PLACE IN RETURN BOX to remove We checkout from your record. TO AVOID FINES return on or before date due. DATE DUE: DATE DUE DATE DUE M 3, mm l. JUN24199$ 23 :1 , MSU Is An Affirmative Action/Equal Oppoflunity Institution The Effect of an Bdible Collagen Film (CoffiR) on Bxudation in Beef Round Steak and Some Processing Aspects of Restructured Roast Beef BY nustafa Hohammed Farouk A Thesis Submitted To Hichigan State University In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirement For The Degree of Master of Science Department of Food Science and Human Nutrition 1988 (Q re"? re .tfo \. \{1 ABSTRACT EFFECT OF AN EDIBLE COLLAGEN FILM (COFFIR) ON EXUDATION IN BEEF ROUND STEAK AND SOME PROCESSING ASPECTS OF RESTRUCTURED ROAST BEEF BY: MUSTAFA MOHAMMED FAROUK Three experiments were conducted to study the effect of an edible collagen film (CoffiR) on exudation in beef round steak, yield and cooking cycle of restructured roast beef and 2- thiobarbituric acid (TBA) numbers in ground beef. Results indicated Coffi lowered (P 0.05) the amount of exudate in steaks but had no detectable effect (P 0.05) on color. High correlations (r = 0.91 and r =- 0.95) were noted between objectively and subjectively measured color and exudation, re- spectively. Use of Coffi lowered yield and increased cooking time of restructured roast beef compared to cooking in bag and fibrous casing. Coffi had no effect on TBA values and warmed over flavor (P 0.05) in ground beef and restructured roast, respectively. Fe2+ alone or in combination with salt increased (P 0.01) TBA numbers. Cooking lowered (P' 0.1) TBA values in fresh ground beef but increased (P 0.01) TBA values during stor— age. Effect of Fe2+ and salt on TBA numbers changed with time. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS All thanks be to God, the Lord of the Universe, the beneficient, the merciful. I wish to acknowledge the invaluable help I received from Profes- sor James F. Price, my advisor and Committee Chairman, whose precious time, useful criticisms, kind consideration and encour- agement helped me through this project. I am deeply indebted to Dr. Abdulwahab Mehdl Salih for his as- sistance, brotherly advice and friendship throughout the course of this work. I would like also to thank Professors Robert A. Merkel, William C. Deal and John A. Partridge, my committee members, for their helpful suggestions and criticisms. I must, at this point, record my sincere gratitude to Professor John F. Gill for helping me with the analysis of my data. I wish to thank Debi Beeuwsaert for typing and other secretarial help. Finally, my sincere gratitude goes to the University of Maidu- guri, Nigeria, for financing my studies. . l F11.~ov{a.u43v'rc.-¢hj‘g‘-_gr..llon I TABLE OF CONTENTS Page LIST OF TABLES...................................... vi LIST OF FIGURES..................................... Vii LIST OF APPENDIXES.................................. viii INTRODUCTION........................................ 1 LITERATURE REVIEW................................... 3 Meat Exudation...................................... 3 Fresh Meat Color.................................... 8 Restructuring of Meat............................... 11 Additives and Their Functions in Restructured Meats. l4 Lipid Oxidation and Warmed Over Flavor in Meat...... _ 15 Packaging of Fresh Meat............................. 21 Casings and Films in Meat Processing................ 24 MATERIALS AND METHODSOOOOOO0.0.0.000...0.00.00.00.00 27 Experimental DeSignSOOOOOOCOO...OOOOOOOOOOIOOOOOOOO. 27 sources Of materiaISOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOIOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO 33 Meat.OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO0.0.0....OOOOODOCOOOOOOOOOOOOO 33 salt..0.0....0..O...O...O...OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO 33 Phosphate........................................... 33 Eastern Roast Beef Rub.............................. 33 Ferrous Chloride.................................... 34 CoffiR Film......................................... 34 Fibrous Casing...................................... 34 Moisture Impermeable Casing......................... 34 Polyvinyl Chloride Film (PVC)....................... 35 Vacuum Bag.......................................... 35 Carrying Tray....................................... 35 METHODS............................................. 36 Thiobarbituric acid (TBA) Test ..................... 36 Proximate Analysis.................................. 36 Moisture............................................ 36 Protein.0.0.000...00....OOOOOOOOOOOODOOO...000...... ~36 FatOOOOOOOOCOC0.0.0....00.000.000.000...0..000...... 36 COlor Measurement. 0 O O O O O O O O O O O O O I O O O O I O O O O O O I O O O O O O O 37 Sensory Evaluation. 0 I I I O O O O O O O O O O O I O O I O O O O O O O O O O O I O O 3., Statistical AnaIYSiSOOOO .0. 00...... 00...... O... O... O 38 iv TABLE OF CONTENTS (CONTINUED) RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS Effect of Coffi film on Exudation in Beef Round Steak Effect of Coffi film on Color of Retail Packaged Steaks Effect of Coffi film on Some Processing Aspects of Restructured Roast BeefIIOIOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO0.. Preliminary Investigation into the Effect of Coffi Film (Shredded) on Lipid Oxidation................ SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION.OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO... RBCOMMENDATION...‘0.0.000...0.0.0.0000...0.0.0.000... BIBLIOGRAPHY.00......00......OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO APPENDIXOOOOO0..O0..O...0.0...OOOOOOOOOOOIOOOOOOOOOOO Page 39 43 49 58 65 67 68 80 10 k' ""ET."§'!:1 ” Pn'HHH11~27l£'1fh>1h{t3r.1"H"!8“"Sr‘"r?"",‘0l“':‘“-‘ LIST OF TABLES Page Table 1. Yield and Cooking Time of Restructured Roast BeefOOOOIOOOOOIOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOI 52 Table 2. Color Panel Scores of Restructured Roast BeeEOOO0.00...0.000000000000000000000IOCOO 57 Table 3. Warmed Over Flavor Panel Scores of Restructured Roast Beef................... 57 Table 4. Result of t- Statistic Showing the Effect of Treatments on TBA Values in Ground Beef... 61 Table 5. Result of t- Statistic Showing the Effect of Treatment on TBA Changes with Time......... 62 vi Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. Effect Effect Aspect Effect LIST OF FIGURES of CoffiR Film on Exudation......... of CoffiR Film on Processing of Restructured Roast Beef.......... of CoffiR Film on Oxidation in Meat Model System....................... Effect of Storage Condition and Treatments on Exudate Amount in Beef Round Steaks..... Panel Scores of Exudation in Steaks Refrigerated at 1°C or Frozen at _250Cm e nee-oooooonoooooeooeeooooeleoooooeao Color Reflectance Measurement of Freshly Wrapped SteakSOOOOIIIIDIOOOOOIOIOOIIIOOIOII Color Reflectance Measurement of Steaks Refrigerated at 1°C for One Week........... Color Reflectance of Steaks Frozen at -25°C for one Weak............o............ Color Panel Scores of Steaks Refrigerated at 1°C TBA No. Frozen 0! Frozen at _25°CoeoommoleoIo-mmloe of Steaks Refrigerated at 1°C or at -25°C for One Week.............. Proximate Analysis of Restructured Roast Beef... Effect No. in Restructured Roast Beef at Two Weeks IOU...OIIIIOIOIOOIIIIIOOOOIOOICOIOIO of Spices and Casing Types on TBA Of Storage (8—90C)oooooooooeooeomooooooooo Effect of Treatments and Storage Periods on TBA NO. Effect of Treatments and Storage Periods on TBA NO. in Raw Ground Beef................. in Cooked Ground Beef.............. vii Page 27 29 31 40 42 44 46 48 50 54 55 59 60 LIST OF APPENDIXES Page APPENDIXJOCOOI.ODD-OIOIIIIIOOIOIOIOOIOOOIIODOOIOOOO 79 A — Questionnaire for Color and Exudation....... 80 B - Roast Beef Warmed Over Flavor and Color DesirabilitYDOOIIOOODOIOOOOOOOIOOOOOOOIIOCOO 81 viii INTRODUCTION The red meat industry is facing declining sales and revenues despite a rise in income levels in the United States. In the past, higher income levels were associated with higher meat consumption. However, there has been an upsurge in nutritional awareness, especially related to red meat consumption, coupled with campaigns to get Americans to reduce their consumption of red meat. These factors are creating problems for the red meat industry that “cannot be overemphasized". According to Allen (1985), the image of beef as "unhealthy", "fat", "heavy" and calorie laden is particularly damaging. In addition to all of these are problems associated with the processing and marketing practices of the industry. Such problems as the presence of exudate in retail packaged meat and warmed—over flavor associated with restructured meats are detracting to consumers. The issues of increasing yield, lowering cost, marketing and of course, shelf life are also of major concern to processors. Very few studies, however, have been reported that attempted to lower exudation in meat, and fewer studies have compared different casings in terms of yield, cooking time and nutrient content of restructured roasts. There is need, therefore, for such studies, and it is with this in mind that the present study was initiated and specifically aimed towards: 1) Investigating how to lower exudation in beef round steak, without affecting the color of the steaks, by using edible collagen film (Coffi). 