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MALARIA IN MICHIGAN
By

David Charles Nutter

A THESIS

Submitted to
Michigan State University
in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of

MASTER OF ARTS

Department of Geography

1988

ABSTRACT

MALARIA IN MICHIGAN
BY

David Charles Nutter

During the 19th century malaria was the most common ailment
in Michigan. Malaria. or ague -- as it was known then, was so
prevalent that it was not even perceived to be a disease.
Following the discoveries of the plasmodium by Laveran and Ross
in the late 1890’s one would expect a marked decline in
prevalence. Curiously. malaria declined well before these
discoveries in Michigan. The aims of this study are to determine
the routes by which malaria came to Michigan, to note the ‘
prevalence of the disease in the state, and most importantly. the
reasons for its decline.

Unfortunately. the data collection for this theses was very
difficult. Because malaria was so common, morbidity statistics
were not recorded. Mortality statistics were first recorded in
1867. but only following 1873 were these statistics compiled
annually by the Michigan State Board of Health. Mortality
statistics were divided into many different diseases because of

the lack of understanding with regards to the nature of the

disease. For example, malaria was listed, in part. under some of
these causes of death: typho-malarial diseases, remittent
fevers, ague, and malarial fevers.

In order to identify a reasonable set of variables that
might have contributed to the decline, the historical-cultural
backdrop was reconstructed to help in the search for clues.
Present-day epidemiological and clinical knowledge also helped to
bring some of these variables to light. Some of these variables
are: deforestation and drainage. screening of windows and doors,
better diagnosis. and a slowing of the influx of a non-immune
population into the state. The list of variables is not,
however, exhaustive, because of the lack of morbidity statistics,

and specific local variation.

A C K N 0 H L E D G E M E N T S:

I would like to thank my patient and loving wife,
Sarah, for her support during my graduate program in
the midst of her own doctoral program.

I thank my parents for always having faith in their
"dreamer."

I would also like to thank those who served on my
committee: Drs. Ian Matley, Dan Jacobson and Don
Newson. These men always had good suggestions
pertaining my studies, and I appreciated their
flexibility in the midst of adversity.

Last but not least, I would like to thank Dr. Jay
Harman for his guidance during my stay at MSU. Dr.
Harman always had time for me when I needed it the

most.

AbstractOIIOOIIIOII...

Ackowledgements.......

CHAPTER 1
Introduction..........

CHAPTER 2
Review of Literature..

CHAPTER 3
Malaria--The disease..

Epidemiology.....
Manifestations...
Diagnosis.........

TABLE

The Anopheles Mosquito.
The Protozoan Life Cycle.
The Protozoa.............

CHAPTER A

Data Assembly.................

CHAPTER 5

The Physiography of Michigan..

CHAPTER 6

OF

CONTENTS

The Spread of Malaria to Michigan........

CHAPTER 7

Malaria in Michigan....... ..... . ....... ..

0.1

..iii

..9
.10

.11
.13

.18

.28

.25

CHAPTER 8
The Decline of Malaria in Michigan.....................37

Population Movement...............................38
Railroad, Steamship and Steam Regulation..........39
Clearing. Cultivation and Drainage................40
Prosperity. Housing and Screening.................41
Education and the State Board of Health...........43
Cattle Breeding and the Mosquito..................44
Quinine...........................................45
Forest Fires......................................47
Urbanization......................................48

CHAPTER 9
Concluding Remarks.....................................49

REFERENCESOIIOOIODIOI...OIO...ICC-D...-CICCOCIOICIOIOOISI

Chapter 1
Introduction

The most common of all maladies in Michigan before the
twentieth century was ague (malaria). Until the land was
partially drained, and the timber depleted, ague was the most
widespread of all diseases. "As late as 1881 malaria was still
believed to constitute over fifty percent of the total sum of
illness in the state."1 Every summer with the onslaught of the
heat of June and July, ague became evident.

As long as man has kept written records, malaria has been
mentioned. Hippocrates wrote, ”Hot winds cause poor appetite,
derangement of the digestive organs, flabby physique; in women
they lead to fluxes and barreness; in children, to asthma,
epilepsy and convulsions; in men, to dysentery, diarrhea and
ague, with pleurisy and pneumonia rare.“a

Today, malaria is an endemic disease in parts of Africa,
Asia, Central and S. America, where environmental factors,
including temperature, humidity, and standing water, support the
breeding of mosquitoes and where there is close contact between
the mosquitoes and man. During the settlement of Michigan,
particularly during the 19th century, malaria was endemic. The

residents of Michigan had no idea that the ague—shake originated

 

1Michigan History Magazine, vol. 85, (1941)

Swinslow, E.E.A. The Conquest of Epidemic Disease, pg. 65.

with the mosquito, but instead believed that this plight was
related to marshy wet lands; a notion that had been held since

antiquity.

Chapter 2
Review of Literature

Malaria posed the greatest threat to health for the
residents of Michigan in the seventeenth and eighteenth
centuries. While the disease was seldom fatal, nearly every
family had at least one member who was afflicted with fever,
chills and shakes. Malaria was so prevalent that, for a time, it
was not even considered a disease. "He’s ain’t sick, he’s just
got the ager!" was a common remark.

From our present vantage point, we know that malaria is
spread by an infected anopheline mosquito population which is, in
turn, infected by an infected animal -- perhaps human —-
population or vice versa. This paper analyzes the arrival of
malaria in Michigan, and the decline of malaria in the state.
This ”decline” is of pivotal importance to this thesis because
this decline came about before the discoveries by Laveran and
Ross in 1898 which finally separated the disease from those
caused by "germs" and identified malaria as one spread by the
presence of a microorganism; a plasmodium which is spread from
human to human with the help of the anopheline vector.

Malaria has long been regarded as a disease of the marshes
and low country where foul air (mal’ aria —- Italian) rises to
strike the people with its toxic vapors. Many have written
concerning malaria about specific regions of the world. Hackett

wrote a book about the historic malaria situation in Europe which

had an impact upon the New world colonies. Today, malaria is
largely endemic in tropic and subtropic regions; therefore,
present epidemiological articles deal directly with these areas.
Since this study focuses upon Michigan, it is important to
utilize primarily those works that were written with regard to
North America, because the American spatial, historical and
entomological parameters are the most similar to the events that
occurred in Michigan.

Perhaps the earliest significant work about malaria in North
America was A Systematic Treatise on the Principle Diseases of
t_g Interior Valley of North America by Daniel Drake, M.D. which
was published in 1850. Drake walked all over the Interior Valley
-- the Mississippi watershed -- of North America, and he recorded
his observations in this very valuable work. He noted housing
types, clothing, diets, insect populations, drainage patterns and
much more. Drake subscribed to the theory that malaria was
spread by way of microscopic insects -- a theory that was not
embraced by his contemporaries.

After Ross’ discovery of the plasmodium in 1898, a flurry of
interest in the decline of malaria took place because this
decline predated the discovery of the plasmodium. Childs (1940)
described the rise and fall of malaria prevalence in the Carolina
Low Country in the 17th and 18th centuries. Childs linked the
prevalence to the African slave trade and to the cultivation of
rice. (p. 864) Of these two factors, the slave trade from Africa

contributed to the coming of malaria into Michigan only in a

small way. The most pertinent study for the examination of
malaria in Michigan would be that by Erwin H. Ackerknecht titled

Malaria in the Upper Mississippi Valley 1760-1900. In this work

Ackerknecht examines and compares the histories of the northern

 

states that border on the Mississippi River. He concludes that
the malaria in these areas was none other than "pioneer malaria."
Many nonimmunes would move into a malarious area and this would
fuel successive epidemics and leave the land in a state of
endemicity. Thisform of malaria contrasts with the malaria that
is found in the third world tropic and subtropic countries today,
because the malaria in these lands is caused by a more virulent
Plasmodium; usually Plasmodium falciparum. These regions remain
in a state of‘edemicity accompanied by periodic epidemics without
requiring a heavy emigrant influx in order for the disease to
survive because of their tropic and subtropic locations. These
regions receive far greater precipitation than the mid-latitudes
and the temperature remains warm enough for the mosquito and
parasite to live.

