PLACE IN RETURN BOX to remove this checkout from your record. To AVOID FINES return on or boIoro date duo. DATE DUE DATE DUE DATE DUE Mg 3 "5L _ P' 313. - 1.. MSU Is An Affirmative Action/Equal Opportunity Institution THE DESIGN OF AN ADULT EDUCATION LEARNING MODEL DERIVED FROM A SYNTHESIS OF RECONCEPTUALISM AND SELECTED FORMS OF LIFE CONCERNS EDUCATION by James Charles Leonard A DISSERTATION Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Department of Educational Administration 1989 ‘5 fi-. ABSTRACT THE DESIGN OF AN ADULT EDUCATION LEARNING MODEL DERIVED FROM A SYNTHESIS OF RECONCEPTUALISM AND SELECTED FORMS OF LIFE CONCERNS EDUCATION BY James Charles Leonard This study develops a reconceived model of life concerns adult education. This reconceived model is developed through examining dominant life concerns education theory and practice in relation to the critiques of reconceptualism. The study is initiated through an analysis of the philosophical possibilities and a clarification of the philosophical assumptions upon which the research is based. This is followed with a review of the critiquing perspective of reconceptualism and a review of dominant forms of life concerns adult education. The dominant forms selected include competency based adult education and career education. Within the approaches of reconceptualism, competency based adult education and career education, specific curricula are selected for an examination of their James Charles Leonard theoretical assumptions and major methodologies. The examination process is followed with the development and validation of a new set of theoretical assumptions and major methodologies of a reconceived model of life concerns adult education. Construction of the reconceived model continues with development of both community based and school based operational structures. The reconceived model is described as an open ended, existential, educational journey wherein the learner is provided the opportunity to become conscious of the depowering and empowering implications of educational processes. To participate or not participate in skill training or competency development education is not a given but represents problematic issues on the life-long, open ended educational journey. Copyright by JAMES CHARLES LEONARD 1989 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I wish to express gratitude for the patient support of Dr. Richard Gardner and Dr. Howard Hickey who have supported me consistently throughout the development of this thesis and throughout my course of doctoral studies. In addition I would like to thank Dr. Max Raines and Dr. Benjamin Bohnhorst who made valuable contributions and suggestions to the current study. I would also thank numerous instructors, particularly the MSU Sault Ste Marie extension class ’explorers', who got me started and influenced the development of my thought, resulting in the present study and the personal growth it represents. I would also like to thank, with love, those significant others with whom I crossed paths and gained strength throughout the journey; they know who they are and their importance in my existence. TABLE OF CONTENTS CHAPTER PAGE 1. INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY.......... ...... ....... 1 Introduction.................................. 1 Purposes of the Study......................... 1 Value of the Study............................ 2 Limitations of the Study................. ..... 3 Key Concepts.................................. 5 Overview...................................... 6 Statement of the Problems..................... 13 Structure of the Study....... ..... ............ 14 References.................................... 16 2. METHODOLOGY..................................... 18 Introduction.................................. 18 Establishing the Philosophical Foundation.................................... 20 Review of Reconceptualism, Competency Based Adult Education, and Career Education.............................. 22 Examination of Theoretical Assumptions and Major Methodologies of Sample Curricula..................................... 22 Development and Validation of Theoretical Assumptions and Major Methodologies of a Reconceived Model.......... 27 Development of Key Elements, Operational Structures and Parameters of a Reconceived Model........................ 37 Summary and Recommendations................... 39 References.................................... 40 3. ANALYSIS OF PHILOSOPHICAL POSSIBILITIES AND A CLARIFICATION OF THE ASSUMPTIONS OF THE RESEARCH........................................ 41 Introduction.................................. 41 Purposes of the Chapter....................... 41 Three Basic Questions in Philosophy........... 43 Overview of the Chapter....................... 45 Idealism...................................... 45 Realism....................................... 52 Pragmatism.................................... 58 vi 4. 5. 6. 7. Existentialism.................. .......... .... Summary....................................... Philosophical Statement....................... Implications for the Study.................... References.................................... EXAMINATION OF RECONCEPTUALISM AND DOMINANT FORMS OF LIFE CONCERNS ADULT EDUCATION.......... Introduction.................................. Reconceptualism............................... Competency Based Adult Education.............. Career Education.............................. References........................ ..... ....... EXAMINATION AND COMPARISON OF SELECTED LIFE CONCERNS ADULT EDUCATION CURRICULA.............. Introduction.................................. Reconceptualism.................. ............. Competency Based Adult Education.............. Career Education........................ ...... Comparative Analysis of Selected Curricular Approaches to Life Concerns Adult Education......................... ...... Implications of the Comparative Analysis of Selected Curricular Approaches............. References.................................... DEVELOPING AND VALIDATING THE ASSUMPTIONS AND METHODOLOGIES OF A RECONCEIVED MODEL........ Considerations in Development of a Reconceived Model............................. Philosophy Undergirding the Reconceived Model............... ......... ..... Theoretical Assumptions of the Reconceived Model............................. Validation of the Assumptions of the Reconceived Model............................. Validation of Methodologies of the Reconceived Model............................. Chapter Summary............................... References.................................... THE DEVELOPMENT KEY ELEMENTS, OPERATIONAL STRUCTURES AND PARAMETERS OF A RECONCEIVED MODEL........................................... Introduction.................................. Key Elements of the Reconceived Model ........ Community Based Structure of the Reconceived Model............................. School Based Structure of the Reconceived Model............................. Parameters of the Reconceived Model........... vii 78 94 96 103 105 107 107 107 129 143 164 170 170 171 183 196 204 214 215 216 216 217 217 222 227 230 231 232 232 232 237 241 244 References.................. .................. 8. SUMMARY AND RECOMMENDATIONS............... ...... Introduction.................................. Summary of the Purposes of the Study.......... Review of the Problems Addressed in the Study....................... ............. Review of the Limitations of the Study........ Recommendations............................... References....................... ............. GmSSARYCIOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO... .......... O ...... O ..... viii 247 248 248 248 252 253 254 256 257 Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure LIST OF FIGURES Model Building Process................. Process for Developing the Theoretical Assumptions................ Key Elements of a Reconceived MOdel...‘OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO0.00.0000... Community Based Operational Stmcture.COOOOOOOOOOOOCOO00.......0... School Based Operational StmctureOCOCOOOOOOOOOOOOOIOOOOOOOOOOOO Parameters of a Reconceived MOdeIOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO00...... ix Page 19 31 233 238 242 245 Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table LIST OF TABLES Page Framework for Summarizing Major Philosophical Issues. ....... . ..... 21 Constructs for Examination of Theoretical Assumptions. ....... ... ...... 26 Framework for Examining Theoretical Assumptions... ....... ................... 28 Framework for Examining Theoretical AssumptionSOOOOOO......OOOOOOOOOOO ...... 29 Framework for Examining Major HethOdOIOgieSOO......OOOOOOOOOO.....0... 30 Theoretical Assumptions of a Reconceived Model....................... 32 Theoretical Assumptions of a Reconceived Model....................... 33 Framework for Examining Theoretical AssumptionSOOOOOO0.0.0....OOOOOOOOOOOOOO 35 Framework for Examining Theoretical AssumptiODSOOOOOO......OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO 36 Framework for Examining Major nethOdOIOgieSOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO 0000000000 38 Framework for Summarizing Major Philosophical Issues.............. 95 Philosophical Foundation of a Reconceived Model ...................... 104 Framework for Examining Theoretical AssumptionSOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO 205 Table Table Table Table Table Framework for Examining Theoretical assumptionSOOOOOO.......OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO Framework for Examining Major HethOdOIOgj-eS0.0000000000000000000000000 Framework for Examining Theoretical AssumptionSOOOOOOOOOOOOO000......OOOOOOO Framework for Examining Theoretical Assumptions.....OOOOOOOOOOOOOOO00.0.0... Framework for Examining Major MethOdOIOgieSOOOOOO000........OOOOOOOOOO xi 206 212 223 224 229 CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY mum Since the time of the progressive education movement there has developed an expanded and refined body of literature and practice in the area of life concerns education approaches. The literature and practice of adult life concerns education approaches has taken different forms with different areas of focus. Two recently prominent approaches have fallen under the titles of competency based adult education and career education. Both of these forms have focused on learners developing behaviours described as life skills, performance levels or competencies. Parallel to the refinement of life concerns education approaches there has developed a body of professional literature and associated practice which has been generally referred to as reconceptualism. Although there is not a single unified theory and practice of reconceptualism, it is perhaps best characterized by its questioning and rejection of what reconceptualists characterize as the dominant assumptions and practices of education in relation to social structures and the individual. 6 W521: The major purposes of this study are as follows: 1. To create a reconceived model of life concerns adult education which accomodates the reconceptualist critiques. 2. As a part of model development, (a) to clarify the philosophical asumptions of the research study and resultant model; (b) to examine, compare and synthesize dominant forms of life concerns theory to the reconceptualist critiques; (c) to examine, compare and synthesize dominant forms of life concerns adult education methodologies with the reconceptual critiques; (c) to incorporate, as required, other compatible adult education methods to the reconceived model. W The attention to life concerns approaches in education has persisted from the thirteenth century into the twentieth century (Cremin, 1961; Olsen and Clark, 1977; Raines, undated). It is assumed that this area of interest will continue to persist both within schools and other institutions claiming to offer instruction directly related to life. Teachers of courses based on life concerns approaches need to be aware of their assumptions, the limitations of these assumptions, and to also be aware of critical theory which exposes those assumptions and limitations. This study is of value in that it examines the question of the limitations of dominant life concerns education approaches. It is of value to teachers in that they may become more critically aware of these limitations. This new awareness is in turn of value as they may then make a choice of altering their own theories and practices so that the the latter enable the questioning of basic and often unquestioned assumptions. The present study is also valuable in that it provides an example of how current life concerns adult education approaches may be examined and modified to accomodate critiques such as those of the reconceptualists. The present study does not disregard current dominant life concerns theory and practice but demonstrates how it may be used for further educational development and improvement. Conversely it does not disregard the reconceptual critiques but rather demonstrates how they may be used for further development and improvement of life concerns education. This bringing together of reconceptual critiques with dominant theory and practice is valuable in that it suggests a potential for increased unity within life concerns adult education. Finally the study is of value in that it potentially serves as a stimulus to other adult educators to build upon this work and create additional alternative, reconceived models of life concerns adult education. atio s of t ud The decision to attempt to accomodate reconceptualist thought with current practice reflects a bias in favor of reconceptualism as a valid area of concern for re-examining educational practice. Attempts are made however to provide an objective description of the reconceptualist position. In defense of this approach, it should be realized that acceptance or rejection of a reconceptualist influence is not an empirical issue so much as it is one based on philosophical and theoretical preference. Similarly the development of a model incorporating reconceptualist thought is not necessarily a scientific task subject to empirical validation, particularly when the rejection of scientism as mainstream education methodology is characteristic of much of reconceptualist thought. Hence the reader should anticipate that the philosophical orientations to be clarified and established as a part of model development will reflect positions which intend to influence or support reconceptualist thought as possessing a priori validity. Life concerns approaches to education have been chosen for examination not because they are viewed negatively by this researcher so much as they appear to represent enhancements of, or alternatives to, subject centered schooling. This negative bias toward subject centered schooling may affect the nature of the research in the form of variable effects not readily apparent. At the same time an assumption that will be tested as a part of the study is that dominant life concerns education approaches do not accomodate reconceptualist thought and consequently require critical examination to allow for the accomodation of these concerns. W Readers should be aware of a number of key terms used throughout the study. Efiugatign For the purposes of this study 'education,’ when used by the author, will be used as a term reflecting an abstract and general concept which reflects experiences and resultant learnings both planned and unplanned, inside and outside formal institutions. Qurrigulum There is no general agreement among educators as to the parameters of this term and many definitions are possible. For the purposes of this study it will be operationally defined as the designs, methodologies and related outcomes of instruction whether they be intentional or unintentional, formal or informal, precise or imprecise in nature. fignggling This term is used to describe a type of educational process which most frequently occurs, whether planned or unplanned, in schools. The process is usually characterized by planned, linear, and sequential (graded), curriculae and the awarding of credentials associated with achievement in those curriculae. In some cases schooling-like processes are offered as forms of education in other institutions. 6 Beggngeptualism 'This concept summarizes the orientation of a number of critics who call for a rethinking of the assumptions of schooling and curricula. The basic reconceptual stance is anti-positivistic, and attempts to provide insight into schooling and curriculum through the use of analytical models such as philosophy, history, phenomonology, politics and economics rather than reliance on an empirical model" (Mulder, 1983, p.7). Life ggucgzns Adult Education This term refers to a variety of prominent educational approaches which are often offered, through a schooling-like approach either in schools or other social institutions. The intent of such an approach to education is to designate and teach specific behaviors, in contrast to specific subject matters, which are deemed directly related to and required in life. In this study, competency based adult education and career education approaches have been chosen for examination as two prominent examples of life concerns adult education. W W Currently in education there are offered a variety of approaches designed for immediate and apparent relevancy to everyday life concerns. This is not to suggest that most educators could not make a case for somehow preparing learners for life: the difference intended in using the term life concerns is to accentuate the approach of using "contemporary life as a source of objectives" (Griffith and Cervero, 1977). The general method involves curriculum designers determining competencies deemed necessary for life, specifying them in the educational design, and instructors subsequently teaching those competencies. In addition, stress is laid on an accompanying system of behavioral evaluation to demonstrate student mastery of the specified competencies. An implied assumption behind a life concerns curriculum rationale is that the usual subject matter approaches of schools may not directly assure proficiency in important areas of life competency. Since the 1970's in particular, these life concerns education approaches have been honed to a high degree of specificity. Life concerns curricula tend to be based on scientific, behaviorally based, construction techniques reflecting the Tyler rationale of curriculum construction. Questions posed in this rationale include: What educational purposes should the school seek to attain? What educational experiences can be provided that are likely to attain these purposes? How can these educational experiences be effectively organized? How can we determine whether these purposes are being attained? (Tyler, 1949, p.1) The Tyler rationale is in particular characterized by "a detailed, logical sequence of steps to be followed in designing and implementing educational programs" (Reed, 1984, p.237). It is common in life concerns curriculae for there to be well defined and specific behavioral objectives with designated cognitive and behavioral indicators of competency (Saskatchewan Newstart, 1973a, pp.1-5; Gysbers, 1974). 'The emphasis in these curriculae is on producing socially validated skills or competencies for successful functioning of the individual within society. Such curricula "aim to produce graduates who will draw from a repertoire of problem solving behaviours to meet the problems of everyday life" (Saskatchewan Newstart, 1973b, p.201). The parameters include management of behavior in relation to self, family, community, job, and leisure. This is done through simulating or creating real life situations to practice the desired behaviors. Learning is deemed to occur if the learner modifies his behavior to "match those behaviors described by the course objectives" (p.201). The terms life skills or competencies may be used in a generic sense to refer to practical skills frequently required in everyday life. It has been common for critics of schooling to advocate a curriculum of increased relevancy. with more emphasis on life centered skill development within the schooling process (Rubin, 1969; Griffith and Cervero, 1977). Associated with renewed calls for increased life relevancy in education during the 1970's was the development of competency based adult education programs (Basner, 1976: Saskatchewan Newstart, 1973b; Lyle, 1977; Duvall, 1981: Dauzat, 1978: Carkhuff, 1976) and career education curricula (Career Education Incentive Act, 1977). WW Competency based adult education refers to a type of educational approach designed to train learners in what are specifically referred to as life skills, competencies or performance levels. The competency based programs are often associated with an educational approach geared to the disadvantaged or those seen as requiring intellectual, emotional or social rehabilitation and are frequently used when it is assumed that the learner has missed or has not learned skills deemed necessary for life (Basner, 1976; Saskatchewan Newstart, 1973a, pp.1-5). It is also assumed that these skills are possessed by instructors who can teach them to others. In some programs the instructors are required to take specialized training themselves to ensure that they can teach the new behaviors to their students (Carkhuff, 1976). Competency based adult education is offered as an alterna- tive to subject-centered school curricula when it is felt that despite schooling or in the absence of schooling, the learner requires instruction for specific life behaviours. Often these programs are offered for adults by agencies other than schools. The mandates of these agencies, the awareness, training and orientation of staff implicitly limit the scope of instruction and the breadth of interpretation of what might be called skills or competencies. Examples of other common sources of these types of competency based course offerings include community 10 colleges, mental health clinics and hospitals, prisons, and employment training centers (Saskatchewan Newstart, 1973a, pp.1-5: Parker and Taylor, 1980). Career education as another form of life concerns education also attempts to teach and document life competencies (Congress of the U.S., 1977). Within a broad interepretation of career education, careers are viewed as more than vocational endeavours and include all general areas of life functioning such as family, leisure, citizenship, vocation, etc. (Hansen and Tennyson, 1975). A major design intent is for the delivery of the curriculum to be centered in schools and for the infusion of life competencies into school subject matter, as opposed to teaching it in parallel with or as an alternative to regular schooling. Because of a design which presents relevancy to the student within school subject matter, the life competency orientation of career education may serve as a technique for motivating students in regular school subject matter as well as being intended as a direct life concerns education approach. Because it intends to infuse life competencies into regular schooling it does not by design connote a rehabilitative approach so much as a developmental or habilitative one. It is also intended to be habilitative or developmental in that career education for adults is the highest point on the continuum of a design which starts from elementary school and continues through secondary school and 11 into adult education levels. Terms such as "self develop- ment" (Hansen and Tennyson, 1975) are commonly used in describing goals for individuals within a career education approach. Competency based adult education and career education as prominent forms of life concerns education, include a number of assumptions as to legitimate educational aims, social change theory, conception of the learner, conception of the instructional process and conception of evaluation. Educational assumptions frequently are not stated or apparent. What may not be present in the designs of these life concerns approaches for example, are theoretical and methodological characteristics which query the educational aims of the program or the characteristics or deficiencies of the social order. It is also possible that these approaches, by design, may avoid or discourage students from becoming critically aware of value assumptions placed in socioeconomic institutions and in practices which may reinforce the assumption of the deficiency of the learner and the assumed undesirability of his current functioning (Griffith and Cervero, 1977; Wagner, 1980). If life concerns approaches do not provide for this form of querying by exposing these considerations to learners, they implicitly reinforce not only the competencies which are specified as objectives for instruction but also the socioeconomic structures and social practices. The 12 continuance of these structures and practices often depend on the acceptance and practice of these behaviors or competencies. It is not clear that in dominant life concerns education approaches the individual student is made aware of a possible choice to existentially stand apart from the assumptions of his social environment, including even the rehabilitative or developmental assumptions and scientific methodologies upon which a life concerns curriculum may have been constructed. Conceivably such a querying approach might be viewed as contrary to the purposes of these courses or the mandates of the schools, agencies, organizations or governments sponsoring or funding these programs. Concurrent with the recent advances in the development of life concerns adult education approaches there has continued to develop a reconceptualist body of curriculum critiquing literature which advocates rethinking the assumptions of education and its consequent processes and practices (Mulder, 1983; Pinar, 1975). The reconceptualist writers warn of the biases and limitations implicit in an approach to education which emphasizes scientism and its accompanying reliance on social validation. These thinkers express passionate concern at education proceeding in practice while leaving unexamined the basic assumptions upon which it functions. To reconceptualists, education means more than individual adjustment or realization within a 13 given social order. Benham (cited in Mulder, 1983) suggests that it requires focusing "thinking on personal, social and political realities" (p.28). This implies a depth and quality of social and personal exploration which may not currently exist in the dominant theories and methodologies of life concerns adult education. The theories and methodologies of competency based adult education, career education and reconceptualism will be examined in detail later in the study. §Latsment_2f_tne_2reblem§ A problem emerges with reconceptualism in that these critiques of dominant education practice tend to remain as theoretical and are not usually translated into practical tools which practitioners might use as alternatives to current practice. The present study attempts to address that problem. I A second problem is that reconceptualist theoreticians seem unaware of, or leave unmentioned, recent advances in life concerns education curriculum development and other developments in adult education practice which might potentially accomodate reconceptual influences on instruction and learning. Conversely, dominant life concerns theory and practice seem to be largely uninformed of or unresponsive to the reconceptualist critiques. A generally unexamined possibility is the potential for currently available life concerns curricular designs to be 14 adapted and modified in attempts to accomodate the reconceptualist critiques. The third problem is to accomodate the education critiques of reconceptualism with current life concerns education theory and practice. Such a procedure could occur through the development of a reconceived model of life concerns education. e o tud The remainder of this study is organized according to the following considerations. Chapter 2 describes in detail the methodology used in the study. The purpose of Chapter 3 is to provide an orientation to philosophical traditions and influences on education. This creates a philosophical backdrop against which the subsequent examination of both life concerns education and reconceptualist theory may be related and enables the clarification of philosophical assumptions upon which this research study is based. This also permits the simultaneous clarification of a philosophical foundation for a reconceived model. Chapter 4 reviews, examines and summarizes the theories and methods of reconceptualism, competency based adult education and career education. In chapter 5 specific sample curricula selected from reconceptualist thought, competency based adult education and career education are examined and compared as to their theoretical assumptions and major methodologies. Chapter 6 concentrates on defining and validating the 15 theoretical assumptions and major methodologies of a new and reconceived model of life concerns adult education. Chapter 7 develops the key elements, operational structures and describes paramaters of the reconceived model. In chapter 8 the study is summarized and recommendations are made. 16 Raferengaa Basner, 8.: And Others. (1976). A gurrigulum guige for adult e u a sed t e ad t e forma c leve 3 ud . Kingston, Rhode Island: Rhode Island University. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 132 360) Carkhuff, R. (1976). Teagning as traatmenr. Amherst: Human Resources Press. Congress of the U.S. (1977). Qarear Egucarion lncantive Act. Public Law 95-297. Washington: Author. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 149 034) Cremin, L. (1961). The transformation a; rne scnool. New York: Knopf, Inc. Dauzat, S.V. (1978). Louisiana adulr perrormanca level pilot study: a comparative analysis of AP; ggmpetency-baseg instructional programs. Final reporr. Baton Rouge, La.: Louisiana State Department of Education, Bureau of Adult and Community Education. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 154 129) Duvall, C.R. (1981). Study 0: educatignal benerits for a pilot adult performance level (APL) educational program yirn recommandations for instituting cost analysis procedures in the future. Indianapolis, Ind.: Indiana State Dept. of Public Instruction, Div. of Adult and Community Education. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 204 634) Griffith, W. and Cervero, R. (1977). The adult performance level program: a serious and deliberate examination. Agult_zgusatien. 21.(4). 209-224. Gysbers, N. et al (1974). Career education concepts, methods, and processes for pre-and in-service education. Journal at Carear Egugarion, l,(2), 25-37. Hansen, L. and Tennyson, W.W. (1975). Career development as self development: humanizing the focus for career education. fiesial_§dugatign. 32.(5). 22-35- Lyle, B. (1977). haul; performance level stugy; final rapprr. Austin: Texas University. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 185 113) 17 Mulder, R.L. (1983). A framawgrk for examining ragonceprualism and deriving its possible implications e a e c e du t' . Doctoral dissertation, Michigan State University. Olsen. 3- and Clark. P- (1977)-.Life:sentering_sdugatign- Midland: Pendell Publishing. Parker, J. and Taylor, P. (Eds.). (1980). Ina QB readar: a e e ' o - se d o e . Upper Montclair, New Jersey: National Adult Education Clearinghouse. Pinar, W-F- (Ed-)- (1975). Qurrigulum_tneorizingi_tne ragpngaprualiars. Berkeley: McCutchan. Raines, M.R. (undated). Lifa-gentarad education: some ayglying_rngugnr§. Unpublished manuscript, Michigan State University. Reed, B. and Loughran, E. (1984). Baygng aghools, ' ' erso fiayalppmanr. Amherst, M.A.: University of Massachusetts. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 256 937) Rubin, L.J. (1969). Life skills in school and society: A§§D_Iaarppgk. Washington: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development. Saskatchewan Newstart. (1973a). gaadings in lifa skills. Prince Albert, Sask.: Author. Saskatchewan Newstart. (1973b). Lira skills coaching manual. Prince Albert, Sask.: Author. Tyler. R-W- (1949)- Basis_nringiples_ef_gurrisulum_and instrugrign. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press. Wagner, K. (1980). Ideology and career education. , 1980, ;Q,(2), 105-113. CHAPTER 2 METHODOLOGY III—111139222120 Development of this reconceived model of life concerns education is based on synthesizing and meshing concepts available in the literature, consequently the methodological approach is primarily "conceptual rather than empirical" (Mulder, 1983, p.3). The basic methodology involves developing a philosophical base, and theoretical and methodological structures. Figure 2.1 depicts this model building process. More specifically this involves: 1. Reviewing philosophical orientations and traditions in education and clarifying an orientation in establishing a foundation for developing new theory and methodologies, 2. Reviewing structural and existential reconceptualism (Mulder, 1983) as the critiquing source and also reviewing dominant theory and practice in life concerns education practice. 3. Comparing selected reconceptualist, competency based adult education, and career education curricula as prominent examples of life concerns adult education; 4. Defining and valildating theoretical assumptions and major methodologies of a reconceived model of life concerns adult education. 5. Developing characteristics of the model in the form of key elements, operational structures and parameters. 18 19 Mador Methodologies Theory Philosophy Figure 8.1. Model building process. 20 6. Summarizing the study and making recommendations. MW If educational practice is to be guided by reason it is necessary to explore the philosophical underpinnings (Knape and Rosewell, 1980). In the current study this includes reviewing and extracting philosophical traditions and issues which undergird, influence and implicitly bias all educational theories, assumptions and practices. The major philosophies of realism, idealism, pragmatism and existentialism are reviewed and summarized. Persistent education related issues within these philosophies are specified as they appear in the analyses. These philosophical positions are summarized within their general orientations to the questions of (a) What is real? (b) What is true? (c) What is good? Table 2.1 depicts the framework used for summarizing this philosophical clarification process. Such a procedure serves to orient the researcher and reader to philosophical possibilities in education innovation and provides a philosophical backdrop for subsequent examination of life concerns education theory. It also permits clarification of the philosophical assumptions of this study in regard to a reconceived model of life concerns education. To omit this clarification step as a part of the model development process would permit hidden bias through not clarifying and revealing the nature 21 Table 2.1 Framework for Summarizing Maior Philosophical Issues Nature of l j l Reality Truth Value Realism Idealism Pragmatism Existentialism 22 of the assumptions upon which the model is based. This philosophical position is explained in regard to the persistent philosophical issues mentioned above and is summarized in relation to position statements regarding reality, truth and value. v‘ew n e 'sm Com c e d ' a d Caree a The theoretical and methodological approaches of reconceptualism, competency based adult education, and career education are first reviewed and summarized through a selective review of the literature describing these approaches. Reconceptualism is presented as the critiquing source while competency based adult education and career education are presented as dominant forms of life concerns adult education. ss '0 m r ' u Following the above-mentioned introduction to reconceptualism and dominant forms of life concerns adult education, specific life concerns adult education approaches within each of these orientations are analyzed from the perspective of their apparent theoretical and methodological characteristics. The sample approaches within each of these life concerns adult education curricula selected for further examination include the following: 23 R o tua As the critiques of reconceptualism tend to be theoretical positions presented in journals, particulary Ina JQurnal_91_§urrigulum_1nagriaing, it is difficult to find a developed program reflecting these concerns in the form of working theory and methodology. Paulo Freire however has particularly influenced the thought of reconceptualism (Mulder, 1983, p.64). He has been described as being influenced by both marxist and existentialist thought (Facundo, 1984) and his theory and methods appear to address both of the corresponding structural and existential orientations characteristic of reconceptualism as described by Mulder (1983). Freire’s (1973) theory and methods are examined in this study as a specific example of reconceptualist theory and practice which incorporates both structural and existential considerations. W In examining competency based adult education two general life concerns orientations are discovered: I. that which emphasizes applied problem solving processes and 2. that which emphasizes mastering minimal life competencies or skills. In accordance with this observation, programs reflecting two prominent North American CBAE approaches are examined. These include (a) from Canada, the Saskatchewan Newstart 24 approach to life skills training as described in the Lira Skill§_gpagning_uanual (Saskatchewan Newstart, 1973a) and WW (Saskatchewan Newstart. 1973b) and (b) from the U.S.A., G ' or Adult 3 Base Pe fo anc Lev S d (Basner, 1976). Marian The Michigan State Department of Education (1974) developed a model for career education reflecting a life concerns oriented approach which included both self and life (careers) concerns orientations. The document A_Bafaranga e D v o s a P 0 an e 'cators (Michigan State Department of Education, 1974) is examined. Although it is not a finished curriculum in itself, it was designed "as a reference guide for Michigan educators to use in planning career education curriculum" (p.i). As this was considered a benchmark document against which local curricula were to be referenced, it is examined as the selected sample of career education. This examination procedure of the particular programs mentioned above involves the consideration of theoretical assumptions and major methodologies. Wm The theoretical assumptions of the selected reconceptualist, CBAE and career education approaches are analyzed and summarized using constructs for conceptualizing 25 education approaches based on an adaptation developed from the works of Reed and Loughran (1984) and Miller (1983). Major aspects of analysis will include: Eguparignal_aimar What are the basic goals providing general direction for the orientation under study--economic, personal or social? Spuial_gnanga_rnagryr (a) What is the object of change--the individual or social group? (b) What are the sources of change--from the top to the bottom or bottom to the top? (c) What type of change is advocated--an evolutionary or basic change? Laarning_rnagryr (a) What is the source of authority--external to the learner or internal? (b) Is the level of reduction reflective of an incremental and sequential approach or one of emphasis on complex relationships and holism? Q2assetien_2f_the_learnsrl Is the learner viewed as active and initiating or passive and responsive? Q2n9e2ti2n_9f_tne_instrustignal_nreces§l Is the instructional process presumed to be centered around the learner or the teacher? Qungapripn_pf_ayaluaripnr Should evaluation focus on the product of education or process in education? These constructs delineated to assist in conceptualizing and examining curriculae are summarized in Table 2.2. 26 Table 2.2 Co st t xaminat'on o heoretica 55 m tions 1. Educational Aims -Economic, Personal, Social Social Change Theory -Object of change (individual or group). -Sources of change (top to bottom or bottom to top). -Type of change (evolutionary or basic). Learning Theory -Source of authority (external or internal to learner). -Level of reduction (incremental or holistic). Conception of the Learner (active or passive) Conception of the Instructional Process (learner or teacher centered) Conception of Evaluation (emphasis on product or process) 27 The results of this analysis are summarized in the form of a framework as displayed in Tables 2.3 and 2.4. NW The primary methodologies of the selected programs are examined and summarized in the form of a framework as displayed in Table 2.5. V ' t o h ' 53 m t' ns ammmgmmmumwim Figure 2.2 depicts the general process used in the development of the theoretical assumptions and methodologies of a reconceived model. Went Selected constructs of reconceptualism, life skills training and career education as previously established in Tables 2.3 and 2.4, are conceptually meshed (Figure 2.2) to specify the theoretical components of a new and reconceived model of life concerns education (Tables 2.6 and 2.7). MW As a part of developing a reconceived model of life concerns education, major methodologies are selected for inclusion. These methodologies are selected from reconceptualist education methods, competency based adult education methods and career education methods, as previously examined through the framework described in Table 2.5. In addition to drawing on these forementioned methods, other methods compatable with the theoretical structure of 28 cot-gum Less-O II 603031“ £33 uses: success-sou 5233:8808- .asoauoe £8.33 ... .26.. ... 8.53 on»... 8.5.5 use—JO roe-F 935s..