IRRIGATION AND IRRIGATED AGRICULTURE IN JORDAN: AN ECONOMIC GEOGRAPHIC APPRAISAL _ Dissertation for the Degree; of Ph. D; ' MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY FOUZI EID SAHAWNEH' 1970 IIIITIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII III“ 3 1293 00638 819 This is to certify that the thesis entitled Irrigation and Irrigated Agriculture in Jordan: An Economic Geographic Appraisal presented by Fouzi Eid Sahawneh \\ has been accepted towards fulfillment of the requirements for ___PD£'__ degree in my Jam/i». Major professor DateM 11%; 1970 0-169 LIBRARY I“? ‘Michigan State University gal—£491.33; 162 I (£1 \ 4» ~- ' ‘ 7 7 mo ’ttzV ml ’21-- al& u!" ‘a. 95.9.. ABSTRACT IRRIGATION AND IRRIGATED AGRICULTURE IN JORDAN: AN ECONOMIC GEOGRAPHIC APPRAISAL By Fouzi Eid Sahawneh ‘_. Economic progress in many of the countries of the .vlfidgle East has been closely tied to the development of an - ‘gpfticient irrigation system. Jordan in particular, with "3£Q}ted_land resources and a predominantly agricultural popu- ;Mjlh§fipn. is faced with considerable problems in attempting to filqapd its areas of irrigated land to meet present and future .for agricultural products. ’ Several irrigation schemes have been developed, I‘ngf ling pater obtained mainly from the side-wadis of the dan.‘ In particular the construction of the East iwxgwhpe brought benefits not only in terms of in- .fl_e§5icultural production and income for the local 3 ?,hps also aided greatly in the economic and 'e'E5 H.gpqent of the whole country. 17‘ 5"“! > gringing of water to the land is. however. 3h ‘ flbt enly have drainage systems. new settlements. % NEG? theilitiee t9 be constructed. but the social ' "are: have to be wider-ed. In particular. Fouzi Eid Sahawneh IVtho traditional system of land tenure has to be changed in order to ensure the efficient operation of new ir— rigation schemes. Unfortunately the successful implementation of new irrigation schemes in Jordan are hampered by several factors, physical and human. Apart from the problem of obtaining sufficient water from the river systems of the East Bank of the Jordan the most serious problem is the con- tinuing military action in the area which has prevented the full implementation of the East Ghor Canal project among others. However, other human factors also cause considerable problems. Although the technical and administrative aspects of the management of the East Ghor Canal scheme are good, a lack of legal enforcement of new land tenure regulations, lack of experience on the part of local officials and many social problems, may cause difficulties in the practical ‘ implementation of the scheme. } *1- It is difficult to foresee the eventual efficacy of the irrigation schemes which are at present being develop- ed, especially if Arab-Israeli hostilities continue over a ~.‘flléong period. Even if hostilities cease, however, much re- ngjmns to be done. Nevertheless, the results of the im- ‘iagglentation of new irrigation schemes during the last five I: cafiybe observed in the form of increased agricultural IRRIGWON AND IRRIGATED AGRICULTURE IN JORDAN: AN ECONOMIC GEOGRAPHIC APPRAISAL '”,s. .eemeemv‘w- r)“ - Mittn- ' me hells”. 'We go Wmir helx 1| ' ft {.32 a; no Irri as; ’WW in Jam : h * W“ ‘. ' to ‘rc l‘ i I P I N Authur‘.” .-°§"-f‘ " ‘e. .f' “, a'ww‘ . 'L ‘i. afi'ht By Fouzi Eid Sahawneh $er ‘ ’ ' .'. 8 U1,- ‘ .4 a. grip 1») Kim :. ‘e “all was mam puss ‘ I '{0 6 a. ‘ “at” CUIYAW‘II Attach A DISSERTATION .' *n “W T,» and ‘i‘t‘mrnr‘ out of the requirements ..... l \0 U/\p Ty. 6" \’\ ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I am most grateful for and appreciative of the encouragement, guidance and assistance of Dr. Ian Matley. my Committee Chairman. His comments, criticism and patience have helped greatly in preparing this dissertation. Many thanks go to Doctors Minkei. Vinge and Steinmueller for their helpful comments. Several interviews were held with many officials in the Irrigation Department of the Natural Resources Authority in Amman. Jordan. For this I am grateful. Many thanks go to the staff of the Library of the Natural Resources Authority for their assistance in the search for materials. The trip to the United States for the defense of this dissertation was made possible by a Travel Grant from the United States Cultural Attache in Amman. Jordan. The patience and encouragement of my family and fiance made the task a little‘ more pleasanter. I am appreciative to my colleagues in the Depart- lnnt of Geography at the University of Jordan for their Irénfloeeant encouragement. V l 3 ~ 11: '-' TABLE OF CONTENTS ',‘maenucnon................... 1 Chapter I. THE NATURAL ENVIRONMENT OF JORDANIAN AGRICULTUREIOOOOOIO I 0 I0. I O 9 wi' 5v, Physical Regions ‘ Climate Soils : ‘ II. AGRICULTURE AND THE JORDANIAN ECONOMY . . . 26 :;. ‘Agricultural Resources v' “lend Use , Agricultural Crops and Production ; Dry.Farming Pinning Under Irrigation Major Irrigated Areas Pmblems of Irrigated Farming an: Role of Irrigation in Agricultural Production I; «Choice of Crops Ll Pihaifir IRRIGATION SCHEMES. . g . . . . . 81 meow River 4. karmsssnt Water use and Irrigation ' g. .Praeticea in the Jordan Valley . ‘ rigation from Springs and wells 3;: 11: \ amigo. tion from Ancient works , cdigfiitlflihrfisriece Drainage “. ~M_V Inniqafiion.uethods 1‘ " Win. Methods used for - ', 'flnrtlin»Crope a Vafivlrnmi"‘ ernhip ,7 income Ulr.;_:€"! mTrmd‘ In the hi‘;é.' ~tL': , ,fivl Danna per :‘sm Income Wadi Yabis, Wadi Kufrinja, Wadi Rajib Irrigation in Wadi Yabis Irrigation in Wadi Kufrinja Irrigation in Wadi Rajib Wadi Zerqa The Dhuleil System Dry Farming Irrigated Farming IV. THE EAST CHOR CANAL PROJECT . . . . . . . . , . . . 113 History The Baker-Harza Plan Project Description Construction of the Project Objectives of the Project Management of the East Ghor Canal Project The Legal Framework Definitional Matters Organizational Matters Economic Matters Implementation of Major Provisions of the Laws Management of the Project Recommendations Legal Framework Administrative Framework Technical-Economic Framework An Economic Evaluation of the Project The Jordan Valley. a Social and Economic Survey Comparison of the Two Studies 1 Production and Income after the Completion of the East Ghor Canal Agricultural Income The 1965-1966 Study Income per Dunum and for the Project Area Land Use Crops Planted per Acre a. Farm Ownership " Non-Crop Income Agricultural Trends in the Project Area ‘ Income per Dunum Income and Expenses per Farm Total Agricultural Income .Pro‘duction (weight) per Dunum =letll Agricultural Production (weight) "It"; "..'- .. 7» V ’ l 1' ‘ W. MNED IRRIGATION SCHEMES AND DRAINAGE SYSTEMS. . . 184 °°‘£eyout of the Irrigation System 2 I he Areas to be Irrigated _“ eject Subdivisions ‘ summary and Conclusions 3 'I I 5WD TmURE I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I 206 b , The Legal System ”F land Tenure in Jordan “"8129 and Distribution of Land Holdings , Proposals ’ Ownership and Settlement 6 y Land Settlement ‘ B“fhrm Size , d Reform , e Need for Reform ‘33 d Reform in the Jordan Valley IN. n‘fhe East Ghor Reform WWW". ee'eeeeeeeeeeeeeeeee 2“? . “xiii-«‘12. , “‘34."; wt.:l.. f:. , I. I I II I. I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I 256 w»; film at 5 ‘il‘: F; ! 191d“ ‘2' J: ' themes 02 m.rlIIQI-e.g., Itcrn in FA.‘ — j, _ 9’J and LG“; ;;£,hh,: . . t_ ‘ and Rat‘tfli pr. "F"“.t_"';; 2’ .'i wit, “3'” "fl 0? “H.117. “out; ..... .. P i- ._:ykf‘9 flfljor non~ix£i~aced ugd L a, (’ ”(Ta-W.“ gqorm xqsz‘lq lIeeleeg.....‘..} “ \" '0...‘IOflOtOetteoeeeeeeeeeeboaa- 5' I~If$0 eeeie 1h I lb of l1”“1)91nuuuu. m ‘ .1 ".r. -h’l‘. Table 1 10 11 LIST OF TABLES Agricultural labor force by main occupation (1961 ............................. Land classification according to type of uSeIIIIIIIIIIIIIIICIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII. Land distribution according to type Of agricultureIlIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII Agricultural land distribution according to type of use...................... Agricultural land use 1953 and l965........... Value of agricultural production at farm prices (1964-1966)....-IIOIIIIIIIIIIII Output and value at farm prices of agricu1tura1 prOductS (1966)IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII Indices of area of crops and of total cropped area-SOIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII Changes in the crop pattern (percent or total area)eooeeeoeoIonseeeeeooeo-eeeeo-eoo Index of average rainfall and indices Of yields Of major crops...-eeeeeeooeeeeeeeeeo Estimates of irrigated areas by source Of waterIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII Crop pattern in East Ghor Canal Project Area 1961 and 1963 (percent of total area).... Proposed and actual crop patterns in the Jordan Valley (percent of total area)......... Production of major non-irrigated and irrigated prOductS in Jordan 1952'196100eoeooeeeeeeeeoee Present yieldSIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII Comparison of unit size scale in Law lh of 1959. Law 13 Of 1960 axld 13 Of 196203-0000...- vi Page 30 32 33 33 37 #1 42 43 4h 45 50 55 59 78 91 136 List of tables, cont'd. Table; Page 1? Number of holders allotted farm units singly of jointly........................... 14” 18 Distribution of land by unit size in East Ghor Canal Project area............. 148 19 Income and expenses per farm unit........... 162 20 Average gross income. average expenses and average income per dunumIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII. 163 21 Production and income for the sample area... 165 22 Production and income for the sample area... 169 23 Total for sample area, idle area. cultivated area, planted area and double cropped area.. 171 2# Land use in the sample area................. 172 25 Distribution of the sample according to the operating status of the farmers............. 17b 26 Gross income per dunum, expenses per dunum, and net income per dunum for 1953, 1959, 1960.196u/1965 and 1965/196600eeeeeooooeeeo 177 27 Gross income per farm, expenses per farm and net income per farm for 1953, 1959/1960. 196u/1965ar1d1965/1966OOIOIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII 178 28 Average yieldt per dunum for the major crops grm area for 1953, 1959/1960, 196h/19 , 1965/1966 in metric tons......... 180 29 Agricultural production of the East Ghor area for 61953, 1959/196o.196t+/1965 and 19 6665/19 I.IIIIII.II...-IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIC 181 30 Agricultural prOduCtioneoeeeeeeeeeeoeeeeeeee 183 31 Irrigable areas in the jordan Valley........ 189 '—__——_———‘ List of tables. cont'd. Table Page 32 Net irrigable areas to be irrigated by the side-wadis (gravity and pumping) and by pumping from the main canals......-...o.....o. 191 33 Sources of irrigation water and irrigated area-SIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII 193 3b Distribution of holdings by type of tenure (by percentage and area)...................... 211 35 East Jordan Valley, number of holdings and area by type of tenure........................ 212 36 Number and area of holdings by size group 1953 and 1965..IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII 215 37 Distribution of ownership in the Jordan valley, December, 1965IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII 216 38 Distribution of land ownership by size in East Ghor Canal Project Area, July 1960....... 2&2 39 Distribution of land ownership in East Ghor Canal Project Area after the reallocation Of larld.IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII 21+3 viii Map 1. 2. 3. h. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. LIST OF MAPS Location Map of the Hashemite Kingdom OfJOrdanouo....-ooou. The Study Area . . . . . . . . . . . The Physiographic Regions . . . . . . Bioclimatological Map of East Jordan Mean Annual Rainfall . . . . . . . . Soils of Jordan . . . . . . . . . . . General Soil Map of Eastern Jordan . Population Density. . . . . . . . . . Generalized Present Land Use. . . . . Wadi Arab Catchment . . . . . . . . . Wadi Ziglab Catchment . . . . . . . . Wadis Yabis, Kufrinja, and Rajib. . . Wadi Zerqa . . . . . . . . . . . . . East Ghor PrOject O I C I O O I O O 0 ix Page 10 1h 18 20 21 28 36 95 98 101 105 116 in mi. LIST OF FIGURES A.Seene From the North Ghor Area Showing Ferns and the East Ghor Canal . . . . . . . . Beginning of Work in East Ghor Canal Showing Location of Canal in Relation to Eastern P1‘t...“ O C O I O O O I I O O O I O O I O O 0 wing of Main Canal 0 O O I O I I O I O O O 0. Completed Section of East Ghor Canal . . . . .. Pi:- Vorkers Splash Through East Ghor Canal Lateral During Transplantation of Young " angina Plants. Barely Six Months 01d in East thor Canal Development Area I e e e e e e e e rli~ ,Iht‘twfron Canal Irrigates Crops . . . . . . .. Vlugplants being Harvested in East Ghor Canal 9.7.1cm0ntueaoeeeeeeeeeeeeee Page 121 122 123 123 12h 124 125 125 Chart 1. II. III. IV. V. VI. VII. VIII. IX. LIST OF CHARTS Recent Growth of Total Output of Major Irrigated and Non-Irrigated Products. . Rainfall and Grains and Vegetable Output. Rainfall and Fruits Output. . . . . . . . Rainfall and Wheat Output . . . . . . . . Rainfall and Sesame and Tobacco Output. . Rainfall and Tomato Output. . . . . . . . Rainfall and Banana and Citrus Output . . Rainfall and Olive, Grape and Fig Output. Value per Dunum of Major Irrigated and Non-Irrigated Crops in Jordan . . . . . xi; Page 65 66 66 6? 6? 68 68 69 80 Ki. INTRODUCTION From time immemorial the peoples of the Middle East have supported themselves in a difficult environment, with the aid of irrigation. The rise and fall of cities and civilizations have in many cases been linked to the efficiency of their irrigation systems. Today, no less than in the past the economic welfare of many of the peoples of the Middle East depends on the efficient or- ganization of their water resources and the development of new areas of irrigated agriculture to feed increasing populations. One Middle Eastern country which faces con- siderable problems in expanding agricultural production to meet the requirements of a rapidly increasing pop- ulation is Jordan. The Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan incorporates .the area of former Transjordan and that part of Palestine fuhieh remained in Arab hands at the conclusion of hos— ;tilities with Israel in 1948. (Map 1) i The British established Transjordan as a 4-ho- principality in 1921 under the rule of Prince Abdullah Turkey Arab Repubhc Saudi Arabia “‘2. l 36 40 Scale '00 o woo 260 :00 won... I A A I A A l lOCATION MAP 0' TI" Ill 0’ JORDAN I b R v . P D iggrandfather of the present king.) It remained un- ';der British mandate until 19u6 when it gained its independence. In 1950 the Kingdom of Transjordan acquired an area of approximately 5000 square miles of the plateau country of former Palestine lying west of the Jordan River, but this area was conquered and oc- cupied by Israel in June, 1967. Today, Jordan covers an area of about 37,500 square miles. (This includes the presently occupied area of the West Bank of the Jordan River)with a 1965 population of over 2 million. Although this area gives each individual around 16 acres of land, this ratio is misleading because only 5 percent of the coun- try is cultivated and only 10 percent of the cultivated area is irrigated. The rest is either mountainous, eroded, forested, or too dry for crop growth. The total Vaultivated area is approximately 1.2 million acres which "f gives about 0.6 acres of cultivable land for each person. Almost every acre of arable land is cultivated Tiifluld not be used except for pasture, because of their ' «:145tna1 character. The major agricultural areas are a'. A t 5‘: . Iqs- A.....\ u l4. a$f5$§nd rain-fed agriculture are carried out. ,f‘ 'I Agriculture is the most important sector of Jr) the Jordan economy. "In recent years it has contributed about 17 percent of gross domestic product, 12 percent from crops and 5 percent from livestock. 0n the other hand, it provides main employment to about 35 percent of the labor force. Imports of agricultural products have averaged about 25 percent of all imports during recent years and exports of such products about 40 per- cent of all exports."1 A major problem exists whenever the extension of agriculture into new lands is attempted. Every acre of rainfed cultivable land is already being used, and ex- tension can only take place in areas that can be irri- gated. The judicious exploitation of the water resour- ces, therefore, is very important to Jordan's social and economic welfare. A number of irrigation schemes ‘hawe been and are being developed in order to increase .3 food production and for the settling of refugees. Fi- .;ghn§ncing of these projects is being undertaken by the ' “Ivernment of Jordan (funds appropriated from sale of ' fier.and from general funds) with foreign assistance. '1 ' gym. f‘ . ‘lnepartment of Statistics, se'pg" rt “a. Agriculture ’ Vlfié Department of Statistics Press, Amman, l9 , as follows: 1. present time.) miles to the east; to the edges of the desert. . 3.. i t 9 ‘in the Transjordan Plateau and which empty into the Jordan. (Tributaries originating in the Palestine Hills are ex- - eluded because of Israel's occupation of the area at the The area extends from the borders of Syria on the north to the Wadi Zerqa on the south, and from the " River Jordan on the west to a distance of no more than 40 (Map 2) The purposes of this study can be summarized To evaluate the role and impact of the irrigation schemes in the study area and on the economy of the country. To study field patterns, patterns of land use, and settlement , under conditions of irrigation. To examine problems of management of ir- rigation schemes, fragmentation of property, land tenure, salinity of soils and all other factors that may hinder agricultural develop- ment, and to suggest or recommend better courses of action. ‘To examine the feasibility and prospects of bringing more land under irrigation, and t‘ 7., .. h'. ". 4 .. _ ' - i . . I ‘ . v . —.‘_ . - A) A I . ‘ . . . .. . _ , , . -_ in. v , v. ' .. ‘ ‘1' L- :- say-.3 :mr,‘ "'13,” "- an ....--.—,-.- -2 - ‘ I » MA! 2 I lake Vibevicl SY R A -— .1- _— ‘l ————— ’ _ I " ’ 7 I I < I I w-N“ \' I I " I l I w “I” b omens I - o I I I On NUSN : I I A I . wYob” I I 2 | " I g I I- .. ouwu l ‘ .6 , 'unsm : w. " t . : w. Iniih I I I w. I . I I I IL I t I I r .SAH j -m AMMAN 0 w.shu"‘" vl". cln il- m ..,, un- Scale ewe! AREA to recommend possible future courses of action or approaches to developing new irrigation schemes. The reasons for undertaking this study are both personal and academic. The former stems from the fact that 1 was born and riased in a farming family in Jordan. that I knovv ‘the language, that I am familiar not only with the phy- sicanl. terrain but also with the people and, finally, my siru=£31re desire to do something that may benefit someone even in a. small way. The academic reasons stem from my interest in geogarzaphy of agriculture and rural settlement and my desire to c<>rntinue teaching and research work in this area. The methods used to fulfill the stated purposes 0f trijLs study fall into two categories: 1. Intensive library research before and after the field work, both in the United States and Jordan. Use was made of maps. statistics. and reports. Aerial photography was not available for security reasons. 2. Limited field work was carried out in the study area in 1969. Due to the military and political situation in the area and due to the dangerous conditions in the Jordan Valley. field work was of necessity. limited. All irrigated areas were within reach of Israeli guns and planes and were marked as military zones. This in addition to the bitter fact that over 90 percent of the farmers in the Jordan Valley had left their farms. Many of the irrigation schemes have been bombed several times especially the East Ghor Canal which lies in the study area in this dissertation. Much of the material used in writing thus came from written reports and interviews with many officials in- yplyed directly and indirectly with agriculture and irri- gatipn. Because of the problems associated with the epileetion and interpretation of statistical material in devadoping countries. along with the difficulty of obtain- égladata in the field. much of the statistical information .zggggqfiedrin this dissertation comes from studies made by .. . purines agencies and groups. government and otherwise. . J j ‘ fitegionn 5,193.03“. ‘ r' J ‘H .‘ aw Erasian as gradually westward an: v.*.ma. ‘9: Eastern fithe Trans;crlan Plateau. 7. - T.fiLn3 cecupies .\ ‘muza ‘qof Jordan and it as for :te uost part. \\ ('1'. I. ' ' lrl" gar I. ’v) I 'I i D llI’ II 'I ‘z‘f‘.’ (Quin-ffir‘!‘ 7"- ~‘ ...