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This is to certify that the

thesis entitled

CREATIVE EXPRESSION SESSION TO INCREASE THE

INTERNAL LOCUS OF CONTROL OF ADOLESCENTS
presented by

Pamela A. Shaver

has been accepted towards fulfillment
of the requirements for

Master of Science degree in __C_3;;imjna.1_Justice

Major professor

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August 9, 1388

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if LJL

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

CREATIVE EXPRESSION SESSION TO INCREASE THE
INTERNAL LOCUS OF CONTROL OF ADOLESCENTS

BY

Pamela A. Shaver

A THESIS

Submitted to
Michigan State University
in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of

MASTER OF SCIENCE

Department of Criminal Justice
1988

@7347

10

ABSTRACT

CREATIVE EXPRESSION SESSIONS TO INCREASE THE
INTERNAL LOCUS OF CONTROL OF ADOLESCENTS

BY
Pamela A. Shaver

The purpose of the research project was to determine if
creative expression sessions designed to increase the
internal locus of control of adolescents would effectively
do so. The effectiveness was measured through a comparison
of the experimental and control group's pre- and post-test
scores from the Nowicki/Strickland Locus of Control Test for
Children. The sample was thirty-three, 9 to 15 year old,

members of the Boys Club of Jersey City, New Jersey.

Past research found that: externality was found more often
in a delinquent rather than a non-delinquent population;
externality was attributed to individuals exhibiting more
maladaptive behaviors and programs designed to improve the
internal locus of control of adolescents have been
successful. An analysis of data from this project, however,
showed no statistical significant difference between the two

group's post-test scores.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Chapter I - Introduction Page

Introduction...............................................1
BaCkground 0f the PrOblemOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO0.0.0.003
TreatmentOOOOOOOOOOOOOO0.0.0.000.0.0.0.0...0.0.0.00000000006
seIECtion 0f sampleOOOOOOOOOO...0......0.0.00000000000000007
Selection of Measurement Instrument........................8
Collection of Data.........................................9
Treatment of DataOOOOCO000......000......OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOIO
Limitations Of the StUdyOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO00.0.0000000011
Significance of the Study.................................12
Summary of the Chapter....................................12
Organization of Thesis....................................13

Chapter II - Review of the Literature

Introduction..............................................14
Attempts to Improve the Internal Locus of Control

of Adolescents............................................15
Art Programs Hith Adolescents.............................16
Relationship of Externality to Maladaptive

and/or Delinquent Behavior................................18
Relationship between Creativity and Internality...........19
Problems With the Locus of Control Construct..............20
Chapter Summary...........................................22

Chapter III - Design of Investigation

Introduction..............................................23
Selection and Description of the Sample...................23
Description of Creative Expression Sessions...............27
Instrument................................................32
Data Collection...........................................34
AnalySES Of Data...O...OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO0.0.00000000035
Limitations of Study......................................36
Chapter Summary...........................................37

Chapter IV - Results of the Investigation

IntrOductionOOOOOOIOOOO0.0.0.0000...OOOOOOOOOOOOOI.0.0....38
Summary of Descriptive Data ..............................38

iii

Correlation of Pre-test Scores............................40
Tests of Statistical Hypothesis...........................41
Test/Retest Reliablity of Self-Report Questionnaire.......42
Locus of Control Scores Correlated to Self-Report

Questionnaire Variables...................................43
Chapter Summary...........................................44

Chapter V - Summary, Conclusion and Recommendations

Purpose of Investigation..................................46
Collection and Analyses of the Data.......................47
Summary of the Findings...................................47
Conclusions...............................................48
DiSCUSSionOOOOOO0.0.0.0....OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO00.......0.0.48
Recommendations for Future Research.......................49

Appendix A - Bay County Detention Center Questionnaire....53
Appendix B - Youth Workers Questionnaire..................54
Appendix C - Results of Youth Workers Questionnaire.......56
Appendix D - Creative Expression Sessions.................58
Appendix E - Pilot Sessions...............................59
Appendix F - Letter to Parents............................60
Appendix G - Nowicki/Strickland Locus of Control Scale....62
Appendix H - Self-Report Questionnaire....................65

81b1109raphy00000000000......0000......00.0.0000000000000066

iv

LIST OF TABLES

Table 4-1 Pre-testing Means and Standard Deviations......39
Table 4-2 Post-testing Means and Standard Deviations.....39
Table 4—3 ResearCh Hypothes15000OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO00.0041

CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

Introduction

The purpose of this research project was to discover if
creative expression sessions designed to increase
adolescents' belief that they have control over the outcome
of their artwork would have an effect on the participants'
scores from an instrument measuring the degree of
internal/external locus of control. It was expected that
the internal locus of control of the experimental group
participating in the sessions would be significantly

different from that of the control group.

The project was formulated from a verbal survey and
observation conducted with approximately one hundred and
fifty incarcerated juvenile delinquents over a twenty-eight
month period of time. The survey revealed that virtually
all of the adolescents felt the reason for their detainment
had very little to do with the illegal act they were accused
of commiting. Futhermore, most of the youth felt their
incarceration had more to do with luck, fate or powerful
others (external locus of control) than with their own

behavior (internal locus of control).

Observation of the same incarcerated population's use of
recreational free-time showed that most of the juveniles
were interested in at least one form of art (graphic,

performing or literary).

The conclusions reached from the survey and observations
were reinforced by the responses from a questionnaire
distributed to 29 Bay County, Michigan professionals working
with Juvenile delinquents in the Fall of 1982 and a
self-report survey of youth housed at the Bay County
Juvenile Detention Center from December 1982 to August 1983
(Appendix A & B).

A review of related literature. (presented fully in Chapter
II), substantiated that the conclusions had validity and
that the research project would be meaningful. Most
importantly the reviewed literature revealed that: juvenile
delinquent populations were more externally oriented than
non-delinquent populations (Beck 1976, Gilmore 1978, Kendell
1978, Kumchy 1980, Martin 1976); individuals possessing
creative personalities correlated to individuals having
internal locus of control (Aggarwal 1977. Churchill 1976);
and the most critical factors in the successful modification
of external to internal locus of control have been through
the promotion of an awareness of behavior by reinforcement
of contingencies which allow the youth to actually

experience contingencies between their own behavior and the

subsequent reinforcements (Nowicki 1973. Herson 1979,

Ollendick 1980, Straub 1979).
Background of the Problem

The theoretical base for the project falls within the social
learning theory. The social learning theory deals with the
interactions of an individual with their meaningful
environment. The theory defines personality as a set of
potentials for responding to particular kinds of social
situations. One of the basic assumptions of the theory is
that occurrences of a behavior are determined not only by
the nature or importance of goals or reinforcements but also
.by the person's anticipation or expectancy that these goals

will occur.

From the social learning theory, Julian B. Rotter developed
the locus of control construct, postulating that individuals
develop either an internal or an external generalized
expectancies. which is a variable of personality in this

theory.

Individuals possessing an external locus of control believe
that outside forces such as luck, fate, chance or powerful
others control the reinforcements (rewards or punishments)
they receive. Individuals possessing an internal locus of
control believe the reinforcements they receive are

contingent on their own behaviors. Internally oriented

individuals assume responsibility for their actions, whereas

externally oriented individuals do not.

Another dimension of the social learning theory is the
notion that criminality is a product of a relative inability
to learn an instrumental avoidance response (Raine. 1982).
The notion points to the importance of internal locus of
control development, since what is required is the learning
of the contingency between ones behavior and the

CONSEQUENCES.

In the 1975 edition of PERSONALITY, Rotter and Hochreich
state, ”It seems logical that belief in one's own efforts
can produce changes is an important ingredient in getting
people to better their life's, whether in the area of
adjustment. achievement, ecology, politics or social

living.” (p.165).

Phares, in LOCUS OF CONTROL IN PERSONALITY, 1976. has also
found the most basic characteristic of internal oriented
individuals is their greater efforts at coping with or
attaining mastery over their environment. He also found
internals to exhibit greater self-control, be more cautious

and engage in less risk taking behavior than externals.