— PleE. sues-.0 .295 as econ-Asia: 3030.52: mic—Esau so. scales—sea . ad 033—. cot-033m sees-O 29 Seas-8:83 833.59.. girls... so cotton-sou «o cot—.0930 ESE—cased 303,513 assfissm .8. 3.83052“. C.“ 03s... Table 2.5 30 Framework for Examining Mdor Methodologies Reconceptualism Competency Based Adult Education Career Education :oflouspm Loosen cumulus—em 2:3 pooch accuse—coo etc-3o: use acumen—cased someones—em £31< ocooucou 05 ace—apoca— 3 1 Meshing .2325» ...scsuam apogee: use scan—Essa uo=ssauou=ooo¢ Philosophical Foundation Figure 2.2. Process for developing the theoretical assumptions 32 con-0333 .o .25.. atop—93¢ oa>h oocaom uuoso zoos... 9:953 roof. owcozu 30cm flea .032 uozoocooeu .oaoS. oozoocoooc e «o gogfiaa ion-089:. 0d e33. 33 egos-nan we com-neocon- 5.82.32: to cow-neocon- sconce.— uo coax—cocoa .otoE vozoocooon .ouoE Eco—Boom o to sconce-.55 ion-egos... EN 033—. 34 the new model are selected, as required, from the general adult education literature, briefly described and included as part of the new model. Validating the Theoretical Assumptions and Methods The main criterion of validation of the theoretical assumptions and methodologies of the reconceived model is that the model is demonstrated to be unique in relation to the other life concerns education approaches examined. Under examination, the reconceived life concerns model is demonstrated to represent an accomodation of reconceptualism, competency based adult education and career education approaches. It may be similar but not identical to any of these approaches; it is different and represents an incorporation of characteristics from all three education approaches. Ihggxgtigal_gal1ggtignL Using an extension of the framework used earlier in the study for examining the theoretical assumptions of reconceptualism, competency based adult education and career education (Tables 2.3 and 2.4), a fourth variable is added to that original framework--the theoretical structure of the reconceived model (Tables 2.8 and 2.9). The cells of the matrices displaying the theoretical assumptions of reconceptualism, CBAE and career education in Tables 2.8 and 2.9 are then examined and compared with the cells of the reconceived model. If the reconceived assumptions are different from the other three, 35 Tue: 288906 3.16.. cognac Eco-35¢ to 858“ 2.3. 8.58 acorn foo-F wear—so.— roesh ease—.0 .308 2:: scenic—3 inflates—.... uSfiEexu .3. feats—scu— ud e305. .etos lea—8:060: 36 venom Eons—ago 51.31.88... cote-.....fi 8333!.- secs-e.— 3 coon-9.8 .9 5.3.850 ... cons-88 stage—seed ion-ease...— dfiSEflnm ..oe scales—ek— O.“ ...—IF 37 thereby demonstrating an accomodation has occurred, the theoretical assumptions of the model, being unique and different, are deemed valid. Mgthgdglggigal_galig§tignL As a criterion for validation of this aspect of the reconceived model the major methodological characteristics must be different from those of reconceptualism, CBAE and career education. Table 2.10 portrays the framework used in the examination and validation of this aspect of the reconceived model. The procedure is similar to that described above for theoretical validation. If the reconceived methodologies are different from those of the other three the model is deemed methodologically valid. e t tu es and WW Following the definition of the theoretical assumptions and major methodologies of the model, and following validation of these aspects as unique, the model development is completed through further definition of character- istics. As a part of this development key elements of the model are defined. Operational structures reflecting both community based and school based approaches are also described. Finally, the parameters of the model are characterized 38 .13: loo—.808 sin-gum season. 8.82.3 2:3 .83: E8150 53.3.1853: incite—flats .312 assassin ..2 ...—2:082“. O..." 039—. 39 a o t The conclusions drawn from the study are arrived at inferentially as a result of having developed a reconceived model of life concerns adult education based on the critiques of reconceptualism in relation to dominant life concerns education theory and practice. 40 efe ences Basner, Shari & Others. (1976). A eurriculum gnide for adult e cat s as e Adu t e ormanc Leve tud . Kingston: Rhode Island University. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 132 360) Facundo, B. (1984). Issues for an evaluation of Freire inspired programs in the United States and Puerto Rico. Reston, Va.: Latino Institute. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 243 998) Freire, P. (1973). Education for criticai consciousness. New York: Continuum Publishing Corp. Knape, C. and Rosewell, P.T. (1980). The philosophically discerning classroom teacher. Edncarionai Studiee, i1, (1), 37-47. Michigan State Department of Education. (1974). A_referen2e ° a e v lo m o s & forma c indieate_e. Lansing, Mich.: Michigan career education. Miller, J.P. (1983). The educational sneetrun. New York: Longman Inc., 1933. Mulder, R.L. (1983). A frameworh fer examining reconceptuaiism and deriving its possible inniicarions fer undergradnate iiherai arts teacher edueatien. Ph.D. Dissertation, Michigan State University. Reed, H.B. and Loughran, E. (1984). BQXQDQ_§QDQQL§. u ' ec no so ’ n so a develo men . Amherst, MA: University of Massachusetts. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 256 937) Saskatchewan Newstart. (1973a). Life skiiis coaching manual. Prince Albert, Sask.: Author. Saskatchewan Newstart. (1973b). The dynamics at iifie ekills eeaehing. Prince Albert, Sask.: Author. CHAPTER 3 AN ANALYSIS OF PHILOSOPHICAL POSSIBILITIES AND A CLARIFICATION OF THE ASSUMPTIONS OF THE RESEARCH Introdnerion In distinguishing between philosophy and theory it has been indicated that "philosophy is the study of how we acquire our beliefs. . . . [whereas] theory refers to a set of beliefs for which there is some, but not completely supporting, evidence "(Morris, 1976, p.4). A major value of philosophizing in education is to be able to explain our educational behaviour and relate it to a clarified set of beliefs (pp.5-7). In discussing the topic of life concerns adult education one is implicitly dealing with broad constructs and an extensive number of issues. This chapter borrows the tools of educational philosophy so as to deal with these constructs and issues in a managable way. Such a procedure permits a developmental perspective of educational thought and implies a variety of educational possibilities, some of which are further developed later in this study. 3 o a er This chapter has three primary purposes: 1. It is intended to describe philosophical perspectives influencing different life concerns education approaches. Such an approach will involve clarifying 41 42 different assumptions regarding reality, knowledge and value. In addition this includes specifying and summarizing persistent issues which are identified through this analaysis. 2. As a part of establishing perspectives this process involves reviewing dominant influences and also alternative assumptions which might imply other theories and practices in life concerns education. 3. This chapter also permits clarification of a set of philosophical assumptions, internal to the research, regarding reality, truth and value and those specified perisistent issues, mentioned above. The intent here is not to claim neutrality and the absence of philosophical bias or to attempt to eliminate philosophical bias. Instead the method is to deny the possibility of neutrality and to candidly define a bias which will be present in the examination of theory and practice. This clarification of assumptions will be in the form of a statement of philosophy of the study which will also serve as a philosophical. foundation of a reconceived model of life concerns education. As is evident later in this chapter, such a, choice of procedure i.e. to clarify and assert bias of belief, in itself reflects the influence of particular philosophical orientations present within this study. 4. Finally it is also a purpose of this chapter to assist in perceiving pattern and interrelationships of 43 ideas--many of which may not actually be specified in the text but will reflected internally in the personal development of the researcher. Again it is asserted that given a particular philosophical orientation such a stated humanistic, subjective purpose is as valid as those reflecting more conventional social-utilitarian orientations. It should also be pointed out that this chapter is not intended to be an indepth exploration of philosophy and philosophers. It examines the precedents and possibilities through a general review of philosophical orientations. This component of the research is conducted from the perspective of an educational practitioner and is designed to reconcile critiquing theory with dominant life concerns education theory and practice. Given this perspective and mandate, an indepth philosophical analysis is beyond the scope of the present study. s' u 'o ' 5 Morris (1976) suggests that there are essentially three basic questions underlying all philosophical concerns: 1. What is reality? Metaphysics is the study of what is real. This issue influences the questions we ask which lead to the answers we obtain. What people believe to be real affects their curiosity, i.e. what they study or explore, which in turn 44 affects what they come to know. When teachers ignore the metaphysical they run a risk of dogmatism (p.20). Ontology, a related term, is the study of existence, i.e. its meaning (p.28). 2. What is true? Epistemology is the study of knowledge and how we know. There are different possibilities regarding the nature of knowing (a) Does knowlege exist outside of us and is it placed into our minds? This orientation tends to reflect the beliefs of idealists and realists. (b) Perhaps the knower contributes something to the creation of knowledge through a transaction with the world--a common perception of the position of pragmatism. (c) Does man become the sole creator of his own unique, individual truth within reality? This latter assumption is associated with existentialist thought (pp.108-109). 3. What is good? Axiology is the study of value, i.e. what is good (ethics) and what is beautiful (aesthetics) (p.209). An educator might implicitly or explicitly perpetuate a given value system, criticize it or possibly encourage his students to critize social values. The approach taken or advocated will depend upon ones value assumptions (p.205). A related issue involves whether or not values are pre-existent to man and exist independently in the cosmos or whether they are made by man. The consideration of value is 45 particularly important as it influences one’s theory of reality (metaphysics), i.e. What do we prefer that the cosmos is like--pre-existent and other-made or man-made (pp.230-231)? Ove ew of e C a ter In this chapter the major philosophies of idealism, realism, pragmatism and existentialism will be described and their implications for education discussed. This discussion will include a general description of those philosophies, a reference to influential thinkers within each and specifying, within parentheses, recurrent issues which influence educational theory and practice. In addition the orientation of each philosophy to the nature of reality, truth and value will be discussed. Following this examination of precedents and possibilities a position will be clarified regarding persistent philosophical issues discovered. In addition a statement of beliefs will be articulated regarding the nature of reality, truth and vaIue. This process will serve to reveal the bias within theoretical and methodological proposals to be set forth later in the study. mm Idealism is the antithesis of materialism, stressing ideas. It is concerned with the metaphysical as opposed to the existential, the general versus particulars. The term really derives from "idea-ism" (Neff, 1966, pp.10-11) which 46 emphasizes ideas. Presently in schools the subject matter of ideas is given preference to the subject matter of things reflecting a belief that perfection reigns in the idea1--the world of ideas (mind/matter issue). This is a basic assumption of western thought which tends to be generally unquestioned and is particularly taken for granted at the post secondary level. The useful and that which is associated with concrete action is seen as of lesser value (thought/action issue) (Morris, 1976, pp.47-48). Elifig Of particular significance to the origins of idealism is the thought of Plato who ”influenced men to turn away from . . . the concrete and the observable and to occupy themselves . . . with . . . [the] absolute, eternal and unchanging" (Neff, 1966, p.12). Ideas alone were real: experience was a "shadow" (p.13) of reality. Truth existed already in "final form" (p.13). Man's perceptions are representations of reality obtained through the senses (Morris, 1976, pp.44-45). In effect such a comparison represents a dualism between the apparent and the real (The apparent/real issue) (Popper, 1971, p.30). In idealism the idea represents the "ideal institution.” Wisp During the seventeenth century idealism experienced a threat from rising materialism. Some thinkers could not 47 accept an extreme idealism which denied the reality of matter but at the same time they were unwilling to reject idealism so consequently attempted to incorporate both idealism and materialism (mind/matter issue). The resulting dualism has dominated educational theory to the present. (Neff, 1966, pp.17-18). Kant Transcendentalism is often called representative or critical idealism. Understanding projects from the mind to the world not the reverse. Kant referred to the "something out there" (Neff, 1966, p.22) which he called "the thing-in-itself" (p.22), something which could never be completely understood. Impressions and sensations were the content of knowedge. Categories of the mind allowing organization and integration were called the form of knowledge. The emphasis was on effort rather than interest. Kant was somewhat of a revolutionary at the time for changing the function of the learner from spectator to recreator, i.e. the mind is not passive but active (passive/active issue) in transforming the sensations of knowledge (pp.22-25). 8339.1 Post-Kantian idealism moved further toward absolutism conceiving of the universe as a thought process and a universal mind. Institutional idealism represents the belief that the most desirable state is when men are united 48 in a common moral purpose for example, the institution of the national state. Hegel in particular idealized the state in his philosophy and suggested there is only one kind of truth--reality, consequently knowledge can only be a part of truth but never completely truth. Dialectical movement was also a key aspect of Hegel's thought, i.e. opposing views are voiced against each other to reach a synthesis closer to the truth: only through this struggle between opposites can progress be made (Neff, 1966, pp. 26-29). The major purpose of education was to promote conflict as a value. Hegel believed in the need for a link between education and the national state. His philosophy was holistic in the sense that it concentrated on the relationship between the individual and the social order. The boundaries between the individual and society (individual/social issue), the cultural and practical (thought/action issue), and mind and body (mind/matter issue) were seen as artificial. Education would "liberate" the human mind by ”releasing" it to become a "creature of the state" (Neff, 1966, pp. 29-30). It was through social institutions that the self would be realized. Marx Karl Marx believed that the relationships of production constituted the societal economic structure. Further he believed that man’s social existence determined his consciousness not consciousness determining existence. Marx 49 adopted Hegel’s concept of dialectical process contending that modes of production and forces of production conflict historically. From this economic conflict a new synthesis occurrs reflecting the laws of dialectical movement (Beers, 1955). Man's ability to think and what he thinks are dictated by the mode of production. History has represented a conflict between social classes. Eventually a class representing the new mode of production will overthrow the ruling class. Evil is seen as being based in economic institutions and in the social power of capital which relies on exploiting wage labor (Beers, 1955). W Idealism is metaphysical because it is a theory of reality rather than a method of obtaining knowledge (Neff, 1966, p.35). Although knowledge and experience may . . . verify what. is true, they do not determine it. Idealism is essentially a metaphysics . . . in the sense that it attempts to rationalize and justify what is metaphysically true rather than to utilize experience and methods of knowledge as a basis for the formation of truth. . . . Ultimate knowledge . . . is never empirical. . . . (p.36). Ultimate knowledge rests in the unattainable realm of "pure ideas" (Morris, 1976, p.45) for which man strives but which will always be beyond his reach as they are absolute. 151W The epistemology of idealism is primarily characterized by attempts to grasp absolute ideas. To know is to grasp an idea or concept of things or events and retain it in the 50 mind. The idea retained represents knowledge through an awareness of the commonality of the things or events i.e. what they have in common, and how as an idea they imperfectly represent the ideal. In this sense the human mind communicates with the absolute mind which exists as a part of the absolute self. The mind is assumed to exist prior to human experience and is the means of explaining it. This differs from epistemological assumptions wherein the mind is primarily perceived to represent the results of experience. Man's independent ability to explain and organize his experience is his mind (Morris, 1976, pp.123-126). a Va To the idealist, ethical behaviour is absolute and represented through the "Infinite Person" (Morris, 1976, p.233). One way of seeking the ethics of the "Infinite Person” is to proceed from the individual to the group or collective in search of a "larger personhood" inhabiting mankind which would more closely approximate the "Infinite Person" through the "group mind". Because the group may not always be reliable, a preferable method is through Kant's seeking of hypothetical rules or inner principles relatively devoid of day-to-day experiences. The inner principles will eventually lead to "categorical imperatives" which will serve in all situations and consequently validate the 51 hypothetical rules. A "categorical imperative" is a universal law of conduct (pp.233-236). From the perspective of the idealist, beauty is represented through forms that most closely approximate the ideal. This would differ from an attempt to reflect literally what is sensed but would represent an attempt to "portray the world as the Infinite Person sees it, that is, in its perfect form" (Morris, 1976, pp.236-237). Wigs A succinct summary of the idealist philosophy of education is provided by Herman Horne: 1. Idealism is the conclusion that the universe is an expression of intelligence and will, that the enduring substance of the world is of the nature of mind, that the material is explained by the mental. 2. Idealism as a philosophy stands in contrast with systems of thought that center in nature (naturalism) or in man (humanism). 3. The order of the world is due to an eternal and spiritual reality. ' 4. Knowledge is man thinking the thoughts and purposes of eternal and spiritual reality as embodied in our world of fact. 5. Goodness is conformity of human will with the moral administration of the universe. 6. An idealistic philosophy of education is an account of man finding himself as an integral part of the universe of mind. 7. Mind is too unlike matter to be a derivative of matter--mind comes only from mind. 8. The learner is a finite person growing into the image of the infinite person; his real origin is deity, his nature is freedom, and his destiny is immortality. 52 9. Education in the final analysis is the upbuilding of humanity in the image of the divinity. 10. Reason, common sense, and experience all combined do not demonstrate the truth of the idealistic view of the universe (Herman Horne cited in Neff, 1966, p.37). The language of idealism is vague and speaks mainly about mental development and self-perfection while saying little about physical education and vocational training (thought/action issue). Values do not come from experience but require discovering (creating/discovering truth issue). Emphasis is placed on goals and values, upon purpose and the larger aims of human life emphasizing concern with universals and abstractions while often neglecting specific ways of translating these transcendental values into classroom procedures (Neff, 1966, pp.37-39). The teacher is viewed as a "paradigmatic self" (Morris, 1976, p.194), i.e. a model of the ideal self studying his field with dedication in attempts to "approximate the Absolute Mind" (p.194) (teacher/learner issue). Realism W119: Realists see reality as being based in the world of physical things and accompanying sensations. The world consists of matter which has form. The uniqueness of form in different things demonstrates the "principle of form" (Morris, 1976, p.50). As matter is the basis of all things it has the potential to become anything and to become something it has to assume form to actualize its potential. 53 Pure matter is nothing by itself other than possibility or potential for increasingly complex form. To understand this increasingly complex, ordered, patterned form is the task of human beings i.e. the "principle of reason" (p.51). As previously mentioned, Plato’s reality was based in ideas or forms, which were represented imperfectly as matter (mind/matter issue). Aristotle's realism perceived form as having being particularly because of its material characteristics (Neff, 1966, p.42). In other words the world consists of matter which has the property of form (Morris, 1976, p.50). This represented a rejection of the dualism of Plato regarding an apparent and a real world (apparent/real issue) (Popper, 1971). Aristotle's ideas also represented a dualism in terms of distinguishing form and matter but at the same time he held them to be inseparable; "matter was a representation of form and . . . form was the essence of matter" (p.43). He presented one world made of two substances and tended to equate form with the general and matter with the particular (Neff, 1966, p.43). The needs of the state were given preference over the needs of the individual (individual/social issue). As a result it was necessary for the state to control education to ensure a sense of community. Aristotle was concerned that education cultivate the intellect as opposed to concerns such as human development. These beliefs also 54 represented a condescension toward professionalism and vocationalism and tended to perpetuate class division. This encouraged the concept that activity is inferior to thought and that the two were contradictions (thought/action issue). If the intellect is properly cultivated other desired changes will occur (Neff, 1966, pp.45-47). The viewpoint of scientific realism suggests that the world, as we experience it physically, is reality and the elements comprising the physical world act according to established natural laws (Morris, 1976, pp.54-55). The physical cosmos is seen as independent of thought but the "final arbiter of human destiny "(Neff, 1966, p.58). W From the perspective of realism, truth is perceived as "independent of human knowledge." This is contradictory to the subjectivity of idealism which places truth within the minds of individuals. Realism denies the necessity of a knower for things to exist and instead of empirical procedures, rational methods are the means of investigation (Neff, 1966, p.41). Scholastic Realism uses the practical experiences of life for testing truth and practical experience must agree with our conclusions or we are just working with theory (thought/action issue). This is referred to as the "correspondence theory of knowledge" (Neff, 1966, p.45). It is important to realize that this correspondence does not 55 determine truth as opposed to an uncovering or discovery of truth (creation/discovering truth issue) (p.45). The discovery of truth stresses observation and classification through reliance on empiricism (Popper, 1971). Christian realism, espoused by Saint Thomas Acquinas, separated truth into two spheres--the natural and the supernatural. To reason on the basis of a priori premises was considered of greater validity than reasoning based on evidence. Learning involved acquiring as opposed to inquiring (passive/active issue). Like Aristotle, Aquinas believed that intellectual knowledge, theoretical and nonpractical was superior to that concerned with the natural, empirical and social (mind/matter and thought/action issues). He established aristotelianism as the philosophical basis of Christianity (Neff, 1966, pp.50-52) but felt that Aristotle's emphasis on essence through linking matter and form was a secondary concern and that inquiry into what things are was not as important as the meaning of existence (Morris, 1976, p.57). Basic to all things was existence. Essence is able to complete itself when it joins with existence to enable the "principle of actuality" (Morris, 1976, p.59); at the top of the hierarchy is Pure Being, the Being in whom the Principle of Existence reaches its absolute expression. Here Essence and Existence are no longer divided: they are one. For it is the essence of this Being to exist. (p.59) 56 Neo-thomism represents the twentieth century updating of St. Thomas’s thirteenth century writings with the most significant concept being the potentiality-actuality principle, a teleogical idea, i.e. the belief wherein the universe or man is seen as moving toward a destiny. According to thomism the destiny is absolute being (Morris, 1976, pp.59-60). Education of the neo-thomist would focus on revealing "Absolute Truths of the cosmos" (Morris, 1976, p.88). Classical (intellectual) realism considers intellect as independent of experience (thought/action issue) and the purpose of education is to train the intellect stressing the learning fundamentals, the importance of subject matter, with a minimal emphasis on human development. The purpose of education is to transmit the heritage; curriculum requirements take precedence over individual differences. Stress is on an education for culture, i.e. the best of the culture (Neff, 1966, pp.54-5S). Physical development, awareness of current issues and preparation for life are not education; when the intellect is properly developed other development happens; without it nothing occurs. Objects are specific but it is their forms that are real (Neff, 1966, pp.54-57). Teachers within this philosophical framework perform the role of a disciplinarian of the mind, i.e. training the faculties which await development. Fact not opinion is emphasized (Morris, 1976, p.196). 57 Scientific realism differs from the above in that the emphasis is on sense data, empirical observation, and scientific method. The ordering and quantification of such data through science constitute man's only true knowledge, and all else must be labeled as speculation" (Neff, 1966, p.58). The emphasis is on conformity, through mastering content, as opposed to creativity and appears to demonstrate a mechanistic perspective in regard to man and the universe. It implies that cause is external to man and man is a responder (passive/active issue). There is a "reductionist tendency to equate all human qualities with their quantitative counterparts" (Neff, 1966, p.64). Teachers within this philosophical framework demonstrate the workings of the world. The personality or selfhood of the teacher is of little relevance and might even be an obstacle to disclosure of reality (Morris, 1976, p.195). To the realist the world we experience is the real world independent of human plans and purposes. To obtain knowledge does not require an explanation of reality. Man’s task is to uncover the laws of nature. One may proceed in gathering knowledge without having to justify the reality on which the process is based. Man observes and describes the workings of the world as a spectator using all his sensory capacities. Natural law which extends also to the affairs of man can be discovered through careful and rigorous observation (Morris, 1976, pp.130-132). Realism establishes 58 its epistemology on the "theory of correspondence" (Morris, 1976, p.135) which suggests that descriptions of the world do correspond to its reality. This is done through direct sensing, scientific methods and discovering the essence of the thing under study (pp.135-136). Bealism.aud_!alue Discovering natural laws and using them as guides to conduct represents the ethics of the realist. Nature contains moral law. Morality extends beyond considerations of utility for man, reflecting "laws of the cosmos". Man's task is to learn these universal laws and act accordingly (Morris, 1976, pp.238-240). To the realist beauty is a reflection of the laws of nature. Nature already contains beauty in the form of pattern, order and design and man’s attempts to create beauty should reflect an effort to realistically emulate these characteristics (Morris, 1976, p.240). Pragmatism Pragmatism (experimentalism) was the American contribution to philosophy (Neff, 1966, p.65). The experimentalist sees the world we experience as all we have to work with: experience is where thought begins and enables us to evaluate our truth. It is important however to verify truth through the experience of others. Experience includes more than the senses, it is also what people "do and think and feel" (Morris, 1976, pp.63-64). 59 Truth comes from testing hypotheses and is a result not only of the data but also the methodologies; as methods improve truth is modified, i.e. truth can change. The inductive method is used, not rationalization, data, instead of speculation based on authority. "Processes and relationships assume greater significance than reified notions and spiritual ’essences’" (process/essence issue) (Neff, 1966, pp.65-66). Tradition is viewed skeptically (Morris, 1976, p.266). Mum Because of the influence of the thought of John Dewey on North American pragmatism and schooling practice, his ideas will be briefly reviewed. Dewey felt that education was a process that occurred through communication and was as essential to social life as was nutrition and reproduction to physiological life. The danger was one of splitting experience gained in school from experience gained in more direct situations. Developing particular attitudes and tendencies in learners could not be done directly but required intermediate experience with the environment (Dewey, 1916, pp.1-11). He claimed that when schools departed from the "educational conditions effective in the out-of-school environment," (p.46) pseudo-intellectualism was substituted for "social spirit" Methodologically schooling should involve simplifying and ordering [the tendencies to be developed], purifying and idealizing the existing 60 social customs, [and] creating a wider and better balanced environment than that by which the young would be likely, if left to themselves, to be influenced (p.27). Social control was achieved through the learner being aware of the nature of the situation in which he was participating and the behaviour of others. This enabled the learner’s becoming aware of a pending common result understood by the learning participants. "This common understanding of the means and ends of action is the essence of social control "(p.47). Dewey’s persepective on education included perceiving it as developmental growth. Education, growing, developing and life were synonomous. This meant that the educational process of reorganizing, reconstructing, and transforming was to be ultimately valued as an end in itself. Education naturally led to more education. Schooling was valuable to the degree that it created a desire for continued growth (Dewey, 1916, pp.59-62). The dualism between mind and subject matter (mind/matter issue) was a false one and both teacher and student were to concentrate on ”taking advantage of the needs and possibilities of the immediate present" (p.79) so as to master the skills of "initiative, inventiveness, and readaptability" (p.80). These capabilities are developed within the context of interaction with the environment (p.83). Dewey defined education as "that reconstruction or reorganization of experience which adds to the meaning of experience and which increases 61 ability to direct the course of subsequent experience" (pp.89-90). With such a definition the dualism between past and future (past/future issue) was rendered meaningless in that during the continuous process of experience reconstruction the future was accomodated to the past and the past was "a resource in developing future" (pp.92-93). In education however the developing of future was to be based on orderly outgrowth from existing conditions, having aims which were flexible, and focusing on process not focusing on things. Education was process not preparation. Within education, aims were to be based upon the activities and needs of the learner, capable of translation into workable methodologies which lead to later reflections on the aims (pp.121-128). Dewey argued against education serving a purpose of habituating the individual to social control but rather contended that social efficiency should be achieved through "positive use of native individual capacities in occupations having social meaning "(Dewey, 1916, p.139). In particular this involved industrial competency, i.e. being able to earn a living, but not to the point of requiring individuals to fit an existing economic condition (individual/social issue). One had missed his calling if he could not find internal worth and fulfillment in his economic service to others. To Dewey social efficiency meant not preparing for providing service to others but cultivating the power of 62 individuals "to join freely and fully in shared or common activities" (pp.143-144). John Dewey did not extol activity and interaction to the exclusion of thought or reflection. Reflection was a means of perceiving the relationships between one's actions and consequences. To reflect was to accept responsibility for the future consequences of action. To think was to make connections between action and consequences and the value of knowledge was subordinate to its utility in the process of thinking. The first stage of thinking was experience and learning was a result of doing. Such a perception by Dewey defined away the apparent dualism between thought and action (thought/action issue). Within schools the teacher was to participate in the student’s learning and promote the relevancy of learning to everyday life (pp.163-192). "Method is a statement of the way the subject matter of an experience develops most effectively and fruitfully" (p.211). Subject matter exists only within a given context and the teacher’s responsibility is to concentrate on the the learner’s current needs and abilities at their point of interaction with fixed subject matter (pp.212-215). The essence of methodology was to (a) ensure an activity of intrinsic interest to the student, (b) development of a problem within the activity as a stimulus for thought, (c) providing the required information and observations, (d) development of alternative solutions, and (e) solution 63 testing (p.192). Because of the social responsibilities of education, the situations of study require relevancy to the problems of social existence and transferability to out of school situations. Subjects such as geography and history were valuable in regard to their potential contribution to the common topic of the association of man and the holistic reality of his world (pp.226-248). "Scientific form is an ideal to be achieved, not a starting point" (p.257) but is valuable only in relation to the experience of the learner. Pupils should not learn a science but rather a "scientific way of treating the familiar material of ordinary experience" (p.257). "Science is experience becoming rational" (p.263). Through science man is able to make his individual experience available to all men thereby contributing to social progress. The ultimate value of education, and synonomous with education, is the act of living. In a democratic society this involves the ability of all to participate in service and leisure. This precludes a more limited schooling of people solely for work with their hands so as to prepare them not for the results of their own actions but the results of the actions of their employers (pp.281-304). Labor should be "intellectually fruitful and not merely externally productive" (p.322). To the degree that schooling concentrates primarily on external production it 64 risks reflecting the interests of a particular social class rather than mankind (p.339). 'sm a Metaphysics refers to an idea perceived as "beyond the physical, apart from experience, or independent of knowledge" (Neff, 1966, p.71). Dewey suggests that "the chief characteristic of the pragmatic notion is precisely that no theory of reality in general . . . is possible or needed” (Neff, 1966, p.71). Ideas are plans of action rather than fixed concepts and truth is a result of scientific methodology subject to public scrutiny and validation, critical, "as distinguished from private and uncareful--acceptance" (p.72). Essentially it is a metaphysics of process and experience. Whereas traditional philosophies such as idealism, and realism regard metaphysics as a thing or substance, experimentalists regard. it as a process i.e. a moving phenomenon. It uses reflective thinking under controlled and verifiable situations: there are no pre-established truths (Morris, 1976, pp.67-68). W Pragmatism is more interested in how we know truth than in the nature of truth; it is more epistemological than metaphysical. Knowledge is to be distinguished from belief. Belief may be a private concern in education but purported knowledge must be capable of demonstration. Whereas 65 traditional empiricism stressed proven procedures and outcomes, pragmatism is more concerned with potential for action. Traditional empiricism conceives of the senses as a bridge between knower and objects while pragmatism views perception as an interaction between the knower and the known. Dewey used the concept of transaction to describe this interaction (Neff, 1966, pp.73-74). The pragmatism of Dewey emphasized an ongoing reconstruction of experience to facilitate the process of knowledge integration. The method of inquiry was to be scientific and truth was an abstract concept to describe consequences confirmed through empirical means (Neff, 1966, pp.75-77). Dewey believed that effective learning was primarily concerned with "reflection (past, present, future,), experiment, and revision” (Schwab, 1959). These theories involved a synthesis of the practical and the scientific with a futuristic orientation and generation of knowledge which moved beyond the practical (Schwab, 1959). "Ideas are important insofar as they become instrumental to the reorganization of experience and of the environment, or to the alleviation of a condition that needs to be remedied" (Neff, 1966, p.77). "Basic freedom is that of freedom of mind and of whatever degree of freedom of action and experience is necessary to produce freedom of intelligence" (Dewey, cited in Hook, 1971, p.23). To Dewey experience was not knowledge 66 but interaction and was not a private phenomenon. Meaning was obtained only with experience, involved future as well» as past and present, and was naturally connected to the potential for logic and inference (Bourke, 1975). A present day dilemma with the concentration on scientific and instrumental investigation is that of being caught between two conflicting epistemologies, i.e. knowing that "conceives truth as its product and one which locates truth beyond knowledge and . . . as having prior existence" (creating truth/discovering truth issue) (Neff, 1966, p.78). Whereas pragmatism views truth as the product of knowing, the earlier influences of idealism and realism still influence the counter viewpoint of truth as existing beyond knowledge. In regard to the traditional dualism of theory and action (the thought/action issue) and which was of greater importance, Dewey's concepts were novel. Thought was itself praxis in the sense that it was purposive, directed toward problem solving and action . . . Thought partook of the logic and form of judgments in experience. In this respect, Dewey’s solution to the thought/action dualism was to define it out of existence. (Bourke, 1975, p.6) 5 v e To the pragmatist, values arise out of a perceived need to change a given situation. The nature of the change is always relative to the current situation. Change for the better is achieved through application of the scientific method to ethical questions. There is concern for community in that the validity of the change is based not on the 67 individual so much as the degree to which the change has value for the community. Through such an approach of public valuing a community can come to general agreement as to a better civilization. In the process of attempting to reach this agreement, however, new values emerge which lead to an unending process of values refinement within a continually changing moral environment. As a result of this emphasis on process, desired ends do not become static perceptions with utopian characteristics. The process of pursuing and modifying values is more valued than the products of such a process (process/essence issue) (Morris, 1976, pp.251-253). A teacher reflecting the philosophy of pragmatism would not regard learners as passive but rather as iniators (passive/active issue). The role of teacher would be to orchestrate the transactions between the learner and environment. Learning would be orchestrated, however, so that the learner arrived at moral conclusions likely to be sanctioned and validated by society (individual/social issue). If, however, a greater morality is discovered than that which is socially sanctioned, the possible need for social reform is held out and the learner will be expected to work toward its change in the future. The school is seen as having as part of its mission the scrutiny of public standards. Choices are based on scientific procedures validated through group processing (Morris, 1976, pp.197-285). 