vegan” M “"1: .ziawéh'imwu— “aw..- .-_—..- ‘v-I anw “in ”I232. Wm 15%“ " W 1mm '. I. ,A 49, “"4 .'-" ' ’ 3~“ "W?” ' - ’ . f‘$ :- .\O{VL“"‘W wag-u. ,' "“ . ,.x"ri‘I;"‘-Cl"'i " fi;;::d~"“’ ”if": _ VIII Iii-"III" 1%. .1735 " . W" " ' .wfiWIIJ éw.¢ww pxm ""kh$% {fifty ' éw 3’}??? iii“? “41"“ .-. ~ I j; W,"I’"rf*i§' {In I; :3 J. _ :z. I? . a}; :y‘fi'fi"! ‘; git-43'}, ~ vm W- v .- w‘ i .,3. . ‘ W32." 3’ :t'% 1 m-EJI'E 1??" 31-35:? agar" iv: 1} {raw—=9;- .‘ i‘ “Y - #0.”, f". :" Ill! 3(5) {frat-2 ' 5” 1 J7 « (’1 >7- “ V) ' . ~ ' - 3%: ,{S j N ‘ ' 3'23? 1‘ y } V . :; ,4»: 'GY£%§G“" 72‘ ,n 4%“. -* I. my"; . 3"??ng” :2)”;le 4\ Whit" 531,. mm: 276?“: & (fu‘r‘g . a; ' l, ' . J “‘1' :“‘13 I. 2' ‘Lbu‘a y u ‘7 ’W‘f’ 3 4" g I»: wry/II I m .-,._ If .. - gag; 4,} M 4,‘ . ‘32): 4‘. 334%; c4 - .. £wa :-:ee-IeI'I~‘~r7~-~:ét=£t ~ ‘ .'-J.L{:f"r:’§'fé\'3‘t I..f.§~”~‘§5“ 3‘1"}. aI_ 4; . fa "th w¢3=12§2+3¢m~ 9'2"“ :‘ 3' .114 I ,I I, z .. ,I'“ 4... .~ -»"r-rvf-'.-w. £41517. - ‘ 3" 13'7“” p'Is/c‘ f‘fim’lv'hfl .11- V ‘ 7"” >\ (1" ~i .lnu IF.) ’g fig-1'14”?” Wy'fin’nve 'u'rL. . 'i; '5'." JK’{£!€3;.:.; "DY->2“ . ’ {4.41%th if?!» bright. l v . . A 'v y A U ‘I '; . -:4c_.‘1:;i'_-" :. 5.1.4, I l‘.‘ ’- 4‘? '. ; '4/ fix’ofifizm .15" fr ,L(,p:(-/E;.Igcé.:,j,§,/~u ’ J v r);;(1".'f‘ l.¢_ g.- . . In... 2"." {N - .5, “Is; ”QM wk; , Pf fififl 52%;; / 3‘52 fall”- -30 1;, ,.l‘ 7‘I‘I,.'a \ “'1!!ny I??? A ~ & 'B‘AI‘QW‘M ’ - a? 4:1“! I; 44/ “WV'S'JA’éVré‘fi 1/” ~le pix/3 a (3 D. 1' II "I a] ”fa/f. ilk/{M} ff; ’2’" guy? {:‘u’; £5332?" ifllfflj.“rg.‘r ,‘le v". LIV. ‘fr‘é‘ ‘ a_’.! A ,',"J’- . I. “.1: 1'} u. 2;§,_‘I91,:_'L.;’5' LIL/fig; {li‘fiffi if“ 7"} 5.11;; ”I"; IQ. 3:wa ’50.,” [Mr/‘2'""o‘fi'jv’f'ifify I - I. nf-I {I ;I~ IIIIIII ”My. £29,5-: “49.73;“ gfium't ”ff-‘1': :5 ('5‘ I" W 44.,»77231 ’ "II’{’"1U'$H'II" )0: 'l 3‘ [Md/2 full/i! . r. 1:,"v'r‘Ff-‘5éx ‘ 7'1"; 3““! ' '3 "' ”772' _ “I: j‘fi’lfi'.) W Kid: '11,”. kg.” 19%;”:5. gag-n" . .4 . . . /::.n I, j! - ‘afl ¢ P ' " ' . 3.‘ A' I_.‘ '23; 'lp'yj"? W" '7 T‘Jo‘d/j'fll .I’J‘I'fjfi :,§"’,": ‘4 9“ I'll! ‘vrv -'? J 4M2 A: “35/”, Ir": ”rah"; H ‘I "VJ... - 15.5)." 2 ' ifiI’h‘q‘I’WII’ "' «3.; ' I v - _,!P .w MI ' 1 . J . ‘ l.' 1" . . ‘ ’3: U i z‘.’ 3/? "r '. ‘ "wag/ff (”av/"'13. 3"", g". .‘ I 1' ,I '4 .u, 1; ', I ’ . 33:! 5,"! . MI: I I’ ”L; 1:}:17 J’; Q}/'/_v¢uy/y ' 7,;.'u,r- {nix-7 My. C'l/l‘y' ' [XI-1"J’ I'I'; .' .“_»,§g’. '1'" J” 4 . . ”w )IIVJI’V '3 ’6‘.th Ifiw‘rx’ml-A- ‘ 4 «W4 4r 'AJ $131/nb' MICHIGAN STATE um I I/I'ilzlilill’l’fI/l Il'v’l lll'l/ll/f/l/IN/Ul Tnsnv LIBRARIES (/1 ‘i‘hESIS ”I I H 3 1 93 00563 4179 LIBRARY Michigan State University This is to certify that the dissertation entitled THE PERCEIVED SATISFIERS AND DISSATISFIERS OF WOMEN IN EDUCATIONAL ADMINISTRATION IN THE DEPARTMENT OF DEFENSE DEPENDENTS SCHOOLS IN GERMANY presented by Gayle Vaughn-Wiles has been accepted towards fulfillment of the requirements for Ph.D. degreein Educational Administration 7 \ ajor professor Date April I98] MS U is an Affirmative Action/Equal Opportunity Institution, 0- 12771 MSU LIBRARIES .-,_. RETURNING MATERIALS: Place in book drop to remove this checkout from your record. FINES will be charged if book is returned after the date stamped below. THE PERCEIVED SATISFIERS AND DISSATISFIERS OF WOMEN IN EWCATIONAL AWINISTRATIW IN THE DEPARTMENT OF DEFENSE DEPENDENTS SCHOOLS IN GERMANY By Gayle Vaughn-Wiles A DISSERTATION Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Department of Educational Adninistration 1987 ABSTRACT THE PERCEIVED SATISFIERS AND DISSATISFIERS OF WOMEN IN EDUCATIONAL ADMINISTRATION IN THE DEPARTNENT OF DEFENSE DEPENDENTS 50400.5 IN GERMANY By Gayle Vaughn-Wiles The number of women in educational adninistration declined steadily from 1950 until 1978. Concern for the lack of women educational administrators has been expressed by many persons. and the contributing factors have been addressed by several researchers. Women and men have two sets of needs. those that are physically related and those that enable them to grow psychologically. There are intrinsic factors that relate to the Job itself, and there are extrinsic factors associated with the environmental context of the Job. In the Department of Defense Dependents Schools (00008) in Germany. the number of women in school-level administration has more than doubled since 1979. This study was undertaken to investigate the Job satisfiers and dissatisfiers as they are perceived by women administrators employed in those schools from l979 to 1986. The women administrators were identified in two groups that correspond to major reorganizations within 00005. The first group comprised women who Gayle Vaughn-Wiles were employed by 00005 as school-level administrators during 1979- 1982. The second group of women was employed during 1983-1986. A questionnaire was sent to all 113 women school administra- tors. asking questions about 12 Job satisfiers as identified by Frederick Herzberg. Demographic data were also gathered to assist in identifying the characteristics of the two groups. A chi-square test was applied to determine the significance of the growth in numbers of women adninistrators over the period studied. The Student's t-test was used to analyze data related to Job satisfiers. An alpha level of .10 was used in testing the hypotheses. and all p-values were reported. The DoDDS-Germany women administrators ranked achievement. possibility of growth. peer relationships. and supervisor relation- ships as the most positive Job satisfiers before entering administra- tion. The women while employed as administrators placed work itself. responsibility. possibility of growth. supervisor relationships. and peer relationships as factors contributing to Job satisfaction. Salary. status. and personal life were ranked as the factors contrib- uting least to Job satisfaction. Copyright by GAYL E VALBHN-W IL ES 1987 This dissertation is dedicated to my mother. Gloria Vaughn. whose prayers I needed con- stantly. and to my husband. who provided endless support. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS A debt is owed to Don Grant and Joseph Larkin. my former supervisors. who gave me the initial encouragement to pursue this degree. Special thanks to my doctoral committee. especially Dr. Samuel Moore. the chainnan. for his patience and guidance in pull- ing it all together. Thanks also to my doctoral network-~Terry Peterson. Florence Furgeson. Gwen and Henry Demps. and Howard Hickey. This research would not have been possible without the support and cooperation of the 00008 adninistrators who participated in this study. In gratitude also to Susan Cooley. my typist. who extended that extra measure of skill and caring attention. Finally. to my Heavenly Father. who makes all things possible. »vi LIST OF LIST OF Chapter I. II. III. TABLE OF CONTENTS Page TMLES O I O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 0 ix FIGURES O O O O O O 0 O O O O O O O O O O O O O I O O Xi THE meEM 0 O O I 0 O O O O O O O O O O 0 O O O O O 1 IntrOduction . O C O C O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 1 Need for the StUdy O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 4 Statement of the Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 Significance of the Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 Assumptions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 wf1n1t1on Of Terms 0 O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 8 Background of the Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 ResearCh Questi ans 0 C O O I O O O O O O O O O O O O 12 Design of the Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 Popu1at10n O O O O O I O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 13 Procedures 0 O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 0 13 L1m1tat1°ns Of the StUdy O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 14 SumaryandOverview................ 14 REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE AND RELATED MATERIAL . . . . 16 Intr‘OdUCtion O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O I O 0 O O 16 Needs Theories and Women in Administration . . . . . 16 Educational Environment of Women in Administration . 30 Slmmary O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 38 DESIGN OF WE STUDY 0 O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 40 IntrOdUCtion O O C I O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 40 Type Of StUdy O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 0 4O Popu1at1°n O O O O O I O O O O O O O O O C O O O O O 41 Instrumentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41 Collection of the Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44 Treatment of the Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44 Testable Hypotheses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45 vii Part I: Grouping Administrators Based on Position and Time Period . . . . . . . . . . . Part II: Factors Before Entering Administration Part III: Factors Related to Current Positions in Adninistration . . . . Part IV: Demographic Data Statistical Procedures . . . Smmmy . ... .. ... . IV. ANALYSIS OF RESULTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . IntrOdUCtion O O O I O O O O O O O O O O O O I O Grouping Women Adninistrators Based on Position and Entry Into Administration: Part I of the Questionnaire . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . POSt-HOC ADDIySGS o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o Perceived Factors of Respondents Before Entering Administration: Part II of the Questionnaire Perceived Factors of Respondents Currently Employed as School-Level Administrators: Part III of the Questionnaire . . . . . . . . Demographic Data: Part IV of the Questionnaire smary O O O O O O O O O O O O O C O O I O O O V. SUMMARY. FINDINGS. CONCLUSIONS. AND REmMIvENDATIONS Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . Purposes of the Study . . . . . Limitations of the Study . . . . Design of the Study . . . . . . Findings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Part I: Grouping Women Adninistrators Based on Position and Year of Entry Into Administration Part II: Perceived Satisfiers of Respondents Before Entering Administration . . . . . . . Part III: Perceived Factors of Respondents Currently Employed as School-Level Admin- istrators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Part IV: Demographic Data . . . . . . . . Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Needs Theories and Wanen in Adninistration Educational Environment of the Women in Administration . . . . . . . . . . . . . Recommendations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Suggestions for Further Research . . . . . . APENDIX O O O O O O O C O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O BIBL ImRAmY O O C O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 0 viii Page 45 46 46 47 48 48 49 49 SO 51 52 56 65 76 80 80 80 8O 81 82 82 83 84 87 87 88 89 92 94 lO7 Table 3.1 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.13 4.14 4.15 4.16 4.17 LIST OF TABLES Responses to the Questionnaire . . . . . . . . . . . Division of School Administrators . . . . . . . . . . PErceived Satisfiers Before Entering Adninistration . Satisfiers Rank Ordered by Mean Scores . . . . . . . Perceived Satisfiers of Women Currently in Am1n15trat1on I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I Hypotheses With Two Questions and a Midpoint Score of Hypotheses With Three Questions and a Midpoint Score of 9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Satisfiers Rank Ordered by Mean Scores . . . . . . . Demographic Data of Adninistrators . . . . . . . . . Years of Employment in Education . . . . . . . . . . Years of Employment With DoDDS . . . . . . . . . . . Employment as Adninistrators or Above-School-Level Staff P051t1 ons I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I Number of Years Employed as a Teacher or School Spec1a115t I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I Ages of Entrance Into Administration . . . . . . . . Current Ages of Administrators . . . . . . . . . . . Educational Degrees of Administrators . . . . . . . . Aspirations of Administrators . . . . . . . . . . . . School-Level Assignments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 44 SO 53 53 57 S8 58 59 66 66 67 68 69 7O 71 72 72 73 Page 4.18 Administrative-Level Assignments . . . . . . . . . . . . 74 4.19 Marital Status of Administrators . . . . . . . . . . . . 75 . . 76 4.20 Number of Children or Dependents of Administrators . LIST OF FIGURES Figure Page 2.1 Hierarchy of Needs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18 2.2 Nomothetic and Idiographic Dimensions of Social BehaV1or I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I 3] 4.1 Combined Factors of Groups A and 8 That Contribute to Satisfaction and Dissatisfaction of Women Am1n15trators I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I 79 xi O-IAPTER I THE PRIBLEM Muslim The Skin Horse 1n Wabbit explains the concept of what is real by saying that "It doesn't happen all at once. . . . It takes a long time." So it is with women in educational administra- tion. Males have traditionally dominated the administrative roles in the American educational system (McCarthy &.Webb. 1977; Pallante & Hilton. 1977; Picker. 1980; Taylor. 1973). Women have historically played an important part in the instruction of the young. yet their role in administration has been severely limited. Women in educational administration have lost ground steadily since 1950 (Bach. 1976). At that time the profession expected that the number of women in such occupations would steadily increase. That did not happen. Nationa1ly. the number of womem elementary school principals has declined from 41 percent in 1948 to 38 percent in 1958. 22 percent in 1968. and finally to 18 percent in 1978»(Haven et aL» 1980; Pharis & Zachariya. 1979L In secondary schools. the percentage of women in principal positions dropped from 10 percent in 1965 to 7 percent in 1977 (Byrne. Hines. 8. McCleary. 1978; Haven et a1.. 1980). There has been social turbulence for more than two decades which has brought attention to the issues of women in school administration. This turbulence has included the women's liberation moyement. cultural changes. federal legislation prohibiting discrimi- nation in employment practices. and a substantial increase of women in the world of work (Bass. 1981). Legislation regarding equal employment opportunities for women in the public education system has developed bit by bit over a decade. To comprehend the letter and spirit of the laws. one must attempt to relate parts of the Equal Pay Act of 1963. Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964. the Elementary and Secondary Education Act of 1965. Executive Order 11246 (1965). and its 1967 sequel Title I of the Civil Rights Act of 1968. Order No. 4 on Affirmative Action Program (1970)/Title IX of the Education Amendment Act of 1972 (Michigan Higher Education Act). and the Equal Employment Act of 1972. Only when the pertinent parts of these acts and of other legislation are placed in the context of equal employment opportunities for women in public school districts can the weight of the legislation be felt (Pallante & Hilton. 1977). The Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC) data on public school systems and selected groups of administrators indicated in 1978 that 13.3 percent of the principals in public schools were women and that only 2.8 percent were minority women. Women were less well represented in principalships than in central office executive positions. 17.5 percent; in nonteaching assistant principalships. 22.2 percent; and as consultants and supervisors of instruction. 54.6 percent (EEOC. 1977). The lack of women in administrative roles affects the educa- tion provided for boys and girls within the classroom. A powerful form of teaching is role modeling. Students need to move beyond traditional stereotypes. and this is difficult unless they see women in leadership positions (Mcfluigg & Carlton. 1980). The physiological. psychological. sociological. and economic barriers classify the myths or dissatisfiers that women face in upward I mobility (Robinson. 1975). Women's potential employment as principals varies according to the geographic location. Various factors have caused the imbalance of women in educational administration (Haven. 1980). According to Mertz (1980). the reasons for the exclusion of women from educational administration are myths such as: there is a lack of qualified women applicants. they don't apply. men have always been the principal. women are not effective as educational administrators. women are transient members of the workforce. women often leave the Job to raise a family. women can't discipline. women are too emotional. nobody wants to work for a woman. and the male principal is the role model for authority. In spite of such beliefs generally held by the public as well as the profession. women and men have two sets of needs: the need as an animal to avoid pain and the need as a human to grow psychologi- cally (Herzberg. 1959). Factors related to the job itself. which are considered intrinsic. content. or psychological factors. tend to lead to Job satisfaction. The intrinsic factors related to Job sati sfac- tion are achievement. recognition. work itsel f. responsibility. and advancement. These Job satisfiers are referred to as motivators and usually fulfill the need for psychological growth. Factors associated with the environment surrounding the Job. which are considered extrin- sic. context. or physical factors. tend to lead to job dissatisfac- tion. The dissatisfiers are referred to as hygienes because they merely prevent women and men from getting sick of work (Hamner & Organ. 1978). Censequently. the factors of satisfaction and dissatisfaction of women in educational administration are deemed to be worthy of exploration. . . . There are differences in the ways male and female adminis- trators spend their time. in the ways they interact day to day. in priorities that guide their actions. in the perceptions of them by others. and in the satisfaction they derive from their work. (Shakesshaft. 1986) mum Although the number of women in educational administration is limited. there are definite characteristics that describe women in the field. as well as satisfying and dissatisfying factors that relate to their present positions. It is hoped that the present research will characterize commonalities of the women in administration as well as identify their motivating factors. There is a substantial literature base in which the decline of women administrators in public administration is recognized. On the other hand. research in the area purports effective attributes of many women administrators. The catalysts of their effectiveness are needs and motives. One should therefore be cognizant of the variation among motives. There is a difference between thelmotives maintained for getting the Job as an entry-1 evel position and commanding the job as a terminal career position (Hennig & Jardim. 1977). Men numerically dominate the field of educational adminis- tration as principals and superintendents. as well as in the federal departments of education (Tibbetts. 1979). The greater number of men is often Justified to the questioner on the grounds that men function better as educational leaders than do women. Conversely. research indicates that women administrators are not only every bit as capable as men. they are frequently better (Barnes. 1976; Cirincione-Coles. 1975; Fishel & Pottker. 1975; Grambs. 1976; Hulett. 1977; Tibbetts. 1980). A bright woman is caught in a double bind. In testing and other achievement-oriented situations she‘worries not only about failure but also about success. If she fails. she is not living up to her own standards of performance; if she succeeds she is not living up to societal expectations about the female role.. . . For women. the desire to achieve is often contaminated by what I call "the motive to avoid successJ' I define it as the fear that success in competitive achievement situations will lead to nega- tive consequences. such as unpopularity and loss of femininity. (Horner. 