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This is to certify that the

thesis entitled

THE DEVELOPMENT AND EVALUATION
OF A PROTECTIVE GARMENT
FOR LAWN CARE SPECIALISTS

presented by
Sharleen Leslie Gay

has been accepted towards fulfillment
of the requirements for

M.A. degree in Clothing and Textiles

Major professor

 

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0-7639 MS U is an Affirmative Action/Equal Opportunity Institution

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DATE DUE DATE DUE

DATE DUE

 

THE DEVELOPMENT AND EVALUATION OF A PROTECTIVE GARMENT
FOR LAWN CARE SPECIALISTS

By

Sharleen Leslie Gay

A THESIS
Submitted to
Michigan State University
in partial fufillment of the requirements
for the degree of

MASTER OF ARTS

Department of Human Environment and Design

1986

‘-

 

4’00 {3622.

ABSTRACT

THE DEVELOPMENT AND EVALUATION OF A PROTECTIVE GARMENT
FOR LAWN CARE SPECIALISTS

by

Sharleen Leslie Gay

The purpose of this study was to develop and test protective
clothing for lawn specialists.

The development of the protective garment involved identifying
design criteria, experimentation with construction variables,
presentation of sketches of protective garments to the client, and
construction of the selected prototype for field testing. Design
criteria were identified through a review of the clothing and pesticide
research literature and analysis of video tapes of the lawn care
specialists at work. Three sketches and two prototype garments were
developed and submitted with synthesis of observations to company
officials who made the final selection. Six sets of the chosen design
were constructed for field testing.

Biomonitoring of six lawn care specialists was used to measure the
effectiveness of the regular uniform and the protective garment as a
barrier to pesticide under normal work conditions. Significantly less

pesticide was absorbed while wearing the protective garment.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I would like to thank the corporations involved for their financial
support; TruGreen, for the use of their equipment and for the
participants, and The Dow Chemical Company for the analysis of data.

I wish to express my sincere appreciation to Dr. Ann C. Slocum for
the invaluable guidance she gave me throughout my graduate program and
for opening up this new area to me.

I would also like to extend sincere thanks to Ms. Stephania
Winkler, Dr. Sally Helvenston, and Ms. Gretel Geist for their
encouragement and enthusiastic response to changes in my program while
serving on my graduate committee.

Lastly, I wish to express very special thanks to my sister Shari,
her husband Elden, and to my parents for their constant love and support

in all of my endeavors.

1'1

I .f'

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page
LIST OF TABLES ............................................... v
LIST OF FIGURES .............................................. vi
Chapter
I. INTRODUCTION .......................................... 1
Statement of the Problem ............................ 4
Objectives ....................................... 4
Hypotheses ....................................... 5
Definition of terms .............................. 5
Limitations ...................................... 6
Conceptual Framework ................................ 6
Components ....................................... 6
Process .......................................... 9
II. REVIEW OF LITERATURE .................................. 12
Fabric Criteria ..................................... 12
Textile soiling .................................. 13
Aesthetic considerations ......................... 15
Thermal comfort .................................. 15
Fibers, Fabrics, and finishes ....................... 16
Cotton ........................................... 16
Polyester ........................................ 20
Spunbonded olefin ................................ 21
Microporous film laminate ........................ 22
Polyvinyl alcohol ................................ 23
Polyvinyl chloride ............................... 23
Natural and synthetic rubbers .................... 23
Design Criteria ..................................... 25
Pesticide deposition ............................. 25
Liquid impact protection ......................... 26
Thermal comfort .................................. 27
Mobility ......................................... 29
Aesthetic considerations ......................... 29
Summary ............................................. 30
III. METHODOLOGY ............................................ 31
Development of the Protective Garment ............... 31
Selection of the Sample ............................. 32

iii

Description of the Measures .........................
Biomonitoring devices ............................
Wearer evaluation of the garment .................

Structure of the Study .............................

IV. FINDINGS AND ANALYSIS ................................

Objective One ......................................
Objective Two ......................................
Protection and mobility ..........................
Thermal comfort and aesthetics ...................
Design ideation ..................................
One-piece design .................................
Upper arm and lower leg alternatives .............
Two-piece design .................................
Objective Three ....................................
Objective Four .....................................
Questionnaire Responses ............................
Objective Five .....................................

V. SUMMARY AND DISCUSSION ...............................

Summary ............................................
Discussion .........................................
Limitations ......................................
Recommendations ..................................

APPENDICES ...................................................
A. AMPLIFICATION: CHOLINESTERASE AND 3,5,6-TCP ..........
B. FORMS USED DURING THE CONDUCT OF THE EXPERIMENT ......
C. QUESTIONNAIRE ADMINISTERED TO THE PARTICIPANTS .......
D. REGISTERED TRADEMARKS NAMED ..........................

BIBLIOGRAPHY .................................................

iv

LIST OF TABLES

Table Page
1. Pesticide absorption in selected anatomic regions ..... 26
2. Schedule of blood and urine collections ............... 35
3. Participant rating of protective pants ................ 58
4. Participant rating of protective shirts ............... 58
5. Participant rating of gloves .......................... 59
6. Micrograms of 3,5,6-TCP excreted when protective

clothing and normal clothing were worn ................ 61
7. Micrograms 3,5,6-TCP excreted per gallons sprayed ..... 63

LIST OF FIGURES
Figure Page

1. General human ecosystem model of the effects of
protective clothing on organophosphate absorption

in lawn care specialists .............................. 8
2. The functional design process ......................... 11
3. Clothing as a barrier to the environment .............. 12
4. Liquid pesticide drawn into the fiber or fabric

structure ............................................. I4
5. Gore-tex® as a barrier to liquids .................... 22
6. Typical uniform of lawn care professionals ............ 43
7. One-peice protective garment .......................... 45
8. Alternative upper body designs ........................ 47
9. Additional upper body designs ......................... 48
10. Alternative lower leg designs ......................... 50
11. Two piece design with chaps ........................... 51
12. Two-peice protective uniform used in this study ....... 53
13. Participant spraying lawn in the protective garment... 55
14. Participant reeling hose in the protective garment.... 55

15. Adjustment of cumulative urinary excretion of
3,5,6-TCP for the day preceeding the spray day ........ 61

vi

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

 

The use of pesticides has increased dramatically in recent years.
Because of this increase and the awareness of their potentially
adverse effects on humans and the environment, there has been a growing
concern about limiting the harmful effects pesticides can have on those
applying them.

Greater interest in the hazards of exposure has led to more research
in the area of preventative measures. One way to reduce exposure is to
wear specially designed protective clothing. Clothing is a viable and
less costly means of protection than the development of new application
equipment. The purpose of this research was to evaluate the
effectiveness of a protective garment in reducing bodily absorption of a
pesticide sprayed by lawn care specialists.

This research is part of a three phase study under the direction of
Dr. Ann C. Slocum, Department of Human Environment and Design, Michigan
State University, and was supported by The Dow Chemical Company, TruGreen
Corporation, and Benham Chemical Company. The researcher was a member of
the research team for the second and third phases of the project
involving the development and construction of the protective garment and
its evaluation. Specific duties of this researcher included designing,

sketching, drafting patterns, and supervision of the construction of the

2

garment along with involvement in all other areas of the study.

Pesticides are potentially dangerous to humans based on their expo-
sure and toxicity. Exposure is dependent on the method of application,
and the duration and frequency of use, while toxicity is dependent on the
chemical formulation and composition of the pesticide.

The method of application is important in determining where the
greatest amount of pesticide is deposited on the body. Although there
are a number of ways to apply pesticides, lawn care spraying is different
from many application methods in that it involves a very low application
(to the ground) as opposed to an overhead spraying of trees. A hand held
gun is attached to a hose that distributes insecticide from the holding
tank on the truck. The gun distributes the insecticide in a fine mist
form and allows the lawn care specialist to cover an area of turf six to
ten feet wide with a sweeping arm motion. The flexible equipment allows
application of the pesticide under low hanging trees and shrubs and
around obstacles. Generally, lawn care specialists walk into the spray,
pulling the hose behind them through the treated grass.

Lawn care specialists are exposed to chemicals on a regular and
daily basis during the five to ten month spraying season. Generally,
they work eight to ten hours per day, five days a week. The particular
chemical sprayed for each day is determined by the season of the year, a
lawn analysis of soil conditions, and the presence of weeds and pests for
that time of season.

In the past few years, shorter acting pesticides, of the organo-
phosphate family, (Freed, et al., 1980) have been among the chemicals
used in the lawn care industry. The organophosphate family has, on the

average, a somewhat greater toxicity than most other pesticide classes

3
(Wolfe, 1973). Organophosphates, when absorbed into the human body,
depress cholinesterase (ChE), an enzyme critical to the human nervous
system. Cholinesterase acts as a messenger to the transmitter substance
acetylcholine, which transmits nerve impulses between the nerve and the
muscle or gland it controls (see Appendix A). Extreme organophosphate
exposure to the point of poisoning may cause neurological inoperation
(Savage, et al., 1980). The high toxicity is accompanied by relative
ease in absorption (Freed, et al., 1980).

The American National Standards Institute has approved chlorpyrifos
as the common name for organophosphate insecticides containing
0,0-diethyl (3,5,6-trichloro-2-pyridinol) phosphorothioate. Chlorpyrifos
is used for many kinds of household and turf pests such as fleas, ants,
and cockroaches and is approved for use in flea collars and pet shampoos
(The Dow Chemical Company data sheet).

Because insecticides are usually sprayed in a fine mist form, the
human body can readily absorb them through a number of routes. Goodman
and Gilman (1965) include the gastrointestinal tract, the lungs, and the
mucous membranes. Dermal exposure, however, accounts for approximately
ninety-seven percent of the total body exposure and has been deemed the
most important route of entry when applying liquid spray (Wolfe, 1973).
The widely used anti-cholinesterase (ChE) compounds, of which
organophosphates are included, are highly lipid soluble liquids which
have vapor pressures at ordinary temperatures (Goodman, Gilman, 1965).
Because they are lipidphilic, they not only penetrate insect cuticle
easier, but also concentrate in the liver upon entering the human
body (Matthews, 1984).

As the use of pesticides continues to increase, comprehensive

4
protection is becoming of greater importance to the health of human
pesticide applicators. Research in the area of chemical pesticide expo—

sure must be supplemented to include studies of actual bodily aborption.

Statement of the Problem

 

The purpose of this research was to determine if one protective
garment significantly reduced the amount of chlorpyrifos absorbed into
the bodies of a selected group of lawn care specialists in comparison to
the standard uniform. Chlorpyrifos is the active ingredient in Dursban ®,
an organophosphate.

Although there has been increasing research in the area of
penetration of pesticides through fabric/clothing and decontamination
of clothing, research on the effect of clothing on actual bodily
absorption has been limited (Davies, et al., 1982). This study is unique
in that it is a field study, which may provide different information than
the previous lab studies of absorption (Maibach, et al., 1971) due to
environmental factors.

Objectives:

 

The structure of the study was based on the following research
objectives:

1. To identify, evaluate, and select pesticide protective fabrics
and finishes from those available, based on past fabric penetration and
decontamination research literature.

2. To explore and evaluate garment design alternatives, based on
thermal comfort, motion, aesthetic, and protection criteria.

3. To illustrate designs and present to company officials.

4. To draft and construct six sets of the prototype garment

5
accepted by the participating lawn care company.
5. To compare the absorption of chlorpyrifos in the selected sample
when wearing a protective garment in comparison to the usual uniform.

Hypotheses:

 

Objectives one through four were not subject to statistical testing.

The following hypotheses relate to objective number five.