Other studies have found externally oriented individuals to:
recall more negative events and be distraught longer
(Lefcourt. et al , 1981, Mischel, 1976). have less

self-acceptance, less control of delay of gratification,

less ability to utilize cues and stimulation from the
environment, mediate achievement behavior (Gilmore 1978).
have less effective social skills, more disturbance in
relationships. less effective communication skills, less
empathy to others and more aggressive behaviors than
internally oriented individuals (Hersen, Ollendick, 1979,
Matthew, 1977).

Although a dichotomy of externality being bad and
internality being good is not to be presented. the preceding
list of attributes suggest that externally oriented
individuals show more maladaptive behavior than do

internally oriented persons.)

Moreover, juvenile delinquents have been found to be more
externally oriented than non-delinquent control groups in
many studies: Beck, 1976, Gilmor, 1978, Kendell, 1978,
Kumchy, 1980. Martin, 1978. Ollendick's research in 1980
found that internally oriented youth committed fewer
offenses in a behaviorally-oriented institutional program
with evidence of lower recidivism rates one year following

their discharge than externally oriented youth did.

A correlation has also been found between persons testing
high on internal locus of control tests and high on
creativity tests (Churchill, 1976, Verna, 1977). Similar
traits have been found in persons with creative

personalities and persons with internal locus of control:

independence. alertness, competence, self-confidence,
assertiveness and task involvement (most notably recorded by

Churchill 1976).

Churchill, 1976, also found that parental antecedents of
creative and internally oriented children indicate many of
the same characteristics: they encourage independence, they
are warm, nuturant, supportive and accepting and they use

consistent discipline methods.

Research has also found that the most critical factors in
the successful modification of external to internal locus of
control have been through the promotion of an awareness of
behavior by reinforcement of contingencies which allow the
youth to actually experience contingencies between their own
behavior and the subsequent reinforcements (Nowicki 1973,

Hersen a Ollendick 1979, Roundtree 1979).

Treatment

The treatment the experimental group received was eight. one
and one half hour creative expressions sessions (Appendix
C). The sessions were facilitated at the Boys Club of
Jersey City, New Jersey during their regular operating

hours, from October 27th to December 29th, 1987.

The sessions were designed and based on research and a pilot
project conducted at the Bay County Detention Center, Bay
City, Michigan between December 1982 and August 1983

(Appendix D). The development and facilitation of the
thirty-three pilot project sessions were funded through a

grant from the Michigan Council for the Arts.

The sessions centered around easily manipulated materials
(i.e. clay, paper, pencil, canvas and tempera paint) and
guided discussion. At the end of the eight weeks, an art

show was held to recognize the participant's work.
Selection of Sample

The subjects of this research project were boys between the
ages of 9 and 15 years of age who were members of the Boys

Club of Jersey City, New JerSey.

All members between the ages of 10 and 16 years of age were
invited to attend a pizza party which they were told would
be the introduction to eight weeks of creative expression
sessions. The party was promoted by posters hung and
announcements made at the Club and letters sent to the

parents (Appendix E).

Thirty-two members attended the pizza party and were
pro-tested with the Nowicki/Strickland Locus of Control
Scale for Children. The thirty-two youth were then randomly
selected to either the experimental group or the control

group.

The experimental group of youth were informed by the Club

Director of the time, days and place of the art sessions.

The control group was also contacted by the Club Director
and told that they would be participating in art sessions
that would be conducted during the next season and that they

would be invited to attend an art show and a pizza party.

At the end of the session all thirty-two members were
contacted by mail to attend the pizza party and art show.
The post-test was given before the pizza party. Twenty

youth attended the second pizza party and were post-tested.
Selection of Measurement Instrument

The Nowicki/Strickland Locus of Control Scale for Children
was selected to measure thelocus of control of the sample.
The scale was designed to measure the generalized
expectancies for internal vs external locus of control of
third through twelfth graders. It is a fourty item paper
and pencil test having a "Yes or No“ response mode (Appendix

F).

The scale's internal consistency and retest reliabilities
were found to be moderately high (.60's and .70's), (Gilmor
1978). Test-retest reliability, tested six weeks apart was:
.66 for 7th graders and .71 for tenth graders, (Johnson
1976). Internal consistency via the spilt-half method
corrected by the Spearman- Brown Prophecy Formal was: r'.68
,(grades 6 thru l8), r=.74 (grades 9 thru 11) and r=.81
(grade 12), (Johnson 1976).

The scale, based on Rotter's definition of internal/external
locus of control or reinforcement dimension, was also found
to be psychometrically reliable and valid with juvenile
delinquents (Beck and Ollendick 1976; Kendal et al. 1978;
Ollendick and Ollendick 1976).

The reliability of the self-questionnaire was determined by
administrating it to the sample before and after the

creative expression sessions (Appendix 6).

Collection of Data

 

All subjects of this research project were pretested on the
Nowicki/Strickland Locus of Control Scale for Children and a

self-report questionnaire on Tuesday, October 20, 1987.

The directions and questions for the scale and the
self-report questionnaire were read aloud by the
facilatator. The youth answered the questions as they were
read aloud. An additional adult was also present in the
room to answer questions the members asked and to assist

members who lost their place on the scale or questionnaire.

The experimental and control group were then randomly
selected. On Tuesday, December 22, 1987, the subjects were
once again brought together to be post-tested on the
Nowicki/Strickland Locus of Control Scale for Children and
the self-report questionnaire. The same procedure was

followed at the post-testing.

10

Treatment of Data

The collected data of the pre— and post-tests of the
experimental and control group's scores on the
Nowicki/Strickland Locus of Control Scale for Children were
analyzed: first, to determine if there was a significant
difference between the pre-test scores of the experimental
and control groups and secondly, to determine if their was a
significant difference between the post-test scores of the

two groups.

The descriptive statistics, an analysis of covariance, test
of the correlation of pre-test, the statistical hypothesis
and the self-report questionnaire variables to locus of
control, respondence to nonrespondence and delinquent to
non-delinquent youth were analyzed to determine the success

of the project.

The null hypothesis: Ho: There is no statistically
significant difference between the post-test mean scores of
the experimental and control groups on the
Nowicki/Strickland Locus of Control Scale for Children, was

tested at the statistical significant level of .05.

The research hypothesis: H1: There is a statistically
significant difference between the post-test mean scores of
the experimental and control groups on the
Nowicki/Strickland Locus of Control Scale for Children, was

tested at the statistical significant level of .05.

11

Limitations of the Study

The two major limitations of the study are the sample size

and the duration of the treatment.

The sample size was small at pre-testing (n=32), but dropped
even lower at post-testing (n=20). The loss of subjects may
be due to the transient neighborhood the Club is located in
and that there was not a mandatory approach to assure the

subjects would return to be post-tested.

The duration of the project (8 weeks) was also a major
limitation. A rapport was just being established with the
experimental group when the final session was facilitated.
Adding to the short-time period of the treatment, only one
of the subjects from the experimental group attended all
eight sessions with two of the group only attending one

session (they, however, did not return to be post-tested).

Independent variables such as the subjects' ability to
comprehend abstract thought or concepts; the dynamics of
the group, (ie: group support to do their own work and very
talented or advanced individuals, superior command of medium

ect.), may have had an effect on the scores.

The post-test scores of the experimental group may have been
askewed because the facilatator of the creative expression
sessions also was the administrator of the instrument.

Thus, the subjects of the experimental group may have formed

12

a bond with this person and may have attempted to please
this person by answering the questions on the instrument in

a way that they would think pleased the facilator.
Significance of the Research Project

The significance of the research project is based on the
probability that the creative expression sessions will
effectively increase the internal locus of control of the
youth participating in the sessions and that the increased
locus of control will assist the youth lead more adaptive,

non-delinquent lifes.

This research project is alSo significant because it has
potential to lead to a more sophisticated research project
involving a longitudinal study of incarcerated delinquent's
recidivism rates as related to increased internality from
participation in the creative expression sessions and
utlimately to an effective delinquency prevention and/or

treatment program.

