:"*‘:".::";:'.. “u‘ :‘z‘vrgrga virh-iu . \l— ,9 v' '«m . J‘filwr,"$ . \. m ' l" . t . “aw“; K ”53’." ,_.', U ”1'5“ .1“ ( "<1“, V‘ "“i” “11",“ ' '}':!""’"f' ‘ '4‘?“ ‘ L", 1 n ‘. '1 'm'd ,m i . A . .n v ,4 I if. , ,1" V" I ‘ ' "'- - h.‘ .‘J ...\ ‘ , 3,.,4,4 W. . .-. .ulA .‘G J). A -, nun?” I: . ,,. \L E‘. .y, pm'nl: ,. llllllillINN/Hill Ill/MIMI!!! W! l? V‘ “’ ‘9 “L b ”l 752 8393 LIBRARY Michigan State University This is to certify that the dissertation entitled A COMPARISON OF PERSONALITIES AND BACKGROUNDS OF TEACHERS USING A WHOLE LANGUAGE APPROACH AND A BASAL APPROACH IN TEACHING ELEMENTARY READING presented by Barbara Anderson Lehto has been accepted towards fulfillment of the requirements for ajor professor [hue October 27, I989 MSU is an Affirmative Action/Equal Opportunity Institution 012771 PLACE IN RETURN BOX to remove this checkout from your record. TO AVOID FINES return on or before date due. DATE DUE DATE DUE DATE DUE JAN '0 3 :994 ’Zch DEC :3 9 I99 [ta-77%? m as 1995‘: MSU Is An Affirmative Action/Equal Opportunity Institution A COMPARISON OF PERSONALITIES AND BACKGROUNDS OF TEACHERS USING A WHOLE LANGUAGE APPROACH AND A BASAL APPROACH IN TEACHING ELEMENTARY READING By Barbara Anderson Lehto A DISSERTATION Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Department of Teacher Education 1989 in ABSTRACT A COMPARISON OF PERSONALITIES AND BACKGROUNDS 0F TEACHERS USING A WHOLE LANGUAGE APPROACH AND A BASAL APPROACH IN TEACHING ELEMENTARY READING By Barbara Anderson Lehto The major problem of the study was to examine the differences between elementary teachers who used a whole language or a basal approach in teaching reading. The instruments used in the study were a Teacher Questionnaire and the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI). The sample comprised 96 full—time elementary teachers from the northern lower and upper peninsulas of Michigan. The Teacher Questionnaire is a self-report instrument that was constructed for this study. The questionnaire contains 3l items concerning the teacher’s education, school setting, and personal beliefs about reading. The MBTI is a self-report instrument based on Carl Jung’s theory of personality. It contains 126 items designed to measure the following personality preferences: Extraversion or Introversion, Sensation or Intuition, Thinking or Feeling, and Judgment or Perception. The instrument yields four scores or type categories for each person. - Eight hypotheses were formulated to test whether Significant differences existed between whole language and basal teachers. The Barbara Anderson Lehto hypotheses were tested by using a t-test for variables involving continuous data and chi-square for those involving categorical data. The level of significance was set at .05. Results of the statistical analyses supported the following general conclusions: 1. Whole language teachers attended reading/language arts workshops more frequently than basal teachers. 2. Whole language teachers believed they had administrative support for making changes in teaching methods to a greater degree than did basal teachers. 3. Whole language teachers had more opportunity for observa— tion in other classrooms than basal teachers. 4. Whole language teachers were more likely to attend yearly reading/language arts conferences than basal teachers. 5. Whole language and basal teachers differed in personality types. Whole language teachers preferred extraversion, intuition, feeling, and perceiving. Basal teachers preferred introversion, sensing, feeling, and judging. 6. Factors influencing the choice of reading method also dif- fered for the two groups. Basal teachers were influenced by reading methods courses, the student teaching experience, and the method through which they themselves had learned to read. Whole language teachers were influenced by workshop experiences, peer discussions, and experimentation with various methods. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Numerous people have helped in so many ways to make this project a reality. Thanks to the 96 teachers who graciously gave of their time to participate in the study; to Drs. Susan Ratwick and Margaret Malmberg of Lake Superior State University for their advice and statistical help; to my mother, who took over many of the household chores to give me time to write; and to Barbara Reinken, who has been my eyes and ears for on-campus details. I would like to thank my committee, Drs. Lois Bader, Charles Blackman, Lonnie McIntyre, and Gene Pernell, for their suggestions and advice. I especially want to thank Dr. Bader for all of her advice and assistance. She has truly been teacher, advisor, and friend. Finally, my thanks to my husband, who has been steadfast in his encouragement. Without his willingness to help, I could never have finished this program. iv TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF FIGURES ....................... LIST OF TABLES ....................... Chapter I. INTRODUCTION .................... Purpose of the Study ............... Background .................... Personal Reading Habits of Teachers ....... Professional and/or Administrative Interactions . Educational Coursework and Its Influence on Teachers ................... Personality Characteristics of Teachers ..... Teaching Experience/Grades Taught and Choice of Reading Method ............... Research Questions ................ Definition of Terms ................ Overview of the Remainder of the Dissertation . . . 11. REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE ............ Introduction ................... Whole Language Studies .............. Teachers’ Use Of Basal Readers .......... Teachers’ Beliefs About Teaching ......... The Influence of Professional Education and Development on Teaching ............. Teachers’ Reading Habits ............. Research on the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator and Teachers .................... Summary ...................... III. METHODOLOGY OF THE STUDY .............. Introduction ................... Population .................... Data-Gathering Instruments ............ The Teacher Questionnaire ............ The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator ......... Design ...................... Data Collection .................. Data Analysis ................... Hypotheses .................... Summary ...................... IV. PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS OF THE DATA ........ Introduction ................... Hypotheses and Statistical Analyses ........ Hypothesis l .................. Hypothesis 2 .................. Hypothesis 3 .................. Hypothesis 4 .................. Hypothesis 5 .................. Hypothesis 6 .................. Hypothesis 7 .................. Hypothesis 8 .................. Summary ..................... Additional Findings From the Teacher Question- naire ...................... Summary ..................... V. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS ........... Introduction ................... Major Results and Discussion .......... Reading/Language Arts Coursework ........ Personal Support in the School Setting ..... Personal Reading Habits ............. Membership in a Professional Reading Association .................. Teaching Experience ............... Grade Levels Taught ............... Class Size ................... Personality Type ................ Summary ...................... Implications of the Findings ........... Recommendations for Further Research ....... Reflections .................... vi Page APPENDICES A. PRELIMINARY FORM OF THE TEACHER QUESTIONNAIRE . . . . 89 8. FINAL FORM OF THE TEACHER QUESTIONNAIRE ....... 91 C. SAMPLE 0F MYERS-BRIGGS TYPE INDICATOR ITEMS ..... 94 BIBLIOGRAPHY ........................ 95 vii LIST OF TABLES Table Page l. Means for Group Differences in Reading/Language Arts Coursework ..................... 53 2. Means for Group Differences in Support in the School Setting ....................... 55 3. Personality Dimensions of Whole Language and Basal Teachers ...................... 60 4. Personality-Dimension Groups for Whole Language and Basal Teachers ................... 62 viii LIST OF FIGURES Figure Page l. Betts’s Components of Language ............ 4 ix CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION Eighty years ago, Edmund Burke Huey (l908) said that children should be taught to look for whole sentence meanings, not just the sounds of individual words, and that an appreciation of literature should be fostered at the very beginning stages of reading. Today these ideas are reappearing in the literature as a desirable direction for reading instruction. Huey also discussed stories found in primers at that time as being a group of sentences thrown together instead of stories that children could enjoy, saying that "better a thousand times that we have no primers than that we inflict such travesties on the child" (p. 280). Recently, former United States Secretary of Education William Bennett (1988) called for a reading program built around actual books instead of what he termed "bland basal readers" and rote drills. A teacher in l893 reported teaching reading from "real" books from the library instead of "readers" because the read- ing book Inade children hesitant about reading real books. She decided that the readers were not needed to teach students to read (Huey, l908). In l908, Huey emphasized the need for children to read papers, records, letters, books, and so on, and called for the elimination of school readers. And yet, 60 years later, Spache (1966) found that 90% of American schools used a basal textbook to teach reading. Just three years ago, Smith and Saltz (1986) found that more than 90% of the schools in their study used the basal as the main approach to teaching reading. This is in direct contradiction to Betts’s (1957) warning that the major goal of reading instruction could not be met if that instruction was limited to a single set of textbooks. Facts from today’s job market bear out Huey’s and BettS’S advice. In Spite of the nearly unanimous use of structured reading series by schools, business and industry leaders complain that stu- dents lack the thinking and reasoning skills needed to succeed in today’s technological age. It is in basic intellectual skills, such as problem solving and expressing ideas intelligibly in both speak- ing and writing, that new workers are deficient (Pearson, 1987). In 1984, the U.S. Army spent $14 billion to bring recruits to a ninth- grade reading level, yet 90% of them were high school graduates. Many of today’s colleges offer remedial courses to freshmen. Seventy percent of workplace reading is written at a tenth— to twelfth-grade reading level, and yet NAEP results have indicated that 60% of high school students read below the ninth—grade level (Venezky, Kaestle, & Sum, 1987). Mikulecky (1986) stated that although most of school-based reading comes from information found in textbooks, job-related reading requires various materials-- manuals, articles, letters, notices, forms, brochures, and so on—— used to solve problems. Here again one can compare today’s statistics to Betts’s (1957) warning that children need to be taught to read other forms of print than just the textbook. Yet in most schools today, all children are placed in one graded basal reading textbook (Smith & Saltz, 1986). An alternative to a basal reading program is a whole language approach. Although the term "whole language" is recent, reading authorities (Moffett, 1985; Veatch, 1959, 1966) have emphasized the importance of the principles found in a whole language program for many years. The focus of the program is on the involvement of children from the earliest grade in reading meaningful materials. Children are provided with a wide variety of materials, including trade books, books and stories written by children, reference works, newspapers, songs, and poems. Children’s interests and experiences are recognized as being of critical importance to a reading program whose goal is to develop individuals who can and do read. In a whole language program, reading is seen as a language process that is both social and thinking, whereas in a basal approach reading is viewed as a subject. Reading cannot be fragmented from the other facets of language--speech and writing-— and so cannot be taught in isolation (Betts, 1957). Betts (l957) illustrated the relationships between the various parts of language with a diagram as shown in Figure l. The area of the triangle represents language with its components--reading, speech, and writing; however, Betts also saw that language is symbolic--that meaning does not come from words but from experience. He therefore added another dimension, experience. Writing Reading Experience I Speech LANGUAGE Figure l.--Betts’s components of language. (From E. Betts, Foundations of Reading Instruction, New York: American Book Co., 1957, p. 9.) Here another important difference between a whole language approach and a basal approach is evident. The basal approach assumes that all children are ready for the same instruction, that all of their past experiences have brought them to the same point of development. It assumes that if the reading process is broken into simple component skills, and if the skills are taught in a particular sequence, all students will read (Newman, 1985). Many teachers and administrators using this approach believe that commercially prepared materials teach children to read and that reading will not occur in their absence (Shannon, 1987). In contrast, proponents of the whole language approach believe that instruction must start where the student is; the curriculum must fit the child instead of the child being forced to fit the curriculum. Not all children at a given grade have the same reading level, reading strengths, and reading weaknesses. In fact, as the grade level increases, so do the number of reading levels within the class. Whereas the basal approach assumes that all children will work on the same skill at the same time, the whole language approach teaches the child the skills he/she needs at the time he/she needs them. Instead of the permanent groupings of the basal, the whole language program groups for instruction in a particular skill, dissolves, and forms new groups for instruction in other skills (Veatch, 1966). The whole language approach stresses purposeful language use. Journals, story writing, letters, and plays can all form a part of the program, unlike workbooks and fill-in-the-blanks ditto sheets found in the basal program. A change in reading method is necessary, but the success rate of long-term change in educational practices is not great. As stated in the Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development (ASCD) publication Takinq Charge of Change (Hord, Rutherford, Huling-Austin, & Hall 1987): One has only to search obscure storage closets or bookrooms in schools or talk with those who have been involved with education and its improvement over a period of time to understand the frustration involved in changing the status quo. (Foreword) Although reforms can fail for many reasons, an important one is teacher resistance--the cooperation of the teacher can often ensure the success or failure of the process. As stated in the Holmes Group report, Tomorrow’s Teachers (1986): America’s dissatisfaction with its schools has become chronic and epidemic. Teachers have long been at the center of the debates, and they still are today. . . . Paradoxically, teachers are the butt of most criticism yet singled out as the one best hope for reform. (p. 3) And yet Lortie (1975) found that the teaching profession is characterized by conservatism. He found that people entering teaching identified positively with it; they were not entering the profession to right injustice or to change the nature of the experience. Cuban (1984) reported similar findings: Recruitment brought people to the profession who had little desire for change. Feiman-Nemser and Buchmann (1983) found that education students believed they already understood how to teach and had little more of value to learn. When changes do occur in classrooms, they are often small in scale (Jackson, 1986) and confined to room arrangements or grouping practices. As Lortie (1975) stated: What teachers consider desirable change can be summed up as "more (H: the same": they believe the best program of improvement removes obstacles. . . . Their approach is implicitly conservative; in assuming that current instructional tactics are adequate if properly supported, the blame for the deficiencies is laid upon the environment, not in finding more efficacious ways to instruct. (p. 209) Of course, teachers learn new skills and attitudes in the same way as all adults do; it seldom occurs on demand. Elmore and McLaughlin (1988) suggested several conditions that must exist before new learning will occur. Teachers must know that a different practice will have favorable effects on students; they must have a degree of psychological and professional safety while making the change; they must feel the change is practical and is a priority in their district. Even with all these conditions met, teachers may still resist because change often involves a shift in values and attitudes that are rooted in tradition. As researchers have found, teachers teach as they were taught; departing from the familiar