was that they had not been exposed to the latest research methodology in composition. They spent considerable time on writing- related activities to complete their assignments, but these required little extended thought or composition 182 ability. To summarize, the children learned writing skills in short, discrete lessons based on language, spelling, and reading textbooks and commercial worksheets. Students rarely wrote compositions on topics of their own choosing. The problem, then, proved to be not an "inner- city" writing problem but the lack of a well-defined writing program based on the latest research and methodologies for writing instruction. 2. Many of the health and attention problems that may restrict the teaching of composition and all other subjects in inner-city schools seem to have been alleviated in this school through the use of state and federal funds for free and reduced-cost breakfast and lunch programs. In addition, district 'monies have been directed into compensatory education programs for disadvantaged children and other innovative programs designed to improve instruction and discipline. 3. Lack of knowledge about composition appeared to be the main problem affecting the teachers in this study, as it was for the children. Teachers were doing an effective job of teaching writing as they perceived it, but they lacked knowledge about research in dialect, linguistically diverse children, and current methodology on the teaching of composition. They were warm, dedicated, and accepting of the students in their charge. The researcher concluded that having the aforementioned 183 qualities and, given knowledge and leadership in adapting the latest. research. in 'teaching"writing, the teachers involved in this study would, for the most part, adopt and practice the 15 characteristics of an effective writing curriculum. 4. Nine supports for teaching writing were found during the data-gathering stage of the research project: adequate instructional materials, assertive discipline, Effective Schools, instructional leadership, library, pupil enrollment, self-contained classrooms, support staff, and textbooks. The researcher concluded that the principal, in his role as instructional leader, provided the major support for the teaching of composition in this inner-city school. His interest in writing and overall leadership will provide the impetus needed for improving his students’ writing. The school district played a major role in the teachers’ support system through its adoption of such educational tenets as assertive discipline, Effective Schools research, and other programs. These programs and more have been implemented and directed by the school principal, but they also need to be examined and restructured to eliminate the negative influence they have on instruction. 184 5. The primary-grade teachers in this study faced ten constraints: the academic achievement program, assertive discipline, clerical assistance, district-wide curriculum emphasis, Power Writing, professional library, reading instruction groups, school curricula, standardized tests, and time. The major constraint was the district’s, and therefore the school’s, prescribed curriculum and the time it took to teach it. The classroom agendas were full. Teachers had many objectives and other criteria to meet each day. Teaching composition, as defined by Graves (1983), Murray (1985), and others, takes large blocks of classroom time. If, in the future, the teachers who participated in this study decide to teach composition according to the 15 factors defined by 'Farr and Daniels (1986), they will have the considerable task of instituting the writing process workshop and adhering to the district curriculum within a circumscribed time frame. lmelieatipme l. The factors that constitute effective writing instruction for nonmainstream students are the same as those for pupils of the majority population. In fact, Farr and Daniels (1986) stated that these factors may be applied to suburban students. Therefore, the findings may be used in other schools in the district, not just in those with a high percentage of minority students. 185 2. Writing process methods of teaching composition can be much less expensive than the traditional methods because the children’s writings become their "textbooks." School funds allocated for textbooks for the teaching of composition can be used for other materials needed for instruction, i.e., reference books, publishing materials, and so on. Moffett (1983) stated, "My main purpose has been to propose that writing be taught ,naturalistically, by writing, and that the only texts be the student productions themselves" (p. 210). He called for a break in the "self-perpetuating cycle that revolves among education schools, classrooms, school administrations, and publishers. The teaching of writing will not improve until the cycle is broken" (p. 210). 3. The difficulty the researcher had in locating a primary school in.‘which. to study' the teaching of composition implies that writing was not emphasized in the district’s curriculum priorities. This implication was verified by the research data. triangulation (questionnaires, interviews, and classroom observations). 4. Although this study was conducted in an inner- city school, the researcher believes that the socioeconomic status of the pupils had no apparent bearing on their ability to learn to write under favorable conditions in school. Because the writing program in this school did not comply with the latest research about what 186 constitutes effective writing instruction, the children did not experience the benefits that writing could give them: to validate their life experiences and to help them become more literate in written English. Recommendations In this section, the writer offers recommendations to be used as guidelines for improving the composition curriculum at both the district and the building levels. 1. Teachers should be taught how to use the writing process workshop method of teaching composition in their classrooms (Graves, 1983). 2. Each teacher should be supplied with a copy of the Essentiei Qeels ene Ohjeetives fer Writing. K-lz (1985), published by the Michigan Department of Education. 3. A professional library for the faculty should be established within the school building. 4. The school or district should subscribe to such scholarly journals as Wane. hombres. Wan ' . WW. Teoonor. and W. 5. Membership in such professional organizations as the National Council of Teachers of English (NCTE) , the Michigan Council of Teachers of English (MCTE) , and the Michigan Writers Project (MWP) should be encouraged. Teachers’ and principals’ attendance at meetings and 187 conventions held by these organizations should also be encouraged and supported by the school district. 6. Findings from the latest research on the teaching of composition--hand-outs, fliers, newsletters, and reprints from articles on writing--should be disseminated. 7. Inservice sessions and seminars on the latest writing research should be scheduled and conducted by university professors, successful classroom writing teachers, and other experts in the field of writing. 8. Teachers should be encouraged to enroll in writ- ing courses offered by colleges, universities, and/or the Instructional and Staff Development Center. If feasible, teachers should be remunerated for taking such courses. 9. Administrative leadership in writing should con- tinue, and composition at the elementary level should be given a higher priority in the school district’s curriculum. ' 10. Acquisition of knowledge about oral and written literacy of early childhood should be stressed through workshops at the Instructional and Staff Development Center. 11. The assistance of university personnel or other knowledgeable experts as resource people should be enlisted before adopting any commercial writing programs or curricular materials related to writing. Currently 188 approved programs in writing should be re-evaluated after a careful examination of the current literature on compo- sition. 12. Teachers and administrators, themselves, should be encouraged to write and to share their writings with children and adults. u es d eas o This study represents a small part of the existing literature about the teaching of composition. As Graves (1978), Clark et al. (1982), and others have noted, more research must be done in this critical area. The writer offers the following suggestions for further research: 1. An examination of primary classrooms in an inner- city school where a successful writing program has been operating. 2. An examination of a later elementary writing pro- gram, grades four through six, in an inner-city school. 3. A study examining the written literacy of minor- ity preschoolers and junior first graders. 4. Comparison of the writing program of a rural and/ or suburban elementary school with that of an inner-city elementary school. 5. A study of the dialectical differences in the compositions of linguistically diverse children. APPEN DI CES APPENDIX A CORRESPONDENCE 189 MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY Inmmmnvcousnnsomnneumuummwwmc tmn'uuummiowxxmmN-uaneus ammuvsmmunsnxmns: ' unanwmmnmuxniunuch (517) SSS-2|“ May 7’ 1987 Ms. Shirley Mae Jackson-Holmes 3515 Wadsworth Road. R.D. 3 Saginaw, Michigan 48601 Dear Ms. Jackson-Holmes: Subject: Proposal Entitled, "An Investigation of the Conditions Affecting the Teaching of Composition in an Inner-City Elementary School. Grades Kindergarten Through Three: A Descriptive Studv" UCRIHS' review of the above referenced project has now been completed. I am pleased to advise that since the reviewer's comments have been satisfactorily addressed. the conditional approval given by the Committee at its May 4, 1987 meeting has now been changed to full approval. A suggestion was made however, that you reword the typed consent form in language that can be understood easily by this population. The use of words such as "prerogative" and "adverse consequences" may be beyond their comprehension. This is merely a suggestion. not a condition of approval. You are reminded that UCRIHS approval is valid for one calendar year. If you plan to continue this project beyond one year, please make provisions for obtaining appropriate UCRIHS approval prior to May 4, 1988. Any changes in procedures involving human subjects must be reviewed by the UCRIHS prior to initiation of the change. UCRIHS must also be notified promptly of any problems (unexpected side effects. complaints. etc.) involving human subjects during the course of the work. Thank you for bringing this project to our attention. If we can be of any future help, please do not hesitate to let us know. Sincerely, L. Henry E. Bredeck, Ph.D. Chairman, UCRIHS HEB/jms cc: Dr. Sheila Fitzgerald ”5U it a Allil'utnv Arno-aw Wy m 190 FRANK SCHAFFER PUBLICATIONS, INC. 10771 “CELLAR DRIVE TORMNCE. CALIFORNIA man: (213) m December 2, 1987 Ms. Shirley M. Holmes 3515 Wadsworth Road Saginaw, Mi 48601 Dear Ms. Holmes: This is in response to your letter of November 18, 1987, requesting permission to use copies of our worksheets that have been completed by students in your dissertation. You have our permission to use completed worksheets from Frank Schaffer materials as long as our copyright appears on each sheet. EXAMPLE Q Frank Schaffer Publications 19 FS-7136 Initial Consonants Thank you for writing to us and for your interest in our educational materials. Good luck with your dissertation. Sincerely, Frank Schaffer President FS/bc APPENDIX B QUESTIONNAIRES, INTERVIEW FORMATS, PARENTAL CONSENT FORMS, AND TEACHER VOLUNTEER-PARTICIPANT LETTER 191 Questionnaire: Assistant Snperintendent for Elementary Education (1) (2) (4) (5) (6) What do you perceive to be the current status of the writing component of the language arts curriculum for the primary grades in the district? What do you perceive as strengths of the current writing program at the primary grade level? What do you perceive as weaknesses, if any, in the current writing program at the primary grade level? What changes and/or improvements in the writing program would you like to see implemented? 