As the 19th century came to a close, so too did malaria in
Michigan. This decline occurred without any conscious effort by
the settler to affect the decline of the disease. The fall of
malaria prevalence can not be attributed to any given factor, but
rather many factors. Ackerknecht cited 12 reasons why malaria
left the Upper Mississippi Valley. This list is probably the
most concise with regards to a large region. These factors will

be discussed in Chapter 8.

Following World war II concern arose with regards to the
returning GIs from malarious lands because these men could
possibly re-infect the mosquito population. In February of 1946,
Michigan State College published a research article by Curtis
Sabrosky, an entomologist, titled: "Occurrence of Malaria
Mosquitoes in Southern Michigan." Sabrosky took samples from
standing water in 31 Lower Michigan counties in an attempt to
assess the Anopheles populations in the state. The study had its
limitations because it was impossible to sample every marsh,
pool, ditch etc. for anopheline mosquitoes. Sabrosky also
admitted that he was unfamiliar with the study area. The study
did confirm that the Anopheles puadrimaculatus composed 75.09% of
the larvae population.

Ernest Carroll Faust has written a series of articles
concerning the morbidity and mortality of malaria in the United
States. In his paper titled: ”Clinical and Public Health
Aspects of Malaria in the United States from a Historical
Perspective,“ Faust hypothesized where malaria originated, how it
spread in North America, and speculated on reasons for the
decline. In the closing paragraphs of his study he discussed
procedures that would reduce ”the level of natural propagation.”
These steps are for the prevention of malaria; the last and best

step for disease control.

1. Reduction of Anopheles puadrimaculatus and e;

freeborni breeding in hyperendemic foci to a point
where the chances of man-mosquito-man development of
the life cycle are very frequent.

2. Continued, more extensive consciousness of malaria
in patients appearing for consultation and treatment,

not only in highly endemic territory but in areas of
milder endemicity and in non-malarious regions.

3. Increased blood film diagnosis.

4. Treatment of all malaria patients with adequate
amounts of antimalarial drugs until a cure is effected.
5. Inquiry by all physicians consulted by veterans,
merchant seamen or civilians, who have been overseas,
regarding a history of malaria, and notification to
local health authorities of potential malaria carriers.
6. A minimum food ration for the poorer elements of
our population, which is quantitatively adequate to
produce resistance to disease. (Frequently actual cure
can not be effected until bodily resistance has been
built up to destroy the malaria parasites in the foci
outside red blood cells.)

7. Serious consideration of the advisability of
instituting suppressing antimalarial therapy to
populations in hyperendemic foci which remain resistant
to reduction by other practical methods.a

Clearly these steps are for present—day malaria control, and

could not be implemented during the studied time frame of this

thesis. However, since malaria in the United States has been,

for all intents and purposes, eradicated, these rules need to be

strictly enforced so as to thwart any future outbreaks of the

disease.

 

aFaust, E. C. 1945. Clinical and public health aspects

malaria in the United States from an historical perspective.

Jour.

Trop. Med. 25:199-800.

of
Am.

Chapter 3
Malaria -- the disease

Epidemiology

Malaria is a three factor human disease. It, therefore,
requires three factors in order to survive: man, the mosquito,
and the protozoa. Areas without any one of these ingredients
simply are not malarious.

Malaria was endemic to the mid section of North America
during the 18th and 19th centuries. As the masses of settlers
landed in the New world and moved westward they entered malarious
lands. Cecil’s ngtbook of Medicine states: "Through the
centuries the most impressive effects of malaria have been
recorded during the time of war when large numbers of nonimmunes
are placed in malarious lands."“ Though the settlements were not
a result of wars, the vast majority of these emigrants could be
considered nonimmunes. Even in the 17th century in the Carolinas
this fact was known; "Many immigrants were from the north of

Ireland and were "highly vulnerable to malaria.""9

 

“wyngaarden, James B. and Smith Lloyd H. 1982. Cecil
ngtbook of4Mgdicing. 17th ed. Philadelphia: w.B. Saunders Co. p.
1716.

=5Childs, St. J.R. 1940. Malaria and thg Colonization of thg
Carolina Low Country, 1586 - 1699. Baltimore [Johns Hopkins Univ.
Studies in Hist. and Polit. Science, Series LVIII, No.13.

Mpnifgstationg

The victim of an infected Anopheles mosquito begins to
experience chills and fever accompanied by a frontal headache
and myalgia. Cecil states: "In the early period of the illness
the fever may be persistent for several days before developing
into a synchronous periodicity, the hallmark of tertian and
quartan malaria. when the typical pattern has been established,
the patient has a chill, a rise in temperature to 40 to 41°C,
headache and myalgia. This is followed in several hours by
diffuse sweating and a fall in temperature."° These clinical
manifestations become important when considering the
socioeconomic aspects of the disease. Although these symptoms
appear momentarily disabling, they were synchronous, therefore
leaving the victim feeling fatigued but otherwise healthy in
between attacks. This relative health also led many to believe
that the ague was not a disease but a state of normality; after

all, everyone was afflicted.

Diagnosis

”The diagnosis of malaria must be suspected in every patient
with fever, coma, qr shock who has lived or traveled in a
malarious area, has received a blood transfusion, or may be a
drug addict. The only (sic) technique for confirming the

clinical suspicion of malaria is the identification of plasmodia

 

bwyngaarden and Smith, p. 1719.

10
in fixed, stained blood smears."'7 Therefore, any continued or
periodic fever in 19th century Michigan should have been first
regarded as malaria. Unfortunately, for the residents of
Michigan and the rest of the endemic lands, malaria was not well

defined which led to many misdiagnoses.

The Anopheles Mpsguito

Four species of the Anopheles mosquito exist in Michigan, A;
gppdrimaculatus, A. barberi, A. walkeri, and A. punctipennis. In
Michigan A. puadrimaculatus is the most efficient as a vector.
It falls well short of the tropical and subtropical varieties,
but is regarded ”as the most dangerous species and chief vector
of malaria in eastern North America."9

The mosquito goes through four stages in its life: the egg,
the larvae, the pupae and finally the adult. The larval stage is
crucial to the survival of the mosquito during the cold Michigan
winters because the larva sinks to the bottom of the pool when
the water temperature drops below 12°C or 13°C. There the larvae
remain in a dormant state until the water warms up.9

Mosquito populations are revitalized very quickly every year

following the spring thaw. "One female mosquito depending on her

 

71bide’ p. 1780e

PSabrosky, c.w. 1946. The occurrence of malaria mosquitoes
in southern Michigan. Tech. Bull. 202, Michigan State College
Agric. Exp. Stn. pg. 40.

”Horsfall, William R. 1955. Mosguitoes. p. 140

11
species and environment may lay from a little less than 50 to
about 500 eggs in her first brood, slightly fewer in each
subsequent delivery, of which there may be eight or ten before
she dies. Taking 200 eggs as an average clutch and assuming half
of these will hatch out females, then the theoretical progeny
from a single insect in five generations would be twenty million.
As each life cycle from egg to egg takes under good conditions
something like two weeks, those twenty million could be the
produce of one favorable North American summer."19

The resting place of the mosquito requires three elements:
1) the site must be convenient to the oviposition site; 2) the
resting spot must be in close proximity to the possible blood
meal; and 3) the climate must be favorable.11 In the following
chapter concerning the physiography of Michigan, the state will

be analyzed with regards to a favorable oviposition environment.