can be threatening (Cuban, 1984; Feiman-Nemser & Buchmann, 1983). The purpose of this study, then, was to investigate characteristics of school settings and teachers who have overcome a resistance to change and implemented an approach different from the basal textbook approach, a whole language approach, in their reading/language arts classrooms. This study is important for instructional leaders seeking ix) make changes in their reading program in that it will Show those factors and influences that have been significant for teachers who have switched to a whole language program. Purpose of the Study Most reading authorities seem to agree that ii whole language approach is important to teaching reading, and yet many teachers are still using the basal approach. Since some teachers have made the change to whole language, it would be helpful to other teachers and administrators who hope to institute a whole language approach to know how this group of teachers differs from those still using the basal approach. The purposes of this study were (a) to identify the academic backgrounds of teachers who use a whole language approach to teaching reading, (b) to identify professional-support factors of teachers using a whole language approach, (c) to identify the personal reading habits and beliefs of teachers using a whole language approach, and (d) to identify personality characteristics of teachers using a whole language approach and to contrast them with teachers using a basal approach. Wad Personal Readinq Habits of Teachers Gray and Troy (1986) reported that of 80 undergraduate elementary' education Inajors, 55% 'listed reading as being one of their three favorite types of leisure activities; 45% said it was not. Eighteen of the 80 students reported using reading for information only, and 41 read for enjoyment. Morrow (1987) attempted to determine attitudes toward voluntary reading held by teachers, administrators, and parents of students in kindergarten through third grade. Of the groups of 185 teachers, 20 principals, and 160 parents, all ranked development of voluntary reading least in importance in a list that included comprehension, word-recognition skills, and study skills. Morrow did find that teachers who ranked voluntary reading as most important used more literary activities than other teachers. Professional and/or Adminis- trative Interactions Hoffman and O’Neal (1984) examined teachers’ and administra- tors’ ideas of decision-making responsibilities in the reading program. They found that individual teachers’ decisions were believed to be limited to grading, informal testing, making selections from available materials, and time in groups. In contrast, Kierstead (1984) found that in classrooms classified as outstanding, teachers designed their own activity-based classes and provided for pupils’ growth in independence and accountability. Freedman, Jackson, and Boles (n.d.) reported that teachers in their study thought they received little encouragement from administrators to work, together, even though the same teachers mentioned that: Their most reliable source for new techniques and strategies, as well as feedback for confirmation of their own solutions, are the discussions they hold with other teachers during breaktime, between speakers at an inservice workshop, at crosstown meetings with teachers of the same grade level, or by a frank request for help in the teachers’ room. (p. 20) Other researchers have also confirmed that teachers prefer to receive informal help from fellow teachers rather than administrators (Cuban, 1984; Lortie, 1975). Larson and Smith (1984) found that most teachers received help through unplanned, informal meetings or planned conferences and grade-level meetings. In connection with teachers’ reluctance to solicit help from administrators, Laffey and Kelly (1983) found that 78.6% of the elementary principals they surveyed believed they provided reading program leadership, and 97.3% ranked reading as the most important school subject. Of this group, 80% had had no experience as a reading teacher, 29.5% had taken only one reading course, 25% had completed two reading courses, and 33% did not possess an elementary school administration endorsement. — A I ‘A ‘ -‘ ‘-" lm‘A fl 3.» *gh . .Jh‘d‘....»._ . . _ 10 Educational Coursework and Its Influence on Teachers Margolis and DiObilda (1986) surveyed teachers iii a graduate reading course to determine what the teachers believed influenced their choice of reading method. Teachers’ knowledge of the reading process and college reading courses were viewed as having the most positive influences. Effects of educating teachers in new techniques have also been studied by researchers. Pearce and Bader (1986) found that teachers who had been given practice in constructing a content unit used more reading and writing strategies in the classroom than did teachers who had not had such practice. Personality Characteristics of Teachers The correlation between teacher personality and instructional method is an area not widely studied but is, as suggested in a lecture by Lois Bader at Michigan State University, one worthy of investigation. How teachers view their roles has been studied by Borko, Eisenhart, and Vandett (1984). Teachers were classified on the basis of observations either as decision makers or technicians. In the decision makers’ classrooms, there was much problem solving and flexible ability grouping and timing, whereas in the technicians’ rooms was found reliance on commercial materials. The researchers viewed these two types as demonstrating differentconceptions of teaching and also differing ideas of teachers’ responsibilities and roles. 11 Using the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator, Keirsey and Bates (1978) found that teachers who scored as the Intuitive-Feeler type desired their classrooms to reflect the democratic process in structure. 0n the other hand, teachers scoring as Intuitive-Thinkers were found to be content centered as opposed to being student centered. Those teachers who scored as Sensate-Judgers had well-established classroom procedures based on maintaining order and discipline. They were also very concerned about covering all the content material in the allotted time. Few teachers scored as Sensate- Perceivers, the ‘type characterized as flexible, spontaneous, and relatively adaptable to change. leaching Experience/Grades Tauqht and Choice of Reading Method Smith and Saltz (1986) found that teachers who believed they must follow their basal manual closely were either from large schools or had large enrollments of students. The researchers also found that these teachers had the most years of teaching experience --30 years or more in many cases—-and taught mostly in grades 1 or 6. Those teachers not viewing the basal as the total program tended to have 8 to 19 years of experience and to be from rural schools or those with 21 to 30 students in the classroom. Research Questions The following questions were designed to guide the research and to help in discovering statistically significant differences between responses made by teachers using a whole language approach to 12 teaching reading/language arts and those made by teachers using a basal approach. 1. Is there a difference in the number of reading/language arts courses completed by whole language teachers and basal teachers? 2. Is there a difference in availability of personal support in the school setting for the two groups? 3. IS there a difference in the personal reading habits of the two groups? 4. Is there a difference in membership in professional read— ing/language arts associations for the two groups? 5. Is there a difference in the grade levels taught for the two groups? 6. Is there a difference in the number of years of teaching experience for the two groups? 7. Is there a difference in class size for the two groups? 8. Is there a difference in the personality types of the two groups? These research questions were expanded and restated in null hypothesis form for statistical testing. Definition of Terms B_as_al approach. This refers to a belief that reading is dependent on mastering a series of skills in a sequential fashion. Basal reading texts, skills books, and ‘worksheets are essential components of this approach. 13 Whole language approach. This refers to a belief that all forms of language--reading, writing, speaking, and listening--must be integrated into a reading/language arts program in ways meaningful to the learner. Materials used in this approach are varied and can include trade books, student writings, newspapers, reference books, and so on. Overview of the Remainder of the Dissertation Chapter II contains a review of literature pertinent to the study. The materials and procedures employed in this study are described in Chapter III. The design of the study is presented in detail. The results of the data analyses conducted for the study are reported in Chapter IV. Chapter V includes a summary of the investigation, appropriate conclusions, implications, and recommen- dations for further research. CHAPTER II REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE Introduction The review of related literature is organized under six major headings. These are (a) Whole Language Studies, (b) Teachers’ Use of Basal Readers, (c) Teachers’ Beliefs About Teaching, (d) Influence of Professional Education and Development on Teaching, (e) Teachers’ Reading Habits, and (f) Research on the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator and Teachers. The findings of the research in these areas served as the basis for developing the hypotheses for this study. Whole Language Studies A whole language approach is not a set group of lessons to be used in a particular sequence. Whole language is a philosophical approach based on ideas generated by many reading authorities (Betts, 1957; Moffett, 1985; Ruddell, 1966; Veatch, 1959, 1966) over the past several decades. Whole language programs differ in appearance but remain constant in basis--that language is composed of speaking, listening, reading, and writing. Language must be taught together in a purposeful manner, and the teacher must be cognizant of the experiences and interests that the child brings to the educational setting. 14 15 Many studies have demonstrated the interrelationships of reading and writing, reading and speaking, and speaking and listening (Dawson, 1954; Ruddell, 1966). It has been shown that learning in one area reinforces learning in the other areas of language. Ruddell (1966) reported on studies that showed gains in reading resulted from practice in listening to note details and concluded that the relationship between listening and reading was Significant. His suggestions were to integrate the language arts curriculum, to provide many and varied materials for reading, and to link them to listening and writing activities. He also stressed the need for attention to the child’s concept development in relation to his/her own experiences, and the teacher’s realization of the wide range in language development to be found in each elementary classroom. Veatch (1959, 1966) showed that self-selection of cjfildren’s books can produce gains in both reading achievement and interest in reading. Interest in reading is as necessary to continuation of lifelong reading habits as is skill in reading. Sharon (1973) found that much of the reading that adults do during recreation or free time was skimming words or sentences on the television screen. The highest importance ratings for reading were given to reading instructions or manuals and the telephone book, with words on the television screen being third in importance. The reading of books for pleasure was not even listed in the ratings. Ideas generated from these earlier studies have helped in the formation of programs focusing on a whole language approach. Powers 16 (1986) and Shapiro and Gunderson (1988) studied first-grade whole language classrooms for evidence of both students’ achievement and students’ attitudes toward learning differences. Powers found that the children who had been encouraged to be active learners, to make discoveries of their own, and to take risks in their reading and writing experiences had it positive attitude toward themselves and also toward their ability to read and write. Students of the traditional classroom were unwilling to risk writing because of emphasis on correct letter formation and spelling and, consequently, made less growth in writing. Like Powers, Shapiro and Gunderson (1988) found that the children in the whole language classroom wrote in great quantity but that they also used a broader vocabulary than that found in the basal reader used in other classrooms. 'The primer and the fjrst reader of the basal used ii total of 247 words, whereas the children’s writings contained more than 500 different words. Children involved in a whole language program, then, would seem to have more varied, stimulating, and interesting literacy experiences than children in a basal reading program. Other researchers have shown that whole language types of programs are effective with students beyond the first grade (Bader & McIntyre, 1986; Bader, Veatch, & Eldredge, 1987; Looby & Turner, 1987; Oberlin & Shugarman, 1989; Tadlock, 1986; Teigland, 1966). The language experience approach and individualized reading were the major approaches used in a program carried out with l7 elementary students in a remedial reading program (Bader & McIntyre, 1986). Ratio-of—learning score was used to measure pupils’ progress, which showed students were learning more than three times as fast in their regular reading program. This finding led the researchers; to conclude that the goal of improving the reading abilities of severely disabled students had been achieved. Because the program could be easily duplicated, they recommended its adoption by other districts. Tadlock (1986) also saw the need for individualized reading and a movement away from a rigid decoding system for disabled readers. The combination of self-selection of books, reading with a tape recorder, and silent reading followed by discussion was successful in producing reading gains far in excess of the students’ usual scores and also provided satisfaction and renewed interest in reading in the students. Learning-disabled middle-grade students were the subjects of Oberlin and Shugarman’s (1989) study, in which the focus of the reading program was moved from word recognition and isolated comprehension Skills to a whole language approach. Emphasis on self-selecticui of' books, dialogue journals, and sustained silent reading produced improved reading attitudes and increased levels of involvement with books, as other researchers had found (Fader & McNeil, 1966; Newman, 1985; Veatch, 1966). The researchers noticed the increase in number of books read per year (from 1 per year before the study to 20 per year per student) and concluded that the program was transferable across all grades and levels of learning. 18 Significant improvement in students’ interest in reading can occur when a literature—based/whole language approach is introduced (Bader et a1., 1987; Looby & TUrner, 1987; Teigland, 1966). The same type of program can produce gains in reading achievement (Bader et a1., 1987), especially in the areas of word recognition and comprehension (Looby & Turner, 1987). Teigland (1966) found significant differences in teachers’ enthusiasm for an individual- ized program as opposed to a basal program and more extensive reading by students. Integrating language arts teaching by using an interactive model combining trade: books and stories written by children was found to be successful in increasing reading comprehension scores (Christfe & Noyce, 1984). Writing activities combined with speaking, listening, and reading were found to be more effective in promoting positive use of language than was the traditional curriculum, which provided several years of reading instruction preceding writing instruction (Shanahan & Lomax, 1986). In summary, a survey of the literature showed that whole language/ literature-based programs produce significant positive changes in children’s interest in and enthusiasm for reading. Several studies also showed gains in reading achievement with disabled learners and regular classroom students alike. However, it is difficult to find carefully controlled studies of the type reported above. Many are anecdotal teacher reports. More studies of the type reported here need to be done to demonstrate further the positive effects of a whole language program. 