68 El !° . 3! !° The educational aspects of pragmatism became partially subsumed within the progressive education movement which gained prominence in the early 1900’s. Progressive education had existed twenty five years before the first world war as an attempt to reshape the role of the school as an agent of social and political change. Dewey protested about the irrelevance of education and suggested that the problems in education were related to the dilemmas of industrialism. As a result of radical social change related to industrialism, he contended that the school should take on many of the expectations formerly associated with agrarian life and agrarian households (Cremin, 1960). As a result of the progressive era, stress was laid on techniques such as learning by doing, the project method etc., instead of the passive reception of information. This student centered approach reflected a change from a curriculum centered approach to one stressing individual student concerns, needs, talents, interests, and abilities. Sidney Hook (1971) has pointed out two major misinterpretations of Dewey's philosophy: (a) The belief that he opposed authority because of his stress on freedom and (b) that he believed all experiences to be educative. Progressive education and pragmatism are not necessarily synonomous as progressive education is based upon a theory of development while, 69 the latter is based upon a distinctive theory of knowledge-getting....pragmatic education has yet to be born...It's social mission is the liberation of human intelligence...through the social medium" (Neff, 1966, p.86). u a ' 5 st During the 1920's the student centered theories of progressive education dominated but in the 1930's the reconstructionist movement took prominence. It was not sufficient to develop the student’s creativities and adaptive skills so that the better society would be created indirectly; educators were to identify social problems and deliberately use the school to improve the situation. The student was not to be prepared to simply adjust to social change but to influence it directly (Mix, 1972). George Counts (1932) advocated that the school deal directly with the social situation and pursue particular social principles and ideals as opposed to perpetuating institutions and ideas. He criticized the limitations of the progressive education movement for narrowly conceiving learning in relation to "life situations and growth of character" (p.10) while neglecting social direction (individual/social issue). He also criticized the movement for a preoccupation with individualism, benefitting only the liberal upper middle class, and protecting both their life style and naivete of reality outside their social class and the effort involved in exploring that reality. Schooling only dealt with life at a distance. The crucial issue in 70 education to Counts was the quality and quantity of influence the school should use (p.10). Curriculum was to involve world knowledge and be open to allow the exploration of any theory or viewpoint. All schooling involves imposition and not admitting that imposition increases the probability of concealing prejudice. It was argued that educators should make choices regarding the attitudes that will be developed in students. School and society were to be bound together. To claim an educational goal of preparing the individual to adjust to social change was anarchical by promoting individual security over social security and ensuring "insane competition" (p.10). Plans for social construction should dominate over individual advancement. This reconstructionist position in particular highlights the dualism between the individual and the collective (individual/social issue) (pp.18-27). As imposition will always be an educational reality, teachers should become a social force and take responsibility for imposition. A major imposition would be that of bridging school and society with particular attention to national and international economic issues affecting poverty, injustice and the enslavement of man in consumption. Schools were to become the centers for building a new civilization if they were to be effective. Learners should be given a vision of the socially possible 71 and encouraged to critically examine existing social linstitutions and practices such as the purposes of and primary beneficiaries of industrialism, science and technology. Values promoted in schools would specifically advocate that these institutions must function for the benefit of the masses. Counts promoted collective ownership and the abandonment of individualism in economics (individual/social issue). Fundamental changes to the economic system were to be promoted by schooling as a means to remedying social inequality (Counts, 1932, pp.28-54). Harold Rugg felt that individualism and the laissez-faire tradition were incompatible with a social system which required interdependency. Exploitation had alienated man from the group. Emphasis should be on "individual and collective health" (Reitman, 1972, p.47) instead of "materialism and competition" (p.48). Society could be reintegrated through lifelong, community oriented educational programs. Curriculum was to be centered in culture with strands of study to focus on scientific, technological, social, moral-ethical and educational revolution as well as the institutions of culture, government, war and peace, and a critical evaluation of the American way of life. Actualization of the learner allowing for transcendence above the culture was also to be a priority as self-actualized persons were necessary to social 72 reconstruction through development of the "social-self" (p.57). Brameld (1962, pp.3-39), as a major premise, suggested that America and the world were "passing through one of the greatest periods of transformation in the history of mankind "(p.3). Such a transformation required more defined critiques and long range goals. He also contended that education was an "agency of culture." Brameld felt that man could not afford to be satisfied with minor or incremental change. Basic change through "a thorough refashioning of principles and institutions (p.39)" was essential. It was suggested by Brameld that three dominant educational theories were influencing educational practice. These he summarized as essentialism, perennialism and progressivism. Essentialism reflected a theory based on the philosophies of realism and idealism. A negative influence of essentialism's assumption of objectivity was the belief that man should determine objectivity and adjust to it. Another major criticism of essentialism by Brameld was that it was outmoded and served the purpose of unconsciously perpetuating "established moral, political, and other attitudes and habits of thought which . . . have demonstrated their deficiency" (p.10). Brameld's theoretical construct of perennialism was based on the philosophy of neo-Thomism with its accompanying clerical and secular wings. Those holding such theoretical 73 assumptions he felt assumed the end of education to be possessing "everlasting, timeless, and spaceless principles of reality, truth, and value (p.11)." These principles would serve as standards of behavioral guidance. Such a belief assumes the leadership of "philosopher-kings" (p.15). Brameld of course disagreed with such an approach wherein the "public and experimental process" was to be replaced with "metaphysical wisdom" (p.15). Although admitting to the influence of progressivism on his thinking, Brameld criticized its emphasis on the individual to the detriment of the social (individual/social issue). In addition he expressed concern about its preoccupation with process while neglecting goals (process/essence issue). This lack of an ideological commitment to goals was perceived as a major weakness. A purpose of reconstructionism was to improve upon the concepts of progressivism. In particular it was seen as strong in its use of the scientific method, teaching how to think, fostering "active intelligence . . . individual self-expression and individual action" (p.6) and strong in tolerance for varying beliefs. Bealit¥_and_reeenstruetieni§m. In describing his beliefs about reality Brameld (1962, pp.47-59) summarized a number of social dualisms which he referred to as "schizoid tendencies". These included the conflict between self and society, equality and inequality, planlessness and planning, 74 nationalism and internationalism, absolutism and experimentalism, and man being both for himself individually and against himself within the context of internal cultural conflict. The reconstructionist feels that traditional evolutionary perspectives have focused too much on the individual struggle within the social group. He also feels that failure of the individual to succeed is too frequently regarded as a weakness of the individual as opposed to a weakness of the group or society. History is particularly of importance in understanding the assumptions of reconstructionism (Brameld, 1962, pp.60-72). Two major constellations of forces are deemed of historical importance--those of maintaining the traditional order and those of the ”industrial and agricultural working groups of all nations" (p.64). Freedom within the context of history is a process of contraction and expansion. Organic unity or collectivism is important as a principle of historical development, particularly given the world integrative effect of technological, communication and transportation advances. Future is seen as an important extension of history and something to be planned in relation to it (past/future issue). Irnth_and_reeenetrnerienienr A reconstructionist orientation to knowledge beliefs (Brameld, 1962, pp.73-110) is distinguished from the progressivist position in that progressivism focuses on the processes of goals setting, 75 devising strategies, revising goals, revising strategies; process is the central concern. Reconstructionism suggests that this focus on process prevents the definition and stabilization of ends or products (process/essence issue). Goals are fixed by man not within man's being. The "means-end process" (p.79) should be more than just a dynamic process; it should reflect a "growing toward" (p.79) a defined end. The goal is more than process. The nature of the goals selected determine the nature of subsequent thought and the nature of the knowledge gained. Brameld suggested that it is possible to determine world goals and that goal seeking is necessary so as to be able to properly construct the practices and institutions of the future. To be aware of unity and wholeness, "prehension" (p.81), is a major principle of knowledge within reconstructionism. An analogy may be made to the concept of pattern versus atomization (holism/reductionism issue) in learning. Techniques such as the scientific method should be used in service to prehension. Goal seeking of the individual may be prehended as goal seeking of the total culture. Brameld suggested that eastern cultures were based in prehensive (pattern) orientations whereas those of the West were based in apprehensive (atomistic) techniques. The two required fusion. Ideology is also an important concept in understanding Brameld’s (1962) description of the reconstructionist 76 beliefs about knowledge. This concept he describes as reflecting the "complex of attitudes, beliefs, ideas, purposes and customs that expresses . . . the program and practices of a culture" (p.87). His term for summarizing ideology is "word picture" (p.87). Ideologies serve the purpose of rationalizing practices of a culture and are historical in nature. They are not however always true reflections of actual practices within the culture due to developmental distortion. Ideology frequently serves as a means of preserving cultural practices and institutions even when the validity of those practices or institutions may be suspect. With the emerging technologies being in control of those in society who oppose change, new weapons of ideological communication are available to prevent change. Reconstructionists create utopias as means of critiquing the current cultural practices as hidden within ideology. Brameld (1962, pp.92-103) also emphasizes the need for more concentration on obtaining social consensus as a means of determining goals and the future (individual/social issue). The social goals to be determined should reflect an international cultural design. Closely related to these constructs is Brameld's concept of the "group mind" (pp.103-107) as both end and means. As an end it reflects individuals joining together in some purpose: frequently this purpose is determined by the "dominant technological, socio—economic pattern (p.104)." Group mind as means 77 represents the strategies, determined by social consensus, to be used in developing a new order (Individual/Social issue). Knowledge is distinguished from truth (Brameld, 1962, pp.107-109) in that knowledge represents agreed upon experiences whereas truth is a utopian concept which reflects content within the group agreement regarding ends and means. XQlQfi.§fl§.§§§2£§££2§§i§fli§fl. In a discussion of reconstructionist beliefs about value (Brameld, pp.111-146) it is pointed out that reconstructionism is in opposition to theories which deem values to be absolute or separate from other aspects of philosophy. Values are a part of goals. The reconstructionist is particularly interested in cultural realities that affect values. Although it is necessary to distinguish between the methods and products of value seeking as opposed to those of truth determination, the difference is one of degree only. Brameld identifies what he calls the "supreme value" (p.118) i.e. "social-self realization" (p.118) (individual/social issue). The individual is free to achieve both social and individual values. The self is not isolated but is "integral with others" (p.119). Social-self realization represents an experience which is simulataneously centered on the social and the self. This is the "all-embracing value" (p.119) of the reconstructionist. The focus is not either the 78 individual or the group but rather the individual and the group simultaneously. Brameld points out that within the encompassing value of social-self realization can be found general agreement on both social and individual value being placed on nourishment, dress, shelter, sexual expression, health, income, belongingness, status, creativity, information, sharing, and immediate meaning. To the extent that mankind can achieve consensus on values such as these and consensus as to means of achieving these values as end goals, social-self realization can be achieved. Brameld indicates that educational systems in particular are guilty of not defining clear values. A task is to convince the majority of the common values they now hold but which may be vague or concealed from them. A part of the consensus building process is to demonstrate that the majority is currently dominated by a minority that uses its instruments to perpetuate the belief that the best interests of the majority are served through that minority. The resulting struggle however is not so much one of the majority against the minority so much as a struggle between the controlling minority and a minority of critics. Existentialism. Existentialism represents a denial of any systematic beliefs. Man is alienated within his existence. Man concentrates on the inner self and and is relatively detached from the world around him. Emphasis is on the self 79 not the cosmos or social order (individual/social issue) (Tesconi, 1975, pp.266-267). Existentialism may not be a philosophy so much as it represents a humanistic attitude by virtue of its concerns with the pursuit of values and authentic existence (Macquarrie, 1972, p.28). Self-questioning is important so men can more deeply understand life as mutually shared (p.42). Popper (1971) has suggested that existentialism does not "qualify as a ’system of philosophy’; it is a ’philosophy of feeling and intuition'" (p.32) with two primary emphases--theistic and atheistic. Existentialism begins with existence itself not thought systems. Existence is seen as fundamental, nonrational and more fundamental than man's philosophies, arts, religions, sciences, etc. "Human nature is whatever man chooses to become through assuming responsibility for the choices he makes" (Neff, 1966, p.96). In other words, man asserts himself. "Existence precedes essence" (p.96) means that existence cannot be denied whereas essence merely reflects interpretations of existence (essence/existence issue). To be, means to be engaged in choosing" (Morris, 1976, p.255). This leads to the repudiation of absolutes (p.257). Influences on the formation of existentialist thought include thinkers such as Kierkegaard, Nietsche, Sartre and Buber (Neff, 1966, p.96). 80 Kierkegaard believed the individual "achieved selfhood by effecting an infinite rapport between himself and whatever destiny he chooses to embrace" (Neff, 1966, p.97). He saw Christianity not as being but as becoming and the individual as motivated by "the passion of freedom" (p.97). Reflecting an atheistic perspective, Nietsche challenged man to rely upon himself (Neff, 1966, p.98). He speaks of the concept of "self-surpassing as an on-going, never completely realizable goal" (Hillesheim, 1969, p.357). Action is required for self surpassing but if it is to be meaningful reflection and solitude are essential (thought/action issue). The essence of culture is its composition of self-surpassing individuals. For man to act meaningfully it is necessary for him to discover himself and his capacities. "Meaningless unreflective actitivy is the vice of modern times" (p.359). The need is for a fusion of practical action with ideas born of reflection. God, Nietzsche claims, is dead so consquently man's potential replaces God. Sartre, also atheistic, put forward the idea that existence precedes essence and that man is what he makes of himself or the result of how he self-defines. Man's responsibility however is not just to himself but to mankind generally (individual/social issue). Sartre believed that despite man's attempts to order or structure his existence through religions, sciences, arts, etc. his existence really 81 does not include such structures or qualities. These structures only exist within the existence of the individual as he attempts to shape human living and accepts the inevitable responsibilites of doing so (Neff, 1966, pp. 98-100). More basic than man's reason or emotion is his freedom. Man’s acts are his expression of freedom. "Being-in-itself" is the fact of an individuals existence and his awareness of it. "Being-for-itself" is the freedom of one’s consciousness to choose its relationship to the "being-in-itself." Education’s priority should be to man’s freedom of choice and projection of himself. Man as a learner requires an awareness of authentic existence which according to Sartre is the "ultimate ethical value" (Knitter, 1981). Basic to Buber's thought is the idea that the essence of man’s existence resides not in "man’s existing for himself nor in society’s existing for itself, but in man's existing with man" (Cohen, 1979, p.339). When referring to "We," Buber refers not to the the collective but to the "active principle which underlies the whole history of the spirit and action" (p.341). ”1" however is more permanent and continuous. The growth of the inner self is a result of man relating with one another. Martin Buber was aware of the danger of the collective jeopardizing man's existential choosing (Individual/Social issue) claiming that in association with the collective, man 82 must be faithful to "the whole of his being . . . to God" (Cohen, 1979, p.337). The choice between individualism and collectivism is an illusion. There is no common doctrine of existentialism but it does begin with man not nature. It perceives man as an existent as opposed to a thinking subject--existence precedes essence meaning that man defines himself only after he experiences his existence (essence/existence issue). Existentialism rejects idealism so that the things of awareness are not confused with the awareness of things. In a comparison of idealism and existentialism Macquarrie (1972, pp.14-30) points out that although both are philosophies of subjectivism, the idealist commences with man as thinking subject whereas the existentialist's starting point is man’s being-in-the-world--the former stresses ideas where the latter begins with existence among things. Existentialist thought perceives pragmatism as socializing man to the point of destroying his unique character--a result of objectifying and abstracting to the point of distorting man's reality. Existentialism and pragmatism are similar in that they oppose abstract intellectualism, promote a relationship between thought and action, involve a reliance on faith, and fulfillment of humanity. They differ however in that pragmatism evaluates truth in relation to biological and utilitarian criteria 83 with less concern for inwardness (Macquarrie, 1972, pp. 26-31). Exietenee Within existentialist thought man stands out and refuses to be absorbed into a particular system. He becomes aware of his existence, takes over this awareness and its potential of becoming. Man’s existence is dynamic in terms of continually moving beyond his present existence i.e. transcendence. As man is unfinished, descriptions of him cannot be static but must be descriptive of his potential. Man is self-reflecting by virtue of his ability to perceive his existence and potential: this existence is a unique being-in-the world. Theistic existentialists see man as transcending toward God whereas the atheistic existentialists see man as transcending toward nothingness (Macquarrie, 1972, pp. 66-78). Themld The world is not an independent entity but instead is man’s experience of his total environment; he is involved in continual interraction with the world. In service to his needs he engages in continual expansion of it. "Concern" (Macquarrie, 1972, p.84) refers to the means by which man's interests and needs affect the world--the experience of unity and system within the world arise from man's expression of concern: i.e. the world becomes an extension of man and is man centered. Man can however become subject 84 to, and possibly may become a slave of, his own creations and risk his full existence. Man does require basic and minimal needs but the satisfaction of these needs may lead to the acquisitive society and an infinite desire to possess. Existentialism does not reject science so much as it rejects "scientism" as the only means of perception. Life can only be privately interpreted and science is not capable of addressing the most important issue of the meaning of life (pp.79-101). chere Man is an existent in ongoing interraction with other existents. According to existentialist thought, stress on either individualism or collectivism in other philosophies misses the reality of man's already existing with others as part of an ongoing whole (individual/social issue). If however the mass coalesces to gain unwarranted power over the individual, i.e. the imposition of uniformity which results in the suppression of excellence, the mass becomes god and as a result man exists in a false being-with-others (Macquarrie, 1972, pp.104-121). Wing Existence is broader than thinking and precedes it. To the existentialist there is not a problem in determining the nature of knowledge as the problem is a false one in that it creates an unnecessary dualism. "I act," replaces "I think." Thinking is a part of action (thought/action 85 issue). This avoids creating other dualisms of "mind and matter, body and soul, self and world" (Macquarrie, 1972, p.126). Man throws himself into his possibilities and constructs a world of meaning. Knowing happens through participation with the subject matter not its observation, particularly when it involves the study of man. Man makes himself through his activities and liberates himself both from and toward something (Macquarrie, 1972, pp.125-181). Language Language is linked with existence in that it is possessed by someone and addressed to someone. Man should not just accept words as heard but should make them his interpretation. To make words one's own necessarily leads to a critical review of tradition (Macquarrie, 1972, pp. 145-148). 5.9.9.8121 The ideal society would promote individual development and freedom to criticize anything that inhibits the dignity of human development (Macquarrie, 1972, pp.235-238). If a society is to be authentic it will not specify value to its populace but will encourage the individual to stand alone and search for the good and the meaning of his existence (individual/social issue) (Morris, 1966, p.103). Edmtieu Human knowing is the only true reality. We experience or find ourselves in existence and the act of making choices 86 during this existence provides us the essence we are seeking. "Our existence is given; we wake up to it. Our essence is what is in question: it becomes our project" (Morris, 1976, p.71). The mission of education is to encourage the student to live by examining the apparent meaninglessness of his existence and attempting to find his own meaning and values (creating truth/discovering truth issue). Such a view is distinctly different from the implied "drawing out" implied in a neo-thomist view, the "taking in" of the realist approach, or the forming of socially sanctioned dispositions advocated within the framework of pragmatism. The existentialist would critique all of the former because they imply creating an agreed upon product to be used for fulfilling human nature, absorbing subject matter, assuming an objective concept of culture, and forming fundamental dispositions. These approaches make the student an object. An existentialist would likely define education as a process which would bring to the learner an awareness of his subjective existence in the world and his possibilities for value creation as a part of becoming through living. The world is meaningless in that it awaits our subjective assigning of meaning to it through human creation. Education must alert the learner to his responsibility of assigning meaning and making choices. (Morris, 1966, pp.105-112). 87 Existentialism is not a systematic philosophy and as a result does not convey rules or doctrine for education so much as it represents ”a spirit or attitude that would pervade the whole educational enterprise" (Neff, 1966, p.101). As in experimentalism, an emphasis is placed on the subjective with regard for the individual but whereas experimentalism regards the social order as necessary for the individual to define himself, existentialism suggests that an appropriate social order will come into existence as a result of man defining himself (p.101). Methodologically it would provide the learner with "a knowledge and awareness of all the ideological choices people have ever made" (Morris, 1976, p.267) and finally return the learner to himself and awarness of individual isolation in choosing and knowing. Pedagogy would stem from releasing the learner from all moral doctrines so as to author his own values. Teachers within this approach might perceive their primary mission as awakening the learner to the moral aspects of life: morality is to be discovered from subjectivity within, not from without, as is the implication of the other philosophies (Morris, 1976, pp.198-285: Morris, 1966, pp.110-111). "It is a fundamental problem of education to reinstate the primacy of the individual over both the machine and the social order” (individual/social issue) (Neff, 1966, p.102). Existentialist thought denies the need for education to be 88 problem oriented or working for social reconstruction as opposed to discovering one’s self and the meaning of human life (Morris, 1976). Martin Buber saw the possibility of educating a generation "to authentic social consciousness and to a real sense of political purpose" (Cohen, 1979, p.335). Education was "the antithesis of propaganda" which ignored the individual, taking no real interest in his humanity. The intention of the state and its political parties is to use propaganda to influence the public with a purpose already determined and which the public will believe that it has generated of its own accord. Buber felt that education should ensure spontaneity in human association through "development of the private self and of personal modes of thought" (p 335). The tendency to politicize education required elimination. Buber was concerned with the nature of how society would realize itself, the roles of the individual and community, and the "nature of the sphere of the interhuman" in pursuit of "true communion". Buber warns of the dangers of technology enslaving man: a problem facing man is to learn how to harness his technology. Instead of the machine being an extension of man, man is becoming an extension of the machine (Cohen, 1979, p.344). Economics, technology and the state are forces against man's self-realization (Cohen, 1979) (individual/social issue). 89 "Social education is an invitation to human encounter; it is a preparation for maintaining dialogue, an instrument that assists men towards becoming accessible to one another, to nature, and to God" (Cohen, 1979, p.355). e s en 'a s e 's Claiming that Dewey’s views tend to omit providing a means for exploring one's personal identity, Troutner (1969) attempts to synthesize the two philosophical positions of Dewey and Heidegger. Whereas Dewey questions "What is man?" the existential question is "Who is man?" The first question views man as an object for study while the second question addresses the subjective aspect of individuals. Dewey viewed man's experience as continuous and compatible with nature, but the existentialist position sees man as no longer at home in the natural environment as it has been sacrificed by man, i.e. the mythologies and "slow rythms of the world of nature" (p.127) are gone. According to Troutner (1969), Dewey's perception of life was narrow as it represented a mere interaction between the organism and its environment. It did not focus on man's lived reality so much as it concentrated on man's life problems and tended to view man in functional terms in relation to an environment and its consequences (individual/social issue). Troutner (1969) suggests that the basic philosophical issue is one of "process vs being" (process/existence 90 issue). Both Dewey and Heidegger speak of process but Dewey emphasizes external transactional events while Heidegger views reality from within; he does not objectify things and analyze their interractions. Overemphasis was placed on the object, being, while forgetting and showing indifference to what it is to be, Being. There is a need for man to cease thinking of himself as a being but to instead become involved in being: man has objectified himself (essence/ existence issue). In tracing the history of Dewey’s process philosophy, Troutner (1969) points out that traditionally reality, or being, was based in the being of things. Later change as a natural process displaced things as the basis of reality. Now process is viewed as primary and man is merely a result of process. This is an evolutionary perspective based in process and events. "Man is what he can do" (p. 139). Heidegger however suggests that Being is something which demands honor while function is something to be exploited (individual/social issue). Man requires awareness of being a becoming being and the necessity of choice. Man is being-in-the-world but also being-with the world. He has a choice to either be "taken over by the world of the They, or . . . to become myself" (p.145). Instead of focusing on being, Dewey concentrated on experience which he saw to be man's beginning. Life consisted of organism-environment interaction--a transaction 91 wherein process not form, assumed primary importance. Experience is "a transaction out-there . . . the ideal frame of reference for the method of science . . . It is neutral objective" (Troutner, 1969, p.147). Dewey eliminated subjects and objects through emphasis on their transaction. Dewey did not view experience as possessed by man, it exists within itself, i.e. experience takes precedence over Being (process/existence issue). Education is viewed as transactions guided by science--an "organism-environment problematic" (pp.146-150). The above mentioned beliefs contrast with the existentialist perception of life as lived. Education is becoming a person and the person's lived reality. Troutner (1969) emphasizes the importance of man initially having a "preconceptual understanding of himself . . . (as) the prior condition . . . of all knowledge (p. 153). Process and knowledge must not precede being as a philosophical starting point (process/existence issue). Like the pragmatist, Troutner (1969) claims the existentialist is also prepared to begin with experience but experience as grounded in Being not a definition based in process or external knowledge. Existentieliemmum Metaphysics has been the focus of existentialism with an accompanying concern for the individual. Existence of man takes precedence over essence of man (essence/existence 92 issue). Essence is a result of existence and accompanying choices. Man's first discovery is his own existence and his awareness that he is able to define his own essence through his life choices. Reason, god, being, nature, or science are tools for the individual to use in defining himself. The cosmos is merely an array of choice possibilities. The only experience is individual experience. Reality is the self making choices and reality is confined to human knowing (Morris, 1976, pp.68-72). Erisrenriaiism and rrnth Making choices, man's central task, includes not only choices ’to do’ but also choices 'to believe'. One is capable of choosing his own truth. Through this personal choosing one creates his essence. Existentialists are less involved with offering methods so much as they concentrate on emphasizing the priority of the individual and his determination of his own truth. Despite all that is presented to man, the choice to accept something as truth remains with the individual. Knowing consists of two processes--being perceptually aware of the being of things and people, and being aware of ones own being as a "center of knowing" (Morris, 1976, p.155). Sartre (cited in Morris, 1976) has referred to these two processes as "being-in- itself" and "being-for-itself" (p.155) respectively. The existentialist contends that man can never be completely known in the context of "being-for-itself" (p.157), through 93 the methods of science, as ultimate truth resides within the individual. Even though man can never completely know himself he continually strives to understand himself as a center of knowing (being-for-itself). The dominant methods of science which rely on social validation are fallible, the existentialist would argue, because they ultimately depend on individuals within the collective making individual decisions and determining their own truths and meanings (Morris, 1976, pp.153-160). W Existentialism is particularly devoted to value theory in that everything except human existence is subject to individual choice. To be is to choose and to choose is to value. Man's dilemma is having to make choices with their associated values. One’s values as expressed through ethics are determined through choices and are a result of those choices. The individual is the ultimate determiner of good. To place man in a particular context is wrong as it risks limiting his possibilities. For example to view or study man within the context of society or an ultimate method automatically limits his possibilities and confines the definition of his essence (Morris, 1976, pp.255-260). ‘ In regard to beauty, individual choosing again predominates. Beauty is not objective: it is subjective. The "private standard" (Morris, 1976, p.261) is what is 94 important--not a "public standard" (p.261) which requires validation by others. Summerx Major philosophical influences affecting past and present educational practice have been summarized above. These results are summarized in Table 3.1. It has been demonstrated how the foci of these philosophies move from ideas (idealism) to nature (realism) to process (pragmatism) to man-as-being (existentialism). Within these perspectives a number of persistent issues have been specified and described within the contexts of particular philosophical perspectives. These issues include mind/matter, thought/action, apparent/real, passive/active, individual/social, creating truth/discovering truth, teacher/learner, process/essence, past/future, essence/existence, holism/reductionism and process/existence. A scanning of dominant forms of education research articles reveals that references are infrequently made to the considerations mentioned above and particular perspectives are often assumed without the researcher overtly defining them to himself or to the reader. In such a situation the reader is implicitly asked to accept the unclarified assumptions upon which the researcher conducts his work. The present study strives to avoid such an 95 Table 3.1 Framework for Summarizing Major Philosophical Issues Nature of l l l Reality Truth Value . Absolute Comm": Aspiration Idealism Mini II to “.5. Sensory N tu | Realism M. . Correspondence 1.: ”MOM E align“ Mi '9 m“ Validation . Being Choosing Indim'dual 96 omission by reviewing the possibilities and clarifying a philosophical position for this study. so ' S e t Although the above descriptions of educational philosophy have been summarized and labelled within particular schools of thought for purposes of conceptual focus, it is not a goal of the current research to attempt to fit within or to claim a singular school of thought. In developing a philosophical foundation for the research, attempts will be made to succinctly describe positions on the persistent issues previously specified throughout this chapter and to propose operational positions in regard to the nature of reality, truth and value. It is anticipated that such a procedure will reflect the influences of the complete range of philosophical emphases and possibly include contradictions which may not be reconcilable. It should be emphasized that the philosophical positions proposed are arbitrary and will influence the nature of the subsequent model. Alternative assumptions might also be proposed resulting in quite different models. The intent here is not to propose inarguable assumptions but rather to delineate and clarify a subjective foundation of the research. In this study no attempt will be made to define alternate assumptions and alternate models. 97 Aseem2tiene_Begarei2g_£ereietent_leeues For the purposes of this study the following operational positions are posited: The_mind4narrer_ieener In regard to this issue it is proposed, in the tradition of Dewey's pragmatism, that the two cannot be separated; they are interdependent and develop interdependently. Man is born with a relatively blank mind (with the exception of genetic potential, reflexes, and learning in utero) and his mind develops in creative and spontaneous interraction with matter. Ihe_thengh§£ae§ien_ieener This is similar to the previous issue and the perspective is that the two are interdependent. Thought is not superior to action and action is not superior to thought. Thought is meaningful if it leads to action which then leads to more thought. Action may serve to validate thought and thought to validate action. The.snnerentzreal_ieeue. What we sense is reality- It is not an imperfect representation of an absolute form. Ih§_9§§§1!§£§QIi!§.i§§Q§. Man's mind is not innately passive; it is active and continually working. It is only passive to the degree that he actively initiates passivity for some purpose. Man may be duped through various forms of conditioning into diverting his mind's active tendencies to passivity. Passivity in this context includes not only a lack of constructive action but also includes non 98 constructive action. This may occur as a result of man being conditioned to be unaware of the extent of his ability to self-direct and choose. Indigidnalzeeeiai_ieener There is no preference to one above the other. The importance of the individual and the importance of the social group are to be continually balanced. Man as an individual and as a social group may continually be aware of the need for this balancing and continually evaluate his practice in this respect. When one or the other force begins to be sanctioned converse oppression occurs. Uncritical or unconscious emphasis on individualism disregards the well-being of others. Uncritical or unconscious emphasis on the social group runs the risk of oppressing individuals. Choice of individual/ social balancing, however, rests with the individual. W Man creates his truth. He chooses for study and sometimes discovers relationships of interest and meaning to him. From them he creates a truth which is limited in time and space. IQQQDEILLEQID§I_i§§Q§. As stated above the learner is believed to be active, not passive, consequently instruction must be learner centered. The learner should be encouraged to inquire and explore. The teacher’s primary role should be to assist the learner in that process through removing learning obstacles, raising fundamental questions of the learner’s situation in existence, helping the learner 99 explore data sources, demonstrating problem solving strategies and in particular sensitizing the learner of his ability to choose or reject these strategies. Such procedures offer the learner tools of choice for determining his truth. Proeeeezeesenee issne, In regard to knowledge being either defined process or an essence to be determined, it is suggested that it is neither. Knowledge is man in choosing. Process is not knowledge but it is a method man may choose depending upon his perception of circumstance. When man believes he must use a defined process because of social expectation he is prisoner and less man. Essence is not to be determined: it is an illusionary or hypothetical construct man uses to assist him in his choosing. 