Summary of the Chapter

 

Chapter I presents an introduction to the research project
designed to increase the internal locus of control of youth
participating in creative expression sessions, in terms of:
background of the problem, selection of the samples,

measurement, collection and treatment of the data and the

13

limitations and significant of the study. It also presents

the theoretical framework of the locus of control construct.

Organization of the Thesis

 

Chapter One has presented a general introduction to the
purpose and scope of this investigation. Chapter Two
reviews the literature pertinent to the investigation.
Chapter Three presents the design of the study, the
selection of subjects, their assignment of the experimental
and control groups, the method of collecting data, the
selection of measurement instruments, the null hypothesis to
be tested and the statistical techniques used in analyzing
the data. Chapter Four discusses the findings of the study.
Chapter Five presents the summary, conclusions,
implications, and speculations inherent in the study. The
appendixes present examples of various materials used in the

study.

CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATUREa

Introduction

The purpose of this chapter is to review the literature
pertient to the major question of this research project
which is to determine if creative expression sessions
designed to increase adolescents' belief that they have
control over the outcome of, their artwork will have an
effect on the participants' scores on an instrument

measuring the degree of internal/external locus of control.

The search utilized the criminological and pychological
abstracts from 1967 to 1986 and also the subject card
catalog at Michigan State University's main library.

The review was sought to offer guidance in determining the

following questions:

- Has there been past success in improving the internal
locus of control of adolescents? It so, what type of
programs have been successful? -

- What type of art programs have been used successfully
with an adolescent (particularily juvenile delinquents)
population?

- Does a relationship exists between externally oriented
individuals and maladaptive and/or delinquent behavior?

- Does a relationship exist between creativity and
internality?

14

15

Attempts at Improving Internal Locus of Control

Based on the reviewed literature it was found that there
have been several published attempts at improving the
internal locus of control of adolescents (Calpin, 1980;
Martin, 1976; Ollendick and Hersen, 1979; Ollendick and
Elliot, 1980; Straub, 1979; Nowicki, 1975; Nowicki, 1982;
Davidson, 1974; Schallow, 1975; Roundtree, 1979).

It has also been found that the most critical factor in the
successful modification of externality to internality has
been through the promotion of an awareness of behavior by
reinforcement of contingencies between individuals' own
behavior and the subsequent reinforcements (Nowicki, 1973;

Ollendick and Hersen, 1979; Roundtree, 1979).

The promotion of an awareness of behavior and the subsequent
reinforcement to improve internality has been accomplished
through: conducting ten, 75 minute per week, social skills
training consisting of instruction, feedback, modeling,
behavioral rehersal, reinforcement and graduated homework
assignments (Ollendick and Hersen, 1979, Martin 1976,
Calpin, 1980); two-weeks of structured wilderness camping
experiences with inner city youth (Nowicki, 1973): six and
one half months of behavioral management techniques which
consisted of positive role modeling by juvenile probation
officers, guided discussion, and individual and group

counseling (Roundtree, 1979).

1.6

Programs that did not significantly improve .the internal
locus of control of the experimental group but were based on
the promotion of an awareness of the action on outcomes
were: a high-school simulation game conducted over a six
week time frame (Straub, 1979) and a behavioraial
modification program using a fixed token economy and
flexible behavioral contracting system conducted over a one

year period of time (Ollendick 1980).

Both the research which resulted in an increase of internal
locus of control (Ollendick and Hersen, 1979, Martin 1976,
Calpin, 1980, Nowicki, 1973,. Roundtree, 1979) and the
research that did not result in an improvement (Straub,

1979, Ollendick 1980) suffered from a small sample size.

The presented studies offered encouragement to the
significance of this research project by citing successful
program examples in which internality was enhanced. Like
the cited programs that increased internal locus of control
of adolescents, the treatment utilized in this research
project was based on the promotion of an awareness of an

individuals behavior on the subsequent outcome.
Art Programs With Adolescents

The reviewed literature produced 14 citiation related to
working with special adolescent populations through various

art mediums. Seven studies dealt specifically with a

17

juvenile delinquent population (Grant, 1959; Rabinow, 1978;
Thelan, 1976; Uhlin, 1979; Kramer, 1958; Fleshman, 1981;
Wathney, 1979). They utilized the following art media:
self-expression through painting,(Grant, 1959): drama,
(Rabinow, 1978); video, (Thelan, 1976): graphic arts
(Uhlin, 1979 and Kramer, 1958); photography and literature
(Fleshman, 1981); and psychodrama (Wathney, 1979).

Seven additional studies were found utilizing various art
media with special adolescent populations (Horowitz, 1980;
Chin, 1980; Dequine, 1984; Selzen, 1982; Poore, 1977;
Carter,1979: Mayhem, 1978). The following art media was
utilized with special adolescent populations: photography
with recreational center youth, (Horowitz, 1980); video
with high-school drop-outs, (Chin,1980); video with
emotionally disturbed youth, (Dequine, 1984); drawing with
adolescent outpatients, (Selzen, 1982): graphic arts with
vocational adolescents, (Poore, 1977); graphic arts with
learning disabled youth, (Carter, 1979) and mixed media with
behaviorial disordered youth, (Mayhem, 1978).

Four studies discussed programs which improved both the
creativity and the self-concepts of their participants:
poetry writing (Torian, 1976); drama (Pisaneschi, 1977);
dance (Oshuns, 1977) and video (O'Leary, 1976). One study
presented that through creative expression an increase in
participants coping skills with regard to anxiety took place
(Grossman, 1981).

18

Other studies related the purely theraputic benefits that
adolescents could receive when working with art materials (

Kramer, 1971; Rogers 1978; Packard, 1976).

The presented studies helped in the formulation of the
creative art sessions used in this research project. They
suggested that the process used by the instructor or
facilitator was more important than the specific art medium.
The studies confirmed the method derived from the creative
expression sessions pilot project. Futhermore they
presented the validity of using art as a theraputic tool and
behavioral change agent.

Relationship of Externality to Maladaptive
andlor DeTinquent Behavior

 

Eighteen pieces of research presented attributes of
individuals possessing internal or external locus of control
(Ollendick, 1980; Drwal, 1977; Phares, 1976; Schallow,
1975; Michael, 1977; Swanson, 1981: Friedberg,l982;
Beck,1976; Duke, 1978; Gilmore, 1978; Kendell, 1978;
Kumchy, 1980; Martin, 1978; Jessor, 1968; Raine, 1982;
Lefcourt, 1981; Friedberg, 1982; Geist, 1982).

The following attributes were presented to individuals
possessing internal or external locus of control:
Internal individuals have:

- fewer offenses and lower rates of recidivism

(Ollendick, 1980);
- higher self-acceptanc (Drwal, 1977);

19

- superior cognitive processing skills, greater self-
control and more reliance on their own judgement
which makes them less susceptible to control of
others (Phares, 1976);

- more successful self-modification (Schallow, 1975 ):

- more popular with peers and selected more often
to be work or academic partners (Michael, 1977);

- higher academic achievements (Swanson, 1981);

- higher problem solving skills, more interpersonal
trust ( Friedberg, 1982),

than external individuals.

External individuals have:

- more probability of being in a delinquent population
(Beck, 1976; Duke 1978; Gilmore, 1978; Kendell,1978:
Kumchy, 1980; Martin, 1978);

- been correlated to deviant behavior (Jessor, 1968);

- undersocialization (Raine, 1982);

- more likely to retreat from challenges that threaten
to reinforce previous sense of helplessness and were
found to be distaught longer about negative events in
their lifes (Lefcourt, 1981);

- a poorer self-concept (Friedberg, 1982);

- more social anxiety (Geist, 1982),

than internal individuals.

These studies conclude that externality is related to more
maladaptive and delinquent behavior than internality.
Therefore, treatment which improved an individuals
internality has possibility of being a powerful tool in

delinquency prevention.