19 laachers’ Use of Basal Readers Twenty years ago, Spache (1966) found that 90% of schools used a basal reader to teach reading. Recently, Smith and Saltz (1986) found that more than 90% of schools in their survey used a basal reader. They also surveyed to determine levels of satisfaction with the basal and how closely teachers believed the basal should be followed. Teachers reported to them that they were "very satisfied" (53% primary teachers, 45% intermediate), and a large number thought the manual should be followed very closely. Other researchers have reported very different findings. Although many teachers thought that basal manuals should be followed ‘very' closely, Durkin (1984) and Lalik and Pecic (1984) found that not to be the case in their investigations. Teachers deviated from the manual suggestions in manner of introducing new vocabulary (lists instead of in context), in providing and assessing background information (Durkin, 1984), and often eliminated enrichment activities (Bacharach & Alexander, 1986). Questions suggested in the manual were also altered, added to, or eliminated in many cases (Lalik & Pecic, 1984), and extensive oral reading was substituted for silent reading (Durkin, 1984). A prevalent form of oral reading in elementary classrooms was round-robin reading (Hill, 1983). Many teachers believed it was of great value in learning and thought students enjoyed it, even though serious disruptive or distractive behavior often occurred. When asked where this style of 20 teaching reading had been learned, the responses were "from student teaching" and "other teachers in the building" (Hill, 1983). Despite the fact that suggestions for reading practices were altered or disregarded, Durkin (1984) found that teachers were assigning all skills pages provided; one reason given for doing this was that the children needed to be kept occupied. This led the researcher to conclude that perhaps teachers considered management and class control to be as important as helping children to read better. Because the purpose of a reading class is to provide children with time to read, Gambrell (1984) investigated the amount of time children actually Spent in contextual reading experiences in a traditional basal-controlled reading class. She discovered that, in a typical 27-minute reading class, only about three minutes were actually spent in silent reading; the rest of the time was used for drill, worksheets or workbooks, and listening to others. Obviously, an inconsistency exists between the amount of time devoted to real reading and the commonly accepted fact that children learn to read by reading. Taylor and Frye (1988), concerned about the small amount of reading time and large amount of skills work time, determined that students could be pretested on skills and excused from work on those they passed. In their study they demonstrated that pretested and excused students did as well on end-of-book tests as students who did all the skills pages. Follow-up to the study, however, showed that only 27% of the teachers in the sample had continued the skills 21 pretesting and thereby denied the students the additional time to read. Pupils’ interest in reading material is an important facet in teaching reading, so basals should reflect students’ interests. In Pieronek’s (1980) review of eight basal series, she found a large measure of animal stories, which she had determined was the least popular type of stories for middle-grade students; mysteries, which were popular with students, were only very slightly represented. She concluded that teachers could not count on the basal to interest all students; the responsibility lay with the teacher to provide materials that would meet individual needs. Even though many teachers expressed satisfaction with basals, many others complained about them. Teachers cited a lack of relationship between the workbook pages themselves and between the workbook and the selection read (Durkin, 1984), too nnufli material provided (Bacharach & Alexander, 1986), and inappropriate material for the group. Teachers seemed to be showing mixed feelings toward a basal series. They reported that they used the skills instruction but not the enrichment activities because of time constraints but then suggested that much of the material presented was unimportant (Durkin, 1984). In summary, although teachers use basals, they' do not necessarily use them in the way publishers intended them to be used. One hopes that they deviate because they realize the basal does not meet the needs and interests of all students. If teachers are being 22 selective and using material that is appropriate for the group, that is good; unfortunately, much time is spent on skills sheets and workbooks and too little time is spent on real reading. _aachers’ Beliefs About Teachinq Kierstead (1984) investigated the question of what makes an outstanding classroom. In designing her study, she selected three classrooms from those that were considered to be outstanding on the basis of three considerations: an unusual willingness and ability on the part of students to use literacy skills both in school and at home, strong class achievement-test scores, and use of literacy skills to communicate as in student drawing/writing stories, reading conversations, and so on. A fourth classroom not exhibiting these characteristics was also selected. All children were in grades 1 through 3. Kierstead found that 'hi all three outstanding classrooms the children were active and allowed to work independently. She also found that in all three classrooms the teachers, rather than follow commercially prepared materials, designed their own curriculum, which was built around writing activities. The children wrote daily, listened to stories, recited poetry, sang songs, and were encouraged to talk to one another throughout the day. Kierstead concluded that teachers in outstanding classrooms, in their concern for student growth and awareness of individual needs, departed from a rigidly proscribed curriculum and implemented their own, which was centered on the students. 23 Kierstead’s (1984) teachers, through designing and implementing their curriculum, had ownership of their program, a fact Veatch and Cooter (1986) discovered in California’s reading program research. They found that teachers’ attitude was an important factor in students’ success; those schools with increasing reading scores had teachers who were involved in their program, using many resources to emphasize all aspects of reading. They concluded that if the teacher feels free to use his/her own judgment about how to implement a program, the result will be teaching with both commitment and enthusiasnn A mandated program of commercially prepared materials, i.e., workbooks, phonics pages, and skills sheets, followed exactly by teachers, is devoid of excitement and, in the case of California, marked by declining reading scores. In Kierstead’s (1984) and Veatch and Cooter’s (1986) studies, the outstanding, successful teachers were decision makers. Borko et al. (1984) questioned whether teachers functioned as decision makers or technicians. In this study, subjects were teachers and students in four second-grade classrooms. The school in which the study took place had a reading program that appeared to be tightly regulated by county guidelines and the school’s instructional coordinator. Students in each classroom were grouped for instruction by the Coordinator, group changes were made by the coordinator, and the book to be used was issued to the teacher. County guidelines specified three to four reading groups per teacher, with at least 30 minutes spent with each group; the instructional coordinator specified when reading was to be taught during the day. 24 The researchers discovered wide differences 'hi the four teachers’ reading programs in spite of the apparently strict district control. One teacher followed the county guidelines exactly, using only the prescribed basal and workbooks. Her lessons lasted exactly 30 minutes for each group. She believed that her job was to provide the materials for learning, in this case the basal text, and the students’ responsibility was to learn from the materials. If students did not progress, she did not consider adjusting the curriculum but, instead, blamed the failure on factors external to herself, such as students’ personal or family problems. A technician’s viewpoint was reflected here. In contrast, other teachers, while adhering to county guidelines, combined reading groups between classes, adjusted instruction according to students’ needs, and provided materials and activities beyond the basal. These teachers believed that their job was to teach but also to assure student learning. They changed plans when students experienced difficulty or when students grasped concepts faster than expected. Borko et a1. concluded that even though all the teachers were in the same school, taught the same grade, and had similar backgrounds, they had different concepts of the role of a teacher. Those who believed that teaching involved providing activities that would result in student progress were ones who made many decisions about the reading program-~what to include, omit, or change. Those who believed that the teacher was responsible for teaching adopted 25 the provided program and followed it as a technician follows instructions in order to get the job done. Hoffman and O’Neal (1984) also looked at decision making in the reading program. Their subjects included first-year teachers, principals, curriculum coordinators, and state department reading personnel. Participants were asked to assign cards containing a reading program decision to the group thought to be responsible for making that decision. Results showed that the philosophy of the reading program was believed to be made at the district level. All subjects described the reading program in terms of the basal used in the district. Teachers as a group were viewed as making decisions about grouping students for instruction, time allocations for reading, and supplementary materials for the reading program. Teachers as individuals were seen as making decisions concerning selection from available materials, skills selection, informal testing, time spent with Specific groups, and grading. This finding reflects agreement with Jackson’s (1966) findings regarding the types of decisions and changes teachers are seen as making in the classroom. The study showed further that principals, despite supposedly being the school’s instructional leaders, were not seen as being involved in the decision-making process regarding the reading program. All groups agreed that once the district adopted a basal reading series, that manual served as an explicit guide to teachers it! making day-to-day instructional decisions. The basal manual became a script with little or no decision making by the teacher. 26 Hoover (1985) also investigated the types of decisions teachers made in teaching reading and found that planning decisions accounted for 65% of the decisions teachers ranked important» .A very small percentage reported interactive decisions (Is the approach working? If not, make changes.) as the most critical decision. Placement decisions were ranked as very important, as were program improvement and student achievement. Hoover also found that years of experience and grade level taught made no difference in the patterns of decisions that the teachers made. Because a basal text is used in so many districts, it is interesting to see how variables such as experience, grade level taught, school size, and enrollment influence teachers’ perceptions of the basal. Smith and Saltz (1986) conducted a nationwide study to do just that. Findings showed that 25% of the total group regarded a basal as the total reading program; of this group, more primary than intermediate teachers considered it to be the total program. The highest percentage of teachers not viewing it as a total program were the experienced group (8 to 19 years’ experience), who were employed in a rural area and had 21 to 30 students in the classroom. No teacher in the smallest grouping of l to 10 students saw the basal as the total program. Teachers ‘were also asked about their satisfaction with the basal. More primary teachers reported they were "very satisfied" than did intermediate teachers, and rural teachers showed less satisfaction than urban teachers. 27 Years of experience was important with regard to satisfaction with the currently used basal. Beginning teachers reported the lowest level of satisfaction of all groups; veteran teachers (31 to 55 years’ experience) reported the highest level of satisfaction. Another question was the degree of closeness with which teachers thought the basal manual should be fellowed. Experienced teachers showed the largest percentage for following it "very closely"; third-grade teachers were the largest grade-level group and first-grade teachers the smallest group who believed in following the basal very closely. Sixth-grade teachers were the largest percentage of those following it "not very closely." Class size~ was related to the expected use of the manual. "Very closely" was reported by only 24% of teachers with enrollments of 11 to 20 students; this percentage increased to 35% for those with classes of 21 to 30 students. It would seem from this study that several variables exert an influence on teachers’ behaviors and reactions to basal texts. The findings of a study by Richards, Gipe, and Thompson (1987) contradicted those of Smith and Saltz (1986). Whereas the latter researchers found that teachers with more experience were more satisfied with the basal and used it more, Richards et al. found the opposite to be true. Their findings showed that teachers who were more favorable to a whole language approach were the ones with the most experience and those who had taught at a variety of grade levels. Those teachers favoring a graphophonics/skills approach were the ones with fewer years of teaching experience and fewer 28 undergraduate reading courses. The authors concluded that different kinds of experiences in teaching could produce differences in teachers’ theoretical orientations to teaching reading. They thought that if teachers were to see the value of a whole language approach, they should have more diverse educational experiences, including more and diverse training. Vigil’s (1985) findings seem to be in agreement with those of Richards et al., in that more hours of reading instruction had a definite correlation with the teacher’s theoretical orientation toward reading instruction. Vigil also found that a teacher’s diverse teaching experience was aui asset when reading instruction for young students was concerned. The theoretical beliefs of other teachers carry different amounts of approval by teachers (Davis, 1982). Teachers who used an experiential approach were viewed more favorably than those who used a phonics approach. Users of meaning-based programs were highly regarded as to having professional qualities, whereas those using a phonics approach were seen as too structured and overly directed and controlling. Knowledge of the reading process and college reading courses were found by Margolis and DiObilda (1986) to be the two most important influences on teachers’ choices of reading methods. According to teachers, the factors that had a negative effect on choice were amount of preparation time, amount of time available for teaching reading, children with differing needs in the classroom, 29 and the number of reading books available for children. Administrators, supervisors, and other teachers did not rank in the top half of forces influencing choice. Shannon (1982) investigated why teachers relied so heavily on commercially prepared reading materials. His subjects included classroom teachers, reading teachers, and building-level administrators. His questionnaire included statements dealing with four* hypotheses: Teachers are not involved with their reading instruction, commercial materials can teach reading, materials are designed on scientific lines or truths, and teachers think they are fulfilling administrators’ expectations by using them. Findings showed that administrators agreed more strongly than reading teachers that commercial materials are based on scientific principles. Because reading teachers, who had completed more graduate-level reading courses than administrators and classroom teachers, were less likely than the other two groups to accept the scientific-validity argument, educational differences would seem to explain the difference in opinion. Classroom teachers agreed more strongly than the other two groups that they' were meeting administrators’ expectations when using commercial materials. Administrators accepted the ideas that commercial materials can teach and that they are based on scientific principles. Teachers and principals agreed with the idea that teaching without the basal would not be acceptable to the administration. Teachers believed that there was administration pressure to use the 30 commercial materials, and administrators thought there was a need to maintain continuity in the reading program throughout the district. In Shannon’s study, teachers and administrators believed that basals were designed along scientifically correct lines. Ruetzel and Daines (1987) investigated the reading lessons in basal series to determine whether they were, in fact, instructionally coherent. Lessons were examined for evidence of cohesion among the normal lesson parts: vocabulary instruction, story introduction, the story, story questions, skill lessons, and enrichment. Findings suggested that only 38% of the instruction provided was judged to be cohesive, a complaint that Durkin (1984) heard from teachers actually using the books. Vocabulary, the authors concluded, appeared to be taught for its own sake and was related to other areas in the reading lesson an average of only 53% of the time. Only one-third of phonics instruction was related to other parts of the lesson. The authors concluded that children would be unlikely to develop strategies for actually using phonics rules from the