Ho: There will be no significant difference between the protective
garment and the standard uniform in reducing organophosphate
absorption into the body.

H1: The proposed protective garment will reduce organophosphate
absorption into the body in comparison to the standard uniform.

Definition of terms:

 

-Protective clothing designed for this study was a two-piece design. The

 

shirt body and sleeves was a white cotton/polyester knit. An extended
shoulder yoke was of heavy cotton/polyester twill. It had long sleeves
with woven cuffs and a high woven collar. Mesh gussets were placed
under the arms. The pants were flourocarbon treated cotton/polyester
work weight twill with an added Gore-tex® lining from the knee down and
in the lower abdomen area. Gore-tex® is a registered tradmark of w.L.
Gore and Associates. See chapter four for full description of the
protective garment.

-Standard uniform was a two piece design consisting of a cotton/polyester

 

short sleeve polo style knit shirt and cotton/polyester twill workweight
pants.

-Chlorpyrifos is the active ingredient in Dursban‘a. Dursban‘Pis an

 

organophosphate insecticide manufactured by The Dow Chemical Company.

o
Field dilution of 18.75 fluid ounces of Dursban 4E (emulsifiable

concentrate) per 100 gallons of water was applied on the test days.

-Reduced organophosphate absorption is a decrease in plasma erythrocyte

 

cholinesterase levels and creatinine standardized urinary excretion of
3,5,6-trichloro-2-pyridinol.

-Cholinesterase is an enzyme in the human nervous system that acts as a

 

messenger to the nerve transmitter substance acetylcholine.

-3,5,6-trichloro-2-pyridinol (3,5,6-TCP) is the principle metabolite of

 

chorpyrifos that is excreted primarily in the urine.
-Pesticide is a general term used to include insecticides,
herbicides, and rodenticides. Insecticides are intended for
exterminating insects.

Limitations:

 

General limitations include the limited size of the sample in
relation to the variability in physiological response to chemicals, the
use of one prototype which does not allow comparisons between variations
of clothing combinations, and the nonrandom sample which limits

conclusions to this sample.

Conceptual Framework

 

Components:

 

The conceptual framework underlying this study is the human
ecosystem model (Bulbolz, Eicher, Sontag, 1979). This model views the
human organism as an interacting force with in the three
environments-~the natural environment, the human behavioral environment,
and the human constructed environment. Because this garment will be
measuring the effect of absorption of one chemical, as opposed to human

subjective analysis beyond the design stage, it will draw from two of the

7
three environments--the natural environment and the human constructai
environment. Each of these two environments are conceptualized as having
interacting subparts. In the natural environment, these include
space-time, physical, and biological components. The human constructed
components include socio-cultural, socio-physical, and socio-biological.
The interaction of these two environments, organophosphate exposure and
protective clothing respectively, and their effects on the human
pesticide applicator is the focus of this study and is illustrated in the

conceptual model in Figure I.

       
     

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Process:

The interaction between the natural environment and the human con-
structed environment and the ordered steps towards the human environed
unit is conceptualized in the functional design process (see Figure 2.).
Clothing that is designed with a particular functional end use, such as
chemical/biological protective clothing, requires a designer to work
through a basic design process. Functional design process involves a
step-by-step designer approach from the initial idea to evaluation of the
design. This process involves exploring the effect of movement, impact,
thermal, and other factors on the design problem (DeJonge, 1984). The
matrix shown on the following page illustrates these steps. This matrix
was developed by Jacquelyn DeJonge based on one developed previously by
J. Christopher Jones (1970).

The first step in formulating the protective garment is to accept
the problem as a challenge and to uncover the basic rationale of the
problem. The basic justification behind this design problem is the lawn
care specialists' exposure to chemicals. The problem must then be
explored in terms of specific design criteria.

After reviewing and assessing the problem, it is necessary to form-
ulate a definition for the particular design problem. This may be
accomplished through stating objectives, and by ranking or prioritizing

criteria. Kolberg (1974) describes definition in the Universal Traveler

 

as "...necessary to converge all of those data into an overall
understanding--into a unifying or 'definite' direction that reflects a
determined meaning" (p. 60). He also describes the definition as a
"filter" as a designer moves through the remainder of the design process,

as it may "filter" irrevelent data. When designing for a client,

10
this definition of the problem should involve the input of the client, as
they may have different priorities.

Prototype development is a culmination of ideation, idea selection,
and implementation of the design idea. Ideally, the client is involved
in these three phases. In idea selection specifically, negotiating or
compromising may be necessary between the designer and client in order to
satisfy both of their criteria. Kolberg (1974) describes this
implementation as the point of the problem solving process where the
design that you have chosen as the one to solve the design problem is
finally tested. He calls this implementation of your choice the "moment
of truth."

The final stage in the functional design process is design evaluation.
DeJonge (Watkins, 1984) suggests both objective and subjective evaluative
techniques. Evaluation may not only measure the design prototype against
the established criteria, but may provide new ideas for beginning the
design process again.

In designing functional clothing, each problem task is unique and
may require a different type of thinking. Because of this, DeJonge
(1984) states that "for each project, the design process will vary and
the selection of strategies will differ. The steps in the process give
continuity to designing and direct our thinking beyond a simple intuitive

idea to find answers" (p. xi).

 

 

 

 

 

 

2 3 4 5 6 7
Design Problem Design Prototype Design
situation structure Specifications criteria developed evaluation
explored perceived described established'
l Request l.2
made State general
objective
Brainstorming
User interview
and observa-
tion
Visual consis-
tency
Literature
2 Design 2.3
situation Brainstorming .
explored Observation
analysis
Market analysis
Literature search
Identification of
critical factors
Definition of
problem
3 Problem 3.2 3.4
structure Brainstorming Activity
perceived Visual consis- assessment
' tency Movement
Reassess critical assessment
factors impact assessment
Thenmal
assessment
Social-psychologi-
cal assessment
4 Specifi- 4.2 4.3 . 4.5
cations State ob- Reassess critical Charting
described Jectives factors Ranking and
Check speci- weighing
cations Prioritizing
against
- objectives
S Design 5.2 5.3 5.4 5-5
criteria State ob- identify Literature Materials testing
established Jectives critical review Tichnigue
Check cri- factors of assesment evaluation
teria areas to check Brainstorming
.,.gn;¢ gpecgfgc.g1.ng Creative integration
objective Solutions weighed
against criteria
6 Prototype, 6.2 6.3 6.4 6.5 -
developed Visual in- identify Literature Rank order ‘,7
consistency critpcal review specifications 39¢¢1r1¢.gg..
Identify ob- factors of assess- testing
Jective ltfit O'COS User satisfaction

User interview

 

Figure 2.--The functional design process (From DeJonge, 1984, p. viii).

l l

CHAPTER TWO

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

 

Fabric Criteria

 

The purpose of this research was to design a protective garment that
would establish an interface between the body and the environment, or to
create a microclimate interface between the body and the surrounding
macroclimate. The properties of textile fabrics and their effectiveness
as interfaces to pesticide penetration are dependent upon the intrinsic
characteristics of the fiber and its polymeric substances as well as the
geometry of the fiber, the yarn, and the fabric structure. The geometric
variables include shape, length, cross sectional area, amount of crimp,
twist, and degree of compactness or density. The main concern of this
study, the effect of a protective garment on chlorpyrifos absorption,
mainly involves the selection of materials or fabrics that will resist

impact by fine particles or pesticide soiling.

 

SKIN CLOTHING ENVIRONMENT

A“

 

 

 

Figure 3.--Clothing as a barrier to the environment.

12

l3

Watkins (1984) attributes textile molecular impact protectiveness
to three main characteristics including "...a pore size smaller than the
smallest unit of a hazardous substance; a chemical composition that does
not react chemically with the hazardous substance; and a physical
composition that does not breakdown when impacted by a particle or drop
of the substance" (p. 124).

Textile soiling:

 

Soiling is attributable to three major sources: deposition of dry
solids, soiling from foreign liquid matter, and redeposition of soiling
during laundering. The degree of soiling is directly related to
characteristics of the fiber, the structure of the yarn and fabric (eg.
the twist, nap, or weave), and how they react to the particular soil.
For instance, the chemical nature of the fiber influences the attraction
or power to hold the soil, whereas the structure of the yarn or fabric
may hold soil within its interstices. Another factor that complicates
the problem of soiling is the particular type of soil and how it reacts
to the dyes or finishes associated with the particular fabric. In this
study, the particular formulation of the pesticide Dursban<a, an
emulsified concentrate formulation, will interact differently with
varying fibers.

Once the soil has been placed on the fabric it may move through the
fabric in various ways. Movement of liquids through fabrics is again
directly related to the type of fiber, and the yarn and fabric structure.
Since the concern of this study is to prevent pesticide from travelling
to the body surface in order to deter bodily absorption, the facets of
liquid movement through textiles are necessary to define.

Sorption includes both adsorption, the attachment of small particles

14

of liquid to the surface of a textile, and absorption, the ability of
the fiber to intake moisture. When a fiber intakes moisture readily, it
is termed hydrophilic. A hydrophilic fiber may prevent pesticide
absorption into the body as the liquid is kept within the fabric
structure. Hydrophobia is a low ability to intake moisture. When a
fiber is hydrophobic, moisture may instead travel along and through the
fabric structure. This is termed wicking. Movement may occur by
capillary wicking along the yarns of the structure or by permeation or
diffusion of water in the gaseous state (Adler, Walsh, 1981). Water
vapor passes through the fabric structure if the structure and the nature
of the fiber allow it, and provided there is a relative humidity
differential across the fabric surface (Fourt, Hollies, 1970).

Liquid pesticide may be absorbed by the fiber or wicked through the
fabric structure. If a fabric absorbs a liquid pesticide, it may then
hold the liquid pesticide close to the body so that it is eventually
absorbed by the body. 0n the other hand, if the fabric does not absorb
but wicks liquids, the liquid pesticide may then be directly accessible

to enter the body dermally.

 

 

/'\
l
i

/\

SKIN FABRIC . PESTICIDE

 

 

 

Figure 4.--Liquid pesticide drawn into the fiber or fabric structure.
Will the body absorb more pesticide, when it is held
close to the body, or if the pesticide wicked through
the fabric upon initial contact?

15

The complexity of the soiling mechanism is also important in the
laundering of textiles. Several researchers have tested particular
fabrics in regard to ease in removal of pesticides from them and the
sometimes consequetial residual build-up of pesticide soiling in the
fabric. Redeposition of the pesticide throughout the entire garment may
occur in laundering depending on the fiber, the yarn and fabric
structure, the temperature of the water, the type of detergent used, and
the particular formulation of the pesticide. Increased interest in
removing pesticide contamination in laundering has provided needed
research in this area.

Aesthetic considerations:

 

Textile fabrics must also be aesthetically acceptable to the wearer
and to the employer. Aesthetic acceptability is particularly subjective
and is strongly related to the design of the garment. Aesthetic
considerations that must be reviewed in regard to fabric choice include
the "hand" of the fabric and the look or image that the fabric portrays.

Thermal comfort:

 

The transport of water or vapor through the fabric, thermal conduct-
ivity of the fiber, and air permeability through the fabric structure are
important for thermal comfort for the wearer. The maintainance of air
circulation and removal of body liquids away from the body are important
factors for establishing thermal comfort and are directly related to the
specific fibers thermal conductance (generally its thickness and ability
to maintain that thickness) and the product of the amount of open air
space area in the fabric structure (Fourt, Hollies, 1970).