1969) Robinson (1975) stated that Horner reached her conclusions after administering standard Thematic Apperception Tests. measuring achievement motivation. to 90 female and 88 male students. asking each to tell a story based on a sex-specific clue. After reviewing the data. Tresemer (1974) expressed another opinion: Generalized statements about women's ambivalence about ambition. based on findings such as the above. become part of a myth system when they are used to make predictions and decisions about individual women. It is always necessary to allow for individual differences no matter how true the generalization. Nearly ten percent of the boys in Horner's study did show a tendency to avoid success. and nearly thirty-five percent of the girls did not. (Suelxle. 1973) I discount this thesis for the kind of women who aspire to management. The fear of sameness may plague women. but. I suspect. not many career-oriented women. Nor is it the case still. as it used to be. that women tend to equate achievement with loss of femininity. (Kreps. 1973) Achievement at this point may be related to administrative growth and may be recognized as one of the motives that contribute to Job satisfaction. Achievement is one of the intrinsic factors asso- ciated with Job satisfaction. Conversely. there are extrinsic fac- tors associated with the environment surrounding the Job that tend to lead to dissatisfaction (Hackman et a1.. 1983). Therefore. it would seem to be important to know the types of satisfaction and dissatis- faction women administrators obtain fron their work. W The researcher investigated the Job satisfiers and dissatis- fiers that are perceived by women in educational administration from 1979 to 1986 in the Department of Defense Dependents Schools (DoDDS) in the Germany Region. The number of*women in educational administration is limited. and there are numerous myths to account for their absence in adminis- tration (Dale. 1973; Mertz. 1980). Although the population examined has grown in numbers significantly during the period of the study. it is felt that the data are reflective of the nation in general. There are factors within the DoDDS Germany Region that affect the pursuit of women in educational administration other than the conscientious support given to upward mobility and the Affirmative Action program. In recent years. there has been an increase in the number of women entering administration. The perceived satisfiers of women upon entry into administration. as well as dissatisfiers per- ceived. were identified over a seven-year period. WW Based on the concept that women perform as effectively as men in educational administration. the limited number of women in admin- istration has an effect on the educational process. Students who have never seen women in leadership positions are not likely to develop aspirations or values that move beyond tradi- tional stereotypes. It seems reasonable to argue that education has traditionally been characterized by a dual career-development model. One track has been for administrators-~usua11y male-~and the other has been for instructors-~usually female-~with modest connections between the two. It seems appropriate to integrate the tracks. We should seek competent personnel of both sexes who will assume administrative roles that can provide leadership necessary for the improvement of educational services. (McQuigg & Carlton. 1980) As found by Wakefield (1983). the number of women administra- tors doubled between 1978 and 1983; the same has occurred in DoDDS Germany between 1979 and 1986. Being cognizant of these trends emphasizes the need for organizations to consider how they can use the talents of women administrators (School Directory. 1986; Winsor. 1984). Before talents are used. consideration must be given to the causes of Job satisfaction. An element of Job satisfaction explored by the researcher is intrinsic rewards. This necessitates the use of knowledge and skill. They provide for continual growth. learning. and self-development. Managers have a great need for achievement and self-actualization (Hamner & Organ. 1978). It is hoped that studies like this one may be significant if data are gathered concerning the satisfiers in the environment in which women are working as administrators and the dissatisfiers they encounter. Assumptions This dissertation was based on the following assumptions: 1. Women educators as well as men have a need to achieve in the role of school administrators. 2. There are Job characteristics that are considered dissat- isfiers that should be examined or refined to promote the optimal success of women administrators. Wm: .Sntisiians are intrinsic factors that motivate individuals to superior performance and effort (Herzberg. 1966). .Achinxamant is completing an important task successfully (Dunnette. 1975). W is the perception about the meaningful ness. challenge. and rewards of the Job (Herzberg. 1966). Bafimnsihfliu is the freedom to use Judgment and the accountability for actions (Dunnette. 1976). .Bficngnitlnn is being singled out for praise (Dunnette. 1976). .Adxancement is changing positions through promotions or laterally to gain additional experience (Dunnette. 1976). .Eossib1113y_g£_gnou1h is the increase in task assignments (Herzberg. 1966). Dissailstiens are extrinsic factors that describe man's relationship to the context or environment in which he does his Job (Herzberg. 1966). .Status is the high standing and prestige usually accompanied by appurtenances (i.e.. name on the door. signature block. etc.) (Herzberg. 1966). Salany is the monetary compensation for tasks performed (Herzberg. 1966). .Eaan_£elatinnshlps are the interactions with individuals on the same level in an organization (Dunnette. 1976). £unan1159n.nalatinn§hips are the interactions with an individual(s) who evaluates performance (Dunnette. 1976). IO .Earsnnal_11£e is the individual involvement not related to the Job. which may be affected by professional attitudes or feelings (Herzberg. 1966). .En11£¥_and_adm1nisinntinn is the method by which organiza- tional policies and procedures are implemented (Dunnette. 1976). .Administnatnns are school principals. assistant principals. and Educational Program Managers (EPMs). .Educational_EnogLam_Managen is an entry-level administrative position that serves as the first step to assistant principal and then to principal. .DQDDS is the Department of Defense Dependent Schools. WW During the early 18005. General Winfield Scott. leader of the U.S. troops in the War of 1812. recognized the need for schools to educate dependents of military personnel. and in 1821 Congress enacted a law to support schools for career Army personnel on various posts throughout America's isolated frontier. Following‘World War I. the post school system gained more recognition and financial support. After World War II. the international commitment of the United States military required troops to remain abroad in different parts of the world. The necessity of an educational system overseas was recog- nized. In 1946. an educational system of elementary and secondary schools was initiated for dependents of overseas military and civilian personnel (Summary of Programs. 1980). 11 Measures have been taken throughout the years to standardize the system of dependents schools. The standardization process has advanced through many stages. On November 1. 1978. H.R. 15 was enacted into law and became Public Law 95-561. Education Amendments of 1978. Title XIV of the Act. Defense Dependents Education Act of 1978. established the Department of Defense Dependents Schools (00005) and mandated that certain programs be implemented with the mission of providing educational opportunities comparable to those in school systems in the United States (Summary of Programs. 1980). The 00008 system is divided into five regions: Atlantic. Germany. Mediterranean. Pacific. and Panama. There are approximately 11.500 employees. 270 schools. and 152.000 dependents receiving instruction from kindergarten through the twelfth grade in more than 20 countries. 00003 Germany has 6.781 staff members. 139 schools. and 86.000 students (Tillman. 1986). It should be noted that in 1979 there existed two separate regions in Germany. DoDDS North and 00005 South. In 1979 there were 248 school-level administrative positions in the two regions. of which 45 were held by*women. In 1983. the schools in DoDDS North and 00008 South were consolidated in a move to centralize the Germany school operations. In September of that year. there existed 253 administra- tive positions. 58 of which were occupied by women. By fall 1986 there were 113 women school administrators. This growth can be attributed in part to two factors: (a) selecting officials (the regional director. district superintendent. or 12 principal. as appropriate) intentionally searched for women applicants with high potential. and (b) as more women successfully entered the administrative ranks. they encouraged and supported others to seek administrative positions. The number of women in school-level administrative positions has continued to increase over the years. In this study the multiple factors of Job satisfaction and dissatisfaction of women in school- 1evel administrative positions from 1979 to 1986 was explored. BessancLfluestiens The following research questions were formulated to guide the study: 1. What has been the level of participation of women in school administration in 00008 Germany in each of the years from September 1979 until September 1986? 2. What have been the motivators/satisfiers for women in DoDDS Germany to enter school administration during the research period: 1979-1982 and 1983-1986? 3. What factors have been perceived by women school administrators in 00008 Germany as satisfiers and dissatisfiers to careers in administration? 4. What factors have characterized the background of women in administration in 00003 Germany? 13 W Emulation The population of the study comprised all the women in school- level administrative positions employed by the DoDDS in the Germany Region during the 1986-87 school year (DoDDS. 