Relationship Between Creativity and Internality

Four studies were found in the review of literature which
investigated the correlation of internal locus of control
and creativity (Woodman, 1981; Richmond, 1980; Aggarwal,
1977: Churchill, 1976):

20

- Aggarwal, Churchill and Richmond found that internality
was correlate to creativity ( the correlation was low in
Churchill's study).

- Richmond found that externality was more related to
creativity than internality and postulated that perhaps
youth raised in the 70's were much different than youth
raised in the 60's.

Three studies were found that researched the correlations of
creative thinking and delinquent populations and stated
that:

- non-delinquent youth scored higher on both verbal
and non-verbal creativity (You-Yuh-Kuo, 1967);

- no difference on figural creativity and delinquent
population scored lower on verbal creativity
(Anderson, 1979);
- socially and emotionally maladjusted children have
a higher creative potential than well-adjusted
children (Finch, 1982).
Jessor, 1968 and Churchill 1976 also found that parental
rearing styles have an effect on a child's level of locus of
control. Churchill found a correlationship between the
parenting styles of creative children and children with high

internality.

No conclusion was drawn from the mixed results of the

presented studies.
Problems With the Locus of Control Construct

Three pieces of research presented problems with the locus

of control construct in the social learning theory:

21

Phares, 1976, presents the question that perhaps locus of
control is a narrow expectancy arising out of specific
situations rather than a relatively stable characteristic
carried from situation to situation as presented in the
social learning theory. He concludes that behavior is
determined by both the structure of the situations and the

beliefs or expectancies brought into the situation.

Weiner, 1974, proclaims that empirical findings suggest that
locus of control influences emotional reactions rather than
goal expectancies as presented in the social learning theory
and that expectancy shifts are a function of the perceived

stability of causal factors and not locus of control.

Rotter, 1975, in relationship to the presented problems and
misconcepts related to construct of internal vs external
control, defends the construct and states that the social
learning theory presents the construct as highly related to
situational varibles as well as generalized expectiancies
and that it is presented as only one of three determinants
of behavioral potential (reinforcement and psychological

situations being the other two).

The presented literature is not thorough enough to imply
that the locus of control construct is invalid nor that this
research project is invalid. No published literature
investigating the validity of the problems were found in the

1980's. The presented problems, however, would be worthy of

 

22

further research before extensive time or money was be

expended pursuing the presented research problem.

Chapter Summary

 

The reviewed literature confirmed the importance of this
research project:

- externality is correlated to delinquent and maladaptive
behavior;

- past programs have been successful in increasing
internality;

- past art programs have been successfully used as a
change agent for maladaptive behavior;

- past art programs with a similar design to the creative
expression session used in this research project have been
found to be successful with a delinquent population.

CHAPTER III
DESIGN OF THE INVESTIGATION

I

Introduction

The purpose of this chapter is to present the design of the
investigation. The research project was designed to
determine if there would be a statistically significant
increase in the internality of the experimental group who
participated in the creative expression sessions over that
of the control group who did not.

The six aspects of the design were:

. The selection of the subjects comprising the sample.

. The assignment of subjects to the experimental or
control group.

. The design of the creative expression sessions.

. The selection of the measurement instrument used.

. The design of the procedures for collecting the data.

. The selection of statistical procedures used to
analysis the data.

01th NH

Selection and Description of the Sample

The subjects of this research project were male, Boys Club
members between the ages of 9 and 15 years who attended the

Boys Club of Jersey City, New Jersey.

The Boys Club of Jersey City is located in a poverty-ridden
area of the inner-city. The membership of the Club is 1,800

boys, between the ages of 7 and 18 years. An average of 270

23

24

boys utilize the Club on a daily basis. Annual membership

dues are $5.00 per year.

Members either live within walking distance to the Club or
are bused to the Club from a low-income housing project
located approximately two miles from the Club. The Boys
Club operates its own transportation system for their
membership. Few members receive transportation to and from

the Boys Club from their parents.

The initial session was promoted to all 10 to 16 year old
members who attended the Club between September 21 and
October 13. 1987, as a pizza-party and the introduction to
an eight-week creative expression class for young artist.
The session was advertized at the Club through posters and
announcements. Letters were sent to parents of seventy-five
of the 10 to 16 year old members who were identified as
having the most active attendence of the 1,104 members
between this age group. Thirty-two members between the ages
of ‘9 and 15 years attended the initial session. The

thirty-two members determined the research sample.

At the initial session the members: received a verbal
description of what types of projects they would be doing in
the creative expression sessions; completed the
Nowicki/Strickland Locus of Control Scale for Children and
the self-report questionnaire: ate pizza and drank soda and

were told they would be divided into two groups (one to

25

attend sessions starting the following week and one group to

attend sessions the next season).

The thirty-two members were then randomly selected for
either the experimental or control group. The selection was

made by drawing their membership numbers out of a box.

After the random assignment, the two groups were contacted
by the Club Director. The experimental group was informed
of the time, days and place of the sessions. The control
group was told they would be in the next sessions which
would be conducted the following season and that they would
also be invited to attend the current sessions' art show and

pizza party.

The self-report questionnaire provided a profile of the
sample (Appendix G). The following information about the
sample was obtained:

all 32 subjects were interested in art;

13 from the experimental group and 10 from the

control group had art classes prior to the

initial session at school or elsewhere;

13 from the experimental group's and 6 from the

control group's parents were interested in

art. 12 from the experimental and 6 from the

control group's parents did artwork;

3 from the experimental group and 5 from the
control group committed a misdeameanor;

1 from both groups committed a felony;

8 from the experimental group and 5 from the
control group were questioned by the police;

2 from both groups were incarcerated by the

26
police;

5 from the experimental group and 2 from the
control group lived with both parents;

9 from the experimental group and 7 from the
control group lived with just one parent;

2 from the experimental group and 7 from the
control group lived with one natural parent
and a step-parent;

2 from the experimental group lived with
adults other than natural parents;

6 of the experimental group lived with
adults who were unemployed, 5 of the
control group's parents were unemployed;

All the other control group's parents
held jobs of unskilled laborers, all

but one of the experimental group's
parents held unskilled laborer jobs,

one member's parent was a social worker;

2 from the control group had no
siblings, 7 from the experimental group
had 2 siblings, 3 from the control group
had 2 siblings, 8 from the experimental
group and 9 from the control group had

3 or more siblings (with 1 from the
experimental group having 9 siblings);

the age range of the experimental group

was from 9 to 15 years (1 nine Year old,

4 ten years old, 1 eleven year old, 6

twelve years old, 4 fifteen years old);

the age range of the control group was

from 11 to 15 years ( 2 eleven years old,

6 twelve years old, 4 fourteen years old,

1 fifteen year old).
The data obtained from the samples' self-report
questionnaire presents an homogeneous group. The likeness
of the experimental and control groups were controlled for

by their random selection and confirmed by the correlated

27

t-test on their pre-test Nowicki/Strickland Locus of Control

Scale for Children scores.

The sample was representative of the general Boys Club
population in terms of socio-economic factors. What may
distinquish the sample from the population is their interest
in art which would have given them the incentive to attend

the initial session.
Description of Creative_Expression Sessions

The sessions were designed based on research and
thirty-three, one and one half hour, creative expression
sessions implemented with incarcerated youth at the Bay
County Detention Center, Bay City, MI between December 1982
and August 1983. The development and facilitation of the
thirty-three sessions were funded through a grant from the

Michigan Council for the Arts.

From the pilot sessions, the most successful art projects
were selected for implementation in the eight sessions used
for this research project. Successful art projects were
determined from the level of enthusiam and participation of
the incarcerated juveniles and from a written evaluation the

youth completed at the end of each session (Appendix B).

The resources available and the facility in which the
sessions were held were also determining factors in which

art projects were selected for the sessions. In addition,

 

28

the creative expression sessions were based on programs

found to successfully utilized art to create behavioral

change.

The sessions centered around easily manipulated materials

(i.e. clay, paper, pencil, canvas and tempera paint) and
guided discussion. The art supplies and tools used for I
sessions were placed at each individual work station prior

to their arrival.