The Protozoan Life cycle

when an infected individual enters an area that is inhabited
by the Anopheles mosquito, the possibility arises that this
individual could infect the entire Anopheles mosquito population.
This would be accomplished by a host of mosquitoes taking blood

meals from this individual, and in turn taking blood meals from

 

10Harrison, Gordon 1978. Mosguitoes, Malaria and Man. New
York p. 141-2.

11Horsfall, p. 146.

12
other human victims after the Plasmodium has become established
within these respective mosquitoes.

The female Anopheles mosquito is the primary focus of
attention because the female must take a blood meal before she
can lay her eggs. The male feeds off plants rather than animals,
as does the female when animals are scarce. As the female
withdraws her blood meal, she takes with it both female and male

gametocytes of the protozoan which form a zygote in the stomach.

After fertilization, the zygote becomes a motile
ookinete, penetrates the stomach wall, and multiplies
in an enlarging oocyst. Rupture of this cyst allows
the release of sporozoites which are distributed
throughout the mosquito and accumulate in the salivary
gland. During the process of feeding, the mosquito
injects fluid from the salivary glands. Sporozoites
may be released with the salivary fluid if the mosquito
ate a blood meal two to four weeks previously which
contained male and female malaria gametocytes. The
sporozoites enter the circulation immediately, and a
transient parasitemia occurs which lasts less than one
hour. During this period the sporozoites enter
hepatic parenchymal cells, initiating the pre-
erythrocytic stage of plasmodium infection by forming a
primary hepatic schizont. The duration of the pre-
erythrocytic stage is usually short in the Ep_
falciparum (5.5 to 7 days) and P. vivax (6 to 8 days)
but somewhat longer in P. ovale (9 days) and E;
malariae (13 to 16 days). Merozoites are then released
from the hepatic cells and enter circulating
erythrocytes. Occasionally, when the number
sporozoites inoculated is very low, the period from
infection to onset of erythrocyte infection lasts for
months or even years. In falciparum malaria the tissue
phase terminates at the beginning of the erythrocyte
cycle; in vivax and ovale malaria, the hepatic forms
persist. This species variation necessitates different
therapeutic approaches in treating malaria. The
species also differ in the number of merozoites
released after primary hepatic schizogony: E;

falci arum, about 40,000 from each infected cell; E;
ovale, 15,000; P. vivax, 10,000; and P. malariae,

Thus,

13

2,000. The large number of merozoites released into
the circulation in P. falciparum may contribute to the
high levels of parasitemia seen in this infection and
perhaps to the increased frequency with which
erythrocytes are observed to contain multiple
organisms. The merozoite attaches to specific
receptors on the red blood cell and then enters by
inducing erythrocyte endocytosis, and the organism
begins to develop within a vacuole in the erythrocyte.
The organism increases in size, partially filling the
red blood cell; this is termed late trophozoite. Later
the nuclear material is segregated by schizogony, and
the red blood cell becomes filled with the cytoplasm,
and the multiple nuclei of the schizont. The
erythrocyte cycle is completed when the red blood cells
rupture, releasing the merozoites formed from the
schizont, which then invade other erythrocytes.
Symptoms of fever and chills coincide with the release
of merozoites; hence the clinical descriptions of
tertian malaria (fevers on days one and three) and
quartan (fevers on days one and four). The number of
merozoites formed during erythrocyte schizogony is
helpful in species diagnosis. Examination of a mature
schizont of P. malariae will reveal 6 to 12 developing
merozoites, P. ovale 6 to 16, and P. vivax 12 to 24.

By mechanisms which remain unknown, some merozoites do
not continue the cycle of schizogony but develop into
female and male gametocytes. These first appear in the
peripheral blood several days after the onset of the
erythrocytic cycle, and they may persist for weeks
after schizogony has been suppressed. During the blood
meal of an Anopheles mosquito, the gametocytes are
ingested.1e

the life cycle of the protozoan is complete. This process

is revealed in this diagram:

 

1ewygaarden and Smith, p. 1716-17.

14

CVCLI ID IOSCUIVO r CYCLE II IA.

 

 

 

Uhmdemhmadththhu‘eCA.M-Gmu:m
Amman. Vet m. May. 1108. CW " We}. by Scientific Americas. inc. All rights w.)

I_g Protozoa

Az guadrimapulatus has been established above as the chief
vector of malaria in North America. With the exclusion of
specific temperature parameters, the A. puadrimaculatus can host
any of the following protozoa: P. c nomol i, however the ey_
freeborni is a better host for this plasmodium;*3 EL
bastianelli,1“ P. ovale, the A. guadrimaculatus is a poor host
for this particular plasmodium;19 P. malariae stands up well in
the A. guadrimaculatus stands under experimental conditions;16
P. berghei: rare oocysts have been discovered in the A;

uadrimaculatus;17 P. relictum: the development of the parasite

 

1~‘=’Malaria Parasites, p. 179
1“ 1"*Ibid, p. 205
1’-"'Ibid. p. 218

16Ibid. p. 261

171nm. p. 433

15

takes longer in the A. puadrimaculatus than other parasites;1e
P. gallinapeum and P. fallax are transmitted much better by the
Aedes species.1’ The two most important protozoa in North
America are P. vivax and P. falciparum.

With regards to Michigan the P. vivax is of greater
importance than the P. falciparum because P. vivax can withstand
lower temperatures. Both of these plasmodia can be present in
the A. gupdrimaculatus depending on the temperature of the
environment.e° The northern parameter of malaria in Michigan
would then be that of the P. vivax because “the adult Anopheles
will survive higher and lower temperatures than the developmental
forms of the malaria parasite which infect this insect."=1 The
difference of warmer and cooler air is crucial to the protozoa.
In fact, the warmer the environment, the faster the sporogony can
occur within the gut of the female anopheline. Temperatures
below 15°C to 16°C are hostile to any form of malaria within the
mosquito.ea Below is a table revealing the relative lengths of
time that sporogony requires depending upon temperature of the E;

vivax:

 

18Ibid. p. 525. This plasmodium is the agent of "bird
malaria.”

19Ibid. p. 644
80Horsfall, pp. 154-5.

£21Stratman-Thomas, Warren K. ”The Influence of Temperature
on P. vivax" American Journal of Tropical Medicine, V. 20. p.
715.

BaPampano, Emilio 1969. Malaria Eradicption 2ed.
London:0xford University Press. p. 45.

16

 

Temperature in C° Whole Process duration in days
16 55
17 38.5
18 29
19 24.5
20 19
21 17
22 15
23 12.5
24 11
25 1O
26 9
27 8

 

This table was derived from Pampana’s table.E23 The figures in
this table were calculated by the method of Oganov-Rayevski,

1947. This table is illustrated graphically below.

.6
”1

 

15 v . . . . fl . - . T - .
S to t! 20 2! Jo 8 a I»! SO I! 00 DAYS
ununofwuqmwcfr.wh-nflulwuxevmhulnpumu(Mm
\MHOJ‘U‘J‘MI&INmL

 

As seen, the sporogony process takes varying amounts of time
in order to be accomplished. Since constant temperatures do not

occur in nature, these statistics are only rough estimators for

 

E331bid.’ p. “be

17
reality. Since Michigan is located at a relatively high latitude
malaria had a lower incidencea“ than in the warmer, lower
latitudes, with the completed sporogony cycle occurring in the
mid to late summer. The late summer in Michigan tends to be well
above the minimal 16°C (60.8°F). This means that all of Michigan
could support the sporogony process as far as temperature is
concerned. However, the northern lower peninsula and the upper
peninsula were unlikely locations for successful sporogony
because of their relative locations to the mean jet stream. Any
slightly anomalous shift would produce a hostile environment to

the parasite.