basal instruction. The majority of word-structure instruction was unrelated to other lesson parts, and comprehension instruction showed the lowest percentage of coherence cfl’ all areas examined. Little study-skill instruction was offered, but, of the amount presented, only 38% related to other aspects of the reading lesson. The authors concluded that teachers need to be aware that the majority of instruction found in basal reading series does not relate to or support other elements of the lesson. This fact is 31 disturbing when compared to Shannon’s finding that administrators, who often determine the content of reading programs, and classroom teachers believed that commercially prepared nmterials were instructionally sound. In summary, teachers’ theoretical orientations to reading instruction and their perceptions of their roles 'hi the classroom produce great differences in both teaching style and method. In addition, teachers are concerned with fulfilling administrative and district expectations, and this factor must also be considered when they make reading decisions. The Influence of Professional Education and Development on Teachinq Sarason (1971) commented that there was a decided lack of knowledge of the change process in schools. Teachers are classified as. conservative (Cuban, 1984; Lortie, 1975), and when they Inake changes, those changes are generally small (Jackson, 1986). And yet, change is necessary at times, and many researchers have studied the effect that various programs have had in persuading teachers to make changes of magnitude in their classrooms. One area researchers have examined is teacher preparation. Brittain (1981) surveyed students in an introductory reading class to determine whether the course produced changes in students’ reading beliefs. The findings showed that there was a significant movement away from the idea of reading as a regimented, nondiffer- entiated process to its being a meaningful and individual experi- ence. 32 Beginning teachers and the effect of teacher education courses were the subject of a study by Dewart and Ball (1987). Findings showed that the "prepared" group or those having received teacher education courses scored higher than "unprepared" teachers or those having had in) education courses in both "creating an affective climate" and "individual differences." These findings would seem to Show that education courses can be valuable in dealing with students and individualizing instruction. Coursework for experienced teachers was studied In/ Stieglitz (1983). He investigated the effects of a content reading course on attitudes and instructional practices of teachers who took the course and those who did not. Findings showed an above-average use of content-reading teaching practices by those vflu) had had coursework and II positive attitude toward reading. Data from the study showed that content specialists and other groups of teachers generally considered the completion of a content methods course in reading to be helpful. 'The researcher: did find, however, that positive attitudes toward content reading did not always result in high use of the practices taught. This finding was similar to those of Wilson’s (1988) study, which measured changes in practice following participation in a writing workshop. Results from this study showed that teachers’ attitudes and beliefs changed after the workshop, but practices did not show the same degree of change. Stieglitz (1983) surmised that perhaps one course was not sufficient to allow teachers to get to 33 the implementation stage of development. Wilson had teachers identify factors that inhibited new learning from being translated into change in the classroom; respondents cited curricular constraints, lack (H’ support services, reporting of standardized test scores, and personal fears as inhibitors. Thompson (1979) also studied factors that both influenced and discouraged teacher change. 'Those factors seen as influencing change included the amount of association the new program had with the teacher’s goals for the students, compatibility of the program with currently used methods, the likelihood of other staff members’ trying the new program, and the ease of preparation and use. Factors that discouraged changes were lectures by guest speakers and insufficient time to absorb new material. Ellis (1986) found peer support to be very helpful in implementing instructional change but only if the peer discussions were focused on the innovation. She suggested instructing staff in how to discuss the new program or technique, rather than relying on teachers’ casual conversations. Schultz (1979), however, encouraged both formal and informal teacher exchanges. He discovered that teachers found change easier if they could exchange both ideas and complaints with other staff members. Christen and Murphy (1987) also found peer support to be valuable, especially when paired with evaluation and feedback. Their method created an in-house support group and a peer-evaluation system that emphasized risk taking and teacher introspection. Since other researchers (Thompson, 1979; Wilson, 1978) have cited personal 34 fears or lack of support from other staff members to be factors inhibiting change, this system would perhaps be less threatening and make it more conducive for teachers to take risks. In addition to courses to effect change in teacher behavior, workshops and conferences have been a common offering of professional associations. Bean, Bishop, and Leuer (1984) attempted to determine the degree to which teachers’ beliefs about reading instruction could be updated by a weekend conference. By determining teachers’ theoretical beliefs before and after the conference, the researchers found a willingness by teachers to modify their beliefs about the reading process. There was no follow-up, however, to discover whether changes took place in the classroom as a result of teachers’ modified beliefs. Bruinsma (1985) also looked at change in teachers’ beliefs as a result of a summer workshop. The aim of the workshop was to introduce teachers to a whole language approach and away from an isolated phonics program. Findings showed that teachers attending the workshop did change their beliefs about the whole language approach, but again no follow-up was done to determine whether change occurred in the classroom. Because some teachers can implement changes in a classroom in just a few weeks whereas others need three to five years to feel comfortable with something new (Donovan, Sousa, &'Walberg, 1987; Schultz, 1979), many school districts conduct staff-development programs to effect teacher change or update methods. Veatch and 35 Cooter (1986) found that California schools with increasing reading scores had effective staff-development programs. These programs included follow-up activities and other help that individual teachers requested, so teacher commitment was heightened. Another study of staff development determined that teachers who have a positive attitude toward their job may be more likely to try new techniques and ideas as a result of a staff-development program (Donovan et al., 1987). Researchers have cited the need for feedback and adjustment and have warned against expectations for quick, dramatic results (Christen & Murphy, 1987; Donovan et afl., 1987). The time between awareness of a technique and its successful implementation in the classroom can be great. To summarize, various types of educational offerings, whether they be university courses, workshops, conferences, or staff- development programs, can produce change in teachers’ beliefs. Unfortunately, it is impossible to know without follow-up studies how effective the training has been. Too many other factors, both personal and school centered, can interfere with the change process. Teachers’ Reading Habits One of the goals of reading instruction is to develop children who not only can read, but do read--to develop lifelong readers. Since children tend to imitate adults in many ways, it seems reasonable to assume that a teacher who reads widely and with enjoyment can be a more positive model for reading than one who does not. In addition, for the teacher, reading has both a professional 36 and a nonprofessional value. It is one way to continue to develop personally and professionally. Sharon (1971) examined the reading habits of adults in general and concluded that, although reading is present in most Americans’ lives, most of the reading done is spent on newspapers, signs, recipes, and magazines. Few people were found to read for long periods, and only 8% reported reading fiction cu“ social sciences. Although many of the people surveyed reported that they read during recreational and free time, the reading was primarily words and sentences Shown on the television screen. Other studies have focused on the reading habits of teachers in both their personal and professional lives. A wide range of professional reading was discovered in George and Ray’s (1979) survey of elementary teachers. Slightly more than half reported reading professional journals for 30 minutes or less each week, whereas 5% reported doing no professional reading at all. The amount of professional reading was also related positively to years of teaching experience and level of education. The greater the years of experience and the higher the degree, the more reading that was done. Another interesting finding was that, although periodicals were available in all schools, there was a difference in their perceived availability according to the teachers’ years of experience. Hughes and Johnston-Doyle (1978) reported similar findings on the amount of teachers’ professional reading. Almost equal numbers of teachers reported reading five or more journals a week and no 37 professional reading at all. Mour (1977) found disturbing the results of his study-~that not even half of the respondents read a professional journal on a regular basis and half read less than one professional book a month. Several researchers have questioned what teachers actually read (Baker, 1982; Hughes & Johnston-Doyle, 1978; Labercane, 1986; Hour, 1977). Professional reading was centered on journals that were pragmatic in nature. Labercane did discover, however, that articles that helped explain theory would be read, provided they were tied to classroom applications. Recreational reading included preferred categories such as social sciences, mysteries, and history. Baker’s (1982) findings seemed to agree with those of Sharon (1973) in that teachers, like the general adult population, preferred television over reading as their leisure-time activity. Baker also discovered, as did Mour (1977), that teachers do not read professional journals extensively. In summary, teachers do not appear to be avid readers, from a professional or personal viewpoint. This could lead to a stagnation in teaching practices if teachers fail ix> keep abreast of developments in reading instruction. If teachers are to be role models for students, they need to evaluate their own reading habits. Research on the Myers-Briqgs Type Indicator and Teachers The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) is based on Jung’s theory of psychological type. It identifies l6 patterns or 38 combinations of' actions, namely' extraversion/introversion, intui- tion/sensation, thinking/feeling, and judging/perceiving. Kiersey and Bates (1984) provided the following description of these types. The extravert is sociable and seems to be energized by people, whereas the introvert is territorial and prefers solitude to recover energy. The individual preferring sensation probably thinks of him/herself as practical, whereas the individual preferring intuition would describe him/herself as innovative. The thinking individual reacts positively to words such as "laws," "policy," and "objective," whereas the feeling person responds ix) "subjective," "values" and "persuasion." The final pairing is judging/perceiving. Judging persons prefer words such as "settled," "fixed," and "plan ahead," whereas perceiving individuals are comfortable with terms such as "flexible," "open-ended," and "adapt." These four dimensions can, following the completion of the MBTI, result in identifying an individual’s preference for each type. The M811 was used at the University of Florida to determine type preferences found in their freshman class to enhance academic advisement (McCaulley, 1974). It was found that childhood education majors were extraverted, sensing types who preferred judging to perception. At the same university, data were collected on 605 elementary and middle school teachers. The results showed that 58% of them were sensing types and 42% intuitive. Strickler and Ross (1962) had previously found similar percentages for elementary teachers. McCaulley also discovered that feeling types outnumbered 39 thinking types in elementary education by 60% to 80%. In high school and especially college teaching, intuitives with feeling were in the majority on teaching staffs. Several researchers have investigated the relationship between MBTI scores and teaching success. Pratt, Roberts, and DeLucia (1981) examined the relationship between the dimensions of the MBTI and success on the National Teachers’ Examination (NTE). Findings showed that only the sensing/intuitive dimension was significant as a predictor of success. Since most teachers in the sample were classified as sensing types, they, like most sensing types, scored below intuitive types on a standardized test, which in this case was the NTE. The researchers hypothesized, as had McCaulley (1974), that sensing types are at a disadvantage on timed tests because of a tendency to read questions several times; they suggested that students of this type would benefit from counseling on test-taking skills. A similar study was done by Carlyn (1976), who found feeling types were more interested in teaching at lower levels than thinking types. This finding confirms McCaulley’s (1974) discovery of the preponderance of feeling types in elementary education. Carlyn also found that intuitive teachers had a stronger need for independence and creativity than sensing types and preferred working with small groups of students. Pfeifer (1983) found that success in student teaching at the elementary level was positively related to the sensing, judging, and introversion dimensions. However, an earlier study of classroom 40 teachers (Lorentz & Coker, 1977) showed that even though the teachers were of different MBTI personality types, they tended to teach in the same way. The findings of some studies have differed sharply from those of Lorentz and Coker. Lawrence (1979) found that teachers’ types do affect how and what they teach. He found that extrovert types were more likely to give students choices about what to study and how to go about learning tasks. They were more likely to be attuned to students’ attention and activity changes. Introverted teachers, on the other hand, were found to be more likely to select materials and to structure their use for the students. They tended to center control in themselves and were more aware of the ideas they were trying to teach. Lawrence also found wide differences in teachers’ style related to the sensing or intuitive dimension. Sensing types liked to keep things centralized and provided a narrow range of choices. They emphasized facts, concrete skills, and practical information. Intuitive types tended to give students a wide range of choices and were more likely to move freely about the room. 'They emphasized concepts and relationships and stressed the implications of the facts for understanding larger' problems. In addition, Lawrence found that feeling types tended to move from student to student and provided for much individual work, whereas thinking types typically dealt with the class as a whole and had students spend more of their time focusing on what the teacher was doing. 