~ CHAPTER I THE NATURAL ENVIRONMENT OF JORDANIAN AGRICULTURE Before considering the nature of agriculture in Jordan we must first look at the natural conditions under which agriculture takes place. Land forms, climate and soil types vary considerably from one part of the country to the other, causing notable variations in conditions for agriculture. Physiographic Regions Jordan can be divided into four main physiographic regions which are distinguished by their topography and climate. The four regions are: 1. The Uplands a. Western Uplands b. Eastern Uplands (Transjordan Plateau) 2. The Steppe region 3. The Rift Valley of the Jordan River _ h. The Desert region (Map 3) g The desert region is an extension of the Arabian Desert and rises gradually westward and becomes the Eastern Highlands or the Transjordan Plateau. This region occupies tégbre than two-thirds of Jordan and it is for the most part I . . 1 . 91693;": - '\ ..iI Saudi Arabia _/"'—'—' PHYSIOGRAPHIC REGIONS OF . I JORDKN -wlnnw momma , JORDAN awn mm 1' - "Ass Jolnew mum: [:3 ossut tnsnlw mouuwm - ST EPPE o ,. t 11 "7irlint-strewn desert. The area is characterized by a short . and cold winter, and a long hot summer with rather cool nights. The yearly rainfall average is below 3 inches (76 millimeters). Some grasses grow in spring and are grazed by the desert nomads (Bedouins.) The Azraq Oasis is the only permanent settlement in the area. The areas lying west of the desert region in the northern part of Jordan and east of the Transjordan Plateau is the steppe region. This region extends from Amman in the south to the borders with Syria to the north. Level areas are found here especially in the northwest quarter where most of the dry farming takes place. Annual rainfall in- creases westward and with elevation and averages 200 - 500 mm. The Eastern highlands (Transjordan Plateau) are a series of mountain ranges intersected by several side- wadis which empty into the Jordan. They extend from the Syrian border on the north to the Gulf of Aqaba in the south I: and reach heights of 3000 feet. The southern two-thirds of .. the highlands have desert type of climate and are not in- .; 'cluded in the study. The northern one-third receives from }' 300 - 500 mm of rainfall annually and is intersected by t'side-wadis with perennial flow. Dry farming is practiced there in the level areas while irrigated farming takes place vigildng the streams where topography permits. Grains, vege- '1<..,. .1 . e -.. 11'.‘ . V 12 The Western highlands resemble the northern third of the eastern highlands in topography and climate with a little more rainfall and averaging 600 mm annually. The only difference is the fact that the western highlands have steeper slopes towards the Jordan Valley. Grains, fruits, and vegetables are the most common types of crops grown in the western highlands, with spe- cial emphasis on Olive trees. These trees are planted in level areas and hill slopes. Intensive types of agricul- ture are found in areas where water is available. The Jordan Depression begins from Lake Tiberias on the north to the Gulf of Aqaba in the south. Halfway lies the Dead Sea. The Jordan River runs in a trench from the Lake to the Dead Sea, known as the Ghor. Most of the area lies below sea level. The width of the valley increases Southward where it reaches about 15 Km. near Jericho where the Jordan River empties into the Dead Sea. Areas west of the river itself are narrower than those to the east of it. A different type of climate prevails in the low- lands of the Jordan area and can be described as having a Ishort warm winter and a long hot and dry summer. An inten- F‘:,-sive type of agriculture is practiced here most of which is . g: irrigated from the Jordan and from side-wadis and streams gas in the Zerka River Valley. In the northern section _}éeggthe valley, agricultural lands have been expanded due 13 Climate Two types of climate prevail in Jordan: First, Mediterranean in the west and northwest, characterized by a rainy winter season with mild temperatures, and a hot dry summer with plenty of sunshine. To the east lies the second type of climate; low latitude desert. Another approach to the climate of East Jordan was suggested by G. A. long.1 According to him, most of the area falls within the Mediterranean Bioclimatic region with a concentration of rainfall in the cool winter season and a very marked summer-drought (Map 4). He developed the following sub—divisions. 1. Mggiterrggggn Subshgmid bioclimate stage Average rainfall more than 600 mm. Average Minimum Temperature in the coldest month (Jan.) 3° 0. Average Maximum Temperature in the hottest month (August) between 27 and 33° 0. 2. Mediterranean arid bioclimate stgge Average rainfall 300 - 600 mm, Average Minimum temperature in the coldest month (Jan.) 3 - 7c°. 3. Mediterranean arid bioclimate stgge A. Cool type variety Average rainfall 150 - 300 mm. Average Minimum temperature in the coldest v.1sv. month (Jan.) l-3°c. Average Maximum " -;'1Long. G.A., 'Bioclimatology and Vegetation of East HMO working paper. 1.957. 15 temperature in the hottest month (August) 34 — 40°C. Mediterranean arid bioclimate stage B. Warm type variety Average rainfall 200-300 mm. Average minimum temperature in the coldest month (Jan.) 3—7oc. Average maximum temp- erature in the hottest months (Aug.) 3#-40°c. Mpditerranean arid bioclimate stage C. Very warm type variety Average rainfall 200 - 300 mm. Average minimum temperature in the coldest month (Jan.) 7-100. Average temperature in the hottest month (Aug.) 38-420c. Mediterranean Saharan bioclimate stgge A. Cool variety Average rainfall 25-150 mm. (with occasional seasons without or with very little rain.) Average minimum temperature for coldest month (Jan.) l-3°c. Average maximum temperature for hottest month (Aug.) 36-420c. KW Average rainfall 25-150 mm. (with occasional seasons without or with very little rain.) Average minimum temperature for the coldest month (Jan.) 3-8°o. Average maximum temperature for the hottest month (Aug.) 36-#2°c. 16 C. Vegy warm variety Average rainfall 24-150mm. (with oc- casional seasons without or with very little “x _ rain.) Average minimum temperature in the coldest month (Jan.) 8-12°c. Average maximum temperatures in the hottest month (July) 38-h400. No agriculture is practiced in types h-a, b, and 0 because of their desert nature. Vegetation is sparse and some grasses grow only in a few areas such as depressions. Most of the irrigated agriculture takes place in type 3.0; the area being the Jordan River Valley. Very little rain-fed agriculture is practiced here. From an agricultural point of view, type 3-b may be regarded as a transitional zone between the desert and the steppe region. The area is grazed by the Bedouins especially in years of good rainfall. Type 3—a may be considered as a steppe region and dry farming is practiced. Climatic types 1 and 2 are found on the Transjordan Plateau where dry farming takes place especially in the northern areas. Irrigation is practiced along side-wadis in this area. The pattern of rainfall is markedly orogenic. a? Precipitation is highly seasonal, being virtually confined to winter months, and extremely variable in amount. The 1? The prevailing winds which reach the south come fu - 1931'- _3‘0m across north Africa and carry little moisture. Con- ‘ , a . )J‘eéelquently, the south-eastern highlands, though higher than I w . ‘ , ’ _\ those of the north, receive a more scanty and unreliable rainfall. (Map 5). Average precipitation totals vary considerably '\ fzaom one part of the country to another; ranging from less than 10 mm in the desert to 600 mm in the West bank of the Jordan. It is estimated that only about 12 percent of the ‘- country's area receives an annual average rainfall exceeding I: I. 200 mm, and that only about 6 percent receives over 300 mm. While changes in the volume of rainfall has a direct and _ Pmportionally amplified effect on yields of dry-farmed 9mm, the distribution of rainfall over the season may “feet or accentuate the effect of the volume of rainfall . depending on the crop in question and the intensity of the *1 . 1'813 over time. o A 333‘; sf- v .ae- La m’_‘."Z-:r“.-p :‘u .‘MA. 11:} ”lg-1. _. r ' V . - , _ .‘ - 1,. “‘Adxgr‘ - 1 ' .I' ‘ af— “._ t- '. “.IM-r ~ “l'-""' K'r a b no ~31 I; l. 13; r ‘30 Mean Annual R ainfall 1937 -1955 Scale 100 10203040506070? - km. Rainfall In mm. W , . 36 7 l9 Soils A detailed and comprehensive study of the soils of Jordan has yet to be carried out. Three types of soils are found in the study area (Map 6). The irrigated soils of the Jordan Valley are for the main part alluvial soils. These soils have been producing most of the citrus, banana, and vegetables of Jordan. When properly managed and at— tended to, they become very productive. Lately, however, there have been reports of increasing salinization at- tributed mainly to increased salt content of the waters of the Jordan as the result of the diversion by Israel of fresh water from Lake Tiberias to the Negev desert. (Soils of the Jordan Valley are discussed in detail later.) Mediterranean Red Soils cover the largest part Of the study area. They are productive soils and this where Most of the rainfed agriculture is practiced. The major Pr‘oblem here is the fluctuation of rainfall from year to year, which affects production considerably. The soils in the side-wadis are basically Red l'ledfll.terranean soils covered in some places by water-laid de- Posits and are very productive when irrigated. Mr. F. Moormanl made, on behalf of the FAQ, a I. , 1imited' investigation of the East Bank soils of Jordan, and till“ nassified them in the following main groups: (Map 7) . V . p x a -s..-“ 1Moorman, F., Soils of East Jordan, mo Studies, 1962. .A‘. A 20' MAP 6 Soils of Jordan Lake Me d. sea ‘Tiberias {j \\\\ Aaubek ,~’ l l i I I. °ElJafr - Irrigated soils aterranean red am gd [:3 teppe yellow soils :1 Drys! sandxdesert SOI‘ Tc Udl sterile mud ( at so me formations Scale i owmwwwmmm I I "" ~ ._.’ m Aqaba""~.-. ~ SOUIIIIIOINN COUN'IV II'OII " 21 ': SOL MAP OF EASTERN JORDAN (To be considered as tentative) I. ll! "It'll! , ‘l I. . \ ( I , 5 e.\ J (‘ i - \ / ,/ 0 ~ s- u'x- \\ "ff" so \\ .. & "S .35.: JL \(0 " ’9’ u? { A I , r, 14’ . I ' 4 . ,4 V I? ‘ i \ l , >JEIUSALEM ‘ . ‘v n... .- _, , Jfly/. . .- l a ‘7 ’ , . .g ,, ./ u i. \ V: ' ' . ' / . . \/ Ii . l . - f '. , - ‘. "I n . ,.. c-uu 21" :1": IeO-imenu E...) wok“... on in “um. [a awn-unemu , ’ ‘ - in. C 0 'I- ., - win-l .z....."::..~:::* E] our. “m E} ............ [E] 5:23... '5‘" g." V g. g..." u ‘ Ava-u we .. 