The eight sessions consisted of:

 

Session 1. Members cutting-out images from magazines

Session

Session

Session

Session

Session

Session

Session

and gluing them on paper. They then painted
the area surrounding the image so that it
be camouflaged.

Members continuing work on camouflaged
painting and participating in individual
guided discussion.

Members working with clay to make
3-dimensional fantastic animal sculpture.

Members participating in individual

guided discussion and designing their final
project in their choice of clay or paint
and canvas.

Members completing their final project
design and drawing a self-protrait.

Members beginning work on final project.

Members finishing final project and
preparing for the art show.

Members participating in individual guided
discussion and putting finishing touches on
the art show.

Each session began with an acknowledgement of participant's

ability to create art worthy of being exhibited at the art

 

29

show that followed the last session. The participant were
also told it was to be based on their decision if the works

would be shown or not.

A general description of the art project to be worked on
during the session was described and questions answered

before participants began work.

The sessions took place in the arts & crafts workshop of the
Boys Club of Jersey City. The workshop consisted of three
attached rooms. The first room was furnished with strudy
work benches and stools. Individual work stations with the
session's art project supplies_ and equipment were set up in
this room. Subjects also received initial instructions and
started work on projects in the room. The second room held
shelves to diSplay finished projects and a small table and
chairs. This room was used for individual, (one-on-one,
facilitator and participant), discussions as well as for
members who needed more space than the work stations
provided. The third room consisted of double sinks and an

industrial kiln. This room was only used for cleaning up.

The guided discussion took place privately with only the
facilitator and participant present and as a group process.
Everything the facilitator said to the participants was
carefully phrased to reinforce the message that the
participants were in control of the outcome of their art

project by the decisions they made.

 

30

Questions were always answered in a manner which left the
ultimate decision up to the participant (i.e. Question, "Can
we tear the paper rather than cut it?“, Answer, "Sure,
that's entirely up to you and what you visualize your

finished piece to look like.")

Questions that were asked while the participants were
working were answered in a similar manner (i.e. Question,
“What color should I use?", Answer, ” It's your artwork,
it's your decision. What color do you think will look the
best?")

“How do I questions", were responded to carefully, (i.e.
Question, “How do I paint a straight, thin line?” Answer,
"The size of paint brush, amount of paint and practice will
determine how wide and straight the line is. Here, practice
on this scrap paper before trying it on your canvas.')
Because it was imperative the participants veiwed their
finished artwork as totally their own, the manner in which

questions were answered was a vital part of the sessions.

The facilitator never worked directly on the participants
artwork and always left the individual with the
responsibility of using their own decision to accept or
reject the suggestions of the instructor. It was important
that the instructors did not work directly on the
participants artwork because the participants may have

attributed the outcome of their work to the instructor.

 

31

Private, individual guided discussions followed the
completion of each artwork. The discussions focused on the
artwork and the decisions the indivdual made while working
on it. Questions such as: "Are you pleased with the
outcome of this project? Why or why not?'; “How would it
have turned out differently if you would have choose to use
a different color or shape?'; “ If you could start all over
again what would you change?"; "How would you execute that
change?'; “00 you see how your decisions determined the
outcome of this project?“; "Let's summarize the decisions
you made that lead to this finished work", were asked as

part of the dialogue.

Each session ended with an acknowledgement of what a good
job each participant did and a reminder for them to think
about whether or not they would like to exhibit their

project in the art show.

The week before the art show each participant displayed all
of their completed projects to the facilitator and discussed
why or why not they had decided to show a particular piece.
The art show provided the particpants with recognition and
gave them an additional opportunity to see how their

decisions affected them.

The art show was advertized by posters and members gave

special invitations to their families and friends.

I "' \Psn- ‘n I-

 

32

Sixteen subjects from the experimental group attended the
first creative expression session, which was the only
session that was attended by the whole group. Only one
subject attended all eight sessions, one attended seven,
four attend six, two attended five, one attended four, four
attended three, one attended two and two only attended one.
The two subjects who only attended one session did not

return for the art show and therefore, were not post-tested.

The creative expression sessions implemented in this
research project were unique from the past documented art
sessions used to precipitate behavioral change because there
focus was not on the art product they were producing but on
the decision making process they were utilizing to execute
the work. The importance of the selected art media and
projects utilized in the sessions was only that the youth
could easily manipulate the medium and enjoy working with
it. Proficiency in the media was not important to the

success of the sessions.

Instrument

 

The Nowicki/Strickland Locus of Control Scale for Children
was selected to measure the locus of control of the sample.
The scale was designed to measure 'the generalized
expectancies for internal vs external locus of control of

third through twelfth graders. It is a fourty item paper

33

and pencil test having a "Yes or No“ response mode.

(Appendix G)

The scale's internal consistency and retest reliabilities
were found to be moderately high (.60's and .70's), (Gilmor
1978). Test-retest reliability, tested six weeks apart
was:.66 for 7th graders and .71 for tenth graders, (Johnson
1976). Internal consistency via the spilt-half method
corrected by the Spearman-Brown Prophecy Formal was: r=.68
(grades 6 thru 18), r=.74 (grades 9 thru 11) and r=.81
(grade 12), (Johnson 1976).

The scale, based on Rotter's definition of internal/external
locus of control of reinforcement dimension, was also found
to be psychometrically reliable and valid with juvenile
delinquents (Beck and Ollendick 1976; Kendal et al. 1978;
Ollendick and Ollendick 1976).

The Nowicki/Strickland Locus of Control Scale for Children
was selected above the two other suitable instruments
measuring the level of locus of control for children
(Children's Picture Tests of Internal-External Control and
The Intellectual-Achievement Response Questionnaire),
because of the higher reliability and validity scores. It
was also selected because it was the only one reported as

being suitable for a juvenile delinquent population.

34

Data Collection

All subjects of this research project were pre-tested on the
Nowicki/Strickland Locus of Control Scale for Children and a

self-report questionnaire on Tuesday, October 20, 1987.

Members of the Boys Club of Jersey City, New Jersey, between
the ages of 10 and 16, were invited to attend a pizza party
and introduction to creative expression sessions. The
invitations were extended to the members through
announcements, posters at the Club and letters mailed to the

parents.

At the meeting on October 20, 1987 members received a verbal
description of what types of projects they would be doing in
the creative expression sessions, were pre-tested on the
instrument, took the self-report questionnaire and had

refreshments.

The directions and questions for the scale and the
self-report questionnaire were read aloud by the
facilatator. The youth answered the questions as they were
read aloud. An additional adult was also present in the
room to answer questions the members had and to assist

members who lost their place on the scale or questionnaire.

The experimental and control group were then randomly
selected. On Tuesday, December 22,1987, the subjects were

once again brought together to be post-tested on the

35

instrument and the self-report questionnaire. The same

procedure was followed as described for the pre-testing.

Analysis of Data

 

The collected data of the pre- and post-tests of the
experimental and control groups scores on the
Nowick/Strickland Locus of Control Scale for Children were
analyzed: first. to determine if there was a significant
difference between the pre-test scores of the experimental
and control groups and secondly, to determine if their was a
significant difference between the post-test scores of the

two groups.

The descriptive statistics, an analysis of covariance, a
test of the correlation of the pre-test, the research
hypothesis, and the self-report questionnaire variables to
locus of control, respondents to nonrespondence and
delinquent to non-delinquent youth were analyzed to

determine the success of the project.

The null hypothesis, Ho: There is no statistically
significant difference between the post-test mean scores of
the experimental and control groups on the
Nowicki/Strickland Locus of Control Scale for Children, was

t-tested at the statistical significant level of .05.

36

The research hypothesis, H1: There is a statistically
significant difference between the post-test mean scores of
the experimental and control groups on the
Nowicki/Strickland Locus of Control Scale for Children, was

t-tested at the statistical significant level of .05.

In addition, the self-report questionnaire was administered
at both the pre- and post-testings to determine the
test/retest reliablity.

Limitations of the Study

 

The two major limitations of the study are the sample size

and the duration of the treatment.