 

&“The form of malaria that existed in Michigan was also E;
vivax malaria which has less severe clinical manifestations than

P. falciparum malaria.

18

Chapter 4
Data Assembly

Researching malaria in Michigan is a formidable task because
it was not considered a disease, but rather a state of normality.
Every year with the onset of the summer heat, the inhabitants of
Michigan would begin to have periodic shakes and fevers. Until
Michigan State Board of Health was organized in 1870, no specific
form of medical data gathering existed. When the State Board of
Health was created, legislation was introduced which would make
reporting of diseases to the State Board of Health compulsory.29
This legislation now made the gathering of data mandatory. From
this point records were kept by the State.

Misdiagnoses also plague historical research in the area of

malaria. These misdiagnoses may either be the result of simple

 

PSAct No. 81, Section 2. states: "The State Board of Health
shall have the general supervision of the interests of the health
and life of the citizens of this State. They shall especially
study the vital statistics as this State, and endeavor to make
intelligent and profitable use of the collected records of deaths
and of sickness among the people; they shall make sanitary
investigations and inquiries respecting the causes of the
disease, and especially of epidemics; the causes of mortality,
and the effects of localities, employments, conditions, injestia,
habits and circumstances on the health of the people. They
shall, when required, or when they deem it best, advise officers
of the government, or other State boards, in regard to the
location, drainage, water supply, disposal of excreta, heating,
and ventilation of any public institution or building. They
shall from time to time recommend standard works on the subject
of hygiene for the use of the schools of the State. 1873 Laws of
Michigan.

19
error, or they could be the result of a lack of medical training.
The Supreme Court in Michigan during the 1860’s stated that "a
doctor was anyone calling himself such.“26 A common disease that
was both mistaken for malaria, and malaria for it, was typhoid.
In the First Annual Registration Report of Michigan in 1868, a
doctor wrote, "many Physicians , especially the young and the
ignorant, in order to magnify their own professional importance,
magnify the importance of the diseases which they treat, and they
are very prone to call any continued fever typhoid fever."37
This problem of distinguishing between typhoid and malaria was
compounded by the fact that both typhoid and malaria had fevers
with some degree of periodicity. The epidemiology of typhoid is
considerably different from malaria. "Typhoid bacillus is a
classic food- and water-borne pathogen. The major routes of
passage are by the five F’s: flies, fingers, food, feces, and
fomites. Salmonella typhi is extremely hardy and can survive for
extended periods in polluted waters, contaminated foods, and
soiled bed clothes.”ea Upon autopsy one also finds marked
similarities. Both diseases produce enlarged spleens and livers.

Both of these diseases were prevalent in Michigan during the
19th century. In an effort to separate these diseases this map

was produced.

 

SeAckerknecht, p. 11.

a7First Annupl Registration Rgport of Michigan, Lansing,
Michigan. 1868.

PPWygaarden and Smith, p. 1507.

20

Typhoid Deaths Malaria Deaths

2.4 - 11.5
04 - 2,4
0

4' Malaria and Typhoid
In Michigan: 1870

  
       
  
   

III
III
. Ill

0 t‘ s
a", "i."
\- S

b.

MALARIA

Scaled counties TYPHOID
milect population.
0 .

Unshaded Counties are unorganized

Men: N'nm U seem»:
W Viral Sumo. um

 

 

Not only does this map reveal information about typhoid and
malaria mortality, it also indicates population by county by
implementing the cartogram which increases the size
proportionately with the different population of each county.
The northern counties were exaggerated in order that they not be

“swallowed up" or perhaps vanish into the ground of the map.

21
These counties in the north of Michigan most likely were
populated even though the census recorded no one.

Upon examination, one county -- Lapeer —- immediately
appears anomalous. Lapeer county is found in the "thumb” area of
the lower peninsula. Lapeer is shaded light greenish blue as
opposed to the "brown“ counties that surround it. The lower
incidence of typhoid deaths may indicate a doctor or doctors of a
more professional nature; doctors who could discern between the
two diseases. This does not imply, however, that the anomaly is
correct. It is the opinion of this author, that both malaria and
typhoid were ubiquitous in Michigan during the last century;
although malaria was not as deadly as typhoid. Ground water
contamination was more likely to be the rule than the exception
because of a lack of knowledge concerning the proximity of the
.privy to the well.

It seems likely, then, that the southern three tiers of Michigan
counties should be equally malarial and typhoidal. Therefore,
these three tiers of counties should not vary from the top right
corner of hues on the color grid. The fact that there are
counties that do vary from these three colors suggests that

diagnostic error was great.

22

Chapter 5
The Physiography of Michigan

The last episode of glaciation receded from the two
peninsulas of Michigan over 10,000 years ago. Today this land is
covered primarily with unconsolidated glacial debris that has
been distributed in a ground moraine with a gentle undulating
surface. The lack of gradient, especially noticeable on the
lower peninsula, has left the landscape with poor drainage.
Swamps, ponds and lakes are common in the lower peninsula, making
favorable breeding grounds for the mosquito.

The drainage basins of the lower peninsula of Michigan are
central to this paper for two reasons: the rivers provided forms
of transportation and they tend to follow the lowlands, which are
naturally more prone to swamps. Ackerknecht refers to this in
his book Malaria and the Upper Mississippi Valley: "In the
wooded country of Western Missouri in the valley of the Missouri
River malaria was plentiful during the late sixties and early
seventies. Nearly everybody along the river bottoms suffered
from it, but the hill country was spared..."89 The river areas
were more malarious than the hill country in between.

Aside from the prevailing westerlies that pick up moisture
from Lake Michigan, the majority of the available moisture is

advected into this area from the Gulf of Mexico and even from the

 

mwAckerknecht, p. 34.

23

Pacific Ocean. Michigan lies in a "battle zone" between the cool
dry air from Canada, and the warm moist air from the south.
Ackerknecht noted that "The wet years of 1849-51 in Iowa were
followed by terrible out breaks of malaria."99 It appears that
the incidence values are correlated strongly with the amount of
precipitation that an area receives. This also held true for
Michigan. "Because of the abundance of rain, the marshes were
full of water, and in June people began to come down with the
ague, chills and fever until there were hardly any well people
enough to take care of the sick.“,1

Vegetation has long been known to be a habitat for
mosquitoes, but even earlier governing bodies recognized a
correlation between vegetation and disease. During the 17th
century, "The legislators [of the Carolinas observed that
”vegetation and malaria flourished together." Therefore, it was
decried that bushes, stumps, young pines and weeds were to be
removed from the communities."32

It seems that Michigan, then, is an ideal location for the
Anopheles mosquito. "As far back as record extends mosquitoes
were pestiferous. In an expedition to Detroit [1793] by Lindley

Moore and Paxon, it is recorded: "Last night the musquetoes

 

‘E’C’lbid. , p. 39.

P‘Burr, C.B. 1930. flgdical History of Michigan. 2 vols.
Minneapolis. p. 685.

3‘EChilds, p. 228.