1...: go‘mhacmazu " " “who‘d" I" l m E u'oun 7" l e ’0'.» E ifie-Im . E] ”In. u. E ‘w l...” _;:.- V_ 7 . ' _ , . * 9...“: gauge-uni ‘ E] um." sun on {if} “MOB-iv W‘ ' ngprrqpr 1. 22 Grey Desert Soil: which covers most of the desert land where annual rainfall is below 100 mm. This type does not occur in the study area. It is not agriculturally pro- ductive, and most of the lands where it oc- curs are used for pasture on a very small scale, except for valley beds and lowlands where rain water accumulates. Yellow soils: This group covers slope lands where annual rainfall is in the range of 100-200 mm. Brown soils are usually clas- sified as part of this group also, but con- tain higher limestone percentage. The main features of this type are: At a depth of % - 2 cm. the soil has remnants of tree roots interspersed with the other ingredients in small quantities but suf— ficient to increase soil permeability. Soil permeability is weak especially in over- grazed regions which lead to the formation of a hard surface that limits penetration of rain water. Thus, run-off waters are wasted and meanwhile cause erosion of top soil layers. Host of the utilized lands where this soil type occurs are located within the area lying between Mafrag and Giza, especially in valleys. Host of the land in this region has a salt-free 23 class one soil, and with the presence of adequate rain, could be well utilized. 3. Yellow Mediterranean Soil: This group includes lands located between mountainous regions and steep lands with an annual rainfall of 200-300mm. It is somewhat similar in physical characteristics to the yellow soil, but differs in having a sub- layer with high limestone content. 4. Red Mediterranean Soil: This group includes soils of the mountainous regions where annual rain- fall is over 350 mm., and is characterized by pre- sence of humus in small quantities in surface lay- ers with a color different from the sub—layers. The soil has relatively high pure limestone con- tent, and its water retention capacity makes it cultivable in the same way that alluvial soils are. Most of the Ghor soils which are with alluvial deposits carried over by the R. Jordan and side- streams belong to this type. In 1955, Baker & Harza Engineering Companies made EEK; investigation of the soils of the Jordan Valley as a pre- -e,1§fle to the proposed Yarmouk project. The companies fol- a a ’\ -v ";3E5?ued the basis laid down by the U.S. Department of Ag- 21+ 1. Class one soils which cover a total area of 143,090 dunums. These lands have deep soil layers of good permeability, the soil being fertile and fit for most kinds ofvegetation with a high yield per dunum. 2. Class two soils which cover a total area of 138,ll73 dunums. The main factor that limits soil fertility is the relatively heavy soil texture which also decreases its permeability and little amounts of salts and alkalines 1.11 varying proportions, in addition of course, to the simple problems of topography . 3. Class three soils which cover a total area of 65,972 dunums. The main factor that limits its fertility is the presence of moderate quantities of salt and alkalies. Soil texture is very light in addition to problems of topo— graphy. 1+. Class four soils cover a total area of 172.310 dimums most of which located on the river banks. 14 percent 01‘ this total area may be reclaimed as class one and two after leaching . 5. Class six soils cover a total area of 423000 annuals, 89o dunums of which are cultivable if irrigated, I but cannot be reached at the present time due to its iso- ‘ ‘,‘-¥ation from and elevation to the irrigated area. Most of the land in this group have light soil 25 In summary, as far as the soils of the study area are concerned, we can say that the major criterion for the further development of irrigation in the study area is the availability of areas of flat land. Within these areas soil types vary but on the whole they are mainly alluvial. Soil classes also vary but for the most part, they are class one soils when irrigated. CHAPTER II AGRICULTURE AND THE JORDANIAN ECONOMY The important role of agriculture in the economy of Jordan is more easily appreciated if one first considers several aspects of the rate of growth and composition of the population of the country. The population of Transjordan in 1947 was about 375,000 but this grew rapidly as a result of the forced migration of persons from areas occupied by Israel, and in less than eighteen months, an additional #60,000 were added for a total of 835, 000 persons. "In a single year, 1948, about 350,000 persons left the rest of Palestine and entered the area that became Jordan. Thus, when the kingdom of Jordan was created, its popu- lation was more than three times as large as the popula- tion of Transjordan has been...1 This tremendous influx of refugees put a heavy strain on the economy, forcing 1International Bank for Reconstruction and Develop- ment of Jordan, The Economic Develo ment of Jordan, the John Hopkins Press, Baltimore, 1§57. 26 ,a 2? Jordan to depend heavily upon foreign aid. The estima- ted population of Jordan as of December 31, 1965 was 2,016,6182 which indicates a rate of increase of over 3 percent per year; one of the highest in the world. This population figure includes an unspecified number of refugees who enter Jordan almost every day. The population is about equally divided between the two banks of the Jordan River, the West Bank being more densely populated (about 170 per square Kilometer, compared with 12 in the East Bank) but not as densely populated as the area around Amman and Irbid. About nine-tenths of the population are concentrated in one-tenth of the area of the country, i.e., in the West Bank and in the four East Bank districts of Amman, Zarqa, Irbid and Balga. Not only does the high rate of annual increase of population call for a constant expansion in agricultural production, but the fact that the population is con- centrated in agricultural areas which are already densely populated further increases the pressure on Jordan's ag- ricultural resources. (Map 8) The 1961 census showed that #5.4 percent of the total population was under lh years of age which is below the .3 pork age, most being in schools. About 10 percent of the ..T§maining population are unable or unwilling to work. Those 9.5., ' 2Department of Statistics, Statistical Guide to .it«, ,11965, No. 3, Department of Statistics Press - Amman. 28 MAP 8 ‘, l- . . . . 47/} \p / I .> ' {////n/.‘.:"':/ Population Density (C ens 051961) Persons per square kilometre 0 - I. m S - 19 a 20-49 ,, 50-99 --> 100-199 ’ T ZOO-1.99 500 and over '5 if?“ 0 10 20' 3040 506070 km. 16 f at Aqa'tTa"\-~.i~ ,_, .a-——-‘ I _ _ \._,.-’ Saudi Arabia SOUIII:JOIDON COUNVIY IIPOII 29 that are unable are not qualified to hold most jobs while those unwilling are retirees. Another 20 percent of the total population are married women and take care of household duties only and are classified as unproductive or are not entered in census figures as economically productive. Thus about 25 percent of the population can be regarded as economically productive. Although the 1961 census showed that 43.7 per- cent of the population lives in cities, 50.6 percent still live in the country, the rest (5.6 percent) being classi- fied as tent dwellers, most of whom are Bedouins. 0f the total working population, 35.4 percent are still engaged in agriculture. It should be pointed out that the above figure also includes those working in agricultural acti- vities other than crop production. The following table shows the total agricultural population by occupation according to the 1961 census. 30 TABLE 1 Agricultural Labor Force bngain Occupation (1961) Main Occupation Male Female Total 1. Farmers 73,701 480 74,181 2. Agriculture Farmers “3:260 6:499 47.959 3. Agri-Machine Operators 973 -——- 973 4. Poultry 3599 9 3608 5. Shepherds 9036 90 9126 6. Fishermen 110 110 Total 130,679 7.076 137.757 The above are the offical figures of the 1961 population census. The actual number of the total agri- cultural workers exceeds this number for the following reasons: 1. It is believed that many seasonal werkers were not included because of the time (Nov. 1961) when the census was taken. Some seasonal workers came at har- vest time from the cities and return then when work is com— pleted. 2. The traditional social attitude of the people considers the wife who is helping her husband in his agri- cultural work as being non-economically active and leads, therefore, to exclude her from the agricultural labor force. This also applies to all other females in the fam- ily helping in agricultural pursuits. 31 The social and Economic Survey of the East Jordan Valley, (published in 1961) indicated that the number of females involved in agriculture total 25 percent of all persons working in agriculture in the region, 71 percent of them being family workers. Thus, it is certain that well over half of the total population is involved in agricultural activities and that the official statistics do not reflect the true situation. Underemployment and concealed unemployment in rural areas further complicates the accurate assessment of the numbers of peOple effectively employed in agriculture. Agricultural resources As we have already noted agriculture is the most important sector of the Jordan economy. In spite of its importance, however, physical conditions for the develop- ment of agriculture are clearly limited. Most of the area of Jordan is desert and only relatively small area of the country is cultivated. The rest is either moun- tainous, eroded, forested, or too dry for crop growth. The following table shows the area and percentages of land according to usage. TABLE 2 Land classification according to type of use: Type of land Area (Dunum)* Percentage (1000's) I Deserts 75,709 79.9% Agricultural land 13,000 13.1% Forest land 1,250 1.3% Meadow 1,000 1.1% Public land 1,525 1.6% Government land 1,500 1.6% Water bodies 756 0.8% It can be seen from this table that almost 80 percent ofimetntal area is desert and only 13.7 percent can be con— sidered as agricultural land and all other uses of the land make up about 6.5 percent. * Dunum is an area measurement equalling one fourth of an acre. 33 TABLE 3 Land Distribution according to type of agriculture 000 Type of agriculture Area(Dunums) Percentage Irrigated and Potentially a irrigable 759 5‘85 Non-irrigated or rain—fed 5,616 43.2% Fallow land 3,909 30.1% Unused because of the 2,716 20.9% lack of water The table above shows that the total agricultural land is only 13,000,000 Dunums, 43.2% of which is rain fed and only 5.8% is irrigated. The rest is either fallow or unused because of the lack of water. Most of the agricultural land is used for the grow- ing of grain, vegetables, and fruits. About 65.3% of the agricultural land is planted in grain, 7.1% in fruit trees, 4.7% in vegetables, 2% in young tree plantations, and the rest being unused as of this time as is shown in the following table: TABLE 4 Agricultural Land Distribution according to type of use: Type of Use Area (Daggms) Percentage Grains 8,500 65.3% Vegetables 610 4.7% Fruit trees 918 7.1% Young tree plantations 256 2% 34 TABLE 4 Cont'd Unused land because of lack of water 2’716 20’9% 13,000 100% Land Use About 6,000,000 dunums or (6%) of Jordan's land area receives an average annual rainfall of more than 300 mm, the minimum required for permanent and reliable dry farming. A part of this zone, which covers the Western and Eastern highlands, is either too steep for cultivation or has poor soil. Dry farming is extended to the 200-300 mm zone during years of good rainfall. 