2) Determining the effect the film has on yield, cooking time and warmed over flavor of restructured roast beef compared to the conventional methods of cooking in bag and fibrous casings. 3) Conducting a trial to find the effect of shredded Coffi on Thiobarbituric acid values of ground beef. Beef round steak was used for the first part of the study due to the relatively high exudation in this muscle compared to other muscles, and chuck meat was used for restructured meat to lower cost of raw product. LITERATURE REVIEW Meat Exudation Exudation is the presence of surface juices as a result of changes in water-holding capacity of muscle proteins (Lawrie, 1979; Briskey and Kauffman, 1978; and Hamm, 1960). The term exudation was used by Lawrie (1979) to describe "weep" which is the exudation of fluid from unfrozen meat and "drip" as the fluid that exudes from frozen and thawed meat. According to Hamm (1960) and Forrest et a1. (1975), water-holding capacity of meat is the ability of the meat to hold fast to its own, or added water, during application of any force. Water—holding capacity is a very important feature of meat quality because of its close relation to taste, tenderness, color, juiciness, firmness and other quality factors (Lawrie, 1979; Wismer-Pedersen, 1978; Forrest et a1., 1975; and Hamm, 1960). According to Forrest et a1. (1975), water in meat exists in bound, immobilized and free form. About 4% of muscle water exists in a bound form being bound to the hydrophillic groups on proteins (Lawrie, 1979; Forrest et a1., 1975; and Hamm, 1960). According to Hamm (1960), the hydrophillic groups that are re- sponsible for the fast binding of water involve polar groups of the side chains of proteins, amino carboxyl and imido groups of peptide bonds and also hydrogen bonding. The immobilized water is attracted to the bound water in layers for which bonding forces are progressively weaker with distance from the bound water. The free water is water bound to the external surface which is held by surface forces (Forrest et a1., 1975). Kauffman et a1. (1986) and Forrest et a1. (1975) reported that free water associated with soluble proteins exudes from the cut surface of meat. Exudation in meat is important from processing, retailing and consumer points of view. The accumulation of exudate from meat into retail packages was reported to be detracting to con— sumers, lead to loss of weight and value to wholesalers and re- tailers, promote bacterial spoilage and often result in tough consistency and strawy taste (Taylor, 1982; Lawrie, 1979; Forrest et a1., 1975; and Hamm, 1960). Fahmy et a1. (1981) and Hamm (1960) reported that drip contains an appreciable amount of minerals, proteins, vitamins and some flavor compounds. There is also loss of palatability (Forrest et a1., 1975). In a study conducted on buffalo and camel meats, Fahmy and El—Kady (1984) indicated that drip contained more total saturated fatty acids and less total unsaturated fatty acids than the corresponding muscles. Several factors affect the water-holding capacity of meat and consequently the amount of exudation. It was observed by Lawrie (1979) that the extent of drip in meat is affected by factors of these kinds: (1) those factors which determine the extent to which fluid once formed will in fact drain from the meat, (2) the nature of the freezing process in muscle tissue and (3) the water—holding capacity of the muscle protein which deter- mine the volume of the drip. It has been shown that among other factors pH, metals, species of animal, sex, age, grade, breeding, conditions and treatments of animals before slaughter and post- mortem changes affect the water—holding capacity of meat (Hamm, 1960). Kauffman et a1. (1986) indicated that water—holding capa- city is enhanced at pH levels considerably above or below the isoelectric point of a muscle. In a study on the factors influ— encing exudation of hard cooked eggs, Nath et a1. (1973) found that it was a pH dependent phenomenon. Considerable variation (Wismer-Pedersen, 1978) existed in the water-holding capacity of meat from different species. On average, the variation in pork is greater than that in beef, while variation in beef is equal to that of horse and greater than that of poultry meat. Studies on pork by Taylor (1972) showed that breeds differ significantly (P(0.05) in susceptibility to drip loss which is explained by differences in the rate of postmortem pH decline. Penny (1974) reported that pre-rigor freezing gave higher drip loss than post-rigor freezing. Wladyka and Dawson (1968a) found that the percentage drip is higher in light meat than in dark meat of chicken. Khan and Lentz (1977) and Wladyka and Dawson (1968b) found that length of frozen storage effects amount of drip. Studies by Jeremiah (1981a, 1981b, 1982), however, showed no difference in amount of drip due to length of frozen storage (P(0.05) at different intervals (0, 56, 84, 112, 140, 168 and 196 days) of time. According to Lawrie (1979) and Khan and Lentz (1977), the amount of drip in cut meat is largely dependent on sample thickness, surface to volume ratio, the orientation of cut surface with respect to muscle fiber axis and prevalence of large blood vessels. Studies by Taylor (1972) established the clear anatomical distribution of drip loss. with chop, chump and leg cuts having the highest. Several conflicting studies were reported on the effect of freezing, thawing and their rates on drip loss in meat. Forrest et a1. (1975) stated that the conditions of freezing and thawing affects the amount of drip. Anon and Calvelo (1980) observed that freezing itself causes a greater loss of water in comparison to unfrozen samples. Slow freezing, according to Khan and Lentz (1977), resulted in increased losses of drip and drip constitu- ents in comparison with fast freezing. Anon and Calvelo (1980) showed that the amount of exudate varies in relation to the time that the samples need to pass from -l°C to -7°C (characteristic freezing time). There was, however, no influence of rate of freezing on the total protein, pH or protein fraction of the exudate. According to Hunt et al. (1975), lamb chops stored at -40°C were found to have less drip (4.93%) than those frozen or stored at -26°C (5.76%). Penny (1974) reported that among the factors affecting drip loss during thawing of frozen meat are hydrostatic pressure, surface per volume ratio of meat pieces and factors affecting the water balance of the meat tissue (rigof mortis, protein denaturation, cell membrane damage, muscle) fiber it In. distortion, freezing and thawing). It was shown by James et a1. (1984) that very short ((5 min) and very long ()2000 min) thaw- ing times produce greater than average drip losses. Khan and Lentz (1977) found the amount of drip loss during thawing to vary with sample weight of freshly frozen beef. In contrast to the above cited studies, others have reported that the rate of freez- ing had no effect on drip loss in meat (James et a1., 1984; Bailey, 1972 and Taylor, 1972). Numerous studies and reviews (Kauffman et al., 1986b, Kauff- man et a1., 1986a; Wismer-Pedersen, 1978; Penny, 1975 and Hamm, 1960) explained and provided methods of measuring water-holding capacity and drip loss in meat. The selection of method of measurement depends on cost, time, simplicity and purpose (Kauff- man et a1., 1986). Some studies, however, expressed the results of drip loss measurement as % drip per unit weight of meat (Jeremiah, 19813 and 1982; Anon and Calvelo, 1980; Khan and Lentz, 1976 and Wladyka and Dawson, 1968b). There has been a lot of interest in minimizing exudation from meat (Lawrie, 1979). Some of the measures suggested include rapid cooling of carcass before the onset of rigor mortis (La- wrie, 1979; Dann, 1972; and Taylor, 1972), preconditioning of the meat at 10°C for 2 or 5 days (Penny, 1979), proper packaging and the avoidance of shrinking packaging films too tightly ontx: the surface of the meat (Malton and James, 1983 and Lawrie, 1979) ané avoiding poor temperature control within display cabinets eSPe’ cially that leading to surface freezing (Malton and James, 1983)- ”‘1'- Fresh Meat Color Color, according to Macdougall (1982), is a subjective experience. It is a result of a combination of several factors. Any specific color has three attributes known as hue, chroma and value (Forrest et a1., 1975). Color of meat is probably the single most important factor that affects the marketability of fresh retail meat cuts (Kropf, 1980 and Westerberg, 1971). As stated by Seideman et a1. (1984), color of fresh meat is impor- tant to every aspect of the meat industry. The pigment responsible for the color of meat is the heme protein myoglobin along with the residual quantities of hemoglo- bin (Macdougall, 1982). The color of meat is partially dependent on the oxidation of