24

[sic] exceeded anything of the kind I have ever
experienced...""93

The settlers were constantly under attack by the Anopheles
as remarked in the Mgdicpl,Hi§torv of Michigan: "The pioneers
built "smudges" to drive away the mosquitoes, and swatted them
while they "murdered sleep." Mosquito bars were hung over the
beds of a few of the wealthy ones -- that is to say, those whose
property was free from mortgage and whose superannuated teapot
contained a number of jingling coins -- but window screens were
unknown. In the daytime food on the table was protected by
covering with a wire woven contraption. Flies ruled by day and

anopheles (sic) by night."3“

 

agBurr, p. 692.

3"Burr, p. 691.

25

Chapter 6
The Spread of Malaria to Michigan

Four plausible routes of the spread of malaria to Michigan
will be considered here: malaria as an endemic disease familiar
to Michigan, the slave trade, a route by which the disease
originated in Africa and then spread to North America, the French
and the English as the purveyors of malaria, and the spread of
malaria within the continent.

The first systematic enquiry regarding malaria, would be to
consider whether malaria was endemic; not only in Michigan, but
in North America in general. If the disease were endemic in one
part of the land, then certain Anopheles habitats would be
infected. From the first accounts of visits by Europeans to the
North American shores, malaria is not mentioned. Ackerknecht
maintains that the Indians -- the indigenous population -— were
not infected. "It is likely that the Indians were not malarious
because an "expedition like the one of DeSoto in 1541, would have
been quickly destroyed...""35 After the arrival of the
Europeans some noticed that the Indians also suffered from
malaria. "Mrs. Dr. L. W. Lovell of Climax informs me that she
has seen an Indian have the ague which shook him as it did the

white man.""99

 

93Ackerknecht, p. 59.

aé’BUT'T' ’ p e 6820

26
The generally accepted theory concerning the origin of

malaria is that it arrived with the slave trade. The taking of
slaves by Europeans began in 1434 when "Antonio Gonzales, a
Portuguese captain, landed on this coast [Guinea], and carried
away with him some negro boys, whom he sold to one or two Moorish
families in the south of Spain."37 The slave trade on the North
American continent started in 1620; about the same time that the
pilgrims landed at Plymouth, when a Dutch vessel brought slaves
to Jamestown, Virginia.39 Africa, the home of the slaves sold in
North America, has long been known to be malarious. The west
coast of Africa was named "the white mans grave." It only seems
natural to blame the arrival of malaria in North America on the
slave trade; after all, the highest incidence of malaria in the
seventeenth century appeared to be in the Carolinas. "In the
tobacco-growing colonies, Maryland, Virginia, and North Carolina,
slaves constituted a third part or more of the population. In
South Carolina, where rice was the principle produce, they were
still more numerous, decidedly outnumbering the [white]
inhabitants.”39 By 1715 the ratio of black slaves to the white

population was as follows:

 

37Blake, W. D. 1861. The History of Slavery pnd thpySlave
Igppg, Columbus, Ohio. p. 95.

PPIbid., p. 370.

erIpid., p. 381.

27

Whites Negroes
New Hampshire 9,500 150
Massachusetts " 94,000 2,000
Rhode Island 8,500 500
Connecticut 46,000 1,500
New York 27,000 4,000
New Jersey 21,000 1,500
Pennsylvania and Del. 43,000 2,500
Maryland 40,700 9,500
Virginia 72,000 23,000
North Carolina 7,500 3,700
South Carolina 6,250 10,500“°

Although the South claimed the largest share of the slave
population, ample slaves also lived in the North. These people
could have easily infected the anopheline population, thereby
starting a malaria epidemic.

African slaves were not the only origins of malaria in North
America. Malaria also existed in Western Europe. As the
Europeans began to settle on the North American shores they
brought with them chronic ailments that were common to their
homelands.

The French began exploring the inland waters for an
alternate route to the Orient in the early 1600’s. Although this
group of men was largely transitory, a few forts and towns were
established. The French community with the greatest impact was
Detroit which was built by Cadillac above the Detroit River in
1701. It is quite probable that the French brought malaria to
Michigan because the lands were considered very malarious at the
close of the eighteenth century. "When General Wayne reached

Detroit, he was suffering from a malarial fever which he had

 

‘*"’Ibid. p. 378.

28
contracted during his journey. The western territory was
notorious for its fevers and agues and Detroit did not escape
their ravages."‘*1

Warshaw points out that certain groups of colonists were
malarious and others were not. The role of the European in
bringing malaria to the New World is neatly demonstrated by the
experiences of the English settlers in Virginia. The first
colonists, sent out by Sir Walter Raleigh, made their
headquarters on Roanoke Island and spent almost a whole year
exploring the adjacent mainland. These colonists were recruited
from Raleigh’s native country of Devon, a part of England then
free of malaria. As a result, these men remained relatively
healthy throughout their stay in what was subsequently proven to
be rather ideal territory for the development of malaria.

The experience of the Jamestown colony,

established some twenty-two years later, was strikingly

different. These settlers, largely recruited from

London, then a focus of malaria, arrived at Jamestown

on May 13, 1607. Until the beginning of July, all of

the 105 colonists enjoyed good health. Suddenly, an

epidemic of ague broke out which progressed so rapidly
that only a handful remained on their feet and by

September,almost half of the settlers had died. From

that time on the presence of malaria gave Jamestown the

reputation of being an unhealthy place and it was

largely responsible for the removal of the capitol from

Jamestown to Williamsburg in 1699."2

This example illustrates that colonists from Devon were spared

from malaria when they arrived at the New World, while their

 

“lBald, F. Clever General Wayne visits Detroit Michigan
History Magazine 26:4 p. 445.

“aWarshaw, Leon J. 1949. Malaria. TthBiOQEéDhY of p
Killer. New York. p. 26.

29
London counterparts were plagued by malaria in Jamestown, all
because their particular homelands were either malaria-free or
malarious. By moving the capitol to Williamsburg, the colonists
were leaving the swampy tidal flats of Jamestown behind and
moving inland. This does not mean that an Anopheles population
did not exist around Williamsburg. The inhabitants probably
continued to suffer, but less than in Jamestown. The colonists
were probably infected with P. vivax malaria which would cause
less severe outbreaks in the following three or four years;
assuming no great influx of new non-immunes. Faust concurs when
he writes that "It is entirely probable that some of the British
explorers and settlers suffered from malaria, since the disease
was at that time endemic in the Fen counties...”“9 Since
malaria likely also arrived with the British (see above, Devon
and London as sources), it stands to reason that all of the
British settlements along the eastern coasts of North America
would be malarious; provided that the Anopheles mosquito also
existed in those areas. This being the case, New England would
also be prone to malaria attacks. "Although the colder climate
made it more difficult for malaria to take a foothold, New
England was not spared. The early history of the Massachusetts

colonies contains descriptions of disastrous epidemics."““

 

“PFaust, Ernest C. 1945. Clinical and public health aspects
of malaria in the United States from an historical perspective.
Am. Jour. Trop. Med. 25:185—201. p. 185.

““Warshaw, pg. 27.

30

E. C. Faust provides a possible theory as to the diffusion
of malaria in North America:

Even before the Federal Government had been established

pioneers began a westward trek for new land and by the

beginning of the nineteenth century this migration had
measurably increased. In this way malaria was carried

up the river valleys of the Atlantic coast, across the

Appalachian divide into Western New York and

Pennsylvania and into the Ohio river valley.

From the more southern Atlantic Coast States it

was spread into Kentucky, Tennessee, Alabama,

Mississippi, Arkansas and northern Louisiana.

Meanwhile, French settlers brought malaria directly to

Mobile, New Orleans and Natchez, while Spanish

immigrants from Mexico and other countries to the south

introduced the disease into Texas and the Gulf Coast.“9
Faust does not discuss how the malaria in the south may have
spread northward to fortify the already existent malaria in New
England.