0n the other hand, small patches of land outside the 200 mm rainfall zone are irrigated from springs or wadiS or by pumped water. The estimates of the cultivated area in 1953, which have not changed much since that date, and that of the cropped area in 1965 are summarized in Table 5 below. They indi- cate that out of a possible cultivable area of some 9,000,000 to 10,000,000 dunums, only 6,330,000 were cropped in 1965 (against 6,690,000 dunums in 1964), the rest being presumably left fallow. Out of 760,000 dunums of land possessing water rights, about 300,000 dunums were actually irrigated.1 The statistical information on land use given in the agricultural census of 1953 and by the estimates of the Ministry of Agriculture suffers from many weaknesses. 1Jordan, Department of Statistics, 1953 Census of Agriculture. r. 'Oe 35 The area of agricultural holding estimated in the 1965 agricultural census turned out to be unreliable. The 1953 census results cover only holdings of more than 10 dunums in area and includes overlapping classi- fications. It also seems to have applied a loose definition of irrigated land to probably any land having some water rights. The estimates of the Ministry of Agriculture, on the other hand, refer to the crepped area only and are collected by regional extension agents and statistics inspectors from information supplied by the village heads or leading farmers. Hence, they are subject to a high degree of error, particular- ly concerning estimation for yields. No land use map of Jordan is available and none has been attempted... Map 9 is a generalized one and was based on the topographical sheets of Jordan and the patterns indicated are approximates. It was made with the help of some officials in the Natural Resources Authority. It should be considered as tentative and general. 36 MAAP 9 Generalized esent land use Lake Tiberias of Aqaba lrri ated Farmin Dr formin forestr Dr farmin and g gman’rjl horticIIllure y gr¥izing g tenlial Limited 37 TABLE 2 Agricultural Land Use 1953_and 1965 ('000 dunums) 1953 1965 1965 1) 2) 3) Census estimate Census Unirrigated cr0ps 5051 6009 4962 Field Creps Vegetable & Melons 4367 537 188 Fruits, Olives & Vines 684 1260 666 Irrigated Craps 759 323 443 Field Craps 195 132 Vegetables & Melons —-—- 75 234 Fruits, Olives & Vines 51 76 Total Crgpped Area 5810 6332 5404 Fallow 3064 Cultivated Area 8874 10400 Land registered as 1114 1315 Forest 360 The Range (not included above) 1000 Source: 1 Jordan, Department of Statistics, 1953 Census of AgricultureLgAmman. 2 Ministry of Agriculture. 3 Unreliable Figures, calculated from Department of Statistics, Report on Agricultural Census 1965, Amman, June 1967, table on p. 18. 38 Agricultural Crops and Production Before assessing the importance of agriculture in the Jordanian economy we should also look briefly at the types of crops grown and the amounts produced both under conditions of irrigation and dry-farming, as well as the major agricul- tural regions of the country. An overall picture of the pattern and growth of agricultural production can best be seen in the estimates of the value of agricultural output in the years 1954-1966 (Table 6) Since the values are given in current prices, their changes do not exactly reflect changes in physical output but the picture is not seriously distorted by the relatively small changes in prices from year to year. It will be noted that while total agricultural output roughly doubled during the period 1954 and 1966, its growth has been unsteady and it has fluctuated violently from year to year. It can be seen that the major sources of instability have been the changing output of cereals and olives. 0n the other hand, income from vegetables and fruits has shown the greatest degree of steady growth. The relative importance of the various agricult- ural products can be seen in (Table 7), which gives the estimates of their output and value in the year 1966. Since the agricultural season was a relatively normal one, the pattern is not distorted in favor of particular groups of products. In that year field crops represented 55.7 percent of the total value of agricultural output, and 39 animal and poultry contributed 43.6 percent. The remaining 0.7 percent was contributed by forestry, fish and honey. Within the group of field crops, fruits, vines and olives are the most valuable crops followed closely by vegetables; grains and legumes in a year of normal rainfall have thus been surpassed in importance by more intensive types of cultivation. The crapped area as a whole expanded with the in- flux of refugees in 1948 and with the shift of population to the E. Bank, and reached its maximum in 1956, when the total cropped area was estimated at 6,330,000 dunums. Since then it has remained below that level, contracting in years of late or poor rainfall and expanding when early rains suggest that the rainy season may be promising (Table 8). Since the area under field crops, particularly wheat and barley, represented about three—quarters of the total cropped area, its variation tended therefore to determine the overall changes in the total area under crops each year (Table 9). The allocation of the cropped area among the various crops changed significantly during the period 1954— 1966. While the area under field crOps tended to contract, the area under fruit trees, particularly olives, showed a (nontinuous and steady expansion. The area under Vegetables silso increased considerably with the expansion of irrigation, tnrt the area under unirrigated vegetables, like cereals, flnzctuated with rainfall. The shift in the crop pattern 40 can be illustrated by the change in the proportions of the area under various crOpS in the four best agricultural years (Table 9). Within the group of field crops, the area under wheat and barley remained predominant, covering over 80 percent of the total. The area under lentils, beans and tobacco tended to expand, probably due to the high prices they fetch, while maize, sesame declined in the area, probably to allow greater cultivation of summer vege— tables, other legumes followed the fluctuation in the area of winter wheat and barley. Within the group of vegetables the major crOps are tomatoes, watermelons, and cucumbers, which have shown the fastest expansion in response to the demand of the export markets in neighboring Arab countries. However, a slowdown in the growth of production occured in recent years due, mainly, to marketing problems. In 1966 there was a substantial decline in the area under tomatoes and watermelons owing to the poor rainfall season. The area of fruit trees, vines and olive trees has steadily expanded as more land was terraced and planted, particularly in the W. Bank. Olives, almonds and citrus have expanded most and in the same order. The cultivation of both citrus and bananas has been stimulated by the opening of irrigated lands in the Ghor and by high returns, but the area under bananas failed to expand much as a result of various pro- duction problems and the shortage of irrigation water. Marketable fruits such as plums, peaches, apples, and pears 1‘ .wcHeasoa no omsnoon Hope» on hapomxo a: use you has mohsmnm .woogpoe scannedpmo meow on» haamapsommo maazoaaom nmsonuam mammamaeoo hapoaapm no: can ommaimmma one wnmaidnma mongom can one .measmaeeem ao .eaeo are ease ween sea meeeEHSMm .emes4 .memaienaa .mpeeoee< arsenaez are .meaemaaeem co .aaea .eeeaoe "memaiemma .aeaaem ecoeem .AerHZV Heed sass .esaaem ..enaaienea aseaoe ca messes oaeoaoem. aeaaea .m.m "mneauemea aeaaam sauna mom mnm mnm mod wma NmH HHH dHH mm mm nda m3 moa Aooa.u onianmav . xoegH 1. n.aa m.om 0.:m o.~a m.aa a.ma m.m a.m. ~.oa m.oa H.ma m.n m.HH esooaH same sez 4 o.n m.e a.m m.m m.m o.m n.m m.m e.H e.a e.H H.H e.a acaueeeoaa mo pmoo mmoq n.0a a.n~ e.em m.nH H.na m.- a.~H ~.HH m.aa e.NH e.ea 0.0 e.~a Hence m.H e.o m.a m.o e.~ m.o e.a mo>aao a.e m.n m.e m.m m.n e.m o.a e.m o.m H.H m.o m.o m.o meaa> e menses m.o e.o 3.0 H.o m.o e.o H.o e.o_ m.o e.o e.o m.o ~.o oeempoe e.m 0.0 e.m e.e m.e m.a n.e N.n N.n 0.: m.m e.~ m.m mensweames m.e H.0H m.oa H.m “.3 e.n a.~ H.m n.~ e.e a.e m.~ o.e aeseweq a cameo ooma neon seen mean «was Hoaa ooea mama mnea enea omen mnea enea Amaeaaa emaeeeaoe ae meoaaaazv Awwmflidanv «4.00th Ewe" Pm COHHOSCOLW HQLHSQHSOHLM< .HO ®3Hw> e mamae TABLE 7 Output and value at Farm prices of Agricultural products (1966) Percent of Total value Value (JD million) Product Output (1000 tons) Grains & Legumes Dept. of Statistics: The total differs from total agricultural output given in Table 29, due to the exclusion of value added by const- ruction on the farm (JD 0.54 million) Wheat 101.1 2.97 70 Barley 28.8 0.43 Lentil? 11.0 0.39 10 Vetch Karsa- nneh) 6.9 0.16 9 Others 7.8 0.29 7 13376 ‘4724 100 14.2% Tobacco Virginia ) 1.23 0.25 83 Local Hishi O.g 0.05 17 l. l 0.30 100 1.0% Vegetables Tomatoes 144.6 1.87 33 Eggplant 50.4 0.58 10 Cucumbers 15.4 0.47 8 Watermelons 41.0 0.44 8 Green beans 10.7 0.43 7 Potatoes 22.3 0.33 6 Squash $5.9 0.30 5 Others 2.3 1.31 23 3 2. 5.73 100 19.2% Fruits, Olives and Vines Olives 32.7 1.64 26 Citrus 52.7 1.70 27 Grapes 61.9 1.28 20 Bananas 16.8 0.67 10 Apples & Pears 6.8 0.36 6 Figs 16.4 0.31 5 Almonds 3.5 0.13 2 Plums & Peaches 2.7 0.10 2 Others . 0.1 2 "6‘20 .7? T311 100 21.3% M; J Total CrOps 746.2 16.61 55.7% 9i 14 43 TABLE 8 Indices of Area of Crops and of Total cropped Area (Av. 1954-1956 = 100) Year Field crops Vegetables Olives a) other fruits all and vines crops 1954 98.3 115.1 96.7 101.2 99.1 1955 92.3 85.3 99.6 99. 