0253/5/92 //‘7 IIIIIII’IIIIIIII IIIIIIIII IIII 3 1293 00628 1384 LIBRARY W Michigan State University This is to certify that the dissertation entitled The Effect of Leader Behavior on Job Satisfaction Goal Agreement and Goal Attainment in Local Television News: A Survey presented by Angela Powers has been accepted towards fulfillment of the requirements for Ph.D. degreein Mass Media a / /7/ ‘, , I/‘V / {I ,“ . N ———-n __ :' / .l/ / / 7 L/ I "l V14; A: “‘\/’ Major professor L/ w ‘Dae December 7, 1989 MS U is an Affirmative Action/Equal Opportunity Institution 0- 12771 PLACE IN RETURN BOX to remove this checkout from your record. TO AVOID FINES return on or before date due. DATE DUE DATE DUE DATE DUE WWW MSU Is An Affirmative Action/Equal Opportunity Institmion T‘ EFFECT OI' LEADERSHIP BEHAVIOR ON JOB SAT I SFACT ION , GOAL AGREEMENT AND GOAL ATTAINMENT IN LOCAL TELEVI S ION NEWS : A SURVEY BY Angela M. Powers A D I SSERTAT ION Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY IN MASS MEDIA College of Communication Arts and Sciences 1990 ABSTRACT THE EFFECT OF LEADERSHIP BEHAVIOR ON JOB SATISFACTION, GOAL AGREEMENT AND GOAL ATTAINMENT IN LOCAL TELEVISION NEWS: A SURVEY By: Angela Powers Increasing competition and tightened economies within broadcasting have called for better leadership skills of television news directors. Leadership behavior has been associated with variables such as job satisfaction, organizational efficiency, and attainment of group goals. Therefore, what leadership behaviors of television news directors lead to job satisfaction, goal agreement, and attainment of group goals in broadcast newsrooms? Also, how do personal characteristics of staff members and environmental characteristics affect the leadership behavior of television news directors? .A mail survey of broadcast news departments in the Midwest region was conducted to consider these questions. Path-goal leadership theory was used to predict job satisfaction, goal agreement, and goal attainment in large market stations and medium market stations. The primary independent variables of interest were leadership behavior, market size, staff size, age, and experience. Their influence on the dependent variables of job satisfaction, goal agreement, and success of reaching group goals was the focus of analysis. Regression analysis was used to test the hypotheses. T-tests were used to see if meaningful relationships existed between larger and smaller organizations. Study results suggest some relationships between leadership behavior and job satisfaction, goal agreement and goal attainment exist. However, no significant relationships were found on the effect of personal characteristics and environmental charaCteristics on leadership behavior. Leadership behaviors are discussed, as are the organizational differences between large and medium market stations. This Dissertation is Dedicated To My Daughter, Kathleen P- ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Many family members and friends helped me through the writing of this dissertation and the completion of the Ph.D. Achnowledgments and thanks are due to all. First, I want to thank my mother, whose main objective was to see me through the Ph.D. program. She was available whenever I asked her for help of any kind. Thanks to my son, Sean, who seemed to naturally understand why his mother needed so much time to work on her studies. Thanks, also, to my ex-husband, John, who continually helped with the children and provided valuable suggestions concerning various aspects of my degree. Next, a number of professors at Michigan State University recognized my potential and encouraged me throughout my program. First, thanks to Professor Thomas Baldwin who took the time to listen to me and steer me in the right direction. Professor Todd Simon, in his understated manner, relayed his confidence in my ability to accomplish tasks for which I initially felt unqualified. Professor Steven Lacy questioned me at every phase, pushing me toward excellence. He taught me the true meaning of professionalism. Professor Stan Soffin accomodated my needs with kindness and consideration and was willing to help in any possible way. A special thanks to the chairman of my dissertation committee, Professor Charles Steinfield, who gracefully stepped in and thoughtfully guided me through the completion of the dissertation. My friends were also an invaluable source of inspiration. Thanks to Lauren Strach, Mike Steele, Rosemarie Alexander, Cheryl Pell, Rob Ducoffe, Gerri King and Xinmin Qin. Finally, to someone who had already been through the process, who understood my ups and downs, who gave his generous and unqualified support, my warmest and loving thanks go to my very best friend, Dr. Kent Kerby. iii TABLE OF CONTENTS CHAPTER I: Introduction ................................. 1 Review of the Literature ............................. 4 Path-Goal Theory of Leadership ................... 6 Evaluation of Path-Goal Theory .................. 10 Broadcast Management Research ....................... 11 Leadership Behavior ............................. 11 Task Dimension .............................. 13 Social Dimension ............................ 16 Personal Characteristics ........................ 20 Age ......................................... 20 Sex ......................................... 21 Education ................................... 22 Ethnic Background ........................... 23 Experience .................................. 24 Environmental Characteristics ................... 26 Salary ...................................... 26 Market Size/Staff Size ...................... 28 Employee Satisfaction ........................... 30 Goals ........................................... 33 Hypotheses .......................................... 38 Goals/Leader Behavior/Job Satisfaction .......... 39 Environmental Characteristics ................... 39 Personal Characteristics ........................ 40 Research Questions .................................. 40 CHAPTER II: Methodology ................................ 42 Operational Definitions ............................. 42 Leadership Behavior ............................. 42 Job Satisfaction ................................ 44 Goal Agreement .................................. 45 Market Size ..................................... 46 Market Share .................................... 46 Success Rating .................................. 47 Subjects ............................................ 48 Sampling Scheme ..................................... 49 Questionnaire ....................................... 50 Data Analysis ....................................... 51 iv CHAPTER III: Results ................................... 56 .Leadership Behavior ................................. 56 Personal Characteristics ............................ 57 Environmental Characteristics ....................... 59 Job Satisfaction .................................... 60 Goal Agreement ...................................... 61 Perceptions of Goal Success ......................... 62 Conditioning Matrices for Inferential Statistics ....62 Missing Data .................................... 63' Violations of Normality ......................... 63 Multicollinearity ............................... 65 Reliability of Measures ......................... 65 Hypotheses Tests .................................... 67 Hypothesis 1 .................................... 67 Hypothesis 2 .................................... 74 Hypothesis 3 .................................... 80 Hypothesis 4 and 5 .............................. 90 Hypothesis 6 .................................... 90 CHAPTER IV: Discussion .................................. 93 Leader Behavior ..................................... 93 Initiating Structure ............................ 95 Consideration ................................... 96 Job Satisfaction .................................... 97 Goals ............................................ 99 Personal and Environmental Characteristics' Effect on Leadership ............................ 100 Conclusions ......................................... 103 Implications for Broadcast News Managers ............ 104 Implications for Future Research .................... 107 APPENDIX A: Survey Questionnaire Instrument ....... ‘ ..... 112 APPENDIX B: Explanatory Cover Letter ................... 114 APPENDIX C: Follow-up Letter ................. .......... 115 APPENDIX D: Frequencies of Ages of Respondents ......... 116 APPENDIX E: Frequencies of Sex, Ethnic Background and Education ............................ 117 APPENDIX F: Frequencies and Means of Job Satisfaction Scores ...................... 118 APPENDIX G: Frequencies and Means for Goal Agreement ...119 APPENDIX H: Frequencies and Means for Success .......... 121 APPENDIX I: Skewness and Kurtosis of Independent Variables ................................ 123 APPENDIX J: Skewness and Kurtosis of Independent Variables With Outliers Corrected...... ..... . ...... 124 BIBLIOGRAPHY ......................................... 125 vi Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table 10: 11: 12: LIST OF TABLES T-Tests: Leadership Scores in Medium and Large Markets .............................. 57 T-Tests Comparing Personal Characteristics and Environmental Characteristics by Market Size ............................. 6O T-Tests Comparing Large and Medium Market Stations’ Job Satisfaction, Goal Agreement, and Goal Success ................ 62 Pearson Correlation Matrix ..................... 66 A11 Individuals: Leader Behavior Variables Regressed on Job Satisfaction .............. 69 Large Market Individuals: Selected Leader Behavior Variables Regressed on Job Satisfaction ........................... 70 Medium Market Individuals: Selected Leader Behavior Variables Regressed on Job Satisfaction ........................... 71 Large Market Averages: Selected Leader Behavior Variables Regressed on Job Satisfaction ........................... 72 Medium Market Averages: Selected Leader Behavior Variables Regressed on Job Satisfaction ........................... 73 All Individuals: Leader Behavior Variables Regressed on Goal Agreement ................ 75 Large Market Individuals: Selected Leader Behavior Variables Regressed on Goal Agreement ............................. 76 Medium Market Individuals: Selected Leader Behavior Variables Regressed on Goal Agreement ............................. 77 vii Table 13: Large Market Averages: Selected Leader Behavior Variables Regressed on Goal Agreement ............................. 78 Table 14: Medium Market Averages: Selected Leader Behavior Variables Regressed on Goal Agreement ............................. 79 Table 15: All Individuals: Regression of Leader Behavior Variables on Success .............. 82 Table 16: Large Market Individuals: Regression of Selected Leader Behavior Variables on Success ................................. 83 Table 17: Medium Market Individuals: Regression of Selected Leader Behavior Variables on Success ................................. 84 Table 18: Large Market Averages: Regression of Selected Leader Behavior Variables on Success .............. ... ................ 85 Table 19: Medium Market Averages: Regression of Selected Leader Behavior Variables on Success ................................. 86 Table 20: All Markets: Regression of Leader Behavior Variables on Market Shares ......... . ....... 87 Table 21: Large Market Averages: Regression of Selected Leader Behavior Variables on Market Shares ........................... 88 Table 22: Medium Market Averages: Regression of Selected Leader Behavior Variables on Market Shares. .......................... 89 Table 23: All Markets: Regression of Personal and Environmental Characteristics on Initiating Structure ....................... 91 Table 24: All Markets: Regression of Personal and Environmental Characteristics on Consideration.... .......................... 92 LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1: The Path-Goal Frame-Work ....................... 9 Figure 2: Frame-Work for Broadcast Newsroom Leadership ...................... 111 ix CHAPTER I Introduction News . . . is the lifeblood of Democracy. Without free, full, and uncontaminated information on all things that matter, the people have no sound means of making choices and deciding.--Sir William Haley1 Television news is the primary source of news for over 66 percent of Americans, and 55 percent rank it as the most believable news source.2 Furthermore, local television news influences public opinion in the community it serves.3 News directors are responsible for the overall efficiency of these news operations. Television news directors may have the most complex role of any manager in broadcasting.‘ They are among those who control the newsroom budget, determine salaries, assign responsibilities, supervise overall newsroom functions, establish priorities, and provide staff leadership.s Despite the important role of the news director, a lack of academic research exists investigating the leadership skills of these managers. Instead, research has focused on TSir William Haley, “News and Documentaries on 0.8. Television," in Survey of Broadcast JOurnalism 1968-1969, ed. Marvin Barrett (New York: Grosset and Dunlap, Inc., 1969), p. 59. 2 Donald V. West, ed., Broadcasting cablecasting Yearbook, 1989, (Washington D.C: Broadcasting Publication, Inc., 1989), p. A-3. ’ R.C. Adams and Marjorie J. Fish, “TV News Directors' Perceptions of Station Management Style,” JOurnalism Quarterly 64 (Spring 1987):154. ‘ Ted Dracos, “News Directors Are Lousy Managers,” washington JOurnalism Review, September 1989, p. 39. 5 Edward J. Trayes, “Managing Editors and Their Newsrooms: A Survey of 208 APME Members,” JOurnalism Quarterly 55 (Winter 1978):744. l management practices such as rapid change in personnel and formats, high competitive pressure, and fluctuations in ratings points.6 Furthermore, articles on broadcast management have reflected managements’ view of leadership behavior, rather than subordinates’ less biased viewpoint.7 Leadership behavior has been associated with variables such as job satisfaction, productivity, attainment of group goals, and product quality.’ In fact, leadership has been found to account for more variance in such organizational performance measures than did many environmental or I . I organizational factors.’ Therefore, news directors leadership behavior may contribute to the success of the news product, which is important in light of increasing competition and tightened economies within broadcasting. News Director David Richardson of WTLV-TV in Jacksonville, Florida says the internal organization of news departments affects the success of the news program.10 However, the literature suggests significant amounts of alienation and job 1Adams and Fish, pp. 154-162. 7 See Adams and Fish article for an example of management’s viewpoints of their own leadership style. ' ' See Virginia P. Richmond, James C. McCroskey, and Leonard M. Davis, “The Relationship of Supervisor Use of Power and Affinity-Seeking Strategies with Subordinate Satisfaction,” Communication Quarterly, 34 (Spring 1986):179. Leslie W. Rue and Lloyd L. Byars, Management: Theory and Application, 4th ed. (Homewood, IL: Irwin, 1986), p. 388. Churchill L. Roberts and Sandra H. Dickson, “Assessing Quality in Local TV News,” Journalism Quarterly 61 (Summer 1984):392. ’ Jonathan E. Smith, Kenneth P. Carson, Ralph A. Alexander, “Leadership: It Can Make a Difference,” Academy of Management JOurnal 27 (1984):?67. ‘°Interview with David Richardson, News Director, WTLV-TV, Jacksonville, FL, 18 October 1986. dissatisfaction among employees, communication problems between management and subordinates, and motivational deterrents within television operations.11 The television news industry is not perfectly analogous to the industrial kind. associated. only with jprofit calculations or a means to the highest profit at the lowest cost because news firms are not conventional manufacturers of conventional profits. Rather, news directors must allocate the scarce resources of staff, air time and production.” They must provide leadership to execute policies for obtaining high ratings, as well as set the ethical standards of the news operation.13 With these points in mind, several questions arise. What are leadership behaviors that lead to newsroom efficiency? How does leadership behavior affect job satisfaction? Is there a relationship between leadership behavior and the attainment of group goals in television newsrooms? To answer these questions, the first objective of this research was tn) determine broadcast journalists' perceptions of management’s behavior. The second objective was to look at the relationship between leadership behavior and job satisfaction. The third objective was to determine whether leadership behavior affects agreement of group goals, as well " R. Alan Ray, “The Use of Culture Analysis to Examine the Management Philosophies and Leadership Styles of Radio Station General Managers,” paper presented at the Broadcast Education Association, Spring 1988. “ Herbert J. Gans, Deciding What’s News: A Study of CBS Evening News, NBC Nightly News, Newsweek and Time (New York: Vintage Books, 1979), p. 282. " Dracos, p. 39. as attainment of group goals. Finally, the fourth objective was tn) see whether environmental characteristics and characteristics of subordinates affect leadership behavior of television news directors. Before addressing these issues, leadership theory is first discussed to show how it can be used to explain and predict behavior in newsroom situations. Then, existing broadcast management studies are reviewed. E 0 E I 1 I O I I Leadership differs from management in that management relies on legitimate power to influence people, while leadership comes from a social influence process.“ In other words, leadership is a broader concept.15 Zaleznik further points out fundamental differences between leaders and managers. For example, he says managers are impersonal, if not passive. Goals, for some managers, arise from necessity, not desire. Those managers who are leaders, however, are active in shaping goals. They are able to influence moods, develop fresh approaches and create excitement at work.