23§§L£Q§QI§_1§§Q§. The past is of value in that it assists man in his choosing for future. In assisting in this regard it is also of value because it provides man a feeling of security which he values. Future orientation is crucial as it provides for the continuation of man as choosing being. Eeeeneezexietenee_ieener As implied above in the reference to process/essence, it is proposed in this study that man does not have an essence but he continually is in search of one. He exists in choosing to create essence, may feel he is moving toward it but can never achieve or 100 discover it as it is an illusion. Instead man continues in existence. HQli§£££§§2§£i§fli§£Li§§B§. This study assumes that holism is to be preferred to reductionism as a goal in choosing. Reductionism is a method which may be selected as an aide to perceiving a larger pattern. R:QQ§§§L§X1§£§DQ§.1§§Q§. In discussion of the process/essence issue it was suggested that process should not dominate man but should be a method he may or may not choose depending upon circumstance. Existence, in choosing, supercedes a socially defined process. This study assumes that when the process is unquestionably accepted by man he subordinates his individualism to the demands and habits of the collective. In placing priority on process man runs a risk of becoming preoccupied with problem solving and forgetting his primary task of defining himself. Win For the purposes of this study reality is man, in being, within unlimited choice possibilities. These choices may include (a) placing faith in or reliance on particular perceptions of the ideal, (b) perceiving essence in nature, man or God, or possibly (c) placing faith in the reliability of socially endorsed processes. Man is most in reality when he is aware of his choice to accept, reject or modify as he chooses. This is not to suggest that man may not choose to use theories of essence or process as a part of his being. 101 The choice of when, where, or if to use such constructs is arbitrary and ultimately rests with the individual. Man improves himself through engaging in dialogue, becoming aware of the being of others and making choices beneficial to others as well as himself. An important task is to continually search for choices which will most benefit the individual through benefitting others. Wedge The present research study assumes that knowledge is subjective. One has to choose what he will accept as true. Even the dominant experimental methodologies require a group or groups which ultimately consist of individuals agreeing that a particular process or method is true and also these individuals must agree that the result of the method is true. The use of constructs such as the ideal institution or state, relationships involving correspondence between nature and ideas, and processes dependant upon socially agreed upon methods of testing and observation are available for use of the individual. They are his tools, however, not parameters within which he must limit his functioning because of the forces of some absolute or a decision of the collective. Also in choosing to use such tools, the individual must realize their potential oppressive dangers to himself and others should they become forces of domination instead of tools. The individual learns, when he transcends the 102 ideologies around him, to become more aware of himself as an independent being in relation to others with unlimited capacity for choosing. Man never finds truth but through choosing for himself and in consideration of the being of others, as determined through dialogue, he improves himself and the collective. A primary consideration is to always keep as flexible as possible the possibilities for new choices. Man learns best when he acts through a synthesis of his capacities for thought and action. Ih§_H§§BI§_QI_XQlQ§ For the purposes of this study it is assumed that value consists of man transcending the ideologies around him to discover himself as a self-valued individual capable of unlimited choosing. His task of value is to make choices which will perpetuate his being and freedom to choose without oppressing those same tasks of others in existence around him. Dialogue with those other beings is of value. Conceptualizing and idealizing possible future choices and situations is of value, but should not become fixed or absolute ends, as absolutes are illusions. It is valuable when man shares with others his awareness of individual freedom to choose and his perception of the inhibiting forces around him. Conversely man being unaware of the arbitrariness of the limiting forces around him or not sharing perceptions of limiting forces with others is not 103 valued. When man seeks future it is valuable to consider past choices of individuals and collectives. The results of this statement of the research's philosophical position are depicted in Table 3.2. MW It can be seen from the above statements, within the philosophical beliefs regarding the nature of reality, knowledge and value, that an existential influence is significant. The beliefs and methodologies implied in other philosophies are certainly present but are defined as tools of choice not parameters of domination and limitation. Again it should be emphasized that the present study is based on a practitioner perspective and not on that of a philosopher. The intent here is for the practitioner to insert himself into greater self-environmental awareness as a prerequisite to critiquing or proposing theory and methodology. From a research perspective this process also extends beyond the usual research parameters of bias seeking. As indicated earlier the intent here is not to hide, ignore or attempt to eliminate these fundamental biases but to explore them, be candid about them and propse them as a set of values. Such a position enables the reader to critically evaluate the remainder of the study, not only in relation to the procedures and third party sources of authority used in the study, but also in reference to the beliefs which affect the selection of procedures and authorities. 104 Table 3.2 Philosophical Foundation of a Reconceived Model Nature of Reality Truth Value Being Choosing '"gwrgl 105 Beers, S.H. (1955). s ' Engeie. Arlington Heights: Crofts Classics, 1955. Bourke, P.F. (1975). Philosophy and social criticism: John Dewey 1910-1920. Hieter1.2:.Edueatien_euerterlx. 15(1). 3-15. Brameld. T- (1956). Tewerd_a_reeenetrueted_2hileeephx_ef edeeetien . New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston. Cohen, A. (1979). Society and social education in Martin Buber’ s philosonhy. Edueetienel.§tudies 19. 335- -356- Counts, 6.8. (1932). s bu' w 'a erder? New York: The John Day Company. Cremin, L.A. (1960). The origins of progressive education. The_Edueetienel_Eerum. 21.(2). 133-140. Dewey. J. (1916)- Demeereex_end_edueeti_n. New York: The MacMillan Company. Hillesheim, J.W. (1969). Action and solitude: a Nietzschean view. Edueatienal_1heerx. 1969. 12.(4). 357-371- Hook, S. (1971) John Dewey and his betrayers. ghange, 3. (7), 22-26. Knitter, W. (1981). Sartrean reflections on education for rational character. Edueetienal_1heerx. 11.(3&4). 307-318. Macquarrie, J. (1972). Exierenrialien. New York: Penguin Books, 1972. Mix, M. D. (1972). Social reconstructionism, past and present- AfiQD.Yeerbeek. 300-324- Norris. V-C- (1966)- Exietentieliem_in_edeeetien. New York: Harper & Row, 1966. Norrie. V-C- (1976)- 2hileee2nx.end_the_emerieen_eeneelo Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company. Neff, F-C- (1966)- 2hileeennx_and_ameriean_eeueetien- New York: The Center for Applied Research in Education, Inc. 106 Popper, S.H. (1971). In dispraise of existential humanism in educational administration. Edneariena1_ndninierrarien WI .521: (3) I 26-50. Reitman, S.W. (1972). The reconstructionism of Harold Rugg. Edueetienel_1heerx. 22.(1): 47'57- Schwab, J.J. (1959). The "impossible" role of the teacher in progressive education. Ihe_§eheei_3eyiey, (Summer), 139-159. Tesconi, Jr., C.A. (1975). fieheeling_in_aneriea. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company. Troutner, L.F. (1969). The confrontation between experimentalism and existentialism: from Dewey through Heidegger and beyond. Herxerd_Edueetienal_Eexiew. 12.(1). 124-154. CHAPTER 4 EXAMINATION OF RECONCEPTUALISM AND DOMINANT FORMS OF LIFE CONCERNS EDUCATION W The purpose of this chapter is to examine the professional literature of reconceptualism and also to examine dominant forms of life concerns adult education. This examination will determine the general characteristics, themes, issues and methodologies evident in the literature. Dominant forms of life concerns adult education are perceived as consisting of competency based adult education and career education. Reconceptualism, competency based adult education and career education will be examined in detail. This examination will provide a base for chapter 5 which will concentrate on examining selected sample curricula that fall within these general theoretical approaches. W The term reconceptualism appears to have been first used by W. Pinar in 1974 to describe the activity of persons involved in reconceptualizing the curriculum field (Mulder, 1983). Huber (cited in Mulder, 1983) referred to the persons engaged in this activity as critical curriculum theorists characterized by their protest of the alienation and dehumanization of life in the school system . . . unified by their critique of unexamined bases of society, of knowledge, and of existing educational practice and research . . . protest dehumanization, technical rationality, the submersion 107 108 of human consciousness, and fragmentation of human life . . . affirm the importance of emotions and intuition . . . defined to include spirituality, and criticize schools for cooperating in maintaining values which preserve the social structure at the expense of the individual . . . a movement against scientism in educational theory (p.28). Mazza (1982) suggests that the term reconceptualism refers to the critical movement represented through the Journal of Qnrrieninn_1heerieing and the writings of theorists such as Michael Apple, Maxine Green, William Pinar, James B. Macdonald, and Dwayne Huebner. She also claims the central thesis of reconceptualism is that the dominant mode of curriculum thought is technological "and inadequate for dealing with the social, moral and political complexity of educational concerns" (p.5). Mazza continues that reconceptualism is an attempt to renew curriculum theory and a critique of schooling. . . . [which places] curriculum theory and schooling in the nexus of historical, economic, cultural, and political factors influencing their development. [It is influenced by] existentialism, phenomenology, psycho-analysis and neo-Marxism [and challenges educators] to rise above the microscopic procedural focus on how to design and implement curriculum, and consider the macroscopic view that exposes the personal, cultural, moral, and political consequences of . . . curricular decisions (p.5). The purpose of reconceptualism "is to develop and criticize conceptual schema" (Macdonald cited in Mazza, 1982, p.7) and create "alternative curricular rationalities" (Mazza, 1982, p.8). It is contended by reconceptualist critics that there exists a dominant curriculum orientation represented through 109 two groups--traditionalists and conceptual empiricists. Traditionalists focus on design, implementation and evaluation, whereas conceptual empiricists emphasize the "theory and practice of social science research to investigate curricular phenomena empirically" (Mazza, 1982, p.7). Both of these dominant approaches are seen as reinforcing a dominant social situation. In particular three aspects of curriculum serve as the "mediating links for the reproduction of the dominant ideology . . . (1) the hidden curriculum; (2) the overt curriculum; and (3) curricular theories or perspectives guiding planning and evaluation" (p.50) Macdonald (cited in Mazza, 1982) refers to technological rationality in dominant curriculum approaches as a process of objectifying all phenomena, abstracting from reality some bit of matter, event, or behavior and manipulating reality as if this objective part of it were all there were. At a more sophisticated level it conceives of the world as a potentially finite set of causal relations. It is essentially the creation of closed systems which work in terms of certain predefined goals (p.23). Qerrisulilm Reconceptualism views curriculum in its interconnections with other economic, political, and cultural institutions . . . sees curriculum as a moral and political process . . . interprets curriculum as a selection of culture: and . . . [is concerned with] exposing both the overt and latent ideological commitments upon which it is based. In other words, curriculum is understood both ideologically and 'relationally’ (Mazza, 1982, p.21). 110 The common assumption that curriculum is value free is an "ideological pretense" (Giroux, 1979). Hidden—(terrieulem It is deemed important that the perspective of the curriculum developers not be hidden from those who use the curriculum. To do so results in a hidden curriculum (Aoki, 1983). Beyer (1983) contends that in the past the hidden curriculum was something education philosophers pretended didn't exist. The hidden curriculum is a also a concern because of the technical organization of the instructional process, the authority structure of the classroom, the sorting, selecting and credentialing of students. . . . [and its] rationalization and fragmentation of work (Carlson, 1983, pp.148-149, p.151). It is a concept which reflects the imlicit values and teachings of schooling. Within the hidden curriculum students learn that work is compulsory and something one is told to do. Compliance and completion are more important than quality; diligence, perseverance, and obedience are more important than quality (Apple and King, cited in Mazza, 1982, p.51). The hidden curriculum includes a rigid time schedule, tracking and social sorting, delay and denial, hierarchical social relationships, the correspondence between evaluation and power, and the fragmented and isolated interpersonal dynamics of the educational encounter" (Giroux and Penna, cited in Mazza, 1982, p.51). The importance of this is that aspects of schooling practices and structures can be isolated to identify social 111 and political values that often run counter to claimed ideals (Mazza, 1982, p.51). The sociology of knowledge has exposed relationships "between the selection, transmission, and evaluation of school knowledge and the ideological presuppositions upon which those decisions about school knowledge are made" (p.52). This has resulted in a change of focus on knowledge from technological and psychological means of eliciting learning, to clarifying the values that are reflected or excluded (p.52). WWW From a reconceptualist perspective the predetermination of objectives in education assumes knowledge of social destiny for the masses with particular emphasis on learning the practical: i.e. the technological model adopts deterministic assumptions (Mazza, 1982, pp.28-30). Qanifieatienflelge Reconceptualists are particularly critical of dominant curriculum theorists being insensitive to or unaware of the biases and assumptions upon which they build their theories or criticize other perspectives (Mazza, 1982, p.16). A basic reconceptualist stance is to first clarify one's own biases and values in advance of proposing new theory or method. From a reconceptualist position, values cannot help but affect curriculum design. This influence however may be unknown to curriculum specialists. For example, subject matter curricula are sets of value judgements that 112 prize knowledge (cultural heritage) over social uses or personal interests. Problems of living designs prize society first; and emerging needs proposals have individual welfare primarily in mind. . . . Curriculum theory is essentially an attempt to construct a theory of values, whereas curriculum designs are patterns of value judgments . . . . Curriculum theorists or designers have not clarified the problems of value (Macdonald, 1975, pp.284-285). male A dichotomy cannot be imposed on the concepts of action and reflection: they are interdependent and present in both words and acts. A word deprived of its action component is mere "verbalism" (Freire, 1970, p.75). Knowledge is not just cognitive and passive but also results from the action involved in social living (Beyer, 1983, p.76). Praxis may be envisioned not only as individual reflection in combination with individual action but also as a continuum starting with individual reflection and leading to social action and transformation (Mazza, 1982, p.65). Experience consists of both action and reflection, is interactive and is both objective and subjective, linking one with his environment (Chiarelott, 1983). There is a need for balance between action and reflection. The purpose of reflection is to enable transformation of a situation in which there is "experienced obscurity, doubt, conflict, disturbance" (Chiarelott, 1983, p.29). '0 s ua s Mazza (1982) makes a case for the existence of three primary orientations within reconceptualism--the aesthetic/ 113 philosophic, the psychoanalytic, and socio-political, all of which oppose a "narrow technocratic rationality" (p.37) seen to dominate curriculum theory. The aesthetic/philosophic and psycho-analytic critiques "deal primarily with the consequences of the technical focus on life in schools . The social/political critique deals with the political economy of schooling revealing the relationship between schools and the larger society" (p.37). Mulder (1983) building extensively upon Benham's (cited in Mulder, p.52) work distinguishes two primary orientations within the reconceptualist movement--the existential and the structural: [The existentialists] center their interests on the individual’s own experiencing, his awareness of it, his feelings about it, and his interpretations of its meanings for him. The structuralists are characterized as recognizing the need for the individual thoroughly and honestly to know himself and the facts of his being-in-the world, but they center their interests on the political acts necessary to transform those forces outside the individual which act to shape his life. (Mulder, 1983, p.52) Whereas the existential starts with individual consciousness, the structural starts with social structures (Mulder, 1983, p.52). Although there is some conflict within reconceptualism between the existential and structural perspectives, Pinar (1978) claims that both perspectives have a common purpose of emancipation. Pinar (1975a) points out that existential freedom is affected by political freedom. 114 For the purposes of this study the two reconceptual orientations, existential and structural, as developed by Mulder (1983) will be conceived as parameters for further describing and summarizing the distinguishing characteristics of reconceptualism. Existentiai Beeoneenruaiisn As indicated above, the existential orientation within reconceptualism begins with individual consciousness. Freire (1970) refers to the concept of a silent "primary consciousness" (p.108) or awareness of being which exists before the development of language and codifications. This existential situation is the background against which new perceptions are possible. Man's task to to give meaning to the world through action upon it (Green, 1975). The existential orientation may be described through a number of characteristics. The major characteristics have been extrapolated from the literature and summarized below. §B£2122192_2§I§E§Q§1!§. Pinar (1975a) speaks of curriculum as "currere" i.e. a focus on the "nature of the individual experience of . . . the educational journey" (p.400). One may conclude from Pinar that dominant educational theory and practice focuses too much on curriculum design and not enough on the the individual experience of the learner. This experiential emphasis differs from the more common emphasis on the characteristics 115 of the "course" to be "run" or experienced (Mulder, 1983, p.71). Currere involves an interraction between the subjective and the objective and between "lived experience" and the unconscious underlying realm of experience--"lebenswelt" (Pinar, 1975b). To become aware of these interractions requires study of social, historical and psychological contexts (Pinar, 1975b). Currere bases the experience of curriculum in individual development and awareness of feelings through the methods of autobiography, discussions, free association and role playing" (Sears, 1984). The general method in currere includes the use of biography through (a) returning to past remembrances of schooling to better understand the present, (b) imagining the future, (c) considering the present while looking for relationships and (d) integrating the self-knowledge into a more meaningful whole (Pinar and Grumet, cited in Mazza, 1982, p.63). The assumption behind currere is that it leads to heightened consciousness which results in individual transformation and eventually leads to social transfor- mation. Within the method of currere the emphasis is on the individual learner not the particular discipline being studied (Mazza, 1982, p.64). Dialegner Aoki (1983) suggests that dialogue among people is considered central and knowledge is recognized as situational not absolute. Man is believed to make and give 116 meaning: he is not the recipient of it. He constructs his own world (Aoki, 1983; Padgham, 1983). There exists a need to transcend our environment (Padgham, 1983) and its domination by science and technology. This transcendence can be accomplished through use of "phenomenology, sociology of knowledge, ethnomethodology, social linguistic analysis, and hermeneutics" (Aoki, 1983, p.16). §elf.§entering. Reconceptualist curriculum theory stressing an existential orientation is discussed in relation to a self or Being and is not centered around a "point for point concept typified by the educational experience being broken down into compartmentalized units which are discussed independent of the individual" (Padgham, 1983, p.140). The new reality is "heightened consciousness" (p.142) and the traditionally accepted units of reality, space and time, are considered suspect. Indiyidnalienr The existential orientation within reconceptualism stresses the importance of the individual Being. Emancipation must start with the liberation of the individual from oppression if emancipation is eventually to spread throughout society (Mazza, 1982, p.10). WWW From the existential perspective individual history is of particular importance. To become aware of how one becomes oppressed and learns to accept it, it is necessary for the individual 117 to examine how this has occurred to him personally (Mazza, 1982, p.10). Currere is a technique developed by Pinar as a "method of self-examination" with the intent of helping educators rethink the meaning of educational experience by remembering their past histories in schools and projecting their hopes for the future. Following this reexamination of schooling experience educators can choose which aspects of their past to relinquish, and which to keep in order to reorganize their relation to and action upon schools" (Mazza, 1982, p.14). herneneuties. Basic to a hermeneutic approach to understanding is the reconceptualist assertion that all knowledge has human interest and value as its ground (Macdonald, 1975). Habermas (cited in MacDonald, 1975) indicates that hermeneutics differs from the dominant scientific or "monologic" approach to understanding wherein an attempt is made to extract fact from value and create theory through "empirical-analytic" explanation. The process is linear and attempts to separate the "knower from the known and facts from values” (Macdonald, 1975, p.288). Hermeneutic understanding results within different cultural contexts such as human language and behavior. The symbolism of these contexts require dialogic interpretation rather than monologic verification. The methodology is circular rather than linear in that the interpretation of meaning in hermeneutic understanding depends on a reciprocal relation between 'parts' and a diffusely preunderstood 'whole’” (Macdonald, 1975, pp.286-287). 118 Understanding cannot be achieved without self-reflection as objectivism incorrectly assumes a world of structured facts. In pursuit of this world of facts the stress is placed on methodology thereby masking the "ground and sources of the ’facts’ (Macdonald, 1975, p. 287). The objectivist position accepts "the status quo as descriptively given (as opposed to concentrating on emancipation from the status quo) and as separate from the knower" (p.288). Macdonald (1981) describes hermeneutics as an essential tool for human understanding. The hermeneutic process i.e. the "search for understanding" (p.130), consists of elements of science, critical theory and poetics in a continual theory-practice relationship. Whereas science focuses on control, critical theory emphasizes emancipation, yet both are methodologies using theory-practice relationships in search of knowledge. Knowledge cannot be truly found however without the inclusion of mythopoetics which involves "insight, visualization and imagination“ (p.134) in concern with "why is there being" (p.134). Understanding is not totally rational despite mans preoccupation with rationalism and dualisms. Curriculum theory should emphasize unity and the recovery of real meaning which has been lost in the stress on rationalism which is a form of illusion when used in isolation of critical theory and mythopoetics. Rational thought leaves out the thinker i.e. his subjectivity. 119 Curriculum theory should be characterized by attempts to emphasize unity, participation and interpretation through biographical and value laden dialogue. The test of ’good' theory in practice is thus, not centrally that it works (i.e., that we can control practice), but that in the engagement of theory and practice we are emancipated from previous mis-understandings and are then freed to reinterpret situations and reach greater understandings (p.133). Qritigne ef Eesirivisn, A central theme in the existential reconceptualist literature is criticism of the assumptions of dominant curricular thought as being positivistic with a primary reliance on the methods of science (Leonard, 1983). The issue is not positivism as such so much as the "absolutizing of the positivist view and the restrictions that this absolutizing places on the kinds of questions curriculum theorists are permitted to ask" (p.17). Macdonald (1975) states that "the positivistic methodology of science [monologic understanding]...has misled us into denying the knowledge base of the arts [hermeneutic understanding]" (p.286). Fact is falsely abstracted from value and explained in a linear fashion through use of formalized language. Stress is placed on methodology and in doing so masks the "ground and sources of the 'facts’" (p.286) i.e. one’s subjective human interest. Pinar (1975b) points out that although the thoughts, feelings and sensations measured through the empirical research methodologies of a positivistic orientation are a part of experience they do not represent it all. Such 120 representation involves the "life-world" or "lebenswelt" which necessitates involvement in an earlier or "pre-conceptual" level of existence not detectable within the methodologies and assumptions of positivism. Method- ologically, this involves changing our questions from types which ask, "How Many?", "What?", and "How?" to those that continually ask "Why?" (Pinar, 1975b, p.418). Pheneneneiegyr Phenomenology has been described as a means of categorizing phases of consciousness as revealed through and during the technique of introspection (Phenix, 1975). It is a process of focusing on one’s inner experiences as expressed through consciousness (Pinar, 1975a). It involves consciousness transcending itself so as to permit awareness of one’s body, world, community, and history. The challenge is for the conscious to transcend itself to allow this greater awareness (Leonard, 1983). Lehenegelrr This concept of a preconceptual "life-world" (Pinar, 1975b) is described as "the world of lived experience [usually beyond our perception (Pinar, l975c)] . . . including various modalities of experience, such as thoughts, images, feelings, reveries and so on" (Pinar, 1975d, p.360). Messages from our inner world of lived experience tend to be missed due to external distractions. The educational task is to turn our attention inward fromour "submersion in reality" (p.360). 121 Submersion and faiee conseieusness. A major concern to existential reconceptualism is man's "submersion in reality" (Pinar, 1975d, p.360) as it is defined by the world around us. Man is submerged in cultural conditioning (Pinar, 1975a). Submersion by the forces around him prevents him from becoming aware of the reality of his individual existence and value. This in turn leads to false consciousness. Macdonald (1975, p.97) has described three forms of consciousness dominant in our society and reproduced in school--technological, bureaucratic, and consumer: these forms "influenced the development of specific schooling practices and social relationships" (Mazza, 1982, p.44). In effect these three represent forms of false consciousness. Life. Life is an ongoing "personal trial of choices" (Beyer, 1983). Because of this characteristic it cannot be reduced to behavioral terms. Curriculum emphases must focus not on "ends-means" but on the "quality of life experiences" (Aoki, 1983, p.16). Helienr Holism and unity is a major assumption and value in the existential orientation within reconceptualism. Macdonald (1981) states that curriculum theory should concentrate on unity as one major aspect of consideration. King (1982) emphasizes the importance of the learner realizing "connectedness to everything else in the universe" (p.258). Man learns that he does not exist completely in 122 isolation. As he becomes aware of his self in existence he also becomes aware of the existence of other beings and strives to transcend his own consciousness to understand his "communion with other selves" (Leonard, 1983, p.18). Iraneeendeneer Transcendence reflects the experiencing of projecting beyond any "state or realization of being (Phenix, 1975, p.324). An essential part of transcendence capability is the realization of a "context of [infinitely] wider relationships and possibilities" (p.324). As Being man makes decisions in infinite pursuit of the ideal. Man sometimes flees transcendence because of its threat to his security with finite structures (Phenix, 1975). §21£1§.§fl§.1fl£1§i§2. The concept of spirit refers to the "property of limitless going beyond" (Phenix, 1975, p.325). Spirit makes one aware of the finiteness of the structures imposed by reason. To say that persons are beings with spirit is to point to their perennial discontent and dissatisfaction with any and every finite realization (p.325). Richards (1981) claims that the spiritual is a valid form of reference for evaluating the rational and the empirical. This is contrary to the dominant approach of using the rational and the empirical to evaluate the spiritual. Wigs Structural reconceptualism is characterized by what Carlson (1983) refers to as a neo-Marxist perspective influenced by a "model of social and economic reproduction" 123 (p. 148) which examines schooling in relation to its functions of reproducing "capitalist social relations and ideological hegemony" (p.148). It reflects the use of analytic categories such as social class and hegemony; the development of a dialectical, historical, and relational mode of analysis [borrowing] the analytic tools and perceptions of the neo-Marxist critique of culture and ideology rather than the dogmatism of orthodox Marxism. (Mazza, 1982, p.43) The orientation is social more than individual and is particularly interested in the concept of social control. Franklin (cited in Mazza, 1982) defines social control as "those sociological and psychological processes through which individuals are forcibly or voluntarily convinced to conform or adjust to the attitudes, values, and behaviors of their social group" (p.22). Structural reconceptualists are concerned with organizational forms which inhibit man’s possibilities and make him subject to the objectives of the organization (Murphy & Pilder, 1975). The structuralist orientation within reconceptualism is essentially a "social/political critique" (Mazza, 1982, p.42). Huebner (cited in Mazza, 1982) specifies three rights for guiding discussion of schooling and society: Respect for the political, civil, and legal rights of the young. Right of access to the wealth in the public domain . . primarily the knowledge, traditions, skills that shape and increase a person’s power in the public world. Right . . . to participate in the shaping and reshaping of the institutions within which he lives. (p.42) 124 Onnreeeien and emancipation, Apple (cited in Mazza, 1982) suggests that the intent of the reconceptual critique is to illuminate the tendencies of "domination, alienation, and repression," (p.43) to "promote conscious [individual and collective] emancipatory activity" (p.43). From a structural perspective teachers are both oppressors and members of the oppressed. As members of the new middle class, whose main role is to reproduce the status quo through socializing students into "patterns of domination and into forms and structures of alienated labor" (Carlson, 1983, p.153), they are oppressors. Teachers tend to be unaware of their role in reproduction. They are also oppressed however through their increased workload, loss of job security, being subject to the dictates of administration and technology, accountability emphases and merit pay requirements. Consequently teachers are in the dilemma of being both with and against the oppressed and with and against the interests of capital (Carlson, 1983). QElLBIil.Q§EiE§1. Cultural capital refers to "the system of meanings, abilities, language forms, and tastes . . . defined by dominant groups as socially legitimate" (Apple, cited in Mazza, 1982, p.52). Shapiro (1982) describes ”cultural capital" as "the accumulated configuration of meanings, knowledge or practices" (p.153) acquired in a society. He points out that contemporary misuse of the term has 125 minimized the extent to which such ’capital’ is the result of a continuous process of selection, exclusion, incorporation and extirpation of meanings that arise from the entire field of human practice or experience" (p.153). The term is misused if it is assumed that this cultural baggage is imposed directly by a dominant social class. Hegemenx_end_ldeelegx. Hegemony is a term structuralists use to describe the tendency of dominant groups to impose their culture as fact. This hegemony requires "not simple economic and cultural domination but requires constant social reorganization" (Wexler, 1981, p.159). The unequal distribution and production of cultural capital is inaccurately presented and viewed as individual differences (Wexler, 1981). Hegemony is a process through which the state and its agencies legitimize and subsidize "the interests of capital as the general interests of all" (Carlson, 1983, p.151). Reconstructionists have been particularly interested in the ideological role of schools in reproducing the social, cultural, and economic patterns of society. [They] have demonstrated how societal patterns are transmitted through the ways that educators organize and select knowledge, the social relationships of the classroom, the administrative procedures of the school, and the categories and labels that are used (Mazza, 1982, p.14). Mazza (1982) claims that hegemony represents the control of ideology "through dissemination of dominant social practices, meanings, and values that become so pervasive that they saturate consciousness and become accepted as social reality" (p.46). Hegemony reflects a 126 "whole body of practices and expectations [which affect] our ordinary understanding of man and his world. . . . It thus constitutes a sense of reality for most people in society" (p.47). The forms of consciousness promoted in schools result in social control "making overt forms of domination and repression unnecessary" (p.47). The significance of this concept of hegemony is that it suggests that dominance is a result of a "complex set of cultural relationships, meanings and practices" (Mazza, 1982, p.47) as opposed to earlier more simplified economic explanations. Correspondence theories are criticized because they are seen as presenting an "overdetermined, mechanistic view of economic reproduction [which] ignores the complexity and interrelatedness of cultural as well as economic factors" (Mazza 1982, p.47) Ideology--and that part of it that constitutes education--is more than a simple reflection of the ideas, beliefs, values, etc., of the dominant class or classes. It is, instead, a complex field of meanings and values which, at all times, contain responses that go beyond those emanating from one class alone . . . the consciousness of a society is always more diverse, and not limited to the economically dominant class (Shapiro, 1982, p.154). [The] dominant ideology . . . is often permeated by elements stemming from the ’way of life’ of classes or factions other than the dominant class or faction (Poulantzas, cited in Shapiro, 1982, p.155). Shapiro (1982) views education as "the effect of specific ideologies . . . which represent the 'world views' of particular social classes or groups" (p.155). The academic curriculum traditionally offered in schools may not, as 127 often accused, reflect the needs of corporate capitalism but instead may reflect the influences of previous and emerging ideologies (Shapiro, 1982). The notion of hegemony, and hegemonic domination, [is] a much more complex process than one of simple ’socialization' by the ruling class of their ideology--it involves the incorporation of diverse, sometimes oppositional, ideas, meanings and practices. . . . Education in the United States during the 20th century, may be viewed as reflecting the complexity of competing class interests and ideologies. . . . Education itself, may reflect the ’residues' of previously dominant ideologies; . . . it may also represent the arena in which such control is resisted and alternative world-views proposed . . . it is more accurate to recognize the existence of a 'hegemonic' ideology or culture, within which alternative modes of thinking, social relations, values, etc., develop in opposition" (p.154). Seheelingr The major structural critique of schooling is that it legitimizes "inequality and injustice" through legitimizing the social structure (Mazza, 1982, p.44). It is suggested that there are "three forms of school activity that express ruling class interests: 'control of ideology, control of knowledge, and control of training for the work force'" (Mann, cited in Mazza, 1982, p.47). The ruling classes are maintained not only by transmitting "false consciousness" (Wexler, 1981, p.159) but also by "redefining the very meaning of schooling" (p.159). At one time schools actively served the capitalist class not only through skills training but also by inculcating the prerequisites for cultural reproduction. This latter function now however is being assigned to the family through the mass media. Schooling is now perceived almost exclusively as skills 128 training and preparation for work. In other words de-schooling is occurring but from a corporate thrust rather than a populist one. There is a need for "subordinate classes to reclaim their own authentic knowledge" (p.160). Beyer (1983) claims that schools have an agenda which is designed to serve political interests and "reinforce the domination of particular cultural forms" (p.86) through the use of "rituals, routinized activities. . . . message systems, [and] patterns of evaluation" (p.87). I£2hflQQI§Ei£.IQ§iQD§11LY. Much of the current methodology in education has been borrowed from the area of technology. From a historical perspective it is suggested that the introduction of quantitative measures to education conveyed the impression that theory was based on value free research: therefore "concern for efficiency and scientific objectivity" led eventually to making the curriculum "an instrument of social control" (Mazza, 1982, pp.28-30). "The crucial task . . . is to illuminate these oppressive features so that educators do not continue to borrow technological models without being aware of their tacit socio-political meanings" (p.30). Callahan (1962) suggests that there has been an associating of educational progress with modern business methods. Business methods and scientific management techniques were applied to schools resulting in the 129 pre-determination of educational objectives to ensure standardization of product. Qialeerieer Dialectics treats theory and practice as essentially the same. This involves discussion, problem formulation and the exploration of ideals. The problem is made the focus of action and the method of solving the problem is determined by the group after consideration of the problem in relation to its context. Dialectic and problematic allow for the integration of purpose and action This differs from the logistic approach which negates the value of practice (Butt, 1984). Prehlenariee_and_hnen1edger Structural recon- ceptualists claim that to study educational knowledge is to study ideology. What is selected and excluded as valid knowledge for study reflects values; these values must be made problematic and subjected to social, economic and institutional pattern study (Apple and King, cited in Mazza, 1982, p.52). The problem is how the structures of society have affected individuals and how undesirable structures might be changed. W The competency based adult education movement started as a result of three developments in adult education: 1) The New York External High School Diploma Program held its first graduation. Adults were awarded diplomas based solely on demonstrated competency. 