92.5 1956 09.3 99.5 103.5 99. 107.6 1957 93.9 132.5 109.6 103.6 97.2 1958 98.3 114.6 116.0 111.1 100.7 1959 83.8 145.0 122.8 117.6 91.0 1960 77.9 131.0 130.8 119.8 85.9 1961 87.6 177.7 138.4 130.4 97.5 1962 93.6 187.4 144.2 132.4 103.5 1963 68.2 175.7 151.4 129.3 81.9 196 93.5 209.2 157.3 133.0 105.4 1965 91.2 211.8 163.2 138.1 104.3 1966 67.7 142.4 169.4 138.5 81.3 Derived from the estimates of the Ministry of Agri- culture given in the statistical Yearbook 1954 to 1966. a>Index number of trees; after 1957 the number was arrived at by adding the number of new seedlings The area included in the total was arrived at by applying the index to the estimate of area planted with olives in 1966. planted during the previous year. 44 also expanded in area but a slowdown in new planting of apples and pears has occured in recent years, probably due to lack of irrigation water in suitable highlands. TABLE 9 Changes in the Crop Pattern (Percent of Total Area) 1956 1961 1964 1965 Field Crops 84.7 74.9 74.0 72.9 Vegetables 5.1 10.1 11.0 11.3 Fruit Trees and Vines 4.4 6.4 6.0 6.4 Olive Trees 5.8 8.6 9.0 9.4 All Crops 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 Yields Yields of most of Jordan's crops fluctuate widely from year to year. dry farmed crops show the most violent variation in yields, a variation which is nearly always in the same direction as the changes in the average volume of rainfall but which tends to be of greater amplitude (Table 10). Yields of irrigated crops, and of fruit trees other than olives, show narrower annual variations and are influ- enced by other factors such as extreme weather conditions. cultivation practices. disease and pests. Yields have also tended to rise substantially over the period 1954 to 1966, partly as a result of improved cultivation practices but also. in the case of citrus and other trees, because of the rising proportion of mature trees. The yields of olives are subject to even more violent changes than dry farmed field crops. .moHpmm esooom on» maHpomHmsH Lou genome m we moHaom oz» one sH mommao>m mw\m©mHi ow\man mo oHpma one wsHm: an moHpom .msoprpm :Hms NH pom ommam>< umsHe ozu Hmcommom ommam>m mam oo>Hpoe mH xoocH HHmHsHms one on seasHH as xaesH are .msoHpmpm maHomoe HHm pom mH HHmwsHma n maommom mn\mmma on :n\mmmH owmam>< .BN manme Bosh .OOH AN AH .xoonpmow HmOHBmempm one CH so>Hw meHoH» can psapso .mwmnm mono mo mmH98u ooHHmuoo 0:» 50am eo>Hpoo HHH new HNH as :0 @0H Hm on on Hm emeH SOH sHm an we NNH BAH NmH osH mnH mmH mean moa mHN nnH mma mmH an emH omH an mma eeaH so 3mm aaH mm mma How a me an em on mean mma mma emH HH nNH mmH ea we we mm mm meeH NHH NOH enH HeH emH mHN mm mm om am we Heaa we me He em 00H oHN om mm mm as Hm oemH w ea nOH oHH eH eon amH mm as no as ean as am we so we oeH em mm mm mm amen an em NHH HN mm mHH we omH eNH NHH some HOH nma aw meH em as mnH eNH mHH mHH ean mHH om Hm mm mm mm mm mm am we mmmH Hm em omH mma amH mOH omH HsH m H eaH amen whenesoso Hm AH mmsmsmm msapHo moaopo mm>HHo was weepmeoe mHHpsoq zeHamm poems HHmmanm use» msOHoELoumsr iho xoesH A OOH onaaiemeH .>< V macho acme: we moHon mo moOHosH can HHmthmm mwmeo>< mo xoesH OH mqm Seesaw empmeLaH meo>Ha .. . zHHzm poummHaaH sconce a mHemz mmnapa Looms Hence Honey xSOEsmM oon . m onzogo scam Amesczov gonna go oopsom an mmoaa eopmmeaH mo omeHpmm HH mam¢9 The total fully irrigated area is estimated at present at about 310,000 dunums and an additional 55000 dunums, largely in side wadis, are only partly irrigated. More than 85 percent of the irrigated area is in the Jordan Valley, which is also the major potential area for expansion of irrigated farming. Another 8 percent is found in the Southern Rift Valley near the Dead Sea, and less than 7 percent is located in the uplands. The major sources of water utilized at present are the Yarmouk and Jordan rivers and the Side wadis that carry water into the Jordan Valley. Underground water is of considerable importance in the southern Ghor area and the coastal area of the West Bank, and efforts are being made to develop such sources in the Eastern Plateau. Apart from pumping of ground water and limited pumping from the Jordan river to irrigate the Zor lands, irrigation in Jordan is effected by gravity. It is estimated that about 70-75 million m3 of water are drilled annually from underground sources in the Jordan Valley and irrigate some 35000 dunums of land which is largely found on Wadi Shueib-Karameh area and wadi Kafrein—Hisban area in the East Ghor. Overpumping in these areas has resulted in con- siderable lowering of the level of ground water and has raised fears that it may cause an intrusion of the Dead Sea water into the Kafrein-Hisban aquifer. To guard against such a possibility, the government has prevented any further ground water development in these areas. Underground water t 1::1era ‘1“... ‘n: l'.‘ any “.4. ‘I f; u. ill. ‘5 ‘l .7” A. u... 1‘: no" ' 3' t” #1. ‘1 M 52 in the East Bank is being actively explored, particularly from the sandstone aquifer in the area between the southern highlands and AlJafr depression. The main available sources of irrigation water for the future remains the Yarmouk river and the side wadis, exploration of which for irrigation purposes (1964—1970), is included in Jordan's 7 year develop- ment program. The Jordan river water which is pumped to irrigate part of the Zor area has tended to become more saline in recent years due to increasing pumping upstream. The Northeast part of the Zor (19000 dunums) has moved to the use of East Ghor Canal water, supplied by gravity, but the remaining areas (49000 dunums) must await the completion of the Yarmouk irrigation project for further supplies of water. Another general problem related to irrigated cultivation is the inefficient use of irrigation water. Wasteful overirrigation by pumping in the Zore is practiced. No measurement of the actual water application efficiency has been attempted yet in any area in Jordan. The improvement of yields and saving of water could follow from scientific studies of application efficiency and helping the farmer in adopting the more suitable regime for his crops under the scientific soil and climate conditions. Major Irrigated Areas A brief description is here presented of the main agricultural characteristics of the irrigated areas concerned in this study. 53 The Zor Area is the flood plain of the Jordan river covering 49000 dunums, of which 15000 are in the West Bank. Before the completion of the East Ghor Canal project all the area was irrigated from the Jordan river water by means of mechanical pumping but, at present, the Eastern Bank depends largely on gravity irrigation from the canal. The development of this zone was started on a large scale after 1948 as a result of the refugee movement from Palestine. At present, all the area is developed and used (as all land in the valley) mainly for growing vege- tables, citrus and bananas. Since most of the recent alluvial soils of the Zor have a medium to light texture (sandy loam), it is suitable for all crOps, including root crops such as potatoes, in addition to citrus and bananas. The lower calcium carbonate content of this land has made it more suitable for citrus production as compared to the Ghor area where the more calcareous soil material causes a deficiency of trace elements. The North East Ghor region consists of those lands which extend from the Yarmouk river in the north to the Zarqa river and those which lie east of the river Jordan. This area of 117000 dunums is irrigated from the first section of the East Ghor canal project and another 42000 dunums above the canal are irrigated from side-wadis. Precipitation in this area is high (300-500 M.M.), soil profiles are more developed and textures are generally heavier 'C‘J K .‘n I...) n 54 than in other parts of the valley. A series of alluvial fans provides topography which is generally favorable for irrigation practices and adequate surface drainage. Ap- proximately 7 percent of the arable area presents subsurface alkalinity and salinity problems are relatively few and are confined to a few depression areas. This area is the best developed irrigation district of Jordan. It is provided with a modern, lined irrigation canal. Farm units measure about 30 dunums each. Water is delivered to the farmer on request against a charge of 1 file/cubic meter. The major crops grown in this area are bananas, citrus fruits and tomatoes. Before the completion of the East Ghor canal project in 1961, only 14.9 percent of the project area was fully irrigated, while 58.5 percent was partially irrigated, 18.4 percent dry farmed, 6.7 percent left fallow and 1.5 percent was uncultivable. At present, all irrigated land is cultivated for winter crops. However, only 26-30 percent is under cultivation during summer because of insuffieient water supplies. The crOp pattern in the project area, be- fore and after the completion of the project is shown in table (12) below. It is observed that there was a big increase in the proportion of area under fruit trees (bananas and citrus) and vegetables at the expense of cereals and fodder crops. The Government has lately prohibited any further banana plantation until investigations are made to determine the maximum area of bananas which could be allowed 55 in the area without risking a water shortage. The decline in the area under fodder crops is largely apparent because the 1961 area included unirrigated grazing land and only a limited area of irrigated alfalfa. TABLE 12 Crop pattern in East Ghor Canal project Area 1961 and 1963 (Percent of total area) Crops Before the After the Project Project 1961 (1) 1963 (2) Wheat and Cereals 48.4 8.2 Vegetables 40.? 5.0 Fruit Trees and (Citrus & Bananas) 3.7 16.0 Feed and Fodder 4.6 Miscellaneous 2.6 0.8 100.0 100.0 1) Jordan, Department of Statistics, East Jordan Valley Social and Economic Survey. 1961. 2) Natural Resources Authority, Department of Irrigation. The South—East Ghor extends from the Zarqa river in the north to the Dead Sea in the south. This area which is earmarked for development in the second stage of the Yarmouk Jordan irrigation project, covers approximately 334000 dunums, of which 189000 dunums or 57 percent are arable. 