The sample size was small at pro-testing (n=32), but dropped
even lower at post-testing (n=20). The loss of subjects may
have been due to the transient neighborhood the Club is
located in and that there was not a mandatory approach to

assure the subjects would return to be post-tested.

The duration of the project (8 weeks) was also a major
limitation. A rapport was just being established with the
experimental group when the final session was facilitated.
Adding to the short-time period of the treatment: only one
of the subjects from the experimental group attended all
eight sessions and two of the group only attended one

session (they, however, did not return to be post-tested).

 

37

Independent variables such as the subjects ability to
comprehend abstract thought or concepts; the dynamics of
the group,(i.e. group support to do own work and very
talented or advance individuals with superior command of

medium may have had an effect on the scores).

The post-test scores of the experimental group may have been
askewed because the facilatator of the creative expression
sessions was also the administrator of the instrument.
Thus, the subjects of the experimental group may have formed
a bond with this person and may have attempted to please
this person by answering the questions on the instrument in

a way that they would think would please the facilator.

Chapter Summary

 

Chapter III has presented the research design of this study.
Six sub-problems inherent in the design were discussed.
They included:
1. The selection and description of the subjects

comprising the sample.

2. The assignment of subjects to the experimental and
the control groups.

3. The description of the treatment.

4. The selection and description of the measurement
instrument.

5. The procedures for collecting the data.

6. The statistical procedures used to analyze the data.

 

 

CHAPTER IV

RESULTS OF THE INVESTIGATION

Introduction

The major purpose of this research project was to determine
if creative expression sessions would have an effect on the

internal locus of control of a group of teenage Boys Club

members.

A fourty question, yes-no ,response, paper and pencil
measurement of locus of control and a self-report

questionnaire were used to investigate the research

question.

The descriptive statistics, an analysis of covariance,a test
of the correlation of the pre-test, the hypothesis, and the
self-report questionnaire variables to locus of control,
respondents and nonrespondence and ’delinquent and
non-delinquent youth were analyzed to determine the success
of the project.

Summary of Descriptive Data

The dependent variable is the level of internal/external
locus of control each sample has. The level of locus of
control was operationalized through the results from the

Nowicki/Strickland Locus of Control Scale for Children. The

38

39

means and standard deviation for this variable was
determined for the experimental and control groups at pre-
and post-testing. The results are presented in Tables 4-1

and 4-2.

The scores on the instrument had a possible range of 0 to
40, with the higher score representing greater externality.
At pre-testing the range for the : sample scores = 9 to 25
(N=32); the experimental group scores = 9 to 25 (N=16); and
the control group scores- 12 to 23 (N=16).

TABLE 4-1

Pre-Testing Means and Standard Deviations

 

 

Group Mean Standard Deviation N
Sample 16.813 3.729 32
Experimental 16.5 4.168 16
Control 17.125 3.199 16

The range of the scores at post-testing were: sample= 8 to
23 (N=20); experimental group= 8 to 23 (N=11) and control
group = 8 to 23 (N=9).

TABLE 4-2
Post-Testing Means and Standard Deviations

 

Group Mean Standard Deviation N

 

 

40

Sample 16.25 3.542 20
Experimental 15.818 4.802 11
Control 16.778 4.237 9

Correlation of Pre-Test Scores

A correlation of the means of the experimental and control
group's pre-test scores were tested at a 95% level of

certainty.

The analysis of the data resulted in t=.923,with a critical
value = 1.697. Therefore, a statistical significant
difference was not found betweeen the experimental and
control groups pre-test scores and the pre-test locus of
control levels of the experimental and control groups were

compatiable.
Test of Statistical Hypothesis

The research project investigated the question: Could
creative expression sessions designed to increase
adolescents belief that they have control over the outcome
of their artwork have an effect on the participant scores on
an instrument measuring the degree of internal/external

locus of control?

The question was operationalized through the
Nowicki/Strickland Locus of Control Scale for Children mean

test scores of the experimental and control groups. The

 

41

answer to the question was determined by a test of the
statistical hypothesis on the post-test mean scores of the
two groups. The hypothesis was tested at the .05 level of

statistical significance.

The null hypothesis reads: Ho = There is no statistically
significant difference between the post-test mean scores of
the experimental and control groups on the

Nowicki/Strickland Locus of Control Scale for Children.

The research hypothesis reads: H1 = There is a

statistically significant difference between the post-test

mean scores of the experimental and control groups on the

Nowicki/Strickland Locus of Control Scale for Children.
TABLE 4-3

Research Hypothesis

1. Ho = n - n = O
1 2
2. H1: II - n = 0

3. Table 4-3

4. Alpha = .05

5. One tail upper

6. C = 1.734

7. If t ¢ 1.734 reject Ho
8. t = .103

9. Fails to reject Ho

42

Therefore. the creative expression sessions did not effect
the post-test mean scores of the experimental group and the

research hypothesis is rejected.

ANOVA with the pre-test scores as covariate found the raw
regression coefficient at .155 and no significant difference
was found which also substaniated the rejected hypothesis

test.

TestLRetest Reliability of Self-Report Questionnaire

The self-report questionnaire was administered to the
thirty-two subjects at the same time as the pre-test. 0f
the thirty-two subjects, only Vtwenty returned to take the
post-test and to be retested on the self-report

questionnaire.

Of the twenty subjects who took the retest: 12 answered
from 1 to 6 questions differently between the pre and post
testing: 6 answered differently on 2 questions; 1 answered
differently on 4 questions; 2 answered differently on 6
questions; and 2 answered differently on 1 question. This

results in a low test/retest reliability.

A cross tabulation and a chi-square test was used to
determine if there was a significant difference between the
experimental and control groups on the answers from the
self-report questionnaire. No significant difference was

found between the answers of the experimental and control

43

groups on pre-test or post-test crime or detainment
variables. Likewise, no significant difference was found
between the two groups on variables of parent's employment
or age. A significant difference was found between who the
two groups lived with at a .0222 level of difference. Twice
as a many subjects from the experimental group lived with

two parents as did the control group.

The Fisher's Exact Test was used to determine if there was a
significant difference in the locus of control of the
subjects who attended five or more sessions and those who
did not. No significant difference was found at .4 on a
one-tail test or .55 on a two-tail test. Neither was a
significant difference found between the subjects who
attended more sessions and those who did not on the
following self-report variables: delinquency, adults lived
with, age, and employment of parents.

Locus of Control Scores Correlated to Self-Report
Questionnaire VariaETes

A test was used to determine if there was a significant
difference between the sample's locus of control scores and
the following listed variables on the sample's answers to

the self-report questionnaire.

No significant difference was found between the locus of
control scores and the samples who answered that they had

committed either a misdeameanor or a felony, the number of

 

44

siblings in their family or their age. A slight significant
difference, ts 1.95, was found between the tested level of
locus of control and the youth that answered they had been

detained by the police.

The self-report questionnaire may not have been an accurate
measurement of delinquency, because the subjects may have
felt it was not truely confidential and therefore did not
select trueful responses. A check was not made to determine

if their responses corresponded to official records.
Chapter Summary

Chapter IV describes the results of this investigation. A
summary of the descriptive data, an analysis of covariance,
a test of the correlation of the pre-test scores and
statistical hypothesis were analyzed and the data presented.
The test/retest reliability of the self-report questionnaire
and the correlation of the locus of control scores to

self-report questionnaire variables also were presented.

The results of the investigation are:

1. No significant difference was found between
the locus of control pre-test scores of the
experimental and control groups.

2. No significant difference was found between
the locus of control post-test scores of the
experimental and control groups, therefore
the sessions were not found to improve the
internal locus of control of the experimental
group.

3. No significant difference was found between
the subject's level of locus of control and

 

45

self-report variables other than detention.

A slight significant difference was found between
the subjects who had been detained by police

and those who had not been detained.

CHAPTER V

. SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

This chapter presents a review of the purpose of this
investigation, a summary of the procedures used to collect
and analyze the data, a restatement of the research

findings, the conclusion and recommendations for future

research.
Purpose of Investigation

This investigation sought to determine if creative
expression session designed to improve the internal locus of
control of adolescents would make a significant difference
on the post-test mean scores on the experimental and control

group's locus of control (in the direction of internality).