New England is a crucial area in regards to the settling of
Michigan. As the Erie Canal opened, coupled with the
establishment of steam ship lines on Lake Erie, many New
Englanders left the rocky soils of the northeast for optimistic
futures in Michigan. Michigan was the most popular destination

for the emigrant in the 1830’s.“9 This verse, titled "Emigrant’s

Song" describes this interest in Michigan:

 

“SFBUSt, E. Ce p. 186-

“eDunbar, Willis F. 1980. Michigan. Grand Rapids:Eerdmans
Pub. Co. p. 194.

31

Come all ye Yankee Farmers,
Who’d like to change your lot,
Who’ve spunk enough to travel
Beyond your native spot,

And leave behind the village
Where Pa’ and Ma’ do stay,
Come follow me and settle

In Michigania.

What country ever growed up
So great in little time,

Just popping from the nurs’ry
Right into like its prime;
When Uncle Sam did wean her,
’Twas but the other day,

And now she’s quite a Lady,
This Michigania.

Then come ye Yankee Farmers,
Who’ve mettle hearts like me,
And elbow-grease in plenty,
To bow the forest tree;

Come take a ”Quarter Section,"
And I’ll be bound you say,

This country takes the rag off,
This Michigania.“7

It thus appears, then, that malaria was not found in North
America prior to the coming of the Europeans. It would be
impossible to limit the route of malaria from one specific land
to North America because most of the colonists and explorers
including the French and the Spanish were from malarious lands.
The Spanish played a minor role in comparison to the British, and
perhaps the French with regards to Detroit and French Town, in
that they were not interested in settling the land, but rather

were interested in the exploitation of this New World.

 

“7Dunbar, p. 193. This verse originally appeared in a
Detroit paper in 1831

32

Chapter 7
Malaria in Michigan

Before the white man arrived on these shores, Michigan was
occupied by the Chippewa, the Ottawa, the Huron and the
Potawatomi. The French were the first Europeans to set foot on
Michigan soil.when Brule stopped in the area that is now Sault
Ste. Marie in 1620. Three settlements existed in Michigan into
the 19th century. During these years the French, the British and
the Americans fought for control with the Americans winning the
lands through the Jay treaty of 1796 and later through the treaty
of Ghent at the close of the War of 1812 in the year 1815.

As discussed above, it was unlikely that malaria existed in
Michigan prior to the coming of the white man. Records
concerning malaria in Michigan begin around the turn of the
nineteenth century. This does not mean though, that malaria did
not exist in Michigan before that time. Cadillac established the
community of Detroit on a high spot above the Detroit River in
1701. It is likely that malaria existed there because, as we
have seen, the French most likely brought the initial malaria to
this region. Morse’s Geography of 1805 states, "The prevailing
diseases of the lower part of the Ohio, on the Mississippi and
through the Floridas are bilious fevers. In some seasons they
are mild, and are little more than common intermittants; in

others they are highly malignant and approach the genuine yellow

33
fever of the West Indies."“9 As has been shown above, malaria
was also well entrenched in Michigan at this time.

Although Michigan did not enter statehood until 1837, the
American period of Michigan’s history began with the Treaty of
Ghent in 1815. The American period is the focus of this paper.
During that time the incidence of malaria steadily rose until the
1870’s and '80’s and the health records and medical understanding
were constantly being improved. The Americans, whether or not
they were to blame for bringing malaria to Michigan, inherited
the most malarious period.

Following the Black Hawk War of 1832, Michigan enjoyed a a
great boom in population. Ships were built to meet the demand
for ferrying the emigrants to the state. Detroit became the
"dropping off point for the new settlers who were entering the
region. "No other town in Michigan approached Detroit in size or
importance. In fact, it was the only incorporated city in
Michigan when the state was admitted to the Union in 1837.

The bulk of the emigrants who came to Michigan arrived first
in Detroit where they purchased horses, a wagon and whatever else
they needed before leaving for the frontier. These pioneers
would have traveled by one of the existing roads: the Chicago
Road, the Territorial Road or the Grand River Road. These three
roads were laid in the first three tiers of Michigan’s

counties.“9 Fifteen villages sprang up along these roads and

 

MBAckerknecht, p. 16.

“TDunbar, pp. 191-5.

34
were incorporated by 1837: Monroe (1827), Ypsilanti (1832), Ann
Arbor(1833), Niles, Adrian, Pontiac, St. Joseph, Tecumseh,
Centreville, Constantine, White Pigeon, New Buffalo, Marshall,
Mount Clemens, and Coldwater."=50

This ingredient of incoming non-immunes combined with high
annual precipitation totals sets the stage for malaria epidemics.
In 1836 there was a great surge of emigrants which was noted in
the Medical Higtoronf Michigan: "Of the "great immigration of
1836" a settler in Van Buren County remarked, ”I’ve known the
time when the rush at Dodge’s was so great and the demand for
lodging so pressing that travelers offered as high as a dollar
for the privilege of leaning against a post."91 The large
amounts of flying insects as recorded here was perhaps indicative
of large rainfall amounts which created a larger vector habitat
during the period following the large emigration: [1837]""flies,
gnats-and mosquitoes" were so numerous that the sky was
completely darkened."9a The following year marked one of the
worse malaria outbreaks ever in Michigan. In Palmyra, Michigan
in the fall of 1838 a settler remarks: "I do not exaggerate when
I say with us there were three sick persons to every well one.”53

Michigan’s vegetation patterns changed considerably because

of the logging industry. As the forests were depleted and

 

”QDunbar, p. 211.
=51Burr, p. 119.
malbide’ p. 123.

{TKBIbide’ p. 6850

35
primary and secondary growth of underbrush and aspens had taken
over, the habitat for the mosquito was greatly enhanced. Many
areas that were once considered low lands had suddenly become wet
lands. As these wet lands were produced the incidence for
malaria increased. The logging industry also provided a greater
population that could come into contact with the Anopheles
habitat. The woods and malaria have long been correlated: "In
the wooded country of Western Missouri in the valley of the
Missouri River malaria was plentiful during the late sixties and
early seventies. Nearly everybody along the river bottoms
suffered from it, but the hill country was spared... malaria
began to diminish in a marked degree in the late seventies."9“
Before the Civil War malaria was beginning to stabilize in the
Upper Mississippi Valley, but the war brought higher incidence
back into the area. “The wholesale movement of populations
brought about by the war, the necessity of bringing thousands of
susceptible soldiers of both sides into malarious regions, and
the great hardship and devastation consequent to the military
campaigns were conditions conducive to an explosive epidemic."99
Around 1870, malaria reached it’s high watermark. Immediately
following 1870 malaria sharply declined as can be seen in this

graph below.

 

P“Ackerknecht, p. 34.

fimWarshaw, p. 31.

Malaria Mortalit in Michigan

MmMmm mun

 

on:
em.-
more-
@0171
o0104

.9
00C!
.64.-
M00
1J1

0000
O. Q
099

ooooooopp
a LLllLlllJlil

\JCO"-'N ’

Percent at Population
888

 

  

8888

     

 

   

 

T T Y T Y 7 7
70 1073 two 1”: 1W0 1m 1500 1903 19110 1913

Yeore

The decine of malaria in Michigan. Source: Michigan
Vital Statistics 1871-1916

In the next section the many reasons for this decline will be

discussed.

37

Chapter 8
Conclusions: the decline of malaria in Michigan

The study of the decline of malaria in Michigan has been a
complex problem because it happened before the plasmodia had
actually been discovered. Before the discussing the factors that
led to the disappearance of malaria, we should remember again the

factors that made this area malarious. These are:

1) the existence of the plasmodium
2) an existing anopheline population
3) a suitable human population.