2) The Adkins Life Skills Program was successfully training Life Skill Educators . . . to assist adults to become more employable, by becoming competent. 130 3) The Adult Performance Level (APL) research project published its report. (Parker, 1980, i) In competency based adult education the emphasis is on the students demonstrating specific behaviours as opposed to accumulating credits or time. Competency based adult education represents a response to the demand for "accountability, relevance, and cost-benefit analysis" (Hertling, l980,p.2). Kasworm (1980) defines competency based adult education as a systematic effort to infuse basic skills development with functional literacy concepts of our society. . . . The competency based education process is grounded in research which defines a set of specific competencies and therefore outcomes for a learning experience. (p.115) He continues describing key characteristics to indicate that CBAE is a systematic effort to infuse basic skills development with functional literacy. . . . [an approach which] defines a specific set of competencies and therefore outcomes. . . . brings the adult life orientation to the content and process of adult literacy. . . . [involves] a holistic teaching-learning curriculum. . . . which can accomodate the diversity of skill/content levels. (pp.116-117) Taylor (1980) defines competency based adult education as "a performance-based process leading to demonstrated mastery of basic and life skills necessary for the individual to function proficiently in society" (p.42). It is worthy to note that he defines society in its widest possible sense i.e. "association with others" (p.44). 131 Phillips and McElhinney (1979) propose three major considerations in moving toward competency based programs--the identification of life-role competencies, determining the changes in the teacher's role and expectations, and altering instructional activities to guarantee competency mastery. It is suggested that competencies can be determined by studying successful community members, analyzing student life goal competency requirements, and polling the opinions of authority figures. Teacher role changes are seen as including an increased role in diagnostic-prescriptive assessment, individualization, evaluation, teacher as facilitator, and increased life relevancy instruction. Instructional activities are determined by analyzing the behaviour and experiences of competent community members, student behaviour, teacher behaviours, and analysis of the competencies themselves. Orientations within the CBAE movement have stressed either the development of (a) the process of applied problem solving or (b) the development of performance levels or competencies, in particular content areas. Although both approaches include the process of problem solving and the products referred to as competencies, either process or product tends to dominate as a primary focus. Whereas the Saskatchewan Newstart (Saskatchewan Newstart, 1974, pp.33-35) approach focuses on the process of applied problem solving within the context of life role content areas, the 132 Adult Performance Level approach (Office of Education, 1977) emphasizes the importance of demonstrating products conceived of as life competencies. °u9T ‘1 z. -- .d- . a ., .- .99 '-- '_ob ‘u S v S lutreduetien. Life skills instruction may be primarily (a) cognitive, (b) affective and psychomotor, or (c) cognitive, affective and psychomotor. The cognitive orientation reflects an approach which includes lessons on life needs areas taught as a subset of regular school subject matter. The affective and psychomotor approaches assume the teaching of life skills in a format separate from cognitive instruction. In this second case it is more of an activity program involving knowledge gathering, insight and understanding through group techniques, skill acquisition through simulation, and interest arousal through a variety of exploratory techniques. The third alternative includes cognitive, affective and psychomotor instructional techniques to ensure the ability of the student to handle life responsibilities. Critical areas of life such as self, family, community, leisure and job are addressed. Within this orientation the student is helped to apply knowledge from the school subject matter to life areas. This latter method is also an activity program curriculum in that the student is not passive but actively involved in the learning process. (Saskatchewan Newstart, 1974, pp.33-35). 133 Life skills training involves applying technological principles to changing human behavior with an emphasis on a tightly structured approach. Because of the intensity of this structure the term training is frequently used instead of the term education. Both the teacher and learner are expected to accept the assumption that there is a proper way to go about life decision making and action and that these universal principles can be taught (Carkhuff, 1980). Himsl (Saskatchewan Newstart, 1973, pp.6-12) points out that employment preparation training has traditionally concentrated on developing marketable skills. He suggests that the assumptions for not offering life skills as a part of this preparation appear to be that people already have life coping skills, that they can learn them without assistance, or that these skills may be unnecessary within an effective economy. Other possible assumptions may be that people cannot improve in life skills, that they acquire them while learning job skills, or possibly that it is not a proper educational concern. The existence of a life skills program implies that the above assumptions are false. If people do not have these skills they can gain them. Adkins (1980) claims that assistance with life problems is not readily available to adult basic education students. If it is available it is usually provided through counselling and/or group discussion methods. He indicates that these methods have not proven beneficial because of 134 lack of validity and because of the lack of detailed planning and means of practicing and transferring learning. In addition to reading, math and vocational training, students need education in life skills. As a result of this belief he developed a model in which students' life problems are conceptualized in relation to career, self development, home and family, leisure usage and community concerns. Adkin’s curriculum reflects a four-stage structured inquiry model which includes the phases of stimulus, evocation, objective inquiry and application. Life_ehi11e_rraining_ae_a_eeneenrr Skill is defined as the "application of knowledge to the solution of a problem" (Saskatchewan Newstart, 1973, p.202). Life skills, in turn, are defined as "the human relation and problem solving behaviours used appropriately and responsibly in the management of one's life" (Saskatchewan Newstart, 1974, p.33). Learning, within this concept, occurs when students change their "behaviours to match those behaviours described by the course objectives” (Carkhuff and Berenson, 1976, p.202). Life_ekille_inetrue:ien.ee_e_teennelegxi In the professional literature it is apparent that dominant life skills instruction theory and practice is conceived of as a technology of helping (Carkhuff and Berenson, 1976, p.198). "Helping programs must translate to technologies that are 135 empirically based and testable in everyday human experience. . . . Helping must translate to a technology" (p.199). This valuing of technology is strongly held and it is suggested that those who resist this technological approach want to "avoid the ’crunch’ of the outside world" (p.207). The implication is that to avoid technology is to avoid effectiveness and accountability. Technology is presented as an emancipatory tool for greater social morality (p.47). Not only is it seen as a technology in service to society it is even implied that master consultants of this human technology might play a better political governance role than elected politicians (p.194). ad n et' 0 . Life skills for effective social adjustment is an implicit assumption of life skills instruction. It is presumed that there are definite skills required for effective living and that these can be taught by persons who know what these skills are and who can demonstrate them (Carkhuff and Berenson, 1976, p.68). Rubin (1969, p.32) suggests that life skills instruction of the disadvantaged is essential so that they will prefer gradual change to revolution and will be willing to work within the social system as it exists. Such an approach is aimed at pacifying the majority and developing a talented minority to lead society. He speaks of preparing learners for constant change and also the need to provide them with primary skills to help them "adjust to 136 their fundamental life situations" (p.32). This adjustment is to occur however within a process of "orderly [social] growth and social readjustment" (p.31). It is implied that social change is to occur as a result of individual skills development, not collective action (Rubin, 1969, pp.31-32). It is also presumed that life skills should be taught in a manner which reinforces a value of economic competition in the work world (Carkhuff and Berenson, 1976, p.71). Lire_ehiiie_and_ennegernenrr Proponents of life skills instruction suggest that these skills are essential for individual advancement and freedom (Carkhuff and Berenson, 1976, p.6). Himsl (Saskatchewan Newstart, 1973, pp.13-25) refers to life skills being problem solving behaviours and consequently tools of liberation within the life areas of self, family, leisure, community and job. No mention is made however of critiquing or changing the socioeconomic context within which the roles are played. Martin (Saskatchewan Newstart, 1973, pp.163-200) uses the terms problem solving skills and life skills synonomously and suggests they are a means of liberation through their usefulness in many life situations. The individual is to learn to adapt these essential behaviors to time and place. Some references are made to collective action but the implications of this are unclear: the stress is on the technology of problem solving as opposed to critiquing the 137 appropriatenes of the structures which might contribute to the problem. The skilled problem solver is believed to understand what he does, and why, because he has mastered the human technology of applied problem solving. Again the situation appears to be that the problem solver's understanding is limited to an adaptive, and possibly by default, uncritical understanding of the social order. It is implied that both the learner and the teacher start with the assumption that the deficiencies reside within the individual learner not the collective of which he is a member nor the social structures which surround him. Conger (Saskatchewan Newstart, 1974, pp.41-48) suggests that schools have reinforced social immobility through the curriculum. Life skills are described as possible means of individual emancipation from the lower classes through the development of life skills curricula in schools which would teach self development, family, community, leisure and job. Traditional subject matter would be embedded in the instruction of the life areas. Conger’s connotation of empowerment, however, seems limited by the assumption of continuation of a class based society. This assumption is evident when he speaks against the idea of the poor taking control of the schools because the schools would be even more oriented to one class than they are currently: i.e. he assumes a class structure of poor and rich would continue to exist outside of the school system. Conger appears 138 oblivious of the likelihood that a goal of poor people taking control of the schools might be the elimination of such a class system. This elimination of class distinctions does not appear as a clear goal of the present controllers of life skills training programs. The work of Hopson and Scally (1981, pp.52-53) appears to reflect a minority approach to life skills theory in the literature, in that it consciously addresses some of the assumptions and values upon which their theory and practice rests. These authors recognize the work of Paulo Freire and his concepts of beginning change within one’s immediate spheres. They also express an awareness of values and that education is not value free (p.53). Value is defined as something freely chosen from among alternatives after reflection: it is "prized and cherished, publicly affirmed, acted upon and . . . [a] part of a pattern that is a repeated action" (p.60). From their perspective, people depower themselves and are depowered further by their environments. However people can become aware of these constraints and develop skills to empower themselves. Power is defined as ”the ability to influence intentionally what happens to us in relation to other people and the physical world" (p.53). To empower is "to get in touch or help someone else get in touch with these abilities" (p.53). This process of self-empowerment requires one to 1. look at oneself from outside of oneself and to believe that one is open to change; 139 2. have the skills to change some aspects of oneself and the world . . . 3. use one’s feelings to recognize where there is a discrepancy between what is and what one would like it to be: 4. specify desired outcomes and the action steps required to achieve them: 5. act--to implement action plans: 6. live each day aware of one's power to assess, re-assess, influence and self-direct: 7. enable others to achieve the power to take charge of their lives. Underlying the whole concept is the belief that no matter what, there is always an alternative and we can choose. (p.57) To become more self-empowered one needs increased inward and external awareness, goals, values, lifeskills, and information (p.58). Hopson and Scally (pp.78-79) see social action and self-empowerment as a false dichotomy. Self empowered individuals will incrementally change the social system through the effects of their dealings in their particular spheres of the system. MW Although there is no standard method of instructing life skills the emphasis is experiential and structured. Unstructured methods which can only claim to set the conditions for change are rejected (Carkhuff and Berenson, 1976, p.13). The methods of Carkhuff are particularly vivid examples of the degree of structure characteristic of life skills instruction methodologies. Helpers are trained in the use of the skills of attending, responding, personalizing, and initiating. Growth of the learner is represented through the continuous recycling of exploration, understanding and action 140 (Carkhuff, 1980, p.181). This process is accompanied by the teaching phases of expanding, narrowing and career preparation. (Carkhuff and Berenson, 1976, pp.166-167). In a life skills development approach, reinforcement is a commonly used technique "to shape and support the learning of new behaviors" (Carkhuff and Berenson, 1976, p.141). Goal-directed behaviors are rewarded and goal-avoidance behaviors are punished. Basic to the method of life skills instruction appears to be the assumption of individual deficiency which requires correction. I The teaching tasks involve developing the content to a skills objective, diagnosing the helpee’s level of functioning in terms of a skills objective, setting goals in terms of the diagnosis and delivering to the helpee-learner the skills which he needs to achieve his learning goals (Carkhuff and Berenson, 1976, p.73). The general method of life skills instruction has been described by Carkhuff and Berenson (1976, p.74) as content development, diagnosis, goal-setting, and teaching delivery. One purpose of the life skills instruction methodology is to ensure the learning of problem solving so as to ensure the transferability of life skills (Carkhuff and Berenson, 1976, pp.61,83). ouo- -: :.:-e .2_ ._ . on .s -- Oeu- c- _;ve The Adult Performance Level Project (Office of Education, 1977) was designed to result in a set of objectives to form the basis of a new system of adult basic education. It represents an attempt to meet the 141 requirements of adult education through developing functional living skills as opposed to meeting these requirements through assigning grade levels (Griffith and Cervero, 1977). The APL project assumes the "value of relevancy, practicality, applicability and immediacy" (James, 1980). It is described as a benchmark project against which adult literacy is redefined in terms of specific life task competencies (Taylor, 1980). This project is seen as providing significant impetus to the field of competency based adult education through emphasizing a performance or behaviourally based approach (Parker and Taylor, 1980). Competencies are summarized under the five content areas of occupational knowledge, consumer economics, health, community resources, government and law. Skills within these areas include reading, writing, computation, speaking and listening, and problem solving (Office of Education, 1977). Fischer (1980) suggests that the major contribution of APL is this interperetation of competency in terms of the integration of skills and knowledge. The APL approach is criticized because of its definition of functional competence in relation to success in adult life. The criteria of success involves income, education, and job status. These criteria are considered limiting and suspect in relation to general functional competency. It is pointed out that behaviours for income, 142 education and job status may not necessarily be the same as those required for competence within society (Kirsch and Guthrie, 1980). The APL approach is also criticized in that there is no way of knowing if the specified competencies are really all that are required for functional competency. Another question is whether or not all individuals require all of these skills all of the time (James, 1980). APL personnel determined the competencies through accessing data and reports of professionals of state and federal agencies dealing with minimally performing adults. This procedure is subject to criticism in that objectives (competencies) are chosen, not discovered--through such a research mechanics emphasis, and these choices represent value judgements. Whereas APL personnel explain the method of determining the competencies for instruction, the values behind their selection are not mentioned (Griffith and Cervero, 1977). The APL approach is also criticized in that it assumes a philosophy of societal adjustment as opposed to critical social analysis, self direction, and freedom. Successful functioning is defined in terms of one's years of education, family income and occupational status of the chief family wage earner (Griffith and Cervero, 1977). Methodological characteristics of APL are not particularly defined in the study and are left to teachers 143 to develop. General methods include individualization, student awareness of progress and direction, behavioural evaluation, a no student failure approach, and alternatives for goal attainment (James, 1980). C duc W The beginning of the career education movement is commonly associated with Sidney Marland’s speech to secondary school principals (Marland, 1972). He makes it apparent that career education represents a proposed reform movement for the complete American education system. "Education’s task is to seek and to free the individual's precious potential" (p.34). "Life and how to live it" (p.38) is seen as the primary vocation. To accomplish this requires a more flexible approach to schooling (p.46). The essence of career education is the "relationship between education and work" (p.46). As well as being a theory and technique, career education existed through federal law as the Career Education Incentive Act 1978, Public Law 95-207 which authorized the appropriation of funds for demonstration projects. This law was written as sunset legislation to expire after 1983 (Hoyt, 1981, pp.63-64). Within the federally endorsed mandate there existed four recognized approaches--home-based, rural-residential, comprehensive and experience based (Hansen, 1977). In addition to the 144 federally endorsed models there existed non-federal conceptualizations which included jobs as focus, work as focus, self-development as focus, and life as focus (Hansen, 1977). According to Goldhammer and Taylor (1972, p.276), career education attempts to link the individual, the community and values so as to ensure life meaning and continuity of civilization. Career education is seen as education for the complete life span extending from preschool through retirement (Hoyt, 1981, p.79). "Career education can be said to represent a fusion of the philosophy of humanism along with fusion of the career development process with the teaching/learning process" (Hoyt, 1981, p.255). Goldhammer and Taylor (1972) claim that career education results from "social consciousness" (p.4) and a fusion of career development and manpower planning. The task of career education is to probe the connection between schooling and life (Morris, 1981, p.15). WW Career educators perceive career development as the primary and unifying purpose of education (Goldhammer and Taylor, 1972, p.2). They claim that the purpose of education is "to assist the student to become a fully capacitated, self-motivating, self fulfilled, contributing member of society" (p.125). Fully capacitated means being 145 able to perform all of his life roles adequately for success in those roles. The roles include those of economic producer, family member, community member, avocational, aesthetic, religious, and moral (pp.125-126). Marland (1972) is more specific and proposes that the goal of American education should be that persons completing high school should be prepared for entering higher education or entering "useful and rewarding employment" (p.35). C C ' e o o oo Goldhammer and Taylor (1972, p.20) indicate that schools traditionally justify their existence on scholarship as opposed to craftsmanship, parenthood, homemaking, or individual happiness. In schools attention is devoted to the organization of the disciplines rather than application to life problems. Consequently the validity of the school system to the effective performance of life roles is questionable. The objectives of schooling do not reflect human development needs. Goldhammer and Taylor (1972) mention the inability of some students to cope with the "conceptual problems around which the school program is established" (p.22) and point out that this inability is unfairly described as individual student pathology by the school system. The system is not individually responsive but is designed for mass education. Despite socio-economic and cultural differences the school system does not fundamentally alter itself and assumes no 146 major deficits in its own design (p.24). Schooling is characterized by a "compartmentalized curriculum [which] legitimates the acquisition of knowledge within the framework of the course but does not necessitate . . application . . . outside of the subject" (p.23). The school system validates itself not through the application of what is taught but through its compartmentalized, "self-legitimated modules" (p.24). In response to these perceived restrictions of the school system career education was originally intended to restructure the entire education program (Goldhammer and Taylor, 1972, p.276). WWW Herr (1981) claims that the stated goals of career education reflect a continuum of emphases which range from employability through educational relevance to self-understanding. Similarly Marland (1974, p.99) describes a continuum of perspectives ranging from total life education, to self worth through work, to post educational job experience. Within the career education movement there exists a controversy over the importance of vocationalism. Wirth (1981) sees these debates as outgrowths of similar debates during the time of progressive education. At that time the social efficiency approach was contrasted with Dewey’s progressive reform. The social efficiency approach involved sorting students into appropriate programs according to 147 their probable futures and offering practical training with an emphasis on getting a job. In contrast, the progressive reform emphasis was not on adapting the learner to the industrial system but for industry to serve the learner through bringing out "the intellectual and moral content of occupations" (p.41). Wirth suggests that Dewey's life related definition of vocation represents a broader perspective. In particular he mentions Dewey's suggestions that the learner must be able to examine the consequences of the technological society in which he lives as opposed to just adapting to it. Smith (1981) points out that school credentials are not necessarily educational. As more people receive schooling there are fewer economic advantages consequently the amount of schooling required is increased as a means of self-legitimization. In contrast, career educators promote qualitative improvement versus quantitative. Smith suggests however that qualitative improvement may not necessarily improve one's economic chances. For this reason he suggests career education must also justify itself on educational benefits as well as economic benefits. Consequently he criticizes the emphasis on occupation in career education. "Most of what must be learned in life is not for the sake of getting a job but for the sake of leading a good and satisfying life" (p.19). 148 w o a E uc Morris (1981) refers to one career education rationale of education for work as being influenced by the thought of Marx. This involved the idea that work "had something to do with a higher category of aspiration, with the human being's relationship to other beings, and to his or her world" (p.11). One example of this thinking is evident in the writings of Cohen (1955) who suggests that "labor is the very touchstone for man's self-realization. . . . He labors to transform his world, to put his own mark on it" (p.190). Morris (1981) suggests the more simple explanation that work is ”the medium by which a society expresses itself in the world" (p.12). He claims that this American explanation is more likely one of a desire to achieve and the need to adapt. Morris sees America as being sold, through mass advertising, on the benefits of the technological society and the desirability of achieving so as to obtain those benefits. The individual surrenders to the "demands of the culture” to engage in work in which he is most likely to "rise to the top" (p.14). Hansen (1977) credits Dewey’s influence on career education particularly in regard to linking of the academic and the vocational, support of experiential learning, preparation for an unpredictable future and "continuity and interaction between the learner and what is learned" (pp.23-27). 149 Definititns Hansen (1977) points to the confusion in the terminology of career education. For example, he suggests that words such as work and careers should have standard definitions among theorists. EQZK. Work is defined by Hoyt (1981, p.10). He claims that he changed his conception of work from something one owed to society to something that one owed to himself, i.e. a human need: "the need to do, to achieve, to be someone because one did something" (p.11). QQIQQI. Career is defined initially by Marland (1974) as "a person's course or progress through life" (p.13). He subsequently defines career education as "the totality of educational experiences through which one learns about work . . . [which] includes unpaid activities as well as paid employment" (p.307). Super (1981) describes career in terms. of a sequence of positions throughout one's work history. Career is defined in relation to pre-occupational, occupational, and post-occupational positions within the life history. Career is distinguished from occupation which he claims is what one does, at a particular point in time, to earn a living. Morris (1981) refers to the existential preoccupation with self and personal living and its influence on some career educators definitions of career. Existentialists stress choices and that of "life work" is the most 150 important. Who one is becomes a factor in defining the concept of career. "Career takes on the role of energy source and defining element in the individual's effort to make a personal statement about her or his existence" (p.15). Qareer_Ednearignr Goldhammer and Taylor (1972, p.5) suggest that the term career education does not have a precise definition. Instead they describe career education in terms of decision-making skills and skill in performing ones life roles in the realms of the economic, community, home, avocational, religious and aesthetic (p.6). Wlmientstien An emphasis on designing educational experiences in conjunction with individual development is particularly evident in the career education literature. Super (1981) suggests a need for career education to be life-long to account for the "processes of growth, exploration, establishment, maintenance, and decline which constitute a career" (p.45). He also advocates that career education theory be based on "life stages, developmental tasks, career patterns and . . . individual differences" (p.45). As a part of this rationale he implies the necessity of preparing for destined roles across the life span. Herr (1972) also describes career education from the perspective of a developmental tasks approach with an 151 emphasis on adjustment to social expectations so as to avoid disapproval. WWW A major characteristic of career education is the emphasis put on career option awareness and self awareness (Goldhammer and Taylor, 1972, p.6). To accomplish this, career development is seen as an integral part of all school subjects (Goldhammer and Taylor, 1972, p.294). This is to be accomplished through infusion of career development concepts into all subject matter. Taylor (1977) describes career education as a process which is characterized by interaction between school, work and society . . information regarding job skills, totality of what one does or accomplishes, occurs in and out of school, considers values, attitudes, knowledge and skills necessary to choose, prepare for and pursue a successful lifelong career, ability to cope with change, designed to meet the needs of all people. (p.12) Goal awareness and pursuit are deliberately designed into the curriculum to the extent that "students . . . discuss the positive effects of goals" (Brolin, 1978, p.73). Career education co-ordinates decision making with growth, is functional and individualistic, views the teacher as a "diagnostician" and "assessor" of growth, involves a scientific approach to evaluation through performance objective setting, emphasizes salable skills, and promotes community-school interraction (Goldhammer and Taylor, 1972, pp.280-282). Furthermore, it is "adaptable . . .lto meet the requirements . . . imposed . . . by society" (p.282). 152 Marland (1974) suggests that career education is characterized by decision-making, holism within education structures, and egalitarian schooling. Super (1981) claims that career education should teach about career development and help students to control the unfolding of their careers as changing sequences and combinations of roles in education, home, community, occupations, and leisure as they go through life” (Super, 1981, p.45). W Smith (1981) claims there is a need for career education to devote more of the literature to teaching methodology so as to ensure the development of more than just occupational benefits. The general methodology of career education should involve an open entry and open exit system, adult and recurrent education, and increased community education (Marland, 1974, pp.310-311). As a part of career education instructional method the teacher is viewed not as a purveyor of knowledge, a disciplinarian, and the evaluator . . . but rather as a diagnostician, a prescriber of instructional strategies and interventions, a preparer of materials, a reinforcer . . . and an assessor. (Goldhammer and Taylor, 1974, pp.280-281) Specific methodologies include experiential education, work experience, multiple methods of learning and instruction, use of community resource persons as teachers (in addition to the classroom teacher), use of the community as learning resource center, performance evaluation as the criterion for certification, adaptability skills, education 153 for leisure time, and work experience (Hoyt, 1981, pp.263-290). It uses a sequence of learning experiences which begins with discovery, moves to internalized familiarity, through selection/rejection of alternatives, refinement, preparation and experience (Goldhammer and Taylor, 1972, pp.130-131). In addition career education incorporates a systems approach through relating all school experiences to central objectives (p.277). Hoyt (1981) emphasizes this systems methodology by justifying it as competency oriented, performance based . . . evaluation . . . to be attractive to those seeking to employ college graduates . . . [and] to help students value work through giving them recognition and credit when they have worked. (p.263) EsntmlitLefJoeatien Within a career education approach, one's vocational role is generally considered essential to educational direction. We have selected the vocational career as that which is the most central to the life of the individual. . . . this career must be central to the school curriculum. . . The main purpose of education will . . . be preparation for one's life roles, with central concern focused upon the development of employability" (Goldhammer, 1972, pp.132-134). These comments seem somewhat discrepant with Marland's (1974) comment that "In no way does career education try to say that this should be the . . . most important goal for any student or for any educational system" (p.307). Again in regard to the centrality of vocation as opposed to other life areas Hoyt (1981) says "I . . . resist 154 those who want to substitute the word life for the word work in the conceptual bedrock of career education" (p.12). His rationale for this approach is that career education will lose the support of industry, lose the importance of education as work preparation, lose the importance of productivity and because career education is not "all of education" (p.12). This latter reason appears to represent a contradiction with Marland's (1974) intent to reform the total education system through career education. Hoyt (1981) does however acknowledge the importance of life roles such as work, family, health, citizenship culture (p.19). Super (1981) indicates a need for career education to help prepare students for changing roles within "education, home, community, occupations, and leisure as they go through life" (p.45). Despite this he rejects defining career education as "education for life . . . in which work . . . figures little, if at all” (p.45). This latter approach he refers to as the "liberal arts approach" (p.45). LifsJentersdJereeLEdneatien The life centered career education approach is characterized by concern given to other life roles in addition to the vocation of work. Hansen (1977) credits Goldhammer (1972) as an early advocate of this perspective. Major characteristics are 1) the central focus of the instructional program upon the discovery of self in relation to the world of work: 2) a curriculum focused on self-power, occupational selection, supportive exploration of other life roles and experiences in 155 aesthetic, expressive and religious activities to help the individual deal with problems of existence: 3) focus on individual needs, and 4) no dichotomy of academic and vocational. (Hansen, 1977, pp.28-29) Goldhammer and Taylor (1972, p.127) emphasize the development of a self-fulfilled and integrated self by achieving holistic perceptions of life activities. Marland (1972) lends further credence to a life centered approach by describing "life and how to live it" (p.38) as the primary vocation. MW Goldhammer and Taylor (1972) suggest that "the problem . . . becomes one of balancing the requirements of society against the essential freedom of its individuals" (p.4). They refer to defining man in relation to his social roles and conceive of a "dynamic interaction between man and his society, the result of which is the creative improvement of both" (p.121). They stress that it is important for man to possess individual knowledge and skill in relation to social expectations. Role is defined in terms of both the expectations of the individual and society with an emphasis on the individual finding balance in relation to his own self-fulfillment needs and those of society (pp.121-122). Goldhammer and Taylor (1972) promote occupation as the means to individual emancipation within an existing socioeconomic order. Career Education assumes the centrality of vocation for the determination of all life styles. . . . Associations with other people as well as groups are 156 predominantly determined by the work in which one is engaged (p.284). Career education is perceived as a means of liberation, through work, within "this system" (p.291). At the same time it is pointed out that None of these factors need imply that youth are uncritically locked into this system or are indoctrinated to accept a station in life . . . Career education should place a considerable emphasis upon students' explorations of the values and life styles inherent in this and other systems.(p.29l) If this is a serious theoretical position it would seem important to ensure in teaching life roles, that they are taught as relative to particular socioeconomic systems of which the student is participating in only one. This orientation however receives minimal attention in the career education literature. 