Wearer comfort evaluations involve the subjective responses of the

wearer. Testing relies on both the variability of the wearer and the

16

environment. Certain objective evaluations, however, are possible and
parameters have been set for the thermal equilibrium state (Fourt and
Hollies, 1970). Since spraying for lawn care specialists is seasonal and
is limited to the warmer months of the year, the concern of the
researchers was to increase cooling.

Cooling can be accomplished by several means. Fourt and Hollies
(1970) give four ways which include cooling by air motion, air movement
between the body and clothing as a result of body motion, wetting out of
clothing by sweating (which requires an absorbent fiber), and transient
contact effects such as capillary wicking.

Decisions made concerning particular fabrics must be made in light
of the above criteria and particular characteristics ascribed to the
specific fiber or fabric. A review of research literature on fibers,
fabrics, and finishes in regard to pesticide penetration follows. It is
difficult to make direct comparisons between studies, however, as such
variables as polymeric fiber variations, yarn and fabric constructions,
weights, dyes, finishes, and other processing are not consistent across

studies.

Fibers, fabrics, and finishes

 

Cotton:

Cotton, more than any other fiber, has been studied by researchers
as a barrier to pesticide penetration. Cotton, a carbohydrate, is
hydr0philic due to its water attracting hydroxyl (-0H). Athough its
resiliency is fairly low, it is a moderately strong fiber. Water, which
swells the fiber when absorbed, makes it even stronger. Cotton is

characteristically resistant to organic solvents and has a fairly high

17

resistance to alkalies and weaker acids. It is not, however,
particularly resistant to ultraviolet light and atmospheric conditions.
Overexposure to light and weathering may breakdown C-O-C linkages,
causing it to convert to oxycellulose, a sugar. This is an important
consideration for extended outdoor wear.

Cotton, by nature, readily absorbs liquid and therefore promotes wet
soiling. Freed, et al. (1980) found that when a 100% cotton denim
and 65/35 polyester/cotton denim were compared for effectiveness as a
pesticide barrier, the cotton was more protective due to its absorbing
ability. When Orlando, et al. (1981) tested tightly woven cotton
chambray against flourocarbon treated cotton chambray and various
nonwoven synthetics, however, she found that cotton permitted the
greatest amount of penetration and determined that it was most likely due
to wicking through the closely woven structure of the cotton chambray.

Davies, et al. (1982) compared cotton denim coveralls to a variety of
Sprayers own choice of clothing using a urinary diethylphosphate measure
of absorption of the pesticide Ethion. Davies, et al. found reduced
urinary excretions of DEP concentrations when the 100% cotton denim
coveralls were worn as compared to wearing their regular clothing alone.

Finley and Rogillo (1969), in regard to DDT, offer additional
insight to cotton's ease in absorption of insecticides. They note the
similarity that exists between the cotton fiber and the chitin of the
insect's exoskeleton and state:

"...the only difference in the structure of the two

polymers is that the chitin has an acetylamine group

substituted for the hydroxyl group on the carbon 2 or

the gluclose units of the cellulose. The affinity of DDT for

chitin has been documented in the literature. This affinity
may explain why DDT was absorbed and retained at a higher rate

18

in all cotton fabrics. This does not necessarily mean that all

cotton fabric is more hazardous to the wearer. Theoretically,

cotton could be a safer material since the DDT appears to be

'tightly bound' to the cellulose" (p. 350).

When the pesticide is tightly bound to the cotton, problems in
removal in laundering may occur. DeJonge (1983) found that the removal
of pesticides was dependent on the kind of pesticide and the amount of
pesticide pick-up prior to laundering. Berch, Peper, and Drake (1964)
note the consistent relationship between the degree of deposition of soil
and the retention of soil after laundering. Therefore, since cotton
absorbs to a higher degree, pesticide residue after laundering may
correspond accordingly.

Several researchers have studied pesticide residue removal in cotton
fabrics. Lillie, et al. (1982) found that residues could be increasingly
removed from cotton with higher laundering temperatures. They also found
this to be true with detergent and detergent plus bleach. Easley, et al.
(1982) suggested the use of heavy duty detergents because of their oil
removing abilities, and pre-rinsing or multiple launderings. Kim, et al.
(1982) found that immediate launderings also left lower residue levels
than launderings after a twenty-four hour period. However, for some
pesticides, less residue remains when soiled clothing is stored before
laundering (Branson, 1985).

In order to enable cotton fabrics to resist soil deposition, finishes
may be added to the surface of the fabric. Typically, the hydroxyl
groups are bound, making them hydrophobic. This can be accomplished with
a number of substances including waxes and soluble soaps. Although there
are many types and kinds of soil resistant finishes, a very commonly

applied finish is a flourocarbon or flourophatic resin.

19

Flourocarbons, which include tetraflouroethylene (TFE), clorotri-
flouroethylene (CTFE), vinylidene (PVF2), and flouroinated ethylene
polypropylene (FEP), are thermoplastic materials that have
characteristically very high chemical resistance and anti-stick
characteristics, with very low coefficients of friction. Because of
this, flourocarbon finishes inhibit the movement of liquids, parti-
cularly pesticides, through fabrics. Laughlin, et al. (1984) found that
pesticide soiling is reduced approximately 18 to 20% when a flourocarbon
finish is applied, as opposed to untreated cotton or durable press
finished fabrics. Freed, et al. (1980), Orlando, et al. (1981) also
found that flourocarbon treated cotton denim provided a greater barrier
to pesticide penetration than untreated cotton denim.

Although researchers found flourocarbon treated cotton to allow less
pesticide penetration, several found that pesticide deposit was more
difficult to remove than if cotton did not have the flourocarbon
treatment. Laughlin, et al. (1981) found that residue removal was of a
smaller percentage for flourocarbon treated cotton than with untreated
cotton and that soil redeposition was higher in laundering. Berch, et
al. (1964) describes this tendency and notes:

its "...marked contrast to the stain repellent finishes in

resiliency due to the ability of liquids to wet surfaces as a

consequence of the low energy air-silicone and air-flourocarbon

interfaces. When these surfaces are immersed in water, a high

energy interface is probably formed" (p. 33).

Cotton is many times blended with other fibers to produce better
performance. Most commonly, cotton is blended with polyester, a man-made
long chain polymer fiber. The cotton-polyester blends are most commonly

available in 65/35, 50/50, or 35/65 cotton/polyester combinations. As

the percentage of cotton is increased, insecticide absorption by the

 

20
fabric is also increased (Finley, 1969). Freed, et al. (1980) found that
100% cotton denim could absorb twice as much liquids as comparable 65/35
cotton/polyester denim blends.

When cotton-polyester blends were tested in regard to their effect-
iveness as a pesticide barrier, it was found that 100% cotton denim
afforded better protection than the blends (Freed, et al., 1980).
Laughlin, et al. (1984), using a 50/50 cotton/polyester bottom weight
blend, found that flourocarbon soil resistant finishes increased the
blend's ability to resist penetration to the point of being comparable to
spunbonded olefin, an nonwoven synthetic.

Polyester:

 

Polyester differs characteristically from cotton in that it is
hydrophobic in nature. Generally, polyester's saturation content has
been found to be less than 2% as opposed to cotton's 30% moisture
saturation content. Although polyester is hydrophobic, it is oleophilic.
Body sebum and other oils easily attach themselves to the polyester
fibers and are generally difficult to remove. Bowers and Chantrey (1969)
found the fiber encapsulating oils may cause increased oils to adhere to
the polyester fibers. When compared to all cotton fabrics, Finley (1974)
found that polyester added to the cotton (in a cotton-polyester blend)
retained less pesticide residue since less is absorbed before laundering.
This may not be an advantage, however, as more pesticide may have been
wicked through upon initial contact with the clothing. Because of
polyester's hydrophobic nature, it is very crease resistant, however, it
is also viewed as being less comfortable and may be warm to wear in hot
weather. Therefore a trade~off exists between ease in care and wearer

comfort.

21

Spunbonded olefin:

 

Tyvek ®, a spunbonded olefin (SBO), Gore-tex ®, and Crowntex® ,
three unique man-made fabric structures, were found to provide
twenty-five times more protection than untreated cotton chambray
(Orlando, et al., 1981).

Spunbonded olefin, a lightweight nonwoven fabric, is produced as a
disposable. Because it is nonwoven and offers no ease, garments
constructed of 330 must be oversized in order to provide mobility. It
also does not allow for body heat dissipation. SBO comes in a number of
varieties including perforated, polyethylene coated, Saran ®-laminated,
and colored. The perforated variety is intended to protect the wearer
and still allow thermal comfort.

Staiff, et al. (1982) tested a number of types of $80 for pesticide
barrier properties including polyethylene coated SBO, perforated 580,
regular S80, and two colors of regular SBO. He found that only the
polyethylene coated SBO provided adequate protection against concentrated
pesticides. Several recent lab studies conductd by Arthur D. Schwope
(n.d.) for E.I. duPont de Nemours and Company, manufacturers of Tyvek ®,
tested several different types of SBO for their effectiveness in
protecting against selected pesticides and other hazardous chemicals.
Among those tested were regular Tyvek ®, polyethylene-coated Tyvek‘g, and
Saran ®-laminated Tyvek ®. Concentrated methyl parathion was used in the
lab study with an aqueous spray for the simulated field study.

The regular Tyvek® had an instantaneous breakthrough time in both
the field and lab study while the polyethylene coated Tyvek<§ had an
approximately 15 minute breakthrough time in the lab study and a 30-45

minute breakthrough time in the field study. Only the Saran‘g-laminated

 

22

$80 was found to have no breakthrough during the four hour field and lab
studies. Since SBO's are disposable, laundering is not necessary.
Microporous film laminate:

Although there are a number of microporous film laminates on the
market, Gore-tex G: a polytetraflouraethylene (PTFE) film laminate
produced by W.L. Gore and Associates, has been tested for penetrability
and effectiveness of laundry removal of pesticides. Gore-tex Q is known
for its unique combination of "waterdroplet-proofness" and breathability
achieved through the microporous film inner layer which allows the air
and vapor (eg. body heat) to pass through, but does not allow water
droplets through. Its thermal comfort has been compared to that of 100%
cotton (Easter, 1983). The microporous film is laminated to a variety of
fabrics for durability. Gore-tex® is relatively expensive, depending on

the fabric to which it is adhered.

 

WWM’WW

SKIN GORE-TE)?Q LIQUID

    

 

1 2

 

 

 

 

 

 

Vapor: (J/WKJF\~/“\Jr\#/‘\#z’7

o
1= Gore-tex inner layer fabric

®
Gore-tex microporous film

o
Gore-tex outer layer fabric

2

3

o
Figure 5.--Gore-tex as a barrier to liquids.

23

Gore-tex® was found to be an effective barrier to pesticide
penetration by Orlando, et al. (1981; DeJonge, 1983). Gore-texg wearers
had lower temperature readings and lower thermal comfort and sensation
when compared to $80 wearers (Branson, 1984) and the comfort was similar
to that of persons wearing cotton shirts and jeans. Because of the
oleophilic fibers, oil based pesticides are difficult to remove from
garments in laundering (Easter, 1983).

Polyvinyl alcohol:

 

Polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) was tested by Williams (1981) in the form of
gloves for pesticide penetration and was found to provide sufficient
protection. Although PVA is water soluble, it is generally treated with
a formaldehyde to make it insoluble. It is known for its high tensile
strength and wearer comfort. It has been found to be resistant to most
chemicals at moderate temperatures (Lyle, 1982). PVA is not currently
produced in the United States, but is produced in Japan under the
tradename Vinal.