iron within the heme ring in the color pigment of meat (Seideman et a1., 1984; Ramsbottom, 1978 and Forrest et a1., 1975). According to Seideman et a1. (1984) and Huffman (1980), myoglobin can exist in three forms: purple reduced myoglobin, red oxymyoglobin and brown metmyoglobin. Bertelsen and Skibsted (1987) and Rizvi (1981) stated that the color of fresh and frozen meat is largely determined by the relative amount of myoglobin, 6xymyoglobin and metmyoglobin. It was observed by Ledward et a1. (1986) that loss of quality during retail display is due almost exclusively to the formation of metmyoglobin. In a study of consumer acceptance of pre-packaged meat on display, Hood and Riordan (1973) found shoppers discrimur- nating against those samples with higher metmyoglobin content. Factors affecting the color of meat have been studied by several authors. Seidemann et a1. (1984) reported that color intensity of meat is determined by such factors as species, stress, sex, age of animals, postmortem pH, rate of decline and ultimate pH of the meat. According to Satterlee and Hansmeyer (1974), the stability of pigment in intact meat involves such factors as oxygen penetration, microbial growth, fat oxidation, presence of flavin compounds and oxygen permeability of films. It was reported by Macdougall (1982) that the most important factors which affect fresh meat color stability are temperature, gaseous environment in the packages and the oxygen consumption and reducing capacity of the meat. Those factors that affect the color of frozen meat are the freezing rate, storage temperature, intensity of light during display and methods of packaging. Walker (1980) reported that bacterial growth can contribute significantly to color deterioration of fresh meat due to reduc4 tion in oxygen concentration, changes in pH, production of pro- teolytic enzymes and changes in the relative humidity. According to Kropf (1982), problems that occur with freezing, frozen dis- play or storage and subsequent thawing can include such appear- ance problems as dark red discoloration, freezer burn and/or dehydration, color splotching, frost accumulation and product bleaching, discoloration and browning of meat due to myoglobin destruction and reduction of oxygen tension by bacteria. In a study by Ledward et a1. (1986), electrical stimulation was found to have no significant effect on the color stability of long issi- mus dorsi muscle in beef. Reviews by Huffman, (1980), Kropf, (1980) and Westerberg (1971) discussed the effects of different processing methods, retail conditions and packages on color of fresh and frozen meat. Methods of measuring meat color are numerous and varied. They all, however, fall into two basic categories: visual ap- praisal and instrumental analysis (Hunt, 1980). Eikelenboom (1985) and Ledward et a1. (1986) used a Hunter lab color differ- ence meter to determine the color of meat. It is important that the visual appearance, sensory attribute and instrumental evalua- tion be related (Setser, 1984 and Hunt, 1980). Restructuring of Meat Restructuring refers to a group of procedures that partially or completely disassemble meat and then bind together the meat pieces to form a cohesive mass that resembles an intact muscle (Pearson and Tauber, 1984; Seideman and Durland, 1983 and Smith, 1982). According to Booren and Mandigo (1987), Secrist (1987) and Pearson and Tauber (1984), the procedures that can be uti- lized in the production of restructured meats include: flaking and forming, chunking and forming, sectioning and forming and combination methods. Reduction of muscles to specific size is done in order to control the surface area for protein extraction (Booren and Mandigo, 1987). The formation of a cohesive matrix between meat pieces can be achieved, according to Schmidt and Trout (1982), by application of mechanical process-like tumbling, mixing, churning, pounding or massaging. Smith (1982) and Mandi- go (1982) reported that the binding of the meat pieces is achieved by solubilizing myofibrillar proteins. These high molecular weight, salt extractable fibrous myofibrillar proteins were largely responsible for the functional response within the communited meat mass. The principal proteins involved in this lcase are myosin in pre—rigor meat and actomyosin in post-rigor meat (Acton et a1., 1982). Some of the factors that affect the extraction of myofibril- lar proteins and the subsequent binding of meat pieces are: the state of rigor development, the ionic environment and pH <>£ the system, temperature history of meat during rigor onset, tempera- ture during extraction, storage of meat, application of high pressure and such factors as duration of extraction, the degree of agitation of the system, size of meat particles and applica- tion of vacuum mixing (Booren and Mandigo, 1987 and King and MacFarlane, 1987). Mandigo (1982) indicated that mixing is very important in the production of a restructured meat product due to its function in introduction and homogenization of components and solubilization of proteins through impact and frictional ener— gies. A study by Booren et a1. (1982) found that mixing in- creased cooking yield and that a linear correlation (P(0.01) existed between adhesion and sensory bind values and mixing time of 0 - 12 mins. According to Booren et al. (1981b), mixing improved tenderness (P40.01) by 28% after 18 min and 8% after six minutes. Sensory juiciness (P40.01) and flavor (P<0.05) were also improved. Under the conditions used, mixing time of 12 min was most desirable in sectioned and formed beef steaks. It was observed by Chesney et a1. (1978) that percent cooking loss decreases (PL0.05) as particle size of restructured pork products decreased. Vacuum processed steaks were shown by Booren et al. (1981a) and Wlebie and Schmidt (1982) to have superior bind (P( 0.05) with no difference in cook yield, juiciness, flavor and texture. According to Popenhagen and Mandigo (1978), blending of small and large flakes gives high quality product. Seideman and Durland (1983) reported that utilization of pre-rigor meat product improves binding and decreases cooking loss in reestruc’ .. “SIN-MW«n11!!<9””"”.”“"1". ......... 13 tured meats. It was reported by Brewer et al. (1986) that roasts prepared from frozen lean had lower shear value than those pre- pared from fresh lean. A significant (P(0.01) cooking loss was observed as meat processing temperatures increase in a restruc- tured pork product (Chesney et a1., 1978). Pearson and Tauber (1984), Seideman and Durland (1983) and Seideman (1982) recommended the use of chuck or round in order to have an economically feasible restructured meat products. Booren et a1. (1982) did not find any difference in bind strength or exudate protein amount and component fractions in steaks produced from either chuck or round. Processed steaks from chucks, howev- er, were less tender than those from round (Booren et al., 1981b). Terrel et a1. (1985) concluded that highly palatable restructured beef roast can be produced from muscles of beef round, even from knuckles and gracilis muscles. According to Secrist (1987) and Schmidt and Trout (1982), the advantages of restructured meat products include, among others, uniformity of color, texture and fat distribution, mini- mum waste to consumer and processor, increased market value, better cost accounting, accurate prediction of cooked yield and programming for nutritive value. The disadvantages, according to Secrist (1987) and Pearson and Tauber (1984), include oxidation. poor color and excess connective tissue. -Hl."~'"‘I'Hn.r. ii ,‘.\.‘ Additives and Their Function in Restructured Meats Additives used in restructuring meat are categorized by Trout and Schmidt (1987) as those additives that affect function- al properties (salt, water, phosphate), those that affect curing process (nitrite/nitrate, cure accelerators), the ones that affect flavor (spices, sweeteners, herbs, flavor enhancers and smoke) and those that affect product stability (antioxidants and antimicrobials). Some non-meat proteins such as milk proteins, egg albumen, vital wheat gluten and soy proteins are also used in restructured products (Endres and Monagle, 1987). Smith (1982) reported that salt, polyphosphates and water are frequently added in restructured meat products. Trout and Schmidt (1987) stated that increasing functional properties, reducing microbial growth and improving flavor are the three main reasons salt is added to restructured meat products. The solubilization of myofibrillar proteins is accelerated, according to Mandigo (1982), by the addition of salt. Schmidt and Trout (1982) reported that the mechanisms by which salt increase binding ability of a protein matrix are by increasing the amount of protein extracted and by altering the ionic and pH environment so that the resultant heat- set protein forms a coherent three—dimensional structure. It was also explained that phosphates are used in restructured meats to improve their functional properties and reduce the rate of «solo: and flavor deterioration. Schwartz and Mandigo (1976) obserxled a reduction in cooking loss and an increase in juiciness due tc» the y.