1986). Emceduces A questionnaire was designed. based on literature related to Job satisfiers and dissatisfiers. The design was refined after consultation with women currently employed as educational administra- tors within DoDDS-Germany and with the advice of regional office personnel experienced in the upward-mobility program of the school system. The questionnaire was designed to determine the perceived motivators and dissatisfiers of women in educational administration. The instrument was mailed to all women school-level administrators in Germany. The women administrators for each year between 1979 and 1986 were identified by reviewing directories and personnel rosters. The administrators were divided into two groups. The first group cem- prised principals and assistant principals between 1979 and 1982. The second comprised new principals and assistants during the 1983 and 1986 school years. The new administrators were those who had not worked in administration during the 1979-1982 period. 14 WW 1. The data gathered were based on the women administrators in 00008 Germany. 2. The validity of the study was affected by the degree of sincerity and frankness of responses to the instrument administered. 3. The study was limited to those administrators who chose to complete and return the questionnaire. for the results may not reflect perceptions of those administrators who chose not to participate in the study. 4. The descriptive nature of the study was limited to how accurately women administrators described their perceptions. 5. The study was based only on the perceptions of women in the organization. Wen Chapter I gave the fundamental reasons for and basic proce- dures of the study. The concepts were introduced and are developed in later chapters. The effect of this investigation of satisfiers and dissatisfiers of women in educational administration. which is developed later. is to determine components for upward-mobility training and to maximize the success rate of women administrators. Research questions were proposed related to the satisfiers and dis- satisfiers of women in educational administration. The assumptions were stated. the design of the study outlined. and the problem explained. 15 In Chapter II the literature and theoretical background are explored. In Chapter III the design of the study is explained. including a description of the population. instrumentation. and data- collection procedures. Chapter IV contains an analysis of the data collected and a description of the findings. Chapter V includes the summary of the study. appropriate conclusions. implications. and recommendations for further study. G'IAF’TER II REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE AND RELATED MATERIAL mm In this chapter literature and related materials that provide relevancy to the circumstances of women in administration are reviewed. The literature prefaces the research and conclusions related to the satisfiers and dissatisfiers of women in administra- tion. The literature was categorized by the following topics: (a) relationships between needs theories and women in administration and (b) factors of the educational environment as they relate to women in administration MW Herzberg (1966) stated that there has been a revolution in which man has protested not only treatment society accords him but the idea of his nature as it has been promoted by institutions. He seems to request a more realistic appraisal of his nature than the myths about him that have so conveniently been provided. Man has shifted from a mystical rational point of view of his physical university: he new demands an equally rational view of his total needs. And the same applies to women. The primary function of any organization should be to implement the needs for man to enjoy a meaningful existence. l7 Particular needs must be attained for an individual to be satisfied with a Job. Locke (1976) stated that Needs are objective requirements of an organism's survival and well being. The concept of need develops from the fact that the existence of living organisms is conditional and life depends upon a definite course of goal-directed action. The concept of need refers to those conditions which are required to sustain life and well being of living organisms. In 1935. Maslow developed a motivation theory based on five needs designed in a hierarchical structure delineating the most basic to the highest order. The classification of needs starts with the physiological being the foundation of the pyramid arrangement. followed by safety. love and bel ongingness. esteem. and sel f- actualization (Figure 2.1). In defining the levels of needs. the physiological represent bodily requirements for food and water. Safety needs deal with the individual's desire for security and protection. Bel ongingness and love cover a person's compulsion for affectionate relationships with others. Esteem needs encompass mastery. competence. reputation. and prestige. Finally. self- actualization needs represent the individual striving to reach his/her fullest potential (Gordon. 1983; Maslow. 1954). A person's needs may vary from the order of hierarchy. depending on the environment and situation. Higher-order needs may vary in situations over lower-order ones. The motivating value of higher-order needs is developed later; they depend more on the environment for their existence. and are less tangible and observable. However. higher-order needs such as l8 sel f-actual ization and esteem were Judged more important by managers everywhere (Maslow. 1954). ZATION / \ LOVE AND BELOIGIIGNESS / \ PHYSIOLCXBICAL Hunger. Thirst Figure 2.1.--Hierarchy of needs. (From Masl ow. 1968.) Although physiological barriers have been identified by some individuals as factors in the exclusion of women from educational administration. the physiological differences have not been a signifi- cant factor in keeping women out of management positions. The barrier encompasses the sex-typing of Jobs and beliefs about the physiological characteristics of sexes (Robinson. 1975). At one time. employers could recruit either male or female labor exclusively to obtain workers with traits that were considered attributes of one sex or the other. Women supposedly were thought to have greater manual dexterity than men. The validity of this belief has not been determined; its relevance is the extent to which employers let this belief guide hiring policies (Oppenheimer. 1968L In 1972. the United States Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC) issued guidelines on discrimination because of sex. which have severely restricted the overt use of physiological characteristics in employment. Musculature and other physical characteristics have little relationship to the essential task performed in educational administration (Robinson. 1975). Sex is not a bona fide occupational qualification (BFOQ). It has been determined that there is no significant difference between male and female principals (Pallante a Hilton. 1977). The safety needs are considered when women are primarily perceived in a traditional mode and secondarily as career oriented. In this respect. education becomes a measure of safety which permits them to maintain themselves financially in the event that life should require independence or to contribute adequately to the family income (Antonucci. 1980; Fishel & Pottker. 1973; Haven et a1.. 1980; Hoyle. 1969; Robinson. 1975). Although Maslow's levels will vary in situations. sponsorship in educational administration can be equated to the level of belong- ingness. While climbing the career ladder. sponsorship is assistance in a career by a nonparental career role model. The sponsor. or mentor. offers a critical service in helping to initiate and enhance a 20 professional's career. The sponsor provides encouragement to enter administration or to assist with the upward mobility on the career ladder. The sponsor may also provide Job-related opportunities to aspiring individuals. as well as information to which the aspirant does not have access (Benton. 1980; Harragan. 1977; La Rouche & Ryan. 1984; Picker. 1980; Sheehy. 1976). The esteem needs include mastery. competence. reputation. and prestige. The socialization of women has led vicariously to the experience of achievement and satisfaction through a supportive capacity rather than by attaining their personal career goals. The early socialization process is opposed when women assume traits in pursuing higher education or careers. The absence or repression of independence has been equated to the female sex role in the United States. Women are perceived as opposing sex-appropriate behavior when they seek independence and intellectual achievement. Top-level administrative leadership includes the qualities of intellectual achievement. competence. independence. and competition. which oppose the concept of femininity and are aligned with masculinity'(Haven. 1980; Tibbetts. l979). Wonen face dissatisfiers associated with competence and talent and the perceived violations of sex-role norms when they strive for success in a field dominated by men. Women. to cope successfully in careers in administration. confront the psychological stress of inter- nal ambivalence. They examine their career goals to determine their level of aspirations and develop strategies to handle traditional 21 career pressures and struggles with cultural norms and values (Bikl en. 1980; Picker. 1980). Fear of success is the weakest point for women. Motivational problems for women in administration are due to a need to prove their success continuously. Women have existed in a state of ambiguity in both formative years and careers. Males have learned in spite of differences to tolerate each other. Conversely. women are intolerant of each other and place emphasis on quality of relationships in the work setting. These factors become the means to an end and are elements of success (Gordon. 1983; Hennig & Jardim. 1977; Horner. 1969; Moore. 1981; Terborg. 1977). The researcher Frederick Herzberg identified motivators or satisfiers and dissatisfiers for employees. The dissatisfiers. as identified by Herzberg. are named hygiene factors; they correspond with the lower-order needs as outlined by Masl ow. The higherborder needs. sel f-esteem and self-actualization. are classified as motivators (Gordon. 