3 ' a c A number of assumptions implicit in career education can be extrapolated from the literature. Those particularly evident include assumptions of (a) corporatism, capitalism and competition as reality (b) adaption to the current socioeconomic order as value, and (c) adjustment to the workplace as value. Career education approaches capitalism as fixed reality and focuses on functioning within that reality (Wagner, 1980). The industrial de-skilling of work and the claim by career educators of the need to adapt to this de-skilling, implies 157 it is the result of progress. Wagner suggests it is not progress so much as the result of capitalists maximizing their profits in the name of progress. The assumption of compatability of industrial needs with individual student needs is challenged. Career education accepts "the ideological assumption that capitalism promotes the freedom in which students can develop in autonomous and self-defined directions" (p.110). An assumption of career education appears to be that the individual must learn to adjust to certain realities of life (Goldhammer, 1972, p.128). Although references are made to participating in one’s social roles, no mention is made to scrutinizing the social order in which these roles are to be played. If there is an emphasis on social critiquing within career education it appears to be on changing a single structure of the social order, schooling (Marland, 1974), not the social order itself. The inevitability of the corporate state appears to be taken for granted. America is moving toward ever-enlarging corporate institutions with the danger of corresponding reductions of individuality. This is a fact, not something that education encourages (Marland, 1974, p.126). This observation leaves unaddressed the question of whether or not career education should attempt to query or discourage the growth of corporate institutions instead of promoting adjustment to them as fixed reality. Career 158 education assumes a position that workers should develop their individual work fulfillment within or around the reality of the corporate world (Marland, 1974, p.126). Marland (1974) mentions the importance of students developing "utilitarian skills that have a market value" (p.23). Similarly Hoyt (1981) has claimed that "students receiving a degree from the institutions should have demonstrated their acquisition of both a set of marketable job skills and a set of adaptability skills that will enable them to change with change" (p.272). What is not addressed in this statement is which changes should be accepted and the value of controlling change. Hoyt (1981) implies that individual adjustment to corporatism and capitalism is a part of normal human development. Some of the basic career education skills he mentions include "good work habits. . . . appreciation for the American system of private enterprise. . . . skills in humanizing the workplace for oneself" (Hoyt, 1981, p.15). Goldhammer and Taylor (1972, p.4) assume the importance of adjustment and mention the difficulties of "adjusting" to the role of worker. Hoyt (1981) has stressed the need for the student to learn "adaptability skills" (p.251) for an occupational society. Goldhammer and Taylor (1972) provide a clear example of the assumptions of capitalism as a value and competition as a fixed reality. "Our position of leadership in the free 159 world demands a strong economic base . . . if we are to survive in world competition" (p.4). Wirth (1981) suggests that the self-definition of career education must be accomplished through resolving conflicts about "life goals we wish to pursue under technological-corporate conditions" (p.44). No mention is made of critiquing and possibly changing these conditions although he does allude to a need to be able to generate life-styles which will reconcile the dualism of technology and humanism. WWW Herr (1972, p.87) refers to the importance of grasping the realities of society (p.87). An assumption here appears to be that there exists an objective reality beyond the individual which one is bound to learn. This of course begs the questions of whose reality and whose adult society. In defense it should be pointed out that Morris (1981) implies that career education does not necessarily require a student to accept the assumptions of working within and for a given social order. He suggests that career conveys continuity of purpose and performance . . . the secular equivalent of calling, suggesting a significant initiative by the individual. . . . It embraces a wider catalogue of life work. For example, a career might become a conscious repudiation of gainful employment altogether (p.11). Morris however is an educational philosopher and not a career educator. The potential he describes is not evident 160 in the theoretical discussions and recorded practices of career educators. WWW Herr (1972) suggests that career information should not only include objective factors but also "the social and psychological conditions in which the work activity is performed" (p.73). This appears to indicate an unspoken acceptance of these conditions or at least implies that the learner will plan on avoiding these conditions or prepare to adapt successfully to them. Brolin’s (1978) competencies of life centered career education clearly convey a set of values geared to accepting the supervision and demands of the workplace, and promoting competition. Competency #19 (exhibiting appropriate work habits & behaviours) requires that students learn to "work at a satisfactory rate . . . accept supervision, . . . recognize the importance of attendance and punctuality, . . [and] meet demands for quality work" (p.13). Competency #22 (seeking, securing, & maintaining employment) asks students to "adjust to competitive standards" (p.13). Accepting the established social order is reinforced through citizenship sub-competencies and activities which promote adjustment to current civil and social structures (p.44). No mention is made of critiquing these structures. 161 t' a e '0 Career education has received criticism in the reconceptual literature. Smith (1981) warns of the danger of career education supporting an already corrupt and unjust society. . . Asking students to step into an already existing job market without giving them an opportunity to evaluate the market itself is hardly fair. . . . [there is a need for] the will to evaluate and change an unjust social order. . . . Education is not simply a means of making individuals contributing members of society. And a system of education which has demonstrated a capacity to contribute to economic growth and national well-being is not necessarily a desirable educational system. (p.23) Wagner (1980) directly addresses reconceptual concerns about the assumptions behind career education. He contests career education’s claim that it can reduce student/worker alienation by better preparing students for work. Career educators misunderstand the origin of alienation in capitalist society. The roots . . . do not lie in faulty socialization or in lack of proper preparation for work, but in the basic social relationships that are created and engendered by capitalist society. . . . It [career education] does not . . . recognize that alienation stems from the specific form of work in capitalist society. (p.107) The alienated work relationships of capitalist society are already reflected in hidden form in the school classroom environment. The attempt by career educators to ensure a closer correspondence between education and the needs of the economy represents a proposal "to make the 'hidden curriculum' transparent" (p.106). Wagner describes the long-standing educational paradox of stressing the "values and ideas consistent with the interests of class domination 162 [while also stressing] the ideas of liberal society-- individuality, freedom, social mobility, etc." (p.106). In essence this represents a stance both for and against capitalist society. Career education proposes to eliminate this paradox and opportunity for dissent by structuring a greater correspondence between the content of education and the socioeconomic order of capitalism. Wagner suggests that the dominant assumptions of career education promote an ideology supportive of capitalism. Ideology is not something which is taught directly so much as it reflects lived experience. In the case of the school, classroom students quickly learn that individualism and passivity to authority results in success. Wagner suggests that these are the same sorts of attitudes which ensure success in a capitalist society. Our ideological thought is conditioned by the structures around us, therefore to believe that "our interests, thoughts, and actions are considered rational and independent of capitalist society [is to] engage in ideological thought" (p.108). From a reconceptualist perspective, career education places the responsibility for individual dissatisfaction on the individual in not having learned how to function with the fixed reality (Wagner, 1980). Reconceptualists suggest that, to the contrary, work is dissatisfying because it is becoming undifferentiated and interchangeable as workers lose the skills necessary for the production of whole 163 projects . . . it is this 'rationalization' . . . which makes work distant and alien to the individual worker" (p.113). Because career educators are unaware that the assumptions of their proposals only make sense within the system of capitalism this situation represents an example of "bourgeois ideology" (p.113). 164 B§I§I§D2§§ Aoki, T. (1983). Towards a dialectic between the conceptual and the lived world: transcending instrumentalism in curriculum orientation, ' u u o n , §(4), 4-21. Adkins, W. (1980). Life skills education for adult learners. In F. Karnes, C. Ginn and B. Maddox, (Eds. ) 1eenee_and trends_in_eenlt_tasis_edusatien (pp- 35- 48) Jackson. Mississippi: University Press of Mississippi. Beyer, L.E. (1983). Philosophical work, practical theorizing and the nature of schooling. denrnai_er_gnrrieninn Theorizing. 5(1). 73-91- Brolin, D. (1978). r ' ° a . Reston: Council for Exceptional Children. Butt, R. (1984). Curriculum: Metatheoretical horizons and emancipatory action. lenrnal_ef_§nrrisnlnn_lneerizing s (2), 7-23. Callahan. R- (1962)- Edusatien_and_the_sult_ef_effieienexi s d e so 0 c a ' ' ° . Chicago: The University of Chicago Press. Carkhuff, R. and Berenson, B. (1976). s t t ent. Amherst, MA.: Human Resource Development Press. Carkhuff, R. (1980). Ihe_nrr_ef_Helning_Iy. Amherst, MA.: Human Resource Development Press. Carlson, D. (1983). Of capital, labor and teachers. denrnal ef_§nrrisulnn_Tneerizing. 5(3). 148-157- Chiarelott, L. (1983). The role of experience in the curriculum: application of Dewey's theory of experience. ' , 5(4), 22-37. Cohen, R. S. (1981). On the Marxist philosophy of education. In H C- Kazanas (Ed ) Beadings_in_sareer_ednstien (pp. 185-195). Peoria: Bennett. 165 Fischer, J. (1980). The current status of CBAE research. In J. Parker and P. Taylor (Eds.) The QB reader: a gnide re ta d c ete c -based ad d c t' neyenent (pp. 96-112). Upper Montclair, New Jersey: National Adult Education Clearinghouse. Freire. P- (1970)- 2edageex_ef_tne_ennressed- New York: Seabury Press. Giroux, H.A. (1979). Toward a new sociology of curriculum. Ednsatienal_Leadersnin. December. 248-253- Goldhammer, K. (1972). A careers curriculum. In K. Goldhammer and R. Taylor (Eds. ), 'o : perspectixe_and_nremise (pp- 121- 168) Columbus: Merrill- Goldhammer, K. and Taylor, R. c 0 ° s 've and_nreni_e. Columbus: Merrill. Green, M. (1975). Curriculum and consciousness. In W. Pinar (Ed.). turrisulnm_tneerizing (pp- 299-317)- Berkeley: McCutchan. Griffith, W.S. and Cervero, R.M. (1977). The adult performance level program: a serious and deliberate examination Adn1r_3dnearien, 21, 209-224. Hansen. L. (1977). An_examinatien_ef_tne_definitiens_and eeneente ef eareer educatien. (NACCE Monograph, U.S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare/Office of Education). Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office. Herr, E. (1972). Unifying an entire system around a career development theme. In Goldhammer, K. and Taylor, R. ' (pp.63-104). Columbus: Merrill. Herr, E. (1981). Career Education: some perspectives on validity and content. In H.C. Kazanas (Ed.) Beadinge_in £§I§§I_edngatien (pp. 70-87). Peoria: Bennett. Hertling, J. (1980). Competency based education: is it applicable to adult education programs? In J. Parker and P. Taylor (Eds.)T Th C de : 'de to derst om t ’ ve (pp. 1-7). Upper Montclair, New Jersey: National Adult Education Clearinghouse. 166 Hopson, B. and Scally, M. (1981). Lifeskilis teaching. London: McGraw-Hill. Hoyt, K. (1981). Career education: flhere it is and where it ,i__g_ing. Salt Lake City: Olympus. James, W. (1980). What APL is--and is not. In J. Parker and P. Taylor (Eds.) The CB reader; a gnide te undersranding e com ete c -based adu e ucati movem nt (pp. 8-16). Upper Montclair, New Jersey: National Adult Education Clearinghouse. Kasworm, C.E. (1980). Competency based adult education: a metamorphosis in literacy education. In J.T. Parker and P.G. Taylor (Eds.), e CB reader: a 'd o erstand'n t c etenc -based a duca io nevement (pp. 113-122). Upper Montclair, New Jersey: National Adult Education Clearinghouse. King, N. R. (1982). Curriculum as cult. An essay review of toward wholeness: Rudolf Steiner education in america, M. E- RIChardS- l9EIDQl__I_§EIIi__lBE_Ih§QIiZiDQ A. 257- -259. Kirsch, I. and Guthrie, J. (1980). The concept and measurement of functional literacy. In F. Karnes, C. Ginn and B. Maddox (Eds.) Iesnee and trends in adnit baeic edneatien (pp. 133-154). Jackson, Mississippi: University Press of Mississippi. Leonard, J.T. (1983) Mystery and myth: curriculum as the illumination of lived experience. denrnai of Curriculum Insetiting. 5(1). 17-25- Macdonald, J. B. (1975L Curriculum and human interests. In Pinar, William (Ed. ),C c o 'n (pp. 283- 294L Berkeley: McCutchan, 1975. Macdonald, J. B. (1981). Theory-practice and the hermeneutic circle. Ienrnal_ef.§urrienlnm_lneerizing. 3 (2). 130- -133. Marland, S. (1972). Career education now. Address to the convention of the National Association of Secondary School Principals, Houston, Texas, January 23, 1971. In Goldhammer, K. and Taylor, R. gareer_edngat12nt ners2e2t12e_and_nremise (pp- 33-42)- ColumbuS: Merrill- Marland, S. (1974). a 'o ° New York: McGraw Hill. 167 Mazza, K. A. (1982). Reconceptual inquiry as an alternative mode of curriculum theory and practice: a critical study Ienrnal_sf_§nrrisnlum_1neerizing. 1(2). 5-89- Morris, V. C. (1981). Career education and the way we work-- a new coinage in the realm. In H.C. Kazanas (Ed.) Beadings_in_sareer_edusatien (pp- 10-17)- Peoria: Bennet. Mulder, R.L. (1983). w e d 'v' 'ts oss'b e 'm ' e a ache ca 'o . Doctoral Dissertation, Michigan State University. Murphy, W. and Pilder, W. (1975). Alternative organizational forms, cultural revolution and education. In W. Pinar (Ed-). Qurrienlnm_tneerizing (pp- 341-355)- Berkeley: McCutchan. Office of Education (DHEW). (1977). Ihe_adn1r_nerrernanee leyel_etndy. Washington, D.C.: Author. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 185 113). Padgham, R.E. (1983). The holographic paradigm and postcritical reconceptualist curriculum theory. denrnai ef_§urrienlum_1heerizing. 5(3). 132-143- Parker, J. and Taylor, P. (Eds.) (1980). Ihe_§§_reader;_a guide_te_nnderstan_ing_tne____n___ney_b__e__edult d com ete - as d edueatien_neyenent. Upper Montclair, New Jersey: National Adult Education Clearinghouse. Phenix, P. (1975). Transcendence and the curriculum. In W. Pinar (36-). currisnlum_theerizing (pp-323-337)- Berkely: McCutchan. Phillips, G. and McElhinney, J. (1979). Life-role competencies: a way of proceeding. NA§§2_Bniietin. 61. 26-33. Pinar, W. (1975a). Currere: toward reconceptualization. In W- Pinar (Ed-). surrisnlnn_tneerizing (pp-396-4l4)- Berkeley: McCutchan. Pinar, W. (l975b). Search for a method. In W. Pinar, (Ed.) Sunrisnlum_tneerizing (pp.415-424). Berkeley: McCutchan. Pinar, W. (1975c). The analysis of educational experience. In Pinar. W- (Ed.) Qurrisnlum_tneerizing (pp-384-395)- Berkeley: McCutchan. Pinar, W. (l975d). Sanity, madness, and the school. In Pinar. W- (Ed ) curriculum_tneerizing (pp- 359- 383). Berkeley: McCutchan. 168 Richards, R.E. and Short, E.C. (1981). Curriculum inquiry from a religious perspective: two views. denrnal of Qnrricuiun Theorizing, 1(2), 209-222. Rubin, L.J. (Ed.). (1969). Life shiiie in schoei and eeeiety. Washington: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development. Saskatchewan Newstart. (1973). Readings in life ekiils. Prince Albert, Sask: Author. Saskatchewan Newstart. (1974). Seeiai inventiene. Prince Albert, Sask: Author. Sears, J.T. (1984). Rethinking teacher education: dare we work toward a new social order? donrnai er Qurriculum Iheeriaing, §(2), 24-79. Shapiro, H. S. (1982). Shaping the educational imagination: class, culture and the contradictions of the dominant ideology- Ienrnal_ef_§nrrieulnn_1neerizing. 1.(2). 153-165. Smith, P. (1981). Career education as a justification for schooling. In H.C Kazanas (Ed.) Beadinge_in_eareer edncation (pp. 18-25). Peoria: Bennett. Super, D. (1981). Career education and career guidance for the life span and for life roles. In H.C. Kazanas (Ed.) Readings in career edneation (pp. 45-55). Peoria: Bennett. Taylor, B. (1977). Tina fer infueing eareer edneation in the enrrieninm. Boulder: Social Sciences Education Consortium, Inc. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 153 881) Taylor, P. (1980). Competency-based adult education: toward a functional definition. In J. Parker and P. Taylor (Eds.) e ° ' o und stan m ete c -based adu e t' ove (pp.). Upper Montclair, New Jersey: National Adult Education Clearinghouse. Wagner, K. (1980). Ideology and career education. 'o , ag(2), 105-113. Wexler, P. (1981). Change: social, cultural and educational. Ieurnal_ef_eurrisnlnn_1heerizing. 1(2). 157-164- 169 Wirth, A. (1981). The historical and social context of career education. In H.C. Kazanas (Ed.) Beadinge in §§I§§I_edn§atien (pp. 35-44). Peoria: Bennett, 1981. CHAPTER 5 EXAMINATION AND COMPARISON OF SELECTED LIFE CONCERNS ADULT EDUCATION CURRICULAE Intredustien In this chapter specific curricular approaches to life concerns adult education have been selected for examination of theoretical assumptions and major methodologies used in those approaches. Selections were made from reconceptualism and dominant forms of life concerns adult education. Dominant approaches were conceived as involving competency based adult education and career education. As a sample of the reconceptualist approach Freire’s (1973) Ednearien_fer griticai Conscionsness was selected for examination. As competency based adult education involves two areas of focus--applied problem solving and performance level competencies, two curricula reflecting these orientations were selected for examination. The applied problem solving approach of competency based adult education is represented through the Saskatchewan Newstart life skills training approach as described in the WW (Saskatchewan Newstart, 1973a) and The Qynamies or Lire Shille_§eaehing (Saskatchewan Newstart, 1973b) The performance levels approach to CBAE is represented through A Currieuinn Guide fer Adnir Eduearers hased on the Aduir e ve (Basner, 1976) developed in Rhode Island. The Michigan document, A Reference Guide Career 170 171 Deyelennent_seals_1.2erfernanse_lndisaters (Michigan Career Education, 1974) has been selected for examination as a sample of a career education approach to life concerns adult education. Resenssntnalism ’ du t' Paulo Freire’s (1983) approach to education reflects both existential and structural concerns in its design. This approach is well enunciated in his work entitled o i C sc'ous . Within that work a number of important theoretical themes are evident in addition to descriptions of his educational methodology. These themes and methodologies are outlined below. ‘ Man_as_sreater_ef_nistery_and_sultnre. Animals are submerged within the reality of the world and cannot relate to it. Men gain their distinction from animals in that they "are not only in the world but also with the world" (p.3). Whereas animal activity is characterized by adaptation to a context, human activity involves integration with a context. History and culture are the exclusive domain of man. This is signified by man's ability to "intervene in reality in order to change it" (p.4). Man creates historical epochs as he creates, re-creates and decides. These epochs are uniquely characterized in time by themes which reflect the aspirations, concerns and values of man. Man must grasp these themes and develop a 172 "permanently critical attitude" (p.5) so as to achieve cultural integration. This is achieved by playing an active part in the shaping and re-shaping of cultural reality. To not think critically results in man being carried along by change, submerged in it and merely adapting to it. Man needs to be able to perceive the social contradictions which occur as emerging values conflict with earlier values which in turn resist change (p.7). As men increase in perceptive, responsive and questioning power they increase their ability for eternal dialogue with other men and the world: they become "transitive" (p.17). Eternal dialogue in the examination of common problems, gives man his historical meaning (pp.17-29). Freire suggests that men must value their labor and realize that it is this labor which effects transformation: hence the creation of culture. Adaptatienr Freire expresses concern about man meekly adapting to societal expectations and being submerged within limited choices. For example he suggests that in highly technological societies man may be massified and have only the illusion of choice. Mass production is seen as contributing to massification thereby dehumanizing man by narrowing his activity and limiting his vision (p.34). To the extent that man loses his ability to make choices and is subjected to the choices of others, to the extent that his decisions are no longer his own because they result from external prescriptions, he is no longer integrated. Rather he has adapted. He has 173 'adjusted.’ Unpliant men with a revolutionary spirit are often termed ’maladjusted'. (p.4) QQEéEitDtiZQQQQ. Conscientizacao is the process of obtaining an ongoing critical consciousness. This process is contrary to a society of adjustment and domestication. Such a society results from manipulation by the elite (p.8). Badisalism_and_sestarianism. Freire claims that radicalism results from emotion associated with the tendency to choose either old or new values. Radicalization is characterized by being predominantly critical, loving, humble, and communicative, and therefore a positive stance. . . . [a radical] tries to convince and convert, not to crush his opponent. The radical does, however have the duty . . . to react against . . . those who try to silence him. (p.10) Sectarianism which can reflect either a rightist or leftist stance, is characterized by being predominantly emotional and uncritical . . . arrogant, antidialogical and thus anticommunicative. . . . Herein lies the inclination of the sectarian to activism: action without the vigilance of reflection (p.11). Transfermatien_and_Assisteneialisn. The critical learner begins to perceive society as unfinished and not a fixed reality: the task is to engage in transforming society not merely adapting to it (p.13). The social elite create social programs and hire social workers to counter the demands of the people as they become aware of their right to participate in social transformation (p.14). Freire refers to those programs which merely attack symptoms as 174 "assistencialism" (p.15). Assistencialism further oppresses man by robbing him of his need for responsibility (p.16). Qnarasteristiss.ef.§dueatien. Education is characterized by a form which enables "the people to reflect on themselves, their responsibilities, and their role in the new cultural climate--indeed to reflect on their very power of reflection" (p.16). An integral part of education is the awakening of critical consciousness which results from a "critical educational effort" (p.19). "Education is an act of love, and thus an act of courage. It cannot fear the analysis of reality or, under pain of revealing itself as a farce, avoid creative discussion" (p.38). Education is characterized by a climate for dialogue which requires that man sense his participation in a common life with other men with accompanying social and political responsibility (p.24). Education must be connected to life so as to develop critical consciousness as critical consciousness depends on concrete activity (p.37). Literacy which is the core objective of education is defined as"creation and re-creation, a self-transformation producing a stance of intervention in one's context" (p.48). Such an approach is not top to bottom but from the learner outward (p.48). 175 Methedr To Freire, content and method are synonomous (p.49). The general method of Freire’s approach involves continual re-evaluation, analysis, and assisting the learner to perceive himself in a dialectical relationship with social reality. This general method is aimed at producing an increasingly critical attitude so as to enable man to transform his world (pp.33-34). Experiential learning of democracy is another integral part of the method (p.36). Freire calls his learning institution a "culture circle" instead of a school because of the passive connotations of the term school. The term co-ordinator replaces that of teacher, dialogue replaces lecture, learners are group participants not pupils, and "alienating syllabi" (p.42) are replaced by compact broken down programs codified into learning units. Instead of using a method involving mechanistic literacy the effort is geared to learning to read concurrent with gaining heightened consciousness. Literacy is presented as "an introduction to the democratization of culture . . . an act of creation" (p.43). The method stresses dialogue and incorporating the techniques of thematic breakdown and codification (p.45). An initial thrust of the method is to have the illiterate discover that he is a maker of culture not just a dweller within it or recipient of it. This involves first 176 breaking down the anthropological concept of culture into its fundamental aspects: 1. Distinction between the world of nature and the world of culture: 2. The active role of men in and with their reality: 3. The role of mediation which nature plays in relationships and communication among men: 4. Culture as the addition made by men to a world they did not make: 5. Culture as the result of men's labor, of their efforts to create and re-create. 6. The transcendental meaning of human relationships. 7. The humanist dimension of culture. 8. Culture as a systematic acquisition of human experience: 9. The democratization of culture. 10. Reading and writing as a key to the world of written communication. (p.46) These fundamental aspects of culture are later represented visually through codifications (pictures). Each codification contains a number of elements to later be decoded by the group through group discussion (pp.47-48). The codifications which are representative of every-day culture are deemed to be problem posing in that the learner must discover the elements of culture in pursuit of increased critical consciousness (p.50). The intent is for the group to first learn the distinction between nature and culture and then progress into viewing culture as "a systematic acquisition of human experience" (p.48). In developing reading skills with learners Freire avoids the primer approach in favour of generative words, the syllabic elements of which allow for the formation of new words through re-combination. The intent is for the 177 learner to understand how the words are formed so that they can experiment with new combinations (p.49). Phases of the method include: 1. Researching the vocabulary of the prospective learners through informal dialogue: 2. Selecting generative words from the researched vocabulary, considering phonemic richness, phonetic difficulty and pragmatic tone: 3. Creating codifications, from typical existential situations, for group discussion: 4. Preparing agendas as aids to the group coordinators: 5. Preparing cards which break down phonemic families in a manner corresponding to the selected generative words (pp.49-52). The media involved include slides, filmstrips and/or posters (p.53). The specifics of the method are described by Freire as follows: The codified situation is projected, together with the first generative word . . . Debate about its implications follows . . . Only after the group . . has exhausted the analysis (decoding) . . . does the coordinator call attention to the generative word, encouraging the participants to visualize (not memorize) it. Once the word has been visualized, and the semantic link established between the word and the object . . . the word is presented alone . . . Then the same word is separated into syllables. . . . Once the "pieces" [syllables] are recognized, the coordinator presents visually the phonemic families which compose the word, first in isolation and then together, to arrive at the recognition of the vowels. The card 178 presenting the phonemic families has been called the "discovery card". Using this card to reach a synthesis, men discover the mechanism of word formation through phonemic combinations in a syllabic language like Portuguese. (pp.52-53) Following the above, the learner then practices making up words from the phonemic families, even nonsense words. The important consideration is the "discovery of the mechanism of phonemic combinations" (p.55). In considering Freire’s method it is important to remember that through the use of the visual codifications emphasis is placed on dialogue and man learning about his ability to reflect on himself and his ability to transform his world and create culture. The dialogue within the group about these new understandings is as important as learning to read the generative words and provides the motivating force for that accomplishment. The very act of dialogue and learning to read within the group takes on special meaning to the learner. He is consciously aware that his labour in dialogue and reading contributes to the transformation of his culture. educational aims of reconceptualism are concerned with both the personal and social considerations depending upon whether the biases are existential or structural. In the case of Freire’s approach, which appears to be one of the 179 few tangible reconceptual methods available, he successfully melds both existential and structural concerns. In essence Freire eliminates the individual/social dualism. Man consciously and critically transforms society so as to achieve human quality within his existence. He transforms culture to be man. With such an approach the aims are simultaneously personal and social. Economic concerns are not directly addressed as major aims but there are significant economic implications by virtue of the continuous social critiquing which is a part of this reconceptual approach. c' c a e ' ct 5 es . 1. Object of change (individual/group). The object of change is simultaneously the individual and the social group. The individual is empowered through dialogue with the social group and through transforming his society. 2. Sources of change (top to bottom/bottom to top). Change within Freire’s approach is from the bottom to the top. Knowledge, awareness and cultural transformation generates from the learner. Knowledge already resides in his existence. His task is to become aware of himself, his knowledge and the reality around him. Individual learners are empowered so as to make more informed decisions for their participation with mankind in transforming the culture thereby creating personal and social history. 180 3. Type of change (evolutionary/basic). The type of change involved is primarily basic. The educational intent is empowerment to create change within one’s world, not merely to adapt to that world. Although this basic change may be incremental to some degree, it is more than just an evolutionary concept. Conversely the approach does not necessarily require that the basic change be revolutionary although this is a possibility depending upon the severity of the social constraints. Learning rheory (sonree or authority, level of reduction). Learning theory assumptions appear as follows: 1. Source of authority (external/internal). The source of authority is primarily internal in that the insights and dialogue are generated from the learner and are based on stimuli developed from within his world. In a very minimal fashion some of the authority is external when one considers the general structure developed in advance by the group co-ordinator. However this external authority is quite general and confined to basic anthropological concepts and preparing the stimuli to generate learner based discussion. Fixed content and rigid methodologies are not imposed on the learning group. 2. Level of reduction (incremental, sequential/ complex, holistic). The level of reduction is characterized by complex and holistic understanding. Man increases in his awareness of self and his self as an agent of cultural and 181 historical transformation. There is minimal concern for incremental and sequential learning. To the contrary, the learner is encouraged to create and expand his general awareness in multiple directions through dialogue. WWW Pfififii!£..£§§29fl§i¥tlt There is little question that this reconceptual education approach assumes and requires an active and initiating learner in the development of both learning content and methodology. Dialogue, critical consciousness and initiating cultural transformation represent the antithesis of passive responsiveness. t ' t ' n l oces a ne 2enteredzteaeher_eenreredir Instruction is conceived of as learner centered within Freire’s approach. The learner instructs himself through reflecting upon his own awareness and his environment. These reflections involve dialogue with his fellow man. Teacher centered instruction is an alien concept associated with the oppressive institution of school--a place where values are misconstrued as facts and are perceived as being disseminated from the teacher to the student. WWW Evaluation emphases within Freire's reconceptual approach focuses on process, not product. Experiencing the phenomenon of ongoing dialogue with one's fellow man, developing ever increasing critical consciousness, continually creating, 182 reflecting and re-creating are all processes valued in themselves. To demonstrate product is to demonstrate adaptation and training--concepts rejected within Freire’s conceptual framework. image 0 e: . 0‘ 1°20 .._-- 1 -i -’S :00 o: 9 Freire uses a depth, intensity and personalization of group discussion which he refers to as dialogue. Whereas 'discussion’ may connote communication about, ’dialogue' connotes communication with. The basis of method in Freire’s approach is dialogue developed in conjunction with the thematic breakdown, analsyis and re-analysis of culture. Dialogue is generated within cultural circles (groups). This dialogue is stimulated using visual and linguistic problem posing codifications from the learner’s immediate environment and language. Generative words are used as a means of assisting the learner in discovering phonemic combinations. The method of literacy involves individual consciousness raising and social critiquing. Within the cultural circle Freire’s method is more one of dialogue and abstraction than it is experiential, however it is experiental in the context of this abstraction and dialogue being solidly grounded in the everyday reality of the learner. Multimedia methods such as slides, drawings and posters are used as stimuli for discussion and dialogue. IDLIQQEQELQD. The Saskatchewan Newstart approach (Saskatchewan Newstart, 1973a: 1973b: 1973c) was derived and adapted from the works of Adkins (Adkins, 1980). This approach to life skills instruction is based on techniques taken from counselling, education and skill training. It is assumed that life skills are observable behaviours and that some people already have these skills and can demonstrate them to others. Within this method one starts with the learner's current functioning level and his present reality. Through the learner attaining and integrating new goals, significant behavioural change is evident (Saskatchewan Newstart, 1973c, pp.13-25). W The life skills learning process is conceived of in three dimensions-- content, group context, and problem solving behaviors. The content involves cognitive, affective, and psychomotor considerations. A group context is used for for practicing new behaviours at safe, careful and risky levels. The transfer of learning from the group setting to the outside world is structured into the course through the learner agreeing to practice skills outside of the group. The learner returns and reflects with the group as to that application. Problem solving is carried out through the process of recognizing the problem, defining it, chooosing 184 alternatives, implementing an alternative, and evaluating the results (Saskatchewan Newstart, 1973c, pp.13-25). The_Life_§hille_§eaehing_hannal (Saskatchewan Newstart, 1973a) includes sixty one lessons within the life areas of self, family, leisure, community, and job. There are five phases of the lesson model (Saskatchewan Newstart, 1973c, pp.26-39): 1. Stimulus. The life skills coach using multi-media methods, presents the problem in a manner which will stimulate or provoke student interest and involvement. 2. Evocation. The students individually express their opinions which are recorded and recognized as having worth by the coach. The purpose of this is for a more specific definition of the problem by the students. 3. Objective Enquiry/Skill Practice. In this phase the coach acts as a guide and helps the students seek out and relate new knowledge to the problem. This involves the coach arranging opportunities for the students to practice the skills determined in the objective of the lesson. 4. Application. The coach helps the student apply knowledge and skills to the solution of problems. 5. Evaluation. Students and coach both assess the progress of students in achieving specified skills. Evaluation includes reviewing what has been mastered and planning for further skill development. 185 W The method of the Newstart approach is highly prescriptive and specified in advance. There are specific lesson objectives but they are not exclusively product competencies. Many are process competencies: for example the objective, "writes . . . tests and relates the interpretation . . . to his personal goals" (Saskatchewan Newstart, 1973a, p.362). Another example of the stress on process objectives is the objective of using "the technique of force field analysis to set a personal goal and develop a plan for the achievement" (p.366). From samples such as this it is evident that a major goal is developing generalized problem solving ability more so than just learning minimal product competencies. Ifi:§h§£.§h§£§£§§li§ti§§. According to Curtiss and Friedman (Saskatchewan Newstart, 1973c, pp.71-88) the desirable characteristics of life skills teaching require empathy, positive regard, specificity, genuineness, confrontation, immediacy, cognitive organization, orderliness, indirectness and ability to solve instructional problems. Teacher training involves creative problem solving, structured human relations training, coaching techniques, and life skills course content. Metheder Because of the emphasis on demonstration and modelling as a major part of the method, the term coaching is used in preference to the term teaching. In general the course uses a "practise/use/teach cycle" (Saskatchewan 186 Newstart, 1973a, p.29). Practice occurs under the scrutiny of the coach, use is attempted without the coach, and the teach phase involves the student teaching the skill to someone else. The method generally involves the learner being encouraged to define the problem and determine a solution. This involves allowing the learner self paced, free exploration with immediate feedback as to the consequences of his action (Saskatchewan Newstart, 1973c, pp.120-151). The background and skills of the students and of the life skills coach, community resources, and written material are used as primary sources of learning (Saskatchewan Newstart, 1973c, p.15). Teaching methods involve discussion and problem solving within the context of various size groups. Groupings involve full groups for presentations, reporting, discussions, etc. Smaller working groups are used for assigned tasks. Triads are used for role playing and counselling and dyads for counselling, skills practise and feedback (Saskatchewan Newstart, 1973a, pp.18-19). Multimedia kits are an integral part of the teaching method. Equipment such as video and cassette recorders, cameras, projectors, films, printed material etc. are all used as a part of instruction. Resource persons from the community are commonly used to provide students with the opportunity to "practice 187 talking to authority figures and persons knowledgeable in specific content areas" (Saskatchewan Newstart, 1973a, p.8). uu . o_ tge -. - ' ._ -s um- i- s o t e See a chewan Newstart Model of Life Shiils Training Educational aims (economichersenalzsocial). The educational aims of Saskatchewan Newstart life skills training are primarily economic and personal. This is evidenced by the organization of training within the contexts of successful individual adaption to the life areas of family, community, leisure and job. No particular emphasis is placed on critiquing or directly changing social structures. Spciai change rheory (abject, spurces, rype). 1. Object of change (individual/social group). The primary object of change in the Newstart model is the individual who is viewed as deficient by virtue of lacking life skills. The social group is not particulary viewed as an object of direct change. 2. Sources of change (top to bottom/bottom to top). It is assumed that social change will primarily result through training individuals in productive life skills. Although this might initially be interpreted as a bottom to top change it is more correctly described as a top to bottom change in that authorities determine not only the skills to be taught, the methodologies, and evaluation techniques to 188 be used but also the need for training and those individuals in society deemed to require it. 3. Type of change (evolutionary/basic). Social change is intended to be evolutionary through training individuals in life skills which they are perceived as lacking. Society will gradually improve as deficient individuals learn these skills required for successful functioning. WM reductien), Learning theory assumptions appear as follows: 1. Source of authority (external/internal). The source of authority is seen as being external to the learner. Teachers or coaches possess more skills than the learner and their job is to pass on these skills through very structured teaching methods. 2. Level of reduction (incremental, sequential/ holistic). Although the transfer of problem solving skills ‘ across life areas is a goal, one could not describe the approach as one of a holistic orientation. Instead the emphasis is particularly incremental and sequential considering both the method of instruction and the presumed rituals of skill acquisition. The tightly structured lesson models and steps of problem solving are vivid examples of incremental and sequential learning theory assumptions. The approach appears to assume that holism will be achieved through sequential incrementalism although these concepts do not appear to be directly addressed. 189 0 ea n t'v t'a ' as 'v reeppneiyelr Within the Saskatchewan Newstart approach the learner may be primarily viewed as passive and responsive from the perspective of his involvement in the development of course content. He is expected to master skills as determined, modelled and taught by another more knowledgeable and skilled person. The context of methodology, the emphasis on multiple methods, experiential and group approaches suggest an active, initiating approach. Again however such activism and initiating is done within the confines of pre-determined course content. ., .. '., . ,. ,_ '. . .7. e=s -. 