- 15 addition of salt and sodium tripolyphosphate in restructured pork. They also observed the synergistic effect of salt and sodium tripolyphosphate was significant (P (0.01) for cooking loss, raw and cooked color, aroma, flavor, texture and juiciness. Brewer et a1. (1986) observed an increase in bind and a decrease in cooking loss by raising salt level from 0.5% to 2%. The best levels for salt and sodium tripolyphosphate addition in producing restructured pork are 0.75% and 0.125%, respectively (Schwartz and Mandigo, 1976). No difference in effect from the use of table salt or laboratory salt (salt grade) was found by Morris et a1. (1985) in restructured beef. Some negative effects of using salt in restructured meat products were reported. Schwartz and Mandigo (1976) reported that salt and sodium tripolyphosphate increased TBA values in restructured pork. Booren et a1. (1981) observed an increase in TBA value with addition of salt. Discoloration of restructured beef due to increase in salt concentration was reported by Marri- ot et a1. (1985). Lipid Oxidation and Warmed Over Flavor in Meat Lipid oxidation is one of the major causes of deterioration in the quality of meat and meat products (Asghar et a1., 1988 and Love and Pearson, 1971). Such quality characteristics as color, flavor, texture, nutritive value and safety are affected by oxidative deterioration of meat lipids (Pearson et a1., 1983). Unfortunately, however, common methods of preserving food quality such as refrigeration and freezing do not prevent lipid oxidation (Younathan, 1985 and Love and Pearson, 1981). Gray and Pearson (1987), however, reported that lipid oxidation takes a long time tat become apparent. during freezer storage. ‘Younathan (1985) stated that several descriptive terms such as ”stale“, "rancid“ are used to characterize oxidized flavor. Lipid oxidation in foods and biological systems are associ- ated almost exclusively with unsaturated fatty acids (Schaiéh, 1980). Dawson and Gartner (1983) reported that the higher the proportion and degree of unsaturation of fatty acids, the more labile, generally, the lipid system is to oxidation. According to Pearson et a1. (1983), the unsaturated fatty acid moities like oleic, linoleic and linolenic are involved in oxidation. The oxidation of fatty acids is said to proceed through the following free radical mechanisms: Initiation -- RH + 02 -% R- + -OH Propagation -- R- + 02 ~9. R02- 302- + RH -§ R023 + R- Termination -- R- + R- -% RR R° + R02 ~fi ROR Rozo + 302- —+ ROZR + 02 RH - any unsatured fatty acid, R- - Free radical, ROZH - hydroperoxides (Khayat and Schwall, 1983 and Melton, 1983). ‘ ""?’!F£I!?; . .—_—.._. 17 Several agents have been reported to be responsible for the initiation of lipid peroxidation. Some of the agents implicated include singlet. oxygen, iron (ascorbate, or iron cysteine and hydroperoxide activated metmyoglobin (Kanner et a1, 1986; Fran- kel, 1985 and Harrel and Kenner, 1985). In a review article by Asghar et a1. (1988), singlet oxygen, superoxide radical, hydrop- eroxyl radical, hydroxyl radical, cryptohydroxyl radical, perfer- ryl radical, ferryl radical, oxygen bridged di-iron and porphyrin cation radical were proposed as initiators of lipid peroxidation in biological system. According to Sato and Herring (1973), the primary products of the reaction of oxygen and unsaturated lipids are the hydro peroxides. The secondary degradation products are formed largely from hydroperoxide decomposition. The secondary products include aldehydes, ketones, acids, lactones, alcohols and unsaturated hydrocarbons (Frankel et a1., 1984). Malonaldehyde was reported by Frankel (1985) and Igene et a1. (1985) to be the most impor- tant product of lipid oxidation. Warmed over flavor as described by Pearson and Gray (1983) is an oxidized to rancid flavor which develops rapidly during re- frigerated or frozen storage of pre-cooked or partially cooked meat products. Warmed over flavor has assumed a greater signifi- cance in recent years due to increased consumption of pre-cooked meats (Igene and Pearson, 1979 and Sato and Herring, 1973). Warmed over flavor, unlike normal oxidative rancidity, occurs in a matter of hours, hence control is necessary (Igene et a1., """“‘C‘£til:’ . _w 18 1979). According to Love (1988) and Pearson and Gray (1987), warmed over flavor can develop in fresh meats. It commonly occurs in meats that are cooked or in which the membranes are broken down such as in restructuring or grindimg. The greater propensity for warmed over in cooked and communited products is explained by Pearson and Gray (1983) and Igene et a1. (1979) to be due to the release of non-heme iron during cooking and grind- ing. Willimot et al. (1985) stated that phospholipids were the primary source of polyunsaturated fatty acids which are oxidized during warmed over flavor development. This condition was en- hanced when tissues were subjected to thermal treatment (Youna- than, 1985). Igene and Pearson (1979) observed that total phos— pholipids, especially phosphatidyl ethanolamine, were the major contributors in development of warmed over flavor in cooked meats. 11 decrease in the content of phosphatidyl ethanolamine was observed when turkey meat was cooked (Salih et a1., 1988b). Several factors are involved in determining the extent and rate of lipid oxidation and the development of warmed over flavor in meat and meat products. Susceptibility to lipid oxidation and warmed over flavor in restructured meat products is likely to be lower in beef and lamb and higher in chicken, turkey and pork meat (Gray and Pearson, 1987). In a study by Tichivangana and Morrissey (1980), it was shown that susceptibility to lipid oxidation catalyzed by metmyoglobin is in the following order in muscle system: Fish ) Turkey > Chicken ) Pork ) Beef ) Lamb. 19 Whang and Peng (1987), Pikul et a1. (1985), Salih et al. (1988a) and Salih et al. (1988b) reported that lipid oxidation is higher in dark (leg muscle) than light (breast muscle) of chicken and turkey. A study by Judge and Aberle (1980) showed that lipid oxidation is lower in pre-rigor ground porcine meat over a 10-day storage period than post-rigor muscle under aerobic storage. According to Tichivengana and Morrissey (1985), Salih et al. (1988a) and Salih (1986), lipid oxidation is faster in heated than in a raw meat product. Chen et a1. (1984) observed that final temperature and rate of heating influenced release of non- heme iron from meat pigment with optimum temperature being_63- 70°C. The authors further stated that slow heating released more non-heme iron than fast heating. Catalysis of lipid oxidation and warmed over flavor has been the subject of several studies. Lipid oxidation reactions are catlyzed by several elements. These may include: ferrous ions (Fe2+) in presence of ascorbic acid (Sato and Hegarty, 1971), Fe2+ (Pearson and Gray, 1983), both heme and non-heme iron (Liu and Watts, 1970), Cu2+ and Fe3+ (Ellis et a1., 1971 and Marcuse and Fredriksson, 1971). A study by Tichivengana and Morrissey (1985) reported proxidant activity in cooked meats to be in this order: Fe“) Cu2+ ) Co2+ ) M921“. Castel and Spears (1968) studied the effect of metals in fish muscles and observed Fe2+ and Cu2+ to be the most active catalysts. Fe2+ was more active than Fe3+ and Ni2+, Co2+ and Cu2+ did not accelerate rancidity. 1311a study carried out on lard gel, Ellis et a1. (1971), demon- strated that at concentrations of 6.45 x 10‘5mol/209 lard, the order of catalytic activity is Fe2+l> Fe3+ )Cu2+ > Ni1+ ) C02+. Addition of salt was found to accelerate rancidity (Salih et a1., 1988a; Chen et a1., 1984; Judge and Aberle, 1980; Love and Pear- son, 1974 and Watts, 1954). Salih et al.