“ Therefore, leadership can be defined as communication which positively influences the group to move in the direction of the group's goals.17 Although existing management studies of broadcast i"Ricky W. Griffin and Gregory Moorhead, Organizational Behavior (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1986), p. 347. "Robert H. Giles, Newsroom Management: A Guide to Theory and Practice (Indianapolis: R.J. Berg and Company, Inc., 1987), p. 208. "Giles, p. 198. '7Stephen E. Catt and Donald S. Miller, supervisory Management and Communication (Homewood, IL: Irwin, 1985), p. 66. television, for the most part, have not been guided by theoretical views, a proliferation of management and leadership studies exist dealing with various aspects of leadership in other organizations. Numerous theories of leadership have evolved over the years, including trait and style theory; however, situational leadership theory is now a more accepted theory used to describe leadership. Situational theory states that leadership can be explained only in terms of the interaction between the leader and the many variables in the work situation.“ Most theorists today emphasize the "situation" and the need for leaders to have diagnostic skills and communication skills for reacting in the situation. Path-goal situational theory is a commonly used theory to describe leadership. Before discussing path-goal theory, it should be mentioned that Tannenbaum and Schmidt, in an early model, laid the foundation for subsequent theories. They contended that different situations required different leadership styles. They suggested identified three forces involved in finding tflua most effective leadership style: forces involving the manager, the subordinate and the situation.” For example, the type of organization, whether it is centralized or decentralized, affects the leadership style of its managers. In fact, Tannenbaum and Schmidt argued that there is a continuum of behaviors that the manager may " Alan C. Filley and Robert J. House, Managerial Process and Organizational Behavior (Glenview, IL: Scott, Foresman and Company, 1969), p. 391. “ Robert Tannenbaum and Warren Schmidt, “How to Choose a Leadership Pattern," Harvard Business Review, (May-June 1973):162-80. exhibit depending (Hi the particular situation. They concluded that successful leaders understand not only themselves but other people in the organization, and they are able to act correctly as a result of these insights.20 Path-Goal Theory of Leadership The Path-goal theory of leadership attempts to define the relationships between a leader's behavior and the environment as well as the relationship between the leader's behavior and personal characteristics such as maturity level, discussed in life-cycle theory. House and Mitchell are associated with developing this theory, which relates leaders' behavior to subordinates' attitudes and behavior situationally. A basic proposition of the theory is that one of the strategic functions of the leader is to enhance the psychological states of subordinates that result in motivation to perform or in satisfaction with the job.21 The theory states that the behavior of a leader will be viewed as acceptable to subordinates only when they perceive it as either an immediate source of satisfaction or as instrumental to future satisfaction. Furthermore, according to the theory, leaders can motivate their subordinates by tying satisfaction of subordinates' needs to effective performance and by complementing the work environment of "1 21 Tannenbaum and Schmidt, p. 162. R.J. House and G. Dessler, “The Path-Goal Theory of Leadership: Some Post Hoc and A Priori Tests,” in Contingency Approaches in Leadership, eds. J. Hunt and L. Larson (Carbondale, IL: Southern Illinois University Press, 1974), pp. 29-55. their subordinates by providing the necessary coaching, guiding, and rewards for effective performance.22 The theory differentiates among four types of leaders' behavior, varying in degrees of task and social behavior: Instrumental--lets subordinates know what is expected of them, gives guidance as to what should be done and how, schedules and coordinates work among the subordinates, and maintains definite standards of performance. Supportive--has a friendly, approachable leader who attempts to make the work environment more pleasant for subordinates. Participative--involves consulting with subordinates and asking for their suggestions in the decision-making process. Achievement-oriented--comes from a leader who gives orders which. are not tn) be questioned by subordinates.23 The two classes of situational variables that are assumed to moderate the effect of the leader's behavior on subordinates' satisfaction and productivity are personal characteristics of subordinates and environmental pressures and demands subordinates must cope with to accomplish work goals and satisfy personal needs." Personal characteristics, according tn) the theory, include the subordinate's perception of his or her own ability and his or her locus of control. People who perceive that they are lacking in ability may prefer directive leadership to help them understand path-goal relationships better. They may resent directive leadership, however, if ”House and Dessler, p. 33. "Rue and Byars, p. 393. "House and Dessler, pp. 31-32. their perception of their ability is high. People who have an internal locus of control believe that what happens to them is a result of their own efforts. People who have an external locus of control believe that fate or "the system" determines what happens to them. Griffin states that people with an internal locus of control may prefer participative leadership, whereas a person with an external locus of control may prefer directive leadership.25 While managers are unable to change personal characteristics, they can influence the environment. Environmental characteristics include factors outside the subordinate's control. According to path-goal theory, environmental factors include: ]J the subordinates' task, 2) the formal authority system of the organization, 3) the primary work group. These may serve as stimuli that motivate subordinates to perform necessary tasks, or they may act as constraints on performance.“ If tasks are straightforward, attempts to direct by the leader will be redundant and seen by subordinates as unnecessary. Furthermore, the higher the degree of formality, the less directive leader behavior will be accepted by subordinates. Once again, attempts by the leader in this situation would be seen as redundant. Finally, the nature of the work group also affects appropriate leader behavior. When the work group provides the individual with social support and satisfaction, supportive leader behavior is less z"'Ricky W. Griffin, Management, 2nd ed. (Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1987), p. 434. 2“House and Dessler, p. 31. critical.27 According to the theory, however, leaders' supportive behavior has the strongest positive impact on satisfaction and productivity for those subordinates who work on stressful frustrating tasks." Griffin provides a basic path-goal framework as illustrated in Figure l. The model shows that leader behaviors affect subordinate motivation to perform. Personal and environmental characteristics influence the nature of this relationship. PERSONAL CHARACTERISTICS Perceived Ability Locus of Control LEADER BEHAVIORS Directive A MOTIVATION Achievement Oriented 7 Supportive JOB SATISFACTION Participative ENVRIONMENTAL CHARACTERISTICS Task Structure Authority System Work Group Figure l. The Path-Goal Frame-Work. ’THouse and Dessler, p. 33. 2'J. F. Schriesheim and C.A. Schriesheim, “Test of the Path-Goal Theory of Leadership and Some Suggested Directions for Future Research,” Personnel Psychology (Summer 1980):349-71. 10 Evaluation of Path-goal Theory The path-goal theory includes forms of task-oriented behavior with its directive and achievement-oriented styles. The theory also identifies behaviors focusing on social considerations or relationship-oriented behavior. Participative and supportive styles are relationship— oriented. The most-used instrument to measure these behaviors for purposes of scholarly research has been the Leader Behavior Description Questionnaire (LBDQ). in“; LBDQ labels task—oriented behavior as initiating structure and relationship-oriented behavior as consideration. AJthough not perfectly analogous to the four leadership behaviors of path-goal theory, the reliability of the instruments compensates for the collapsing of the four styles into two. More on the use of the LBDQ is discussed in a later section. Path-goal theory also considers both personal characteristics and environmental characteristics in its discussion of situational variables. Finally, dependent variables of leader behavior are discussed in path-goal theory. The theory emphasizes that leader behavior affects subordinate job satisfaction and motivation to achieve group goals. Path-goal theory is a comprehensive and valid model of leadership behavior because it is based on the assumption that leaders must adapt to different situations. Path-goal theory also looks at the direction of the relationship between leadership behavior, job satisfaction and goal attainment and the variables that modify such relationships. 11 For example, certain leadership behaviors will be more effective with some subordinates based on differences in personal characteristics of subordinates. Furthermore, the theory points out that leadership behavior may be affected by environmental characteristics of in“: work place. The structure of the task may affect leadership behavior. In a crisis situation, task—oriented leader behavior, rather than participatory leader behavior may be necessary. In addition to inclusion of useful variables, another strength of the theory lies in the structure of the model itself. The model provides a tool for organizing research that has already been conducted on broadcast management and highlighting the need for additional studies. Therefore, because of its comprehensive nature and theoretical structure, path-goal theory was used in this study as a framework for the study of broadcast television newsroom leadership. WW Concepts based primarily on path-goal theory are presented to create a framework for newsroom leadership. The concepts to be included are leadership behaviors, personal characteristics of subordinates, environmental characteristics, job satisfaction and goal agreement and attainment.) Each concept will be described as it relates to television newsrooms. Existing media research on each concept will also be discussed. 12 Leadership Behavior Leader behavior, according to path-goal theory, is acceptable to subordinates as long as subordinates see it as a source of satisfaction now or as a step toward future satisfaction.29 .A news manager is involved in the task functions of planning, organizing work and technology, and financial budgeting and analysis, as well as the social function of working with people. Inn the planning process, the news director must show vision about where the news department should go. Once plans are agreed upon, the news director must determine ways to accomplish goals, by rethinking the process of past procedures and in some situations by setting up new structures. When creating budgets to accomplish these goals, news directors must use leadership qualities to "mobilize the people, money, information, services, time, and technology needed to implement their vision."” Finally, the most successful news directors are skilled at working with people. They determine what sort of staff is needed and then capitalize on staff strengths.31 In short, they need to apply their leadership functions to task functions as well as social skills so that subordinates might see the news managers' goals as sources of satisfaction. Based on these functions, news directors would seem to need a high task as well as a high social leadership style. 5“Schriesheim and Schriesheim, pp. 349-71. ” John M. Levine and Daniel B. Wackman, Managing Media Organizations: Effective Leadership of the Media (New York: Longman, 1988), p. 227. "Lavine and Wackman, p. 227. l3 Path-goal theory, as stated before, identifies four kinds of leader behavior, with the directive leader and the achievement-oriented leader emphasizing task behavior, while the supportive leader and the participative leader emphasize relationship-oriented behavior.32 Only a few studies have directly related to leadership in the broadcast industry. However, researchers have been interested in the more general concept of management for some time. Also, research on the leadership and management of the print media is more abundant than broadcast media research; therefore, some of those studies will be presented here. The research will be divided into task and social functions of media managers. Task Dimension As early as 1958, the broadcasting industry became interested in outlining the structure of management. The National Association of Broadcasters listed three basic elements of the management job. These included determining policy, executing policy and checking results for control and planning purposes.33 While little empirical research has focused on what news managers actually do, news directors are generally responsible for setting policies, coordinating the news staffs and guiding the coverage that determines what IzGriffin, p. 434 . 3“Charles H. Tower, “The Structure of Management,” Journal of Broadcasting, 2 (Spring 19S8):179. 14 television audiences see and hear about their communities and the world. Because television news has a visible and often influential role in society, the public expects it to be credible. Therefore, to foster credibility, some news directors are responsible for adopting codes of ethics and standards for reporting information.“ Another task consideration of news directors is that the content or news product is a perishable commodity in that it loses its value if it is not produced in a timely, effective way. Therefore, news directors and managers are under extreme deadline pressure which demands coordination of resources.35 This also demands creativity and flexibility for trying new ideas with little time for reflection. News directors must also consider that advertising accounts for virtually all revenue at the television station. Advertisers spend more money for spots on news shows with higher ratings. Funds spent by advertisers have dropped in recent years, creating new challenges for news directors.“ Therefore, news directors must think more competitively as they position their news product to attract audiences. The downturn in advertising revenue has also resulted in a need for careful budget planning. Patrick and Howard, however, found that television group owners tended to allow their local station managements to make most non-budgetary decisions. The areas of decision-making most under local " Lavine and Wackman, p. 14-15. ” Lavine and Wackman, p. 14-15. :uGrahm Button, “Breaking News Or Breaking Even?” View, August 17, 1987, p. 49. 15 control included news and public affairs. However, the single area of decision making that tended to be most under corporate rather than local control was that of budget making.37 Under the control of corporate executives, most news directors can usually only expect budget increases to keep pace with inflation. Many face budget cuts.” Therefore, corporate offices are asking news directors to do the same job they have always done with less money. .As a result, they must decrease costs such as those incurred by telephone charges, travel expenses, satellite time, helicopter usage and overtime. There is also less consideration of staff expansion and raises.” Most local television stations are group owned, with that ownership changing hands more frequently in recent years. Therefore, in addition to coping with decreased revenues, news directors must also answer to changing corporate structures. The past 40 years has seen a sharp rise in ownership concentration. In 1975, 153 groups owned 73 percent of all 982 commercial television stations.‘0 As studies in the next section will show, the structure of the corporation affects the communication within the company. 37Lawrence W. Patrick and Herbert H. Howard, “Decision Making by Group Broadcasting," Journal of Broadcasting 18 (Fall 1974):471. ”Button, p. 49. ”Button, p. 49. “Benjamin Campaine, ed., Who Owns the Media? (New York: Knowledge Industries, 1982), pp. 61-126. 16 Social Dimension Performing tasks and obtaining goals may be enhanced by good communication skills. One newspaper consultant said that without "communication there is no leadership, supervision, '"1 Management management or instruction of employees. consultants say communication is the single most important part of managing a newsroom. These social functions can take place in the form of interpersonal communication, memorandums, bulletin boards, or staff meetings.‘2 Shipman and Fowler found that newspaper managers evaluated employees on a regular basis and interpersonal communication was the preferred and most often used means of communications. They also found that the perceived positive atmospheres of the newsroom were related to the amount of participation in which reporters were involved in work- related decision making.” Bennett was one of the first to look at communication in a broadcast setting. He studied the communication behavior of fifty-two radio and television station managers and found that the authoritarian broadcast manager tended to be more concerned with non-verbal communication or status symbols. The democratic manager, on the other hand, was involved in u more planned, deliberate personal interaction. Rhea also looked at communication in a broadcast IIGilbert L. Fowler and John Marlin Shipman, “Pennsylvania Editors’ Perceptions of Communication in the Newsroom,” Jeurnalism Quarterly 61 (Winter 1982):822. ‘aFowler and Shipman, p. 822. "Fowler and Shipman, p. 826. “E. Bennett, “Management Types and Communication Behavior,” (Master’s thesis, Michigan State University, 1969). 17 setting. He found that managers of television stations with high average market shares of the audience were perceived by their subordinates as being more open, less defensive, and possessing greater expertise than were managers of stations with low average market shares of the audience.‘5 In field observations, Ray found three distinct manager philosophies: (1) an "X culture" where the manager controls the environment with his own value system, (2) a "Y culture" where the manager allows departmentalization to shape the direction of the station, or (3) a "Z culture" where the manager directs all departments with a single set of station- wide goals.