1983). Herzberg (1966) referred to Masl ow's lower-order needs. physiological. safety. and love. as the Adam view of man. It is centered on the avoidance of loss of life. hunger. pain. sexual deprivation. and other primary drives. in addition to the endless varieties of learned fears that are affiliated with the basic drives. In contrast with the Adam view is the Abraham concept. which incor- porates the higher-order needs. The Abraham concept deals with man's compelling urge to realize his own potentiality by continuous 22 psychological growiflt Herzberg delineated this growth process with six points: 1. Growth is seeinglmore relationships in what we know. Most Job experiences consist of familiar and unfamiliar tasks; therefore. some Jobs can be performed without a person's having to acquire addi- tional knowledge. On the other hand. some Jobs require learning of new facts and principles. Individuals vary in what they retain from an experience. first with respect to quantity and second along a dimension of quality. relevancy. or importance. 2. Growth is creativity. The creative assignment is one that does not have a built-in solution or response. Growth in this state requires use of potentiality. In this case. some individuals are determined; others are determiners. ‘The determiners use their brains for dynamic. creative activity. whereas the determined are unable to do so. 3. Growth is more relationships to knowledge. Isolated bits of knowledge are acquired; a growing individual places new information in context by relating other information. The higher-level cognitive development is determined when an individual can take the isolated bits and formulate the global picture. whereas another may only see the trees. 4. Growth is effectiveness in ambiguity. The experience of living is pervaded by challenges of ambiguous and probabilistic situations. Adults must deal with these aspects of life effectively. 23 5. Growth is individuation. One of the highest levels of psychological growth is becoming an individual-~desocial izing and separating the individual from his environment. In addition to societal demands. one develops feelings. beliefs. values. Judgments. ideas. and behaviors. 6. Growth is real growth. An individual differentiates between illusion and reality and achieves based on one's own abili- ties. not cl aiming part of someone else's growth or achievements. The concept of motivation explains performance of work and the level on which work is done. Performance is assumed to be a function of motivation and ability; if an individual fails to perform. this is attributed to a lack of motivation (Hamner 8. Organ. 1978). In a study of Job satisfaction of engineers and accountants in Pittsburgh various criteria were used to record the sequence of events in the interview (Herzberg. 1966; Herzberg et a1.. 1959). First. there was an objective happening. or a series of events. Second. the event was bound by time. Third. the events took place during a period in which feelings about the Job could be classified as either exceptionally good or exceptionally bad. Fourth. the events occurred during a time when the respondent was considered a part of the sample. The last criterion dealt with a situation that directly affected the respondent's Job and feelings. From the interviews con- ducted by Herzberg and his associates. five factors were determined as strong factors of Job motivation--achievement. recognition. work itself. responsibility. and advancement. The last three were 2’4 identified as having greater importance in the permanent change of attitudes. The dissatisfiers that produced short-term change in Job attitudes were company policy and administration. supervision. salary. interpersonal relations. and working conditions. The satisfiers. which are referred to as motivators. describe what an individual does. whereas dissatisfiers or hygiene factors describe the relationship in the context or environment in which the Job is performed. The hygiene events led to Job dissatisfaction due to a need to avoid unpleasant- ness; the motivator events led to Job satisfaction due to a need for growth or sel f-actualization (Herzberg et a1.. 1959). Elizabeth Walt from American University replicated Herzbergus study using women employed at United States Government installations. These*women were involved in analytical*work and research in a variety of areas on high professional levels. The women were interviewed. and a sequence of events was elicited. Four motivators-~achievement. work itself. responsibility. and recognition--were characterized as being significant.Job satisfiers. The two motivators that failed to dis- criminate were advancement and possibility of growth. The frequent sources of.Job unhappiness were company policy and administration. Three additional hygiene factors operated negatively: (working conditions. status. and factors in their personal lives. Job security and salary were mentioned minimally. and supervision did not show a significant difference. While not occurring with great frequency. the hygiene factors of interpersonal relationships with subordinates and 25 with peers were found significantly more often in high-Job-attitude sequences than in low sequences (Herzberg. 1966). Beginning in the 19505. McClelland and his associates studied needs similar to the higher-order needs identified by Maslow. They stated that each person has needs for (a) achievement. (b) affilia- tion. and (c) power (Gordon. 1983; Tewari. 1980). In striving to reach one's fullest potential. women. not having female role models. take on male traits of dominance. aggression. and achievement. In a mal e-dominated field. some women feel that they must be better than their male counterparts in the same or similar positions. Therefore. they intensify male traits and become overly dominant. aggressive. and intellectual (Horner. 1969). The effectiveness of leadership style with different levels of need for achievement was investigated by Misumi and Seki (1971). They found that individuals with a high need for achievement performed better with leaders who were task as well as people oriented. Con- versely. individuals with a low need for achievement performed better with task-oriented leaders. The various patterns of administrative style. career devel op- ment. and instructional supervisory roles have indicated differences in educational leadership. The differences are related to expectation of the sexes. stereotypical behavior. and to one another. This type of behavior for women can label them as not being able to assume leadership roles or not having the appropriate characteristics that would enable them to succeed in management positions. Women must 26 learn to behave effectively throng: adaptive behavior due to their difficulty functioning in a work environment dominated by the male experience. To develop into contributing members of an organization. women must become socialized to the male culture (Fasher 8. Fasher. 1979; Moore. 1981). Self-motivation and the determination to succeed have been significant factors in the selection of women for top-level administrative positions (Benton. 1980). Achievement differs from affiliation motivation in that people motivated to affiliate are concerned with the organization and mainte- nance of affectionate relationships with others. The need for achievement is an individualized need. and the need for affiliation governs interpersonal relationships (Tewari. 1980). A person motivated mainly by achievement motivation may make important contributions to society. but may not be the most comfortable person to live with. . . . He works hard when he gets involved in a problem. whereas a person motivated primarily by affiliation may not be so involved in getting the Job done. because people mean more to him than the task. (Murray. 1964) The need for affiliation is demonstrated in individuals who want to be liked by others. Getting along with co-workers is more important than how much the group accomplishes. Individuals with a high need for affiliation are sensitive to the feelings of others; they avoid task situations that engender social and emotional conflict (Hamner 8. Organ. 1978). The idea of desiring and seeking social approval is taught to women. Their lives are directed by this force. On the basis of others' opinions. women tend to change their estimations of their own competence. and despite obJective data to the contrary. they are more 27 likely to denigrate their abilities and accomplishments (Nielsen. 1979). A woman has two options in the closely ordered and male- defined structure of the academy: her womanliness can be exhibited or depressed. In depressing it. a woman tries to neutralize or neuterize her gender to gain professional approval. In exhibiting gender. a woman attempts to emphasize or integrate her gender to obtain col- legi a1 acceptance. The purpose of each method is to compensate for collegial disapproval. Every woman in administration is faced with the mutually exclusive responses to the dilemma of to fit or not to fit (Swoboda 8. Vanderbosch. 1983). Some women use visibility and emphasize differences as approaches to become accepted. These approaches tend to have limited effectiveness due to peer rejection of individuals who behave differ- ently. Others downplay their visibility by moving behind the scenes. being quiet at meetings and not requesting acknowledgment for their work or ideas. These techniques give credence to male stereotypes and will not increase the number of women in administrative positions (Kanter. 1977). Women are being encouraged and persuaded to seek admini stra- tive positions that would not have been sought initially (Fasher. 1982). The encouragement given by a sponsor or mentor cannot be underestimated. Prerequi sites for sponsorships are peer recognition and support of a candidate for administration. The candidate has a limited chance of success without the peer approval; a successful 28 protege produces additional prestige for the sponsor. The sponsor. through various training opportunities that have been created. helps the candidate avoid unsuccessful situations and to learn techniques. These opportunities are provided if a candidate has talent and can perform well (Ti betts. 