1 year 3 years 5 years Are there any provisions in the language arts program for dialectically different students, particularly in the area of writing? Additional comments: (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) 192 Questionnaire: Languege Arts Coordinator What do you perceive to be the mm' of the writing component of the language arts curriculum at the K-3 level? What do you perceive as strengths of the current writing program at the primary grade level? What do you perceive as weaknesses, if any. in the current writing program at the primary grade level? What changes and/or improvements in the writing program would you like to sea implemented? 1 year 3 years 5 years Are there any provisions in the language arts program for dialectically different students: particularly in the area of writing? ‘9 Additional comments: 193 Questionnaire: Principal (1) What do you perceive to be the current statu_s‘ of the writing component of the language arts curriculum in your building? (2) What do you perceive as strengths of the primary grade writing program in your building? (3) What do you perceive as weaknesses: if any, of the primary grade writing program in your building? (4) What changes and/or improvements in the writing program would you like to see implemented in your building? 1 year 3 years 5 years (5) Additiodal comments: 194 Questionnaire: Teachers Part I - Background and Training (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) How many years have you taught? How many years have you taught in inner-city schools? How many years have you taught in this school? How much preparation on the teaching of writing have you had? rUndergraduate courses? Graduate courses? Inservice or conference sessions? Highest level of degree status earned? Can you speak a dialect of English other than Standard English? Do you ever use this dialect with the children in school? When? ; Why? Have you had any training in dialect differences and their impact on the learning of young children? Part (9) (10) (11) (12) (13) (14) (15) 195 II - Writing Program and Materials Describe your writing program at this level. What commercial curriculum materials are you currently using in the teaching of your writing program? What is your opinion of the usefulness of these curriculum materials? What teacher-made curriculum materials are you currently using in the teaching of your writing program? What is your opinion of the usefulness of these curriculum materials? What changes or improvements would you like to see in the writing program in this school in: 1 year? 3 years? 5 years? Additional comments: 196 Interview Formet: Assistant Suoerintendent for Elementary Education Part I--Introductory Questions. (I) Is there any answer from the questionnaire that you would like to expand? (2) Is there anything concerning the writing program that you would like to add or discuss that was not covered or mentioned on the questionnaire? Part II--Questions Concerning Knowledge of Current Research/Practices in Writing Instruction (adopted from Farr & Daniels, Lan- guage Diversity end Writing Instruction, 1986). (I) Do you understand and appreciate the basic linguistic compe- tence that young children bring with them to school, and have positive expectations for young children’s achievements in writing? (2) Are the primary grade children in the district provided with sufficient time to practice their writing? (3) Do the primary grade children in the district have the opportunity to write for a variety of audiences? (4) Are workbooks and ditto sheets used in the district to teach writing mechanics and granmar or are the children’s own compositions employed for this purpose? (5) Has writing been made an integral part of the entire curric- ulum, not just in the language arts? 197 Interview format: Language Arts Cgordinator Part I--Introductory Questions. (l) Is there any answer from the questionnaire that you would like to expand? (2) Is there anything concerning the writing program that you would like to add or discuss that was not covered or mentioned on the questionnaire? Part II—-Questions Concerning Knowledge of Current Research/Practices in Writing Instruction (adopted from Farr & Daniels, Lan- guage Diversity and Writing Instrggtign, l986). (l) Do you understand and appreciate the basic linguistic compe- tence that young children bring with them to school, and have positive expectations for young children’s achievements in writing? (2) Are the primary grade children in the district provided with sufficient time to practice their writing? (3) Do the primary grade children in the district have the opportunity to write for a variety of audiences? (4) Are workbooks and ditto sheets used in the district to teach writing mechanics and granlnar or are the children’s own compositions employed for this purpose? (5) Has writing been made an integral part of the entire curric- ulum, not just in the language arts? 198 Interview,Format: Principal Part I--Introductory Questions. (l) Is there any answer from the questionnaire that you would like to expand? (2) Is there anything concerning the writing program that you would like to add or discuss that was not covered or mentioned on the questionnaire? Part II--Questions Concerning Knowledge of Current Research/Practices in Writing Instruction (adopted from Farr & Daniels, Lan- guage Diversity and Writing Instruction, 1986). (l) Do you understand and appreciate the basic linguistic compe- tence that young children bring with them to school, and have positive expectations for young children’s achievements in writing? (2) Are the primary grade children in your building provided with sufficient time to practice their writing? (3) Do the primary grade children in your building have the opportunity to write for a variety of audiences? (4) Are workbooks and ditto sheets used in your building to teach writing mechanics and grammar or are the children’s own compositions employed for this purpose? (5) Has writing been made an integral part of the entire curric- ulum, not just in the language arts? 199 Interview Format: leather Part I--Introductory Questions. (1) Is there any answer from the questionnaire that you would like to expand? (2) Is there anything concerning the writing program that you would like to add or discuss that was not covered or mentioned on the questionnaire? (3) How did you learn to write? (4) Describe how you would teach a class of children to write if you didn’t have any restraints--an ideal situation. Part II--Questions Concerning Knowledge of Current Research/Practices in Writing Instruction (adopted from Farr & Daniels, Lan- guage Diversitytgnd Writing Instruction, l986). (1) Do you understand and appreciate the basic linguistic competence that young children bring with them to school, and have positive expectations for young children’s achievements in writing? (2) Are the students in your classroom provided with sufficient time to practice their writing? (3) Do the children have the opportunity to write for real pur- poses that are significant to them? (4) Do the children have the opportunity to write for a variety of audiences? (5) Are your students surrounded by a rich print environment, including works published by acknowledged authors and the work of their classmates and teachers? (6) (7) (8) (9) (10) (11) (12) (13) (14) (15) 200 Do the children have opportunities to view pieces of writing in progress and to see how writers actually compose? Do you teach or have you taught the writing process to your pupils? Are the students allowed to work in small peer groups for revision purposes and the sharing of ideas? Do ,you conduct one-to-one writing conferences with your students? Do you teach your students specific strategies and tech- niques for writing? Are the children in your classroom provided with more instruction in the use of sentence-combining skills and less emphasis on grammar? Do you use workbooks and ditto sheets to teach writing mechanics and grammar, or do you use the children’s own compositions? Do you tend to mark every single error on a pupil’s composi- tion, or do you tend to look for similar groups, sets, or patterns of errors? Do you stress revision when you evaluate the children’s com- positions, showing sensitivity' to variations in subject, audience, and purpose? Has writing been made an integral part of your entire. curriculum, not just in the language arts? (l) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) 201 Questionnaire/Interview: Selected Student Informants Do you like to write? What kinds of writing do you like to do? What ideas are the most interesting to write about? Describe what you think a good griter is: Are you a good writer? Why or why not? How often do you write at school? How often do you write at home? What do you like best about writing? What could the teacher do to help you become a better writer? 202 Interview/Questionnaire Reading Habits of Selected Student Informants (9) Do You like to read? (10) What kinds of books do you like to read? (11) Do you read at home? 'when? (12) Do you read at school? When? 203 PARENTAL CONSENT LETTER 3515 Wadsworth Road Saginaw. MI 48601 April 30. 1987 Dear Parent: As a graduate student at Michigan State University. I inn conducting a research project on the conditions affeqting the teaching of composition in an inner-city school. I will be observing writing instruction in your child's classroom and. as a part of that project. I will be collecting samples of the writing of some of the students in participating teachers' classrooms. Also. I will talk ix) those students selected about how they feel about writing activities. The information gathered in this project will appear in my Ph. D. dissertation. The location for this study in the northern part of Michigan will be described. but the name of the school. the names of the teachers. and the names of the students will not be disclosed to protect privacy. 204 In order for me to observe your child and perhaps to use his/her writing in my study. I need your permission. It is your prerogative not to have your child participate in the study. It is understood that theme will be no negative or adverse consequences for you or for your child. However. if you do agree to permit your child to participate in the project. please sign the accompanying "Informed Consent Form" and return it to your’child's teacher as soon as possible. Thank you for your time and interest. If you have any questions. please call me. S/i)ncere%y. AD/LLWL/)1$(Ja*/(Imi Shirley M. Holmes 753-0282 205 INFORMED CONSENT FORM Child‘s Name As the legal parent/guardian of the above named student. I hereby give my permission for his/her participation in a research project conducted by Shirley Holmes in the Saginaw Public Schools. I understand that Ms. Holmes may observe my child in class. collect and read my child's written work. and that she may interview my child concerning how he/she feels about writing activities. I understand that in- formation gained from this project will appear in Ms. Holmes' Ph. D. dissertation. although no mention will be made of any names. Finally. I understand that participation in this project may be terminated at any time my child or I desire. Parent/Guardian Signature Address Date 206 If you would be willing to participate in this study and would like more information. please complete the bottom portion of this page and return it to me via inter-office mail as soon as possible. Thank you very much for your cooperation. Sincerely. Shirley M. Holmes Second Grade Teacher Heavenrich School 776-0381 (0) 753-0282 (B) I am interested in participating in your study. Name Grade Taught School Phone Home Phone 207 TEACHER VOLUNTEER-PARTICIPANT LETTER 3515 Wadsworth Road Saginaw. MI 48601 March 1. 1987 Dear Colleague: I am conducting research work for a study entitled. "An Investigation of The Conditions Affecting the Teaching of Composition in an Inner-city Elementary School. Grades Kindergarten through Three: A Descriptive Study" and need teachers in the aforementioned grades to allow me to observe their classrooms approximately three to four times during the month of May. 1987. The project also includes completing a short questionnaire. participating in a follow-up interview. and collecting samples of your students' writing. Michigan State University and the Saginaw Public School District have already approved teachers' participation in this project. Everything connected with this study will be kept strictly confidential. This study is not in any way designed to,be critical of current teaching methods. It is designed to look at the factors affecting the teaching of writing in an inner-city school. APPENDIX C STATE DOCUMENTS 208 3" STATE OF MICHIGAN )3; ’» DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION atheist-mano- May 12, 1988 .A'Q‘ "A?! ”“0 OF IDUCAMN MIMM IOIEIYS HASON MI WIDTH! IEAIDMOIE ”a m. CREIIY JACOIUS m DI. OUMECINDO SALAS Tm DI. EDMUND r VANDE‘ITE NAME m CAIIOLL M. MUTTON ANNETM MILLS! NORMAN OTTO STOCKMEYEI. SI GOV JAMES J. ILANCHAID b-Omae leer Ts. Wadsworth: i am enclosing «Fltlng materials as you requested. We do not na.: state teacrer certification requirements for writing. Sincerely, Jud:~;f:%- Language Arts Specialist Michigan Essential Goals and Objectives for Writing I. n .Vlilt‘a‘; d.