Polyvinyl chloride:

 

Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC) was first produced by The Dow Chemical
Company in 1940. It is know for its superior strength and resistance to
acids, alkalies, moisture (both liquid and vapor), and weather (Lyle,
1982). Because of its lack of pores and interstices, it is very warm to
wear unless the design of the garment incorporates some type of cooling
system (passive or nonpassive). PVC is a common material for protective
wear and is available to the consumer in bio-chemical protective
coveralls and in glove form.

Natural and synthetic rubbers:

 

Both natural and synthetic rubbers have been studied in regard to

24
their protectiveness against pesticides. Most of these studies, however,
have been glove studies. Williams (1979) tested a number of synthetic
rubbers including neoprene, nitrile, and butyl. These synthetic rubbers,
along with natural rubber, are dienne polymers. That is, they have two
double bonds. He found that when the rubbers were subjected to chemicals
(specifically dichlorobutene) there was no evident physical or chemical
change.

Neoprene, which is a polymerized chloroprene (2-chloro-1,3,-buta-
dienne) rubber, is very similar to natural rubber. Although it is
relatively expensive, it is considered an excellent synthetic rubber that
affords excellent weather resistance (McMurray, 1984). Nitrile and butyl
rubber are other commercially produced synthetic rubbers.

Natural rubber is a product or exudate of certain trees. Natural
rubber, although not currently produced in the United States, was tested
by Sansone and Jonas (1981) in regard to the effect of sunlight and dark
storage on permeability. Permeability was not affected.

Staiff, et al. (1982) found rubberized cotton, in the form of rain-
wear, to provide adequate protection against a number of concentrated
pesticides. Although rubbers are an excellent material for protection
against liquids and impact by small particles, the lack of air permeation
or flow makes them uncomfortable to wear. Rubbers may be used as
coatings to woven fabrics (eg. rubberized cotton), however, air
ventilation must be achieved through garment design. Often this requires
oversized apparel in the form of rainwear and although it may be
acceptable to farm and orchard pesticide applicators, it is generally
considered unacceptable to lawn care specialists or their employers.

lhe careful evaluation, comparison, and analysis of a fabric's

25
properties is essential for effective impact protection from toxic liquid
and sprays. Selection must be based on prioritization of criteria by the
client and the designer. Upon selection of the textiles, equal
consideration must be given to garment design in respect to compatibility

with selected textile materials and to total garment function.

Design Criteria

 

The protective needs of the pesticide applicator was the principle
concern in the design of the protective garment and was based on the
level and complexity of the agent used (Watkins, 1984), and where the
pesticide was deposited on the body. Other design aspects and
consequences became equally important, however, including thermal comfort
for the wearer, ease in motion for proper job performance, and
aesthetic standards of the corporation involved. Watkins (1984)
addresses the complexity of the design problem stating that:

"...if impact protection was the only concern of

designers, they would have no difficulty creating protective

garments from the array of materials on the market. If people

were inanimate, unfeeling objects, they could simply be

packaged like eggs or china vases--in protective cartons.

lhe real challenge for designers is to create impact-

protective clothing that allows people to work and play

effectively" (p. 91).
Fourt and Hollies (1970) also state that "...the net worth must be
assessed in terms of overall effectiveness in the whole situation" (p.
5).
Pesticide ddposition and absorption:

Maibach, et al. (1971), through an anlysis of urinary excretion,

quantified the effect of C Parathion absorption for topical anatomic

regions. An approximation of percentage of the pesticide absorbed (when

26

applied dermally) in selected anatomic regions is shown in Table 1.:

 

 

ANATOMY % ABSORPTION
scalp 32.1
ear canal 46.5
forehead 36.3
forearm 8.6
palm of hand 11.8
abdomen 18.4
scrotum 100.0
ball of feet 13.5

 

Table 1.-—Pesticide absorption in selected anatomic regions (From
Maibach, et al., 1971, p. 209).

Slocum and Shern (1986), in a dye deposition study, established ana-
tomical regions of greatest deposition of pesticides for lawn care
specialists and found high deposition on the lower legs, both front and
back, and the palms of the hands (see chapter three). Freeborg, et al.
(1984), in a deposition study utilizing absorbent pads for pesticide
pick-up, found the greatest amount of contamination to be on the wrist
and inner thigh just below the scrotal area. This information plus the
information provided by Maibach, et al. (1971), emphasizes the great need
for protection in the lower abdominal area.

Liquid impact protection:

 

Although much of the research has dealt with testing the penetration
levels of particular fabrics, a few researchers have tested particular
garment designs for their effectiveness in preventing pesticide
penetration. Through biomonitoring, Davies, et al. (1982), in a field
study using Ethion. testing the applicators own clothing against 100%
cotton coveralls treated with a flourocarbon finish, found that the

coveralls were more protective than their own clothing. Clothing as a

27

barrier to pesticides has also been observed in field study conditions
by Orlando, et al (1981; DeJonge, 1983), Staiff, et al. (1982), and
Wolfe, et al. (1967).

Protective design ideas for general application for pesticide
workers were suggested by Gulbrandson (1983) in an Agriculture Experiment
Station Bulletin. She included a bat-wing design sleeve or the placement
of cotton strips under the shoulder seams to prevent mist infiltration.
She also suggests that if the applicator is in the sitting position, such
as on a tractor, that the jacket or shirt should extend down far enough
to cover the crotch area. The bulletin encourages closures of some type
for all open-ended cylinders (such as sleeves and legs) and also for the
neck.

Thermal comfort:

 

Although the design of the garment does not influence thermal com-
fort as much as the fabric does when evaluated subjectively (Branson, et
al., 1986), in order to be accepted by the wearer and to avoid heat
stress, thermal comfort must also be considered in garment design. For
example, clothing that fits tightly or has closed-ended cylinders
increases the physiological burden for the wearer (Yaglou and Rao, 1947).
Fourt and Hollies (1970) emphasize the importance of thermal comfort when
they say:

"...the well being of man depends upon the balance between

his high energy production and the exchange of energy with the

environment. This energy balance must be maintained within

the tolerance for heating and cooling of the body. This

concept of balance between the body and the environment is

modified by the invention of clothing, which from one point of

view can be regarded as an extension and modification of the

body itself..." (p. 1).

They go on to discuss the point that "...clothing interacts with the

28

physiology of the body, and the functions of clothing are essential to
man in all but exceptional and limited environments" (p. 1).

Some consideration has been given to thermal comfort by researchers.
Davies, et al. (1982), in a field study using 100% cotton coveralls,
found that although the prescribed coveralls were full length and had
long sleeves, the applicators reported no heat stress discomfort even
though working in 90 degree average temperatures and high humidity.
Branson (1982) also tested designs for thermal comfort by simulating work
conditions and actions in a test chamber and found a jumpsuit of Gore-tex
was acceptable to wearers. DeJonge (1983), in experimentation with back
inner mesh panels, found that 100% cotton clung to the subject's backs
and therefore suggested using a synthetic that would wick away body
moisture. Staiff, et al. (1982) found that lighter weight garments were
subjectively perceived to be cooler to wear.

The subjective analysis of thermal comfort is critical and
researchers can not rely entirely on objective measurements such as body
temperatures or inside garment temperatures. Fourt and Hollies (1970)
discuss the interaction of the objective and subjective analysis of
thermal comfort and the emphasis and importance of thermal qualities of
materials versus design by stating that:

"...the concept that physical, optical, and even

subjective differences in clothing materials are responsible

for comfort when worn is quite logical. Many test methods

have been developed for assessing the physical properties of

clothing fabrics and some of these can be measured with great

precision. Unfortunately these types of measurements, no

matter how precise, can not substitute for actual measurement

of comfort on people which takes into account the interaction

of the body physiology and its motion--and the motion of the

clothing--as well as the microclimate of exposure" (p. 115).

The subjective element in thermal comfort was emphasized by

29

subjects in a Florida field study of citrus applicators (N199, et al.,
1986). During this study, applicators were to wear a $30 protective
uniform over their regular clothing. However, after mid-July, when the
weather was becoming warmer, the subjects refused to wear the S80
garments due to heat discomfort. Two other recent studies, one by
Branson, DeJonge, and Munson (1986), and another by DeJonge, Vredevoogd,
and Henry (1984), have dealt exclusively with subjective analysis of
thermal comfort, and attitudes, practices, and preferences towards
pesticide protective clothing, respectively.
Mobility:

Mobility is an essential aspect of protective clothing.
Watkins (1984) largely attributes the success of a protective garment to
the ease in which it is worn and states:

"Whenever work must be accomplished by straining

clothing, energy that could be used to accomplish a task is

wasted. Since the metabolic rate also increases when the body

tries to work against clothing, unwanted heat production,

which may lead to profuse sweating and fatigue, may also

occur" (p. 144).
She also notes that protection is often times decreased as mobility is

increased.

Aesthetic considerations:

 

In this proposed study, expectations of the corporation
involved was influential in garment design selection and
formulation. Much of the research addresses user perceptions as a
vital concern and criterion in the development of a totally functional
protective garment. In this design evaluation, however, the corporate
color schemes and perceptions of public response to the clothing was also

important.

30
Summary

Overall, the design selected should incorporate all aspects of the
design problem, including characteristics of the protective fabrics
selected, established design criteria (protection, thermal comfort,
mobility, aesthetics), and future care of the clothing system. Watkins
(1984) describes the ideal impact protective garment and the need for the
clothing to:

"...not interfere with the movement needed to do a

specific job. They should provide adequate relief from

heat stress. They should allow the wearer maximum use of the

sense of touch, hearing, sight, and so on. They also need to

be easily cleanable, so that decontamination is possible" (p.
130 .

CHAPTER THREE

METHODOLOGY

 

The purpose of this research was to develop and test if one type of
protective clothing significantly reduced the amount of chlorpyrifos
absorbed in the bodies of a selected group of lawn care specialists in
comparison to the clothing normally worn. In this chapter,
consideration is given to the development of the protective garment
studied, selection of the sample, description of the measures, and a

description of the study structure.

Development of the Protective Garment

 

The development of the protective garment was a product of
collective ideas and experimentation. First, design criteria were
established. Videotapes from phase one of the overall study were
reviewed. Past research literature in the area of pesticide penetration,
thermal comfort, and mobility was reviewed along with current work
clothes and uniform catalogs (see chapter two). Design criteria also
were developed by observing lawn care specialists at work and talking
with company officials, as the client offered more practical information
such as worker acceptability and practices (eg. laundry).

From the various sources of information, two designs were formulated
and presented to the lawn care company. A one-piece design was initially
accepted and experimentation with features designed to solve problems

31

32
such as ease of arm extension followed. The design was later rejected by
the lawn care company officials because they felt that the laWn care
specialists would not accept a one-piece garment for aesthetic reasons
because it resembled a typical protective coverall garment. The second
two-piece design was then modified to incorporate what was learned in
experimenting with the first design.

Body measurements were taken, patterns were drafted, and the
protective garments and gloves were constructed for each member of the
sample. After fitting, the garments were adjusted and packaged for each
individual along with the gloves, boots, underwear, socks, and hats.
Refer to chapter four for a full description of the development of the

design.

Selection of the Sample

 

Since human participants were involved, the approval of appropriate
committees involving research with human participants was sought and
attained at both Michigan State University and The Dow Chemical Company.
The sample consisted of six lawn care specialists employed by the
TruGreen Corporation from two branch offices in the greater Detroit,
Michigan area. The potential participants were identified intially by
using employment records which identified experienced applicators.

An orientation meeting was held for the experienced personnel at
this office. The researchers presented information pertaining to the
nature and importance of the research project, and an overview of the
procedures and what the participants involvement would be. Volunteers
were assured that they were under no obligation to participate. From

this group, four men volunteered to participate. Participants gave

33

their informed consent and body measurements were then taken of these
four volunteers.