1979). When the merit of the candidate is questionable. the candidate is subjected to a series of tests to determine whether he/she will obtain group approval (Valverde. 1980). To overcome psychological and social barriers that are encountered during the career-escalation process. support from others is a vital element. As an individual supports. influences. or exerts control over another. the motive of power is either unsoci a1 ized personal power or socialized institutional power. The latter is related to the positive climate for the work environment. In such a climate. subordinates have a sense of responsibility and a clear knowledge of the organiza- tion (Gordon. 1983; Hammer 8. Organ. 1978; McClelland & Burnham. 1975). Relevant elements in combining organizational effectiveness and power- oriented behavior are values. moral beliefs. and personality charac- teristics of the administrator. Effective administrators possessing a strong need for power are motivated toward organizational goals rather than sel f-aggrandizement (McClelland & Burnham. 1976). Women are as interested in power as men; when interested in power or motivated for power. women are as instrumental about getting formal social power as are men; and power motivated women do not view sex as a form of power. unlike their male counterparts. therefore. they have no special problems dealing with the opposite sex. (Winter. 1975) 29 In considering the socialized power. women have been found to be better principals than men. In schools headed by women. children and teachers perform better and morale is higher. Women principals demonstrate a greater ability to work with others and maintain discipline; they are more democratic leaders and display superior teaching expertise. Reasons for the superiority of women principals may be found in their greater teaching experience and higher qualifications for the principalship. (Tibbetts. 1980) The invigorated participation of teachers is due to the democratic leadership style exhibited by women principals. These administrators value the total school process by establishing a good relationship with students. teachers. and superiors (Fasher 8 Fasher. 1979). With respect to attitudes toward the leadership skill of women administrators. attitude surveys of employing officials indicate preferential hiring of males. This practice is based on the belief that men are more effective administrators for a number of social and psychological reasons. However. when parents were invited to rate school effectiveness and the princi pal's qual i- ties. those schools with female principals tended to rank higier than those administered by men. (McQuigg 8. Carlton. 1980) The pertinent assets of combini ng power-oriented behavior and organizational effectiveness are demonstrated by the personality characteristics. moral values. and beliefs of women in educational administration. Women bring a meritorious background to their positions. They obtain during their careers a variety of experiences in public education. which endows their escalation to administrative hei gits (Ti bbetts. 1980) . 3O Wm The differences in Job satisfaction reflect differences in the nature of the Jobs or work situations of individuals. Job satisfaction must be the result of the integration of both situational and personality variables. Satisfaction is directly related to the extent to which the Job provides a rewarding outcome (Vroom. 1964). Job satisfaction is related to conditions in the individual and the Job environment. 'Together they provide a variety of conse- quences. These consequences may affect attitudes. as well as physical and mental health (Locke. 1976L The Job environment in which an administrator perceives satisfaction or dissatisfaction was considered a social system by Getzels and Cuba (1957). Administration is conceived of structurally as the hierarchy of subordinate-superordinate relationships within a social system. Functionally this hierarchy of relationships is the locus for allocating and integrating roles and facilities in order to achieve the goals of the social system. (Getzels. 1958) Interpersonal or social behavior is observed in the context of this concept: the social system is considered conceptual rather than descriptive. Educational administration may be considered a social system. Figure 2.2 is applicable to the administrative unit. In the nomothetic or normative dimension of activity in a social system. the institution is defined by certain roles and expectations that will accomplish the goals of the social system. The idiographic or personal dimension of the social system is affected by personalities and need-dispositions of individuals. The classes of .7— 31 3.5mm. .m_o~uuu socmv .Lom>n:ua _m_uom Lo mco_mcue_e u_:aecmo_e_ ecu u_uusuoeoz--.m ocamvg u_:mecmo_e. ce_uumoam_oumuuoz .mIIIIIIII >u__mc0mcum .A .aaem>_ec_ Lo_>ecoa soun>m eu>cunao ATIIIIIIII .omu0m n:o_ueuooaxu .A 0.0: .b :o_u:u_umc_ umuucuoeoz 32 the social system are considered independent. but in an actual situation they are interactive (Getzels 8.Guba. 1957). Herzberg focused on two fundamental laws of interaction among variables: (a) there is an inverse relationship between the levels of an individual's dissatisfaction and the perceived adequacy of the extrinsic factors of his situation of behavior. and (b) there is a positive relationship between the individual's satisfaction and the perceived adequacy in the intrinsic factors of a behavioral situation (Dubin.l976L The term "institution" is defined as imperative functions that are executed in certain routinized methods. Agencies have been estab- lished to carry out the institutionalized functions. The role is the most important subunit of the institution (Getzel s. 1958; Getzels 8. Cuba. 1957; Getzels. Lipham. 8. Campbell. 1968). Roles are the "dynamic aspects" of offices. positions. and statuses within an insti- tution (Linton. 1936). The behavior of the role incumbent or actors is defined by their role. Therefore. role expectations further define the term "role." A role has certain normative obligations and respon- sibilities. which may be termed "role expectations." and when the role incumbent puts these obligations and responsibilities into effect. he/she is said to be performing his/her role. Roles are complementary and interdependent. whereas each role derives its meaning from other related roles in the institution. The role becomes a prescription not only for the given role incumbent but also for the incumbent of other roles within the organization. In the hierarchical setting of 33 expectations. one role may to some extent form sanctions for a second interlocking role. At this level of analysis. the role incumbents are considered actors devoid of personalistic or other individual izing characteri stics--as if all incumbents were exactly alike and as if they implemented a given role in exactly the same way. This permits understanding and prediction of behavior in an organization (Campbell. Bridges. Corbau. Nystrand. 8. Ramseyer. 1971; Getzels. 1968). For the purpose of this research. administration is consid- ered the institution. The definition of administration here is a social process concerned with creating. maintaining. stimulating. controlling. and unifying formally and informally organized human and material energies within a unified system designed to accomplish predetermined objectives (Knezevich. 1962). Structurally. administra- tion is perceived as a hierarchy of subordinate-superordinate rela- tionships within a social system. The socialization of women once they have gained entry into management usually involves adjustment to the demands of the male workplace. Women accept but can become too dependent on the rationale of belief in the effectiveness of the formal structure. They can become victims of the Cinderella Syndrome and the way things should be because they develop no sense of an organiza- tional environment. Women almost consistently fail to recognize and work with the dynamics of their work environment and conse- quently fail to build it into career aspirations over the long term. They must become aware of and use the informal system of relationships and information sharing. the ties of loyalty and dependence of favors granted and owed. of mutual benefit of pro- tection into behavior and response. They must take advantage of advantageous situations. (Moore. 1981) The role and expectations of the administrator are integrated and can be defined in a dual classification of the administrative 311 process. The activities of the administrative role are the first- order abstractions and include planning. decision making. executing or operating. and appraising. These abstractions represent the common base of thinking. The administrative expectations are represented by the second-order abstractions. which incorporate goal orienting. organizing. assembling and allocating resources. leadership. coordi- nating. controlling. and performing ceremonial functions. The second- order abstractions demand action (Knezevich. 1962L. Men dominate the field of educational administration. and frequently this is Justified on the grounds that women do not perform as well as men in educational leadership positions (Fishel 8 Pottker. 1975). Conversely. women have been found to be similar to men in leadership style and behavior (Bartol 8. Wortman. 1975; Chapman 8 Luthans. 1975; Day 8 Stogdill. 1972; Lee 8 Alvares. 1977). potential Imanagerial capability (Bass. Kursell. 8 Alexander. 1971). subordinate satisfaction (Bartol. 1974). performance (Bowman. Worthy. 8Greyser. 1965; Day 8 Stogdill. 1972). cooperation and competition (Lirtzmann 8 Wahba. 1972). and problem solving (Matthews. 1972). The personal dimension of Getzels and Guba's model of social behavior deals with the individual personality and need disposition. It is not enough to know the role and expectations of the administrators performing the functions of educational administration. The individual inhabiting the roles and reacting to the expectations must be considered. A work role conducive to job satisfaction appears to be one that provides varied responsibilities. considerate and participative 35 supervision. promotional opportunities. peer interaction. and control over work methods and pace (Vroom. 