56 At present, only about 20000 dunums are under ir- rigation largely from underground water of uneven quality. The southern part is irrigated from Side wadis such as Shueib, Hisban and Kafrein. The main crops are vegetables, wheat, citrus and bananas. Precipitation decreases rapidly from north to south and soil textures likewise become lighter in the southern sections. A gently sloping gradient char- acterises the majority of the area. Drainage problems are created primarily by the caving in of ancient water develop- ment works (known as fuquaras) and by the presence of local- ized artesian aquifers. The Eastern Plateau has no more than 5000 dunums of irrigated lands, scattered in small plots over the whole area. Small areas irrigated from springs or surface water are found near Zarqa, Salt and Jerash. The utilization of ground water for irrigation has been under thorough invest- igation, and exploration for underground water has been under way. At present, only a few farms and small pilot projects are operating the Wadi Dhuleil and in the Azraq and Al Jafr depressions. Problems of Irrigated Farming The problems of irrigated farming differ consider- ably from those of dryland farming in Jordan. They in— clude insufficiency of water for intensive cultivation, particularly in the summer, salinity and drainage problems, soil fertility problems, and high incidence of diseases and pests. 57 The insufficiency of irrigation water in the Jord- an Valley in the summer has dictated a crop pattern which is not the best that can be obtained. Cereal growing un— der irrigation occupies a considerable part of the cropped area because it requires no water in the summer; banana and citrus plantations cannot expand, due to the scarcity of summer water. The completion of side-wadi storage dams and the increase in the capacity of the East Ghor canal should help to ease this problem in the immediate future until the construction of Khaled Storage dam on the Yar- mouk river is completed, hopefully in 1969 (work on this dam have stOpped since the 1967 June war). The need to economize on water is partly reflected in the charges for the use of water in the East Ghor canal area. The present water charges are one file (0.28 cent) per m3 up to an application rate of 1500 mB/dunum and 2 file per 1113 for additional amounts. These rates have not been effective in restricting the demand for water; water charges represent an extremely small part of the cost of production and are no burden to the local farmer. While they may be barely adequate to cover the operational cost of the scheme they allow no return on the invested capital. In these conditions, there is a good case for raising the rates (e.g. doubling them) and making 7500 m3 the dividing line between the lower and the higher rate, at least in the summer season. This would promote greater economy in the use of water. The increase in funds thus collected (which 58 could reach JD 100,000 or more/year) could be put in a fund to finance development of regional value in the valley, 3 .g. planting trees along canals, develOping municipal services, etc. As a means of saving water the case for sprinkler irrigation calls for consideration. Sprinkler irrigation involves high initial investment, possibly amounting to JD 30 per dunum, but this may be offset to a large degree by 26 percent saving of water and by reduced land development costs, since land—levelling and field channels would be un- nece ssary. The frequency and duration of high wind velocities must , however, be taken into account and this may be a limiting factor, at least in parts of the valley. Wind velocities of 10 1:11] per hour reduce the efficiency of sprinkler irrigation considerably and at velocities exceeding 16 km per hour it becomes impracticable. There is no agreement on the optimum crop pattern in the irrigated areas of the Jordan Valley although there is general agreement that greater emphasis should be placed on forage crops and industrial crops, as compared with vaged-“ables and fruits which have been developed spontaneously in the newly irrigated lands. The great variations in the proposed crop patterns and the actual pattern in 1963 can be Seen in Table 13 following. It will be noted from the tafble below that the anticipated crop pattern of irrigated land in 1970 reflects more or less the existing pattern except 59 triat irrigation of cereals is not expected to continue and a bg;ginning is expected to be made in expanding the area under fcurage and industrial crops (safflower). While such a crop pgitrtern with its great emphasis on vegetable growing is not 311 :ideal one, it would seem to be realistic in view of past dexrerlopments and the experience of farmers in the Jordan Valgleay where most of the expansion will take place. Even so, sane: extra efforts would probably have to be made in order to sic:}1ieve the small expansion which the plan anticipates will -take place in the area under forage and industrial crops. TABLE 13 Erpposcd_and agtual crop patterns in thgmigrdan Valley (percent of total area) -1 “— #‘.*m‘.m~. -w a—-.- -. ..-. Actual 1963 Planned 91:912..-______ Al A2 3 C East Ghor 1970 Winter Cereals 46 28 60 15 38 ---- Peed. EiJfld Forage 18 20 30 35 1 ”-5 Vegetables 37 34 8 60 45 78.0 Fruit; 'Trees 15 18 6 25 16 13.0 Indllsrtrial Crops 24 24 16 8 -— 4.5 N Total 143 124 120 143 100 100.0 \ , IBRD Repppp, p. 104; 7-year program, derived from table on p. 160; Natural Resource Authority. of ABaker and Harza Report, patterns 1 and 2: percent rlet irrigated area. i DInternational Bank Mission, 1955; percent of net rrWLgated area. D, CEast Ghor Canal Authority: percent of net irri- gated area. 60 In the hothouse conditions of the valley the creat- ion of uncontrollable pest and disease situations by continuous cultivation of tomatoes and other vegetables is an ever-present danger. Such situations have already risen in parts of the valley and significant areas of land have been abandoned because of the concentration of nematodes and soil borne disease organisms. A rotation which will check the incidence of pests and diseases and allow an effective field hygiene is, therefore, a necessity. A practice which partly helps to maintain land productivity and reduce nematodes is the summer fallowing of extensive areas (perhaps two thirds of the Jordan Valley.) This practice seems to have been accidently adOpted by farmers due to the absence of any valuable summer crop that could be grown profitably during summer. To be effective in reducing nemo tides fallow land has to be deeply ploughed thus subjecting the surface soil to hot dry conditions during the summer. Government efforts to encourage the growing of alfalfa and other legumes to improve rotations in the Jordan Va~11ey have not been very successful so far. Its promotion derives from economic considerations as well as considerations of soil fertility. It would seem that its spread in the Jordan Valley WC31.11d require much greater incentives. Since no organized market exists for such a crop the preference for growing other 61 cash crops is understandable. It is reasonable to eaxpect that alfalfa cultivation follow rather than preceed t1he expansion of dairy cattle farming in the valley and else- pvliere. It is therefore recommended that preference be given -tc3 loan request by farmers to the ACC (Agricultural Credit Corporation) for the purchase of milk cows in the Jordan VQaJLLey on condition that an apprOpriate area in the farm would be devoted to alfalfa growing. Industrial crOps have sin1i_larly found a place in all recommended crop rotations. Glue 7-year program promotes safflower but sunflower is now enu3c>'uraged for commercial considerations. Research is mnat:.inuing on various oil seeds the production of which might help meet part of demand for vegetable oils both for :food and for industrial purposes. Cotton has been echL‘LJded due to relative cost disadvantages compared witla. neighboring countries, and through fear of high pest inciuéience. Beetroot production as a winter crop in the val]_eey is being seriously considered, due weight being giVE311 to its usefulness as a rotation crop and as a source Of‘ (Sheep foodstuff. Salinity and drainage problems are encountered in iI"‘I‘igated areas, mainly in the Dead Sea basin but also in the SC31—‘tthern part of the Jordan Valley. The presence of marls, 'WIliLch have low permeability and saline deposits, leads to tllee formation of hard pan-like layers which result in a high 62 water table in these areas and cause drainage problems. Where the soil is shallow the very dry and hot climatic conditions encourage the movement of salts by evaporation 1 In to the surface and thus create salinity problems. anticipation of expanding the irrigation in these areas special attention will have to be given to meeting these problems simultaneously with the construction of the ir- rigation system. An important characteristic of all soils in the Jordan Valley is their very low content of organic matter. This is due to the poor vegetation and the very dry and hot climate that prevails in the area, resulting in the very rapid decomposition of organic matter. As a result of the low organic matter content, total nitrogen is gen- erally low and experience has indicated that most creps respond remarkably well to the application of nitrogen fertilizers. The lack of organic matter has also created other soil problems. Poor soil structure is evident in many areas, especially in heavy soils whose compact clays cause physical limitation to plant growth. In light or sandy soil the absence of organic matter makes it difficult to improve the low water holding capacity of those soils and to raise their poor fertility potentials. These and other problems related to soil fertility in irrigated areas should be studied by lSee F. Gruenberg, The Soils of Deir Alla Area, Ger- man Geological Mission in Jordan, 1965. 