41 Differences between judging and perceiving types were also quite marked. Judging-type teachers were more likely to be orderly, with attention to structure and schedules. Perceptive-type teachers, however, encouraged more movement around the class, socialization, and open-ended discussions. With all dimensions, Lawrence stressed that there were no right or wrong types but that, by understanding their own types, teachers would be able to better understand and deal with students unlike themselves. Lyons (1984) investigated the consistency between learning- style patterns and teaching-style behavior. He found that student teachers who preferred intuitive behaviors in learning (used hands- on experiences, preferred essay exams, and were concerned with others’ view of their performance) were consistent in exhibiting intuitive behaviors in teaching (used concrete examples and personal experiences before moving to abstract, were concerned with students’ success, and preferred thematic units). Student teachers who exhibited sensing preferences on the M811 in learning (preferred lecture, reading, theorizing; were task. oriented; and were inattentive to social environment while working) also displayed sensing behaviors in teaching (used lectures in the cflassroom and were task oriented). The question of whether the alignment of student and teacher personality type has any relationship to the grades that teachers assign was studied by Sobczyk (1986). His subjects were high school students and their teachers. Sobczyk questioned whether the assigned grades were objective measures or whether students’ and 42 teachers’ personality types--simi1ar CH“ dissimilar—-influenced the final semester grade. He found no evidence of bias in grades for student/teacher similar or dissimilar personality types. In summary, many studies have been done using the. MBTI to determine teachers’ personality types and the influence those types may have on teachers’ behavior and success in the classroom. Most researchers have seemed to agree on the characteristics of each type and the classroom behavior associated with it, although there was disagreement on how much importance these types actually have in the school environment. Summary The review of literature indicated that a whole language approach is effective in producing student gains in both achievement and motivation. Studies have confirmed, however, that the use of basal readers is ‘the predominant method of teaching reading in American schools. In many instances, the basal reader is not accepted or used in the way publishers intend, and many of the teachers’ complaints about basals have been borne out by research as being valid. Creating change in educational methods has been attempted by many different means. Educational coursework, workshops, conferences, and staff-development programs have all recorded successes in changing teachers’ beliefs about the reading process, but the implementation process depends on more variables than teacher beliefs. Administrative and peer support, teacher 43 personality and reading habits, curricular constraints, grade taught, and class enrollment can all play a role in enhancing or inhibiting change. CHAPTER III METHODOLOGY OF THE STUDY Introduction The methodology used in conducting the study is described in this chapter. The population and sample are identified and defined, and the pilot study is explained. The data-gathering procedures are outlined, the statistical treatment is explained, and the methods of reporting are discussed. Population The participants in the study' were 115 elementary teachers presently teaching full time in kindergarten through sixth grade. Nineteen withdrew from participation, leaving a total of 96 teachers completing the study instruments. Teachers were drawn from school districts located in the northern lower peninsula and the eastern and central upper peninsula of Michigan, a largely rural area. Participation occurred between January and April 1989. The researcher contacted district administrators with the request that announcements of the study be made at staff meetings. Administrators were provided with a brief written description of the study and a sheet for interested teachers to Sign for further information. Professors from a local university also provided study information to their graduate education students. Administrators 44 45 and professors indicated the apparent teaching orientation (whole language or basal) of each teacher who volunteered. A11 teachers who indicated interest in participation were contacted individually by the researcher by telephone or in person. More information about the study was provided, questions were answered, and final determination of group membership (whole language or basal) was made. To be designated as a whole language participant of the study, the teacher had to be using a whole language approach in the classroom for a majority of reading classes. In all schools except one, the use of a basal text was mandatory, but the amount of time spent using it was not specified. Some teachers reported using a basal for one reading class a week and some for a two- or three-week period at the end of the school year. Two teachers who were suggested by their administrators as being whole language teachers withdrew from participation because they did not think they were meeting the time condition of the study. Data—Gathering Instruments Two instruments were used in this study: a researcher-designed questionnaire and the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator. Participating teachers were asked to fill out both sets of forms and return them directly to the researcher. Delivery and retrieval of the instru- ments were done in person by the researcher or by mail for those participants living at greater distances. All participants and 46 their school districts were assured that their responses would remain anonymous. The Teacher Questionnaire The Teacher Questionnaire was designed by the researcher for the present study and is a self-report instrument. In its final form, it consists of 14 questions and 17 Likert-type statements dealing with teachers’ backgrounds and beliefs about reading. Pilot study. A preliminary form of the Teacher Questionnaire was given to a group of 14 elementary teachers in the San Juan Capistrano, California, school district 'hi fall 1988. The preliminary version of the questionnaire is presented in Appendix A. Four open—ended questions and 16 questions comprised the pilot form of the questionnaire. The responses to the open-ended questions were turned into 17 four-point Likert-type statements and the open-ended questions removed from the final form. All participating teachers indicated that they were able to complete the questionnaire in 30 minutes or less. The final form of the Teacher Questionnaire consisted of 31 questions and incorporated revisions suggested iii the pilot study. The revised questionnaire is found in Appendix B. The Myers-Briqqs Type Indicator The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) is a: self—report instrument based on Jung’s theory of personality and developed by Isabel Myers and Kathryn Briggs. Form G of the test, which was used for this study, consists of 126 forced-choice items. The indicator 47 measures the following preferences: Extraversion or Introversion, Sensation or Intuition, Thinking or Feeling, and Judgment or Perception. Fuller description of the preferences and a discussion of studies using the MBTI are found in Chapter II. A sample of MBTI items is found in Appendix C. m This study was designed to discover differences between two groups of teachers--whole language and basal. The writer examined relationships between several variables, namely educational background, grade taught, class size, professional affiliations, reading practices and beliefs, school environment, and teacher personality for both groups. Data Collection The Teacher Questionnaires were color coded for each group-- green paper for whole language teachers and white paper for basal teachers. The MBTI answer sheets were marked with a green X for whole language teachers and a black X for basal teachers. A number was assigned to each questionnaire and answer sheet. Data from the instruments were coded and transferred to Computer Laboratory data coding forms for entry into a computer. Data Analysis The analyses consisted of t-tests and chi-square tests. T-tests were used to compare the means of the two groups for 48 questions involving continuous data. Chi-square was used to compare the distribution of the means of categorical data. The Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) program was used to iuui both the t-tests and chi-square. The program calculates an F-value, a pooled variance estimate, and £1 separate variance estimate for each t-test. For this study, the pooled variance estimate results are reported. For chi-square, two results are provided by the program. Because of the limited size of this study, the possibility existed of an expected frequency of less than five in any cell. Hence, results are expressed with and without the Yates correction. In this study, however, only one chi-square test showed less than five in each cell, so all results except that one are reported as "before Yates correction." The level of significance for all tests was set at I) = .05, two-tailed test. Hypotheses The following hypotheses were constructed from the research questions and. were designed to discover whether there were statistically significant differences between responses made by teachers using a whole language approach and those using a basal approach to teaching reading. 1.0 There will be no difference in the number of reading/ language arts courses completed by whole language teachers and basal approach teachers. 1.1 There will be no difference in the number of reading/ language arts courses completed at the undergraduate level for the two groups. 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 1.2 There will be no difference in the number of reading/ language arts courses completed at the graduate level for the two groups. 1.3 There will be no difference in the number of reading/ language arts workshops attended by the two groups. There will be no difference in the availability of per- sonal support in the school setting for the two groups. 2.1 There will be no difference in school administration support for teachers to make changes in teaching methods for the two groups. 2.2 There will be no difference in the amount of release time provided for teacher observation in other classrooms both on and off site for the two groups. 2.3 There will be no difference in funding provided by the school administration for discretionary materials for the two groups. 2.4 There will be no difference in the number of confer- ences in reading/language arts that teachers are permitted to attend in a school year for the two groups. 2.5 There will be no difference in the number of school- provided professional journals for the two groups. 2.6 There will be no difference in the number of sched- uled staff meetings for the two groups. There will be no difference in the personal reading habits of the two groups. 3.1 There will be no difference in the amount of recrea- tional reading time engaged in weekly by the two groups. 3.2 There will be no difference in the number of profes- sional reading/language arts publications subscribed to by the two groups. There will be no difference in membership in professional reading/language arts associations for the two groups. There will be no difference in the number of years of teaching experience for the two groups. 50 6.0 There will be no difference in the grade levels taught for the two groups. 7.0 There will be no difference in class sizes for the two groups. 8.0 There will be no difference in the personality types of the two groups. Summary The methods and procedures used in the study were described in this chapter. The population consisted of 96 elementary teachers in the northern lower* and eastern and central upper peninsulas of Michigan. Teachers who volunteered to participate in the study were identified as teaching from either a basal approach or a whole language approach. They completed two instruments--a researcher- designed Teacher Questionnaire, which concerned individual teachers’ backgrounds and reading beliefs, and the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator, which recorded personality-type preferences. The statistical measures used were t-tests and chi-square tests. Analyses were run using the SPSS program by statisticians at Lake Superior State University. In Chapter IV, the data are presented and analyzed. CHAPTER IV PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS OF THE DATA Introduction The purpose of this study' was to gather and analyze data dealing with two groups of teachers: those who taught reading from a whole language approach and those who taught from at basal approach. Ninety-six teachers answered a Teacher Questionnaire and the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator, which provided a number of variables in order to determine the differences that existed between the two groups. The results of the statistical analyses of the data as they relate to the hypotheses of the study are presented in this chapter. Hypotheses and Statistical Analyses The research questions posed in Chapter I were rewritten in null form in Chapter III to make appropriate statistical hypotheses. The .05 level was chosen as the level for rejection of the null hypotheses for both the t-tests and the chi-square tests. Hypothesis 1 1.0 There will be no difference in the number of reading/ language arts courses completed by whole language teachers and basal approach teachers. To test this hypothesis, three variables were analyzed for significance: (a) undergraduate courses, (b) graduate courses, and 51 (c) reading workshop attendance. Of these three, only reading workshop attendance was significant. In the following paragraphs, each secondary hypothesis relating to reading/language arts coursework is specifically addressed, analyzed, and interpreted for significance. 1.1 There will be no difference in the number of reading/ language arts courses completed at the undergraduate level for the two groups. The range of number of undergraduate courses for the whole language group was 0 to 9, with the mean being 3.1875. The range for basal teachers was 1 to 9, with a mean of 3.5610. A t-test was used to test statistically the difference between the mean number of undergraduate reading/language arts courses for each group. The t-value of -.87 with a probability value of .385 was apt statistically significant. 1.2 There will be no difference in the number of reading/ language arts courses completed at the graduate level for the two groups. The range of graduate courses completed for both the whole language group and the basal group was 0 to 30. Due to the wide range of courses, three groups were created-~0 indicating no graduate courses, 1 to 5, and 6 or more--and chi-square was used to test statistically the difference between the graduate classes for both groups. The chi-square value was calculated at 1.44 with a probability level of .4905, which was apt statistically Significant. 1.3 There will be no difference in the number of reading/ language arts workshops attended by the two groups. Of the 48 basal teachers, 26 (54%) reported having attended no reading/language arts workshops within the past two years. For the 53 whole language group, 5 of the 48 teachers (10%) reported having attended no reading workshops within the past two years. The t-test was used to test statistically the difference between the number of reading/language arts workshops for both groups. For the whole language group, the mean was 3.2500 and for the basal group, 1.0625. The t-value of 5.01 with a probability of .000 was statistically significant. Means for the total group differences are presented in Table 1. Table l.--Means for group differences in reading/language arts coursework. Group t df p-Value Whole Language Basal Undergraduate 3.1875 3.5610 —.87 87 .385 Reading workshops 2 3.2500 1.0625 5.01 94 .000* Graduate Chi = 1.44 .4905 *Significant at the .05 level. Hypothesis 2 2.0 There will be no difference in the availability of per- sonal support in the school setting for the two groups. To test this hypothesis, six variables were analyzed for significance: (a) administration support tin“ making changes in teaching methods, (b) release time provided for teacher observation of other classrooms, (c) discretionary classroom funds, (d) opportunity to attend yearly reading conferences, (e) school- provided professional journals, and (f) number of staff meetings. 54 Of these variables, administration support for making changes, opportunity for observation in other classrooms, and yearly attendance at reading conferences were found to be statistically significant. In the following paragraphs, each secondary hypothesis relating to school environmental support is specifically addressed, analyzed, and interpreted for significance. 2.1 There will be no difference in school administration support for teachers to make changes in teaching methods for the two groups. This variable was addressed iri a four-point Likert-type statement with responses of strongly agree (1 point), mildly agree (2 points), mildly disagree (3 points), and strongly disagree (4 points). The mean for the whole language group was 1.2500 and for the basal group, 1.5238. A t-test was done to test the significance of differences between the means of the two groups. The t-value of -2.41 with a probability of .018 was found to be significant. Results are presented in Table 2. 2.2 There will be no difference in the amount of release time provided for teacher observation in other classrooms both on and off site for the two groups. Thirty-four (71%) of the whole language group reported being provided time for observation in other classrooms, whereas 18 (38%) of the basal group reported being provided release time. .A chi- square test was used to test statistically the difference between the two groups. The chi-square score was calculated at 10.74126 with a probability level of .0010, which was statistically significant. These results are shown in Table 2. 55 Table 2.--Means for group differences in support in the school setting. Group T-Test t df Prob. Whole Language Basal Administration support 1.2500 1.5238 ~2.4l 88 .018* Chi-square tests Chi2 df Signif. Observation opportunity 10.74126 1 .0010* Discretionary funds 1.54286 1 .2142 Yearly reading conferences 8.53721 1 .0035* School—provided journals 2.91461 1 .0878 Formal staff meetings 5.03653 2 .0806 *Significant at the .05 level. 