1964). Personality has been defined as the dynamic organization within the individual of those need dispositions that govern his/her unique reaction to the environment and expectations in the environment (Getzels. 1958). The central analytic elements of personality are the need dispositions. which have been defined as individual tendencies to orient and act with respect to objects in certain manners and to expect certain consequences from these actions (Parsons 8 Shils. 1951). When two role incumbents--subordinate and a superordinate-- understand each other. their perceptions and their own organization of the prescribed complementary expectations are congruent. When they misunderstand one another. the relationship between perceptions and their organizational expectations is incongruent. The social system is dependent on a clear statement of public expectation. the degree of overlap in the perception. and individual organization of the expecta- tions by the role incumbents (Campbell et a1.. 1971). Environmental factors such as the organizational structure affect women. Power differences between sexes and sex-role stereo- types in the outside world are reflected by organizations. The natu- ral or learned abilities of women in administration are inhibited by these influences (Amodeo 8 Emslie. 1985). Nevertheless. women surpass the ability of men in working with teachers and the community (Hemphill et a1.. 1962). Women principals have better and closer 36 communications with teachers in their schools. show greater respect for the dignity of teachers. maintain a c1 ose-knit organization. and are more effective in resolving staff conflicts. The schools with women principals are regarded in a more positive attitude by parents. These same parents are more involved in school affairs and approve more often of learning activities and outcomes (Ci rincione-Col es. 1975; Fishel 8 Pottker. 1975; Lupini. 1975). Many of the superiority aspects of women as educational administrators are due to the fact that women have far more teaching experience than do male administrators (Collins. 1977; Fishel 8 Pottker. 1973; Hoyle. 1969; Hullett. 1977; Rometo. 1983; Van Mei r. 1975). Women in many cases have "learned the ropes better . . . adopted to the system over a longer period of time . . . and internalized values of the schools more deeply" (Grambs. 1976; Shakeshaft. 1986). In a given situation. the female administrator is able to detect the behaviors that are most appropriate. According to her own value system. she is able to differentiate which battles to pick and which behavioral strategies to try--accommodation or confrontation. She is able to depersonalize her situation and deromanticize available alternatives. The female in various situations must react according to her own personality or need disposition and not according to those of others. Her sense of the situation provides her with the ability to understand that the experiences are shared. political. and unneces- sary (Swoboda 8 Vanderbosch. 1983). 37 Most women experience internal conflict as school managers. The characteristics of a principal's role are considered masculine: strength. assertiveness. independence. and the ability to remain cool and to control one's emotions. Women are required to make more per- sonal ity shifts than men in order to be successful (Erickson. 1985). The female administrator struggles with internal and external conflicts. The former rel ate to roots in the process of socialization. Young girls are taught to please and nurture. By the time they reach adulthood. facing a conflict assertively is considered unfeminine. They want to have positive relationships in which they are liked and no one is upset with them. The external conflict is experienced at home and on the Job by female administrators who are married. There are different behavioral expectations for the two situations (Erickson. 1985). Conflict exists between sel f-perceptions of roles and role demands of relevant others. The emotional conflict and physical exhaustion are experienced when women assume additional roles. Role overload may exist when a career is added to the job of being a mother. which is added to the job of being a wife (Palmtieri 8 Shakeshaft. 1976; Terborg. 1977). Successful women in administration communicate effectively and evaluate situations perceptively. They are knowledgeable. sel f- confident. composed. assertive. and sensitive. They continually strive to appear aware. capable. and efficient (Erickson. 1985). Some women attribute their success to personal strength. determination to have careers. and the encouragement and support they received. These 38 women were motivated to pursue careers in order to have an influence on the organization and to develop new skills. Secondary factors were money and security. The least important was power (Wee. 1986). These motivators are directly related to the job attitudes of women in high- level administrative positions. The basis for satisfaction lay in the individual's accomplishment. while the basis of her dissatisfaction stemmed from her perception of the inequity within the environment (Herzberg. 1966). As the women in administration are driven to achieve. Erickson (1985) stated that the awareness of the forces that affect the profes- sional climb grows slowly. They learn when to lead and when to fol- low. The journey is more difficult. frustration is increased. and the path to the goal is indirect. In spite of the perceived dissatis- fiers. satisfaction is derived from the work in educational administra- tion. Sumac): The purpose of this chapter was to verify from educational literature the propositions in Chapter I. as well as to integrate factors of motivational needs with the educational social system as they relate to women in administration. The premise of needs being attained for an individual to be satisfied with a job was stated and developed through theory. The basic need theories of Herzberg. Maslow. and McClelland were discussed and integrated with current literature about the needs of women. A relationship was established with the higier-order needs. Maslow's 39 lower-order needs correspond with Herzberg's hygiene factors. and both produce short-term change in Job attitudes. Masl ow and McCl elland assessed bel ongi ngness and affiliation. respectively. The two areas gave credence to interpersonal relationships as factors of Job satisfaction. It was noted that the higher-order needs produce satisfaction in various stages of growth in the work environment. Satisfaction was identified through leadership styles. positive work environment. achievement. and recognition. In viewing administration as a social system as defined by Getzels and Guba. the interacting factors in the institution. role expectations. individual. personality. and needs-disposition were examined. The observed behavior of women within this framework indi- cated personal and professional role conflict. The attitude of women in the social system is the sum of the level of satisfaction or dissat- isfacti on. CHAPTER III DESIGN OF THE STUDY Introduction The survey procedures and research methods are described in this chapter. The following areas are discussed: (a) type of study. (b) population. (c) instrumentation. (d) collection of data. (e) treatment of data. (f) testable hypotheses. and (g) statistical procedures. Ixoe_of_5.tudx The researcher's purpose in this study was to investigate the satisfiers and dissatisfiers perceived by women in educational admin- istration. The areas of concern were the intrinsic and extrinsic factors of women administrators. Herzberg (1966) identified the intrinsic factors as achievement. work itself. responsibility. recog- nition. advancement. and the possibility of growth. The extrinsic factors are status. salary. peer relationships. supervisor relation- ships. personal life. and policy and administration. The descriptive method of research was used in this study. Best (1981) stated that descriptive research describes what is. It involves the analysis. recording. description. and interpretation of #0 41 conditions that exist. It involves a contrast or comparison and attempts to discover relationships between variables. The information related tc»women in administration was described. recorded. analyzed. and interpreted. Comparisons were made between the women who commenced their administrative careers in 1979- 1982 and 1983-1986. Each group responded to a questionnaire developed to identify the intrinsic and extrinsic factors in their administra- tive positions. Emulation The population used in the study comprised all women school- level administrators in 00008 Germany in 1986. There were 89 elemen- tary. 7 middle. 2 elementary-middle. 5 junior high. 8 elementary Junior high. 5 unit (K-12). and 23 high schools (School Directory. 1986). The student population ranged from 16 students at Berchtes- gaden Elementary to 2.100 at Ramstein Elementary (00003. 1986). There were 299 administrators. 186 men and 113 women. Women were repre- sented in each classification of schools (School Directory. 1986). Instnumontaflon The researcher developed a questionnaire to gather data related to job satisfiers and dissatisfiers to fulfill the purpose of the study. The criteria used for the questionnaire were those described by Berg and Gall (1983) as follows: (a) attractiveness of the questionnaire; (b) ease with which the questionnaire can be 42 completed; (c) number of items and pages; (d) sequence. coding. and print; and (e) explanation of the relevance of the questionnaire. The questionnaire stressed the intrinsic and extrinsic factors of Herzberg (1966). The first draft of the questionnaire was sent to a small group of nine women administrators. who offered sug- gestions and revisions. The 38-item questionnaire was given to the program evaluators in 00003 Germany to determine if the items were. in their opinion. attending to the indicated satisfiers. Their recommen- dations were incorporated into the second draft containing 55 items. To establish reliability and validity. a group of women out- side the studied population who had related experiences in the 00008 program were identified. The second draft of the questionnaire was mailed to this group and the doctoral committee. Their input. responses. and comments were reviewed. As a result. questions were added. deleted. and rephrased to eliminate ambiguity. A copy of the instrument is in the appendix. A cover letter was composed to accompany the questionnaire. These items were mailed to all 113 women administrators in 00008 Germany during the week of December 29. 