('l.k'li"i.ld‘il ) 0 Michigan State Board of Education 210 TABLE OF CONTENTS Page Foreword .................................................................... i Philosophy of Writing ........................................................ 1 Objectives For Using The Writing Process Pre-Writing ................................................................. 2 Drafting .................................................................... 4 Revising ................................................................... 6 Proofreading ................................................................ 8 Publishing .................................................................. IO Writing Instruction ........................................................... 12 Points To Consider In Evaluating A Writing Program ........................... 15 The Role Of The Administrator In The Writing Program ....................... 16 The Role Of The School Board In The Writing Program ....................... 17 Bibliography .................................................................. I 8 211 FOREWORD The Michigan Council of Teachers of English has worked cooperatively with staff to develop this revision of Michigan’s Essential Goals and Objectives for Writing. These objectives are quite a departure from the last revision, as they better reflect the latest research and practice in the teaching of writing Please note that the objectives were written for both teacher and students. because we believe that if writing instruction is viewed as a process, the teacher has to direct the process. We also have included responsibilities for administrators and school board members, because they have an essential role in a successful writing program. As teachers are well aware, students within each level vary greatly in their ability to write. We encourage teachers to be affirmative about each student's efforts, because a feeling of trust and acceptance is critical to growth in writing. In order to improve writing instruction throughout the state, we encourage district staffs to use these objectives as a model as they develop their own objectives. @415. (’3 Phillip E. Ru kel Superintendent of Public Instruction October. I985 212 PHILOSOPHY OF WRITING Writing can be a deeply personal act of shaping our perception of the world and our relationships to people and things in that world. It can be a means of self-expression. discovery. and critical thinking. Writing is the process of selecting. developing. and arranging ideas efl'ectively. The process requires students to write in a variety of forms (e.g.; letters. stories, journals. essays). for a variety of purposes (e.g.; to inform. to persuade, to describe). and for a variety of audiences (e.g.; peers. teachers. self). Students need to write to see how writing influences their thinking and stimulates their ideas. Each form. purpose and audience demands differences of style, approach. and word choice. A wide variety of writing experience, therefore. is critical in order to develop effective writers. Although it is necessary to classify writing in terms of objectives. there is no correlation between grade level and writing maturity. To state where a student should be by such a time would defeat a whole sense of process and the concept of the individual learner. Instruction in writing. however. can foster continuing growth and development. 213 OBJECTIVES FOR USING THE WRITING PROCESS PRE-WRITING Pre-writing is the stage in which writers generate and discover ideas. and consider the purpose and audience for their writing. Virtually all experiences within the school setting and outside of school may serve as pre-writing activities. Some examples are using journals. reading. researching, discussing. brainstorming. free-writing. listening to music. and so on. These activities may stimulate thinking. generate ideas. extend vocabulary, and deepen concepts. Developmental Stages For Pre—Writing Primary Beginning Writers tend to be egocentric. They tend to enjoy their own ideas and to have the confidence to share what they are thinking. They need a wide variety of real and vicarious experiences. Intermediate Developing Writers tend to become aware of audience. and therefore, benefit from small group work. Pre-writing fills a particular need of develop- ing writers to try out ideas before commiting them to paper. Middle School/Junior High Maturing Writers tend to consider purpose and audience and seek ways to focus their thoughts. They begin more formally to explore their topics and to study the writings of other authors. Therefore, they need extended time for the pie-writing stage. High School Mature Writers have a clearer vision of purpose and audience. They tend to be more self-directed in selecting appropriate pre-writing activities. Conse- quently, they need more time for the pre-writing stage. Objectives For Pre-Writing TEACHERS During the pre-writing stage of the writing process. the teacher will be prepared to: a help students recall experiences 0 help students generate ideas oallow students to choose their own topics 0 help students to work alone, or in groups. or with the teacher tread literature to students frequently Oprovide examples of writing and alternative assignments 0 encourage and support students‘ effons 0 identify systematic procedures to explore topics egive options regarding form and length ehelp students consider purpose and audience STUDENTS During the pre-writing part of the writing process. the student will: 0 read edmw o speak 0 listen 0 dramatize 0 brainstorm 0 interview I recall a research 0 classify o imagine and visualize DRAFTING Written composition is the development, organiza- tion and recording of the thoughts initiated in the pre-writing stage. Drafting is discovering thoughts as well as communicating them. Students may write the first draft with little concern for form or mechanics. or they may dictate ideas to a scribe. This stage would include informal sharing with peers or adults. Developmental Stages For Drafting Primary Beginning Writers tend to produce a single draft of most writing. Fatigue may interrupt the flow of their ideas; conclusions are often abrupt. They as- sume the understanding of their readers. If correctness is not over-emphasized, beginning writers will write more freely. and take risks to get their best thoughts down on paper. Intermediate Developing Writers have internalized some of the mechanics of writing so they can focus more on ideas. They select language more consciously and begin to organize more knowingly. As developing writers sense the need for revision while they are drafting. they may become discouraged and need reassurance. Middle School/Junior High Maturing Writers consider a topic more fully. and are more able to organize their ideas. Even in draft form. audience and purpose are more clearly delineated. 214 High School Mature Writers manipulate sentence structure and vocabulary to affect tone. They begin to develop their individual styles, and they are able to write for a variety of purposes and audiences. Objectives For Drafting TEACHERS During the actual writing part of the writing process. the teacher will be prepared to: Oprovide a variety of writing materials oact as a resource owrite along with students 0 listen eask questions of individuals Otake dictation to get students started ocreate writing situations for a variety of audi- ences and purposes 0 suggest that students work alone or in groups osuggest options for form and development and length STUDENTS During the drafting part of the process. students will: ochoose a topic euse invented spellings orecord experiences. feelings. and ideas on paper 0 restart oadd or delete ideas ecreate images oconnect ideas oconsider audience and format eshare writing with others ocontinue reading and researching REVISING Revision is the “re-seeing” of the content of a piece of writing. At its best. revision entails reorgani- zation and development of subject matter. as well as stylistic changes made to suit a writer's purpose and intended audience. Only selected pieces of writing should be subjected to close analysis of content and form. depending upon the particular purpose or audience. Students will revise if they care about the piece they have written. Because of its substantive nature. revision should be seen as distinct from proofreading. Developmental Stages For Revising Primary Beginning Writers tend to view revision as unnec- essary and are confused as to where to start. Consequently. they see revision simply as recopying or as “adding on." They need help in “re-seeing“ their ideas. Intermediate Developing Writers start to recognize the needs of their readers. to consider not only what is said but also how it is said. Developing writers revise when they are encouraged to do so by peers or the teacher. Revisions tend to be piecemeal. Middle School/Junior High Maturing Writers tend to revise their writing for several reasons. Not only do they see ways that they can improve their writing. but they also accept suggestions for improvement from teachers and peers. Revisions may be extensive and cover organization, tone. and style. High School Mature Writers feel a responsibility to their audience. as well as to themselves and the ideas they are trying to express. They seek help from peers and teachers to improve drafts. Objectives For Revising TEACHERS During the revising stage of the writing process. the teacher will be prepared to: ogive students adequate time to revise oallow students to select pieces of writing to be revised Cask demonstration quesrions for clarification Odemonstrate revision techniques 0diagnose writing problems in content and or- ganization oencourage peer reaction and help ehold individual conferences with students, ask questions. make suggestions, and offer support STUDENTS When revising, the student will: oadd and delete information Oseek help 0 refine purpose oshare writing orally with peers 0 consider arrangement of sentences and paragraphs Oselect precise language ouse a personal dictionary or thesaurus eevaluate what was written eproject audience reaction PROOFREADING Proofreading is the stage of the writing process in which the writer attends to conectness in punctuation. spelling. word choice. usage. and so on. Correctness is not only a courtesy the writer owes the reader. but. in fact. the lack of correctness may affect communication. 