“ Ray's categories are based on McGregor's profiles of leader's attitudes. McGregor maintains that a "Theory X" leader would likely use an authoritarian style of leadership because people have an inherent dislike of work and must be coerced, controlled, and directed to achieve organizational objectives. "Theory Y" leaders would exhibit a much more democratic style of leadership because this type of person assumes that work for human beings is as natural as play or rest and that "commitment to objectives is a function of the rewards associated with their achievement." .A "Z" culture is based on Japanese management theory which emphasizes the " James W. Rhea, “An Investigation of Relationship Among Specified Variables in the Management of Television Stations,” (Ph.D. dissertation, Ohio University, 1970). “Ray, p. 1-17. " Douglas McGregor, The Human Side of Enterprise (New York: McGraw- Hill, Inc. 1960), pp. 33-34, 47-48. 18 flow of information from the bottom up, making top management the facilitator of decision-making rather than the issuer of commands. Theory 2 also stresses lifetime employment and nonspecialized careers.“ In small market news departments, horizontal organizational structures, or "Y" cultures, may dominate because there are few levels between subordinates and leaders. This, however, results in high turnover rates due to limited opportunities for advancement. Therefore, news directors are concerned with ways to retain valued employees and foster their growth and development. In: the best of circumstances, however, this is not always possible because good peOple move on to larger markets for higher salaries and more prestige. Therefore, news directors need to maintain an orderly inflow of high quality replacements. At large market stations, where "X" cultures may be more prevalent, the challenge is in) foster creativity and productivity. Subordinates are likely to stay with these news departments longer because of higher salaries and more prestige. However, news directors need to consider upholding the morale of their staff. One way of doing this is by giving them high levels of autonomy. It is unlikely that Theory Z cultures exist at many television stations because of high turnover and specialized careers. However, news quality and job satisfaction would probably increase if some effort were made to incorporate such philosophies because there would be less turnover and 1'William G. Ouchi, Theory 2 (New York: Avon, 1981) . 19 more commitment to quality. Another unique social characteristic of television newsrooms is that news directors cannot be in direct contact with their subordinates during much of tuna work day. Reporters usually gather information away from the workplace. Therefore, many of their least experienced subordinates are out of the building acting on behalf of the firm. This creates unique challenges in leadership for most news directors because, while newcomers may need more directive behavior from their leader, they may not get it because of a lack of contact. Such challenges may include the need for more participation in decision-making. Since journalists are the experts on what happens in the field, there is obviously a need for their input on matters such as story coverage or placement in the newscast. Indeed, Gaziano and Coulson found that journalists endorse participation in decision making as an important factor in improving communication and the work environment.”’ Furthermore, Ingham believes that news directors can improve communication and the quality of news by having a less autocratic style of leadership.50 Powers also found that the top—rated station in a particular market had a news director with a democratic leadership style.”' IICecilie Gaziano and David C. Coulson, “Effect of Newsroom Management Styles on Journalists: A Case Study,” Journalism Quarterly 65 (Winter 1988):869-880. ‘”Mark Ingham, “Managing in the Newsroom," Presstime, February 1987, p. 28. 5'Angela Powers, “An Exploratory Study of Three News Directors’ Leadership Styles and Communication Behaviors,” paper presented at the Speech Communication Association, Chicago, IL, 14 November 1986. 20 Finally, Starlin reports that the three greatest problem areas within the broadcast industry, including social and task functions are: (1) fairer compensation practices (2) improved physical equipment, and (3) better overall leadership.’52 Coulson also found that the majority of newspaper journalists studied said they expected a great deal of leadership from their supervisors; however, only a few said they received it. These journalists indicated that the newspapers' greatest weaknesses were poor' planning, communication, and, once again, leadership.” Personal Characteristics Another proposition of path-goal theory is that the specific leader behavior that will accomplish the above motivational function of leadership is determined by the situation in which the leader operates." One class of situational variables include tflm: characteristics of subordinates such as age, sex, education, ethnic background, and experience. Age U.S. journalists in 1981 were more likely to be younger and female than they were in 1971.55 They were highly clustered in the 25-to-34-year-old age group. The median age u Glen Starlin, “Employee Attitudes Toward the Broadcasting Industry,” Journal of Broadcasting 7 (Winter 1963):364. "Gaziano and Coulson, p. 7. "House and Dessler, p. 31. ”David H. weaver and G. Cleveland Wilhoit, The American Journalist (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1986), p. 17. 21 was slightly below the median age for all U.S. workers. Stone reports that the average for television journalists is 31 years old, while news directors are an average age of 38.56 Therefore, journalism may tend to be a younger person's occupation because of stresses created by deadlines and difficult reporting assignments. In fact, Weaver and Wilhoit found that many journalists leave the field in their forties because of low pay and pursuit of other occupations.” Also, minority journalists are significantly younger than majority white journalists. In 1981, minority journalists were on the average about 29 years old, while majority white journalists were about 36 years old.” The characteristics of both groups, however, affects level of job satisfaction. Older journalists more often focus on economic goals, while younger reporters stress personal development.” Therefore, news directors must adjust to these differing set of values. Sex Sex was also found to affect subordinates' satisfaction of leadership style. Kusnell and Newton found that leadership style, rather than a leader's gender, is a significant determinant of subject satisfaction. However, females more often than males perceived autocratic leaders IIVernon A. Stone, “A Profile of U.S. Radio and Television Journalists,” paper presented at the Association for Education in Journalism.and Mass Communication, Norman, OK, 3 August 1986. 57Weaver and Wilhoit, pp. 19-20. “Weaver and Wilhoit, p. 20. ”Weaver and Wilhoit, p. 95. 22 more negatively than democratic leaders. They also found that while subjects were overall more satisfied with democratic leaders, female subordinates were less satisfied with autocratic female leaders than were male subordinates. In a similar study, male subjects responded more favorably to assertiveness than did female subjects who evaluated the outspoken women much more harshly than did the males. Kushell and Newton contend that male subordinates may find autocratic leadership to be appropriate behavior, while female subordinates find this behavior less satisfying, regardless of whether it is exhibited by a male or female.“0 Therefore, news directors should realize that female staff members may be more satisfied if participative or relationship-oriented styles of management are adopted. In addition to sex and job satisfaction, the proportion of women varies with the type of media they are employed by. The highest proportion of women work in daily and weekly newspapers and for television stations.“1 Stone found that females now make up 43 percent of the workforce in television news."2 Education Path-goal theory assumes that subordinates with higher levels of ability and education require higher levels of consideration leadership behavior from managers. For weaver and Wilhoit, p. 95. " Weaver and Wilhoit, p. 20. “ Vernon A. Stone, “The Changing Profiles of Broadcast News Directors,” paper presented at the Association for Education in Journalism and Mass Communication, Norman, OK, 3 August 1986. 23 example, as the level of maturity of one’s followers continues to increase, appropriate leader behavior not only requires less and less structure, but the need for increasing consideration behavior, as well. Maturity can be defined as the willingness and ability to take responsibility, and task relevant education and experience of an individual or a group.” News people at both large and small market stations are likely ix) be "educated, professional, extremely hardworking, and in many cases very creative. Stone reports 62 percent of television journalists have college degrees.‘5 Such people usually have a strong commitment to and identification with their product. Studies indicate such people need more autonomy in order to be satisfied with their positions.“ Furthermore, journalists view themselves as professionals and feel an allegiance to certain standard of the profession. When such standards clash with organizational standards, staff members are more likely to side with the profession than with the firm.67 Ethnic Background While ethnic background is not mentioned in path-goal theory, it is one personal characteristic of journalists to be considered. Proportioned numbers of news staff members to "Paul Hersey and Kenneth H. Blanchard, Management of Organizational Behavior: Utilizing Human Resources, 2nd ed. (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1972), p. 134. “Lavine and Wackman, p. 15. "Stone, “A Profile of U.S. Radio and Television Journalists.” "Hersey and Blanchard, p. 107. "Lavine and Wackman, p. 16. 24 the community they report for would likely result in a greater understanding of pertinent local issues. Weaver and Wilhoit report that 78 percent of journalists in 1981 were Caucasian, the dominant cultural group in the United States. No gains were made in journalists coming from Black, Hispanic or Jewish origins since Johnstone's 1971 study. However, Orientals were represented in U.S. journalism in about the same proportion as in the overall society. These findings suggest that people working for the news media tend to come from the same cultural group as those working for the political and economic systems.“ However, given increased power of minorities in society, news media managers may need to recruit and retain more minority journalists to better reach goals such as serving the community. Experience According to path-goal theory, if staff members perceive they are lacking in overall experience or ability, they may prefer directive leadership. However if their perceptions of their ability are high, they may resent directive leadership. Conversely, staff members with high needs for achievement would be predicted to view leader behavior that clarifies and provides goal oriented feedback as satisfying.” Another characteristic of subordinates that acts as a moderator of the effects of leader behavior is the subordinates' perception of their own ability concerning task “Weaver and Wilhoit, p. 23. "House and Dessler, p. 31. 25 demands. The higher the degree of perceived task ability, the less subordinates see leaders' attempts at extra task or social behavior as acceptable.70 Such behavior is likely to have little positive effect on the motivation of news staff members and is likely to be perceived as excessive. It could result in dysfunctional behavior such as passive resistance, sabotage, and leader-follower conflict.71 If tasks are straight-forward, attempts by the leader will be redundant and seen by subordinates as unnecessary control. In broadcasting, time restrictions and ratings may be considered to be set features of the task structure, as are reporting practices and use of equipment. This indicates that more experienced reporters require less task and social direction from news directors in these areas, while beginners would respond positively to increased control.72 There may be more variability, however, in making task decisions such as choosing the major stories to be covered and the lead story of the day. These tasks may require more input from the leader. However, as indicated in the last section, reporters and producers should be involved in making these decisions. With these theoretical concepts in mind, broadcast journalists would be at the high end of the experience scale if education were the main criteria. Sixty-two percent of television journalists have college degrees.73 .However, the ”House and Dessler, p. 32. 7'House and Dessler, p. 32. ’zHouse and Dessler, p. 33. 73Stone, “A Profile of U.S. Radio and Television Journalists.” 26 number of years they have worked at their present station must also be included when considering overall experience level. The median time in their present jobs was 2.2 years. Stone concluded that this turnover may threaten professionalism." Environmental Characteristics Environmental factors are those not within the control of the subordinate. According to path-goal goal theory, environmental factors include the formal authority system of the organization, the primary work group and the tasks of which both managers and subordinates are responsible. Broadcast journalists are responsible for reporting news. Some environmental characteristics that affect this process are the staff size of the news department, market size or DMA, and the salary structure. Salary The downturn in advertising revenue has resulted in a need for strict budget control. Newsrooms could expect ten to 15 percent increases in operating budgets before 1980; however, now news directors can usually only expect increases to keep pace with inflation. Furthermore, many are facing budget cuts.75 News directors are coping with the tightened economies in various ways. Payroll is one area where news directors are looking to ’IStone, “A Profile of U.S. Radio and Television Journalists." "sutton, p. 49. 27 hold the line. "There is virtually no discussion of staff expansion, and even tougher negotiations on raises with organized labor and non-organized employees.“6 In 1981, the median salary of journalists was $19,000. Television journalists have showed the greatest losses with median annual incomes lower than the overall median salary of journalists. Weaver and Wilhoit also report that the Midwest region was near the lowest, with a median income of about $14,500 in 1981.77 Dramatic salary differences exist between small and large news organizations. Editorial staff size is one of the strongest predictors of salaries. Media with more than 100 editorial employees had a median income of $30,021 in 1981, more than double the median salary of the smallest organizations." Unfortunately, the journalist's salary is far below other professionals holding bachelor's degrees. .Although salary levels may not predict job satisfaction, managers must realize that the "importance journalists place on salary in evaluating journalism jobs is associated with job " 7’ satisfaction. For example, if journalists feel that salary is an important criterion for evaluating the job and their salary is low, the less job satisfaction the journalist expresses. Also, older journalists with higher salaries are more likely to express job satisfaction than their less-well ’IButton, p. 49. 77Weaver and Wilhoit, pp. 84-85. "Weaver and Wilhoit, p. 85. 7‘Weaver and Wilhoit, p. 85. 28 paid colleagues."0 Market Size/Staff Size Most media-related research reviewed on environmental characteristics fell into the category of size of the organization. Path-goal theory states that the larger the organization, the higher the degree of formality and the less directive leader behavior will be accepted by subordinates. This is because in formal environments, tasks are clearly defined. Attempts by the leader to direct would be seen as redundant.‘1 However media studies indicate that corporate size has the opposite affect on communication and leadership style. . Johnstone found that in newspaper organizations, face- to-face communication declines as organizations increase in size. He also fOund that communication in large news organizations flows primarily down the organizational ladder.‘2 Howard provided data on communication at group television operations. He found that large corporations encouraged the flow of communication and that extensive communication existed; however, much of it was written in the form of reports, memos, and newsletters. Annual evaluation of management performance was required, as were weekly and “Weaver and Wilhoit, p. 89. "House and Dessler, p. 34. 'aJohn W.C. Johnstone, “Organizational Constraints on Newswork," Journalism Quarterly 53 (Spring 1976):12. 29 monthly reviews of station departments.” Phillips also looked at variables involved in the corporate television leadership process. .He found that profits provided the control data from which much of the leadership activity was predicated. Aiso, ratings as an indication of profit potential were of prime importance. With this in mind, Phillips found that the influence of the corporate leader in establishing responsibilities and a climate for work and communication throughout the organization was substantial. The corporate leader also had an impact on the behavior of middle and lower level management. Therefore, Phillips ~concluded that organizational structure within television corporations may be prescriptive of communication channels and leadership at lower level management positions.“ Polansky and Hughes confirmed Phillips' study when they found that a newspaper's degree of centralization may be determined kn] its organizational structure. Furthermore, they found that an increase in centralization and bureaucratization fostered job dissatisfaction because of diminished autonomy.“5 Another aspect of organization structure and IsHerbert H. Howard, “Multiple Ownership in Television Broadcasting: Historical Development and Selected Case Studies” (Ph.D. dissertation, Ohio University, 1973), pp. 251-331. “ Dennis Phillips, “A Systematic Study of the Leadership Process at the Corporate Level of Two Television Group Owners” (Ph.D. dissertation, Ohio University, 1976). 