Collection and Analyses of the Data

The sample consisted of 32, male. members of the Boys Club
of Jersey City, New Jersey between the ages of 9 and 15
years. The Club has 1,800 members of this age.

All members between the ages of 10 and 16 years were invited
to attended an introductory creative expression session and

pizza party. The invitation was extended to the members by
46

47

posting signs and making announcements at the Club and

sending a letter to the members' parents.

The 32 members who attended the initial meeting completed
the pre-test of the Nowicki/Strickland Locus of Control

Scale for Children and a self-report questionnaire.

The 32 subjects were randomly assignment to experimental or
control groups. The experimental group attended 8, one and

one half hour, creative expression sessions.

The sessions consisted of easily manipulated media and
guided discussion. The 8 sessions ended with the members

work being exhibited.

All 32 subjects were invited to an art show where the
post-test of the locus of control measurement and the
self-report questionnaire were administrated. Twenty

subjects returned for the post-test.

Summary of the Finding;

 

The descriptive statistics, an analysis of covariance, test
of the correlation of the pre-test, the research hypothesis
and the self-report questionnaire variables to locus of
control, the respondence to nonrespondence and delinquents
to non-delinquent youth were analyzed to determine the

success of the project.

48

The analysis of the data failed to reject the null
hypothesis, therefore no significant difference was found

between the experimental and control group.
Conclusion

The following conclusions can be made based on the

statistical analysis implemented:

1. No significant difference was found between the pre-test
mean scores of the experimental and control groups.
Therefore, the two groups are compariable.

2. No significant difference was found between the post-test
mean scores of the experimental and control groups.
Therefore, the internal locus of control of the experimental
group did not improve over the control group.

3. A low test/retest reliabilty was found on the self-report

questionnaire. Therefore, the information obtained from
the questionnaire may not be accurate.

Discussion

 

Based on the findings of this study, the creative expression
sessions designed to increase adolescents belief that they
have control over the outcome of their artwork did not have
an effect on the participants scores on an instrument
measuring their internal/external locus of control. The
thesis of this research project was the belief that the
sessions would increase the participants internal locus of

control.

A number of variables may have detered the expected increase
to occur:

1. Small sample size which additionally suffered from

49
37% mortality rate.
2. Too few sessions which additionally suffered from subjects
not attending all of the offered sessions.

Recommendations for Future Research

It is highly recommended that future research use the
formulated creative expression sessions in a more controlled
environment over a longer period of time with a larger

sample.

Ideally, a more controlled environment would consist of
sessions in a setting which had an incentive for the
subjects to attend each session, such as being part of
regular school in which credits were earned toward
graduation or as part of scheduled mandatory activites in a

detention setting.

The pilot sessions which were implementaed in the Bay County
Detention Center, Bay City, Michigan were ideal because they
were very much accepted by the detained youth who viewed
them as an enhancement of their academic studies. The pilot
sessions were initially veiwed by the detention staff as
unworkable, but once the staff observed the youth actively
involved with few incidents of acting-out behavior they were

very supportive of the sessions.

One of the reasons the creative expression sessions worked
in a detention setting was because each session was designed

to increase the incarcerated youth's self-worth. The final

50

project ,a group mural the youth designed and painted on the
wall of the center's multi-purpose room, is a good
illustration of this because: it enhanced the juvenile's
sense of belonging by each individual submitting a drawing
of a design for the mural and a presentation of their design
to the group; it enhanced their sense of influence by
having the group decide on which design to paint on the
wall; it enhanced their sense of usefulness by providing
everyone a piece of the mural project to complete: and it
enhanced their sense of competency by completing a mural
which was admired by everyone that viewed it, thus

enchancing the youth's self-worth.

Along with the planned effort to treat each youth with
respect, another reason the sessions were successful in a
detention center was that the rules and consequences for
breaking the rules were made clear at the beginning of each
session and consistently enforce. the same strategy was
implemented at the Boys Club during the 8 weeks of creative

expression sessions.

The creative expression sessions are not a quick fix or a
panacea approach to delinquency prevention or treatment, nor
are they a punitive approach, rather they are an enhancement
to the educational program the youth are involved in which
can increase the youth's self-respect and knowledge that the

decisions they make to complete their artwork determine the

51

end result of their work just as the decisions they make in

their lives determine the outcome.

With a non-incarcerated population, increasing the sample
size would lessen the effect of the normal mortality rate.
The sample size, however, could not be greatly increased and
still have the designed creative expression sessions be
effective, because individual attention and a small group
atmosphere are at the essences of the sessions. With an
increase in sample size, additional facilitators would have

to be trained and present to assist in the sessions.

The eight weeks of sessions were too short of time period to
create a solid rapport with the individuals. The rapport
was just being created during the final sessions.
Facilitation of the sessions over at least a three-month
period and ideally a six-month period would increase the
probability that they would have a significant effect on the

participants.

Once the sample size and the number of creative expression
sessions were increased, the mortality rate lowered, and the
sessions showed they could increase the internal locus of
control of the experimental group, a longitudinal study with
an incarcerated juvenile delinquent population testing not
only the stability of the increased internality, but the
effect internality has on recidivism rates would be

recommended.

52

In addition, the reviewed literature did not reveal research
on the type of offences committed more often by incarcerated
individuals with high externality than individuals with high
internality. This would be useful information in program

planning and is recommended for further research.

“APPENDICES"

53

APPENDIX A

QUESTIONNAIRE

 

Project Age Date

1. Did you find the past hour:
a. fun or enjoyable
b. meaningful
c. a waste of time

2. Did you find this week's project to be:
a. too simple

. too complicated

stupid

challenging

perfect

”GOU-
co.

3. Have you don this project before? YES or NO
If yes, where? a. school d. camp
b. home e. church
c. other

 

4. Do you think you will ever make the project again?

5. Do you think you will ever show anyone else how to
make the project? YES or NO

6. Do you spend time by yourself drawing or making things?
7. Are you interested in learning more about art? YES or NO

8. Would you agree to have your art project displayed in a
public building? YES or NO

9. Comments:

 

54

APPENDIX B

QUESTIONNAIRE

 

The information from this questionnaire will be used to help
formulate a research project for a graduate class in
juvenile delinquency (CJ855) at Michigan State University.
Dr. Vince J. Hoffman is the professor. Your cooperation in
filling out this questionnaire is greatly appreciated.

Thank you

Pam Shaver

1. Years of working with adolescents?
a. less than 5
b. 6 to 10
c. 10 or more

2. Approximate percentage of work done with adolescents

 

that are:

" """"""""" ag‘;';:;;;;‘za:;a;;';;:;;;;';a:;55;"
CriminaT Offenders: '/“ /‘ /' /” "
§£;E5;'6¥¥;;5;;;;2"'7 """"""" 7 """" 7 """""
Xi'iiéi'ala'fii """ 7 """ 7 """" i """" '2 """""

55

3. From your experience working with youth, would you say
they generally perceive positive and negative events in
life as being a:

 

resuTt oi their 7resuit of TucE,
own behavior. /fate or power of

 

/ others.
Criminai Ofienders: 7
EEQZEE'6¥¥355;F§;? """""""""""""""""""""""""
TYRES-5173;? """""""""""" I """"""""""""
XI'ESQ'REEE; """"""""""""" E """"""""""""""

* Status Offenders - youth that have committed acts that
are not unlawful for adults (i.e. truancy, runaways).
** At High of Low Risk of becoming delinquent.

 

56

APPENDIX C

RESULTS OF YOUTH WORKERS QUESTIONNAIRE

The results from the collected data on the questions," From
your experience working with youth, would you say they
generally perceive positive and negative events in their
life as being: a result of their own behavior or a resut of
luck, fate or powerful other.', are as follows:

19 believed criminal offenders perceive events
to be the result of luck, fate or powerful
others.

3 believed criminal offenders perceived events
to be the result of their own behavior.
3 did not respond to the queStion.