Since the eradication of malaria can be on any of these three
fronts, many possibilities that might affect the decline are
possible.

Ackerknecht cites twelve reasons for this decline:

1) population movement

2) railroad, steamship and steam regulation
3) clearing, cultivation and drainage

4) prosperity

5) housing

6) screening

7) education

8) food

9) cattle breeding

10) mosquitoes

11) quinine
12) weather and climate59

It is conceivable that some of these factors may not apply to
Michigan. Ackerknecht’s decline factors will therefore be
individually examined in the light of the Michigan situation.

Other possibilities with respect to Michigan might be:

 

PbAckerknecht, pg. 65

38

1) forest fire
2) the State Board of Health
3) urbanization

Malaria is a disease of a region that must be dealt with in a
epidemiological or social manner along with the clinical
approach, in order that it be handled satisfactorily. These

individual notions are dealt with below.

Populption Movement

This is, perhaps, the most important aspect in regards to
the decline of malaria. As the population increased so did the
total number of malaria cases. As the population movement
decreased so fell the total number malaria cases. Malaria
epidemics are fueled by bringing large nonimmune populations into
malarious areas.”7 When the population movement decreases, so do
the morbidity and mortality rates.

Dunbar noted that between 1830 and 1837 that Michigan was
the most popular destination of those moving westward.

The boom peaked in 1836, when sales of approximately

one-ninth of Michigan’s total land area -- 4,189,823 --

acres brought in $5,241,228,70, more than a fifth of
the total receipts for the entire country.99

By the 1870’s the number of emigrants arriving in the state

had diminished remarkably.

 

”VWyngaarden and Smith, P- 1719'

”mDunbar, p. 193.

39

The auto industry blossomed around the turn of the twentieth
century as a result of the acquired capital from the logging
industry. Henry Ford’s innovations in production required a
large population of unskilled laborers. This new form of labor
did lead many new people into Michigan, but they settled in the
urban areas rather than in the country. This phenomenon not only
protected these new people from the malarious areas, it also
served to reduce the habitat of the Anopheles mosquito by

building urban areas where wet lands once existed.

Epilropd, steamship 9nd steam regulation

Ackerknecht destinguishes between population movement and
the modes of transportation that provided the masses with the
means of reaching different regions. Improved transportation
technology resulted in a greater number of nonimmunes arriving in
malarious areas.

As far as Michigan is concerned the railroad served to open
up the state for logging in the remote areas. The railroad also
provided transportation between all of the larger metropolitan
areas within the southern part of the state. With the aid of the-
railroad, the small towns were able to grow economically as well
as in population. The steamships that brought multitudes of
nonimmunes into Michigan resulting in the malaria epidemics of
the 1830’s began to have less of an appeal for the traveler as

the railroad linked the state with Ohio and points beyond.

40

Clearing, cultivption and drainage and the decrease of the vector

 

The clearing of the land brought about an initial rise in
morbidity and mortality in Michigan. As the primal forest was
depleted, undergrowth was then permitted to grow which turned out
to be a more favorable habitat for the mosquito. As the
agricultural industry blossomed in the state much of this
undergrowth was also cleared away. In 1871 Dr. Lathrop noticed
that "the disappearance of malaria is due to the cultivtion of
lands around the city."9° Along with the depletion of the
undergrowth, drainage of wetlands curbed the habitat of the
Anopheles. This was probably one of the most important factors
leading to the decline and eradication of malaria in Michigan. A
Dr. Wilson of Flint, Michigan, in a letter to Dr. Kedzie, wrote
in April 1874, ”that in all cases [drainage] modifies malarial
diseases and diminishes the number of cases, and to a great
extent prevents their occurrence. Drainage in this country has
reduced malarial fever fifty per cent and has improved the
general health to the same extent.“~’O Although malaria was
misdiagnosed and totally misunderstood, the physicians of the day
realized that a relationship between flooded lands and malarial

fevers, along with the general well-being, existed.

 

“”Michigan History Magazine, Vol. 25, No. 1, p. 61.

““Lyster, Henry F. 1875. Draining for Health Second Annual
Report of the Secretary of the State Board of Health 1875. p. 51.

41

Prosperity, houeing end screening

The logging industry brought a great deal of capital into
Michigan. As the wealth increased, the living standards also
improved. The old log cabins, which were nearly always in a
state of disrepairbl, were replaced by more permanent dwellings
made of clap board. The old log homes provided the settlers with
a lower standard of living than the homes that the logging
industry would facilitate. The log cabins were also economic
indicators with far reaching ramifications: “Low standards of
living mean that health and education services are poorly
developed and inadequate; under-nutrition and malnutrition cause
debility and increase susceptibility to disease."99

As Michigan was plagued by myriads of flying insects,
screens were seen as a godsend because they offered relief from
the pests of the outdoors. Fresh air had long been thought to be
very healthy. In a paper delivered in Kalamazoo, Michigan at the
Sanitary Convention on 1 & 2 June 1886, Victor Vaughn stated:
”Every room should have direct sunlight and not be dependent upon
that which is diffused through another room. The windows should
extend well towards the ceiling and be hung so as to lower from
the top as well as raise from the bottom in such a manner that

they are easily opened. In no part of the house should they be

 

A‘Drake, D. 1854. A Systematic Treatise on the Principal
Diseases of the Interior Valleygof North Americe. Vol. 1
Cincinnati, 1850, vol. 2, Cincinnati. p. 681.

*flProthero, R. Mansell 1965. Migrants and Malaria,
London:Longmans. p. 123.

42
kept closed during the day."99 Having the windows open during
the day would most likely mean that man coexisted with many
insects inside of his house all of the time. Screening is
especially important because it prohibits the mosquito from
taking blood meals from sleeping victims. This is when the
victims are especially prone and the mosquitoes most active.
During the daytime one can stay relatively free of mosquito
bites.

Screening windows, unfortunately, was not widespread until
the second, or perhaps the third decade of the 20th century.
This does not mean that the idea for screens did not exist
earlier. "There is evidence that wire screens were manufactured
in this country as early as 1817 probably by a tedious hand
weaving process."9“ These screens were not, however, used for
screening windows. “The first recorded sale of wire cloth for
window screens was made to Johnson and Brother, Washington D.C.
on 30 January 1861."93 Production of window screens would not
begin for another twelve years: "In 1873, Wickwire Brothers,
Inc. of Cortland New York converted a carpet loom to wire

weaving, and finally succeeded in the production of woven wire

 

eRVaughn, Victor C. Healthy Homes. A paper delivered at the
13th Sanitary Convention in Kalamazoo in 1886. p. 38.

““Boyd, Mark F. ed. 1949. Malefioloqy. Philadelphia:W.B.
Saunders Co. p. 1186.

“SIDiU. p. 1186.

43
cloth suitable for window screens."99 Even though window screens
were available and even utilized, many used the screens
improperly or allowed the screens to fall into disrepair. "In a
survey in the 1930’s covering typical counties in 46 states, no
screens were reported for 26.8 per cent of all farm houses; and
they were reported as poor for an additional 20.0 per cent, and
as just fair in the case of 21.8 per cent more."97 Screening,
although an effective and logical approach to the relief of
malaria -— even daily relief from mosquitoes, can not be
associated with the withdrawal of malaria from the state.
Adequate and thorough screening occurred well after the decline

of the disease had begun.