'SSharon H. Polansky and Douglas W. Hughes, “Managerial Innovations in Newspaper Organizations,” Newspaper Research Journal 8 (Spring, 1986):3. 30 communication includes the socio-emotional make-up of the newsroom team. When the work group provides the individual with social support and satisfaction, supportive leader behavior is less critical.“ On the other hand, when social support and satisfaction are lackimg in the newsroom situation, the individual may look to the news director for this support. Since broadcast newsrooms tend to be less formal, perhaps there is less need for supportive behavior from the news director. Haas found that newsroom employees place a high value on being part of the news team. For example, news members banded together to discuss what they saw as the rival station's lack of professionalism." Perhaps when the work group provides such social support, there is less need for supportive behavior from news managers. Employee Satisfaction Employee satisfaction is central to the relationship between supervisors and subordinates and has become more of a concern of television news managers. Managers believe job satisfaction may be related to quality of a newscast and to recruiting and retaining talented journalists." Furthermore, studies show that opportunity to participate in decision-making and leadership style appear to impact the uHouse and Dessler, p. 33. ” John W. Haas, “Hotbed of Activity: A Study of Newsroom Values and Beliefs,” paper presented at the Speech Communication Association, Boston, MA 6 November 1987. "Lori A. Bergen and David Weaver, “Job Satisfaction of Daily Newspaper Journalists and Organization Size,” Newspaper Research Journal 9 (Winter, 1988):1-13. 31 degree to which employees are satisfied.‘9 Employee satisfaction can be defined as a person's attitude about his or her job. Rue and Byars list five major components of employee satisfaction: "(1) attitude toward work group, (2) general working conditions, (3) attitude toward company, (4) monetary benefits, and (5) attitude toward supervision."” A basic proposition of path-goal theory is that one function of the leader is to enhance the emotional states of subordinates that result in satisfaction with the job. They can do this by: (1) recognizing and/or arousing subordinates' needs for outcomes over which the leader has some control (2) increasing personal payoffs to subordinates for work goal attainment (3) meking the path to these payoffs easier to travel by coaching and direction (4) helping subordinates clarify expectations (5) reducing frustrating barriers (6) increasing the opportunities for personal satisfaction contingent on effective performance.’1 In other words, leaders are to provide for subordinates the direction, support and rewards necessary for effective and satisfying performance that would otherwise be lacking in the newsroom. Lavine and Wackman divide rewards into categories of extrinsic rewards and intrinsic reward. "Richmond and McCroskey, p. 179. ”Rue and Byars, p. 368. "House and Dessler, p. 31. 32 Extrinsic rewards include profit sharing, pay incentives, professional recognition, promotions and even friendship. Intrinsic rewards are part of the job and arise from the work itself. They include autonomy, variety, significance and identity. According to Lavine and Wackman, while media jobs involve considerable intrinsic rewards, few media executives provide extrinsic rewards for employees in nonrevenue- producing areas such as news.92 Nevertheless, Stone found that forty-seven percent of journalists surveyed were fairly satisfied with their job.”3 However, other media studies point to areas of dissatisfaction with journalists. For example, Joseph found that most TV reporters want to be consulted by management before management makes decisions concerning work-related issues. He states that work dissatisfaction exists with some local television reporters in environments where management makes most decisions.” Weaver and Wilhoit found differences in levels of job satisfaction based on age. The major predictor of job satisfaction for younger journalists was how well they thought their news organization was doing in informing the public. Another major predictor was the frequency of comments made by supervisors about journalists' work, accentuating the importance of leadership behavior. For journalists 40 years and older, salary was found to Lavine and Wackman, p. 192. "Stone, “The Changing Profiles of Broadcast Journalists,” p. 9. "Ted Joseph, “Television Reporters’ and Managers’ Preferences on Decision-Making,” Jburnalism Quarterly 60 (Fall 1983):476-477. 33 be a predictor of job satisfaction. Older journalists who were on unionized staff, who were unmarried or who advocated the adversarial role of journalism were also reported to be less satisfied. However, overall, older journalists were more satisfied than younger journalists. Factors in the Weaver and Wilhoit study that made no difference in job satisfaction to the group surveyed included organization size, ownership patterns, and gender. Overall, they found that older journalists tended to focus more on economic factors, while younger journalists emphasized personal development.’5 Another important contributor tx: job satisfaction, according to Barrett, is the possibility for growth on the job. She suggests this is of particular importance to news managers who want to maintain high job satisfaction among women journalists.“ These individual differences may all contribute to various levels of job satisfaction and acceptance of leadership style. Goals Path-goal theory states that motivational functions of leaders consist of "increasing personal }payoffs to subordinates for work goal attainment, and making the path to these payoffs easier to travel by clarifying it, reducing roadblocks and pitfalls, and increasing the opportunities for Weaver and Wilhoit, p. 95. "Grace H. Barrett, “Job Satisfaction Among Newspaperwomen,” JOurnalism Quarterly 61 (Autumn 1984):593-599. 34 n 97 personal satisfaction (n1 route. Therefore, goal attainment may be affected by leadership style. Rhea lists task-related goals of broadcast news directors: 1. To make an optimal profit. 2. To increase the station's share of the audience. 3. To maintain the station's position in the market. 4. To serve the general needs of the community. 5. To produce new and innovative programming. 6. To increase the gross revenue of the station. 7. To keep the station growing and expanding. 8. To maintain high quality transmission and production standards. 9. To protect the station's license to operate. 10. To promote social change in the community. 11. To provide superior informational programming to the community.” In addition to task-related goals, Rhea lists relationship-oriented goals to foster good communication in newsrooms. 1. To promote good employee relations and have satisfied workers. 2. To develop employees in order to promote from within. 3. To attain a position of leadership in the business community, as well as the broadcast industry.” While lists of broadcast organizations' goals exist, Cyert contends that individuals have goals and that organizations do not. He clarifies this point by saying that the individual participants in the organization may have a substantially different priority of goals than the organization itself...the organization's goals actually being defined as the goals of the person at the top of the managerial hierarchy. However, he asserts that in the long I’House and Dessler, p. 31. “Rhea, pp. 98-99. ”Rhea, Appendix. 35 run, the goals of a business firm must reflect the adaptation of goals among group members. Cyert suggests two means of merging priorities of goals. Adherence to management's goals can be purchased with wages, interest, love, etc. Another possible solution is to identify common or consensual goals.”° The two most commonly discussed, if not commonly agreed upon, goals of broadcast newsrooms are high program ratings and quality news. In commercial broadcasting, one purpose of the news program has been to attract the largest audience or the right kind of viewers. This is because revenues from the sale of advertisements that are included in the newscast depend upon audience size and composition. "The number one station, or best station, or 'quality' news station is thus synonymous ""1 However some with the station with the highest ratings. criticize that ratings may be more of a popularity contest than a real measure of quality.”2 Therefore others have attempted to measure quality in television news by focusing on the kinds of stories in news programs, the appeal or credibility of newscasters and newscasts, the accuracy of news reporting and the degree of closeness between the selection of news stories and audience preference for news content. Singletary and Lipsky defined quality in terms of accuracy. Transcripts of newscasts were sent to individuals “aRichard M. Cyert and James G. March, A Behavioral Theory of the Firm, (Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, 1963), PP. 26-44. "”Roberts and Dickson, p. 392. '" K. Tim.Wulfemeyer, “Developing and Testing Method for Assessing Local TV Newscasts,” Journalism Quarterly 59 (Winter 1982):?9. 36 who were identified as sources of local and state news stories aired over three television stations and asked their perception of the accuracy of the stories. They found that about two-thirds of the news reports were judged as entirely accurate.103 However, the news sources said they believed there was a slight tendency for the newspaper to be judged as more accurate than television, news magazines or radio news.”‘ Hofstetter and Dozier looked at individual news stories and classified them as emphasizing government and politics, community and economic affairs, national and international affairs, or as emphasizing sensationalism and human interest. Quality was defined as the former, or news that informs the public about current events rather than news that serves as entertainment. Hofstetter and Dozier found that local TV news in Houston was not dominated by sensational coverage but included a great deal of sensationalism.105 Wulfemeyer went a step further and attempted to develop an instrument for gauging quality in television newscasts. He combined a content analysis of local news programs with an audience survey of the perceived relative importance of news categories. Seven categories were used for content analysis of video-taped newscasts: commercials, issues, entertainment, banter, weather, unexpected events and sports. Quality was determined based on the audiences' rank-ordering mMichael W. Singletary and Richard Lipsky, “Accuracy in Local TV News,” Journalism Quarterly 54 (l977):21. ”‘Singletary and Lipsky, p. 22. '” C. Richard Hofstetter and David M. Dozier, “Useful News, Sensational News: Quality, Sensationalism and Local TV News,” JOurnalism Quarterly 663 (Winter 1986):815-820. 37 of such categories based on what the audiences wanted to see in local newscasts.“” Therefore, the index was based on what the audience wanted to know rather than on what it ought to know. Roberts and Dickson sought to define quality using both audience likes and dislikes as well as conventional journalistic standards to gauge station's performance. Their study consisted of a centent analysis of local television news. Categories such as hard news, minutes of banter and commercials were similar to Wulfemeyer's; however, they also coded the technical quality of newscasts. For example, they looked at the average number of shots per video taped story and the average number of technical flaws. Ina addition to the content analysis, an audience analysis of the kinds of news stories which were most important was made. Finally, students in three classrooms were asked to view video tapes of the newscast and to note their impressions of the anchors. Quality assessment was based on the latter two analyses, while the analyses of news content were based on the so- called journalistic criteria.107 They found a link between the audience-determined measure of quality and station ratings, suggesting that audience data are related to popularity, which may or may not be related to other indices of quality.”' However, Wulfemeyer also reported that the station with the highest ”Wulfemeyer, pp. 80-82 . ""Roberts and Dickson, p. 398. “Roberts and Dickson, p. 398. 38 quality also had the highest rating.”’ Furthermore, Supple states that quality news results in higher ratings because the audience majority wants journalistically sound news reports.“° The results of these studies indicate the difficulties of defining and measuring television news quality. Frequently the terms quality and high ratings are used interchangeably. However, since a primary goal of the news manager is to attract the most or right kind of viewers, and because there is some correlation between quality and news ratings, one method of measuring a particular goal achievement would be to measure news program ratings or market shares. Hypotheses This basic path-goal framework shows that news manager behaviors may affect news staff member job satisfaction and motivation in: reach group goals. .However, personal and environmental characteristics influence the nature of such relationships. The first set of dependent variables for this study are job satisfaction, goal agreement and success in reaching goals including high market shares. The independent variables are initiating and consideration leader behavior. Then the affect of personal and environmental characteristics on leader behavior are hypothesized. The dependent variables are initiating behavior or consideration qulfemeyer, p. 82. Interview with Phil Supple, News Director, WEEK—TV, Peoria, IL., 19 July 1988. 110 39 behavior, and the independent variables are market size, staff size, age, experience, education, and ethnic background. The following hypotheses, based on the theory, were tested: Goals/Leader Behavior/Job Satisfaction H1: As consideration behavior of news directors increases, job satisfaction of news staff members increases. Research shows consideration behaviors to be a better predictor of job satisfaction. H2: .As consideration behavior increases, agreement on the priority of group goals increases. Consideration behavior involves subordinates in the decision-making process which is likely to more often result in a consensus of group goals. H3: .As consideration behavior increases, goal attainment increases. Consideration behavior motivates subordinates to agree upon and work toward achieving group goals. Therefore perceptions of attainment of group goals, as well as actual market shares would be related to relationship-oriented behavior. Environmental Characteristics H4: As market size increases, structure behavior increases. H5: As staff size increases, structure behavior increases. Studies show that as the size of the organization increases the formality of communication between management 40 and subordinates increases. News directors in large markets with large staffs may exhibit structure behavior, because of longer chains of command, limiting time necessary for interpersonal communication. Personal Characteristics H6: As age, experience and education levels of subordinates increase, consideration behavior increases. Younger subordinates with less experience and education may require more structured direction from their managers, despite the need for consideration behavior. On the other hand, older, more experienced subordinates require less direction, but more socio-emotional, consideration behavior. W The. following research questions will be examined to determine if there are meaningful differences between leadership behaviors of broadcast news directors and what influence market size has on such behaviors, and how personal and environmental characteristics differ between market sizes. 1. What are the leadership behaviors of broadcast news managers and does this behavior vary by market size? 2. Do personal characteristics of television newsroom subordinates vary according to market size? 3. Do environmental characteristics vary between large and medium market stations? 41 4. How satisfied are broadcast journalists and does level of job satisfaction vary between large auui medium market stations? CHAPTER II Methodology Path-goal theory of leadership was used as the framework for this survey research. As in most survey research, questionnaires were utilized to gather all data. As such, the measures are post hoc. The usual problems of establishing causality are inherent in this investigation, as they are in all similar research. And, as in other studies of this type, the opportunity to collect large amounts of data in industry was tempting; however, the variables were reduced to six categories: leadership behavior, job satisfaction, goal agreement, market size, market share, and success. First, an explanation for the operationalization of these variables will be provided. Then the subjects, sampling scheme, questionnaire and data analysis will be explained. For the purposes of this study, terms have been operationally defined as follows: Leadership Behavior Leadership behavior consists of structure behavior and consideration behavior. According to path-goal theory, 42 43 structure behavior is the extent to which the behavior of the manager tends toward organizing and defining the relationships between himself and the group, in defining interactions among group members, establishing ways of getting 'the jfifl) done, scheduling, criticizing, etc. Consideration behavior is the extent to which the behavior of the manager is "indicative of friendship, mutual trust and respect, and good 'human relations' between the leader and group.111 The instrument used to collect data on leadership behavior for each news manager was the Leader Behavior Description Questionnaire, Form XII (LBDQ-XII). The LBDQ-XII is a multiple-choice instrument whereby subordinates decide whether their supervisors (5) always, (4) very often, (3) about as often as not, (2) seldom or (1) never act as described by the item listed in the questionnaire. The instrument consists of twenty items. Ten describe behavior consistent with initiating structure or task-oriented behavior. Ten describe behavior consistent with consideration or relationship-oriented behavior. Leadership style was determined by summing items on each scale, then averaging them with the overall responses. The scale with the higher average was indicative of the subordinates perception of their supervisor's leadership style. A survey of instruments developed since the 1950's to the present shows the LBDQ-XII to be one of the few leadership instruments that measures observed leadership mE.A. Fleishman, “A Leader Behavior Description for Industry," in Leader Behavior: Its Description and Measurement, eds. R.M. Stogdill and A.E. Coons (Columbus: Ohio State University, Bureau of Business Research, 1956), p. 104. 