(1988a) found'that salt and Cu2+ and Fe2+ have more proxidant effect than salt and Fe2+ or Cu2+ alone. Also, rock salt was more proxidant than pure salt. Control of lipid oxidation, according to Sato and Herring (1973), has been accomplished to varying degrees of success by various chemical compounds such as antioxidants, chelating agents as well as by exclusion of oxygen. Several studies have been reported that demonstrate the effect of various substances as antioxidants. The following were shown to inhibit or retard oxidation, EDTA and ascorbic acid (Liu and Watts, 1970), browning reaction products (Huang and Greene, 1978), 156 ppm nitrite, 0.5% Tripolyphosphate and 2% EDTA (Igene and Pearson, 1979), extract of eggplant tissue, peels of yellow onion, potatoes and sweet potatoes (Younathan et a1., 1980), spices (Purseglove et a1., 1981), Tenox 4- coated salts, a mixture of butylated hydroxy anisole and butylated hydroxy toluene (Chen et a1., 1984), 125 mg of butylated hydroxy toluene (Pikul et a1., 1983), catechol, EDTA, DTPA, sodium polyphosphate, sodium tripolyphosphate (Shahi- di et a1., 1986), Tenox A and Tenox II (Shahidi and Rubin, 1987), type I and II antioxidants (Roozen, 1987), maillard reaction products (Bailey, 1988) and Tenox 6 (Salih et a1., 1988a). Smith et a1. (1987) showed that warmed over flavor can be con- trolled by choice of processing methods alone. The progress of lipid oxidation and warmed over flavor is commonly monitored by the use of a TBA test (Salih et al., 1987; Smith et al., 1987; Igene et al., 1985; Willemot et a1., 1985 and Sato and Hegarty, 1971). Packaging Of Fresh Meat Packaging is described by Oswin (1982) as a form of transfer engineering designed to collate contents and prolong their shelf life in a hostile environment. The primary function of a package for meat products is to protect the product against physical damage, chemical changes and microbiological contamination and to present the product to the consumers in the most attractive manner (Kropf, 1980; Ramsbottom, 1978; Forrest et al., 1975 and Westerberg, 1971). Packaging, according to Terlizzi (1982) and Forrest et al. (1975), cannot improve quality of product. It can only delay the onset of spoilage by regulating the factors that contribute to it. The result of a study by Brown and Huffman (1972) emphasized the importance of packaging material and method in prolonging the shelf life of fresh red meat. Harte (1987) listed the factors that affect the shelf life of a packaged product as those factors that are related to the product charac- teristics, the environment the product is exposed to during distribution and the properties of the package itself. In a review by Westerberg (1971), the packaging requirements for fresh . -.A.~.‘.t""'?: ‘i retail meat cuts were discussed. They include: allowing for red bloom development, prevention of moisture loss and prevention of handling contamination. In the same review, the film requirement for packaging fresh retail meat were reported to be: permeabili-, ty to oxygen, moisture barrier, possession of excellent optical properties and retention of integrity on handling. Rizvi (1981) and Kropf (1971) stated that the permeability of film to oxygen is important in fresh meat packaging. For vacuum packaged meat, the most important film requirement is excellent barrier to oxygen (Westerberg, 1971). Newton and Rigg (1979) found that storage life of vacuum packed meat was inversely related to film permeability. _ Numerous methods are employed in packaging meat. The major- ity of fresh meat is retailed from self-service display cases in the form of pre-packaged cuts (Urbain, 1978). According to Taylor (1982), meat is customarily retailed in trays of rigid expanded plastic which are then overwrapped with clear plastic film held in place by heat-sealing or cling-folding. The over- wrapping films normally have a low moisture transmission rates and an oxygen permeability of about 10,000cc/m2/day at atmospher- ic pressure. The same author observed that the tray and overwrap system will predominate fresh meat retailing for some time. Another method of packaging fresh meat is vacuum packaging. In vacuum packaging of fresh meat, air is removed from the system contained in an oxygen impermeable film. The process creates an 23 anaerobic/micro-aerophillic ecosystem within the package with the heme pigment in the reduced myoglobin state (Taylor, 1982 and RizVi, 1981). Harte (1987) stated that vacuum packaging is used to control oxidation and development of off-odor, off-flavors, color changes, and aerobic microbial growth and to maintain desirable color of meat. Vacuum packaging, according to Taylor (1982), offers the simplest. and probably the least expensive method for extending shelf life. In a study by Smith et al. (1974), comparisons of four packaging methods for five days storage of pork loins indicated that vacuum packaged loins sus- tained less (Pl.0.05) surface discoloration than loin wrapped in polyvinyl chloride (PVC). vacuum packaged loins also had less off-odor after 7 and 9 days storage than those in PVC. Miles et al. (1986) reported that vacuum packaging significantly reduced discoloration in restructured pork. Vacuum packaging of meat, according to Gill and Penny (1986), alters conditions at the meat surface to favor the growth of the relatively innocuous lactoba- cilli over that of organisms with higher spoilage potential. Despite these advantages, however, vacuum packaging has not been used as extensively for pork as for lamb and beef (Breidenstein, 1982 and Smith, 1974). A concern in vacuum packaging of meat, stated Rizvi (1981), is the amount of fluid referred to as ”purge” which exudes from the cut surface of muscle, which amounts to 0.1 - 2% of cut weight loss. Also, formation of purple color in vacuum packaged meat is a drawback since it is not as acceptable by consumers (Taylor, 1982). Egan and Shay . .Itinng (1932) showed that vacuum packaged beef has a limited shelf life evemi in the absence of a significant population of contaminating' microorganisms. A method of packaging meat known as gas flushing or modified atmosphere packaging is currently being employed. According to Rizvi (1981), modified and controlled atmosphere packaging, where oxygen and carbon dioxide levels are modified for the purpose of extending the shelf life of perishable commodities is not a recent phenomenon. Seideman and Durland (1984) defined modified atmosphere packaging to consist of placing a primal, subprimal or retail cuts of meat into an impermeable bag and evacuating the air and subsequently injecting a single gas or mixture of gases followed by clip or heat seal closure of the bag. The gases used are oxygen, carbon dioxide, nitrogen and air. A study of beef steaks stored for periods of 7, 14, 21 or 23 days at 1-3°C under 100% C02, 100% N2 and 100% 02 indicated that packaging beef in 100% C02 atmosphere is a viable alternative to vacuum packaging (Seideman et a1., 1979). Casing and Films in Meat Processing Casings serve as processing molds, as containers during shipping and handling and as merchandizing units for display (Pearson and Tauber, 1984 and Kramlich, 1978). Casings, accord- ing to Harte (1987), are used widely in packaging cooked, non- cooked and fermented meat products. and cell plas 1977 lose fibr leas Iccox ties. oxyg( shrin Taube ‘0 co tics ing a :15 a: one o. throug Ion (‘ "appi inPort {1959) p‘°Per‘ tOughne 25 (lasings are generally divided into two categories: natural and manufactured. Manufactured casings can be classed as: cellulosic, edible collagen, non-edible collagen, cloth and plastic tubes (Pearson and Tauber, 1984; Kramlich, 1978 and Rust, 1977). Some of the cellulosic casings available are small cellu- lose, large cellulose, fibrous and dry sausage fibrous. The fibrous casings are produced in four kinds: regular, easy re- lease, moisture impermeable and dry sausage (Kramlich, 1978). According to Harte (1987), casings vary widely in their proper- ties. They vary in terms of their edibility, permeability to oxygen, water, light and smoke, heat stability, ability to shrink, mechanical prOperties and visual appeal. Pearson and Tauber (1984) indicated that a casing must be sufficiently strong to contain the meat mass but have shrink and stretch characteris- tics that allow contraction and expansion of meat during process- ing and storage. A large number of films manufactured from different materi- als are available for packaging of meat (Forrest et a1., 1975). One of the thermoplastic materials used in food stuff packaging throughout the world is PVC (Pearson, 1982). According to Bris- ton (1983), PVC film is widely used in supermarkets for the wrapping of trays containing cuts of fresh meat. The increasing importance of PVC in the packaging field, according to Sarvetnick (1969) is attributed to excellent moisture, gas and odor barrier properties, chemical and water resistance, crystal clarity, toughness and freedom from taste, odor and toxicity. PVC also 26 has tiigh oxygen transmission rate, is sealable, machinable, shrinkable and stretchable (Rust, 1977). Study by Vrana et al. (1985) found chops wrapped in PVC to be less desirable than chops wrapped in high oxygen barrier films in overall appearance, surface discoloration and off-odor intensity. Smith et al. (1974) found loins packed in PVC film after 7 days of storage to have significantly (P.L0.05) higher bacterial counts. Commonly used packaging material for retail fresh cuts and vacuum packaging are cellophane, irradiated low density poly ethylene (LDPE), ethylene/vinyl/acetatecopolymers (EVA) for fresh meat retail and coextruded ethylene vinyl acetate (EVA)/pOlyviny- lidene chloride (PVDC)/irradiated ethylene vinyl acetate shrink bags, polyvinylidene chloride (PVDC), nylon low-density ethylene and nylon/saran laminates for vacuum packaging (Eutace, 1981 and Rizvi, 1981). Another film used in meat processing is an edible collagen film known as CoffiR produced by the Brechteen Co. (Mt. Clemens, MI). The film has been applied to boneless hams, roast beef, fresh netted pork roasts, fresh netted beef roasts, fish fillets and meat pastes. Advantages claimed for the film in- cludes: reducing cook shrink, increased product juiciness, easy removal of elastic meat netting after heat processing, provision for uniform smoke color and flavor and reduction in smokehouse