215 Developmental Stages For Proofreading Primary Beginning Writers tend to overlook mechanical errors. or they may be very discouraged by their inability to meet standards they do not understand. They need help in accepting their efforts. and they need help in finding only a few prominent or repeated errors they can correct. Intermediate Developing Writers become aware of correct standards. but they are often frustrated by the extent of their problems. They need help in searching their writing for selected types of errors. and help in keeping records on their most common problems. Middle School/Junior High Maturing Writers begin to see the significance of correctness in form. but they need help in accepting responsibility for errors in their writing and in using resources to help them determine appropriate forms. High School Mature Writers are anxious to present their writ- ten work in its best form for their readers. and they use a variety of resources and techniques to insure correct results. Objectives For Proofreading TEACHERS When teaching proofreading. the teacher will be prepared to: Oselect only certain skills for attention at one time edemonstrate proofreading techniques oreview known skills eencourage peer help ohelp edit student writing eprovide support lessons on skill needs that are evident in students‘ writing STUDENTS When proofreading. the student will: oconect sentence fragments and run-on sentences when appropriate ecorrect sentence syntax errors ecorrect errors in usage. such as lack of subject- verb agreement. incorrect verb tense. and so on ocorrect punctuation and capitalization ocorrect illegible handwriting 0 correct format problems. such as irregular margins. missing indentations. and so on eidentify and correct misspelled words PUBLISHING Only selected pieces of writing will be taken to the final stage of publishing in the classroom. Although some publishing is beneficial for young writers. only limited time. effort. and value should be given to it in contrast to time. effort. and value given to pre-writing. drafting. and sharing Perfection should not be expected in published writing. particularly in the writing of beginning and developing writers. Developmental Stages For Publishing Primary Beginning Writers are more motivated to write when their attempts are posted in the classroom or the school. or when they are shared in a special way with parents. Individual or class booklets of student writing should be shared with the class. the school. and the community. Intermediate Developing Writers will make special efforts in revision and proofreading in order to publish their work for the class. the school. and the community. Because they are frequently discouraged by the mag- nitude of the task. they need help. encouragement. and recognition. Middle School/Junior High Maturing Writers need opportunities to bring their writing to its final polished form. These writers begin to identify their own audiences and benefit from the freedom and encouragement to do so. High School Mature Writers try to correct all errors. They may seek wider audiences for their publishable work. (e.g.. student literary magazines. writing contests. local newspapers). They need help in locating and selecting appropriate publishing opportunities. Objectives For Publishing TEACHERS Upon completion of some pieces of written work. the teacher will be prepared to: eprovide typed copies of students' work when possible 0 display the writing within or outside the classroom eprovide bookmaking materials 0 provide publishing opportunities in class booklets. classroom newspapers. and so on eidentify magazines. contests. and other outlets for publishing outside the school for students who seek these forms of publication oassist students in preparing their writing for publication STUDENTS After proofreading. a student will: eprepare corrected copy for publication oadd illustrations. if possible Oshare writing with appropriate audiences 0 display writing in the classroom or school building Oseek ways to share writing with parents eenjoy the published writing of classmates WRITING INSTRUCTION“ All teachers should have responsibility for helping students improve their writing skills. Worksheets. blank-filling exercises. multiple choice tests, and simi- lar materials avoid having students write. Providing opportunities for students to write may often be overlooked as viable objectives during program planning. If students are not being asked to write sentences and paragraphs about science, history. gee ography and the other school subjects. the school is not providing the guidance and practice students need to become better writers. In homes and the greater community as well, emphasis should be placed on writing as an impor- tant means of communication. Frequently. visual. oral. mechanical and technical skills are encouraged. and writing skills are neglected or overlooked. A climate of words should be built. and role models, experiences, and opportunities should be provided outside of the school environment, so that students are stimulated and encouraged to develop and use writing as an important tool of communication. General Implications oState teacher certification requirements should be expanded to include college credits for writing instruction, as well as for reading 0 Districts should provide teacher in-service oppor- tunities on writing instruction and the integra- tion of writing experiences into the total cur- riculum. oTeacher in-service research grants should be offered for communication skills as an integrated package, rather than for each subject area in isolation. 0 Higher education institutions which offer teacher training should offer courses on “How to Teach Integrated Communication Skills.” 0 Districts should adopt a writing philosophy and plan a K—lZ writing program based upon the staffs philosophy of writing. Planning should include staff from all content areas. 0 If a district elects to assess its students in writing. the assessment should be based upon holistic or primary trait scoring of at least two writing samples per student. Test items are available through the Michigan Department of Education. If test items and scoring criteria from the depart- ment are used. it is important for validity that the items not be altered in any way. A district should use its own teachers to score the papers because the scoring procedures serve as valuable professional development activities. 'Taken from the 1982-83 Writing Education Inter- pretive Report. Michigan Educational Assessment Program 216 0 Encourage publication of good student writing in school newspapers. literary journals, local news- papers, and magazines. 0 See that the high school‘s best writers are entered into the NCT E Achievement Awards in Writing Program or the Scholastic Writing Awards or other writing contests. Let everyone know that writing matters to you. Instructional Implications 0 Provide opportunities for students to write every day. Daily writing is the ideal; once a week is not often enough. All writing does not have to be graded or even read by the teacher. It may be read by other students. parents, or it may be a journal entry. But students should write each day beginning in kindergarten and continuing throughout all levels. 0 Have students write in a variety of forms, for a variety of purposes. and for a variety of audiences. eProvide many opportunities for impromptu writing This affords students a chance to write their thoughts down on paper with some sem- blance of correctness. 0 Instruction should follow a developmental process. Students move from personal. subjective. imagi- native kinds of writing to objective. expository writing. 0 Writing instruction should take place within the framework of the writing process although writ- ing does not depend upon sequential skills. 0 Provide students with topics of interest to write about — preferably several topics from which they may choose. 0 Limit instruction in grammar and mechanics in isolation. because application is dependent upon the students‘ abilities to express themselves in an organized way. Some knowledge of grammar is useful. but too much time spent on the study of grammar steals time from the Study of writing. Time is much better spent in writing and confer- ring with the teacher or other students about each attempt to communicate in writing 0 Provide instruction and time on task opportuni- ties for students to practice their writing skills in all disciplines (science, health. music, art, social studies. etc.). Do not limit writing to the English composition classes. Teachers should have plenty of writing supplies — writing paper. teacher materials. duplicating and copying machines. dictionaries. books about writing. and classroom libraries of good books. 217 0 Provide well-planned integrated listening, speaking, reading and writing activities. eBe primarily interested in the content. not the mechanics of expression. It‘s easy to spot misspellings, faulty word usage. and shaky punctuation. Perfection in these escapes most adults. so do not demand it of students. Mark only a few mechanical errors when grading. leaving others for another time. What matters most in writing are ideas, and the words and sentences that express the ideas. Perfection in mechanics develops slowly. Be patient. 0 Be afiirmative about the child‘s efforts in school writing. Recognize that for every error a child makes, he or she will do many things right. Applaud the good things you see. The willing- ness to write is fragile. Your optimistic attitude toward the student‘s efforts is vital to strengthening the writing habit. 0 Check to see if there is continuing contact with the imaginative writing of skilled authors. While it’s true we learn to write by writing. we also learn to write by reading The works of talented authors should be studied not only for ideas but also for the writing techniques involved. Good literature is an essential part of any effective writing program. 0 Encourage the use of writing folders both at home and at school. Most writing should be kept, not thrown away. Folders are an important means for helping both teachers and students see progress in writing skill. ‘ POINTS TO CONSIDER IN EVALUATING A WRITING PROGRAM When evaluating a writing program. the following areas need to be considered in addition to an examination of the writing process and writing products. EMOTIONAL CLIMATE 0 evidence of students‘ interests and hobbies e evidence that students listen to each other and that teachers listen to students 0 evidence that teachers and students talk about the writing process and about pieces of writing PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT 0 access to library 0 availability of assorted pencils, pens, papers (lined and unlined) 0 easy access to necessary resources (dictionaries. thesauri, encyclopedias, and so on) 0 displays of the works of prominent authors 0 displays of students‘ writing pieces 0 examples of writing forms 0 availability of word processors and typewriters TEACHER 0 offers writing opportunities frequently and regu- larly o integrates writing into content areas 0 writes and shares her/his own writing with students orequires writing in all subject areas 0 promotes sensitivity to vocabulary and language Oexpects erratic development of students‘ writing abilities O shares own delight with precise. powerful vocabu- lary and language 0 meets regularly with colleagues to share successes and frustrations of writing experiences Ocommunicates the writing process to parents ocollects samples of students‘ writing throughout the school year in order to determine growth in writing 0 reads aloud exemplary writing STUDENT eexpects to write daily 0 is aware of stages of the writing process eis willing to take risks in trying to express her/his ideas in writing econfers with peers and teachers about pieces of writing at all stages 0 evaluates her/his own writing for purposes, form. and content econsiders writing a means of discovery. as well as a means of communication AUDIENCE 0 students are encouraged to share their writing both formally and informally o audiences other than peers are provided Oparents and community groups are informed about the writing program and encouraged to support it 218 THE ROLE OF THE ADMINISTRATOR IN THE WRITING PROGRAM The writing program refers to those identifiable written composition activities of the tatal curriculum. As such. the writing strand of language development should be found in all areas. and student skills should be nurtured by all school personnel, particu- larly the building administrator. THE BUILDING ADMINISTRATOR . . . ewrites and lets students and faculty see the significance of writing to her/him. esupervises the writing program through regular classroom visits. eprovides leadership by stating the goals of the writing program and by appropriating funds for materials and activities. including professional in-service on writing 0 with teachers, articulates the goals of the writing program to parents. the community, and other interested persons. 0 promotes writing as an all-school activity. osupports staff review and possible modification of the existing writing program. including class- room activities and strategies. oencourages innovative curricular changes and instructional approaches to facilitate language growth. 0 encourages teachers to create language-rich class- room environments. oreads student writing and encourages student authors. oencourages the publication of student writing in newsletters and publications for parents and others. a evaluates the effectiveness of the existing program. 