Since six male participants were needed, two potential lawn care
specialists with prior experience were identified by management at
another branch office. The research project was explained to them and
they were given the opportunity to abstain from the research project
without further consequences. Both consented to participate, gave their
informed consent, and had body measurements taken.

A second orientation session for the six volunteers was held three
days prior to data collection. Further instructions pertaining to
procedures and participant responsibilities in data collection were
given. The volunteers were also fitted for their protective uniforms and

need for alterations noted.

Description of the Measures

 

Chemical lab testing of the various body fluids can provide definite
quantification of organophosphate absorption (Petersdorf, et al., 1983).
In order to measure the absorption, as opposed to exposure, two
types of biomonitoring were employed. First, absorption was measured by
plasma and erythrocyte cholinesterase levels, and second, by the urinary

excretion of 3,5,6—trichloro-2-pyridinol, the principle metabolite of
chorpyrifos.
Biomonitoring devices:

Cholinesterase (ChE) is a critical enzyme in the nervous system of
the human body (Baron, 1976) and is affected by organophosphates. The
measurement of plasma and red blood cell cholinesterase levels is an

indicator of organophosphate exposure. However, several factors may

34

interfere with its sensitivity. First, is the wide range of variance
that is normal in individuals and second, the lapse time that occurs in
normal cholinesterase depression because the compound (or its
metabolites) can bind to the protein in the blood or tissue (Goodman,
Gilman, 1965) or can be excreted before a measurable effect occurs.

Other changes in cholinesterase levels may also occur after exposure that
are coincidental and unrelated to exposure (Jager, 1976).

The measurement of 3,5,6-trichloro-2-pyridinol (3,5,6-TCP)
quantifies the absorption of chlorpyrifos, the active ingredient in
Dursban , into the body and can be used as a measure under actual
conditions (Nolan, et al., 1984). It is unlikely that chlorpyrifos will
build up on repeated exposure (Nolan, 1985). In order to control for any
incomplete urine collections, 3,5,6 TCP has been normalized by the output
of creatinine in this study. See Appendix A for description of 3,5,6-TCP
and creatinine measurement.

In order to quantify plasma and red blood cell cholinesterase
levels, blood samples were taken by venipuncture. This is a measure that
is commonly used in the supervision of lawn care workers for
organophosphate exposure (Baron, 1976). Blood samples were taken prior
to exposure at the start of the spray season, which is normal procedure,
in order to establish a baseline for the study and to account for the
wide variation between individuals (Dreisbach, 1980). During the two
week study, six samples were drawn.

For the five days each week of the study, participants collected
24-hour urine voidings. Each days sample extended from the first
collection immediately following the first voiding to the end of the

first voiding on the following day. The voidings that were analyzed

35
included the day before the organophosphate spraying, the day of the
spraying, and the three days following the spray days on each Of the two
weeks. Volumes were recorded for each sample and an aliquot of each of
the 24-hour urine samples was taken and stored under refrigeration, while
the remainder was discarded. ‘The urine and blood samples were scheduled
as shown in Table 2 (see Appendix B for daily instructions to

participants).

 

DAY EYENTS
FRIDAY BLOOD SPECIMEN FOR ChE
SATURDAY ----------------
SUNDAY 24 HR URINE COLLECTION
MONDAY BLOOD SPECIMEN FOR ChE

24 HR URINE COLLECTION
SPRAY CHOLRPYRIFOS

 

TUESDAY BLOOD SPECIMEN FOR ChE

24 HR URINE COLLECTION
WEDNESDAY 24 HR URINE COLLECTION
THURSDAY 24 HR URINE COLLECTION
FRIDAY STOP COLLECTING URINE

Table 2.--Schedule of blood and urine collections (R.J. Nolan,

2/19/1985).

Wearer evaluation of the garment:

 

In order to obtain responses to the protective clothing,

participants were asked to fill out a questionnaire at the end of the day

36
in which they wore the protective garments (see Appendix C). The
questionnaire asked the participants to rate fit, mobility, comfort, and
the appearance of the shirt and pants and the mObility and comfort of the
gloves.

Structure of the Study

 

The structure Of the study included two test spray days during a two
week period. On these two test days, participants sprayed DursbanG>.
Dursban® and other organophosphates were not sprayed during the week
prior to the study and during the study weeks. DursbanG>was sprayed only
on the test days however, regular spraying continued with primarily
fertilizer and herbicides being sprayed.

On the first spray day, three of the participants wore protective
clothing and three wore the regular uniform. On the second spray day,
the clothing treatment was reversed. In this way, the participants acted
as their own control and changes in temperature, humidity, and wind speed
and direction on the two test days would not be confounded with one
Clothing treatment. A request was also made for similar work schedules
(eg. route lengths) for the two test spray days.

The participants were each given labeled bags on the day that they
wore the protective clothing which contained the protective,
pre-laundered undershirt, shorts, and socks, boots, and gloves. Cotton
gloves were worn for the first hour of spraying for other research
purposes and new polyvinyl chloride gloves were worn for the remainder of
the day. The participants were given a second bag to put the protective
uniform in at the end Of the day. They were allowed to keep the
underwear and boots. The boots were worn again on the second test day.

On the day the subjects wore the regular uniform, they were given new,

37

pre-laundered uniforms, shorts, and socks. The participants were not
issued new gloves to be worn with the regular uniform because it had not
been anticipated that gloves would be worn as part of the regular
uniform. participants wore their usual work gloves.

Researchers at Michigan State University placed identification
numbers on the urine samples and The Dow Chemical Company ran the urine
analysis blind using the Jaffe reaction method (Teitz, 1976) for
creatinine and the procedure described by Nolan, et al. (1984) for
3,5,6-TCP.

In analyzing the results, it was assumed that the sample was
composed of healthy individuals who sprayed pesticides during 75% of the
spray day, or at least Six hours out of an eight hour day.

A frequency tally of questonnaire responses was completed, and a
Wilcoxon matched-pairs signed ranks statistical test was run on the

Chlorpyrifos absorption data.

CHAPTER FOUR

FINDINGS AND ANALYSIS

 

This study involved the development and testing of a protective
garment. The amount of chlorpyrifos absorbed into the bodies Of a sample
of lawn care specialists spraying an organophosphate insecticide was
compared when the subjects wore the protective and regular uniform.

This chapter has been organized into two major sections. The first
section addresses Objectives one through four concerning the development
Of the protective garment and the analysis of the questionnaire
administered to the subjects. The second section addresses objective

five and the results Of the biomonitoring.

Objective One

 

Objective number one was to identify, evaluate, and select pesticide
protective fabrics and finishes from those available, based on past
fabric penetration and decontamination research literature (see chapter
two).

Although research literature supports the use of several fabric
structures for protection (eg. Saran C>—coated Tyvek ®), there was
resistance to using them, for practical reasons, by the lawn care company
representatives. Of primary concern was the image of danger some of
these fabrics may portray as they are sometimes associated with sterile
environments. Second, was the concern of thermal comfort, since some of

38

39

these fabrics blocked not only pesticide penetration, but air flow, which
would be uncomfortable for summer work, and third, cost concerns from
disposables that would require continual replacement.

Originally, 100% woven cotton was the chosen fabric for the
protective uniform because it would offer thermal comfort, it would
absorb the pesticide rather than allowing it to wick through, and in
appearance, was considered to be a more conventional fabric. However, it
was necessary for the fabric to be available in company colors since the
study was under actual work conditions and recognition of the employees
is important to sales for the company. The researchers searched for an
adequate weight 100% cotton woven and knit however, they had difficulties
finding it under the time constraints of the study. The researchers
attempted to dye the neutral 100% cotton fabrics but were unsuccessful in
producing the company colors. The researchers and company
representatives were also concerned that 100% cotton could not be adapted
as a uniform because of the need to iron it after laundering.

The shirt body and sleeves of the protective garment were
constructed in a white 50/50 cotton/polyester single jersey knit. The
cotton-polyester blend, which was the same blend used in the regular
uniform shirt, Offered ease of care and after repeated wearings, still
looked acceptable. This was an important consideration to the company
involved since each worker was responsible for the laundry of their
uniform. The research literature suggested that for woven fabric, the
greater percentage of cotton there is in a blend, the more insecticide
will be absorbed by the fabric and thus not be available for human
absorption (Finley, 1969). Therefore a higher level of polyester may

promote the insecticide to wick through and also be warm to wear.

40
However, the 50/50 cotton/polyester knit was used in an area of minimal
deposition. The knit solved many mobility needs as the fabric can
stretch with the wearer. The white color is in keeping with company
colors Of green and white, and may be subjectively perceived as being
Cooler to wear and perhaps may actually be cooler to wear due to
reflection.

A microporous film laminate which consisted of 3.2 ounce nylon,
polytetraflouraethylene, and nylon tricot, was used for protection in
areas of high deposition and absorption such as the lower leg and lower
abdomen area. Goretex G>is twenty-five times more protective than
cotton chambray (Orlando, et al., 1981).

A flourocarbon spray treatment (ScotchgardG)) was also used in
areas Of high deposition and absorption to resist liquid absorption by
the fabric. A commercial application of flourocarbon was considered but
the researchers were unable to secure it in the alloted time. The
areas which were given the finish included parts of the shirt and the

entire pants. Each received three flourocarbon treatments.

Objective Two

 

Objective two was to explore and evaluate garment design
alternatives, based on protection, mobility, thermal comfort, and
aesthetic criteria.

Protection and mobility:

 

Design ideas were generated through a number of sources.
Initially, Slocum and Shern's (1986) deposition study, the first phase
Of the overall project, provided necessary information on the parts of

the body needing the greatest protection. This field study, which

41
involved the spraying of blue dye by lawn care specialists and later
extraction and spectrophotometric analysis of the dye deposited on the
garments, showed the greatest deposition to be on the lower legs, both
front and back. The palm of the hands also received a great amount of
dye. Other areas of the body showed minimal deposition. However,
since the study did not include unreeling the hose from the truck, which
is a normal procedure and carried out at each spray location, the
estimate of dye deposition was conservative. Absorption
for specific anatomic regions was quantified by Maibach, et al.(1971)
through an analysis of urinary excretion. He found relatively high
absorption rates in several anatomic regions, especially in the lower
abdomen area (see Table 1.).

The deposition field study was also videotaped for later Observa-
tion. Body motions of the lawn care specialists during spraying were
Observed. From these Observations, specific movement criteria were
developed. It was evident that the design needed to allow for movement
of the shoulder and arm. The way in which the applicators held the hose
also was Observed. Generally the hose was pulled over the shoulder when
unreeling from the truck and around the waist and down the arm when
spraying. Although reeling and unreeling was not included in the
deposition study, observations of the researchers encouraged extra
protection in the shoulder, waist, or arm since the hose was
contaminated when pulled through the grass. Pay gave employees
incentive to work quickly resulting in long strides and wide arm swings
which influences both mobility and protection needs.

Design ideas were also generated by reviewing past research

literature in protective clothing for pesticide applicators. Although

42

the protection and ease of motion aspects were important, other aspects
and consequences were important including thermal comfort and
expectations Of the corporation involved (see chapter two).

Thermal comfort and aesthetics:

 

Thermal comfort was a major area of concern since the job
required physical exertion in the summer. If the prototype were adapted
it could be used in the South as well as the Mid-West. Since the
garment was designed for a specific lawn care company, approval of the
corporation involved regarding presentation of corporate image was
necessary.