clean-up time. MATERIALS AND HBTHODS Studies were conducted in three areas. The first involved determining the potential of applying CoffiR for the control of exudation in beef packaged for retail display. The second dealt with the effect of CoffiR on some processing aspects of restruc- tured r oast beef. The third was a meat model system study de- signed to test the hypothesis that CoffiR reduced the propensity for lipid oxidation to take place in raw and cooked beef. Figure 1: Fresh Round 4 Steak Experimental Designs: Refrigerated at Vacuum Packed Frozen at -25°C Refrigerated at F__Vacuum Packed and Coffi Film Frozen at -25°C Refrigerated at Packed with _- PVC Frozen at -25°C Refrigerated at Packed with “'PVC and Coffi Frozen at -25°C 27 1°C for 1°C for 1°C for 1°C for Effect of CoffiR on Exudation (Repeated for one for one for one for one twice). one week (N=7) week (N87) one week (N37) week (N-7) one week (N=7) week (N87) one week (N87) week (N37) °-:7:u.'::e:uu:1”ug‘uxnu-nqesew "v" 28 In the design of the first study (Fig 1), 56 steaks averag- ing 254 gm in weight, 11 cm x 10 cm in size and 1.6 cm thick were cut out of a beef top round (m. semimembranosus) of 0.8. Choice or 0.5. Select quality grade. The steaks were divided into four groups of 14 steaks each. Eight steaks out of every group were weighed. Of the four groupings representing the four different treatments: 1) Each steak of one group of steaks was individually placed into a vacuum bag (Koch fresh pack) and a vacuum of 21.5 in. was drawn with an A.G.W. type Multivac: 2) Each steak of another group was wrapped with 65 cm x 73 cm size Coffi film before vacuum packaging; 3) The steaks in the remain- ing two groups were packaged with PVC. The steaks in one group were individually placed on a styrofoam tray and a PVC film wrapped around it. The other group were separately wrapped with the same size Coffi as those vacuum packed before packaging with PVC. Steaks in each treatment category were divided into two groups. Steaks of one group were packed in a thick styrofoam box and slowly frozen at the rate of 0.19°C/hr (initial freezing rate) and 0.75°C/hr (final freezing rate) and stored at -25°C for one week. The other group of steaks was exposed to a simulated retail condition at a refrigeration temperature of 1°C and twelve hours of fluorescent (cool white, 110 to 135 foot candles) 45 cm from the packaged steaks. The steaks were held for one week. Sample steaks were taken on day zero and after one week storage for color measurement, sensory evaluation and chemical analysis. The frozen samples were thawed overnight before measurements were - Man‘snuuquunuuvnuucah“:1"-‘"‘-"',"’“~"“"' ‘ ———._ M .‘h. 29 done. The 32 initially weighed samples were weighed'again after-- 2 I : I‘ ' \ 1 I\ \ ’\ :~ - I‘ " s . , . \ -’ I :- \ ’\ I ’\ \ ’\ I s s ‘ \ \ \i \/ / \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ IIIII ' I \’\ \’\’\’\’\ \ \ \ \ \ EXUDATION PANEL SCORES 0| 0| I I I I I I I \\\ I IIIIIIII' I I : :‘I‘:\:\:\I‘I\I‘I‘I‘I‘I‘I \\\\\\\\\\\\\\\ \\\ IIIIIII \\\\\\ \\ O 1 . I IUflflUGERATED FRESH ONEVVEEK Pig. 5 Panel scores of exgdation in steaks refrigerated at 1 °c or frozen at - 25 c Scale: 0 - no exudate, 10 - large amount of exudate - Treatment bars under same storage condition bearing the same letters are not significantly different ( p < 0.05 ) PVC - tray pack with polyvinyl chloride (oxygen permeable ) over wrap or standard retail wrap PVC + C a individuals steaks wrapped with coffi and tray pack with PVC VAC - vacuum pouch packaging VAC + C - vac packaging of individual steaks wrapped in coffi 43 lower amount of exudate than the corresponding samples not Coffi wrapped, and samples that were frozen and thawed had a signifi- cantly (P>0.05) more exudate than the refrigerated samples. The panel results were found to be highly correlated (r = 0.91) with the results of objective measurements of amount of exudate. The above result shows that apart from reducing loss of nutrients and flavor indirectly by reducing exudation (Fahmy and E1 Kady, 1984; Fahmy et a1., 1981: Lawrie, 1979 and Forrest et al., 1975), the lower amount of visible exudate among samples wrapped with Coffi film as shown by the panel response meant that the detracting effect of visible exudate in retail packages was also reduced. Presence of exudate in packaged meat on retail was reported to be unattractive to consumers (Taylor, 1982 and Hamm, 1960). Effect of Coffi Film on Color of Retail Packaged Steaks The effect of Coffi film on the color of meat was determined due to the tremendous effect color has on the consumer accept- ability of meat cuts at retail. Kropf (l980)and Westerberg (1971) stated that color of meat is probably the single most important factor that affects the marketability of fresh retail meat cuts. Therefore, while trying to reduce exudate, we wanted to avoid causing a color problem that would offset any advantage gained by exudate reduction. Figures 6, 7 and 8 derived from data collected show Hunter lab color reflectance measurement of fresh, refrigerated and frozen samples. The mean values for 44 n pvc l PVG+C VAC :3 vac+c \ \ \ \ \ \ I I I I I I I \ \ I I I I I I ’\ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ I I I I I I I I\I\I I I I\I \ \ \ \ S I I I I I \ I \ \ \ S \ \ \ \ \ \’\ I Wam‘ \» : I I I I I I I I HUNTER LAB REFLECTANCE NO. I \ \ \ \ \ \ \ I I I I I I I I I \ I Pig. 6 Color reflectance measurements of freshly wrapped steaks - Treatment bars under same storage condition bearing the same letters are not significantly different ( p < 0.05 ) PVC - tray pack with polyvinyl chloride (oxygen permeable ) over wrap or standard retail wrap PVC + C - individuals steaks wrapped with coffi and tray pack with PVC VAC - vacuum pouch packaging VAC 4- c - vac packaging of individual steaks wrapped in coffi 45 u pvc I onc VAC [3 VAC+C S S S S S I I I I‘I‘I‘I‘I\I‘I I I SSSS IIII HUNTER LAB REFLECTANCE NO. SSSSSSSSSSSSSSSS I I I IIIIIIIIII I I I Pig. 7 Color reflectance measurements of steaks refrigerated at 1 0C for one week - Treatment bars under same storage condition bearing the same letters are not significantly different ( p < 0.05 ) PVC - tray pack with polyvinyl chloride (oxygen permeable ) over wrap or standard retail wrap PVC + C - individuals steaks wrapped with coffi and tray pack with PVC VAC - vacuum pouch packaging VAC 4- C - vac packaging of individual steaks wrapped in coffi 46 40 '- 1 . a PVC C C . 35 " I PVGC 1 CD 1 Z 1 I VAC [I] 30 " :I: U ‘ ,» \1\ a ' "'2: \ \ 25 n -. 7" R" e (I 7‘ ’S’S 1 , 3 \ \ , a; I I :3 3 " a: ' ' I z 20': , A} :,: :I: ‘ ‘ "" ‘ y s s j ’5 1 ; :S:S \ f s s ' 3 ’s’\ '4 ‘ I M I , p 1‘,‘ g s \ IO 1 . 3‘} _ . 7 7 Is) : Iv: ‘ I I 5 1 i '92 ‘ A ’\’\ . ~ .5 0 ‘ ‘ , s s -— Pig. 8 Color seflectance measurements of steaks frozen at - 25 C for one week - Treatment bars under same storage condition bearing the same letters are not significantly different ( p < 0.05 ) l - lihgtness, a - redness, b - yellowness PVC - tray pack with polyvinyl chloride (oxygen permeable ) over wrap or standard retail wrap PVC 4- C '- individuals steaks wrapped with coffi and tray pack with PVC VAC - vacuum pouch packaging VAC 4- C - vac packaging of individual steaks wrapped in coffi \ e "aqunuuuu (:1;anusf'qnnnsnnh- mung.nuli'fi‘nufl-etggfgfff lightness (1), redness (a) and yellowness (b) are presented. In this discussion, the 'a" values are emphasized since they are assumed to be the indicator of the amount of color pigments and perceived color of meat. No significant difference, (P(0.05) existed in ”a" values between samples wrapped with Coffi and those that were not, both on day zero and after storage for one week. The only significant (P(0.05) difference was between vacuum packaged samples and those not vacuum packaged. The dif- ference is due to the reduction of the red oxymyoglobin to purple reduced myoglobin owing to absence of oxygen in vacuum packages. Similar observations were reported by Seideman et al. (1984) and Taylor (1982). The results of the color panel scores graphically illustrated in Figure 9 agree well with the color reflectance measurements. No significant difference (P40.05) was found between steaks wrapped with Coffi and those that were not at zero day and after one week of storage for refrigerated and frozen samples. Panel scores differed significantly (P(0.05) between vacuum packaged and steaks packaged with PVC. This is attributed by Taylor (1982) and Hood and Riordan (1973) to the existence of the purple color in vacuum packaged meats. A strong correlation (r - 0.95) was found between objective (Hunter lab reflectance a values) and subjective (panel scores) measurements of color in this study. It is important that the visual appearance sensory attributes and instrumental evaluations be related (Setzer, 1984 and Hunt, 1980). It can be safely said, therefore, that wrapping 48 mm D. an VAC [3] VAC+C S S S S S S S S S S S S S S S S S S S S S S S S S S S S S I I I I I SI I I I I I I I I IS I I I I I ISISISISISISISISIS S S SSSSSSSSSSSSSS S S I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I