1e_ e e -d teaeher_eentered. The instructional process is clearly centered around the teacher. Emphasis is placed on training trainers to be competent to instruct less competent students. Lessons are highly structured with detailed planning in advance of presentation. As was mentioned above, any centering around the learner is secondary, limited within the parameters of a methodology, which promotes experiential involvement. ConsentienJLmlnatienJrodnsthreeessL. Although the Newstart life skills training model relies heavily on process, it values the achievement of product i.e. the achievement of particular problem solving methodologies. Quality of the learning experience is of secondary value in service to the primary value of achievement of course 190 objectives. All experiences are designed with achieving the problem solving skills as the end goal. Summary of Major hethedoiegiee er the Sasharchewan N ws t ' Sk' 'ni o c As described earlier, the major methods used in the Saskatchewan Newstart life skills training approach are quite diverse. The lessons are prepared and highly structured in advance of presentation. The actual presentation of all lessons follows a highly structured five phase sequence. Group discussion, individualization of progress and evaluation, and multi-media usage are all major aspects of methodology. The general methodological approach is experiential as is demonstrated through structured problem solving activities, role playing and modelling. Use of resource persons from the immediate community are also frequently enlisted techniques. Pe c Lev Enrpeeer The Rhode Island Curriculum Guide (Basner, 1976) represents an attempt to develop a model curriculum guide for adult basic education programs throughout Rhode Island based on the goals and objectives of the Adult Performance Level study (Office of Education, 1977). §§IB£§BI§. The general structure of the Rhode Island (Basner, 1976) model involves content areas consistent with those of APL: (a) Occupational Knowledge, (b) Consumer 191 Economics, (c) Health, (d) Community Resources, and (e) Government and Law. Within the five content areas are a total of sixty one general objectives. These objectives are in turn each accompanied by multiple activities designed to assist in achieving the objectives. The overall purpose of the content areas and accompanying activities is to create relevancy for the student so as to increase the probability of skill acquisition in the literacy areas of reading, writing, speaking, listening and computation. A bank of specific behavioural objectives which correspond to the five content areas and general objectives, provides for skill evaluation in the literacy areas of reading, writing, speaking, listening and computation. Upon completing the activities associated with the general objectives it is intended that the student be able to demonstrate the specified behaviours associated with mastery. Although problem solving was a part of the design of the APL project its appearance in the Rhode Island guide is minimal. It does appear in the behavioural objectives bank concurrently with other skills. Problem solving is not directly addressed so much as a process as it appears to be a presumed result of learning the processes of reading, writing, speaking, listening and computation. 192 MEEDQQ. As a general approach it is suggested that the teacher present a list of topics to students and that they select those in which they are interested. The topics selected are introduced through discussion activities and audio-visual materials. The teacher determines whether he, a group, or individual students will perform the required activities. It is stated in the guide that the activities described are intended as samples and that the guide is not considered inclusive in terms of learning modules, activity packages or lesson plans. These areas of development are left to teachers intent on using the guide. However by virtue of the objectives, suggested activities, evaluative criteria and suggested resource materials, implications for methodology are evident. Multi-media approaches including films, government and agency documents, pamphlets, and newspapers are suggested for use. The exploration of community resources within the contexts of seeking knowledge for occupations, consumer economics, health, and government are common techniques. Use of guest speakers also forms part of the approach. ”nuts -‘ o: u,-. z ' . .ssuu- ogs .- ,- '10.; _s_a d '1- - “In. _ 0. ‘ . 0. _ ' ‘ 0 span : .3 ‘ ‘ _' 0 0 0 o. 9 WWW The basic goals of the Rhode Island guide primarily reflect economic and personal emphases. This is consistent with the APL 193 approach. Occupational knowledge and consumer economics represent two of the five content areas in support of basic economic goals. The other three areas of Health, Community Resources, and Government and Law represent a personal development emphasis in that the individual learner is to be developed to more successfully adapt to and use these resources. The nature of the activities described does not particularly address direct concern for social change goals. So h e eo ob' t s u s e . 1. Object of change (individual/group). The object of change is the individual not the social group. The individual is judged to be relatively incompetent in relation to the specified minimal competencies evident in the social group around him. 2. Sources of change (top to bottom/bottom to top). Although social change is not directly addressed it appears' that the intent is top to bottom. This is supported by the perspective wherein social authorities define the competencies required of learners. It is presumed that beneficial social change will result when these competencies are mastered by those individuals lacking them. 3. Type of change (evolutionary/basic). An evolutionary social change is implied in the Rhode Island approach and is to be accomplished through the gradual improvement in the deficiencies of individuals who require competency 194 development. As the number of deficient individuals decrease, society will improve. a n theo sour o u ho 't ve o £§QBQLIQQL. Learning theory assumptions appear as follows: 1. Source of authority (external/internal). The source of authority is presumed to be external to the learner and resides in those who define the necessary competencies and in those who must teach them. 2. Level of reduction (incremental, sequential/ complex, holistic). For the most part, the level of reduction is incremental and sequential as the learners master the designated competencies in the general sequence developed by the teacher. There is no particular emphasis on addressing complex relationships and holism directly as a part of this education approach. Cpneeption of the learner (active, initiatinglpassive, reeppneiyelr From the context of content the learner is primarily viewed as passive and responsive to the selection and teaching of pre-determined competencies. He is not asked to determine the essential competencies: these have already been determined for him. Within the context of methodology, the learner is active and initiating in terms of being allowed and encouraged to use a variety of modes and resources of learning. 195 O!‘!,9!', _g- .13“ 7 e. ee-_: -.7!- 2En£§I§Q££§§Qh§£.§§fl£§£§§1. The instructional process is centered around the teacher who has already determined the competencies to be taught and the general structure of the lessons. The learner operates within the confines of pre-established instructional objectives. On a secondary basis, from the perspective of method, the learner is active within an experiential emphasis. WWW Within the Rhode Island approach evaluation is primarily product, not process, oriented. Evaluation is carried out by requiring the student to demonstrate the products of his learning. He must perform specific behaviours determined by the teacher so as to demonstrate his mastery of the competencies. a“ a -,-u ,‘oz 22. 6- Cent! - -v- - .99 o. , As indicated earlier in regard to general APL methodology, methodologies within the Rhode Island guide also are not well defined and are left to individual teacher preparation. The nature of activities proposed however have implications for methodology. Group discussion, and individualization of instruction and evaluation are evident. Multi-media are used where required. The general approach is experiential as is evidenced through approaches such as community exploration and project work. Resource persons from the community are used as guest speakers as required. 196 Skills simulations are integral parts of the method, and are essential to prepare for demonstrating the required competencies as a part of evaluation. Qaneerjdmticm e u 'o lntrpdnepipnr The Michigan model of career education (Michigan Career Education, 1974) incorporates an expanded definition of career to include the life roles of citizen, family, aesthetic and recreational, and worker. The goals of Michigan career education focus on acquiring "basic skills, preparation for social participation and change, ability to think creatively and critically, development of a strong self-concept, and the gaining of occupational skills" (p.1). Within this model, basic elements of traditional education approaches are intended to continue in addition to a cooperative relationship between school and community. Career Education is separated into the two broad areas of career preparation and career development. Qareer_£reparatienr Career preparation involves the skills offered through academic, vocational and technical education and are deemed as essential to implementing decisions and plans established through the career development process. Qareer_neyelepmentr Career development is conceptually subdivided into components, elements, general goals and sub goals. The sub goals are arranged in a chronological/ 197 developmental order in categories which correspond to grade levels ranging from kindergarten through adult education. The components consist of self awareness and assessment, career awareness and exploration, and career planning and placement. 1. Self awareness and assessment. Self awareness and assessment is presented as a life-long process and focuses on understanding self and others, and developing interpersonal skills. This component is designed to lead to developing plans for self improvement, life direction and a sense of individual purpose. 2. Career awareness and exploration. The content of the career awareness and exploration component involves studying the interrelationships between the life roles of family, citizen, leisure and occupation. These roles are conceptualized within recurring life events such as job entry, marriage, and retirement. Emphasis is given to . . . understanding . . . the structure and dimensions of the education, work, family, citizen, and leisure worlds. . . . Emphasis is placed on . . . learning . . . selected associations among specific occupational requirements, personal characteristics, skills, interests, values, and aspirations. The rapidity of social and technological change and other factors affecting the flux of the work force and the work situation are elements considered in this component (Michigan Career Education, 1974, p.5). Adaptation to the realities of the work world is assumed in the Michigan model as opposed to emphasizing the need for or possibility of transforming the work world. The individual learns to choose within "societal limitations" (p.5). 198 3. Career decision making. The career decision making component is intended to have students learn to value decision making particularly in regard to life-career planning. This involves learning the elements of decision making: i.e. gathering relevant information from multiple sources and learning to use that information for informed decision making. Through this skill individuals learn that they can influence their future. Such learning is accompanied by the development of responsibility for choices made. The career decision making process also develops the ability to project future changes and develop appropriate alternatives for successfully functioning within the future (p.6). 4. Career Planning and Placement. Career planning and placement as a component involves the identification and acquisition of skills necessary to reach life-career goals. In essence this is the action component which demonstrates commitment to the formulated goals (p.7). WWW. A method of accomplishing the process of career education is to infuse career development processes into career preparation processes. This is another way of describing an integrated curriculum design using life roles and subject matter as the two foci of integration. The general method of the Michigan model appears to be explorative. The individual explores himself, life 199 possibilities and decision making. This exploration is carried out in a variety of contexts such as home, school, workplace and community. Specifics of lesson methodology are not addressed in the Michigan career education reference guide but are implied through the nature of the performance indicators which require familiarity with goal setting and decision-making in relation to various life contexts. The nature of the performance indicators suggest a need for extensive individual research in both the school environment and in applied community situations. This conclusion is also supported by the reference to the need for participation of the school and community in a cooperative relationship (p.1). Generally it appears to be assumed that methodology will be designed by classroom teachers in a manner concurrent with general teacher training and methodology suggested in other career education literature. Such methodology, as mentioned earlier involves experiential learning, use of community resources, guest speakers, and multi-media approaches (Hoyt, 1981, p.263-290). The method of evaluation is behavioral. Each sub goal has a number of performance indicators or behavioral skills which students are expected to demonstrate as evidence that they have achieved the sub goals. 200 eo ' a ss 'o s ' ' Ca e du tion WW In the Michigan career education model there is no clear statement that occupation receives any more importance than the other life roles. This is somewhat discrepant with the career education literature which clearly places occupation as central. The Michigan model by virtue of its life role design appears to place equal emphasis on personal and economic aims. Social change aims are not directly addressed as a primary concern in the theory or methodology. Emphasis is on the individual functioning successfully within society. Soeial ehange theery (ohjeet, epurceI type). Also in the Michigan model the following assumptions appear: 1. Object of change (individual/social group). The primary object of change is the individual student not a particular social group. 2. Sources of change (top to bottom/bottom to top). The sources of change are primarily from the top to the bottom. This is based on a model wherein goals are defined by the curriculum makers who base these goals on human develoment norms, and perceived societal and industrial needs. The establishment of goals and performance indicators is not generally left to the learner. 3. Type of change (evolutionary/basic). The type of change advocated is evolutionary in that the focus is on 201 developing individuals who will eventually change society in an evolutionary fashion. Basic change is not addressed. e s rc aut 't 1 ve o redaction, Learning theory assumptions, of the Michigan model, appear as follows: 1. Source of authority (external/internal). The source of authority is primarily external to the learner in that the goals, performance indicators, and activities are determined by someone other than the learner. 2. Level of reduction (incremental and sequential/complex relationships and holism). The development of student understanding and appreciation for complex life relationships and holism is a primary concern evident in the design of the Michigan model. Reference is made to developing the student’s capacity to view the world from sociological, psychological and economic perspectives (p.5). Incrementalism and sequentialism are also evident in the design of the Michigan document, for example the grade level guides under each sub-goal, but these appear secondary to the over-all intent and general method of a continuous dealing with complex interrelationships. The practical limitation of this holistic intent however may be the fact that these interrelationships have to be achieved in schools with graded subject matter taught in separate, discrete blocks by different teachers. 202 0! '9 To. . ,- -. e a iv- '1' a T . .1 sive reepeneiyelt If viewed from the context of the goals, sub-goals and performance indicators being established independently of the learner, the learner is treated as passive and responsive. This is not to say that the learner is not active and initiating within the learning process: to the contrary. This activity and initiating however is confined to methodology within the content parameters of pre-established sub-goals and performance indicators. It is not evident that the learner assists in establishing or is expected to critique the particular goals and performance indicators in advance of or as a part of, participation in the learning process. .1 -. .1 . 1- '1- 1- '. 1 _. . .1” 1 -1t- (1 teaeher_eenteredlr The process of instruction is conceptualized as being equally centered around the teacher and learner. Within the parameters of career preparation, the continuing importance of teacher instruction is assumed and largely unaddressed. In other words the teacher as the expert in traditional school subject matter continues to be assumed.. Within the career development emphasis however the general method is exploratory and experiential within the school and community. In this context instruction is learner centered. The primary role of the teacher as diagnostician, is to help the student discover relationships within the context of life role possibilities. Although it 203 is assumed that the teacher possesses the career development skills being taught, these skills are primarily mastered through the learner's exploration not through teacher modelling. W The design of Michigan career education and career education literature supports experiential and exploratory learning which would appear to value evaluation which is centered in process. Despite this apparent value, evaluation is primarily grounded in product. Success is determined through the student being able to demonstrate the performance indicators. Process is valued in pursuit of product. 11.4 .1 .- . ~ ...1.. -‘ . h o. C. ee _du a ion The major instructional methods of Michigan career education are not directly addressed in the Beferenee Guide. As indicated earlier they may however be extrapolated from the performance indicators and the supporting career education literature. Methods of career education generally involve the process of infusion of career development concepts into school subject matter and the setting of life goals. Group discussion and individualization of learning and evaluation is also used. Emphasis is placed on experiential learning as is evidenced through advocating use of school and community resources as a part of the learning process. Problem solving and skill simulations are also used. 204 Qpnparatiye Analysis ef Selected Currienlar Approaches MW The theoretical assumptions and major methodologies of the selected sample approaches of reconceptualism, competency based adult education, and career education have been determined. Comparisons may now be made between the components of Freire’s reconceptual model of education, the Saskatchewan Newstart life skills training program and the Rhode Island adult performance levels approach as samples of competency based adult education, and the Michigan model as the career education sample. WWW Tables 5.1 and 5.2 summarize the theoretical assumptions of these models as previously determined earlier in this chapter. The cells of these tables will now be examined to determine the similarities and differences of the theoretical assumptions underlying these approaches. Edneatien_aine_11ahle_§rlLt In examining the cells of the matrix in this area it can be seen that the competency based adult education and career education approaches are consistent in having personal and economic aims as central to their purpose. In contrast the reconceptual approach focuses on personal and social aims. 205 guesses? secseea Eoceom 1:231... .232... .3585? as Fascism 3 «are... 3....me. an... Eases—.8 assess.— Benson 12.55:. B ruse... 8 1:25... .888 353.6 sob _ecoesen i.e.-acne ... .— ..ecse Eon-on Eases Ease—cease. on 3.5.25 on o. u arsed ...... .3332. 35...... use ...... ..eeLeea ...: 8 ......8... 38s 8 >833 1i pecan-on .5331... .239. sun—flu“: ”fiasco“ e.— >._. season use-AC roe-C. assess.— ros... 8.3.0 38¢ .8883 ...-to. i.e.... 52.3.2 ...—.2 I 3...... 1.8.... 6...... ......e a... I g .83 Feast-883.. is: 1.2.2.. acid—5:3 3358!: 3.53 so. stole—cs}. F.“ s33. ...-.15 .33.... .1952... 0.52 .2828..- clan-n Again... .33.... .852... 3.8.. .2328. 31...... ......ism 82.9... .352..— 0.53 .58. Isn't 206 SoniEm 3.8...— .352... 25.! 19.3.30 ...-......- 35958. 253‘ 5.9.3.15 5.33.32.- ...—.33 .0 53:09.00 .0 corn-0.30 on cots-acne .5883 .128. 1.8.... 52.1.... 6...... ......u a... l ...-uni... .18 ......33183. I; 1.03...“— ucoflafiaoa 103.30...— 9.353 .2 3.03.50... «Ah 03.... 207 c' h b' t sou ces t e T ble §.;L& Assumptions of social change are as follows: 1. Object of change (individual/group). The competency based adult education and career education models all have the individual as the object of change. Freire's reconceptual approach differs in that society and the individual are both objects of continuous change. 2. Sources of change (top to bottom/bottom to top). Again the competency based adult education and career education models are consistent in their assumptions as to the primary source of social change which is from the top to the bottom. Those at the top determine the change needed and who is to change. Freire's reconceptual approach however suggests that the source of change is to be generated from the bottom. The nature of change is determined by the learner, not authorities at the top. 3. Type of change (evolutionary/basic). Freire's approach advocates basic change through the individual experiencing himself as a maker of culture and history. The intent is to change society. However this changing of society is not incidental but deliberate so the term evolutionary would be an incorrect description. The learner gains literacy by developing and maintaining a critical social consciousness and grows by critiquing and transforming his environment. 208 In the competency based adult education and career education approaches the type of change advocated is evolutionary. Little reference is made to direct transformation of society. The emphasis is on development of the individual for transaction with society. Through these transactions evolutionary change may occur. However the critiquing or changing of society is not directly designed into these curricula. Learning theory (source of agrhority. leVgl of reduction) (Table 5.;). These comparisons follow: 1. Source of authority (external/internal). Freire assumes that the source of learning authority is internal. The learner is the ultimate authority for the knowledge to be created. There is no reality outside the learner. He creates this reality by creating culture and learning that he has the power to create and transform culture. This contrasts with the assumptions of the competency based adult education and Michigan career education models which assume that the authority of learning is external to the learner. 2. Level of reduction (incremental and sequential/complex relationships and holism). Freire’s approach is particularly holistic in terms of its learning theory assumptions. Man learns by creating and perceiving complex relationships. He sees the significance of himself in interraction with the culture as he strives to transform it. The Michigan career education approach is primarily 209 holistic in that it also aims at the student perceiving complex relationships. On a secondary basis it is also incremental and sequential on the basis of its chronological and developmental design and its stress on the gradual mastery of subgoals and performance indicators. The competency based adult education models however primarily emphasize an incremental sequential approach which appears to assume that holistic perceptions and understanding are a type of understanding to follow competency development instead of accompanying it. Bringing the student to holistic understanding is not focused upon. 0 'o o e e n a ' 'a in ass've zgfipgngix§1_11ablg_§r11r The competency based adult education and career education models all demonstrate a conception of the learner which perceive him as passive and responsive in relation to course content. He has minimal involvement in the initial design and determination of goals and objectives; these are determined in advance by authorities. From a methodological perspective however these three models conceive of the learner as active and initiating. Learning is accomplished primarily through the active experiential involvement of the learner in discussion, skill simulation, and community based project work. The forementioned conceptions of the learner differ from Freire's reconceptual approach wherein the learner is 210 active not only within the parameters of the methodology but also active and initiating in discovering and creating the content. Key cultural themes are discovered through dialogue not through direct instruction and the primary content of the course is learner generated. c i o ' st c ° e e te d te c e £§D§§£§Q1_LIQQLQ_§.ZL. Both of the competency based adult education samples conceive of instruction as being primarily teacher centered. They assume that the learner must be carefully guided by a teacher who possesses the skills or competencies to be mastered. The teacher controls and dispenses the content in carefully controlled doses as prescribed in curricula. The Michigan career education model appears to represent more of a compromise between a teacher centered and learner centered orientation. The content of traditional subject matter into which career development concepts are to be infused remains controlled by the teacher. In addition the general design and sequencing of awareness, exploration, decision making and planning/placement activities are controlled by the teacher as prescribed in the curriculum. Despite this information and design control, much of the integration of the information into sociological, psychological and economic perspectives rests with the student. Also, the career education approach extends over the life span and so much of 211 the responsibility for ensuring continuity rests with the learner as he moves from teacher to teacher. The reconceptual approach designed by Freire conceives of instruction as solidly centered in the learner. The teacher's (coordinator) role is limited to researching the local language and culture and preparing the stimuli for dialogue. Subsequent generation of information rests with the cultural circle in dialogue. This dialogue is limited only by the general structure of perceiving fundamental aspects of culture. . n-e . -_ - . u.t'- 9 Oz- - oc-ss ..1- The competency based adult education and career education models conceive of evaluation as based in product. Students at the end of the training or educational experience must be able to demonstrate specific skills or competencies which are defined in advance of the course. Conversely Freire’s orientation seems minimally concerned with product evaluation and instead values process. The main concern is that the learner grows through the process of dialogue and experiences himself as truly human in the discovery of literacy. WWW As was described earlier in this chapter, Table 5.3 summarizes the major methodologies used in the selected sample curriculae of reconceptualism, competency based adult education and career education. Using the summarized Table 5.3 212 Framework for Exemhhg Mdor Methodologies Problem Posing ulturel Analysis metic Breakdown codifications el Critiquhg onscientizetion Dialogue neretlve Words Problem Solving Resource Persons Skll Sinuletlon Reconceptusllsm Competency Sesed Adult Education (3......- Education . SssE. Newstart 7 Rhode Island “N“ 3 "W m. Skills Trng. Adult pm. Levels "Wig“ Mm“ .mu Discussion Group Discussion Group Discussion Indl duallzlflon lndlvlduelizetion lndlviduellzetion MultiMie MuitiMedie Multhedie Experientiel Experientiel Experiential Problem Solving Resource Persons Skill Simulation Infusion Life Goal Setting 213 information provided in that table, a comparative analysis can be made of major methodologies used in Freire’s reconceptual model, the competency based adult education and the Michigan career education approaches. All approaches incorporate group discussion, individualization, use of multi media and experiential learning as major methodologies. The Saskatchewan Newstart life skills training model, the Rhode Island performance levels approach and the Michigan career education model all involve learning technical problem solving strategies, using resource persons as authorities, or simulating skills modelled by an instructor. Freire's reconceptual approach does not appear to rely on or value these methods. Role playing and modelling appear as major methodologies within only within the Saskatchewan Newstart life skills training approach. This is not to suggest that they might not be used in a minor fashion in the adult performance levels and career education models. It is dubious that they would be valued in Freire's reconceptual approach. Infusion of life relevancy into subject matter and life goal setting as major methodologies appear unique to career education. Unique to Freire’s reconceptual approach as major methodologies are existential problem posing, cultural 214 analysis, thematic breakdowns, codifications, social critiquing, conscientization, dialogue and the use of generative words. Implicarions of the Compararive Analysis of Selected Curricular Approaghes As was stated in Chapter 1, a purpose of this study is to accomodate dominant life concerns educational practice with the concerns of reconceptualism. Having analyzed the similarities and discrepancies between a reconceptual life concerns approach and samples of dominant forms of life concerns education approaches, attempts may now be made at suggesting a reconceived model of theory and methodology. Such a model would attempt to reconcile theoretical and methodological differences between the dominant and reconceptual life concerns approaches. This model building is carried out in the Chapter 6. 215 B§f§£222§§ Adkins, W. (1980). Life skills education for adult learners. In F. Karnes, C. Ginn and B. Maddox, (Eds.) lssnes ang trends in adult basie education (pp. 35-48). Jackson, Mississippi: University Press of Mississippi. Basner, S. and Others. (1976). ' u' 0 adult edncatgrs baseg on rne egnlr perfiornance level stndy. Kingston, Rhode Island: Rhode Island University. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 132 360) Freire, P. (1983). Egucerion for crirical eonsciousness. New York: Continuum. Hoyt, K. (1981). Career education: where i; is and where it is going. Salt Lake City: Olympus. Office of Education (DHEW). (1977). The adult performance leyel study. Washington, D.C.: Author. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 185 113). Michigan Career Education. (1974). gereer develennent goals and performance indieegore. Lansing: Author. Saskatchewan Newstart. (1973a). Life skills coaching manual. Prince Albert, Sask: Author. Saskatchewan Newstart. (1973b). ' s o 1 skills eeacning. Prince Albert, Sask.: Author. Saskatchewan Newstart. (1973c). geagings in life skills. Prince Albert, Sask.: Author. CHAPTER 6 DEVELOPING AND VALIDATING THE ASSUMPTIONS AND METHODOLOGIES OF A RECONCEIVED MODEL Wade; As was evident in the comparative analysis developed in chapter 5, the assumptions of the various life concerns education approaches often appear contradictory to other possibilities. This is frequently not stated as such but is evident by a stress on one element and disregard of others. For example the dominant life concerns education approaches have been shown to emphasize changing the individual and to avoid addressing the issue of direct involvement in social change. In developing a reconceived model which attempts to synthesize reconcptualism with the dominant forms of life concerns education the major task is to reconcile the theoretical disargeements. This is difficult if not impossible to do if one clings strongly to one side of a Particular issue and does not attempt to recognize or resolve the opposing perspective. This chapter involves defining the theoretical assumptions and primary methodologies of a reconceived model in a manner which aims at reconciling the disagreements between a reconceptual aPilllt'caach and dominant approaches of life concerns adult education. Concurrent with this process the assumptions and methodologies of the model will be validated as unique by Virtue of being demonstrated as different from those of 216 217 previously described reconceptual and dominant life concerns approaches. ' oso n e ° in t e co e'ved Mo el The reader is reminded that one possible philosophical base to undergird the development of a reconceived model of life concerns adult education was described in Chapter 3. The purpose of this was to clarify the assumptions of this study and to develop the foundation for subsequent construction of a reconceived model of life concerns adult education. This included exploring philosophical~ possibilities, and taking a position on persistent philosophical dualisms. The philosophy was then summarized and determined in terms of defining the nature of reality as individual being, the nature of truth as individual choosing, and the nature of value as individual choice. The process of clarification of theoretical assumptions of a reconceived model is based on this particular philosophical foundation. '0 3 co 'ved ode e ci It is proposed that in a reconceived model of life concerns adult education the focus should be the individual as creator and transformer of culture. Personal and social change depend on the decision-energy and volition of the individual. Consequently, while even weighting is given to personal and social aims it must be remembered that 218 operationalizing these aims rests with the individual learner. Economic aims, although important considerations, are rejected as basic educational aims and can be subsumed within personal and social development aims. o ' eo e t u t o h vidu u . Both the individual and social group should be approached as the objects of educational change. It should not be assumed that one or the other is generally more deficient. s h t o b ttom bo tom to to . The sources of change can be perceived in a reciprocal relationship as both top to bottom and bottom to top. The reality of authorities at the top suggesting needed changes is accepted. The learner however must be provided the forum and means for reflecting on the implications of these expectations. He must be active and ultimately responsible in the selection or rejection of learning programs and processes suggested from the top. In addition the learner should be active in pursuing and developing educational experiences for both his own development and for directly effecting social change as he discovers the needs of the collective. Not only does he pursue change of himself, he consciously creates and changes society. 219 Type 91 enenge (evelutienaryzbesic). Both evolutionary and basic change should be characteristic of the types of educational changes pursued and expected. As the learner explores his own strengths, needs and contradictions he is discovering the same features of society in which he is a part. As he explores the strengths, needs and contradictions of society he is discovering similar characteristics within himself. To change himself is to change society and to change society is to change himself. is. g- . 1:. ..., - . .u ,. 't -ve o“ _-du tfon o u r t e a 'nte na . The source of authority must be both internal and external to the learner. Internal authority is primary and external authority is secondary. The reality of changes being suggested from external authorities is accepted. The content of these changes is also accepted as potential reality. The learner, however, must decide whether or not to involve himself within a particular learning context wherein he is expected to accept the assumptions of the content and the methodology and to assume that the teacher knows more than he. External authority is accepted as valid only if the learner decides to participate and perceives that this will enable him to discover new knowledge about himself and society. Again the key is that the learner realize that he is the source of authority in making the decision to participate in certain forms of educational treatments. Before making such a 220 decision he should be aware of whether or not he will be the object of training and be aware of the strengths and dangers in such an experience. He must be aware that training often presumes his deficiency or pathology. Such an assumption should be critically evaluated giving equal consideration to the possibility of deficiency within the structures of the society. Level of regnerion (inerenentel, segnentielznolistic) The level of reduction must be approached in a holistic fashion. The apparent dualism of incremental, sequential/complex holism is not a valid one. This is not to deny the validity of any form of incremental, sequential learning but it must be seen as an optional training subset of holism. Again the holistic learning subject, upon reflection, decides if, when, and where he will engage in incremental, sequential exercises. The basis of this decision is grounded in the training’s potential contribution to the reciprocal relationship of individual and social transformation. e, :e e, e' -;‘§,-7 ._ . - ,7 V. no e.‘ . : W)... The learner is assumed to be active and initiating in three dimensions--the decision to participate, creation of valid content, and creation of methodology. Active/passive is a false dualism. The concept of the passive, responsive learner is unnatural and reflects faulty education method. 221 o;c--,'o -_ :1‘t1. '- . . -,-s‘ l-a_;- ent- -- W Instruction must be thought of in the contexts of discovery of self, discovery of culture, and participation in training as a subset of discovery. Instruction in discovery of self and discovery of culture must be learner centered in content and methodology. In this respect learner centered instruction is primary. The decision to participate in training is a critical decision made as a subset to the discovery process. When the learner makes a decision in this regard he sacrifices his self as the center of instruction. This decision should be an informed one and only made when it is evident to the learner that this will somehow assist the greater discovery process. Both teacher and learner must be continually mindful of the dangers of the individual becoming submerged ' within the training technology and losing his broader purpose of discovery. A reconceived model accepts teacher centered instruction on a secondary basis, subject to learner choice. In summary, instruction is primarily learner centered but on a secondary basis, teacher centered. WW Process is valued as the essence of evaluation. Discovery through transformation of self and society are life-long processes which represent the greater value. As 222 these processes are unending, product forms of evaluation cannot be accorded the same value. Product evaluation is a technological technique chosen by the individual as a subset of process which only he can assess. Should the learner as a part of the discovery process make a decision to participate in adaptation training, part of that decision should include awareness of the value placed on product as a part of training. The learner must be aware that he will be valued more for performing within structured expectations and less for self generated discovery. He must be able to reflect on the danger of being submerged within the valuing of product and losing his conscious valuing of himself as the agent of life-long personal and social transformation. V ' e u ' s t e co 'v 0 As was indicated in chapter 3, the criterion of theoretical validity of a reconceived model would be that it would be demonstrated to be different from the reconceptual model and from dominant models of life concerns adult education. Tables 6.1 and 6.2 summarize the theoretical assumptions of a reconceived model of education. These tables also summarize the assumptions previously established in chapter 5 for the sample approaches selected from reconceptualism and from dominant forms of life concerns adult education. Comparisons can be made between the 223 Eases—.00. ..ec..ee_ £38.. .38: Isles—Sue: ...ofleosa osteo— 13: 59.32 3 ..3. 30.25 Icon .eaceg... .ecseaxe. fleefl ..oh 3333...... coesen p.933... ...-tea... on Eoflon .eflcescee. ..ec..ee.. Beacon .eucecgcw on Fascism 3 .eslzp... Fifteen“ «.31.. 153.... ...... g .eccee... 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AgB—Bfl- 33‘ 38...... 3.8.... .1232... 