0 identifies areas needing improvement, and sup- ports needed change. THE ROLE OF THE SCHOOL BOARD IN THE WRITING PROGRAM THE SCHOOL BOARD MEMBERS... ewrite. and let faculty, students. and administra- tors see the significance of writing to them. eset policy on the importance of writing. oread student writing. and encourage and com- mend young authors. 0 provide the financial support necessary to oper- ate a quality language program. Glisten to teachers‘ concerns about the writing program and seek ways to solve these problems. eencourage innovative curricular practices. esupport professional development activities to improve staff skills. SELECTED PROFESSIONAL BIBLIOGRAPHY Bissex. Blenda. GYNS AT WRK: A Child Learns to Write and Read. Boston. Harvard University Press. I980. Burrows. Alvina Treut and Others. They All Want to Write/Written English in the Elementary School. 4th ed.. l-Iamden, Connecticut. Library Professional Publication. I984. 219 Calkins. Luce McCormick, Lessons from a Child. Exeter. NH. Heinemann Educational Books, 1983. Edward. Pat, “101 Ways to Publish Student Writing.” in R. D. Walshe. ed., Better Reading. Better Writing. Now. Epping, New South Wales. Primary Teaching Association. 1977. Elbow. Peter. Writing with Power: Techniques for Mastering the Writing Press. New York. Oxford University Press. 1981. Graves. Donald. Writing: Teachers and Children at Work. Exeter, NH, Heinemann Educational Books, 1983. Graves. Donald, A Researcher Learns to Write: Selected Articles and Monographs. Exeter. New Hampshire: I-Ieineman Educational Books, 1984. Haines, MaryEllen, A Two- Way Street: Reading to Write/Writing to Read. Michigan Department of Education, Michigan Council of Teachers of English. I982. Haley-James. Shirley. Perspectives on Writing in Grades [—8. Urbana. IL, National Council of Teach- ers of English, 1981. Hays. Janice and Others. The Writer‘s Mind: Writ- ing as 0 Mode of Thinking. Urbana. IL. National Council of Teachers of E nglish. I983. Hennings, Dorothy Grant and Barbara Moll Grant. Written Expression in the Language Arts. New York. Teachers‘ College Press. l98l. Jackson. Jacqueline, Turn Not Pale. Beloved Snail: A Book About Writing Among Other Things. Little. Brown & Company, 1974. Koch. Kenneth. Rose. Where Did You Get That Red? Teaching Great Poetry to Children. New York. Vintage Books, 1974. Moffett, James and Betty Jane Weaver. Student- Centered Language Arts and Reading. K-l3. Boston. Houghton-Mifflin & Co., 1976. National Council of Teachers of English. How to Help Your Child Become A Better Writer. Urbana. IL. 1980. Rico, Gabriele Lusser, Writing the Natural Way: Using the Right-Brain Techniques to Release Your Expressive Powers. Los Angeles, J. P. Tarcer. Inc.. 1983. Stewig, John. Read to Write— Using Children’s Literature as a Springboard to Writing. 2nd ed.. New York. Holt, Rinehart & Winston, 1980. Temple. Charles and Others. The Beginnings of Writings. Boston. Allyn & Bacon. Inc., 1982. Turbil, Jan, No Better Way to Teach Writing. Exeter. NH, Heinmann Educational Books. 1982. Tway, Eileen. Time for Writing in the Elementary School. Urbana. IL, National Council of Teachers of English, 1984. Zinsser, William. On Writing Well. New York. Harper & Row, 1980. 220 This document was prepared by: The Michigan State Board of Education Bureau of Educational Services Teressa V. Staten. Associate Superintendent instructional Specialists Program Anne L. Hansen. Supervisor Edited by: Judy Hood, Language Arts Specialist Acknowledgements and thanks are given to members of the Michigan Council of Teachers of English: Janet Culver Stella Liu Okemos Public Schools Wayne State University Linda Dinan Diane Orchard Shepherd Public Schools Lapcer Community Schools Sheila Fitzgerald Mary Ellen VanCamp Michigan State University Saranac Community Schools Janet Glowe Alan Weber Napoleon Community Schools Alma Public Schools Ronald Kat Detroit Public Schools June. 1986 WWW STATE BOARD OF EDUCATION STATEMENT OF ASSURANCE 0F MIRIAM?! WITH FEDERAL LAW The Michigan State Board of Education complies with all Federal laws and regulations prohibiting discrimination and with all requirements and regulations at the us. Department of Education. It is the policy at the Michigan State Board of Education that no person on the basis at race. color. religion. national origin or anceary. age. sex. marital status or handicap shall be discriminated against. excluded from participation in. denied the benefits of or otherwise be subjected to discrimination in any program or activity tor which it is responsible or tor which it receives tinaneial assistance from the 0.8. Department 0! Education. APPENDIX D LOCAL SCHOOL DISTRICT DOCUMENTS 221 LANGUAGE ARTS PHILOSOPHY The first priority of the Board of Education is to provide quality education opportunities in language arts, mathematics, science, social studies, and the fine arts. The Language Arts program of the Public Schools is designed to improve all students’ awareness of the important role that the English language and its literature play in their lives. The program is also designed to make students aware of the uses, in public and private discourse, of the English language and its literature. Essential to the overall program of studies, the English program emphasizes reading, writing, speaking, and listening. Specifically, the program emphasizes the development of the powers of comprehension, of critical thinking, engagement, and of coherence, cogency, and fluency in the expression and communication of ideas through oral and written composition. Additionally, the English program is designed to provide experiences and activities, particularly in literature and classroom interaction, that will promote life-long learning, and an awareness and appreciation of the human condition. In their reading and interactions, all students will encounter human aspirations, foibles, courage, cowardice, vulnerability, nobility of character, and integrity that should contribute to the students’ emotional and spiritual maturity. Students will be guided, through their studies, to develop a sense of responsibility for becoming personally involved in what they write and say and fur the accuracy of their 222 statements. Through literature and reactions to it, students will develop imagination and aesthetic appreciation. This development will also provide enjoyable leisure-time activities. 223 Lingygce ART§ GOAL sxitgnguts BEAM 1. 2. 6. 7. Develop and reinforce each pupil 's reading power to the aaxiaua level. Develop and reinforce understanding and interpretation of content aaterial and build independence in the use of study skills. Develop within each pupil a desire and enjoy-eat for reading and an understanding and appreciation of aaterials of literary quality. Identify and correct reading difficulties. laprove students' awareness of the iaportance of and uses of the English language and its literature. Assist students in the develop-ant of the powers of coapre- hension, critical thinking, and fluency in the acceptance of ideas. Proaote life-long learning in all students. Assist students in the acquisition of basic skills, inquiry skills, and coaaunication. Assist students in the preparation through reading of a responsiveness to citizenship in an ever-changing social, econoaic, and political environaent. ERLIINE l. 2. d. 5. 7. Assist students in the develop-eat of the powers of coapre- hension, critical thinking, and fluency in the expression of ideas. Assist students in bacon-ing responsible for what they say and write. Assist students in the acquisition of basic skills, inquiry skills, and coaaunication as these relate to writing. Identify and correct writing difficulties. Assist students in understanding that writing is thinking and thetfthlnhingraagrbe expressed and clarified by writing. Assist students in asking language choices wisely, that is, how things any be put and how things should be and can be taken. Develop and expand to the aaxiaua the repertory of language resources on can eaploy --- froa vocabulary to punctuation, 9. p 2. I. 4. 7. 9. 224 phrasing and sentence structure, to style and dialect, points of view and coapositional fora. Develop and extend to the aaxiaun the fluency, facility, pleasure, and depth with which one can write. Develop and expand to the aaxiaua the range, depth, and re- finement of the inborn thinking operations (classifying,- generalising, inferring, and problea-solving) as they relate to writing. Assist students in heading coasunication signals from all sources. Assist students in gaining access to all sources of infor- nation, inside and outside oneself. Assist students in finding out what the environ-ant shows, what other people know, what the records show, and what the asdta convey. Discraaunate different sources and abstraction levels of inforaation and understand what each is worth. Develop and enlarge to its fullest the range of what one can conceive, trans-it, and respond to and of how one can conceive, transait, and respond. (ind out what various aedia can and cannot do---language, body expression, graphic arts, aovies, and television, competing with and coapleaenting each other. hecoae faailiar with all roles-o-sendpr, receiver, subject--- and with the various distances and relations along thea--- con-unicating to oneself, to known individuals, reaote audiences, for exaaple, or coasunicating about oneself, firsthand subjects, abstract subjects, and so on. Develop and expand to the aaxiaua the range, depth, and re- fineaent of inborn thinking operations (see above) as they relate to speaking and listening. Develop and extend to the aaxiaua the fluency, facility, pleasure, and depth with which one listens and speaks. 225 Kindergarten . Curriculum Guidelines (PARTIAL DOCUMENT) L— School District of the City of 226 PRE-READING AND PRE-MATH SKILLS KINDERGARTEN 'PRE-READING AND PRE-MATH SKILLS AUDITORY DISCRIMINATION AND MEMORY The child will be able to verbally identify the sounds of.rhythm instruments (e.g., triangle, drum, rhythm sticks). . The child will be able to point, while eyes are closed, in the direction from which a sound comes. 'The child will be able to identify characters from a familiar story when given certain clues. The child will supply 3 different appropriate sound effects in a familiar story. The child will demonstrate ability to discriminate between loud and soft sounds by performing certain actions loudly or softly as requested. The Child will demonstrate ability to discriminate between loud and soft musical tones by tiptoeing when hearing soft music and stamping feet when hearing loud music. Upon hearing music with ascending and descending melodies, the child will respond with body to indicate hearing the changes in pitch. The child will indicate by answering "yes" or "no" whether two sound patterns are alike-or different. The child will identify 5 given sounds over a background of music. Given pairs of words orally, the child will indicate by answering "yes" or "no" whether the words rhyme or do not rhyme. The child will reproduce a simple rhythm pattern from memory. The child will supply at least 3 events from a short story which has just been told or read to him. 227 PRE-READING AND PRE-MATH SKILLS‘ KINDERGARTEN The child will repeat a series of 5 numerals (1-9) in a given order. The child will name the days of the week in sequence. The child will be able to select 3 objects having a common property from a set of A objects (3 objects would be the same and 1 different). The child will be able to select the different object from a set of 4 objects (3 of which possess a common property, 1 of which does not). The child will be able to match 1 object to a given object from a set of 4 objects with like characteristics. Given a series of 5 pictures, the child will select the one which is different in detail from the others. Given a simple puzzle of 6 to 8 pieces, the child will solve the puzzle by fitting the pieces together to form a picture within 15 minutes. . The child will demonstrate perception of a given pattern of a 5 component sequence by continuing the pattern correctly. ' Given a series of 5 pictures, the child will select the one which is different in terms of direction and placement. In a familiar, but incomplete picture, the child will complete one readily identifiable missing part. In a picture containing familiar objects which has 10 obvious errors, the child will correctly identify 8 errors out of the 10. The child will be able to identify a particular object, shape, or figure from the total background in a simple picture. The child will be able to arrange a set of 3 pictures in sequential order from left to right. 