SI I I I I S S S S S S S S SSSSSSSS S SISISISISISISISISI ISISI ISI I I I I I I IIIIIIIII 10" a 7 6 5 4 3 2 el 0 mes—cum 4%.. «.38 FROZEN (ONEJNEEKI Color panel scores of steaks refrigerated at 1 0C C or frosen at -25 Pig. 9 10 - extremely undesirable o - extremely desirable, Scale: not significantly different ( p < 0.05 ) letters are the same - Treatment bars under same storage condition bearing tray pack with polyvinyl chloride (oxygen permeable ) over wrap or standard retail wrap PVC '- PVC 4- C - individuals steaks wrapped with coffi and tray pack with PVC VAC - vacuum pouch packaging VAC + C - vac packaging of individual steaks wrapped in coffi 49 Steaks with Coffi to reduce exudation will not affect the color appearance or acceptability of the steaks by consumers in conven- tional fresh meat retail marketing. TBA values of steaks refrigerated or frozen for one week are graphically illustrated in Figure 10 and were generally very low. Vacuumed samples had lower (P40.05) TBA values than non-vacuumed samples. Vacuum packaging seems not to be as critical in reduc- ing TBA values in short time frozen samples as in refrigerated samples. Chang et a1. (1961) showed that oxidation is lower in the frozen condition than refrigerated condition. Booren et a1. (1981) did not observe changes in TBA values in samples of sec- tioned and formed beef steaks after storage for 91 days at —30°C. Miles at al. (1986) demonstrated that vacuum packaging lowered TBA values (PL0.01) in restructured pork products. Effect of Coffi Film On Some Processing Aspect of Restructured Roast Beef Table 1 shows the results of the cooking time of restruc- tured roast beef. The results shows that at the same cooking temperature (79°C) and relative humidity (55%) and cooking to the same internal temperature (67°C), roasts encased in Coffi film took 7 hrs, 15 min to reach the internal temperature compared to 3 hrs, 15 min for those cooked in bag and 5 hrs, 15 min for roasts cooked in fibrous casings. There was a difference of about 4 hrs between Coffi film processed roasts and roasts proc- essed in bag and about 2 hrs difference between Coffi processed 50 (1.1g MDH/g MEAT TBA. NO. REFRIGERATED FROZEN rig. 10 TBA no. of steaks refrigerated at 1 °C or frozen at -25 °C for one week - Treatment bars under same storage condition bearing the same letters are not significantly different ( p < 0.05 ) PVC - tray pack with polyvinyl chloride (oxygen permeable ) over wrap or standard retail wrap PVC + C - individuals steaks wrapped with coffi and tray pack with PVC VAC a vacuum pouch packaging VAC + C - vac packaging of individual steaks wrapped in coffi 51 roasts and those processed in fibrous casings. The reason for such a difference between the processing methods could be due to the effect of evaporative cooling during the cooking process. Coffi film is thinner and porous collagen and has a higher rate of moisture transmission than the other two casings. As the cooking takes place, evaporation from the surface of the roast lowers the temperature at the surface of the roast and hence reduces the rate of heat exchange between the surface and the interior of the roast, thereby slowing cooking and consequently causing a longer cooking time. Another reason could be that the Coffi film formed a hard skin during the cooking reducing the rate of heat transfer in a situation that can be likened to case hardening of carbohydrate foods. The reason for the shorter cooking time with the roasts cooked in bag might be attributed to the effect of moist heating. Due to the impermeability of the casing used in cooking in bag, there is no loss of cook out from the roast. The cook out, therefore, accumulates around the roast and helps in transferring heat through convectional heat trans- fer. This mode of heat transfer is faster than either conduction or radiation modes of heat transfer. The cooking time in case of fibrous casings was intermediate due possibly to the intermediate characteristic of fibrous casings in terms of permeability to moisture when compared to Coffi film and water impermeable cas- ings. 52 frable 1: Yield and Cooking Time of Restructured Roast Beef TREATMENTS YIELD (3) COOKING TIME (HRS) Fibrous 87.26 5.15 Bag 90.57 3.15 Coffi 83.65 7.15 Table 1 shows the yield of restructured roast beef. It can be seen that the yield of roast cooked in water impermeable casing (90.57%) is higher than the 83.65% and 87.26% for Coffi and fibrous casings, respectively. The difference in yield could be attributed to permeabilities of the casings to moisture which is translated to the time of the cooking cycle of the roasts. Roasts cooked in bag in the oven for a shorter time and lost less amount of water compared to those with the other two proc- essing methods. These observations are supported by the results of the proximate analysis of restructured roasts illustrated in Figure 11. The moisture content averaged 67.64% for that cooked in bag, 66.2% for fibrous casings and 63.82% for Coffi film. This directly reflects the yields and the cooking cycles of the three different processing methods. It was reported by Cassidy (1977) that yields in processed meats are increased by increased water retention. There was no significant difference between the processing methods in terms of protein and fat content. 53 'The result of TBA analysis of the roasts after storage for two weeks is represented graphically in Figure 12. Results of three-way analysis of variance indicated no significant differ- ence between the samples. The TBA values are very low even after two weeks of storage at 8-9°C. These low TBA values could be due to the fact that roasts were not cut into smaller pieces before storage. The reason was that there was a possibility of losing any effect of Coffi film which had become an integral part of the roast. Should the roast be cut into smaller pieces, larger surface areas would have been exposed that are not covered by Coffi film rendering any conclusive statement on the effect of Coffi film impossible. The roasts prepared with spices had lower TBA values than those without. Puseglore et al. (1981) reported that many spices have antioxidant effects. The panel scores for warmed over flavor, shown in Table 2, did not differ significant- ly. The panel scores support the result of the TBA analysis and are indicative of the lack of detectable development in warmed over flavor in the roast after two weeks of storage. It was demonstrated by Salih et al. (1987), Salih (1986) and Igene et a1. (1985) that TBA is a valid objective test for monitoring warmed over flavor in meats. Addition of spices did not affect the color of roast beef (Table 3). This means spices can be added to the batter of roast beef for flavor without any signifi- cant effect on the color of the roast. 54 mem% % m .m o M mu V-\ III/III -V-V\\---- IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIx SSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSS. IIIIIIIII SSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSS Ilfrrffvfrvlrrrfrfrr g\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\ .. \\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\s\\\\\\\\ III/IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII \\\\\\\\\\..\\\\\\\\\\\\\ III/111111 %I\\\\\\\\\\\\\ SSSSSSSSSS SSSS SSSSSSSSSSSSS IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII SSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSS 11‘444444444444441444. 6%)? feriiiv 31439.2«43413fl \\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\ , IIIIIIIIIoIIIIIIIIIIIII .V. SSSSSSSSSSSS SSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSS . IIIIIInIsIbIhIsI-IIIIIbILIsIhIIII nu...- HU No. (a ...... can :10 (us MDH/g HEAT) 0 ‘ v Ava vs-JINA' 5v NI -.s- v \vs. .\-.‘A‘.‘(.-. 0.9.v.h‘h‘wlemvuhl.-.-.'w.*.\‘.'~‘ '1' al.-A .\ .U (2%??? 35.331»? 42.3.33}; ;;/,§;.(:.y.‘.’;> .1 . '3 <. ‘ “ j .) ..;. ‘ j. :4. .. ”Rf-TI”. ‘AV'. ‘- A .”U H“. '. ‘ 3 ‘ ‘ ‘ T r _ ‘ " . ‘r '. K .‘. , .’. .' ‘y' . v2.02: *lllllIllllIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIlllIll. V‘s-.- - Tic-:41": i . r . STORAGE TIME (DAYS) 14 Effect of treatments and storage periods on TBA no. in cooked ground beef CNT - control; NaCl - salt, C = shredded Coffi film, Fe - 50 ppm Fe 2 61 ence in TBA values of fresh ground beef due to addition of Coffi and no interaction between Coffi and iron was found. After two days of storage, TBA values in ground beef in- creased significantly due to the combined effects of treatments (P40.01) and Fe2+ alone (P<0.01). TBA values were lowered slightly (P40.09) by Coffi at 2 days with no significant inter- action between Coffi and Fe2+ observed. At one week of storage, control samples had significantly (P( 0.01) lower TBA values compared to treated samples. At this period, addition of Fe2+ significantly (P(0.0l) increased TBA values in ground beef. Coffi had no significant effect one week, but a significant interaction (P(0.l) between Coffi and Fe2+ was observed. Table 4: Result of t—Statistics Showing The Effect of Treatments on TBA Values in Ground Beef T-VALUES CONTRASTS PERIOD 1 PERIOD 2 PERIOD 3 Control vs Others (t1) -l.9 -6.1 —8.3 Coffi vs No Coffi (t2) -0.3 -1.9 —1.3 Fe2+ vs No Fe2+ (t3) 2.1 3.8 4.0 Interaction Coffi and Fe + (t4) 0.7 0.3 1.8 Cooked vs Raw -2.0 5.9 10.4 Table t-values = 2.947 (1%), 2.132 (5%), 1.753 (10%) and 1.341 (20%). 