2.3 There will be no difference in funding provided by the school administration for discretionary materials for the two groups. Thirty-one (65%) of the whole language group and 25 (52%) of the basal group were found to be provided with discretionary funds for classroom use. A chi-square test was used to test statistically the difference between the two groups. 'The chi-square score was calculated at 1.54286 with a probability level of .2142, which was pat statistically significant. (See Table 2.) 2.4 There will be no difference in the number of conferences in reading/language arts that teachers are permitted to attend in a school year for the two groups.‘ Twenty-six (54%) of the whole language teachers and 12 (25%) of the basal teachers were found to attend reading/language arts 56 conferences yearly. A chi-square test was used to test statistically the difference between the two groups. The chi-square score was calculated at 8.53721 with a probability level of .0035, which was statistically significant. The calculations are found in Table 2. 2.5 There will be no difference in the number of school- provided professional journals for the two groups. Thirty-five (73%) of the whole language group and 27 (56%) of the basal group were found to have school-provided professional journals available in their schools. A chi-square test was used to test statistically the difference between the two groups. The chi— square value was calculated at 2.91461 with a probability level of .0878, which was pat statistically significant. 2.6 There will be no difference in the number of scheduled staff meetings for the two groups. Fourteen (29%) of the whole language and 8 (19%) of the basal teachers were found to have weekly staff meetings. Twenty-two (46%) of the whole language teachers and 14 (33%) of the basal teachers were found to have monthly staff meetings. A chi-square test was used to test statistically the difference between the two groups. The chi-square value was calculated at 5.03653 with a probability level of .0806, which was pat statistically significant. Hypothesis 3 3.0 There will be no difference in the personal reading habits of the two groups. To test this hypothesis, two variables were analyzed for Significance: (a) the amount of weekly recreational reading for the 57 two groups and (b) the number of professional reading/language arts subscriptions for the two groups. Neither of these variables was found to be statistically significant. 3.1 There will be no difference in the amount of recreational reading time engaged in weekly by the two groups. A t-test was used to test statistically the difference between the mean amount of weekly recreational reading time for the whole language group and the basal group. The whole language group was found to have a mean of 6.1250; the basal group had a mean of 6.4651. The t-value of -.36 with a probability level of .723 was pat significant. 3.2 There will be no difference in the number of professional reading/language arts publications subscribed to by the two groups. Twenty-five (52%) of the whole language group and 20 (48%) of the basal group were found to have personal subscriptions to professional reading/language arts journals. A chi—square test was used to test statistically the difference between the means. The chi-square value was calculated at .17857 with a probability level of .6726, which was pat statistically significant. Hypothesis 3 was not rejected. Hypothesis 4 4.0 There will be no difference in membership in professional reading/language arts associations for the two groups. Thirty-two (67%) of the whole language group and 25 (52%) of the basal group were found to maintain membership in a professional reading association. The chi-square test was used to determine the 58 significance of this finding. The chi-square value was calculated at 2.11606 with a probability level of .1458, which was pat statistically significant. Hypothesis 4 was not rejected. Hypothesis 5 5.0 There will be no difference in the number of years of teaching experience for the two groups. The number of‘ years of teaching experience for the whole language group ranged from 1 to 28 years, with the mean for the group at 14 years. Years of teaching experience for the basal group ranged from 1 to 25 years, with a mean of 14.4792 years. A t-test was used to test statistically the difference between the means of the two groups. The t-value of -.36 with a probability level of .723 was pat statistically significant. Hypothesis 5 was not rejected. Hypothesis 6 6.0 There will be no difference in the grade levels taught for the two groups. A chi-square test was used to test statistically the difference between the language and basal teachers with regard to the grade taught. The chi-square value was calculated at 5.14062 with a probability level of .5259. This was apt statistically significant, so Hypothesis 6 was not rejected. Hypothesis 7 7.0 There will be no difference in class Sizes for the two groups. 59 The range of number of students for the whole language group was 10 to 45, with a mean of 23.2979. The range of number of students for the basal group was 12 to 35, with a mean of 22.75. A t-test was used to test statistically the difference between the means of both groups. The t-value of .48 with a probability level of .629 was pat statistically significant. Therefore, Hypothesis 7 was not rejected. Hypothesis 8 8.0 There will be no difference in the personality types of the two groups. To test this hypothesis, four sets of dimensions of personal preferences as measured by the MBTI were analyzed for significance. The four pairs were (a) extraversion/introversion, (b) sensing/ intuition, (c) thinking/feeling, and (d) judging/perceiving. Of these pairs, significant differences were feund iri all dimensions except the third, thinking/feeling, for the two groups. In the following paragraphs, each personality-dimension pair is addressed, analyzed, and interpreted for significance. Results for total group differences are presented in Table 3. Extraversion/introversion. Thirty-one (65%) of the whole language teachers and 20 (42%) of the basal teachers were found to prefer extraversion. Seventeen (35%) of the whole language and 28 (58%) of the basal teachers preferred the introversion dimension. The chi-square test was used to test statistically the difference between the two groups of teachers with regard to the extraversion/ introversion dimension of personality. The chi-square score was 60 calculated at 5.06144 with a probability level of .0245. This was statistically significant. Table 3.--Personality dimensions of whole language and basal teachers. Chi2 df Signif. Extraversion/introversion 5.061440 1 .0245* Sensing/intuition 12.088889 1 .0005* Thinking/feeling .049410 1 .8241 Judging/perceiving 36.318490 1 .0000* *Significant at the .05 level. Sensing/intuition. Thirty-one (65%) of the whole language teachers and 14 (29%) of the basal teachers were found to score as intuitives. Seventeen (35%) of the whole language teachers and 34 (71%) of the basal teachers scored as sensors. The chi-square test was used to test statistically the difference between the two groups with regard to the sensing/intuition dimension of personality. The chi-square value was calculated at 12.08889 with a probability level of .0005. This finding was statistically significant. Thinking/feeling. The feeling dimension of personality was preferred by 34 (71%) of the whole language teachers and 33 (69%) of the basal teachers. The chi-square test was used to test statistically the difference between the two groups with regard to the thinking/feeling dimension of personality. The chi-square value 61 was calculated at .04941 with a probability level of .8241, which was pp; statistically significant. Judging/perceiving. Thirty-four (71%) of the whole language teachers preferred the perceiving dimension of personality, whereas 14 (29%) of the same group preferred the judging dimension. In contrast, 5 (10%) of the basal teachers preferred the perceiving dimension and 43 (90%) preferred the judging dimension. The chi- square test was used to test statistically the difference between the two groups with regard to the judging/perceiving dimension of personality. The chi-square value was calculated at 36.31849 with a probability level of .0000, which was statistically significant. Additional MBTI analyses. Because research has also been done on teacher composition of selected groupings oir personality dimensions, calculations were also done on this aspect. The selected grouping of personality dimensions resulted 'hi a Sensing Judging (SJ) group, an Intuition Feeling (NF) group, an Intuition Thinking (NT) group, and a Sensing Perceiving (SP) group. All teachers in the study fell into one and only one of these groups. Of the whole language group, 24 (50%) were found to be part of the Intuition Feeling group, 9 (19%) in the Sensing Judging group, 8 (17%) in the Sensing Perceiving group, and 7 (15%) in the Intuition Thinking group. Of the basal group, 31 (65%) were found to be in the Sensing Judging group, 15 (31%) in the Intuition Feeling group, 2 (4%) in the Sensing Perceiving group, and none in the Intuition Thinking group. 62 The chi-square test was used In) test statistically the difference between the groups with regard to the selected groupings of personality dimensions. The chi-square value was calculated at 24.77692 with a probability level of .0000, which was statistically significant. It must be noted that there were two cells with expected frequencies of less than five; however, the probability level of .0000 is such that the results can be accepted. 'Table 4 contains these results. Table 4.--Personality-dimension groups for whole language and basal teachers. Personality Dimension Teacher Group Sensing Intuition Intuition Sensing Judging Feeling Thinking Perceiving Whole language 9 24 7 8 Basal 31 15 0 2 Chi-square df Signif. Min EF Cells with EF < 5 24.77692 3 .0000 3.500 2 of 8 Because statistically significant differences were found on three of the four sets of personality dimensions as measured by the MBTI and a statistically significant difference was feund between selected groupings of personality dimensions as measured by the MBTI, Hypothesis 8 was rejected. 63 Summary Hypothesis 1 was tested using both t-tests and a chi-square test. The results were as follows: Ho l.1--not rejected Ho 1.2--not rejected Ho 1.3--rejected No statistically significant difference was found in the number of undergraduate or graduate reading/language arts courses completed by the two groups. However, a statistically significant difference was found in the number of reading/language arts workshops attended in the past two years by the two groups. Hypothesis 2 was tested using both a t-test and a chi-square test. The results were as follows: Ho 2.1--rejected Ho 2.2--rejected Ho 2.3--not rejected Ho 2.4--rejected Ho 2.5--not rejected Ho 2.6--not rejected No statistically significant differences were found in discretionary funding provided for the two groups, the number of school-provided professional journals for the two groups, and the number of scheduled staff meetings for the two groups. Statistically significant differences were found, however, for administration support for making changes in teaching nethods, 'hi provision for release time for teacher observation in other classrooms, and in teacher attendance at yearly reading/language arts conferences. 64 Hypothesis 3 was tested using both a t-test and a chi-square test. The results were as follows: Ho 3.l--not rejected Ho 3.2--not rejected No statistically significant differences were found in the personal reading habits of the two groups. The mean number of hours of pleasure reading weekly was calculated to be 6.1250 and 6.4651 for the two groups. Also, the number of teachers having personal- reading professional journal subscriptions was very similar--52% of the whole language and 48% of the basal teachers. Hypothesis 4 was tested by calculating a chi-square value. Ho 4--not rejected No statistically significant difference was feund ‘Hl professional reading/language arts memberships for the two groups. Hypothesis 5 was tested for significance by using a t-test. Ho 5--not rejected No statistically significant difference was found in the number of years of teaching experience of the two groups. Hypothesis 6 was tested for significance by calculating a chi- square value. Ho 6--not rejected No significant difference was found in the grade levels taught by the two groups. Hypothesis 7 was tested using a t-test. Ho 7--not rejected 65 No statistically significant difference was found in class size for the two groups. Hypothesis 8 was tested for Significant differences using chi- square tests. The result was: Ho 8--rejected Statistically significant differences were found in personality dimensions as measured by the MBTI. Significant differences were found between extraversion/introversion, sensing/intuition, and judging/perceiving. No statistically significant difference was found in the thinking/feeling dimension. Statistically significant differences. were also found in selected groupings of’ MBTI personality dimensions. Additional Findinqs From the Teacher Questionnaire Several questions and Likert-type statements provided additional information that was tested for statistical Significance. Much of this information is related to tested hypotheses and can provide further confirmation of the results. Information that was not found to be statistically significant is also reported. Hypothesis 1 was about the number of undergraduate and graduate reading courses and reading workshop attendance. hi the Teacher Questionnaire, Item 30 was about the influence student teaching had on later choice of method of teaching reading. This question was in the form of a four-point Likert-type statement (strongly agree = l, mildly agree = 2, mildly disagree = 3, strongly disagree = 4). This point system was in effect for all Likert-type statements on 66 the Teacher Questionnaire. A t-test was used to determine statistical significance of the influence of the student teaching experience on later choice of method for the two groups. The whole language group had a mean of 3.1250, compared to the basal group’s mean of 2.3617. The significance level was calculated at .000, showing that the basal group had been more strongly influenced by the student teaching experience. Another question relating to undergraduate and graduate reading coursework was Item 25. The purpose of this question, also in the form of a Likert-type statement, was to determine the influence of reading methods courses on later choice of teaching method. A t-test was used to determine statistically significant differences between the two groups. The mean for the whole language group was 2.3958, compared to the mean of 1.9286 for the basal group, with a significance level of .017. Again, the basal group was more strongly influenced by reading methods courses in later choice of teaching method. Question 28 (H1 the Teacher Questionnaire, also a Likert-type statement, was designed to go back further than undergraduate course influence and was about the method by which the participant had learned to read. Specifically, it was about the influence that the method by which the participant had been taught had on the choice of teaching method used. A t—test was used to determine statistically significant differences between the two groups. The mean for the whole language group was 3.0417, compared to the mean for the basal group of 2.4583, with a significance level of .002. This indicates 67 that the basal group had been more strongly influenced by their own childhood method of reading instruction than had the whole language group. Questions 24 and 29, both four-point Likert-type statements, were about the influence of reading/language arts workshops on later choice of reading method. T-tests were used to test statistically the differences between the two groups for both questions. 0n Item 24, the mean for the whole language group was 1.7708, compared to a mean of 2.7619 for the basal group, with a significance level of .000. On Item 29, the mean for the whole language group was 1.9583 and the mean for the basal group was 2.6170, with :1 significance level of .001. Both of these questions indicated that reading/ language arts workshops had an influence on the choice of reading method on the part of whole language teachers. Hypothesis 2 was about the availability of personal support in the school setting and had six variables as subheadings. In the Teacher Questionnaire, Item 31, a four-point Likert-type statement, was about the influence of experimentation with various approaches on choice of reading method. Hypothesis. 