228 READING: RESOURCE KINDERGARTEN READING OBJECTIVES WORD IDENTIFICATION STRAND l. 2. 10. The learner will name upper case letters presented in random order. 'The learner will name lower case letters presented in random order. The learner will match lower case letters with upper case letters. The learner will differentiate between left and right. The learner will name a series of objects, pictures, or symbols in left to right progression. The learner will identify words that rhyme. The learner will tell if two given words have the same initial consonant sound. The learner will orally reproduce a 7-8 syllable sentence of familiar content. The learner will identify his own name from a list of five names. The learner will use spoken context as a clue to a missing word. COMPREHENSION STRAND 1. The learner will answer questions relating to the literal meaning of material that has been read to him. (who, what, where, when) The learner will put in order illustrations from a story he has heard. The learner will listen and retell a story with the main ideas in correct sequence. The learner will predict an ending for an orally presented story. 229 READING: RESOURCE KINDERGARTEN S. The learner will select an appropriate title for a story he has heard. 6. The learner will relate personal incidents for language experience stories. 7. The learner will retell, using the third person, personal incidents related by his peers. 8. The learner will identify the speaker after listening to a story with conversation. 9. The learner will follow a verbal direction which has two steps. 10. The learner will match pictures that form opposite pairs. 11. The learner will use new words discussed in class. REFERENCES/STUDY SKILLS STRAND l. 2. 3. The learner will group objects and/or pictures into categories and state the relationship. The learner will tell what a calendar is used for: the name of the month, the dates and the day of the week. The learner will know his address and his telephone number. LITERARY STRAND l. 2. The learner will respond with interest and enjoyment to orally presented material. The learner will recite simple nursery rhymes and poems with his peers. The learner will participate in dramatizations of. familiar stories and/or rhymes. 230 Elementary . _ Language Arts ' Guide ‘ (PARTIAL DOCUMENT) Grades 1 - 6‘. ‘ School District of the City of 231. PREFACE This handbook of language arts objectives has been written to define the goals of the language arts program. grades one through six (1-6). for the School District of the City of Michigan. The guide is divided into grade level objectives. These objectives are identified by a numerical code: Grade One loo-199 Grade Two 200-299 Grade Three 300-399 Grade Four 400-499 Grade Five 500-599 Grade Six 600-699 ___.1. ___.2. etc. indicate closely related parts of a single objective.) Each grade level is further subdivided into nine (9) strands. The code letters for each objective indicate the strand: 1. Grammar and Usage G 2. Mechanics M 3. Penmanship P 4. word Study WS 5. Reference and Study Skills RS 6. Literature Appreciation LA 7. Composition C 8. Speaking and Listening SL 9. Spelling 5 As well as indicating the grade level and strand of each objective. the objective number additionally reflects the spiraling effect of the curriculum. A particular skill can be traced through successive grades by looking only at the objective number. For instance, G-lOl is in the grammar and usage strand (as indicated by the "6"). and asks the student to use COMPLETE SENTENCES (as indicated by the "01"). Similarly. the "01" in G-ZOl, indicates that the second grade student is asked to use COMPLETE SENTENCES. This carries on through the sixth grade. Another feature of each objective is the underlined. capitalized words. This indicates the critical attribute of each objective. The above numbering system holds true for seven (7) of the nine (9) strands. The speaking and listening strand and the spelling strand are ungraded. They are ungraded because. in most instances. they apply to. and should be stressed in. all six grades. 1232 GRADE ONE LANGUAGE ARTS OBJECTIVES GRAMMAR AND USAGE GlOl The student will use COMPLETE SENTENCES in oral expression. 6102 The student will be introduced to TELLING, ASKING and EXCLAIMING sentences. 6103 The student will CHOOSE the APPROPRIATE WORD to complete a sentence. (C. A.T. ) G104 I The student will use the appropriate PRONOUNS and SINGULAR and PLURAL NOUNS. (C.A.T.) MECHANICS Capitalization: M111 The student will be introduced to capitalization of BEGINNING WORDS of SENTENCES. M112 The student will be introduced to capitalization of the PRONOUN "I" and PROPER nouns. Punctuation: M121 The student will be introduced to the correct use of END MARKS for SENTENCES (., 7. 1). M122 The student will be introduced to the correct use of COMMAS as signals to pause in oral reading. M123 The student will be introduced to QUOTATION MARKS in SPOKEN WORDS. M124 The student will be introduced to APOSTROPHES in CONTRACTIONS. M125 The student will be introduced to the use of the PERIOD in ABBREVIATIONS. PENMANSHIP P131 The student will learn the correct WAY 2Q HOLD 3 PENCIL. P132 The student will learn the correct PLACEMENT of the PAPER. depending on right or left handedness. P133 The student will use the correct FORM of upper and lower case manuscript LETTERS. M134 The student will MATCH UPPER WITH LOWER CASE LETTERS in manusc ript wri ting . 233 P135 The student will use correct SIZE in manuscript writing. P136 The student will correctly SPACE manuscript LETTERS when writing words and sentences. P137 The student will write NEATLY and LEGIBLY. P138 The student will be introduced to MARGINS and READINGS. w WSl4l The student will recognize RHYMING WORDS. WSl42 The student will be exposed to CONTRACTIONS in context and the words from which the contraction is made. WSl43 The student will be exposed to common ABBREVIATIONS. WSl44 The student will identify a COMPOUND WORD by recognizing the component words. (See Reading WI-106.) WSl45 The student will match words with their SYNONYMS. (C.A.T./MEAP) WSl46 The student will be introduced to words and their ANTONYMS. (MEAP) WSl48 The student will match given associations to form ANALOGIES. (MEAP) (See Reading C-llO.) WSl49 The student will be introduced to BASE WORDS. PREFIXES. and SUFFIXES. (MEAP) (See Reading WI-lOS.) w5150 The student will be made-aware that the dictionary may be used to divide words into SYLLABLES. REFERENCE AND STUDY SKILLS R5161 The student will arrange words in ALPHABETICAL ORDER using the first letter only. (MEAP) (See Reading R121.) Dictionary: RSl62.l The student will be introduced to a PICTURE DICTIONARY. R5162.2 The student will choose the correct word when given its oral DEFINITION. (C.A.T./MEAP) Parts of a Book: R5163 The student will use the TABLE 9: CONTENTS. (MEAP) (See Reading R8102.) 1234 Reference Sources: R5164 The student will be aware of reference sources in LIBRARIES . (MEAP) Study Skills: R5165.1 R5165.2 R5165.3 m7lOl LA171.2 LA172 LA173 C181 C182 C184 C186 The student will be introduced to a PHYSICAL STUDY ENVIRONMENT that is condusive to learning: adequate lighting and ventilation. good posture. appropriate space and materials. and limited distractions. The student will be introduced to an ATTITUDINAL STUDY ENVIRONMENT that is condusive to learning: following directions. developing independent work and thinking habits. developing questioning techniques. staying on and completing tasks. and developing self-motivation. The student will PROOFREAD all work. LITERATURE APPRECIATION The student will be exposed to a VARIETY of LITERATURE by being READ 39 daily by teacher. The student will be exposed to a VARIETY of LITERATURE by READING self-chosen materials daily (such as USSR: undisturbed sustained silent reading). The student will tell if a selection is REAL or MAKE- BELIEVE. (See Reading L-lOl.) The student will identify FEELINGS and EMOTIONS of CHARACTERS. (CAT) (See Reading L—lOZ.) COMPOSITION The student will develop PRE-WRITING SKILLS by: dictating sentences. organizing class experience stories. dictating personal stories. and illustrating stories. The student will WRITE a SENTENCE. The student will WRITE a SHORT SELECTION. The student will be introduced to TECHNIQUES of PROOPREADING: content. sentence structure. grammar and usage. spelling. and mechanics. 235 Additionally. the objectives have been correlated with the Michigan Educational Assessment Program (MEAP) and the California Achievement Test (CAT). When an objective is tested in MEAP or CAT it will be indicated (in parenthesis) directly after the objective. These objectives are not meant to be limiting. Each child should be encouraged and inspired to learn as much. each year. as his/her abilities allow. These objectives are meant simply to show the necessary attainment of language arts skills at each grade level. 6201 The student will use correct word order in saying and writing COMPLETE SENTENCES. G202 The student will recognize the four KINDS 9E SENTENCES: telling, asking. exclaiming. and commanding. (C.A.T.) 6203 The student will CHOOSE the APPROPRIATE WORD to complete a sentence. (C.A.T.) G204 The student will recognize and use the appropriate PARTS QE SPEECH: NOUNS (singular and plural). PRONOUNS. VERBS (regular and irregular). and ADJECTIVES (degree). (C.A.T.) 6205 The student will be introduced to SENTENCE STRUCTURE by dividing sentences into SUBJECT and PREDICATE. MECHANICS Capitalization: M211 The student will correctly capitalize EEGINNING WORDS of SENTENCES. (C.A.T.) M212 The students will correctly capitalize the PRONOUN "I". PROEEE NOUNS (holidays. months. days of the week. place names), and TITLES (people). (C.A.T.) Punctuation: M221 The student will recognize and use correct END MARKS for SENTENCES (e. ?p I). (C.A.T.) M222.l The student will recognize and use COMMAS with words in a SERIES and DATES. (C.A.T.) M222.2 The student will be introduced to the correct use of COMMAS in QUOTATION . M223 The student will be introduced to QUOTATION MARKS for SPOKEE WORDS. M224 The student will correctly use APOSTROPHES in CONTRACTIONS and POSSESSIVES. (C.A.T.) M225 The student will correctly use PERIODS in ABBREVIATIONS. PENMANSHIP 9231 The student will correctly HOLD 2 PENCIE. 236 GRADE TWO LANGUAGE ARTS OBJECTIVES GRAMMAR AND USAGE P232 P233 P234 P235 P236 P237 P238 w524l W8242 W5243 W5244 W524S W5246 W5247 W5248 W5249 WSZSO.1 W8250.2 1237 The student will correctly POSITION the PAPER. depending on right or left handedness. The student will correctly FORM upper and lower case manuscript LETTERS. The student will MATCH UPPER WITH LOWER CASE letters in manuscript writing. The student will use the correct SIZE in manuscript writing. The student will correctly SPACE manuscript LETTERS when writing words. sentences. and paragraphs. The student will write NEATLY and LEGIBLY. The student will correctly use MARGINS. READINGS, and INDENTATIONS. w The student will recognize RHYMING WORDS and ALLITERATIONS. The student will recognize CONTRACTIONS in context and identify the words from which the contraction is made. (C.A.T.) (See Reading WI-ZlO.) The student will use common ABBREVIATIONS. The student will identify COMPOUND WORDS by recognizing the component words. (C.A.T.) The student will match words with their SYNONYMS. (C.A.T./MEAP) —— The student will match words with their ANTONYMS. (C.A.T./MEAP) The student will be introduced to HOMONYMS - same sound. may have same spelling. differ in meaning (peer - to look searchingly. 0R peer - person with equal standing. 0R pier - a dock). The student will select an appropriate item to complete an ANALOGY. (MEAP) (See Reading C—210.) The student will be able to divide an AFFIXED WORD into a BASE WORD and its PREFIX and/or SUFFIX. (C.A.T./MEAP) (See Reading WI205.) The student will use the dictionary to divide words into SYLLABLES. (C.A.T.) The student will tell an APPROPRIATE MEANING for a word from the dictionary definitions. (C.A.T./MEAP) (See Reading C-212.) 