62 Table 5: Result of t-Statistics Showing The Effect of Treatments on TBA Changes With Time T-VALUES CONTRASTS DAY 0 VS DAY 0 VS 2 DAYS VS 2 DAYS 7 DAYS 7 DAYS Control vs Others (t1) -4e5 -6s9 -2e4 Coffi vs No Coffi (t2) -1e7 -1e0 0e? Fe2+ vs No Fe2+ (t3) 1.9 2.1 0.2 Interaction Coffi and Fe2+ (t4) -0e6 1e]. le6 Table T values = 2.947 (1%), 2.132 (5%), 1.753 (10%) and 1.341 (20%). From the above results, it can be concluded that addition of salt and Fe2+ significantly increased TBA values at all the three storage periods. This finding is in agreement with the findings of Salih et al. (1988a), Chen et a1. (1984), Judge and Aberle (1980), Love and Pearson (1974) and Watts (1954), that addition of salt increased rancidity. The increase in TBA values due to addition of Fe2+ is supported by work of Salih et al. (1988) and Salih (1986) showing Fe2+ had a significant effect on lipid oxidation in turkey breast and thigh muscles. Igene et a1. (1979) demonstrated that higher TBA values in cooked and commu- ..- 63 nited meats is due to release of non—heme iron. The slight decrease in TBA values due to Coffi after two days of storage could be due to the reaction between TBA reactive substances and chemicals used in the manufacture of Coffi products. The effect of cooking on TBA values in ground beef is pre- sented in Table 4. Owing to lack of interaction between treat- ments and cooking, the effect of cooking is discussed over treat— ments for each of the three storage periods separately. Results showed that freshly cooked ground beef had lower (P(0.1) TBA values than fresh uncooked ground beef. This might be due to decomposition of the TBA reactive compounds caused by cooking. At the two day and one week storage periods, cooked ground beef had significantly (P40.01) higher TBA values than raw ground beef. This is reported by Salih et al. (1988a), Igene et al. (1985), Pearson and Gray (1983) and Igene et a1. (1979) to be due to the release of non-heme iron during cooking. Younathan (1985) reported that rancidity was enhanced when tissues were subjected to thermal treatments. Changes in the treatment effects on TBA values with time were determined (Table 5). Results obtained showed that amount by which treatment TBA values differ from control values changed with time, Day 0 vs 2 Days (P[0.01), Day 0 vs One Week (P(0.01) and 2 Days vs One Week (P(0.05). Changes in TBA values due to Coffi film was slight (PLO.12) between Day 0 vs 2 days. Fe2+ affects changes in TBA values throughout one week of storage (PL 64 0.06). The reason for the changes in treatment effect with storage time could be due to TBA reactive substances approaching a peak. The same reason could be given for the increase in TBA values due to addition of Fe2+ between Day 0 and 2 days (P(0.08), Day 0 vs one week (P40.06), but no significant change between 2 days and 1 week of storage. Salih (1986) found TBA values in turkey to reach a peak after a period of storage. The lack of significant effect of Coffi in lowering TBA values supported the outcome of study into the effect of Coffi on lipid oxidation in fresh round steaks and restructured roast beef discussed previ— ously in this chapter. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION This study was composed of three experiments. The first experiment was conducted to study the effect of an edible colla- gen film on exudation in beef round steak. The second experiment dealt with the affect of the film on yield, cooking time, warmed over flavor and nutrient content of restructured roast beef and the third part was a trial carried out to determine the effect of Coffi, Fe2+ and salt on TBA values of cooked and raw ground beef. Results indicated that wrapping steaks with Coffi film significantly (P(0.05) reduced exudation without affecting color of the steaks. Application of Coffi reduced exudation by about 50% in refrigerated samples and 60% in frozen samples. A high correlation existed between measured exudate amount and exudation panel scores (r = 0.91), and also between Hunter lab a (redness) values and color panel scores (r = 0.95). Vacuum packaged frozen steaks had significantly (r(0.05) lower TBA numbers than polyvi- nyl chloride packaged refrigerated samples. The use of Coffi film as a casing in restructured roast beef compared to the use of water-impermeable and fibrous casing led to a decrease in yield, longer cooking time with no significant effect on warmed over flavor and nutrient content of the roast. Cooking in a water impermeable casing resulted in a higher yield and shorter cooking time. Results for fibrous casings were intermediate. 65 66 A combination of salt and Fe2+, and Fe2+ alone significantly (P<0.01) increased TBA values in ground beef at 0, 2 and7 days of storage. There was no significant (P40.l) difference in TBA values due to addition of Coffi. The cooking process reduced (P4 0.1) TBA values in fresh ground beef, but cooking significantly (P40.01) resulted in greater TBA values after 2 and 7 days of storage. The effect of adding Fe2+ and salt, or Fe2+ alone on TBA values in ground beef changed with time. The longer the storage time, the lower the increase in TBA values due to addi- tion of Fe2+ and salt or Fe2+ alone. In conclusion, exudate in packaged meat cuts for retail display can be reduced if retailers could wrap steaks with Coffi film before packaging instead of the current practice of using pads to absorb the exudate which is not efficient. Coffi film, when used as a casing in roast beef processing, lowered yield and increased cooking time. It is, however, a good aid for removal of netting material. 1".V "‘ a ff?» :‘fflj'wJ‘5l0-w -‘ ~- 7 v. WWW .- at; .' _-, " RBCOMHBNDATIONS The use of Coffi film to reduce exudate in whole and retail cuts is highly recommended. Coffi film is recommended for use to aid removal of elastic netting and provision of uniform color but should not be used when yield and lowering TBA values is of major concern. Integrity of Coffi film under different cooking methods require further studies. Research into optimization of Coffi use and efficient method of applying and handling Coffi should be con- ducted. 67 BIBLIOGRAPHY Acton, J.C., Ziegler, G.R. and Burge, D.L. 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Younathan, M.T., Marjan, Z.M. and Arshad, F.B. 1980. Oxida- tive rancidity in stored ground turkey and beef. J. Food Sci. 45:274-278. Please evaluate the desirability of the color and the presence of exudate in these samples of beef round steak, by making a verti- cal line on the horizontal line to indicate your rating of the color and amount of exudate in each sample. Each line should be labeled with the appropriate code. CODE QUESTIONNAIRE FOR COLOR AND ExunATION 80 £9295 EXTREMELY EXTREMELY DESIRABLE UNDBSIRABLE I -------------------- I -------------------- I I -------------------- I -------------------- I I -------------------- I -------------------- I I -------------------- I -------------------- I I -------------------- I -------------------- I I -------------------- I -------------------- I EXUDATION ABSENT PRESENT IN LARGE AMOUNT I -------------------- I -------------------- I I -------------------- I -------------------- I I -------------------- I -------------------- I I -------------------- I -------------------- I I -------------------- I -------------------- I I -------------------- I -------------------- I 81 B ROAST BEEP WARMED—OVBR FLAVOR AND COLOR DESIRABILITY~ Name Date Directions: You will be served six samples of ROAST BEEF to be evaluated for COLOR DESIRABILITY and degree of "ARMED-OVER FLAVOR. 1. Take a good look at the samples and place a vertical line on the horizontal line corresponding to the three digit code to indicate the degree of color desirability. 2. Taste the reference sample first to familiarize yourself with fresh Roast Beef flavor. Then taste the coded samples and mark the degree of warmed-over flavor by placing a vertical line on the horizontal line corresponding to the three digit code. Expectorate after tasting in the cup provided and rinse mouth with water between samples. l. COLOR CODE LIKE EXTREMELY DISLIKE EXTREMELY 12:1: I -------------------- I -------------------- I 222:: I -------------------- I -------------------- I ::::: I -------------------- I -------------------- I ::::: I -------------------- I -------------------- I 2:22: I -------------------- I -------------------- I ----- I--------------------I--------------------I 2. WARHED-OVER FLAVOR CODE NO "BREED-OVER VERY STRONG WARMED- FLAVOR OVER FLAVOR ::::: I --------------------- I -------------------- I ::::: I --------------------- I -------------------- I 1:::: I -------------- I ------------------- I 222:: I --------------------- I -------------------- I ----- I---------------------I--------------------I "7'11111111111‘111@1711“