44 behavior rather than the leader's perception of leadership behavior. It is also the instrument used most in scholarly research rather than for consulting purposes.112 .According to Bass, the LBDQ-XII maintains high internal consistency. Results range from about .7 to more than .8, indicating that items on the consideration behavior scale of each instrument correlate highly with all the other consideration items and do not correlate with items on the initiation scale.113 Job Satisfaction "Job satisfaction can be thought of as the attitude that an individual has toward his or her job."“‘ For this study, the term was operationally defined using a Likert scale asking respondents what was their overall level of job satisfaction. Possible responses included (1) Very dissatisfied, (2) Somewhat dissatisfied, (3) Don’t know, (4) Fairly satisfied, (5) Very Satisfied. The item to measure job satisfaction was the question used in the Weaver and Wilhoit questionnaire in 1981.115 fi’Gregory H. Dobbins, Stephanie J. Platz, “Sex Differences in Leadership: How Real Are They?” Academy of Management Review 11 (1986):118-127. '" Bernard M. Bass, ed., Stogdill’s Handbook of Leadership (New York: The Free Press, 1981), p. 360. "‘Bergen and Weaver, p. 2. '" Weaver and Wilhoit, Appendix. 45 Goal Agreement Goal agreement can be defined as common or consensual goals. These are goals that are shared by the various 6 participants in the organizations.11 Although not a specific part of path-goal theory, goal agreement may be an important organizational variable affected by management behavior, leading to job satisfaction. It might also result from consideration behavior where subordinates are more involved in the decision-making process. The instrument to measure perceptions of goal agreement and perceptions of how successful news departments were in attaining these goals was developed from Rhea's list of media goals.“’ Respondents were first asked to prioritize their own goals. Then they were asked to prioritize management's goals. The difference between the two sets of goals created a scale of agreement of group goals. The more subordinates and management agreed on group goals, the lower the score for level of agreement. Additional control variables tx: be analyzed as characteristics of television newsrooms include market size, the news program market shares, experience, age, salary, and education. Experience, age, salary, and education are self-explanatory and information on these variables will be obtained through open-ended questions. Definitions follow for the operationalization of market size and news program market shares. 'a Cyert and March, p. 28. '" Rhea, Appendix. 46 Market Size About 112 broadcast markets exist in the United States.“' Arbitron and Nielsen collect audience estimates by selecting viewers and listeners from these markets. Arbitron calls the markets Areas of Dominant Influence (ADI), and Nielsen calls them Designated Market Areas(DMA).“’ Counties in the United States are assigned to an ADI or DMA. Generally, the ADI or DMA centers on a single city; however, sometimes two or three cities are linked as in the Springfield-Decatur-Champaign markets. All stations in these multiple markets reach most viewers, making the cities one ”° The largest markets have the television viewing market. lowest ranks; therefore, New York is the top television market or the number one market. For this study, market size will be based on Nielsen's DMA to correspond to market shares obtained from this company. Market Share Audience estimates that Arbitron and Nielsen collect are called ratings and shares. A rating is an estimate of the percentage of the total number of people or households in a population tuned to a specific station or network during a specific time period(daypart). A share is an estimate of the percentage of people or households actually using radio or television and who are tuned to a specific station or during West, p. (3-142 0 "'Susan Tyler Eastman, Sydney W. Head and Lewis Klein, Broadcast/cable Programming: Strategies and Practices, 2nd ed. (Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Publishing Company, 1985), p. 47. '” Eastman, Head and Klein, p. 49. 47 a specific daypart.121 Since ratings depend on a count of all receivers, rather than a count of all users, shares will used in this study as a more valid measure of audience estimates. Since station news directors must pay attention to the popularity of their newscasts, they are keenly aware of these market shares and base many decisions such as program alterations on these numbers. The more successful a news department is at determining its audiences' taste in news, the larger is its share. Therefore, market share is used as one measure of success in this study. Market share and market size, while not specific measures of environmental characteristics in the path-goal model, were used as such a measure in this study because of available data. Actual market shares and ratings of news programs for all news departments were obtained from The Neilsen Station Index as a measure of success.122 Success Rating Another measure of success was obtained by asking respondents to rate how successful their news department was at obtaining the following goals: increase audience share, develop employees’ potential, have satisfied workers, serve the audience, produce new programming, increase profits, produce quality news, and achieve recognition. Although |“Eastman, Head and Klein, p. 50. 'a One could have chosen early or late-night newscasts. The late- night newscast was chosen since there is only one newscast at that time; whereas, in some markets, several newscasts are aired during the early evening time period. Choosing the late-night newscast eliminated the need of deciding which early evening newscast was equivalent to news programs in other markets. 48 these were perceptions of success rather than actual measures of success, such measures have proven to be useful in other media-related studies.123 Respondents were asked to rate on a five point scale how successful the news department was in attaining each goal, where one equaled very unsuccessful and five equaled very successful. The scores were averaged to obtain an overall success rating for the news department. Suhjests The population for this study was television news departments of network affiliates in three-station markets in the Midwest region of the United States, including Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Michigan, Minnesota, Missouri, Ohio, and Wisconsin. A.total of 111 network affiliates exist in this population. The Midwest region was chosen because of financial considerations and because there is run reason to believe they are significantly different on the issues to be studied. Three station markets were included to ensure all affiliates would be represented. Three station markets also are more representative of the majority of markets where management is in competition with other stations. Independent and noncommercial stations were not included because of idiosyncrasies that would make comparisons difficult. Fourteen small-market stations with less than 1” While content analysis of news quality, balance sheets, content, etc. provide the best approach to measuring success, the use of surveys is well- established for measuring perceptions of quality and content. For examples see: James K. Buckalew, “News Elements and Selection by Television News Editors," Jburnal of Broadcasting 17 (Winter 1969):47- 55; and Leo Bogart, “How U.S. Newspaper Content is Changing," Journal of Communication (Spring 1985):82-90. 49 three stations. per :market were eliminated _from ‘the population. As a subset of the population the news staff members of television news departments of network affiliates in three- station markets in the Midwest region were of interest. News staff members included anchors reporters, producers and assignment editors. The population consisted of about 2060 news staff members. W2. A stratified random sample of about 46 percent was drawn from the total population. Stratification ensured that large and medium markets were equally represented. Large markets were defined as DMA's 1-30. The number of television homes contained in this category ranged from 731,500 to 6,944,400. Medium markets were defined as DMA's 65-140. The number of television homes contained in this category ranged from 153,700 to 403,900. These categories were chosen because a fair number of stations in the Midwest region fell within each stratum, and the stations that fell into each stratum were fairly separated in number from stations in other strata. Furthermore, the categories were not broken down into smaller categories because of the limited sample size. From the sample, 21 stations fell into the large market category, and 22 stations fell into the medium market category. The population for large market stations consisted of 27 stations, and the population for medium market stations consisted of 66 stations. Therefore, large market stations 50 were over-sampled so their numbers would equal medium market stations. Eighty-one percent of large market stations were sampled, while 33 percent of medium stations were sampled. A total of 43 news departments were included in the study. Seventeen percent of the population of news staff members were included in the study. The population consisted of about 530 news staff members from medium market station and 1,530 from large market stations. Eight news staff members from each station were randomly selected to be included in the study. Eight were chosen fro financial considerations and because the LBDQ requires a minimum of four respondents per manager as a valid measure of leadership behavior. Questionnaire Nonresponse is a major concern in mail surveys because if refusals are high, considerable error into estimates of the sample can be introduced.”‘ To avoid this, two pretests were conducted to ensure a proper sample of employees in the news departments were being surveyed, that questions were understood and answerable, and to increase response rate. First the questionnaire was submitted to the scrutiny of colleagues, including faculty members, graduate students and local media personnel. Then pretest information was sought from those people drawn from the population to be surveyed. People selected for this pretest were chosen to represent a cross section of potential respondents. I”Don A. Dillman, Mail and Telephone Surveys (New York: Wiley, 1978), p. 180-91. 51 Once the questionnaire was revised based on information obtained from the pretests, the sample of news departments to be analyzed was selected. Then names of news staff members, including reporters, anchors, producers, and assignment editors were obtained from the stations through phone calls and follow-up letters. A self-administered mail questionnaire and cover letter were sent to these subordinates of news directors.(See Appendices A and B) Questionnaires were numbered to indicate station identity for collecting additional information such as market size and network affiliation. Therefore, accompanying letters explained to respondents that while the survey was confidential, it was not anonymous. A total of 344 questionnaires were administered. The use of individually typed, personalized envelopes addressed to each person were used to positively affect the return rate. Also, one follow-up mailing was made to subjects who had not returned their questionnaire.(See Appendix C) M11315 The primary independent variables of interest were leadership behavior, market size, staff size, age, and experience. Their influence on the dependent variables: job satisfaction, goal agreement, and success of reaching goals was the focus of analysis. Regressions were used to test Hypotheses 1 through 6. The data were divided into five units of analysis and regressions were done on each; (1) individual scores from 52 all markets, (2) individual scores for large markets, (3) individual scores for medium markets, (4) averaged scores from stations in large markets, and (5) averaged scores from stations in medium markets. Since the N’s varied and decreased with subsequent levels of analysis, decisions were made as to which variables to include or drop from the equations. For analysis on responses from all individuals, all variables considered important were included in the equation (N=171). For individual scores from large stations, the N dropped to 74, and for individual scores from medium stations, the N dropped to 97. 'Therefore, variables with significance levels above 5 For average scores from .6 were dropped from the equation.12 large stations, the N dropped to 21, and for averages from medium stations, the N dropped to 22; therefore, only significant variables from the initial analysis were included in the equation. To adhere to assumptions of regression, outliers were brought to three standard deviations. Correlations of the variables were also calculated using the Pearson product moment correlation. The Pearson correlation coefficient (r), is the standard measure of the degree of association or covariation between any two variables. JAs a standardized measure, its range varies from 1.0 to -1.0. The larger the absolute value of the correlation coefficient, the stronger the linear association and greater importance of either '3 Regressions were first run including all variables, and the variables to be dropped had not increased substantially in significance, if at all. «A. a... Cu Pg HR 53 variable as a pmedictor of the other.126 The correlation coefficient does not distinguish between the independent and dependent variable and cannot be thought of as a measure of a causal relationship. However, the correlation coefficients did permit an initial evaluation of each independent variable's relative importance in predicting the dependent variable. Correlations were also measured to find contributors to multicollinearity. When relationships appear to exist among variables imiaa correlation matrix, information provided by some of the variables is redundant with information provided by others,”’ making it difficult to measure the unique contribution of any given predictor. If relationships existed between variables, one or the other would be dropped from the regression equation. These qualifications aside, the multiple regression equation applied, for example tx> H1, can be written as follows: Y = a + blxl + b2X2 + b3X3 + b4X4 + e where Y -is the dependent variable (job satisfaction); a -is the constant or intercept (the value for Y when all X’s equal zero); b1_4 -are partial regression coefficients for each independent variable (representing the impact) '5 Marija J. Norusis, Advanced Statistics Guide, (New York: McGraw- Hill Book Company, 1985), p. 454-5. '" Elazar J. Pedhazur,.Mu1tiple Regression in Behavioral Research: Explanation and Prediction, 2nd ed. (New York: Holt Rinehart and Winston, 1982), p. 235. 54 each independent variable has on the dependent variable while controlling for the influence of other in the equation); X1-4 -are the independent variables (goal agreement, perceptions of success, market shares and consideration behavior); e -is the error or residual term (the variability in the dependent variable unexplained by the equation). The "least squares" solution to the equation was sought by determining the appropriate regression coefficients for each of the independent variables so that the sum of the squared errors of prediction was minimized.”’ For the regression coefficients to be linear unbiased estimates of the true population parameters, multiple regression assumes the following: (1) the relationship between the dependent variable and its predictors is linear, (2) there is no measurement error, (3) residuals for all variables are normally distributed, and (4) perfect "multicollinearity" does not exist-- that is, none of the independent variables are perfectly correlated with another.”’ In addition to regression and correlational analysis, T- tests were used for research questions two through four, to see if meaningful differences existed between smaller and larger organizations. .Also frequency distributions were ‘5 Allen L. Edwards, An Introduction to Linear Regression and Correlation, 2nd ed. (New York: W.H. Freeman and Company, 1984), p. 107. '"Pedhazur, pp. 32-35. 55 calculated to determine the percent of news directors that exhibit each leader behavior, as well for descriptive data concerning the demographic background of the sample. CHAPTER III Results Of the 344 questionnaires, 49.7 percent were returned in usable condition. Nineteen questionnaires were unusable because they were stations used in a pretest (16), undeliverable surveys (1), personnel no longer at the stations (1), or refusals to participate (5). Descriptive data relating to the research questions will first be presented. Then, inferential statistics relating to the hypotheses will be presented. I l 1. E 1 . The first research questions asked what are the leadership behaviors of broadcast news managers and how do these behaviors vary by market size. Twenty items identifying leadership behaviors were used. Ten items measuring initiating structure collapsed into one category and ten items measuring consideration behavior collapsed into, another. Responses to the scale items were summarized over five levels--Strongly Agree, Agree, Neither Agree nor Disagree, Disagree and Strongly Disagree. Most news staff members perceived their news directors to have high levels of both initiating structure and consideration behavior. The mean score for individual responses in all markets for initiating structure was 31.565, 56 57 while the mean score for consideration behavior was 29.03. Possible scores ranged from five to 50 on both initiating structure and consideration, where five indicated low levels of behavior and 50 indicated high levels of behavior. Controlling for market size, Table 1 shows the mean score for initiating behavior for large market stations as 32.62, and the mean score for medium markets was 30.55. The mean score for consideration behavior for large markets was 28.02, and the mean score for medium markets was 30.0. Table 1 T-Tests: Leadership Scores in Medium and Large Markets Large Station Medium Station 'T SIG DF Means Means Initiating 32.62 30.56 1.31 .204 20 Consideration 28.02 30.0 .889 .385 20 T-Tests show no significant differences of leadership behavior between medium and large stations when looking at the summed scores; however, large market initiating scores were higher. 