Educetionyend the State Board of Heelth

In 1873, the Michigan State Board of Health was organized in
an attempt to thwart many of the health problems in the state.
As medical knowledge increased, the people became familiar with
the correlation between poor sanitation and the higher prevalence
of disease. As noted above, the duties of the State Board of
Health included the reporting of diseases; especially epidemics.
Malaria was most likely a disease that was missed because E;

vivax malaria is rarely fatal but very common. The State Board

 

én‘fJIbid. p. 1186-

vaott, Frederick D. and Roemer, Milton 1. 1948. Rural
Health end Medicel Care 1st ed. McGraw-Hill, New York. p. 271.

44
of Health was, and is only as effective as its knowledge base.
Ventilation in living quarters, for example, was thought of as a
healthful practice, but open windows mean easy prey for
mosquitoes —- especially at night. The State Board of Health
made great inroads in the area of drainage of wetlands as

discussed above.

gettle,8:eedinogend the mosguito
Very little is mentioned about cattle during the settling of
Michigan in the pioneer accounts. It seems likely that most
farmers owned a cow —- more for dairy purposes than meat -- along
with other livestock. Cattle are discussed briefly in this small
quote about Detroit in the 18th century: "Agriculture was
carried on profitably, and supplies were exported quite early
from that settlement, consisting of corn and wheat, and possibly
beans and peas. Cattle, horses and swine were raised in
considerable numbers, but salt was so expensive that very little,
if any, meat was salted for sale.”99 Cows were also thought of
as an economic indicator: James Birney "was a third owner in the
former Saginaw Bay company’s lands and his enlightened policy and

liberal dealings with early purchasers did much toward starting

the growth of the town on a solid basis, and his importation of

 

eWMichigan Pioneer Collection, Vol. 2, p. 102.

45
blooded stock was a great benefit in improving the breed of
cattle..."99

Although Texas and the West were famous for their cattle
drives, Michigan also had a few drives. "In 1831, Mr. Sutton
brought from Ohio a large drove of cows and oxen to sell to the
new comers who settled in this neighborhood [Plymouth Corners...
near Ann Arbor]. In 1832 and 1833 of each year, he drove herds
of cattle from the Sangamon valley, in Illinois, for this
market..."

As the cattle herds increased in Michigan, the mosquitoes
possibly changed their feeding habits from man to the easier
victim. Mosquitoes have been known to suddenly change feeding

habits, of which this might be an example.7°

Ouinine

Quinine is derived from the bark of a tree and has been
referred to as "peruvian bark" or "Jesuite’s bark." Ouinine has
been used for, centuries in the treatment of malarial symptoms.
"Empirical treatment of malaria with extracts of the cinchona
tree (indigenous in certain regions of South America) probably
dates back several centuries, although the first written record

of its use appeared in 1633. In 1820 Pelltier and Caventou

 

9”“Michigan Pioneer and Historical Collection" Vol. 18,
1891. p. 437.3

V”Ribbands, p. 237.

46
isolated quinine as one of the active alkaloids in the crude
extracts, and the use of quinine became widespread thereafter."'71

”Quinine does not avoid (sic) infection; quinine does not
sterilize (sic) the carrier. Ouinine, therefore, can not have a
direct effect on the eradication of malaria from a community.
Whoever tries to link quinine directly with the disappearance of
malaria because quinine is the most direct antimalarial measure
is pleading a lost cause."78 This does not mean that quinine did
not help in the eradication of malaria in an indirect way. The
lands that were malarious may never have been opened up to
settlement had it not been for this form of treatment. Upon the
opening of these lands, the lands were deforested, cleared and
drained. Cities began to spring up which, in turn, pushed the
malaria endemic areas back and out. This topic will be covered
later.

Faust believed that the drop in price of quinine from $4.50
to $.25 per ounce in 1913 also contributed to the decrease in
clinical malaria and malaria mortality because this new price

brought quinine within the reach of the common folk.79

T‘Wyler, David J. 1984. The Ascent and Decline of
Chloroquinine. JAMA, May 11, 1984. 251:18. p. 2420.

VmAckerknecht, PP- 189-127'

TBFaust, p. 189

47
Forest fipeg

The notion of forest fires as an agent contributing to the
decline of malaria in Michigan is weak at best because the
killing frosts of Autumn would accomplish the same results as a
cauterizing fire. Since the fires destroyed such great areas
including forests, towns and villages, a great deal of the
mosquito’s natural habitat was destroyed.

The first major fire in Michigan was the fire that began on
the west coast of Michigan and spread all the way across the
state on October 8, 1871. This was the very same day of the
Great Chicago Fire and the Peshtigo Fire in Wisconsin. The
summer had been excessively dry and the swamps were all but dried
up. Over two million acres were burned in that fire. Almost
exactly ten years later another fire broke out burning only about
half of the acreage, however this fire was far more deadly since
it burned through the small towns in the “Thumb.” Many people of
White Rock literally fled into Lake Huron in order to survive the
blaze.7“

The effect of these fires on the decline of malaria could
only be indirect. Older homes that offered little protection
from the mosquitoes were destroyed in the wake of this disaster
(along with the good homes...). The dry summers of 1871 and ’81
probably aided this malaria decline more than the fires

themselves.

 

MHolbrook, Stewart H. 1944. Burning en Empine. pp. 95 “107-

48

Urbanization

_:

 

As many of the cities in Michigan grew, a decrease in
malaria incidence could be expected because the natural habitat
of the mosquito would be decreased. With the onset of the
automobile industry in the early twentieth century -- a result of
the capital that was produced by the logging industry and the
abundance of nearby mineral wealth —- urbanization boomed because
of the need for many nonskilled laborers. Rather than spark
another wide spread epidemic, this influx of workers created
larger metropolitan areas that pushed the countryside and the
Anopheles habitat back. This would produce a decrease in the
anopheline habitat. Ribbands concurs with this point. "No
evidence has yet been adduced to show that the number of human
hosts is normally an important limiting factor in the
determination of the size of an anopheline population, and it may
be supposed that the total number of anophelines will be more
closely related to the capacity of their breeding places than to
the number of their human hosts. This factor will help to

decrease the malaria risk in crowded communities.”'7’5

 

VWRibbands, C.R. 1949. Studies on the attractiveness of
human populations to anopholines. Bull. Ent. Res. 40: 227-238.
p. 236.

49

Chapter 9
Closing Remarks

I have combined many of these reasons for the decline of
malaria because I feel that they are so interrelated that they
can not be separated. Since malaria was on the decline well
before knowledge of the plasmodia/anophelines was disseminated, I
believe that all of these factors were important. Perhaps
others, yet to be discovered, also played important roles.

Probably the most important conclusion concerns the route by
which malaria came to the Michigan peninsulas. Although the
North American malaria stronghold was in the south because of the
slaves who were brought from the west coast of Africa, direct
infection of Michigan from this region was unlikely. It has been
pointed out that malaria was also endemic in parts of Europe and
England during this period of settlement in North America.
Malaria was also evident in the New England settlements during
the 17th, 18th and 19th centuries. As land became more crowded
and the stories of western lands circulated, many New Englanders
settled in western New York. From there many went on to
Michigan. This is not to say that the trade between the seaboard
colonies could not have spread malaria from the southern
settlements. Very little trade existed, however, between
Michigan and the southern settlements because of the existing

transportation routes were east-west rather than south—north.

50
Boyd et al. suggest that malaria and agriculture are
negatively correlated.79 Most likely, when man has reshaped the
landscape; be it for agriculture or municipality, malaria has
declined. Whether drainage of the land for increased arable
area, or the growth of towns, the result, as far as the mosquito
habitat is concerned, the same; the mosquito habitat is reduced

in size or eliminated.

 

VtBoyd, (Malariology) p. 7.

51

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