238 REFERENCE AND STUDY SKILLS R5261 The student will arrange words in ALPHABETICAL ORDER using the first and second letters. (MEAP) (See Reading R5201.) Dictionary: R5262.1 The student will have practice in using the DICTIONARY. R5262.2 The student will choose the correct word when given its DEFINITION. (C.A.T./MEAP) Parts of a Book: R5263 The student will use a TABLE 2E CONTENTS. (MEAP) (See Reading R5202.) Reference Sources: R5264 The student will be introduced to reference sources: ATLAS, DICTIONARY, ENCYCLOPEDIA. and MAPS. (C.A.T./MEAP) (See Reading R5203.) Study Skills: R5265.1 The student will maintain a PHYSICAL STUDY ENVIRONMENT that is condusive to learning: adequate lighting and ventilation. good posture. appropriate space and materials. and minimal distractions. R5265.2 The student will maintain an ATTITUDINAL STUDY ENVIRONMENT that is condusive to learning: following directions. developing independent work and thinking habits. developing questioning techniques. staying on and completing tasks. and developing self-motivation. R5265.3 The student will PROOFREAD all work. LITERATURE APPRECIATION LA271.1 The student will be exposed to a VARIETY of LITERATURE by being READ 29 daily by teacher. LA271.2 The student will be exposed to a VARIETY of LITERATURE by READING self-chosen materials daily (such as USSR: undisturbed sustained silent reading). LA272 The student will tell if a selection is REAL QE MAKE- BELIEVE. (See Reading L-201.) LA273 The student will identify FEELINGS and EMOTIONS 9E CHARACTERS. (C.A.T.) (See Reading L-202 and L-203.) LA274 LA275 LA276 C281 C282 C283 C284 C285 C286 239 The student will identify the SETTING (where and when) of a selection. (C.A.T./MEAP) ' The student will indicate the AUTHOR'S PURPOSE in a given selection. (MEAP) (See Reading C-211.) The student will be introduced to FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE. COMPOSITION The student will be exposed to PRE-WRITING SKILEE: choosing a topic and writing a draft. The student Will WRITE ORIGINAL SENTENCES. The student will be introduced to PARAGRAPH CONSTRUCTION: topic sentence. supporting sentences. and sentence sequence. The student will WRITE ORIGINAE SELECTIONS: stories and poems. The student will be introduced to the CORRECT FORM in writing: invitations. thank you notes. and friendly letters. The student will use the TECHNIQUES 9E PROOFREADING: content, sentence structure. grmmnar and usage. spelling, and mechanics. 6301 SENTENCES. 6302 The student will recognize the four KINDS OF SENTENCES: telling, asking. exclaiming. and commanding. (C. A.T. ) 6303 The student will CHOOSE the APPROPRIATE WORD to complete a sentence. (C. A.T. 6304 The student will recognize and use the appropriate PARTS OF SPEECH: NOUNS (singular. plural and possessive). PRONOUNS. VERBS (regular and irregular. tense and agree- ment). ADJECTIVES (degree). and ADVERBS. (C.A.T.) 6305 The student will identify: simple and complete SUBJECTS. simple and complete PREDICATES, compound SUBJECTS. and VERBS. (C.A.T.) 6306 The student will learn to avoid DOUBLE NEGATIVES. 6307 The student will be introduced to TRANSITIONAL WORDS (in fact, however. therefore. for example. if. until. unless). MECHANICS Capitalization: M311 The student will correctly capitalize BEGINNING WORDS _£ SENTENCES. (C. A. T ) M312 The student will correctly capitalize the PRONOUN "I". PROPER NOUNS (holidays. months. days of the week. place names). and TITLES (people. books. stories). (C. A. T. ) Punctuation: M321 The student will recognize and use correct END MARKS for SENTEN____C;_ES (.. ?. I). (C. AT ) M322.1 The student will recognize and correctly use COMMAS with a SERIES. DATES. QUOTATION . and PLACE NAMES. (C.A.T.) M322.2 The student will be introduced to the correct use of COMMAS in INTRODUCTORY WORDS and SPLIT QUOTATION . M323 The student will correctly use QUOTATION MARKS in DIRECT QUOTATIONS and TITLES. M324 The student will correctly use APOSTROPHES in CONTRACTIONS. 240 GRADE THREE LANGUAGE ARTS OBJECTIVES GRAMMAR AND USAGE. The student will recognize. say and write COMPLETE POSSESSIVES. and PLURALS of LETTERS and NUMBERS USED AS W___ORDS. (c. A. T. ) M325 P331 P332 P333 P334 P335 336 P337 P338 P339 WS341 WS342 W5343 W5344 w5345 WS346 WS347 WS348 241 The student will correctly use PERIODS in ABBREVIATIONS. PENMANSHIP The student will correctly HQEQ a WRITING INSTRUMENT. The student will correctly POSITION the PAPER. depending on left or right handedness and manuscript or cursive writing. The student will correctly FORM upper and lower case manuscript and cursive LETTERS (beginning second semester). The student will MATCH UPPER WITH LOWER CASE letters in manuscript and cursive writing. The student will use correct SIZE in manuscript or cursive writing. The student will correctly SPACE manuscript and cursive LETTERS when writing words. sentences. and paragraphs. The student will write NEATLY and LEGIBLY. The student will correctly use MARGINS. HEADINGS. and INDENTATIONS. The student will use correct SLANT and will JOIN letters correctly in cursive writing. WORD STUDY The student will recognize RHYMING WORDS and ALLITERATIONS. The student will recognize CONTRACTIONS in context and identify the words from which the contractions are made. (C.A.T.) (See Reading WI-3lO.) The student will use common ABBREVIATIONS. The student will identify a COMPOUND WORD by recognizing the component words. The student will match words with their SYNONYMS. (C.A.T./ MEAP) (See Reading C-3l3.l.) The student will match words with their ANTONYMS. (C.A.T./ MEAP) (See Reading C-3l3.2.) The student will choose the appropriate HOMONYM - same sound. may have same spelling. differ in meaning (peer - to look searchingly. OR peer - a person with equal standing. OR pier - a dock.) The student will select an appropriate item to complete an ANALOGY and state the relationship. (MEAP) (See Reading C-310.) 242! WS349 The student will be able to divide an AFPIXED WORD into a BASE WORD and its PREFIX and/or SUFFIX 1C C.A T. —/MEAP) (See Reading Wl- 305. ) WS3SO.l The student will use the dictionary to divide words into SYLLABLES. (C.A.T.) WS3SO.2 The student will match WORDS with their most APPROPRIATE MEANINGS. (C.A.T./MEAP) (See Reading C3l2.) W5350.3 The student will use the dictionary to increase VOCAEULARY. REFERENCE AND STUDY SKILLS RS36l The student will arrange words in ALPHABETICAL ORDER through the third letter. (MEAP) (See Reading RS301.) Dictionary: RS362.l The student will correctly use the DICTIONARY. R8362.2 The student will match WORDS with their most appropriate DEFINITIONS. (C.A.T./MEAP) (See Reading C312.) RS362.3 The student will be introduced to GUIDE WORDS. Parts of a Book: R8363 The student will correctly USE TABL Eof CONTENTS TITLE PAGE and GLOSSARY. (MEAP) (See Reading 302.5 Reference Sources: RS364 The student will correctly choose and use reference sources: ATLAS. DICTIONARY ENCYCLOPEDIA. and MAPS. (C.A.T ./MEAP) (See Reading R5203. ) Study Skills: RS365.l The student will maintain a PHYSICAL §TUDY ENVIRONMENT that is condusive to learning: adequate lighting and ventilation. good posture. appropriate space and materials. and minimal distractions. RS365.2 The student will maintain an ATTITUDINAL STUDY ENVIRONMENT that is condusive to learning: following directions. developing independent work and thinking habits. developing questioning techniques. staying on and completing tasks. and developing self-motivation. RS365.3 The student will PROOFREAD all work. LITERATURE APPRECIATION LA37l.l The student will be exposed to a VARIETY of LITERATURE by being READ 29 daily by teacher. £243 LA371.2 The student will be exposed to a VARIETY of LITERATURE LA372 LA373 LA374 LA375 LA376 C381 C382 C383 C384.l C384.2 C385 C386 by READING self-chosen materials daily (such as USSR: undisturbed sustained silent reading). The student will tell if a selection is FANTASY or REALISM, FICTION or NON-FICTION. (C.A.T.) (See Reading The student will identify the FEELINGS and EMOTIONS of CHARACTER. (C.A.T./MEAP) (See Reading L-304.) The student will identify the SETTING (where and when) of a selection. (C.A.T./MEAP) (See Reading L-304.) The student will indicate the AUTHOR'S PURPOSE in a given selection. (MEAP) (See Reading C-3ll. The student will derive meaning from FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE. (C.A.T.) COMPOSITION The student will practice PRE-WRITING SKILLS by: choosing and narrowing a topic: gathering information. both fact and opinion: taking notes: expanding the vocabulary to include descriptive. sensory. appropriate words: and writing a rough draft. The student will WRIT; ORIGINA_L summers: telling. questioning. and exclaiming. The student will CONSTRUCT PARAGRAPHS using: topic sentence. supporting sentences. sentence sequence. and transitional words. The student will WRITE ORIGINAL SELECTIONS: stories and poems. The student will be introduced to the ELEMENTS Q: A STORY: setting. plot. and character analysis. The student will use the CORRECT FORM in writing: invitations. thank you notes, friendly and business letters. addressing envelopes. and book reports. The student will be introduced to TECHNIQUES g; PROOFREADING: content. sentence structure. grammar and usage. spelling. mechanics. and revision. 244 ;§P Philoso h Statement Our basic premise maintains that in the ffinal analysis, the role of a school system is to serve the welfare of students and that all decisions regarding program organization, staffing and facilities must ultimately be decided in terms of the contributions these decisions make to the teaching/learning process. We believe all children can learn and therefore we expect the best from both teachers and learners and will be satisfied with nothing less. In light of this, the professional staff is committed to responsible management of the critical variables which have been found to contribute significantly to the creation and maintenance of effective schools. 245 §§E grjtical Variables l. Maintain a teaching staff which holds high expectations for students. 2. Maintain a staff of principals which holds high expecta- tions for students and teachers and which sees its primary role as being instructional leaders at the building level. 3. Encourage a structured approach to classroom teaching where clear, specific goals and objectives are systematically planned for and pursued. 4. Support teaching which incorporates ongoing monitoring of student learning behavior and provides periodic feedback to students. 5. Support teaching behaviors which increase the amount of time on task. 6. Persist in implementing fair and firm discipline procedures for students through the implementation of the Assertive Discipline Program. 7. Encourage 'the lappropriate use of' positive reinforcement with students. 8. Maintain a staff of principals that emphasizes the monitor- ing of teacher instructional behavior and provides feedback to teachers regarding their technique. 9. Encourage all professional staff in the use of assessment, evaluative data and procedures. 246 10. Emphasize a sound program of staff development by continu- ing to focus on the implementation of the Instructional Theory Into Practice (ITIP). ll. Continue to emphasize the maintenance of clean and orderly school buildings. Definition of an Effective School The Effective School: *Maintains high expectations for staff and students. *Establishes a well-disciplined, secure and wholesome learning environment. *Teaches to clear, specific goals and objectives with attendant plans to achieve them. *Monitors and evaluates pupil, teacher, and administrative staff performances on a regular basis. *Utilizes a continuous staff training model that supports building annual program plans. *Maintains clean and orderly school buildings. *Improves student achievement in the basic skills. To CHAPTER 1 ARTICLE 3 Parents School District of the City of ' 248 Purpose of Chapter I The purpose of Chapter l/Article 3 is to provide additional services in reading and/or math for designated students. Children enrolled in Chapter I/Article 3 programs in reading and/or math are to CONTINUE TO RECEIVE THE SAME AMOUNT OF INSTRUCTIONAL TIME EACH DAY IN READING AND/OR MATH WITH THE CLASSROOM TEACHER AS STUDENTS WHO ARE NOT ENROLLED IN CHAPTER I/ ARTICLE 3 PROGRAMS. In addition to class- room instruction, Chapter I/Article 3 students are to receive extra help in reading and/or math through the Chapter I/Article 3 programs. Board of Education Non-Discriminatory Policy It is the policy of the Board of Education and the School District not to unlawfully discriminate on the basis of handicap, race, rtligion, national origin, sex, age, marital status, height, or weight. The District reaffirms its policy to comply with Title VI and VII of the Civil Rights Act of l 964, Title IX of the Education Amendments of 1972, Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973, the Elliott- Larsen Civil Rights Act, the Michigan Handicappers' Civil Rights Act, and all other applicable Federal and State laws and regulation prohibiting discrimination. , 249 The Academic Achievement Program is a pull- out program which regularly takes designated students, grades two-six (2-6), out of their class- rooms to provide them with intensive instruction in reading and/or mathematics in small group settings. The A2 program is funded by both the Federal Education Consolidation and Improve- ment Act (ECIA) Chapter I, and Article 3 of the State School Aid Act. Pupil Selection: Article 3 eligibility is determined by academic need. Chapter I eligibility is determined by academic need and attendance area. The children are selected to work in the program based upon the judgment of the teachers and the California Achievement Test (C.A.T.) scores. GOALS of the Program 1. WM A Provide intensive academic instruction to the educationally disadvantaged, . Involve parents in the program, . Supply students with incentives for academic improvement, . Operate staff inservice programs, . Measure academic growth, and . Prepare students to effectively meet the academic competition of the general classroom. 