Design ideation:

 

From these various sources of information, conceptualization and
clarification of the problem was accomplished. Ideas were then gener-
ated, based on the specific needs of the user by reviewing what was
available for protection in similar types of problems. Work Clothes and
uniform catalogs were reviewed and note was taken as to the finishes
being used (eg. new and improved finishes), average prices,
manufacturers, availability, specific design features (eg. for movement
and protection), and fiber contents. Fiber and fabric sources were
explored further and a number of distributors were contacted for
information concerning availability, wearability, and specific
protective features. A summary Of findings pertaining to available
fabrics is reported in chapter two.

After reviewing available information and making contacts for
further information, two specific ensembles were developed. One, a
two-piece sportswear design that would Offer minimal protection, but

more than the currently worn uniform (see Figure 6.). It was designed

Short sleeved polo style shirt With

work weight twill pants

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

LL

 

 

 

CU

Figure 6.--Typical uniform of lawn care specialists.

43

44

with optional disposable Chaps. The second design was a one-piece
design in the form of coveralls and similar to the sketches seen in
Branson (1982) and many of the work clothes catalogs.

One-Piece design:

 

The intent of the one-piece design was to offer as much protection
as possible without appearing overly conspicuous to the customer. The
company representatives were in favor of the one-piece garment because
it not only covered more of the body than the regular uniform and
provided a unique look for the lawn care workers from the typical
uniform worn in the area. This uniform was initially accepted for use
in the study by the company officials supporting the project.

Specific design features of the one-piece garment included a high
stand-up collar with a synthetic mesh liner to wick body moisture,
raglan sleeves for added Shoulder movement, upper arm and lower leg
inserts of a microporous film laminate for added protection in the areas
of high deposition with the benefit of breathability, a covered zipper
to protect the Closures from mist infiltration, cuffs with hook and mesh
type closures, large abdominal pockets lined with the microporous
laminate, an inner mesh panel to wick moisture from the back, and a back
action pleat for extra movement across the shoulder blades, as
illustrated in Figure 7.

The coveralls were originally constructed from 100% cotton twill
with the microporous laminate simulated in cotton. A male student from
the Horticulture Department at the university, who had previous
experience in lawn care application, wore the prototype and Simulated
typical movements of the job for the research group. He also sat in the

uniform and wore it during his daily activities for a three hour period.

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46

The student was personally satisfied with the aesthetic and protective
features of the garment however both he and the research group observed
several problems in the design. First, the neckline was too small and
needed to be enlarged for comfort. The back action pleat was not
functioning as intended but instead was pulling out of place. Finally,
problems were Observed in the amount of ease that was allowed for
reaching of the arms along with design features intended for movement
purposes. Alternatives were intiated and constructed in an attempt to
solve the problem of inadequate ease for reaching and swinging of the
arms. See figures 8. and 9. for sketches of alternatives explored.

Upper arm and lower leg alternatives:

 

Many Oberservations were made in analyzing the alternative
prototypes by the researchers and a panel of undergraduate students
involved in the study. First, it was Observed that the more ease that
was allowed in the raglan sleeve, the less length was left for reaching.
In order to counteract this, the uniform would require a nO-fit style if
the raglan sleeves were to be kept in the one-piece design. Since this
was not desirable to the lawn care company intended for, set-in sleeves
were explored. It was observed that when the woven sleeves were
attached to a mesh knit panel or to the knit back, the functionality of
the stretch knit was diminished. Knit underarm gussets increased
reaching overhead, but did not increase shoulder movement. These
alternatives were constructed and a panel Of undergraduate students wore
them, simulating work movements, and evaluated them as a group.

At the same time, the researchers began to investigate upper arm
and lower leg alternatives to increase protection in these areas. These

included disposable and semi-disposable fabric inserts such as spunbonded

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49

Olefin (580) products and vinyl coated nylon detachable pieces. One
design alternative was to snap vinyl coated nylon pieces on in these two
areas. The inserts could be removed and hosed Off at the end of the
work day, and then be snapped back on for reuse. This would solve the
problem of laundering in the area of high deposition with the rest Of
the garment and would also prevent wet soiling, especially in the lower
leg area that is often saturated with pesticide when spraying. Another
alternative was to use a disposable fabric such as Saran<D-coated $30
that would be attached with a disposable polypropylene hook and mesh
closure. The inserts could simply be discarded after every spray
day. See Figure 10. for sketches of these alternatives.
Experimentation was then done concerning thread size, seam construction,
and seam sealing for these fabrics.

Design ideas also were discussed concerning SBO gaitors or Chaps as
a disposable alternative to lower leg attachments (see Figure 11.).
Spunbonded olefin and other disposable fabrics were also discussed as a
full garment fabric. Problems with this, however, included problems
with ease and fit. The garment, if constructed of a nO-give disposable
(due to the fabric's form of construction involving extrusion of the
synthetic "dope" into a thin, nonporous film or sheet), would have to be
oversized or constructed as a partial garment in order to compensate for
the lack of elasticity in the fabric structure. A partial garment of
$30 was designed that would cover the legs and abdomen, but not the
arms, in order to allow for air flow and body cooling.

The researchers met again with company representatives and
presented a constructed prototype of the one-piece garment with

permanent lower leg inserts and pants with removable vinyl coated nylon

back

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

I. Disposable SBO inserts with disposable polypropylene hook and mesh
fasteners.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

2. Removable vinyl-coated nylon lower leg inserts with snap fasteners.

Figure IO.--Alternative lower leg designs.

50

A. Rolled hood stand—up collar

8. Covered zipper placket

C. Dropped armscye and shoulder line
D. Knit sleeves

E. Woven yoke

F. Twill work weight pants

G. Disposable SBO chaps

 

Figure ll.——Twp—piece design with chaps.

Sl

52

leg attachments along with sketches of upper body and lower leg
alternatives, and the disposable garment alternatives. The lawn care
company representatives felt that the detachable inserts would not be
used by the lawn care specialists after time, and that the disposable
pieces would not be replaced. They also did not feel that the disposable
partial or full garments would be accepted by the wearers. In addition,
the disposable garment would be more conspicuous than a garment of
conventional fabrics, and this was undesirable. The company involved
desired a garment that looked as "normal" as possible in order to not
convey a message of danger to their customers. At this time, the lawn
care industry chose to reject the one-piece garment along with any
disposable or removable alternatives. It was agreed that the researcher
would return to the two-piece design initially presented and strive for a
more conventional looking garment for the lawn care specialists.

Two-piece design:

 

An attempt was made to inconspicuously increase protection as much
as possible by incorporating more protective features into the two-piece
design. With the two-piece design, many of the high reaching problems
were solved as the top half of the garment was no longer attached at the
waistline. It also eliminated several fitting problems, mainly in
length. It also solved a laundering problem in that the lower half of
the garment that had high deposition would not be laundered with the top
half of the garment which had minimal deposition. This could help to
reduce deposition in laundering. Some of the features of the initial
shirt prototype were retained including the high collar, front placket,
and long sleeves with cuffs (see Figure 12.).

An extended shoulder yoke, attached only at the neckline and the

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54

front placket, offered added protection in the area of potential mist
fall and against the contaminated hose when pulled over the shoulder.
Since it was attached only at the neckline, the knit body of the shirt
was not stabilized. The shoulder seam was covered with a stripe that
offered a sportier look and also protected from infiltration from the
contaminated hose through the seamline. Mesh underarm gussets provided
ventilation and extra mobility. The yoke overlay was constructed from a
heavy green 50/50 cotton/polyester 7-8 ounce twill, was treated with
three flourocarbon treatments to resist pesticide pick-up, and featured a
design stripe.

The shirt had long sleeves with cuffs constructed from the same
fabric as the yoke overlay. They also had three flourocarbon treatments.
The intention of the researchers was to discourage the subjects from
rolling up their Sleeves in warmer weather. The extra weight of the
cuffs made it difficult for the light weight knit to support them when
rolled up. The woven cuffs also offered added protection at the
interface of the glove and sleeve.

The shirt also had a high woven collar that was lined with the knit
fabric for comfort. The collar was also treated with a flourocarbon
finish for added protection as the contaminated hose is often pulled up
over the shoulder and against the neck when reeling and unreeling the
hose from the truck.

The pants in the protective ensemble were the Same as those worn in
the regular uniform ensemble. They were of green 50/50 cotton/polyester
work weight twill. The pants were a major concern since the area of
highest deposition was found on the lower legs and the lower abdomen was

an area of high ease in absorption. Because of this, protective

 

Figure 13.--Participant spraying lawn in the protective garment.

 

 

Figure l4.--Participant reeling hose in the protective garment.

55

56

features were inconspicuously incorporated into the pants. The pants
were lined from the knee down, both front and back, with Gore-tex<D, a
microporous film laminate, as were the front abdominal pockets.

Nylon belts were added to the ensemble as they would not hold the
insecticide and remain contaminated as the leather belts worn in the
regular uniform did. Rubber ankle length boots were also worn along with
new, prelaundered cotton t-shirts and jockey shorts. New company
baseball hats and PVC gloves were worn. PVC is a material that is
commonly used for protective wear however, it can be very warm to wear.
For this reason, mesh panel inserts were incorporated into the top of the
hand for ventilation, and elastic was placed at the wrist to improve fit.

Objective Three

 

Objective three was to illustrate designs and present them to
company officials.

After many sketches were evaluated and discussed, two designs were
presented to the participating lawn care company, including the one-piece
coveralls and the two-piece design with Chaps. It was originally
proposed that two protective garments and the regular uniform would be
tested. The cost of data analysis and the difficulty of getting subjects
to participate for a longer period necessitated only testing one
protective garment.

Initially, the one piece garment was accepted for the study. Later
it was rejected and the original two-piece garment was modified and
presented to company officials. This clothing system was accepted by the

lawn care company involved for use in the study.

57

Objective Four

 

After body measurements were taken and patterns were drafted, six
sets of the ensemble were constructed by the researchers and a group of
undergraduate students in an assembly line fashion. The gloves were
purchased, and the mesh inserts and elastic were added. Under wear and
boots were purchased. Refer to Figure 8. for an illustration of the

protective ensemble.

Questionnaire responses

 

When the participants were finished spraying at the end of the day
they were wearing the protective uniform, they were asked to complete a
questionnaire shown in the Appendix C. This questionnaire was completed
and returned by five of the six participants. Although the questionnaire
was not analyzed statistically, a frequency tally gave insight to the
participant perceptions of the garment by the wearers.

The first three groups Of questions addressed the participants
evaluation of fit, mobility, comfort, and appearance of the pants and
shirt and the fit and thermal comfort Of the gloves. Participants rated
their responses on a five point scale, one indicating a high score, five
indicating a low score.

Response totals for the pants are shown in Table 3. The overall
average of individual scores for the pants was 2.7. Ratings for fit,
mobility, and appearance of the pants were consistant with the averages
ranging from 2.2 to 2.6 and the standard deviation .3 to .7. There was
greater deviation from the average for comfort (1.3), however, with the
average rating being 3.6 indicating participants were less satisfied with

comfort.

58

participants
factors

fit
mobility
appearance
comfort

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Table 3.--Participant rating of protective pants.

The shirts received a slightly higher overall rating than the pants
with an average rating of 2.05. Again, the scores for fit, mobility, and
appearance were higher and more consistent than those for comfort.
Comfort was rated lower by the wearers. Response totals for the shirt

are shown in Table 4.

participant

 

 

factors .

1 2 3 4 5 x s.d.
fit 1 3 I 1 2 1.6 .8
mobility 1 3 1 2 2 1.8 .7
appearance 2 3 2 1 1 1.8 .7
comfort 2 3 2 4 4 3 1.0
x 2.5 3 1.5 2 2.25 2.05 .8
s.d. .33 O .33 2 1.58 .41 .2

 

Table 4.-- Participant rating of protective shirt.