2 J c] I I I I Research question two asked whether personal characteristics, including experience, age, sex, ethnic background and education of television newsroom subordinates 58 varied according to market size. Significant differences were apparent in the level of experience of news staff members from large and medium stations. News people in large stations had an average of 7.97 years experience at their present station, with an average of 14.66 years experience overall in television news. News people in medium markets averaged 4.99 years at their current station and 7.58 years overall in television news. There were also significant differences in the ages of news people at large stations compared to medium stations. Overall respondents were between the ages of 22 and 64. The mean age was 33.9. The mean at large stations was 38.2, while the mean at medium stations was 31.2. APPENDIX D provides a breakdown of the ages of all respondents. On the sex variable, almost 64 percent of the respondents were male and about 36 percent were female from the random sample. Overall Stone reports females represented 43 percent of the work force in television in 1985. There were no significant differences in the ethnic backgrounds or the educational background of respondents from large and medium markets. The ethnic background for most respondents was Caucasian. Eighty-seven-point-seven percent were Caucasian, 4.6 percent were Black, 1.2 percent were Asian, 2.3 percent were Native American and .5 percent were other. Eighty percent of the respondents also held a four year college degree. Five-point-nine percent had some college education, while 12.8 percent held master’s degrees. One respondent had no college education, and one respondent 59 had a Ph.D.”° Because so little variation existed for the scores of ethnic background and education, they were dropped from the regression equations, as will be seen in the following discussion. See APPENDIX E for a summary of sex, ethnic background and education. Respondents represented a cross section of stations from the sample. Forty-point-seven percent were from large market stations (DMA’s 1-30) and 59.3 percent were from medium markets (DMA’s 65-140). Affiliation status was representative of the population’s natural proportions. Journalists from ABC network affiliates represented 30.4 percent of the respondents, with CBS network affiliate respondents representing 33.9 percent and NBC respondents representing 35.7 percent of the responses. Research question three asked whether environmental characteristics varied between large and medium market stations. Starting salary, current salary and staff size significantly differed between large and medium stations. As Table 2 shows, there were significant differences in the mean starting salaries and current salaries of large and small market television stations. The mean starting salary for journalists in large market stations was $44,904, while the mean starting salary for journalists in a medium market was '5 One possible reason for the sharp increase in television journalist holding a four-year degree (Stone reported 62 percent held a 8.8. in 1986) is that small market stations were eliminated from the sample. Smaller stations with lower salary structures are more likely to higher less-educated journalists. 60 $16,572. Current salaries showed similar patterns. The mean current salary for large markets was $94,793. The mean current salary for medium markets was $26,073. Staff sizes also significantly differed. Large stations averaged 72.9 employees in news, while medium stations employed an average of 24.1 news people. See Table 2 for significant T-Tests for personal and environmental characteristics. Table 2 T-Tests Comparing Personal Characteristics and Environmental Characteristics By Market Size LARGE MEDIUM T S IG DF Enrironmental *Starting Salary' $44,904 $16,572 6.3 .000 20 *Current Salary $94,793 $26,073 7.4 .000 20 *Staff Size 72.9 24.1 7.1 .000 20 W1 *Years at Station 7.97 4.99 2.96 .026 20 *Years in TV 14.66 7.58 6.0 .000 20 *Age 38.2 31.2 4.66 .000 20 *Denotes significance at the indicated level. W Research question four asks whether job satisfaction varies between subordinates at large and medium market stations. Most news staff members indicated they were fairly satisfied with their job. Over eleven percent were very satisfied with their job, while 49.12 percent said they were fairly satisfied. However, almost 24 percent said they were 61 somewhat dissatisfied, and 13.5 percent said they were very dissatisfied. Two-point three percent said they didn’t know. APPENDIX F shows the mean score for all respondents was 3.2 on a five point scale, where 5=Very Satisfied, 4=Fairly Satisfied, 3=Don’t Know, 2=Somewhat Dissatisfied and 1= Very Dissatisfied. APPENDIX F also shows the average job satisfaction score for large market news departments was 3.27, which was slightly higher than the 3.19 mean for medium market news departments. T-Tests were not significant at the .05 level. W News staff members indicated there were high levels of disagreement between their priority of goals for the news department and menagement’s priorities. Respondents were given a list of eight goals and asked to prioritize them. Then they were asked to prioritize what they believed to be their news directors’ goals. The difference between the two sets of goals represented the level of goal agreement between management and subordinates where higher scores indicated lower levels of agreement. Scores ranged from zero (total agreement) to 37. The mean score for all stations was 20.0. For large market stations, the mean was slightly higher at 21.16, while medium markets showed more agreement with a slightly lower average of 19.78. T-Tests showed no significant differences at the .05 level. APPENDIX G lists frequencies for goal agreement scores for all individuals, large market averages 62 and small market averages. WWW Perceptions of success were measured by asking respondents to rate on a five-point scale how successful their news departments were in attaining departmental goals such as high ratings, high profits, satisfied employees, etc. The mean score for all stations was 3.0. Medium market employees scored slightly higher on the scale with a mean of 3.1, while larger stations felt they were less successful with a mean of 2.9. (See APPENDIX H for frequency tables of scores.) T-Tests for large and medium markets for the variables of goal success, goal agreement and job satisfaction show no significant differences between the two market sizes (See Table 3). Table 3 T-Tests Comparing Large and Medium Market Stations’ Job Satisfaction, Goal Agreement, and Goal Success. Large Medium T SIG DF Satisfaction 3.6 3.4 .823 .420 20 Agree 21.1 19.8 .808 .429 20 Success 2.98 3.0 .645 .521 20 N=171 C 1.]. I H I . E I E I' 1 S! I' I' To comply with the assumptions of regressions, decisions regarding the raw data set were made. What follows is a 63 discussions of missing data, violations of normality, multicollinearity, and reliability of measures. Missing Data Missing data was handled in the data set for individual responses for all markets by averaging scores from other respondents and replacing the missing data with an average score. For example if no information on current salary was given, the salaries from other respondents at the same station were averaged, and that mean score replaced the missing value. In the absence of information, the mean value is a best guess about a missing score on a variable.131 The procedure was an acceptable way of handling the data and did not require guessing at missing values.132 Most of the missing data occurred on the salary variables; however, no variable was missing over five percent of its data. Large market and medium market data sets had no missing data since data was based on means per station rather than individual responses. Violations of Normality To determine if the assumptions of normality were valid before using inferential statistics, frequencies were run. Variables were tested for skewness, kurtosis, outliers and multicollinearity. “'Barbara G. Tabachnich and Linda S. Fidell, using Maltivariate Statistics (N.Y: Harper and Row Publishers, 1983), p. 71. '” Data were examined by deleting cases with missing data and by substituting mean values. Results were basically the same; therefore, the method of handling missing data was a conservative procedure. 64 Continuous variables are badly skewed if a pileup of scores occur at one end or the other of the distribution with a few scores thinly spaced along the opposite tail, causing instability in estimates of regression coefficients for variables. The same is true for dichotomous variables when 3 Skewness of too many scores fall in the same category.13 variables ranged from -.57 for sex to 2.27 for salary. (See APPENDIX I) Variables such as income are naturally skewed since income is not less than zero. Therefore, a long tail to the right is expected.”‘ Kurtosis refers to the general peakedness of a distribution.135 Once again, the highest variable was salary (5.36). To compensate, any score that deviated three standard deviations above or below the mean was recoded to a score cmn the outside limit of three standard deviations. Therefore, outliers for both starting salary and current salary were moved back to three standard deviations from the mean to retain deviancy but prevent them from distorting the correlations.”‘ A total of four outliers were recoded. APPENDIX J lists skewness and kurtosis values for all variables with outliers corrected. All other variables were within reasonable ranges. '5 Tabachnich and Fidell, p. 78. '“ Marija J. Norusis, The SPSS Guide to Data Analysis (Boston: Allyn and Bacon, 1978), p. 66. '“ Hubert M. Blalock, Jr., Social Statistics, 2nd ed. (New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1979), p. 39. “Tabachnich and Fidell, p. 76. 65 Multicollinearity Pearson correlations between independent variables were examined for multicollinearity. Table 4 shows the highest correlations occurred between salary and staff size (.86) and between years in the company and age (.84). An index of two- variable collinearity is a high Pearson correlation between two variables. Values in excess of about .99 in a correlation matrix would reveal nearly redundant variables.137 In addition to bivariate collinearity, correlations between one variable and a combination of others can occur. To investigate, multiple regression was performed, with each variable in turn serving as the dependent variable and all others serving as independent variables. Regressions showed no linear combination of variables that almost perfectly predicted another variable. NOne of the regressions showed an adjusted R2 of above .64° Therefore, because no variables were a combination of another,“3 none were dropped from the equations. Reliability of Measures Confirmatory factor analysis was conducted to determine internal consistency of the scales used. Coefficient alpha’s for both multiple item scales were high (Initiating Structure .90, Consideration .90), indicating internal consistency. ”’Tabachnich and Fidell, p. 82. 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"m mamHHHDS g8 amp—.404 hmv. "m SmHBAbZ g 000. um awn—“9.52 «N «z 01mmHH mun moduooumaumm now so oommmuomm nuanmauo> uoH>nsom umommq oouomamm "mommum>< woman: Eswowz a manna 74 Hypothesis 2 Hypothesis 2 predicted that as consideration behavior increased, agreement on the priority of group goals increased. In fact, the exact opposite was found. Results were significant when looking at the data set for all market sizes. .As Table II) shows, a significant relationship existed between initiating behavior and the agreement of group goals between managers and subordinates. The negative sign for the standard coefficient was in the expected direction since the lower the level of agreement, the higher the score climbed. Staff size was also related to how well news staff members and their news directors were able to agree on group goals. The positive standard coefficient indicated that as staff size increased, agreement on goals decreased. Results were also significant when looking at the data sets fro individuals from large and medium markets. Table 11 shows for individuals from large markets, initiating behavior related to goal agreement, explaining 20 percent of the variance. For individuals at medium market stations, Table 12 also shows 20 percent of the variance explained by the relationship between initiating behavior and goal agreement. As Table 13 shows, these relationships were not significant when looking only at large market averages, possibly because sample size dropped significantly. However, when looking at medium market averages in Table 14, initiating behavior was significantly related to agreement using a one-tailed test. 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As Table 15 shows, for all individuals consideration was significantly related to overall successful attainment of group goals, as was initiating behavior and years on staff, using a one-tailed test. The independent variables explained over 21 percent of the variance. For individuals at large market stations, consideration behavior, as well as years on the job were related to success (see Table 16). For individuals at medium market stations, Table 17 shows goal agreement and both initiating and consideration behavior are related to success, explaining 33 percent of the variance. Therefore, news staff members at medium market stations perceived they were more successful when they received both high levels of initiating and consideration behavior from the news directors and when they agreed with their manager on the goals of the department. As a more valid measure of success, average scores for each station were also analyzed. Table 18 shows that for these averages, a significant relationship existed between consideration behavior and success in reaching goals in large market stations. Years on staff was also significantly related. Initiating behavior was significant using a ome- tailed test. Independent variables explained 57.9 percent of the variance. .3 a. v. . d «\0 at 2. >0 m ... a z. u .5 a. 3 2. . .L ..n a : a . m. . .. a .... a. .... l «D a .3 .... C. T. 3 c ~ 81 Table 19 shows that for average scores in medium markets, no variables were significantly related to success. When looking at the specific goal of high market share, actual points from the Nielsen Station Index were used.139 Table 20 shows that for all markets, several variables were related to market share. Since the survey was conducted in June of 1989 and the shares are based on data published in May of 1989, no causal relationships can be established. However, market size or DMA, agreement on goals, and staff size are all significantly related to market share. For large markets, Table 21 shows no significant relationships existed between any variable and market share. Such findings suggest other variables may more directly influence ratings such as lead-in programs, news-anchor appeal, etc. in large markets. Finally for medium markets, while no significant relationships exist between leader behavior and shares, results were significant for other variables. Table 22 shows that market size relates to market shares, indicating that stations in smaller markets have larger market shares. Years at the station and staff size were also related to market share. Independent variables explained 63 percent of the variance. I" Since share points are not comparable across markets, actual points were transferred into percentages of total households watching news programs. Market shares in each DMA were totaled. 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Fan ~v... i 0 :0 9O Hypotheses 4 and 5 Hypotheses 4 and 5 looked at the effect of environmental characteristics on management behavior. Hypothesis 4 predicted that as market size increased, initiating behavior increased. Hypothesis 5 predicted that as staff size increased, initiating behavior increased. When regressing these independent variables on actual scores of management behaviors, no significant results were found. Hypothesis 6 Hypothesis 6 stated that as age, experience and education increased, consideration behavior increased. Education was not included in the regression equation, because of a lack of variance in responses (80 held a bachelor's degree). As Tables 23 and 24 show, regressing environmental and personal characteristics on the leader behaviors of initiating and consideration for all market sizes, no significant results were found. Significant results were also not present when controlling for market size. 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I» I CHAPTER IV Discussion The general purpose of this research was to investigate how broadcast news directors are leading their staff members and to find out what types of behaviors are related to job satisfaction, goal agreement and goal attainment or success. Path-goal leadership theory was used as a framework for the study. Given the data analysis results presented in Chapter III, it is now possible to evaluate the research findings in terms of this general study objective. The first section of this chapter discusses findings concerning the independent variables, initiation behavior and consideration behavior. The second section considers the effect of leadership behavior on job satisfaction and goals. The third section evaluates implications of the study for the industry. Finally, implications for the research community are presented. WW Television news directors control a great deal of what the public views as news. They also control their news staff members who decide what the public will see as news. However, studies indicate many news directors experience difficulty dealing with personnel problems. Most have not been trained to be managers. They were former journalists 93 94 working in an adversarial environment with little knowledge about how to compromise. As a result, they often adopt poor management styles that lead to more stress in an already high stress situation, resulting in a high-anxiety staff and a fickle audience.