15 believed status offenders perceived events
to be the results of luck, fate or powerful
others.

5 believed status offenders perceived events
to be the result of their own behavior.
5 did not respond to the question.

12 believed at high-risk youth perceived events
to be the results of luck, fate or powerful
others.

I believed at high-risk youth perceived events
to be the result of their own behavior.

12 did not respond to the question.

2 believed at low-risk youth perceived events
to be the results of luck, fate or powerful
others.

12 believed at low-risk youth perceived events
to be the result of their own behavior.
11 did not respond to the question.

4 of the questionnaires were returned with all
of the variables checked with a written com-
ment, "positive events were seen by all as a
result of their own behavior, while negative
events were seen as a result of luck, fate or
powerful others.”.

57

The results indicate the opinion of persons working with
adolescents is that delinquent youth generally perceive
positve and negative events as being a result of luck, fate
or powerful others. The opinion of persons working with
adolescents corresponds to the research found in the review
of the literature which relates juvenile delinquents to

external locus of control expectencies.

 

58
APPENDIX D

CREATIVE EXPRESSION SESSIONS

 

Session 1: Painting (magazine cut-out designs).

Session 2: Finishing first project and individual
guided discussions*.

Session 3: Clay (fantastic animal sculpture).

Session 4: Individual guided discussion & designing
final project (choice of paint or clay).

Session 5: Approval of final project design & drawing
self-portrait.

Session 6: Begin final project.
Session 7: Finish final project & prepare for art show.

Session 8: Individual guided discussions* and art show.

* Individual Guided Discussions are conducted privately
between facilitator and participant. They focus on the art
work of the individual. Questions such as the following are
asked: Are you pleased with the outcome of this project?
Why or Why not? How would it have been different if you
would have chowe to use a different color or shape? What
would you do differently if you started over again? Do you
see how your decisions determine the outcome of the finish

art work?

 

PILOT

59

APPENDIX E

SESSIONS

 

12/13-Printmaking
12/29-Pocket People

1/3

1/12
1/17
1/26
2/16
2/22
2/28
3/7

3/16
3/21
3/28

-Life Mask
-Finishing Life Mask
-Slide-Show/Drawing
-35mm Photography
-Self-Portrait
-Free Painting
-Dough Art
~Happening

-30 Construction
-SX7O Self-Portrait
-Color Wheel

4/18-Song Painting Game
4/25-Scrap Wood Sculpture

5/2 -Mothers Day Cards 3 Flowers
5/9 -Autobiographical Collages
5/16- Kites

6/6 -Dream Painting

7/1 -SX7O Photo/Painting

7/8 -Clay Modeling

7/15-Mural Design

7/22 a 23 - Mural

8/5 -Silk Screen

8/19-Canvas Design
8/22,23,24,25 & 26 -Painting

60

APPENDIX F

LETTER TO PARENTS

October 6, 1987
Dear Parent(s),

Your son has been selected to take part in a specail Young
Artist Program being offered at the Boys Club of Jersey
City.

The program will be taught by Pam Shaver of our National
Boys Clubs of America Staff. Pam is the Assistant Director
of Program Services responsible for the core areas of

cultural enrichment and personal development.

The youth will explore the mediums of painting and clay
during the eight weekly sessions. Their accomplishments

will be exhibited at the end of the program.

To participate in the program your son needs to attend the
first “get together" on Tuesday, October 27th from 4:30 to
6:00. This will be an introduction to the program and

refreshments will be served.

A commitment to attend every Tuesday from 4:30 to & 7:00 for
eight weeks must be made because each class builds on the

one before.

 

61

We are looking forward to your son's participation in this

exciting opportunity.

Sincerely,

Gary Greenburg
Associate Director

10.

11.

12.

13.

14.

15.

62

APPENDIX G

NOHICKI/STRICKLAND LOCUS OF CONTROL SCALE

Do you believe that most problems will solve
themselves if you just don't fool with them?

Do you believe that you can stop yourself
from catching a cold?

Are some kids just born lucky?

Most of the time do you feel that getting
good grades means a geat deal to you?

Are you often blamed for things that just
aren't your fault?

Do you believe that if somebody studies
enough he or she can pass any subject?

00 you feel that most of the time it
doesn't pay to try hard because things
never turn out right anyway?

00 you feel that most of the time
parents listen to what their children
have to say?

Do you feel that most of the time parents
listen to what their children have to say?

Do you believe that wishing can make good
things happen?

When you set punished does it usually seem

its for no good reasons at all?

Most of the time do you find it hard to
change a friends (mind) opinion?

00 you think that cheering more than luck
helps a team win?

Do you feel that it's nearly impossible

Yes

Yes

Yes
Yes
Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

0"

Of‘

0|"

0|"

OI“

or

0"

or

01‘

No

No
No

No

No

No

No

No

No

Yes or No

Yes

Yes

Yes

to change your parent's mind about anything? Yes

Do you believe that your parents should

allow you to make most of your own decisions? Yes

or

Oi‘

Oi"

or

OI“

No

NO

No

No

No

16.

17.

18.

19.

20.

21.

22.

23.

24.

25.

26.

27.

28.

29.

30.

31.

63

Do you feel that when you do something wrong
there's very little you can do to make it
right?

Do you believe that most kids are just born
good at sports?

Are most of the other kids your age stronger
than you are?

Do you feel that one of the best ways to
handle most problems is just not to think
about them?

Do you feel that you have a lot of choice
in deciding who your friends are?

If you find a four leaf clover do you
believe that it might bring you good luck?

00 you often feel that whether you do
your homework has much to do with what
kind of grades you get?

00 you feel that when a kid your age
decides to hit you, there's little you
can do to stop him or her?

Have you ever had a good luck charm?

Do you believe that whether or not people
like you depends on how you act?

Hill your parents usually help you if
you ask them to?

Have you felt that when people were mean
to you it was usually for no reason at all?

Most of the time, do you feel that you
can change what might happen tomarrow
by what you do today?

Do you believe that when bad things are
going to happen they are just going to
happen no matter what you do to stop them?

Do you think that kids can get their own
way it they just keep trying?

Most of the time do you find it useless to
try to get your own way at home?

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

or

0"

OI"

07'

or

07‘

07‘

Oi"

Oi‘

OI‘

OI"

OI‘

OI"

or

07‘

or

No

No

No

No

No

No

No

No

No

No

NO

No

No

No

No

No

32.

33.

34.

35.

36.

37.

38.

39.

40.

64

Do you feel that when good things happen
they happen because of hard work?

Do you feel that when somebody your age
wants to be your enemy there's little you
can do to change matters?

00 you feel it is easy to get friends to
do what you want them to?

Do you usually feel that you have little
to say about what you get to eat at home?

Do you feel that when someone doesn't like
you there's little you can do about it?

Do you usually feel that it's almost
useless to try in school because most
other children are just plain smarter
than you?

Are you the kind of person who believes
that planning always makes things turn out
better?

Most of the time, do you feel that you have
little to say about what your family decides
to do?

Do you think it's better to be smart than to
be lucky?

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

or

O?

OI"

or

Oi"

Oi“

OI”

or

OI‘

No

No

No

No

NO

No

No

No

No

65

SELF-REPORT QUESTIONNAIRE

Are you interested in art?

Have you taken art classes at school or
elsewhere?

Has your artwork ever been selected for
public display?

Are your parents interested in art?
00 your parents do artwork?
Have you ever shoplifted or been a vandal?

Have you ever stole a car, robbed a store or
mugged a person?

Have you ever been questioned by the police
as a crime suspect?

Have you ever been detained by the police
for more than 12 hours?

Do you live with both your parents?
just your mother?
just your father?

mother and her mate?
father and his mate?

APPENDIX H

Yes or

YES OI"

Yes or
Yes or
Yes or

Yes or

Yes or

Yes or

Yes or

Yes or
Yes or No
Yes or No
Yes or No
Yes or No

What do the adults you live with do for a living?

How many brother and/or sisters do you have?

How many do you live with?

How many years have you been a Club member?

How old are you?

No

No

No
No
No
No

No

No

No

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