59
The overall average rating of individual scores for the gloves was
2.7. Gloves were rated for fit and comfort. The scores were consistent.

Scores are shown in Table 5.

 

 

participant .
factors .
1 2 3 4 5 x s.d.
fit 2 4 3 27 2 2 6 .8
comfort 3 3 4 2 2 2 8 .7
x 2.5 3.5 3.5 2 2 2 7 .75
s.d. .5 .5 .5 O O 1 .025

 

Table 5.--Participant rating of gloves.

Participants also were asked to respond to two questions concerning
protection and appearance. When asked whether they felt the protective
uniforms would offer better protection than the regular uniform, all five
responded that they did feel that the garment would provide better
protection. One participant, however, qualified this by adding an
exception for the gloves. Participants also were asked what kind of
image the protective garments would project to their customers. Four out
Of five felt that the protective garment ensemble would project a
positive image while one participant felt that the garment would cause

the customer to worry.

Objective Five

 

Objective five was to measure the effectiveness of the protective
garment in reducing the amount of chlopyrifos absorbed when spraying on a
typical work day in comparison to the regular uniform. In order to do
this, two biomonitoring measures were planned: the measurement of plasma

and erythrocyte cholinesterase levels and the urinary excretion of

60 ;
creatinine and 3,5,6-trichlorO-2-pyridinol. However, for some reason,
one set of data were lost. Data was not used because it was incomplete
and those that were available did not show any change in cholinesterase
levels. Based on the 3,5,6-TCP data, it is reasonable that a change in
plasma and erythrocyte cholinesterase levels would not be apparent.

As described in Appendix A, 3,5,6-TCP is the principle metabolite of
chlorpyrifos. An average of seventy percent of 3,5,6-TCP is excreted
with a one-half life of twenty-seven hours with a volume distribution of
181 i 18 ml/kg (Nolan, et al., 1984).

Creatinine is excreted at a constant rate and the urinary 3,5,6-TCP
was normalized for incomplete collection by dividing the concentrate Of
3,5,6-TCP in the urine by the concentration of creatinine in that
specimen.

In order to determine the micrograms of 3,5,6-TCP excreted, an
adjustment was made so that the time period before the spray day would
not be included in the event that organophosphates had been absorbed
previously and remained in the system. The amount Of 3,5,6-TCP excreted
for the day before the spray day (-1), shown by the shaded triangle in
Figure 9., was subtracted from days 0 to day 3. This is under the
assumption that 3,5,6-TCP is excreted at first-rate order Kc=0.619 for

day -1 and that the area under the curve (Figure 15.) =amount/Kc.

61

 

 

 

 

 

Ab=A'e- "at = A'e'o't‘l = 0.538A,
Area Of shaded triangle= Ab/Ke=O.729A

Figure 15.--Adjustment of cumulative urinary excretion of 3,5,6 TCP for
the day preceeding the spray day (From Nolan, 1985).
Comparisons of the micrograms of 3,5,6-TCP excreted on the spray day
that the participants were wearing the protective clothing and the day
that they were not were made. A comparison of the micrograms excreted

standardized on the basis Of creatinine for both days is shown in Table

 

6.
VOLUNTEER PROTECTIVE NORMAL DIFFERENCE % REDUCTION
CLOTHING CLOTHING
1 46.7 101.4 54.7 53
2 91.2 148.6 57.4 37
3 87.2 103.9 16.7 16
4 38.4 61.3 22.9 37
5 26.6 58.5 31.9 54
6 40.2 41.6 - 1.4 -.03

 

Table 6.--Micrograms of 3,5,6-TCP excreted when protective clothing
and normal clothing were worn.

 

62

Looking at the amount Of micrograms of 3,5,6-TCP excreted, it is
easy to see the varying amounts of absorption between individuals. One
factor that plays a part in these differences between volunteers is
worker attitude. Some lawn care specialists are much more meticulous
than others when spraying. Since the lawn care specialists have a set
number of lawns to spray in a day, many times they are hurried, and
therefore less careful with the chemicals. Another variable is the
variation of human response to Chemicals. Thirdly, is the varying
amounts of gallons sprayed during a single day.

In this data, five of the six participants had a reduction in
micrograms of 3,5,6-TCP excreted on the test day that they were
wearing the protective clothing. The increased excretion for participant
six while wearing protective Clothing may have been due to his
physiological response to chemicals. It may also have been influenced by
the fact that he wore the protective Clothing the second day and the
boots he had been issued on the first test day split after the first hour
of work. He also sprayed slightly more insecticide on the day he wore
protective clothing

Because the micrograms of 3,5,6-TCP excreted differed between
individuals, a consideration Of the gallons sprayed was added. In order
to adjust for the difference in gallons sprayed by the individual on the
two spray days, the micrograms of 3,5,6-TCP excreted were divided by the
number Of gallons sprayed for that day. This gives the micrograms
excreted per gallon sprayed for the protective clothing and normal
uniform for each participant. These porportions (see Table 8.) were then
ranked for use in the Wilcoxon matched-pairs signed rank test.

The Wilcoxon matched-pairs signed ranks test was performed on the

 

63

data. This test ranks the size or magnitude of the difference between
pairs and also the direction of the differences within a pair. In order
to accomplish this, the difference between each pair is ranked, without
regard to whether it is positive or negative (eg. -1 is treated as 1).
The positive or negative sign is then affixed after ranking. T then
equals the smaller sum of like-signed ranks and can be accepted or
rejected at the set significance level.

The nonparametric Wilcoxon test was used because the sample was
small and diverse in that the standard deviation was large in comparison
to the mean.

The results of the Wilcoxon matched-pairs signed ranks test
indicated a reduction in 3,5,6-TCP excreted when the protective clothing

was worn in comparison to the regular uniform at less than the .025 alpha

 

 

 

level.
PROTECTIVE CLOTHING NORMAL UNIFORM

VOLUN- gallons micrograms porpor- gallons micrograms porpor-
TEER sprayed excreted tion sprayed excreted tion

1 750 46.7 .062 1000 101.4 .101

2 825 91.2 .111 532 148.6 .279

3 960 87.2 .091 920 103.9 .113

4 750 38.4 .051 680 61.3 .090

5 408 26.6 .065 450 58.5 .130

6 650 41.6 .064 600 40.2 .067

 

Table 7.--Micrograms 3,5,6-TCP excreted per gallons sprayed.

CHAPTER FIVE

SUMMARY

This study, which was a part of a larger project, involved the
development and construction of a protective garment for lawn care
specialists, and the evaluation of the effectiveness of the particular
protective garment in comparison to the regular uniform on reducing
Chlorpyrifos absorption.

The protective uniform was developed after reviewing a number of
sources of information including dye deposition data, a videotape of
phase one of the study and research literature dealing with fibers,
yarns, fabric constructions, and finishes and their effectiveness as
barriers to pesticide penetration. Design criteria, which included
pesticide protection, thermal comfort, mobility, and aesthetics, were
established based on these sources, and experimentation with fabric and
design combinations followed. Designs were periodically reviewed with
the lawn care company until mutual satisfaction was achieved.

The protective garment used in this study was a two-piece design.
The two-piece design allowed the bottom, with its heavier concentration
of the pesticide, to be laundered separately from the top.

The shirt body and sleeves were constructed in a 50/50
cotton/polyester knit fabric to allow for movement Of the arm and
shoulder. The shirt featured a high roll collar for protection against
contact with the hose and a yoke overlay of heavy cotton/polyester

64

65
twill, attached only at the neckline and placket, which eliminated
shoulder seams and added protection when pulling the hose over the
shoulder. A stretch mesh underarm gusset was inserted for movement and
cooling. The shirt had long sleeves and woven cuffs.

The pants, which were constructed from 50/50 cotton/polyester work
weight twill, were lined from the knee down and in the lower abdomen
area with a microporous laminate fabric. The pants received three
flourocarbon treatments, as did the shirt yoke, collar, and cuffs.

The sample consisted of six experienced lawn care specialists in
the greater Detroit area, who sprayed chlorpyrifos on the two test days.
On the first test day, three subjects wore the protective uniform and
three wore the regular uniform. On the next test day, the Clothing was
reversed so that each participant acted as their own control. The test
days involved regular work activities however, chlorpyrifos was sprayed
only on the two test days and not for three working days before the test
day.

During the two week study, participants collected urine samples for
the day before the spray days, the spray days, and the three days
following the spray days. The urine samples were analyzed for the
amount of 3,5,6-trichloro-2-pyridinol excretion, the principle
metabolite of chlorpyrifos, and for creatinine excretion, which was used
to standardize 3,5,6-TCP excretion.

Plasma and erythrocyte samples also were analyzed. Samples were
drawn at the start of the spray season, the Friday before the spray days
(Monday), and the day following the spray days. The blood samples were
taken in order to measure any change in Cholinesterase, an enzyme

affected by organophosphate absorption. Due to an error in timing the

66

analysis data were not used.

The participants were given new, pre-laundered Clothing including
the uniform, undershirt, shorts, and socks. New boots and company caps
were issued on the first test day and were worn again on the second test
day. Gloves were issued to be worn with the protective uniform
ensemble.

Responses to the questionnaire subjectively rated the protective
uniform as slightly above average in fit, mobility, and appearance, and
average or below average in comfort. The findings of this study
indicate that clothing can be effective in reducing the amount of
Chlorpyrifos absorbed into the human body when protective clothing is

worn .

DISCUSSION

 

This study is different from much of the past pesticide protective
clothing research in that it considers bodily absorption of pesticides
rather than pesticide penetration into clothing materials. It also deals
with a Clothing ensemble rather than the evaluation of particular
fabrics (eg. permeation rates) or design elements, but is similar in
that it adds to the mounting evidence that clothing can reduce bodily
pesticide absorption (Davies, et al., 1982).

This research contributes to our existing knowledge of pesticide
protection by building on research dealing with component parts Of an
ensemble (eg. fabric) and viewing the Clothing system as a whole. It
also emphasizes the need to draw from all of the sub components of the
two environments in the human ecosystem model (p. 8) in order to

establish design criteria.

67

When reviewing the clothing ensemble as a whole, elements which are
not as important when viewing the component parts of a design become
important. For example, the appearance of the clothing ensemble. In
the case of the lawn care specialist, the problem of protection from
organophosphate insecticides is complicated by the fact that lawn
specialists are highly visible professionals involved in both lawn care
and sales. Their appearance is thought to be important to sales.
Thermal comfort for warm summer weather and the ability of the garment
to allow mobility are also important in a clothing ensemble.

Working directly with company officials, it became evident that
at times they had different priorities or criteria for the protective
ensemble. Their criteria were sometimes more practical than those held
by the researchers. For example, the lawn care company was concerned
with how the garment would be perceived by their customers, how the lawn
care specialists would react to wearing the garments and how they may
attempt to Change them (eg. rolling up sleeves), and future costs to
employees or the corporation.

A Challenge of this functional design problem was to adequately
protect the wearer while maintaining thermal comfort, mobility, and
aesthetics. In the greater Detroit area, the typical lawn care
specialists' uniform consists of workweight twill pants and a short
sleeve polo style shirt in the colors of the respective company. Most
employees find this ensemble to be lightweight and comfortable. Upon
introducing features such as long sleeves, however, Sprayers may
immediately evaluate the garment as being warm to wear. In the
questionnaire given to the participants, four out Of the five

participants answering the questions wrote in that the shirts were too

68
hot even though the air temperature on the first spray day was low. The
extended yoke overlay of a heavy woven fabric, the long sleeves, and the
high collar may have been the contributing factors to this. All three
of these features were added for protection. However, since this was a
subjective assessment and was not a measured objectively, we are not
sure whether the protective garment was much warmer or whether it was
only only perceived to be.