“° Path-goal theory asserts that leaders are effective when they impact subordinates’ motivation, performance, and satisfactions. The theory is concerned with how the leader influences the subordinates’ perceptions of their work goals, personal goals, and paths to goal attainment. For example, people are satisfied with their job if they think it leads to what they value. Therefore, the theory can be used to predict why leaders behave as they do or how leader behavior influences subordinates, the latter being the primary concern of this study.“1 As far as the theory is concerned, the results from this study are partially encouraging. Of the two leader behaviors measured, supportive behavior appeared to be the better predictor of satisfaction. These findings are consistent with path-goal theory. However, out of 68 regression analyses, only 27 showed that significant interactions occurred. Twenty-one of the significant interactions were as predicted, while six were in the opposite direction. There 'uDracos, p. 40. '“Robert J. House and Terrence R. Mitchell, “Path-Goal Theory of Leadership," in Readings in Organizations: Behavior, Structure, Processes, eds. James L. Gibson, John M. Ivancevich, and James H. Donnelly, Jr. (Dallas, TX: Business Publications, Inc., 1976), pp. 147- 160. C .A' .01. so-“ _ . .0 .I a. - . a. f. 0. at C 3. C a: 4M T. a . e c I .5. r “on e v. w. .2 .. 0.. ... C .... .... 3 0» 0. so. an at» no. n .1 ... -.. ... .5 e . n0. ..N ..I. at .9» 95 are several possible explanations for the lack of support of path-goal theory. Initiating behavior was the prevalent leader behavior for most broadcast news directors. News directors also had high levels of consideration behavior, with initiating behavior being the dominant of the two. Initiating structure refers to “the leader’s behavior in delineating the relationship between himself and members of the work group and in endeavoring to establish well-defined patternsof organization, channels of communication, and methods of procedure.”“2 On the other hand, consideration refers to “behavior indicative of friendship, mutual trust, respect, and warmth in the relationship between the leader and the members of his staff.”“3 Respondents to the questionnaire, in addition to filling out the close-ended portions of the form, were given the opportunity to express their views on the strengths or weaknesses of the leadership behavior of their news director. The essential results of this informal portion of the survey were expressed as either advantages or weaknesses of each leadership behavior. General statements were expressed as follows: Initiating Structure Employees felt their news director was efficient, especially in “a crisis or emergency" situation. They felt the chain of command was clear. However, they felt that one- InRobert H. Guest, Paul Hersey, and Kenneth H. Blanchard, Organizational Change Through Effective Leadership, 2nd ed. (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1986), p. 64 “’Guest, Hersey, and Blanchard, p. 64. G» .0 0 ~\~ u 96 way communication more often led to misunderstandings. They felt their news director really had to be an expert because he or she did not receive a lot of input from the staff. However, this was seen as a negative and a dangerous situation because of the complex decisions that had to be continually made. There was also some resentment expressed from subordinates who felt excluded from involvement in decision-making. Consideration People felt they were more likely to support and work hard for decisions they helped formulate. They felt that news directors benefited from information, ideas and suggestions from staff members. They felt scheduled group discussions improved decision-makingu However, they felt there was not enough time for such discussions. They also felt that news directors avoided responsibility or ignored suggestions made in group discussions. Based on both the positive and negative remarks concerning both leadership behaviors, coupled with the high levels of both structure and consideration behaviors on the part of news directors, it is difficult to say which leadership behaviors are most effective in newsroom situations. However, the study suggests that, in general, high levels of initiating behavior, with little consideration behavior, may lead to lower levels of performance and job satisfaction in the long run. 97 I 1 S l' E l' The most significant interactions involving news directors’ supportive behavior occurred vdxfll the job satisfaction variable. Overall, the consideration behavior of news directors related positively to the job satisfaction of news staff members. When controlling for market size, consideration behavior was more significant for medium market stations than for large market stations. According to path-goal theory, in nonrepetitive, ego- involving tasks, employees are more satisfied under a supportive style of leadership.“‘ The theory also describes ways in which supportive behavior impacts subordinate attitudes and behavior. Supportive behavior has its most positive effect on subordinate satisfaction for those who work on stressful, frustrating, or dissatisfying tasks.“5 Goal agreement, successful attainment of departmental goals and years on the job were the largest determinants of job satisfaction in large markets. From observations in a previous study,“‘ news directors spent little time with subordinates in large market stations. Therefore, leader behavior may not be as large a factor in explaining job satisfaction in large markets because of the lack of contact between news director and news staff members. These findings contradict Bergen and Weaver's study of job satisfaction for newspaper journalists. They found that WTifilouse and Mitchell, p. 159. '“House and Mitchell, p. 159. "“Angela Powers, “TV News Managers: Toward a Model of Newsroom Leadership," paper presented for preliminary examination, Michigan State University, 7 March 1989. J 00. .00 A : MI 98 one strong predictor overall of job satisfaction--how often journalists received comments or reactions on their work from people higher in the organization-~(a form of consideration behavior) was significant in both the small and large newspapers, but not significant in the medium-sized papers. Instead they found that two other predictors were significant at medium-sized newspapers-~the amount of freedom individuals had in selecting the stories they worked on and how important the chance was to develop a specialty in the field.m The possible reasons given for these findings were that medium- sized papers were less complex and deciding which stories to cover was not shifted to a cantral decision maker. They suggested reporters were more autonomous at medium stations, which resulted in their main source of job satisfaction at this level. Perhaps this was more important because interaction between news director and subordinates in medium was common and taken more for granted than in larger markets. While consideration behavior led to job satisfaction overall, the main determinant of the variables measured for job satisfaction in large markets was how successful the news department was in attaining its goals. This fact is interesting because journalists in large markets have reached the height of professional success at the individual level in their fields. Success, then, on the job at the departmental level may be an inmortant and necessary component for job satisfaction once high levels of personal success have been reached. '" Bergen and Weaver, p. 11. 1’s; vi 5 .3 9. .3 99 Goals Another area where results were encouraging for path- goal theory was leader behavior's effect on goals. Overall, consideration behavior had the strongest relationship with the successful attainment of group goals. Initiating behavior was also related to success, but not as strongly as consideration behavior. Path-goal theory suggests ways that supportive leadership style impacts subordinates’ behavior toward achieving goals. First, a supportive climate should increase the clarity of organizational alternatives. Through participation in decision-making, subordinates should learn what leads to what. For example, increased interaction between news directors and news staff members would lead to greater clarity of the paths to various goals. Secondly, subordinates should hopefully select goals they value highly when they are involved in the decision-making process. Therefore, consideration would increase the agreement between organization and subordinate goals. Third, consideration behavior would increase the control the individual has over what happens on the job. This greater autonomy and ability to carry out intentions leads to increased effort and performance. Finally, when people participate in the decision process, they are partially responsible for those decisions and will more likely be motivated to perform well.“' The study failed to support the hypothesis that IIIHouse and Mitchell, p. 158. -Au ”iv: A 00‘. (D (n .‘gc ...I '(J . A. (I) 100 consideration behavior would lead to agreement of group goals. While consideration behavior was related to the successful attainment of group goals, it was initiation behavior that was related to the agreement of group goals. In other words, when news directors told their news staff members what the departmental goals were, they were likely to have higher levels of agreement of those goals. This was especially true for medium market stations. One possible explanation lies partially in path-goal theory in that leader directiveness is more effective when task demands are ambiguous or when the organization procedures, rules, and policies are not clear.“’ Since there is more autonomy and less segmented job responsibilities in medium markets than in larger markets, a greater need may exist for directive behavior to agree on goals. Hewever, consideration behavior is also needed to carry out those goals and provide job satisfaction to subordinates. EBISQna] and EDszQnmenta] ChaIaCIQIjSIjCS’ Win This study failed to confirm the effect of personal characteristics of subordinates and environmental characteristics on leader behavior. Path-goalstates the higher the level of ability or experience, the less need there should be for directive or initiating behavior from the leader. Also, assessment of the environmental conditions should make it possible to predict the kind and amount of influence that leader behaviors would have on the motivation I“House and Mitchell, p. 160. 101 of subordinates. For example, journalists in smaller markets involved in ambiguous tasks would require directive leadership. There were no personal characteristics or environmental characteristics measured that significantly related to leader behavior. Two possible explanations are apparent. One reason for a lack of significant results may be that variables other than the ones measured may relate to leader behavior. Returning to the original path-goal framework, several variables come to mind. Locus of control, or the subordinates' perception of their own ability, may be a personal characteristic of subordinates that more directly relates to leader behavior. Locus of control may also be thought of in terms of “professionalism.” What impact does level of professionalism have on the overall management profile? Path-goal theory also states that specific tasks may affect leader behavior. For example, decision-making in a crisis situation may call for structure behavior; however, news-staff meetings for general planning purposes may require consideration behavior. Therefore, measurement of specific newsroom management tasks and the accompanying leader behavior may be appropriate. Related to task structure is the degree of division of labor. In large markets, where tasks are more narrowly defined and division of labor is higher, less ambiguity exists as to what is to be accomplished by each news staff member. Therefore, less task-oriented behavior may be 102 needed. In medium-markets, on the other hand, less division of labor exists. Employees are responsible for various tasks. Therefore, more directive, task-oriented leader behavior may be necessary. The formal authority system may also moderate leader behavior of news directors. Measurement of upper-management, as well as news director leader behavior would likely show similarities between the two styles, indicating that upper management leader behavior affects leader behavior of news directors. One could also measure the affect of the primary work group on the leader behavior of news directors. In newsrooms where cohesion exists, subordinates may need less consideration behavior from news directors. However in competitive environments where news staff members receive less socio-emotional support from their colleagues, more consideration behavior from the news director may be necessary. There may also be other situational factors operating to determine the effects of leader behavior that are not presently known. However, future research is needed to reveal the affect of these variables on leader behavior. Finally, results of situational characteristics measured may not be significant because news directors may not be responding to situational factors and adapting behaviors that are effective in particular situations. For purposes of this study, market size, staff size, age, sex, experience, education, ethnic background were used as measures of environmental characteristics and personal characteristics of «L AA. v. =~ =0 0.. V. s .bEr‘. 103 subordinates. More analysis is needed to assess the goodness of fit of the path—goal model in broadcast newsroom situations. For example, one could hypothesize that news directors who are leading as the theory suggests would 'have more success and job satisfaction. These groups could be compared to leaders who deviate from the theory. Then, differences in outcomes could be assessed. However, to say these variables have no effect on leader behavior or that they are unimportant in the overall \ management process is premature. W Leadership is the most widely recognized of managerial roles.”° Leadership describes managers’ relationship with subordinates and their attempts to motivate and develop subordinates. One pursuit of leadership is performance or success. There are, however, many ways to define success in television news. High ratings, high profits, quality of news programs, job security, wage levels, job satisfaction and the quality of working life can all be determinants of success. News directors would not survive long if they pursued profits or ratings to the extreme, excluding employee needs and goals. News directors exist in turbulent environments where threats to survival are common. The average stay for news directors is 2.2 years. Within such an environment, they must try to "15 Henry Mintzberg, “Managerial Work: Analysis from Observation,” in Readings in Organizations: Behavior, Structure and Processes, 3rd ed., eds., James L. Gibson, John M. Ivancevich, and James H. Donnelly, Jr. (Dallas, TX: Business Publications, Inc., 1979). p. 42. 104 attain goals set forth by the organization. The process by which they obtain these goals is at the heart of the leadership concept. The term success must be used carefully. Some equate the term with profits, while others view it in terms of job satisfaction. While both can be viewed as definitions of organizational success, they may actually be intervening variables that enhance the likelihood of success. Success may need to be defined in more general terms as in the ability to acquire and efficiently use available resources to achieve goals.151 Effective leadership of news organizations is a continuous process. Goals continue to change and news directors have to adapt to such changes by recognizing them, structuring available resources, modifying technologies, developing employees and using their talents to attain goals. Since each newsroom is different, news directors must understand the nature of their own particular situation and respond appropriately. Some general guidelines based on the findings of this study are listed in the following section. ImplicatioansLBroadcasLNenLManagers These findings suggest that news managers in large markets who want to maximize performance of their staff should emphasize consideration behavior so that goals are “'Richard M. Steers, “When Is an Organization Effective? A Process Approach to Understanding Effectiveness,” in Readings in Organizations: Behavior, Structure, Process, 3rd ed., eds., James L. Gibson, John M. Ivancevich, and James H. Donnelly, Jr., (Dallas, TX: Business Publications, Inc., 1979). p. 25. 