2.1 was about school administration support for making changes in teaching method. Item 31 was tested for significance using a t-test. The mean for the whole language group was 1.6667 and the mean for the basal group was 2.0000, with a significance level of .044. The whole language group was found to have been influenced more than the basal group by experimentation with various methods. Findings already reported for 68 Hypothesis 2.1 showed the whole language group to have perceived more administrative support for making changes in teaching method. Related to Hypothesis 2 was Item 27 on the Teacher Questionnaire, also a four-point Likert-type statement. This question was about the influence of peer discussions on choice of reading method. A t-test was used to determine significant differences. The mean for the whole language group was 1.9792, compared to the mean for the basal group of 2.3125, with a significance level of .036. This finding indicates that the whole language group felt more influenced by peer discussions in choosing a reading method than did the basal group. Three statements on the Teacher Questionnaire, Items 15, 17, and 18, were on the occurrence of discussions on reading methods in informal conversations. Not one of these differences was statis- tically significant at the .05 level. Hypothesis 3 was about the personal reading habits of both groups. Items 19 and 26 on the Teacher Questionnaire, both four- point Likert-type statements, were for the purpose of reading (Item 19) and the influence of a love of literature on the choice of reading method (Item 26). T-tests were used to determine significant differences between the groups for both questions. For Item 19, the mean for the whole language group was 1.3125, compared to the mean of 1.6905 for the basal group, with a significance level of .004. This indicates that a statistically significant difference was found between the two groups in terms of the purpose of reading; I" 69 the whole language group was more inclined to see the purpose of reading as being to promote a love of literature. Item 26 of the Teacher Questionnaire pertained to the influence a love of literature had on the choice of method of teaching reading. The mean for the whole language group was 1.5000 and the mean for the basal group was 2.4286, with a significance level of .000. The whole language group was influenced to a greater degree than the basal group by a love of literature when choosing their method of teaching reading. Three additional statements on the Teacher Questionnaire were formulated to identify differences in the purpose for reading. Item 20 was to identify the purpose for reading as being to broaden one’s general knowledge, Item 21 was to identify the purpose as being to enrich one’s life, and Item 22 was to identify the purpose as being to gain information. T-tests revealed no statistically significant differences between groups on these statements. Summary T-tests performed on several items on the questionnaire either reinforced or provided more in-depth information for Hypotheses 1 through 3. Statistically significant differences were found between the two groups concerning the influences on later choice of reading method by the method through which participants had been taught to read, student teaching experiences, and reading/language arts workshops. Significant differences were also found with regard to the influence of’ experimentation with various methods and peer 70 discussions on choice of reading method. In addition, significant differences were found between the two groups in a love of literature being the purpose for reading and the influence of a love of literature on the choice of method for teaching reading. CHAPTER V CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS Introduction The purpose of this study' was to gather and analyze data dealing with two groups of teachers: those who taught reading/ language arts from a whole language approach and those who taught from a basal approach. Ninety-six teachers completed a Teacher Questionnaire and the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator, which produced a number of variables in order to determine differences between the two groups. In this chapter, major results (H: the study, implications, and recommendations for further research are presented. Major Results and Discussion The findings of 'this study are presented within limits of the methodology, study population, and setting. Specific results are reported under each hypothesis heading. The level of significance for all tests was set at .05. Reading/Language Arts Coursework The number of courses completed in reading/language arts at either the undergraduate or graduate level did not differ significantly between the two groups. The average number of courses 71 72 at the undergraduate level was between three and four. 0n the graduate level, 15 (31%) of the basal group had taken no graduate reading/language arts courses, whereas 10 (21%) (Hi'the whole language teachers had completed none. One whole language teacher had a master’s degree in reading, compared to two basal teachers with master’s degrees. The number of courses taken was not significant between the two groups, but the influence of reading methods courses on later choice of method was significant for basal teachers. This would indicate that basal teachers followed more closely in later practice what was presented in college courses. Since the average years of teaching experience was 14.0 for the whole language group and 14.4792 for the basal group, it can be assumed that the method presented was probably a basal approach. This finding agrees with Margolis and DiObilda’s (1986) finding of teachers’ belief in the influence of reading coursework on later teaching method. Along with coursework, another area of exploration was the influence of the student teaching experience on the later choice of teaching method. Again, the basal group was found to be more influenced by the experience than the whole language group. Lortie (1975) and Cuban (1984) both found teachers in) be basically conservative and unwilling to make changes of great magnitude (Jackson, 1986), so the findings of the influence of student teaching on the basal group would perhaps be explained in part by those studies. These individuals preferred to follow an established pattern rather than change to a different approach. 73 Another question in the study dealt with the influence of the method by which the participant was taught to read on the later choice of reading method. The finding that basal teachers were significantly influenced by this as compared to the whole language group is in agreement with Lortie’s statement that teachers teach as they were taught. When the majority of the teachers in this study were in elementary school, during the 19505 and 19605, the basal method was probably the one to which most were exposed. Also considered under the educational-coursework question were the number and influence of reading/language arts workshops attended. Both of these areas showed significant differences between the two groups. The whole language group not only attended more workshops in reading/language arts but was also more strongly influenced by them in their choice of reading methods. Other researchers (Brittain, 1981; Donovan et al., 1987) have also reported similar results in the effect of specific training on changing existing practice. Personal Support in the School Setting Considerable attention has, in recent years, been paid to the educational leadership of the school principal. Much emphasis has been placed on the critical role of the administrator in the success of a school’s instructional program, and yet studies have found principals to have little or no experience in reading (Laffey & Kelly, 1983), nor are they the individuals to whom teachers go for help (Cuban, 1984; Lortie, 1975). In this study, whole language 74 teachers differed significantly from basal teachers in their perceptions of administrative support for making changes in their teaching methods and for the experimenting with various reading methods. Here, obviously, whole language teachers were perceiving support from their administrators to deviate from the normal, a sentiment not shared by basal teachers. Surprisingly, in view of the above finding, no significant difference was found between the two groups in response to the statement of having one or more persons in the building available for support and encouragement. Both groups indicated mild to strong agreement with the statement. The supporting individual for the basal group, as shown in the administrative-support question, was not, apparently, the building administrator. Basal teachers may have an individual tot whom they go for support and encouragement, but it was the whole language teachers who were influenced by peer discussions when choosing a method of teaching reading. The influence of peer discussions on teachers was also found by Freedman et a1. (n.d.); (i.e., the sources for new techniques and strategies for teachers were discussions among fellow teachers. The importance of peer discussions and support was emphasized by those teachers in the present study who were the only whole language teachers in their building. Several reported criticism of their methods by fellow teachers who were not using a whole language approach, in spite of administration knowledge and approval of the whole language teachers. 75 Other areas involving administrative influence include the opportunity for teachers to observe in other classrooms and buildings and the provision of discretionary funds for classroom use. Whole language teachers (differed significantly from basal teachers in having the opportunity to observe other rooms. Thirty- four (71%) of the whole language group as opposed to 18 (38%) of the basal group were allowed the opportunity to visit other rooms for observation purposes. There was no difference between the groups for being provided with discretionary funding. Thirty-one (65%) of the whole language teachers and 25 (52%) of the basal teachers were found to have funds available. Several of the whole language group who were not provided with funding reported that they bought books with their own personal funds. No significant difference was found between the two groups in terms of the number of scheduled staff meetings held throughout the year. Nor was there any difference in the occurrence of reading- methods discussions at formal staff meetings; both groups indicated mild disagreement with this happening. Another difference in the school setting was the number of teachers attending reading conferences. Twenty—six (54%) of the whole language teachers as opposed to 12 (25%) of the basal teachers attended yearly reading conferences. Looking at the variables associated with the school environment, it would appear that, in this study, whole language teachers were more likely to be found in a school where the administration was supportive in tangible and intangible ways. 76 Schools that provide release time for classroom observations, conference attendance, opportunities for peer discussions, and an atmosphere promoting change would seem to be settings in which a whole language approach can take root and flourish. Personal Reading Habits If teachers are to model good reading practices, it is helpful to know what their personal feelings are about reading. Sharon (1971) found that adults throughout the general population did little reading as a free-time activity, and several researchers have uncovered similar findings in regard to teachers and their professional and nonprofessional reading (Baker, 1982; George & Ray, 1979; Hughes & Johnston-Doyle, 1978; Mour, 1977). In this study, there was no difference in the hours of pleasure reading engaged in weekly; both groups averaged six hours. There was also no difference in the maintenance of personal professional journal subscriptions; 25 (52%) of the whole language group and 20 (48%) of the basal group had their own subscriptions. This finding can be seen as being in agreement with George and Ray’s (1979) research showing that slightly more than 50% of the teachers in their study read professional journals, and with Mour’s (1977) finding that fewer than half of his respondents read a professional journal on a regular basis. Not all of the reading in these reported studies would have had to come from personal subscriptions; some could have been school subscribed. But the idea of professional reading remains not well represented by any cited study. In this study, 35 77 (73%) of the whole language group and 27 (56%) of the basal group were found to have access to school-provided journals, so perhaps personal subscriptions were not seen as necessary. A better question might have been to ask for the amount of" professional reading done weekly or the number of professional publications or articles read on a regular basis. Both groups agreed on various purposes of reading, such as for the love of literature, enriching one’s life, and broadening one’s knowledge, but the whole language group carried their agreement with the love of literature into an influence for their choice of method of teaching reading. This finding could lend support to Morrow’s (1987) study, in which he found a connection between teachers who listed the develOpment of voluntary reading as the most important factor in their reading programs and a greater number of literary activities in their program than in other teachers’ programs. Membership in a Professional Readinq Association In this study it was discovered that 32 (67%) of the whole language teachers as compared to 25 (52%) of the basal teachers belonged to a professional reading/language arts association. This was not a significant difference, but it does show that more than half of all elementary teachers in this study had a strong enough interest in this area to cause them to join a: professional organization. 78 Teaching Experience Smith and Saltz (1986) found that teachers who did not view the basal as a total reading program generally had 8 to 19 years of experience, and those seeing it as the total program had the most years of experience--30 years or more in some cases. This researcher did not find any difference between whole language and basal teachers in experience--both averaged 14 years. However, the fact that the study was done in districts with a low staff turnover could be responsible for the difference. Grade Levels Tauqht In this study, no differences were found in grade taught by whole language and basal teachers. Smith and Saltz (1986) found in their study that teachers who viewed the basal as a total program taught mostly in grades 1 and 6, but this was not the case in the present study. Teachers irl both groups were fairly evenly distributed across kindergarten through sixth grade, although, for whole language teachers, the largest number for any one grade was ten in the sixth grade, and the largest number for basal teachers was ten in the sixth grade. Perhaps, with a larger population, differences might be evident, but not with a population of 96 as in this study. Class Size In this research, no difference was found between the two groups for number of students in the class; the average number for the groups was 23 and 22 students. Smith and Saltz (1986) found 79 that teachers who did not view the basal as a total reading program averaged 21 to 30 students, so this research does not confirm their finding in that regard. However, the area in which this study was conducted could have had an effect on the results. Northern and upper Michigan is not a densely populated area and contains no truly large cities, so school enrollments are not high, and class sizes, for the most part, are low. Personality Type The MBTI is an instrument developed to determine preferences for four pairs of personality dimensions: extroversion/intraver- sion, sensing/intuition, thinking/feeling, and .judging/perceiving. Statistically significant differences were found between the two groups for all dimension pairs except thinking/feeling. Thirty-four (71%) of the whole language teachers and 33 (69%) of the basal teachers scored in the feeling dimension as opposed to the thinking dimension. This finding is consistent with other research, which has shown that feeling types predominate in elementary school teaching (Carlyn, 1976; McCaulley, 1974). The whole language teachers preferred extraversion (65%), whereas the basal teachers preferred the introversion dimension (58%). This finding would be expected if one considers Lawrence’s (1979) research, in which he found that extroverted teachers were more likely to give students choices about what to study and how to go about learning tasks, whereas introverted teachers were more likely to select the materials and structure their use fer their 80 students. Basal teachers, by the nature of their choice of reading method, provide a complete packaged set of materials for all students to follow; in contrast, whole language teachers believe in student selection and recognition of student interests and experiences. Another significant difference between the two groups was in the sensing/intuition dimension. 