250 Evaluation: The progress of the children will be observed daily by the classroom teacher. The California Achievement Test is used as a pretest and a post- test for students in A2 Programs. Measure- ment of achievement in reading and math is based on the gain shown from spring to spring scores on the reading and math subtests. A2 Programs provide instruction in READING and MATH in addition to the instruction provided by the classroom teacher. For more information or an appointment to observe this A2 instruction program, call: Your child's Chapter I/Article 3 teacher S—chool Telephone number 251 Your child is in the Academic Achievement Program for Reading and/or Math at . .T - School. A2 Is For Parents, Too Parents are a child's first teacher. A2 offers parents opportunities to continue learning and expanding parenting skills through parent meetings and school activities. Please check when you would be available to attend A2 meetings/workshops for parents. Mon. Tue. Wed. Thur. Fri.“ Mornings Afternoons In order that we will know that you have received the A2 Program information, please sign the “tear off" section and return. (Parent’s Signature) Telephone number where you can be reached APPENDIX E DIAGRAMS OF CLASSROOMS 252 .e noses a N N . no.3 0 out omeuoum m. 60%. adnesm n u u x N x l . 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Q‘ - A as. -- 4.. 9 T 9.099 3.9947. 139-4'99 .-l.‘_%:e. s_g.__8._r_c.?¢__$_11flL-.gn___y% .- _£ Q.Lc_._.______- _flLw—iulay _-_j'_©__m_a_LL_ ..1'199 f. 1 9999 14(9- Ib--t— -%.19_c..1‘<_ '98 .-JFun 19o -9/‘95'31‘- ‘ ._ — —— - -. .— — _. _ .-——9—-— ——->¢..~ ~_—_.—— .——- - - __... _- _ _._..... .._ _— .. - .- 3 -_-— ~ - -'_ _ - __.__—..___ ~ - ‘ ...—-—--' . ... . . .977 .219... . ' -. “1: " . _—__... g _ - - )1... - — — _ -_----—- 0- —- .— 318 THIRD GRADE: STUDENT 10 (THIRD/FOURTH COMBINATION) .. Q . 3‘ C“ ‘0} n b‘ .—'-.T \qy_--.bec a u s ....o £51:me rag/A ‘--- - —’ .-—. .~.~00--’ -... .. . —---- . — v .-.§—.-- - - -- --.-_o- c.- - a 77’) 5 ”7 0:1 \ COW}: \ 01"" beco- ”3;. 04? OH “Hat. mm, . ‘_( “...-n- .~-0—I-0¢.— ...- -. 163/’8! «OZ/,0 vz/flx-..2/2€, . ..C 3" :0" ' ‘._. - Q- 2* T“ V ’ ‘ " "3'2 “a“ n:. ‘.' _. o —--.- ...—0-0-n-h - - A. ~- ...—...- — ' I . _ _- ‘0 2'. . . _w A . ‘ i.fi - .. - "7". I- - . ; U 1 ,fi‘:- Ob o-w*O-o— flfl-n-. 0.0 -fl—-.- .rfi -- E .0.»- ”k..-“ ~— -0 . . - . m‘ag'vr- . rgaéww- L_b '. ”in our»: “rm‘f‘igzsg‘. ‘ I . a -9. --m . . . . _ “...—.....- ‘ _- —1--.’-—-. 0.. - O- ...-..- - ...-- v APPENDIX G CLASSROOM VISITATION CALENDAR 319 Monday Thesday Hednesday Thursday Friday 1 2 Preliminary Preparation File boxes Holmes--Pick Writing folders up parental Distribution of consent formSI parental con- sent forms 5 6 7 8 9 Kindergarten First Second Third Third/fourth 9:00 a.m. 9:00 a.m. 9:00 a.m. 9:00 a.m. 9:00 a.m. 12 13 14 15 16 Third/fourth Second Third 9:00 a.m. 9:00 a.m. 9:00 a.m. Kindergarten First 12:30 p.m. 12:30 p.m. 19 20 21 22 23 Third Third/fourth Kindergarten First Second 9:00 a.m. 9:00 a.m. 9:00 a.m. 9:00 a.m. 9:00 a.m. 26 27 28 29 30 Second Third Third/fourth 9:00 a.m. 9:00 a.m. 9:00 a.m. First Kindergarten 12:30 p.m. 12:30 p.m. APPENDIX H CHECKLIST OF THE FIFTEEN FACTORS ASSOCIATED WITH EFFECTIVE WRITING INSTRUCTION (FARR & DANIELS, 1986) 320 KEY FACTORS ASSOCIATED WITH EFFECTIVE WRITING INSTRUCTION CLASSROOM VISITATIONS 1. Teachers who understand and appreciate the basic lin- guistic competence that students bring with them to school, and who therefore have positive expectations for students' achievements in writing. Regular and substantial practice in writing, aimed at developing fluency. The opportunity to write for real, personally signifi- cant purposes. Experience in writing for a wide range of audiences, both inside and outside of school. Rich and continuous reading experience, including both published literatureof acknowledged merit and the work of peers and instructors. Exposure to models of writing in process and writers at work, including both teachers and classmates. Instruction in the processes of writing; that is, learning to work at a given writing task in approp- riate phases, including prewriting, drafting, and revising. Collaborative activities for students that provide ideas for writing and guidance for revising works in progress. One-to-one writing conferences with the teacher. Direct instructions in specific strategies and techniques for writing. ll. Reduced instruction in grammatical terminology and related drills, with increased use of sentence combining activities. l2. Teaching of writing mechanics and grammar in the context of students' actual compositions, rather than in separate drills or exercises. 13. Moderate marking of surface structure errors, focus- ing on sets or patterns of related errors. I“. Flexible and cumulative evaluation of student writ- ing that stresses revision and is sensitive to vari- ations in subject, audience, and purpose. l5. Practicing and using writing as a tool of learning in all subjects in the curriculum, not just in English. APPENDIX I SUBJECT SCHEDULE 321 Subject Schedule Time Teacher A Teacher B Teacher C Teacher D Teacher E (Kinder.) (Grade l) (Grade 2) (Grade 3) (Grade 3/4) 9:00 Math Spelling Reading Reading Language 9:15 Math Handwriting Reading Reading Language 9:30 Gross Reading Reading Reading Language Motor 9:45 Gross Reading Reading Reading Language Motor l0:00 Group Break Break Break Reading l0:l5 Centers Reading Language Language Reading l0:30 Centers Reading Language Language Reading 10:45 Centers Reading Language Language Reading ll:00 Centers Lang./Story Spelling Spelling Spelling llzlS Music Lang./Story Spelling Spelling Spelling };:?g- Lunch Lunch Lunch Lunch Lunch l2:30 Math Science Math Story Story l2:45 Math Science Math Break Math l:00 Gross Math Math Math Math Motor l:l5 Gross Math Math Math Math Motor l:30 Group Math Break Soc. Stud. Science 1:45 Math Science Math Break Math 2:00 Sci./ Science Math Circle Break Soc. Stud. 322 Time Teacher A Teacher B Teacher C Teacher 0 Teacher E (Kinder.) (Grade 1) (Grade 2) (Grade 3) (Grade 3/4) 2:15 Sci./ Soc. Stud. math Snack Soc. Stud. Soc. Stud. 2:30 Review Soc. Stud. Soc. Stud. Music Sharing 2:45 Review Soc. Stud. Soc. Stud. Story Story Time 3:00 Dismissal Dismissal Dismissal Dismissal Dismissal APPENDIX J SCHOOL LIBRARY SCHEDULE 323 Elementary School Library Schedule 1987-1988 Day Grade Time Period Monday Third 1:00 p m.-1:30 p m Second 1:30 p m.-2:00 p m 2:00 p m.-2:30 p m Tuesday 10:30 a.m -10:45 a.m Kindergarten 11:00 a.m ~11:15 a.m Third/Fourth 1:30 p.m - 2:00 p.m Kindergarten 2:00 p.m - 2:15 p.m Wednesday First 10:30 a.m.-11:00 a.m 12:30 p.m.- 1:00 p.m 1:00 p.m.- 1:30 p.m 1:30 p.m.- 2:00 p.m 2:00 p.m.- 2:30 p.m Thursday (Library aide works on other activities, such as computer test scoring.) Friday (Library open for student research and leisure reading.) APPENDIX K "BATTLE OF THE BOOKS" REPORT FORM 324 BOOK REPORT NAME TITLE OF BOOK AUTHOR MAIN CHARACTERS: PLOT: TELL IN YOUR OWN WORDS WHAT HAPPENED AT THE BEGINNING, THE MIDDLE, AND THE END OF THE STORY. USE EXTRA PAPER IF NEEDED. APPENDIX L SAMPLE FIELD NOTES FROM RESEARCHER JOURNALS FIVE PARTICIPATING CLASSROOMS 325 Children divided into three groups: eight children in each group 9:00 a.m. 9:17 a.m. Sharing time (24 students present): Observation of electric light/candles. Observation of the letter ”P." Practice writing a 'P' on the back of pupil in line-- three rows of children with eight in a line. Then they alternated/turned in the other direction. Teacher pointed to a picture of a pickle (p). Erica answered that they had to make a picture of the pickle and then make a ”p’" on their paper. P Materials used were crayons and a sheet of paper P P The teacher circulated around the room, checking each pupil’s paper. After teacher checked child’s paper, he/she could then turn paper over and draw a picture. Teacher rang bell and announced that the children had about three more minutes to finish their 'p’s .” The bell meant "Stop, look, listen." 326 *One book on front chalkboard ledge. Reinbow Brjte and the Magic Belt. *Two books on back chalkboard: (1) Christopher Columbus and (2) e 't 1 Mo h e i e trawb rr the Big Hungry Bear. 10:08 a.m. Bathroom break. 10:16 a.m. Teacher working with seven pupils who have unfinished work to p. 28. Other pupils are drawing "c" pictures. 10:38 a.m. Pupils were told not to draw on both sides. Two boys took out books to read when finished with their picture. (1) boy: ginnie the Pooh (2) boy: The Big Bunny Bogk _ (3) girl: The Cet’e Quiz; r--Dr. Seuss 10:52 a.m. Sharing of completed pictures. Teacher asked one girl to talk about her picture--”’c’ things." 9:40 a.m. 9:56 a.m. 10:09 a.m. 10:10 a.m. Child (boy)-- problem 10:35 a.m. 327 H dn 5 a 0 tobe 7--Sec d Teacher instructed Group 11 pupils to come to the reading group area with their reading books and their workbooks. Pupils (some) move about quietly in the room as needed. Pupils returned from working with reading resource teacher. Group II children returned to seats as Group I pro- ceeded to the reading table. Pre—assigned written work: Days of the week Days of the month The alphabet Number words: zero through twenty Reading Group I returned to seats with the assignment to read Part II of 'the story Little Helf and the instruction that they should be on p. 13/30 (2) of their workbooks. Teacher reminded students that the ..... 10: ll 11 ll 11 11 328 T rs a 0 tob r -- hir de 53 a.m. Comp. ed. pupils returned, and teacher reviewed spell- ing directions. *Hriting topic/assignment prescribed by spelling book section, "Let’s Urite'--p. 29. E Teacher told students that they did not have to be turned in--writing as done on back of a previously used paper taken from pupils’ desks. :04 a.m. Child (boy ) came to Math Center. Researcher asked to see his paper. :06 a.m. was told to return to his seat. :08 a.m. Researcher asked teacher if this work was to be filed. had forgotten. :08 a.m. Another child (boy) to Math Center. Teacher began to collect finished papers. Researcher reminded teacher about dates on students’ work. :10 a.m. Child left Math Center. h rsda 9:00 a.m. 9:01 a.m. 9:07 a.m. 9:10 a.m. 9:21 a.m. 9:29 a.m. 329 b --T rd our h- r i ation Schedule--Chalkboard: 8:40-9:05 Cursive writing 9:05-10:05 Reading 10:05-10:55 Language 10:55-11:30 Spelling test Children working on a cursive handwriting sheet. Long ditto explained: ”nouns" 2 sheets stapled 1. calf, calves ”plurals” { together 2. thief, thieves , , Comp. ed. teacher took them (Mrs. ). "This a.m. we’re going to spend some time reading those stories that you wrote yesterday. He’ll have a ”Shar- ing Time." Cursive ditto #1 Lang. ditto sheet #2 Writing ditto sheet #4 Paragraph ditto sheet #3 Three students returned to classroom. Teacher continuing to circulate around the room, helping children with ditto sheet assignments. 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