105 successfully attained. They should be friendly and show concern for the needs of subordinates. Also, they should invite subordinates to participate in decisions, policy-making and operation methods. Increased involvement in the decision-making process will result in an increase in shared goals. They should let the staff know that they will abide by group consensus and encourage frank involvement, discussion and recommendations from the group. However, final decisions should be reserved for the news director. News directors of medium market stations, on the other hand, should emphasize initiating behavior, as well as consideration behavior. Initiating behavior is needed so that goals are agreed upon and attained. Therefore, news directors should let subordinates know what is expected of them. They should give specific guidance as to how to accomplish tasks. They should be involved more in the scheduling of work to be done. They should also maintain definite standards of performance for subordinates. In addition to high levels of initiating behavior, managers of medium market stations must emphasize consideration behavior. Consideration behavior is necessary for’ staff’ members tn) be satisfied. with their job. Consideration behavior may also compensate for the high work loads and low salary structures of smaller markets. Showing friendly concern and involving journalists in the decision— making process will have a positive effect on job satisfaction. PM cl. v. .00 106 Aspiring news managers must recognize that the combination of their leadership behaviors and how subordinates will accept this behavior will influence the satisfaction and performance levels of their employees. Figure 2 illustrates framework for effective management of large and medium-sized broadcast newsrooms based on the findings from this study. Standard coefficients from the regressions were used, indicating positive relationships between the variables. The model in Figure 2 shows that for all markets, the strongest relationship was between initiating structure and agreement of group goals (.38). Therefore, in television news, news directors may find it necessary to tell staff members what the goals are so that they are agreed upon. The next largest significant relationship was between consideration behavior and job satisfaction (.35). For broadcasters to be satisfied on the job, significant amounts of consideration behavior are necessary. Consideration behavior is also related to successful attainment of group goals (.26). When news directors involve staff members in policy and decision-making, staff members are motivated to successfully achieve the goals. Finally, once these goals are agreed upon and successfully attained, job satisfaction results. Success and agreement both relate to job satisfaction (.19, .20, respectively). 107 W The present findings tend to support the view that, at least in some contexts, leadership behaviors differ in large and medium-market newsrooms and that these behaviors are related to other management variables such as job satisfaction, goal agreement and goal attainment. More research is needed to identify personal characteristics and environmental characteristics that impact leader behavior. Only in recent years has the subject of broadcast newsroom management become of increasing interest. Newspaper management has been under scrutiny for a comparatively long time. Now researchers and journalists alike are asking how broadcast newsrooms can In; more effectively managed. Respondents in this study expressed approval that interest in the problem of broadcast newsroom management was finally being addressed. Too often the concern of news directors has been solely to be number one in the markets. Now that attitude is under increasing criticism because being number one does not always mean that viewers are being given quality news. Furthermore, attention only to the ratings at the expense of employees' needs can result in reporter burn-out, high turnover, lower ratings and substandard news. Steers points out that organizations do not survive long if they pursue profits (or in the case of TV news--ratings) to the extreme, excluding employee needs and goals. Rather, organizations must pursue multiple goals, and these goals differ from organization to organization. He reviewed 17 108 models of organizational success and found the following criteria for evaluation: adaptability/flexibility, acquisition of scarce and valued resources, absence of organizational strain, control over external environment, employee development, efficiency, employee retention, growth, and integration of individual goals with organizational goals, open communication and survival.”2 News directors would do well to consider these variables as part of their overall management plan. Furthermore, research is needed to measure these variables in the newsroom context. A possible objective of future leadership research would be the formulation of a theory that comprehensively describes the processes involved in broadcast newsroom situations and which has the scope and depth to predict not only the leadership behaviors needed for a particular situation, but also whether or not an individual would be an effective leader in a particular situation. While the original path- goal model provides a framework for research, this study highlights deficiencies in the model. Modifications are necessary for the model to be practical. For example, the differentiation of leader behavior in the original model may be necessary for analytical purposes. However, results of this study indicate no clear definition exists between the two behaviors. Rather, in a newsroom situation, both initiating and consideration behavior are needed to reach certain goals. These relationships are more clearly indicated in the revised framework in Figure 2. I”Steers, p. 21. 109 Research must also be able to measure the leader’s characteristics, the subordinate's characteristics, the characteristics of the internal organization and the characteristics of the external environment. More studies are needed on the environmental and personal characteristics of newsrooms and their relationship to management behavior to be able to include them in a model of newsroom leadership. These variables mentioned earlier included locus of control or professionalism, specific tasks, formal authority system and primary work group. Since news organizations have such an impact on society, a logical step from this study would be to gather information on these variables from broadcast newsrooms nationwide. Another way to judge the impact of leaders on performance would be to investigate the effect of change in leadership. In the field of organizational theory, managerial succession research is concerned with understanding the consequences of succession on performance or with the relationship of leadership change to environmental or organizational factors.153 Such research could be accomplished in a relatively short period in the broadcast management setting because turnover rates are so high. Since news directors frequently change positions, a replication of this study could be undertaken in several years. Using the same news departments with different news directors in position, one could investigate the effect of change in leadership on job satisfaction, goal attainment and I" Smith, p. 766. 110 goal agreement. Finally, more research needs to be conducted to further de-mystify the concept of leadership and treat it as something that can be observed and operationalized in broadcast newsrooms. Directly observing news directors in the natural context may be a powerful approach to studying leadership in addition to studying leadership variables separately under artificial conditions. More research is needed to observe what news managers actually do since questionnaires do not describe specific actions taken by leaders, their effects on subordinates, or the environmental context of the behavior. Such research may eventually result in the important job of aiming human resources toward improved organizational performance in broadcast newsrooms. 111 INITIATING BEHAVIOR JOB SATISFACTION AGREEMENT CONSIDERATION BEHAVIOR Figure 2. Framework for Broadcast Newsroom Leadership. APPENDIX A SURVEY QUESTIONNAIRE INSTRUMENT A. MANAGEMENT l 1 2 Here is a list of items that may be used to describe the behavior of your news director toward subordinates. Each item describes a specific kind of behavior but does N91 ask you to judge whether the behavior is desirable or undesirable. This is not a test of ability or consistency . W READ each item carefully. THINK about how frequently the news director engages in the behavior described by the item. CIRCLE how often your news director acts as described by the item. 5-Alwsys 4-Veryoften 3-Aboutasofienasnot 2-Seldom I-Never The news director: “1&le bel ) are e ow 1. Lets news staff members know what is expected of them. 5 4 3 2 1 2. Is friendly and approachable. 5 4 3 2 1 3. Encourages the use of uniform procedures. 5 4 3 2 l 4' @filfifi’fiflfiflfifl‘ifififiw 5 4 3 2 1 5. Tries out ideas with the staff. 5 4 3 2 1 6. Puts stafl' suggestions into Operation. 5 4 3 2 1 7. Makes his or her attitudes clear to the staff. 5 4 3 2 1 8. Treats all stafi' members equally. 5 4 3 2 1 9. Decides what and how the task shall be done. 5 4 3 2 1 10. Gives advance notice of changes. 5 4 3 2 1 11. Assigns staff members to particular tasks. 5 4 3 2 l 12. Keeps to himself or herself. 5 4 3 2 1 13. Makes sure that his or her rt in the group is understood by staff mem rs. 5 4 3 2 1 14. Looks out for the personal welfare of news staffers. 5 4 3 2 1 15. Schedules the work to be done. 5 4 3 2 1 16. Is willing to make changes. 5 4 3 2 1 17 . Maintains definite standards of performance. 5 4 3 2 l 18. Refuses to explain his or her actions. 5 4 3 2 1 19. Asks that the staff follows standard rules and regulations. 5 4 3 2 1 20. Acts without consulting the staff. 5 4 3 2 1 APPENDIX B EXPLANATORY COVER LETTER 114 MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF JOURNALISM EAST LANSING 0 MICHIGAN 0 48824-I2l2 TELEPHONE (517) 353-6430 . July 1. 1989 Dear Ms. Broadcast newsrooms are managed in various ways. Unfortunately. we have only a sketchy idea of what constitutes effective newsroom management. With increasing competition and tightened economies. there is a need to understand efficient ways to manage news departments. You are one of a number of people being asked to give their opinion on these matters. Your name was drawn in a random sample of news department personnel in the Midwest region. Responding to this survey represents voluntary participation on your part. However. in order that the results will truly represent the thinking of the broadcasters in the Midwest. it is important that each questionnaire be completed and returned. You may be assured of complete confidentiality. The questionnaire has an identification number for mailing purposes only. This is so that I may check your name off of the mailing list when your questionnaire is returned. Your name will never be placed on the questionnaire. nor will the mailing list ever be disclosed. The results of this research will be made available to professional broadcasters and broadcast educators. You may receive a summary of results by writing "cepy of results requested" on the back of the return envelope and printing your name ansccl1f address below it. Please dug; put this information on the questionnaire it . I would be most happy to answer any questions you might have. Please write or call. The telephone number is (517) 353-9479. Thank you for your assistance. Sincerely. Angela Powers Project Director MS U is an Affimativc Action/Equal Opportunity Institution APPENDIX C FOLLOW-UP LETTER 115 MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF JOURNALISM EAST LANSING 0 MICHIGAN 0 48824-1212 TELEPHONE (517) 353-6430 July 24. 1989 Dear Mr. About three weeks ago. I wrote to you seeking information about the management practices used in your news department. As of today. I have not yet received your completed questionnaire. I have undertaken this stugy because I believe that research on broadcast management issues should in ude input from industry professionals. Your input is es ecially important for this study as it seeks to illuminate how news stafl‘ mern rs respond to management policy. I am writing to on again because of the significance each questionnaire has to the usefulness o the study. In order for the results to truly represent stations of all types in different kinds of markets. it is essential you return your questionnaire. Agzin. you may be assured of complete confidentiality. The identification num r on the questionnaire simply enables me to access public data about your station (from the Broadcasting Yearbook) so I can tabulate the results by statistical groups (e.g.. market size. network affiliate). Under no circumstances will you or your station be identified in any report. published or unpublished. Ifyou would like a summary of the results. please write "Copy of Results Re uested" on the back of the return envelope. and print your name and ad ess below it. In the event that your questionnaire has been misplaced. a replacement is enclosed. Please feel free to call me at (517) 353-6430 if (you have any questions or concerns. Your cooperation is greatly appreciate . Sincerely. Angela Powers Project Director MS U i: an Affirmative Action/Equal Opportunity Institution APPENDIX D FREQUENCIES OF AGES OF RESPONDENTS 116 APPENDIX D FREQUENCIES OF AGES OF RESPONDENTS Table 19 Trans or verses roa ass PERCENTS or ram. 08 THIS (summers 22.000 23.000 24.000 25.000 26.000 27.000 .58 4.09 2.92 4.09 5.85 5.26 28.000 29.000 30.000 31.000 32.000 33.000 5.26 7.60 4.68 5.85 7.60 4.68“' 34.000 35.000 36.000 37.000 38.000 39.000 5.26 4.68 2.34 1.75 2.92 4.68 40.000 41.000 42.000 43.000 44.000 45.000 2.92 1.75 2.34 Iii? 2.34 .58 47.000 48.000 49.000 50.000 51.000 55.000 .58 1.17 .58 .58 .58 .58 56.000 57.000 58.000 . 62.000 63.000 64.000 1.17 1.17 .58 .58 .58 .58 TOTAL N=l71 100.00 APPENDIX E FREQUENCIES OF SEX, ETHNIC BACKGROUND AND EDUCATION 117 APPENDIX E FREQUENCIES OF SEX, ETHNIC BACKGROUND AND EDUCATION Table 20 TABLE 5‘ VALUES FOR SEX PERCENTS OF TOTAL OF THIS (SUBITABLE 1.000 2.000 TOTAL 63.74 36.26 100.00 N=171 TABLE OF VALUES FOR ETHNIC PERCENTS OF TOTAL OF THIS (SUB) TABLE 1.000 2.000 3.000 4.68 1.17 3.51 N=l7l TABLE or VALUES FOR EDUCATION, PERCENTS or TOTAL or r1413 (SUB) TABLE 1.000 2.000 3.000 .58 5.85 80.12 N=l7l 6.000 .58 TOTAL 100. 00 Tom. 100.00 APPENDIX F FREQUENCIES AND MEANS OF JOB SATISFACTION SCORES 118 APPENDIX F FREQUENCIES AND MEANS OF JOB SATISFACTION SCORES ALL MARKETS Table 21 Mean = 3.2 TABLE OF VALUES FOR SATISFACTION PERCENTS OF TOTAL W THIS (SUB)TABLE 1.000 2.000 3.000 4.000 5.000 TOTAL 13.45 23.98 2.34 49.12 11.11 100 00 == 3.27 LARGE MARKETS mean 1.600 2.400 2.500 3 000 3.250 3.500 4.76 4.76 19.05 19.05 4.76 14.29 3.600 4.000 4.300 4.500 4.600 TOTAL 4.76 14.29 4.76 4.76 4.76 100.00 Medium Markets ZMean = 3-19 1.250 1.750 2.300 2.400 2.600 3.000 4.55 4.55 4.55 9.09 9.09 4.55 3.200 3.250 3.500 3.600 3.700 4.000 4.55 4.55 22.73 4.55 4.55 9.09 4.200 4.250 4.300 TOTAL 4.55 4.55 4.55 100.00 APPENDIX G FREQUENCIES AND MEANS FOR GOAL AGREEMENT 119 APPENDIX G FREQUENCIES AND MEANS FOR GOAL AGREEMENT ALL MARKETS TABLE or VALUES FOR AGREEMENT mean = 20'" PERCENTS OF TOTAL or THIS (SUB) TABLE 0.000 4.000 6.000 7.000 8.000 9.000 1.20 .60 1.81 .60 3.01 1.20 10.000 12.000 13.000 14.000 16.000 18.000 3.61 5.42 1.81 4.82 6.63 10.24 19.000 20.000 21.000 22.000 23.000 24.000 1.20 11.45 1.20 10.24 .60 7.83 26.000 27.000 28.000 30.000 32.000 34.000 8.43 .60 4.22 10.24 1.81 .60 37.000 TOTAL .60 100.00 Table 22 I.‘ fit LARGE MARKETS 120 Table 22 (cont’d.) Mean = 21.16 TABLE OF VALUES FOR AGREEMENT PERCENTS OF TOTAL OF THIS (SUB)TABLE 12.600 14.600 15.800 16.000 17.000 18.000 4.76 4.76 4.76 9.52 14.29 4.76 21.500 21:800 22.300 22.500 23.000 24.250 4.76 4.76 4.76 4.76 4.76 4.76 I 25.000 26.000 28.000 30.000 TOTAL 4.76 9.52 4.76 9.52 100.00 MEDIUM MARKETS Mean = 19.78 TABLE OF VALUES FOR.1U3REENEHTT PERCENTS OF TOTAL OF THIS (SUB)TABLE 11.300 13.000 14.000 14.800 17.000 17.710 4.55 4.55 4.55 4.55 9.09 4.55 18.300 18.400 19.000 19.200 19.600 21.500 4.55 4.55 9.09 4.55 4.55 4.55 21.710 22.600 23.600 24.000 25.000 25.500 4.55 4.55 4.55 4.55 4.55 4.55 26.000 27.000 TOTAL 4.55 4.55 100.00 'I .... i APPENDIX H FREQUENCIES AND MEANS FOR SUCCESS 121 APPENDIX H FREQUENCIES AND MEANS FOR SUCCESS Table 23 ALL MARKETS Mean = 3. TABLE OF VALUES FOR SUCCESS PERCENTS OF TOTAL OF THIS (SUB)TABLE 1.800 2.100 2.300 2.400 2.460 2.500 2.33 2.33 2.33 6.98 2.33 2.33 2.600 2.650 2.750 2.880 2.900 2.920 2.33 2.33 2.33 4.65 9.30 2.33 2.950 2.970 3.000 3.030 3.100 3.200 4.65 2.33 2.33 2.33 2.33 4.65 3.240 3.280 3.300 3.325 3.380 3.400 2.33 2.33 6.98 2.33 4.65 9.30 3.500 3.740 3.970 4.300 TOTAL 4.65 2.33 2.33 2.33 100.00 122 Table 23 (cont'd.) LARGE MARKETS Mean = 2.9 TABLE OT VALUES FOR SUCCESS PERCENTS or TOTAL or THIS (SUB)TABLE . 1.800 2.100 2.400 2 600 2.650 2.880 4.76 4.76 9.52 4.76 4.76 4.76 2.900 2.920 2.950 2 970 3.200 3.300 4.76 4.76 9.52 4.76 9.52 4.76 3.380 3.400 3.500 4.300 TOTAL 9.52 9.52 4.76 4.76 100.00 TABLE or VALUES FOR SUCCESS Mean = 3- PERCENTS OF TOTAL 08 THIS (SUB)TABLE 2.300 2.400 2.460 2.500 2.750 2.880 4.55 4.55 4.55 4.55 4.55 4.55 2.900 3.000 3.030 3.100 3.240 3.280 13.64 4.55 4.55 4.55 4.55 4.55 3.300 3.325 3.400 3.500 3.740 3 970 9.09 4.55 9.09 4.55 4.55 4.55 1=Very Unsuccessful 2=Unsuccesstl 3=Somewhat Successful 4=SUccessful 5=Very Successful 1 TOTAL 100.00 2; mull-as! I V1. - -s M: gflmigvu »u"."' i. .-. - APPENDIX I SKEWNESS AND KURTOSIS OF INDEPENDENT VARIABLES 123 APPENDIX I SKEWNESS AND KURTOSIS OF INDEPENDENT VARIABLES Table 24 TOTAL OBSERVATIONS: 171 DMA SEX NETWORK 'AGREE SUCCESS N or CASES 171 171 171 166 167 MINIMUM 3.000 1.000 1.000 0.000 1.000 MAXIMUM 140.000 2.000 3.000 37.000 5.750 MEAN 59.959 1.363 2.053 20.006 3.067 STANDARD DEV 43.928 0.482 0.814 7.193 0.682 SKEWNESS 0.221 0.572 -0.096 -0.301 0.150 KURTOSIS -1.242 -1.673 -1.474 -0.296 1.356 YEARS SATISFAC EDUCATIO AGE ETHNIC N or CASES 171 171 171 171 171 MINIMUM 0.500 1.000 1.000 2.000 1.000 MAXIMUM 31.000 5.000 5.000 64.000 6.000 MEAN 5.980 3.543 3.070 33.813 3.836 STANDARD DEV 5.962 0.927 0.480 8.890 0.725 g; SKEWNESS 1.927 -0.551 0.197 0.984 -2.804 t KURTOSIS 4.344 -0.187 3.892 2.222 9.250 STAFF SALARY SHARE INITIATE CONSIDER N OF CASES 170 152 170 167 170 ‘ MINIMUM 10.000 11440.000 1.000 11.000 12.000 : MAXIMUM. 150.000 300000.000 3.000 50.000 49.000 ; MEAN 44.459 57376.539 1.882 31.521 29.371 E STANDARD DEV 31.449 57979.426 0.827 7.444 8.093 SKEWNESS 1.399 2.272 0.221 -0.101 0.125 KURTOSIS 1.508 5.360 —1.496 -o.269 —0.770 APPENDIX J SKEWNESS AND KURTOSIS OF INDEPENDENT VARIABLES WITH OUTLIERS CORRECTED .-tr -, ' "”7 124 APPENDIX J SKEWNESS AND KURTOSIS OF INDEPENDENT VARIABLES WITH OUTLIERS CORRECTED TOTAL OBSERVATIONS: N OF CASES MINIMUM .MAXIMUM STANDARD DEV SKEWNESS KURTOSIS N OF CASES MINIMUM MAXIMUM MEAN STANDARD DEV SKEWNESS KURTOSIS N OF CASES MINIMUM STANDARD DEV SKEWNESS KURTOSIS 171 171 .000 140. 59. 43. .221 -1. 000 959 242 171 .500 .000 .980 .962 .927 .344 171 .000 .000 .561 .385 .390 .500 Table 25 SEX NETWORK 171 1.000 1 2.000 3 1.363 2 0.482 0 0.572 -0 -1.673 -1 SATISFAC EDUCATIO 171 1.000 1 5.000 5 3.205 3 1.297 0 -0.449 0 -1.198 3 SALARY SHARE 171 11440.000 3 290000.000 39 55795.164 24 52475.098 7 2.091 -0 4.446 0 171 .000 .053 .814 .096 .474 171 .000 .000 .070 .480 .197 .892 171 .000 .000 .427 .343 .707 .986 AGE 22. .000 33. 8. 1. .812 64 1 INITIATE 11 7 171 .000 .000 .999 .156 :306 171 000 930 596 331 171 .000 50. 31. 000 541 .412 -0. -0. 104 275 SUCCESS 171 .000 .750 .679 .152 .356 171 .000 .000 .836 .725 .804 .250 171 .000 .000 .431 .108 .114 .787 BIBLIOGRAPHY . 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