'Thirty-one (65%) of the whole language teachers preferred the intuition dimension, whereas 34 (71%) of the basal teachers preferred the sensing dimension. Again, if one examines descriptions of intuition/sensing types (Kiersey & Bates, 1984), the results of this study seem valid. Individuals preferring intuition have been described as innovative or imaginative, certainly a description of a whole language individual, who departs from the safe, routine methods of teaching to design and individualize curricula. The description of sensing types includes terms such as "practical" or "accurate, which fits ea basal approach; this approach seeks to control all aspects of learning, down to expected answers to questions. A fourth dimension pair, judging/perceiving, also revealed a marked difference between the two groups. Thirty-four (71%) of the whole language teachers were found to score as the perceiving type-- one characterized by flexibility and open-endedness. In contrast, 43 (90%) of the basal teachers scored as judging types-- characterized by words such as "settled," "decided," or "fixed." Again, when one looks at the two different philosophies represented 81 by a whole language approach and a basal approach, the results for this dimension are understandable and almost expected. A final aspect of the MBTI was in the combination of dimension preferences. The groupings were sensing and judging (SJ), intuition and feeling (NF), intuition and thinking (NT), and sensing and perceiving (SP). All teachers were a part of one of these four groups, and whole language and basal teachers differed greatly in their group membership. Twenty-four (50%) of the whole language teachers were found to be in the NF group--one characterized by commitment to students as individuals and a willingness to involve students in the decision-making process. Kiersey and Bates (1984) found that about 32% of all teachers fall in this category. The majority of basal teachers (31 or 65%) were found to be in the SJ category. This group occurs in approximately 56% of the total teaching population and is characterized by a desire for well- established classroom routines and sequential presentations, facts that fit well with a basal approach. A marked difference can be seen between the number of whole language teachers (9 or 19%) and basal teachers in this category. The NT category included seven (15%) whole language teachers and no basal teachers. This group, found in only 8% of the teaching population at large, is especially interested in professional development and in designing and building new curricula. The final category, SP, is the one found least in teaching-- only 4% of teachers. In this study, eight (17%) of the whole language teachers as compared to two (4%) of the basal teachers were 82 found to be in this group. SP teachers are known as project and activity oriented, using films, tapes, and manipulatives to enhance learning. The fact that a much larger percentage of whole language teachers than would normally be expected fell in this category would seem to indicate that the whole language approach might be a means to draw in and keep in teaching this type of individual, for whom traditional teaching methods would not be appealing. Summary In today’s urgent need to produce individuals with the skills and interests to deal with the coming technological changes of the twenty-first century, the schools are looked to for leadership. The knowledge that children respond favorably, both academically and socially, to a whole language approach is present; the difficulty is in increasing its adoption by teachers in schools. The findings of this study showed that whole language and basal teachers differed significantly on several factors. Whole language teachers thought they had administrative support for making changes in their classroom teaching methods, they were able to attend reading conferences and workshops and were influenced by them, and they were able to observe in other classrooms. In this study, the two groups did not differ significantly in terms of grade level taught, years of experience, or class size, in contrast to the findings of other research. However, with a larger sample, statistically significant differences might have been found in any or all of those areas. 83 Another area of difference for the two groups in in personality dimensions as measured by the MBTI. Whole language teachers were found to prefer extroversion, intuition, feeling, and perceiving, whereas basal teachers were almost completely opposite, preferring introversion, sensing, feeling, and judging. Whole language teachers’ preferences exceeded the national averages of teachers for the sensing and perceiving dimension grouping (whole language = 17%, national average = 4%), the intuition and thinking dimension grouping (whole language = 15%, national average = 8%), and the intuition and feeling dimension grouping (whole language = 50%, national average = 32%). Research has shown conflicting opinions on the important role personality type plays in the actual ways that teachers teach. Lorentz and Coker (1977) found that teachers of different personality types all taught the same way, whereas Lawrence (1979) found that teachers of various types differed in what and how they taught. Implications of the Findings The information obtained from this study has important implications for both the elementary school system and teacher education programs. If changes are to be made in teaching, it is important to know what variables differ between those who have changed to a more desirable method and those who have not. First, the findings lend support to some of the current emphasis on the important leadership function of the building administrator. It is evident that, for desirable change to occur, 84 the administrators plays an important role in creating an atmosphere that allows teachers to deviate from the proscribed routine. The influence of workshops and conference attendance is an important factor of which a district needs to be aware. From information gathered in this study, workshops and conferences are more associated with change than is college coursework, and because many districts partially reimburse college-course tuition, it is important that money also be budgeted for attendance at reading/ language arts conferences and workshops. Because teacher observation in other classrooms seems to be present in those who have changed methods, school districts need to make this practice more readily available. Districts also need to be aware of the influence that peer discussions appear to have on effecting change and to encourage teacher discussion sessions where ideas can be exchanged in a nonthreatening atmosphere. Second, the findings provide credence, in part, for the conservatisni of ‘teachers as found by other researchers. Basal teachers were more influenced in their choice of reading method by the way they had learned to read (probably by a basal text), by their student teaching experience (probably using a basal text), and by their reading methods courses than were whole language teachers. If change is to come in education, professors teaching university courses need to play a leadership role. If a whole language philosophy were stressed in undergraduate—level reading methods classes and student-teacher supervising teachers were using a whole language approach in their classrooms, the preservice teacher would 85 be provided with both the theoretical base of the approach and an example of its practical application. This could provide the comfort level necessary for a beginning teacher to use the approach confidently. The third area of importance evident from this study is in the realm of teacher personality. This aspect of teaching is usually not taken into consideration, but people differ in their reactions to different situations. An instrument such as the MBTI gives individuals the opportunity to see their preferences and react to them. An instrument of this type can be used, and is being used, in university settings to give students more information about themselves and to assist in counseling. Because there are no right or wrong answers, the instrument is nonthreatening and the results give individuals an opportunity to see a basis for their reactions and to be aware of tendencies they might be exhibiting. This area is important not only for the university setting, but also for the school district. Workshops can be conducted to give teachers the chance to discover aspects of themselves of which they were, perhaps, unaware. Some districts have held workshops in which discussions of personality type have assisted teachers in understanding their peers and helped ease misunderstandings in the workplace. Administrators need to be aware of the type preferences of their staffs and themselves for more harmonious working relationships. In this study, whole language teachers were found to be more extroverted, intuitive, and perceiving than basal teachers, who 86 exhibited preferences for introversion, sensing, and judging. Obviously, one cannot expect people to change their personalities, nor would that be a desirable goal, but by knowing preferences, an individual’s actions are more easily understood and reactions to the change process anticipated. Finally, this study revealed that whole language teachers felt and exhibited a love of literature and reading. It is important for all teachers to realize that their behavior is closely observed by their students and, if they expect their students to react enthusiastically to a book, they must feel the excitement first. With so many schools losing their librarians through budget cuts, teachers must take on the role of book expert for students. They need to be aware of children’s trade books, read them themselves, and be able to help match students with books they will enjoy. Teachers and administrators need to work out funding for classroom trade—book libraries so that every child can find books that fit his/her interests. Recommendations for Further Research This study has revealed problems requiring further study. Some of the most important are listed below. 1. This research was conducted in a rural area with many school districts having enrollments of fewer than 300 students. The study should be replicated in larger urban districts, where different factors might alter the results. 87 2. The study was conducted with a limited number of subjects, 96 teachers, most of whom attended a school and university and are teaching in the area in which they grew up. The majority were women and had a great deal of experience. Another study should be done with a larger number of teachers who would exhibit more diversity. 3. Interviews should be conducted with administrators to better; determine backgrounds. of' change processes in the schools included in the study. 4. Other studies need to be done to determine whether teachers of different personality types do differ in material selection and presentation in the classroom setting. Reflections Having spent the past year conducting the research presented in the preceding pages, a chance to sit back and reflect on the personal side of the study is welcome. The teachers who completed the instruments were generous with their time and revealed more of themselves than just their written responses show. Whole language teachers, on both the pilot and final forms of the questionnaire, voluntarily provided descriptions of their programs, their successes and failures, and their hopes for the future. Basal teachers, by contrast, filled out the questionnaire but made no additional comments. Whole language teachers seemed excited about their work; basal teachers did not show the same need to share their experiences. 88 Another surprising incident, at least to this researcher, was the fact that although all teachers were informed that study results would be available to them, only whole language teachers requested the results. The reason for this is impossible to determine. Perhaps the basal teachers had 1") interest. in ‘this research in particular or, as their workshop and conference attendance would show, no interest in research at all. Perhaps they were so satisfied with their teaching approach that they believed theirs would be the only one represented, or perhaps they were afraid that some unflattering differences might be chscovered. Whatever the reason, the complete lack of interest on the part of an entire group seems unusual. All in all, the findings have provided not just many surprises, but new questions as well. APPENDICES APPENDIX A PRELIMINARY FORM OF THE TEACHER QUESTIONNAIRE 10. 89 Please circle the grade you are presently teaching. 1 2 3 4 5 6 0ther_______ How many students are in your classroom? 10-15____, 16-20____ 21-25____ 26-30____ 0ther____ How many years of elementary teaching experience do you have? ___ How many reading classes did you have as an undergraduate student? a. What method of teaching reading was stressed in those classes? How many graduate classes in reading have you taken? a. Was any particular method of teaching reading stressed in your graduate classes? b. If yes, what method? How many reading workshops have you attended in the past two years? a. Was there any particular method of teaching reading stressed in these workshops? b. If yes, what method? Do you attend reading/language arts conferences yearly? Do you feel that you have administration support for making changes in your methods of teaching in your classroom? A great deal Some Little or none Do you have the opportunity to observe in other classrooms or schools teaching practices that interest you? a. If yes, how often can you schedule observations during the school year? Have you funds available for purchasing materials not called for in the regular curriculum? 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. l6. l7. 18. 19. 20. 90 Does your school subscribe to professional journals? If yes, how many? 1—3 4-6 more than 6 Do you belong to any professional reading/language arts associations? Do you subscribe personally to professional journals? Please estimate the amount of pleasure reading you do in an average week: 0-1 hour 2-4 hours more than 4 hours How often does your school have formal teacher/staff meetings? Weekly___ Monthly___ Dai1y___ Other (please explain) 00 discussions of methods of teaching reading come up more often in formal staff meetings or informal teacher conversations such as in lounges, etc.? Subject never comes up in either Staff meetings Informal conversations What is your personal belief of the purpose of reading? Do you feel reasonably comfortable with the method you use in teaching reading/language arts? What do you think most influenced your choice of method of teach- ing reading/language arts? During your student teaching, what method of teaching reading/ language arts was used? APPENDIX B FINAL FORM OF THE TEACHER QUESTIONNAIRE 10. ll. 12. 91 Please circle the grade you are presently teaching. K 1 2 3 4 5 6 Other____ How many students are in your classroom? ____ How many years of elementary teaching experience do you have? ___ How many reading/language arts classes did you have as an under- graduate student? a. What method of teaching reading was stressed in those classes? How many graduate classes in reading/language arts have you taken? a. What method of teaching reading was stressed in those classes? How many reading/language arts workshops have you attended in the past two years? a. Was there any particular method of teaching reading stressed in these workshops? b. If yes, what method? Do you attend reading/language arts conferences yearly? Do you have the opportunity to observe in other classrooms and/or schools teaching practices that interest you? a. If yes, how often can you schedule observations during the school year? Do you have funds available for purchasing materials not called for in the regular curriculum? Does your school subscribe to professional journals? a. If yes, how many? Do you belong to any professional reading/language arts associa- tions? Do you personally subscribe to professional reading/language arts journals? 92 Please estimate the amount of pleasure reading you do in the average week. How often does your school have formal teacher/staff meetings? Daily Weekly Monthly Other Strongly Mildly Mildly Strongly Agree Agree Disagree Disagree 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. Discussions of methods of teaching reading occur in formal staff meetings. I have administration sup- port for making changes in teaching methods in my classroom. I have one or more people in my building to whom I can go for encouragement and support. Discussions of methods of teaching reading occur in informal teacher conversa- tions in lounges, lunch- rooms, etc. The purpose of reading is for the love of literature. The purpose of reading is to broaden one’s general knowledge. The purpose of reading is to enrich one’s life. The purpose of reading is for information. I am comfortable with the method of teaching reading that I use. My choice of method of teaching reading was influ- enced by attendance at workshops. g; 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 93 Strongly Mildly Agree Agree My choice of method of teaching reading was influenced by reading methods courses. My choice of method of teaching reading was influenced by a love of literature. My choice of method of teaching reading was influenced by peer dis- cussions. My choice of method of teaching reading was influenced by the way in which I learned to read. My choice of method of teaching reading was influenced by reading/ language arts workshops. My choice of method of teaching reading was influenced by my student teaching experience. My choice of method of teaching reading was influenced by experimen- tation with different approaches. Mildly Strongly Disagree Disagree APPENDIX C SAMPLE OF MYERS-BRIGGS TYPE INDICATOR ITEMS 94 Sample MBTIIM Items At parties do you always have fun or sometimes get bored? In a large group do you more often introduce others or get introduced? If you were a teacher would you rather teach fact courses or courses involving theory? 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