Three out of the five responding commented that the pants were too
hot and one wrote in that the pants caused chaffing of the legs. The
lawn care company involved in the study wanted the microporous laminate
to be placed on the inside, as a liner, because the color the
researchers were able to Obtain in the limited time available did not
match the pants when it was used as an inset. The additional layer
probably added to warmth and stiffness.

The overall design tested was a compromise that met each of the
criteria to a degree and established that a different uniform could
reduce the amount of pesticide absorbed. Further research could
establish whether a mere comfortable outfit or less costly one would
afford equal protection.

Limitations:

 

1. This study was limited to six lawn care specialists who had
at least one year of prior experience in the lawn care industry.
Because of the limited sample size and the variation on human response
to Chemicals, conclusions should be limited to this sample.

2. The complexity of human physiology and the interaction of
uncontrolled variables in regard to biomonitoring makes it difficult to

precisely quantify chlorpyrifos absorption. Estimates were based on a

69
kinetic model of excretion and excretion of the principle metabolite,
3,5,6-trichloro-2-pyridinol.

3. This study was limited to one prototype which involved a
particular design and Specific fabric selections. Because of this,
conclusions can be made in regard to this ensemble only, without
any substitutions or changes. Because of this, it is not possible to
make conclusions concerning specific design or fabric features (eg. the
yoke overlay) in regard to thermal comfort, mobility, or protection, but
only as a whole ensemble.

4. There was an uncontrolled variance in the regular uniform due
to participants Choosing their own gloves to wear with the regular
uniform in this study. The extent to which these gloves may have been
contaminated is not known. From observations of the lawn care
Specialists before the participants volunteered, it appeared that most
did not wear gloves. However, the participants that volunteered for the
study did wear gloves with the regular uniform. This may relate to the
possibility that the most interested volunteered to be participants.

Recommendations:

 

As research in the area of pesticide protection increases, indepth
studies into fabric and design features Of specific items of clothing
that contribute to pesticide protection should be considered.

In past research literature dealing with pesticide protection,
protective boots or other footwear has been studied some, but many
questions remain such as how to decontaminate the boots or how much
residue build-up in boots is absorbed over time. For lawn care
specialists, this is an area of concern since the sprayer continually

walks through the contaminated grass, with the hose pointed downward

70

spraying towards the feet.

Although permeation of glove materials has been studied, the effect
of wearing or not wearing gloves has not been studied with respect to
the effect on absorption. In this study, an uncontrolled variable of
the regular uniform was caused by individual choice to wear gloves and
the kind of gloves to wear. Gloves do protect the skin from direct
contact with the Chemicals initially, but the effect of each particular
glove on absorption, or even how much pesticide comes in contact with
the gloves or hands is not known. Repeated studies, with and without
gloves may provide an answer to the question Of the effect of gloves in
bodily absorption.

Continued research in the area of pesticide protective clothing is
important in order to synthesize the information pertaining to specific
elements Of fabrics and designs. Research that addresses pesticide
bodily absorption gives additional meaning to the pesticide barrier
and/or penetration and laundry research.

Further studies using biomonitoring to measure bodily absorption
will help to build on these previous studies. Because of the number of
design features possible and fabrics available, combinations of fabrics
and designs are innumerable. For instance, shirts with and without the
yoke overlay or even with or without the flourocarbon finish could be
compared. Design and fabric combinations should be compared with each
other for their effectiveness as protection against pesticides, and also

for thermal comfort, mobility, and their acceptance aesthetically.

APPENDICES

APPENDIX A

71

APPENDIX A

Plasma and erythrocyte cholinesterase levels:
Cholinesterase levels can be detected before any signs of toxicity occur
(Nolan, et al., 1984). Organophosphates, upon entering the body, act
as anticholinesterases by reducing the cholinesterase levels of red blood
cells and plasma (Dreisbach, 1980). A.R. Main (1984) describes the
anticholinesterase activities as follows:

"In this capacity they act as nerve poisens by
inhibiting cholinesterases (ChE's) essential to the operation
of certain vital nerves. Such nerves employ acetylcholine as
their transmitter substance and are referred to as cholinergic
neurons to distinguish them from nerves using different
transmitters. The acetylcholine tansmits nerve impulses by
transfusion across the 20nm synaptic gap separating the nerve
from the muscle or gland it controls or from another nerve.
The assigned function of the essential ChE is to catalyze the
hydrolysis of acetylcholine in the synaptic gap. The products
of this hydrolysis are 100,000 times less effective as
transmitters than is acetylcholine. Thus the ChE acts to
control transmission of nerve impulses by modulating the
concentration of acetylchloine in the synaptic gap,
particularly in the region of the post synaptic gap membrane
where ChE's and cholinoreceptors appear to be principally
located. When ChE is inhibited by organophosphate...compounds,
the acetylcholine accumulates and its concentration remains at
levels which are continously to operate as signals. The
cholinoreceptors are then saturated with acetylcholine,
making the nerve system inoperative" (p. 351).

Urinary excretion of creatinine and 3,5,6-trichlorO-2-pyridinol:
After absorption, organophosphates are metabolized and excreted
almost entirely in the urine (Goodman, Gilman, 1965). Matthews describes

the metabolic breakdown as follows:

"...most important in terms Of detoxication and excretion,
organophosphate insecticides are degraded by phosphatases which
hydrolyze the phospherous from the larger organic portion of the
molecule and to a lesser extent by phosphatases which
dealkylate the phosphorous portion of the molecule. Thus, the
products of these enzymatic degradations, dialkyl phosphates

72

and various conjugates are generally molecules smaller and more

polar than the parent compounds and excreted primarily in the

urine" (p. 335).

Creatinine is formed by the removal Of water from creatinine
phosphate, generally in the muscle mass of the body. This formulation is
irreversible. Creatinine can be found not only in the muscle, however,
but in all of the bodily secretions including blood and urine (Fabiny,
Ertingshausen, 1971). The excretion of creatinine in the urine is known
to be generally constant in a given individual (Harper, 1969) thus
creatinine excretion is a surrogate for time and is effective as a
normalizer.

Some controversy exists concerning variables involved in the
creatinine excretion, especially the consumption of meat in the diet and
physical exercise. Bleirer and Schedl (1961) describe the relationship
of meat in the diet to creatinine excretion as the following:

"In general, rates of addition of creatine to loss of
creatinine from the precursor pool depend on the dietary intake

and synthesis of creatinine and the conversions of phosphoryl

creatine and creatinine. Meat in a usual diet can appreciably

expand the pool because of the slow turnovers of the

precursors. Thus, 24-hour urinary creatinine contains a

component from that day's turnover of stored creatinine

ingested previously" (p. 945).

In a more recent study, Patterson (1967), in a reinvestigation of
the constancy of the 24-hour excretion of creatinine, found little

variance in the excretion with varying diets. He also found that

physical exercise appeared to increase creatinine output only slightly.

APPENDIX B

FRIDAY: 1)
2)

SATURDAY: 1)
SUNDAY: l)
2)

3)

MONDAY: 1)
2)

3)

4)

5)

TUESDAY: 1)
2)

3)

4)

5)

WEDNESDAY: 1)
2)

3)

4)

THURSDAY: 1)
2)

3)

4)

FRIDAY: 3
)

(JONH

COLLECTION OF
the entire 24
following the

73

APPENDIX B

INSTRUCTIONS GIVEN VOLUNTEERS

Have blood specimen drawn
No exposure to chlorpyrifos or other OF

NO exposure to chlorpyrifos or other OP.

Discard urine from first voiding in morning
Collect all urine voided over next 24 hours.
No exposure to chlorpyrifos or other OP.

Place urine from first voiding in Sunday's container.
Collect all urine voided over next 24 hours.

Turn Sunday's urine specimen in when you come to work.
Have second blood specimen drawn.

Spray Chlorpyrifos; NO exposure to other OP.

Place urine from first voiding in Monday's container.
Collect all urine voided over next 24 hours.

Turn Monday's urine specimen in when you come to work.
Have last blood specimen drawn.

NO exposure to chlorpyrifos; May spray other OP.

Place urine from first voiding in Tuesday's container.
Collect all urine voided over next 24 hours.

Turn in Tuesday's urine specimen when you come to work.
NO exposure to Chlorpyrifos; May spray other OP.

Place urine from first voiding in Wednesday's container.
Collect all urine voided over next 24 hours.

Turn in Wednesday's urine specimen when you come to work.
No exposure to Chlorpyrifos; May spray other OP.

Place urine from first voiding in Thursday's container.
Stop collecting urine.
Turn in Thursday's urine specimen when you come to work.

URINE: It is important to collect all urine voided over
hour period. Each collection should start immediately
first voiding and end with the first voiding on the next

morning. Record, directly on the container label, the time each
container actually began and ended, and the approximate time interval
representing any urine that was lost. You will be given two containers
for each day's urine. As a matter of convenience we suggest that you

place no more

than about 16 hours Of urine in any container.

If you have any questions, please contact your supervisor or Richard J.
Nolan. Work phone 517-636-2182.

74

Observation Record: Protective Clothing Study

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Observer Date
Observing Time day began
Temperature Time day ended
Wind conditions: Sun conditions: Temperature:
Still Clear
Steady Partly cloudy
Gusty Overcast

Number of Applications done this day

General description Of terrain for the day. Were there any unusual
features (hilly, rocky, etc.)?

Did you notice the Sprayer having any problems with the clothing
(pulling at the shoulders, tight in the shoulders, pants too long, etc.)?

Did the pants look like they fit?

Did the shirt look like it fit?

Exposure observations:

Include direction of applicator's travel in relation to wind
direction, the way the hose is handled, nozzle drip, hose breakage,
truck problems, body movement of the sprayer, and other circumstances
that occured during the day.

APPENDIX C

 

75

 

 

 

 

APPENDIX C
QUESTIONNAIRE
Name: Date
Time day began Time day ended
Number Of sq. ft. sprayed today Time showered after work

Approximate number of gallons sprayed_______

Were there any unusual events in today's work (eg. broken hoses,
problems with truck, etc.)?

Please answer the following questions by circling the number Of your
responses for each question.

Very Good Average Poor Very

Good Poor
How was the fit of the pants? I 2 3 4 5
How easily could you move in them? 1 2 3 4 5
How would you rate their appearance? 1 2 3 4 5
How comfortable were the pants? 1 2 3 4 5
DO you have any comments to make about the pants?
How was the fit of the shirt? 1 2 3 4 5
How easily could you move in it? 1 2 3 4 5
How would you rate its appearance? 1 2 3 4 5
How comfortable was the shirt? 1 2 3 4 5
DO you have any comments to make about the shirt?
How was the fit of the gloves? 1 2 3 4 5
Was the temperature comfortable? 1 2 3 4 5

Do you have any comments to make about the gloves?

DO you feel these garments will offer better protection than the regular

uniform when spraying pesticides?

What kind of image do you think these garments will project to your
customers?

76
APPENDIX D

Dursban® is the registered tradmark of The Dow Chemical Company.
Tyvek® is a registered tradmark of DuPont.

Saranex® is a registered tradmark of The Dow Chemical Company.
Gore-tex® is a registered trademark of W.L. Gore and Associates, Inc.

Scotchgard® is a registered trademark of the 3M Company.

 

APPENDIX D

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