3.8.... .35.... .332... 2...... 1.215 82...... 3.33.3... 19.3.30 3.33... .385... 3.3... .1232... 2.32 0.3.3.5 389.: 19.3.30 3:30.. .3318. 1.33 3.33.2.0 . 5303.59... 3:31. ... 5.9.3280 ... 5.2.8.30 ... 5.2.8.80 1.8... 338...... .83.}... ......o. .18... ......a... 0.0.3... ......- 0.33 1.3... .11.... .53. 6...... ......u 2... ...-.28... .....u ......13...oc8.... 38.... ......p... 3.8.2.533 3338...... mags—8.0 .8. 8.3.3.3.... «.0 ...—o... 225 reconceived model assumptions and the assumptions of the other models. The ordinant of the table contains the categories summarizing the different models of life concerns adult education. Along the abscissa may be found the criterion categories for summarizing the theoretical structure of the various approaches to life concerns adult education. An examination of Table 6.1 demonstrates that the aims of the reconceived model are identical with those of reconceptualism by incorporating personal and social aims. Economics as a central aim is rejected. In considering social change theory, assumptions of the model are also identical with those of reconceptualism in that both the individual and society are conceived of as objects of change; this differs from the other models which neglect directly addressing society as the object of change. The reconceived model is unique from all other models in its perception of the sources of change involving both bottom to top and top to bottom directions. Bottom to top change, however, is given prominence and top to bottom change is recognized on a secondary basis, subject to the individual choice of the learner. The type of social change assumed in the reconceived model is the same as that of reconcept- ualism; basic social change is addressed in a deliberate fashion. This differs from the CBAE and career education approaches wherein basic change is not directly addressed. 226 It is assumed in these latter models that social change will be evolutionary and an indirect result of education. In consideration of learning theory assumptions the source of authority of learning in the reconceived model is unique from the other cells in the matrix. Primary source of authority is recognized as internal to the learner but on a secondary basis it is recognized as external to the learner should he knowingly choose to submit to training. Also in other considerations of learning theory, the level of reduction assumptions are the same of those in the career education model; incremental and sequential learning are perceived as secondary and in service to holistic discovery. Continuing the theoretical examination, in Table 6.2 it can be seen that the reconceived model's conception of the learner is identical with that of reconceptualism. The learner is conceived of as active in relation to the development of content and active regarding experiential participation within method. Again this differs from the CBAE and career education models where passivity is assumed in relation to content while experiential activity is encouraged within method. The conception of the instructional process is unique, however, in how it recognizes learner centered and teacher centered possibilities. Learner centered instruction is recognized as primary but again, should the learner choose to temporarily expose himself to training as a part of the 227 discovery process, teacher centered instruction is assumed valid at a secondary level. This varies from the reconceptual model wherein learner centered instruction is the center of focus, and from the CBAE models which emphasize teacher centered instruction. It also differs slightly from the career education model which gives a more equal emphasis to teacher and learner centered instruction. The conception of evaluation is unique in that it recognizes both process and product evaluation. Again process is deemed of primary evaluative value while product evaluation is considered secondary and valid only if the learner should knowingly choose to submit himself to such evaluation as a supplement to the process of discovery. This differs from the reconceptual model which values process evaluation and the CBAE and career education models which value product. V ’ t o o ' s of the Reconceived node; The major methodologies reflected in the reconceived model primarily represent a compilation of those methods already defined in the reconceptual and dominant models of life concerns education. In addition to simple compilation however is the more difficult task of how to integrate these methods of potentially conflicting approaches. To accomplish this integration, methodologies borrowed from dominant life concerns adult education approaches have been conceptualized as ’active mode’ methodologies and those borrowed from the reconceptual approach as ’reflective 228 mode’. The rationale for these active and reflective modes will become evident later in Chapter 7 as the operational characteristics of the reconceived model are described. Suffice to say that the two modes may be conceived of as expressions of Freire’s (1970, p.91) concept of praxis. This concept suggests a need for learning to involve continual shifting between the theoretical context of analysis and the concrete context of experimentation. Freire’s (1983) use of generative words has not been included as a methodology due to the consideration that they were designed for use in a syllabic language such as Portuguese and may be inappropriate for a non syllabic language (Maring, 1980). Added to the reconceived model are Knowle's (1976) method of andragogy and Tough’s (1971) concept of learning projects. It should be noted that Knowle's (1976) ideas are- conceived from a modified perspective so as to place greater emphasis on individual empowerment and cultural critiquing and transformation when determining learning objectives and activities. Tough's (1971) concept of learning projects is another means of conceptualizing activities systematically geared to individual empowerment and cultural transformation. Table 6.3 summarizes the major methodologies of the reconceived model. For comparative purposes the same table also displays the major methodologies of the reconceptual 229 9.304 2.030....— came—£0 con-335.0050 9.3.520 Econ fiflisuuwfiuuw i.e....ousaowflowmwwhflnw 53.335.350 «.52.. .2339 33.3.6 .326 28.... 938...... £63.36 «.852..— 2233.68 T 3.5.2.4 .9523 «803.... 9.3.5.... >nouoguc< 9.3.6 .2... a... 5:25.. ..couom .....o u... 5.33:. a ......335. 5.6... 2.... a... 5.2.35... .....m u:.>a......on.o<.... 258.... 8.38.. 5.2.32... .....m 8.8.25 .....o 5.3.355 .....m 9.3.3... 5039.... «season 00.52.01 oso-...: consonan- Eon 8.5025 33:0...on 553.0%. 5030...- o:_>_om £030...— ufizom £039..- a_uo$=u_:_2 .o_u:o_..oaxm _s_ucotonxu 33:020....“ 33:331..“ coin—£03331... flue—2.2:: 5.35.232 $3023.32 $3053.35 coinsonfi 2:95 :ofioflisfiztc. :o_uu~=o:u_>_t:. toga-323...: saga-2.33....- § :23:an 5.95 €22.33:- .595 c.3335 3.3.5 egg-.85 139.0 acetausuu .3030. 3430. E 0. .Eo:s:unoo=ooo¢_ .28.... 3.558.. a 22:... ...... 2:3. .95 ......m ...... .255. so 20:2 352m. one...“ faunas-2 .125 .0322 0.2.9... 8.5228505. .815. 555.55 ..8 4.3.5050...- nd 03.... 230 and dominant life concerns models from which the selected methods were primarily obtained. An examination of this table validates the methodological uniqueness of the reconceived model. chapter_§ummarx This chapter has defined the theoretical assumptions and major methodologies of a reconceived model of life concerns adult education. The chapter has also demonstrated that the reconceived model is distinct from the theoretical assumptions and major methodologies of reconceptualism, competency based adult education and career education. Chapter 7 will further describe the reconceived model in terms of its key elements, operational structures and parameters. 231 Freire, P. (1970). Pedagogy ot the oppressed. New York: Continuum. Freire, P. (1983). Education :9: gtiticai cgnsciousness. New York: Continuum. Knowles, M. (1976). h m de n t'ce adult education. New York: Association Press. Maring, G. (1980). Freire, Gray and Robinson on reading. In F. Karnes, C. Ginn and B Maddox (Eds.), Issues and trends in adult basic education (p.p. 176-181). Jackson: University Press of Mississippi. Tough, A. (1971). The adgit's igatning ptgjggts. Toronto: Ontario Institute for Studies in Education. CHAPTER 7 THE DEVELOPMENT OF KEY ELEMENTS, OPERATIONAL STRUCTURES AND PARAMETERS OF A RECONCEIVED MODEL OF LIFE CONCERNS ADULT EDUCATION W The reader is reminded that in chapter 3 the philosophical foundation of a reconceived model was developed. In chapters 4 and 5 reconceptual and dominant forms of life concerns education were examined and compared as to theoretical assumptions and major methodologies. In chapter 6 the theoretical assumptions and major methodologies of a reconceived model of life concerns adult education were defined and validated. Chapter 7 is devoted to completing the development of the reconceived model. This development involves defining key elements of a reconceived model, suggesting community based and school based operational structures, and describing the parameters of the model. e s t Re once ved d Figure 7.1 depicts key elements of the reconceived model. Essentially it consists of four main concepts--education, analysis, life roles, and discovery in choosing. M191: Education is conceived of as consisting of three modes--informal, nonformal and formal education. Man learns through incidental day-to-day learning activities. The 232 233 Fol-mi Education 5 J. No Mot-ma lEducoflon '- l Manual Education E Figure 7.1. Key alumni: of I reconceived model 234 accumulation of these learnings represents informal education. Nonformal education as another recognized form of education is represented through the conscious selection and mastering of learning projects (Tough, 1971) to facilitate one's individual development and transformation of the environment. These nonformal education projects may be sequential and interrelated for the learner's own purposes or non sequential and apparently non related. The determination of structure rests with the learner. This latter form of education is in contrast to formal education which is represented through the school system which tends to be generally confined to specific buildings and is grounded in chronological development and a system of prerequisite grade levels and sequential subject matter. Life_reles Borrowing from the the models of competency based adult education and career education, the theoretical structure of the reconceived model incorporates the concept of life roles. The life roles concept intended in the model is similar to the interpretation of roles implied in the life centered career education literature. However, it is viewed more broadly. These roles are seen as open ended and ever changing through life development. There are no distinct and hard lines between the roles nor are particular types of education deemed more appropriate for some roles than others. The roles are not static, nor do they consist of a 235 finite number of competencies, which when mastered imply that the role has been mastered. The advantage of using the life roles concept is that it provides a means of conceiving key aspects of the life development and social development processes. Essential to this usage is conceptualizing the roles of family, citizenship, leisure and occupation as local, national and international problems to be posed for analysis. This problem posing approach is distinguished from approaches which might imply that the task is limited to successful adaptation to preconceived life roles within a relatively static and nationalistic socioeconomic system. mum: Analysis is conceived of as a two dimensional process that should permeate education and life role involvement. All forms of education and life role functioning are to be subject to ongoing critical analysis. They are not simply accepted as unchanging reality within which the individual must adapt. The persistent dilemma through this analysis is the determination of when either individual adaptation or social transformation should be the central focus of consideration. This is a continually shifting dilemma requiring consistent analysis and action choices. 121W Consistent with the philosophical and theoretical assumptions of the reconceived model, primary value rests 236 with individual choosing. Through choosing, action, and reflection the learner discovers a new reality. This new reality represents a synthesis expressed as 'becoming’ and is qualified within the constraints of the learner's own analysis of the ongoing cultural adaptation/transformation dilemma. Concurrent with the key elements described above is the centrality of the learner and the process of consciousness raising. W The learner is perceived as the central agent in relation to both the content and methodology of education. Particular aspects of the educational process, such as training programs, are regarded as treatment to which the adult learner may or may not choose to expose himself depending upon his analysis of the implications of participating in those processes. W119 As the choices of the adult learner are essential to the educational process it is important that the learner have access to a forum in which he can reflect on the implications of his choosing. This reflection should involve a dual emphasis, the first of which would be based on an adaptation of Freire's (1983) methods. Within this context, emphasis would be placed on the learner participating in a cultural circle and discovering himself 237 as an agent of development and transformation of culture. Associated with this form of analysis the learner would also reflect upon and analyze the need for the individual to adapt to the social order. As a part of this process the learner would become aware of the advantages and disadvantages of different forms of adaptation. This would include discovering the hidden constraints of social structures and programs and analyzing individual needs in relation to these constraints. Armed with this knowledge the learner would make more informed choices about participation or non participation in particular educational experiences, particularly those with a training approach as a central component. W 0 've e Figure 7.2 describes a community based operational structure of the reconceived model. Central is the learner who participates in educational discovery within a life concerns adult education center. The primary functions of this center are to provide a forum for cultural circles, individual counselling, educational contracting and educational brokerage. This forum would be available to prospective and former adult learners on a lifelong basis. 238 Famly ® Rol- Loarnlng Dadolono Cultural Transformation/Adaptation @/ Ufa Conoarno Adult Education Cantor Education Brokerage and Counselllng Loarnlng Doclolono Cultural Transformatlon/Adaptatlon uopoadapv/uomwaqsuui panama suogapoa Buguaon Cultural Transformation/Adaptation , Cltlzon Loarnlng Dodslono has." Community Resources ® Figuro 7.2. Community baud oporatlonal structure of a reconceived modal 239 The primary functions of the center’s cultural circles, as described above, would be to provide a forum for dialogue wherein the learner could discover himself as an agent of culture and provide a climate for reflecting on his adaptation/transformation learning needs. Individual counselling services, characterized as client centered (Grummon, 1965) in approach, would be available to learners for both affective and educational purposes. Building on discovery learning within the cultural circle and from individual counselling, the learner would be encouraged to develop community based learning contracts to assist him in reconciling his transformation and adaptation needs. These contracts would be developed using content and methods influenced by andragogical (Knowles, 1976) concepts. In particular the concepts of a problem focus, diagnosing learning needs, and developing and implementing a design of learning activites would be of assistance in developing the learning community based contracts. Somewhat different from Knowles concepts however would be the critical review of the plan by the learner with the assistance of individual counselling and dialogue within a cultural circle. The plan would be scrutinized carefully as to adaptation/ transformation assumptions with which the learner was planning involvement. For example, if the learner was contemplating participation in a competency based adult education program the adaptation/transformation implications 240 would be reviewed reflectively in dialogue. Also while the adult learner was participating in the program he could regularly return to the education center to continue within the cultural circle and individual counselling. What might be transforming the individual and what he might transform in the proposed learning experiences could be critically reviewed. Learning contracts would be developed through conceptualizing the learner’s primary life roles of family member, citizen, occupation, and leisure participant. Learning contracts would consist of a number of interrelated, non formal learning projects (Tough, 1971). These contracts would be developed in consideration of both adaptation and transformation considerations discovered by the learner in cultural circles and individual counselling dialogue situations. For example, a learner desiring to transform what he perceived as social injustice which required him to participate in a life skills training course, might also contract to participate within a radical political party expressing views sensitive to his social dilemma. The results of both of the above-mentioned examples of educational experiences, the life skills training course and political party involvement, would be reviewed regularly within the cultural circle and counselling contexts of the life concerns adult education center. 241 Also considered would be how these life roles interrelate locally, nationally and internationally. These complex interrelationships would be posed as problems for reflection and action. The education center would serve a brokering role by assisting the individual in obtaining learning opportunities in different community locations and contexts. This concept is similar to Illich’s (1972) idea of community based learning webs as a means of transcending a school based society. The center as an advocate for the learner would serve as a broker by negotiating learner participation within various community programs, agencies and other resources. Examples of community resources include volunteer organizations, self help groups, charitable organizations, religious organizations, amnesty organizations, political parties, colleges, univerisities, mental health agencies, libraries, industry, entertainment institutions, sporting organizations, etc. These are just a few of the many types of community resources the adult learner might access in implementing his learning contract. W mm Figure 7.3 describes a school based operational structure of the reconceived model which is quite similar to the community based model. Developing a school based operational structure assumes the continuation of schooling 242 Famly 3"“ Learning Decisions floatation Cultural Transformation/Adaptation Life Concerns Adult Education g Counselling Department 5 n c " Cultural Ci-cles g 2 3 2. ,9 \ -c F 3 I 3 g a 3 l' 5' -§ 3' "' 5 5’ g E Educational Counselling a ,9,» 3 .2 2 g E E . 3 a Learning Decisions 63”.: n Cultural Transformation/Adaptation ":01" Community Resources infusion with School Subject Matter Hm 7.3. School based operational structure of a reconceived model 243 as a temporary reality at least. Within that structural reality changes are possible to allow the learner to transcend the assumptions of the structure and the assumptions of traditional content and methodological offerings. The school based structure suggested in the reconceived model borrows considerably from the thoughts of reconceptualism and career education. In the school based model the adult learner continues to be the central agent who participates in discovery learning facilitated through the services of a life concerns adult education counselling department. Again the primary function of this department is to provide a forum for cultural circles, individual counselling, and educational contracting and brokering. The consciousness raising functions of the cultural circles would be consistent with those described earlier in the community based mode. In addition to the forementioned functions, the department would assist the student in developing a life roles related learning program through selecting courses offered by the school. Recognition would be given for prior formal, nonformal and informal education. The life concerns education counselling department would also serve as a brokerage center for assisting the subject matter instructors in arranging applied life role learning experiences for students in community settings. 244 The student would also, in the school based context, develop a learning contract with the counselling department for subsequent implementation in the traditional school subject areas. The courses selected however would be determined on the basis of their relevancy to life roles and the learning contract. In addition subject matter specialists would be expected to infuse life role concepts into their subject matter so as to aid the learner in perceiving life relevancy. The mode of instruction in all subject areas would be particularly experiential and involve extensive community based learning opportunities. Traditional subject matter would be contracted for on a part-time or full time basis as appropriate to the individual learning contract. As much as possible this content would be available through programmed instruction approaches so as to accomodate the learner's rate of learning and personal schedule. e 'v d Figure 7.4, adapted from Wilson (1971), depicts the reconceived model as an open ended journey of self and social development through the process of consciousness raising. This journey, at the informed volition of the learner, travels in a winding fashion through an array of interconnected life learning projects. These projects occur within the contexts of skills training programs, mass 245 National and lnternati al Community Resou Local Community o‘urces Mass Edu . :tion lnstututno s ‘4 Skills Training Traditional Education Path Self Development/Consciousness Raisin Life Concerns Adult Education Journey [analysis and transformation of structures and roles) Figure 7.4. Parameters of a reconceived model 246 education, and local, national and international communities. Participation in skills training programs and institutionalized mass education is given no greater prominence than is directly applied involvement with local, national and international contexts. Throughout this journey social structures and life roles are continually examined as problematic in relation to the dilemma of social adaptation and social transformation. The journey is encapsulated as a lifelong series of life learning projects. .This consciousness raising journey differs from the pathway of traditional education which concentrates its time and resources in skills training and institutions of mass education with limited involvement in direct interraction with community resources. 247 Grummon, D. (1965). Client centered theory. In B. Stefflre (Ed.), Thgotigs of counsgling (pp. 30-90). New York: McGraw Hill. Illich, I. (1972). Dgschgoiihg sggigty. New York: Harper and Row. Knowles, M. (1976). The mggeth ptggtice of adult edugation. New York: Association Press. Tough, A. (1971). The aduit'g iggthihg projgcts. Toronto: The Ontario Institute for Studies in Education. Wilson. L. (1971)- W. Boston: Allyn and Bacon Inc. CHAPTER 8 SUMMARY AND RECOMMENDATIONS Introduction This study has produced a model characterized by being both theoretical and operational in the sense that it can assist the educational practitioner. It provides a means of allowing adult educators to incorporate theories and methods of reconceptualism into dominant life concerns adult education practice. It also demonstrates a means of enriching dominant life concerns adult education through fusing the theories and methods of reconceptualism with those of competency based adult education and career education. The study has also provided a clarified theoretical and methodological perspective through critically analyzing different life concerns approaches. This involved the use of critical frameworks for examining theoretical orientations within reconceptualism and dominant forms of life concerns adult education. W The over-riding purpose of this study was to develop a reconceived model of life concerns adult education which ’accomodated the reconceptualist critiques of dominant life concerns adult education theories and methodologies. As a part of the process of model development the philosophical assumptions undergirding the research were to be proposed, 248 249 examined and clarified. Also as a part of model building, the theoretical assumptions and major methodologies of reconceptualism and dominant forms of life concerns adult education were to be examined, compared and synthesized. These different approaches were to be reconciled through developing a reconceived model of life concerns adult education which represented a synthesis of reconceptual and dominant approaches. To complete the model other major methodologies of adult education were to be added as required. The purposes of the study have been met as follows: In chapter 3 the philosophical possibilities were reviewed and the values implicit in the research were proposed and clarified. It was concluded that this study assumed the nature of reality was centered in being, the nature of truth lay in choosing, and the nature of value was contained within individual choice. In essence the philosophy undergirding the research was heavily influenced by existentialist thought. Later in the study it became evident that this existential orientation, in practice, required tempering if distinctly different approaches were to be successfully melded. This was necessary as the primary task of the study was to suggest a way of moving the theory and practices of dominant forms of life concerns adult education closer to reconceptualism in consideration of both its structural and existential orientations. 250 Chapter 4 achieved the purpose of examining the theories and methods of reconceptualism, competency based adult education and career education. Reconceptualism was demonstrated to include both existential and structural emphases. Competency based adult education as one dominant form of life concerns adult education was demonstrated to consist of two major orientations-~life skills training programs and adult performance levels approaches; the former reflecting an applied problem solving emphasis and the latter reflecting a minimal performance levels, or competencies, emphasis. Career education was also explored in detail and its emphasis on life roles and infusion concepts clarified. In chapter 5 the similarities and differences of reconceptualism, and dominant life concerns adult education were further enunciated through the examination and comparison of sample curriculae from these various approaches. Freire's (1983) approach, as described in EQusati2n_for_Qritisal_§onssiou§ness. was selected as a sample of a reconceptualist approach. The Saskatchewan Newstart life skills training series (Saskatchewan Newstart, 1973a, 1973b, 1973c) and the Bhgda Island Cattidulhm Guide Based_2n_the_Adu1t_Performan§e_Lexel§_§tudx (Basner, 1976) were selected as representative of dominant forms of competency based adult education. The Michigan gataa; Dexel92ment_Q2als_and_£erformanoe_lndisator§ (Michigan 251 Career Education, 1974) was also analyzed as a sample of career education theory and practice. The examinations and comparisons involved reviewing theoretical assumptions and major methodologies characteristic of each curricula. These theoretical assumptions and methodologies were summarized and examined through use of matrices frameworks. In chapter 6 the assumptions and major methodologies of a reconceived model of life concerns adult education were developed. Essentially the theoretical assumptions of the reconceived model represented a reconceptual emphasis reflecting both existential and structural influences through emphasizing individual choosing and cultural transformation. Many of the theoretical assumptions of dominant forms of life concerns adult education were recognized as of significance and were incorporated in a manner recognizing the relative significance. The major methodologies of the reconceived model for the most part represented a compiling of the methodolgies of reconceptualism and dominant life concerns adult education practice. These methods were categorized within active and reflective mode perspectives. The methods of androgogy (Knowles, 1976) and adult learning projects (Tough, 1971) were also added as supplements to the model. Upon examination through matrices frameworks, it was revealed that the assumptions and methodologies represented a combination unique from the theories and methodologies 252 previously examined. This uniqueness met the criterion of model validation. In chapter 7, model development was continued through defining key elements of the theoretical structure as including formal, nonformal and informal education, life roles, individual and cultural transformation analysis, and discovery in choosing. Both deschooled community based and school based operational structures of the model were suggested. Each structure involved centering learning around the learner, initiating consciousness raising through cultural circles, individual client centered counselling, and accessing critically conscious life role learning through learning contracts. Finally the process of the model was described in terms of its open ended, open access parameters. v' t o s ' h tu In chapter 1 three primary problems were presented. The first problem was that the critiques of reconceptualism were primarily theoretical and not translated into practical tools for adult education practitioners. This study has seriously attempted to address that difficulty. The second problem reflected a lack of mutual recognition and awareness between reconceptualism and dominant life concerns adult education. By juxtaposing these concepts this study has also begun the task of addressing this issue. The third problem was to provide a reconceived model for demonstrating 253 a means of reconciling the theories and methods of reconceptualism with those of dominant life concerns education. This study has also attempted to respond to that concern. It should be pointed out that this study began with a statement of bias and value influenced positively by theories of reconceptualism. That bias continued and was further clarified throughout the study. Awareness of a leaning toward existential sympathies became evident throughout. This may have resulted in reducing the necessary attention to concerns of social adaptation and producing sound, pragmatic, educational products. To those valuing that orientation the results of the study might be deemed lacking. In defence of the research however the necessity of recognizing adaptation and product considerations as undeniable features of education were affirmed in the study. The general belief of product in service to process has been further confirmed. The study by its nature has been primarily an educational journey, a process of discovering, proposing, and exploring perspectives and relationships. Depending on particular individual philosophical and theoretical leanings this may be a limitation or strength of the research. 254 o e t' ns This study has attempted to demonstrate the feasibility of moving reconceptual education theory and practice more closely into alignment with dominant forms of life concerns adult education. Concurrently it has demonstrated the possibility of modifying dominant practice so as to accomodate the reconceptualist critiques. Further research with these concepts in this direction is required. The reconceived model developed in this study would benefit from further validation through trial implementation with adult students. This would involve development of further specific design and implementation strategies appropriate to the community and population to be served. Development of the reconceived model in this study should merely serve as a stimulus to further creative possibilities for enhanced life concerns adult education approaches. This will require further theoretical and methodological examinations and comparisons. This study has commenced that process. The need continues for practitioners of life concerns adult education to incorporate theories and methods of reconceptualism into their practice. This study has initiated the theoretical and methodological spadework for that process. Examination of reconceptualism and dominant forms of life concerns adult education is a major undertaking and similar research should be carried out from research 255 perspectives based on both similar and different values. Not only will the products be creative and potentially useful, but the journey will be fulfilling. 256 Befereneee Basner, 8- and otherS- (1976). A_enr:ienlnn.gniee_fer_eenlt a e a er rmance leve u Kingston, Rhode Island: Rhode Island University. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 132 360) Freire. P- (1983). Edneetien_fer_eritieel_eeneeieueneee- New York: Continuum. Michigan Career Education. (1974). e v 1 m ca 5 enn.2erfernenee_indieetere- Lansing: Author: Knowles, M. (1976). Iha hadath pragtige at addlt edugation. New York: Association Press. Saskatchewan Newstart. (1973a). Life stills goaching manual. Prince Albert, Saskatchewan: Author. Saskatchewan Newstart- (1973b)- Tne.nxneniee_ef_life_ekille gdadhing. Prince Albert, Saskatchewan: Author. Saskatchewan Newstart. (1973c). s ’ ls. Prince Albert, Saskatchewan: Author. Tough. A- (1971). Tne_eenleie_leernine_nreieet_. Toronto: The Ontario Institute for Studies in Education. GLOSSARY Aaaiatahdialian A term used by Paulo Freire to describe the social programs designed by the social elite to counter the demands of the people as they become aware of their right to participate in social transformation. These programs are seen as preventing social transformation by attacking symptoms. Axiology The study of value. Qatg§t_Edddatidn A form of education designed to meld formal education with functional life skills, particularly vocational skills. Qataa; The definition of this term varies within the career education literature from a narrow focus emphasizing vocation to a broad interpretation which includes one’s major life endeavours. eennetenex_neeen_nnnlt_nnneetien A type of adult education. influenced by behavioral research techniques, which defines specific, expected, observable, outcomes of learning experiences. This form of education frequently combines basic life skills with functional literacy skills. An assumption in a particular educational approach as to whether evaluation should focus on the products of learning or the process of learning. Qtltdtal_gapital Those meanings, abilities, processes, language forms, and tastes defined by dominant groups as socially legitimate. Qeneeptien_ef_1netrnetienel_£reeeee An assumption in a particular educational approach as to whether instruction should be primarily centered around the learner or the teacher. concentien_ef_Leerner An assumption of a particular educational approach regarding the learner being primarily passive or active in the learning process. gntzignldm The designs, methodologies and related outcomes of instruction whether they be intentional or unintentional, formal or informal, precise or imprecise in nature. Dialattita The integration of theory and practice through the vehicle of discussion, problem formulation and solution exploration within a social group. 257 258 Edugatign An abstract and general concept which reflects experiences and resultant learnings both planned and unplanned, inside and outside formal institutions. Edngatighal_aim§ The basic goals (economic, personal or social) providing general direction for a particular education approach. Epiatamdldgy The study of knowledge and how we know. Existentieueeeneepsneliem An orientation within the critical rethinking of curriculum that begins with individual consciousness and existence. Exiatgntialiam A philosophy which denies any systematic beliefs. Emphasis is on the alienated existence of the individual with the corresponding dilemma of having to continually make life choices. Eal§§_gghadidd§haa§ The consciousness which is encouraged and formed by the forces of the external world around us. A term used by structuralist reconceptualists to describe the tendency of dominant groups to impose their culture as fact. Hazmgnantiga A method of arriving at understanding through approaches which go beyond the methods of science. Through a non linear approach, hermeneutics attempts to link the knower and the known through stressing figure ground relationships, pattern, and emancipation within different cultural contexts. The unstated, possibly unintended, and hidden values of schooling which are taught concurrently with the formal curriculum. flgliam An emphasis on studying the interrelationships, interractions and patterns of things and phenomena with a corresponding de-emphasis on studying components in isolation. ldaaliam A philosophy emphasizing the world of ideas; a belief that perfection reigns in the ideal. ldadlggy The saturation of consciousness regarding appropriate social practices, meanings and values so that they become accepted as social reality. 259 eo The source of authority (internal or external to the learner) and the level of reduction (incremental and sequential approach, or complex relationships and holism) assumed in a particular educational approach. Lahanayalt A pre-conceptual life-world which is usually below our level of consciousness as a result of external distractions. Life_Qentered_eereer_Enneetien An interpretation of career education which gives significant concern to other life roles in addition to the vocational role. Life_Qeneerne.AQult_Eeneetien A variety of prominent educational approaches which are often offered through a schooling-like approach either in schools or other social institutions. The intent of such approaches is to designate and teach specific behaviors (in contrast to specific subject matters) which are deemed directly related to and required in life. Lifg_§kill§_11ainihg Different orientations are possible but the life skills training approach, denoted within this study, involves training people in a standard methodology of problem solving to be used in different life areas. Mataphyaida The study of what is real. Qntdldgy The study of existence. Qpptaaaidn Domination, alienation and repression. Eatfgtman§a_Layal§ Functional competencies determined through the Adult Performance Level Study, and summarized under the content areas of occupational knowledge, consumer economics, health, community resources, government and law. Ehgngmandlggy A process of focusing on, and categorizing, one’s inner experiences as expressed through consciousness. Phildadphy The study of how we acquire particular beliefs. Pgaitiyian The dominant methods of science which, reconceptualists claim, falsely separate facts from values through an undue stress on methodology. In addition such methodologies ignore other aspects of human experience and sources of understanding. 260 Ptagmatiam A philosophy which emphasizes the evaluation of truth in relation to individual and social experience. Truth comes from testing hypotheses using agreed upon methodologies and resultant data. Ptazig The combination and interaction of action with reflection so as to enable understanding. Problamatigs The inclination of reconceptualists to refuse to accept values as given or assumed, but rather to select these values as problems for further scrutiny. Baaliam A philosophy emphasizing a world of physical things, corresponding sensations and assumptions of independent truth. Raconceptualism This concept summarizes the orientation of a number of critics who call for a rethinking of the assumptions of schooling and curriculae using models other than those based primarily on empirical assumptions. Redhgtidhism A concern with reducing things and phenomena to their component parts, while controlling other stimuli, and studying them within this context, so as to better understand their nature. Schddling A type of educational process which most frequently occurs, whether planned or unplanned, in schools. The process is usually characterized by planned, linear, and sequential (graded), curricula and the awarding of credentials associated with achievement in those curricula. Eeeiel_§nenge_Theerx The object of educational change (individual or social group), the sources of change (top to bottom or bottom to top), and the type of change (evolutionary or basic) assumed in a particular educational approach. Spitit The property of limitless transcendence. fittadtdtal Redoncaptualism An orientation within the critical rethinking of curriculum that expresses concern for the effects of social structures upon the individual within the context of schooling. Tadhnddtatig Batighality The tendency of curriculum developers to borrow the techniques of technology without being aware of their oppressive characteristics and socio-political meanings. 261 Itanatandahda To project beyond a current state of awareness and realize the possibility of infinitely wider and complex relationships and possibilities.