1986. The questionnaire was developed in four parts: .Eant_l contained questions related to the year the respondent entered administration and her position at that time. Only one of the four questions was answered. The answer was used to categorize the respondent in one of two periods: either 1979-1982 or 1983-1986. The groups were divided according to the stated time frames because of 43 major organizational changes. From 1972 to 1982. there were two separate regions in Germany. North and South. In 1983 the two Germany regions were merged to form DoDDS-Germany. The researcher suspected that the women administrators who entered administration during 1979- 1982 would perceive Job satisfaction differently from those women administrators who entered administration during 1983-1986. The response also indicated the applicable position of assisting adminis- trator or building principal. .Eant_ll contained ten questions related to perceptions before entering administration. Questions were developed in the following five areas associated with job satisfaction and dissatisfaction: Anna Question 1. Achievement 5-6 2. Recognition 7-8 3. Possibility of growth 9-10 4. Peer relationships 11-12 5. Supervisor relationships 13-14 The response codes were designed in a Likert-type scale as follows: 1 = Often 2 = Sometimes 3 = Rarely £121.11}. contained 31 questions related to the current admin- istrative position and those factors associated with job satisfaction and dissatisfaction. There were 12 areas. with questions for each as follows: 44 Anon. Question 1. Achievement 15-16 2. Work itself 17-18 3. Responsibility 19-21 4. Recognition 22-23 5. Advancement 24-26 6. Possibility of growth 27-29 7. Status 30-32 8. Salary 33-35 9. Peer relationships 36-38 10. Supervisor relationships 39-40 11. Personal life 41-43 12. Policy and administration 44-45 The response codes were developed in a Likert-type scale using the following: Describes me A strong reason Somewhat describes me or A reason. but weak Not true of me Not a reason .Ea£t_EL contained 13 demographic questions related to the background of the respondent. Co].l.eot1on.of_the_nata The questionnaires were mailed to all 113 members of the popu- lation on December 29. 1986. with an introductory letter and self- addressed return envelope. (See Appendix.) Table 3.1 indicates the responses of the group. Insatment_of_tne_0.ata For Part I only. the chi-square test was used to determine the significance of differences between the populations involved. Number values were assigned to the items in Parts II. III. and IV of the questionnaire. The responses were coded. and a computer program was written. Data analysis for Hypotheses 4 through 31 was done using the 45 Student's t-test statistic. Upon the advice of the research consult- ant. the hypothesis test of significance was performed using an alpha level of .10. Within the interest of this research. all p-values were reported. Table 3.1.--Responses to the questionnaire. Number Number Percent Group Sent Returned Returned Principals 48 42 88 Assistant principals 31 27 87 Educational program 34 30 88 managers _ _ Total 113 99 87.6 lastabJLHmothosos In determining whether a significant difference existed between Group A. 1979-1982. and Group B. 1983-1986. regarding the satisfiers and dissatisfiers of women administrators. the following null hypotheses were developed for Parts I. II. III. and IV of the ques- tionnaire: Ram—GmunLnoAdministnatons Based_oILEos.i.i:.ion_and_I.imo_EerJ.od thunfliugflsnla There is no statistically significant difference in the number of women and men administrators during 1979-1982 and 1983-1986. 46 Hypothesisl: There is no statistically significant difference in the number of women administrators in Groups A and B. Woe Entoflnonministnation There is no significant difference in perceptions between Groups A and B in the following: W: Achievement before entering administration. W: Recognition before entering administration. mum: Possibility of growth before entering adminis- tration. Hypothesisj: Peer relationships before entering administration. : Supervisor relationships before entering admin istration. Wanton: EosJIJonsJLAdministnanon There is no significant difference in perceptions between Groups A and B in the following: Hypothesisj: Achievement as an administrator. W: Work itself as an administrator. HmoihoslsJfl: Responsibility as an administrator. Hypothesile: Recognition as an administrator. HypothesisJZ: Advancement as an administrator. W: Possibility of growth as an administrator. W: Status as an administrator. 111mm: Salary as an administrator. HypothestJfi: Peer relationships as an administrator. onoihoslle: Supervisor relationships as an administrator. 47 .flyoothesis_18: Personal life as an administrator. thuufliufifljLJQ; Policy and administration as an administrator. in Groups A and B. W Hyoothesisjfl: There is no significant difference in the years of employment in education of the women respondents in Groups A and B. onothosis_21: There is no significant difference in the years of employment with 00005 of the women respondents in Groups A and B. Hypothesls_22: There is no significant difference in the number of years employed as administrators or above-school-level staff positions of the women respondents in Groups A and B. .Hypotbesis_23: There is no significant difference in the number of years employed as a teacher or school specialist of the women respondents in Groups A and B. Hxno1h2515_24: There is no significant difference in the entrance ages to administration of the women respondents in Groups A and B. .onoihosis_2£: There is no significant difference in the current ages of the women respondents in Groups A and B. tbuuniumus_26: There is no significant difference in the educational degrees of the women respondents in Groups A and B. thuunimgusLZZ: There is no significant difference in the administrative aspirations of the women respondents in Groups A and B. Hypothesis_28: There is no significant difference in the school- level administrative assignments of the women respondents in Groups A and 8. 51mm. There is no significant difference in the admin- istrative level assignments of the women respondents in Groups A and B. 48 .Hxnothosis_39: There is no significant difference in the marital status of the women respondents in Groups A and B. Hypothesisgil: There is no significant difference in the number of children or dependents of the women respondents in Groups A and B. Siaflstmflnooedunes The research consultant service in the College of Education at Michigan State University assisted in recommending appropriate statis- tical techniques for the analysis of data. The Evaluation Branch of the 00008 Germany Regional Office assisted in analysis of the data. The statistical procedures used in the analysis of data were the chi-square test and "Student's t." random variable t. The hypoth- esis test of significance was performed using an alpha level of .10. Within the interest of this reseasrch. all p-values were reported. Summatx In this chapter the planning and implementation of the study were described. A description of the type of study and the population was given. The development and testing of the instrument were pre- sented. The data-collection and treatment procedures were discussed. The testable hypotheses were stated. and the statistical procedures used in analyzing the data were presented. CHAPTER IV ANALYSIS OF RESULTS lninoouotion This study was undertaken to explore the perceptions of satis- fiers and dissatisfiers of women in educational administration in 00005 Germany from 1979 to 1986. This was accomplished by identify- ing two groups of women administrators. Group A and Group B. The groups were divided according to two time frames because of major organizational changes. From 1979 to 1982 there were two separate regions in Germany. North and South. In 1983 the two Germany regions were merged to form DoDDS-Germany. The researcher suspected that the women administrators who entered administration during 1979-1982 would perceive job satisfaction differently from those women administrators who entered administration during 1983-1986. With these groups. the factors of achievement. work itself. responsibility. recognition. advancement. possibility of growth. status. salary. peer relation- ships. supervisor relationships. and policy and administration were examined and compared. The data analysis is presented as follows: The hypothesis is restated. The data are analyzed sequentially according to Parts I. II. III. and IV of the questionnaire. A summary of the findings concludes this chapter. ‘19 SO WW3: IntLAdninjstnaflom—EarLloLtbefluesnonnaine In this part of the questionnaire. the women administrators were divided into groups according to their years of entry into administration--either 1979-1982. which is referred to as Group A. or 1983-1986. which is Group B. The hypotheses in this part were tested by using the chi-square statistical test. To portray the comparative statistics for men in DoDDS-Germany during the research period of 1979-1982. the hypotheses included data for both sexes. as shown in Table 4.1. Table 4.l.--Division of school administrators. 1979-1982 1983-1986 N % N 5 Men 196 78 190 67 Women 56 22 93 33 Total 252 100 283 100 Summary statistics: Women-Men Women A 8 B Total chi-square 7.51 2.442 Chi-square with continuity correction 6.99 2.068 Probability value .001 .01