63 the new Soil and Irrigation Division with a view to finding practical ways of aleviating them. Although the use of fertilizers is now common in irrigated lands, a reliable evaluation of plant response to various fertilizers has not yet been made in Jordan. Many fertilizer trials were conducted by the Agricultural Research Department and other agencies but failed to estab— lish any basic and consistent information. The absence of reliable basic information on these matters in irrigated and rainfed lands does not enable the Extension Department to help farmers properly in the fields of soil management and fertilizer use. Wasteful use of fertilizers by farmers is therefore common. For example, large quantities of phosphorus fertilizers (in some cases more than 100 Kg. per dunum of single superphosphates) are used for a short period crop. This material is broadcast on the surface after land is prepared and planted without recognizing that the mobility of superphosphate renders it unbeneficial unless it is applied in the root zone. Many farmers use complete fertilizers containing a high percentage of potassium from which farmers get little or no economic response. Farmers recognize the importance of organic manures but this material is not available in the valley. The number of farm animals in the valley is very small, and most animal manure in the valley and in the rest of Jordan is of low quality. This is mainly because farmers are not familiar with methods of composting and conserving animal manure. Some of 64 the farm manure is mixed with straw without the addition of inorganic nitrogen or phosphorus which results in very high calcium/nitrogen and calcium/phosphorus ratio. The practice of green manure is not known nor practiced by Jordan farmers. 1...".-- .._--__._--.-__. .____.__. in. Agricultural Produetipn The foregoing discussion of agricultural produc- tion in Jordan has shown the importance of irrigation in the total picture of Jordanian farming. It is no exaggeration to say that the key to improved agriculture is further in- vestment in irrigation. In order to demonstrate the impact of water avail- ability on the production of certain agricultural crops, agricultural data has been compiled from the statistical yearbooks published by the Department of Statistics of the Government of Jordan. The impact of irrigation on Jordan's agricultural production is illustrated in Charts I to VIII. It should be noted that wheat, sesame, fruits and tobacco are non-irrigated crops, tomatoes, citrus and banas are irrigated, while olives, grapes and figs being drought resistant rely less on rainfall than most other non-irrigated crops. 65 CHART I 1952 '53 '54 . '55 '56 '57 RECENT GROWTH or TOTAL ourpuréMAJon IRRIGAI'ED AND NON- IRRIGATED PRODUCTS IRRIGATION (Growth Per Year Av.+ 16.57.) -..—-- NON—IRRIGATED (Growth Per Year Av.-I5’/.) 66 CHART ll mm.1100 1100 (000 tons) ,\\ output 1000. ,1 ‘\ -1000 / \ 900. / \ .900 / \ 800. ,’ \ .800 / \ 700- ,/’\ I \ _ / \ I \ 700 / \l \ 600._____\ // \.600 \ / l 5004 \\ ,i\\/ _500 1.00- .400 300. ,300 200. .200 1001 +100 0 I I T V I I Y T V O 56 S7 58 59 60 61 62 63 61. 65 1966 Rainfall ________ Grains and Vegetable output CHARTIH mm.500 750(000t0ns) output 400- .200 300. J50 200. /“'"" \ .100 \\ 100. .50 0 I T I I T I I I ' I O 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 1966 Rainfall _______ ..Fruits output 6? CHART IV mm.50- 250 ( 000 tons) output 400. .200 300- .150 200-1 400 1m. \///\\\\\\// \1-50 0 I Y T I r T l T 1 0 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 1966 R ai n fall ———————— Wheat output C H A R T V m'n.00 6 (000 tons) output 500. .5 1.00- ' 3004 200- .. s..~ _.... _\\ \s’ //\\ \\--~ ..... 7!. .‘5‘. \ \\ 100- \\///\\\\// \\\/ "\,.-‘| 0 f I I 1 I t r I r 0 56 S7 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 1966 Rainfall _.............._.._ Se sum 2 output ________ Tobacco out put 68 CHART VI Output ('000 9005) 500mm 250 400 20° 300 I50 200 100 100 50 I I I 63 64 65 '66 I 1956 '57 '58 '59 '60 '61 62 RAINFALL AND TOMATO OUTPUT RAINFALL ---- TOMATO OUTPUT CHART VII mm.600 60 (000tonSI _. output 500 .50 400 .40 300. .30 200. .20 100. .10 0 . . . r T . . . T 0 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 1966 Rainfau ________ Banana output ................ Citrus output 69 CHART vm ~oo_ 00000000 -.' 6 output ’09! output FIQ OUtput 3 \Rainrau 70 Chart I shows the relative stability and growth of irrigated products as compared to the relative instabi- lity and decline in trend of non-irrigated products. Chart II shows the predominant influence of Jordan's erratic rainfall upon grain and vegetable output which represent approximately 76 percent of Jordan's total agricultural crop output. Fruit output correlates positively with rain— fall. The increased output of fruits in 1960, a year of lowest rainfall (Chart III) is attributed to the maturing of trees planted in the middle fifties. The production of rainfed productfi wheat, sesame and tobacco as depicted in Charts IV and V illustrates the heavy dependence of these crops upon rainfall. The wide fluctuations in rainfall from one year to the next result in corresponding fluctuations in output of these crops and hence in income to the farmers. Since wheat is a major crop in Jordan, the government must import wheat in years of low rain- fall. Irrigated products such as tomato, citrus and ba- nanas (Charts VI and VII) do not fluctuate with fluctuations in rainfall. The wide fluctuations in rainfall from one year to the next did not result in a corresponding fluctuation in tomato and citrus output. On the contrary, tomato and cit- rus output increased over the period which resulted in in- creased income and in exports. The banana is another ir- rigated product which is not affected by the fluctuation of rainfall. However, the next fluctuation in the banana 71 output from one year to the next, as seen in Chart VII, is due not to the rainfall fluctuation but is dependent upon the planting cycle applied to banana trees. Peak output of bananas therefore, occurs about every four years. The decline in banana output from 1960 onward as compared to the previous period is due to the fact that the area planted with banana during the latter period was about 52 percent of the area planted before 1960. In order to stabilize banana output a better rotation method should be followed. In any case, it is clear from the chart that the fluctuation in banana output is not due basically to rain- fall, but to other causes. Output of non-irrigated drought—resistant crops (Chart VIII) is not too much dependent upon rainfall. Olive yields during some of the low average rainfall years was better than yields in some of the good rainfall years. High and low outputs reflect the 3—4 year crop cycle. Fig output showed a slow but steady increase despite a sharp decline in rainfall fluctuations in certain years. Although grape out— put at times corresponds to rainfall fluctuations it is not wholly dependent on this factor. This is seen in drought years, 1959—1960, when output remained at the level of or exceeded that of good average rainfall years. Study of agricultural data on these selected pro- ducts, as depicted in Charts I-VIII, and the tables in the Statistical Yearbooks concerning these products lead to the following conclusions: 72 l. The total area cultivated with principal grains and vegetables varied considerably from year to year, but over the period has actually declined. Output of farm crops also fluctuated widely, and in 1960 total farm crops output was actually only about 72 percent of 1954 production, and about 79 percent of 1957 production. In most expanding countries output rises while agricultural acreage declines. Jordan's agricultural problem is there— fore not being resolved in terms of aggregate performance. 2. The output of rain-fed products fluctuated considerably from year to year depending upon weather con— ditions, but over the period has seriously declined. In 1960 wheat output was only about 19 percent of 1954 pro- duction, and tobacco output was about 42 percent of 1956 production. This severe decline in output is due to the fact that average rainfall of 1960 was a little less than half of 1954 and 1956 average rainfall. 3. The output of irrigated agricultural products varied widely from year to year, but over the period sharply increased. During the worst 1960 drought year tomato output was actually 299 percent of 1954 production, citrus output was 1014percent of 1954 production, and banana output was 175 percent of 1954 production. This tremendous increase in output resulted from putting more lands to full production through irrigation and clearly demonstrated that the growth in output of irrigated products is little if at all affected by drought years. The growth in output of irrigated products 73 offsets the decrease experienced on the rain—fed lands during the drought years. The significant impact of irrigated out- put in Jordan relative to non—irrigated is revealed in the data in Table 14. 4. The output of products of the non-irrgated drought-resistant three types also fluctuated from year to year depending upon weather conditions, but not as much as had the output of rain-fed crops. Over the period, output of certain types of drought-resestant tree and vine crops slightly declined, while other types maintained about the same level of production. In 1960, for example, olive output was about 112 percent of 1954 production, the output of grapes was about 92 percent of 1954 production. This clearly indicates that the drought resistant tree type pro- ducts are not nearly as seriously affected during the drought years as are non-irriagated cereals and other non-irrigated, non-drought resistant crOps. This argues for more of such crOps in areas of otherwise good farm potential, but where irrigation is not feasible.1 Clearly further investment in and development of irrigation in Jordan will have a positive effect on agricul- tural production, and thus on the total economy. Mr. N. Simanskyz, past managing Director of the East Ghor Canal Authority, has emphasized the economic impact of 1 Priorities in Jordan Agriculture.... 2 Simansky, N., "Economic Impact of Irrigations" in A Series of Seminars on Jordanian Agriculture , mimeographed, Jordan Development Board, Aman, 1962. 74 irrigation on the economy of Jordan. He pointed out that imports of agricultural products and other foodstuffs will decrease with the increase in irrigated lands, in addition to stabilization of crop production due to less crop failure and damage from droughts. Newly irrigated lands will create Oppor- tunities for employment not only for the new owners and their laborers, but also for those working in secondary and ter- tiary activities. All this leads to more prOSperous com— munities and to an increase in the national income. Land reform and conditions of land tenure are usually associated with new irrigation schemes. These reforms will limit the fragmentation of property. Irrigation schemes may nec- essitate better conservation of land and water resources and serve as recreation areas. Choice of crops The identification above of certain irrigated crOps raises the problem facing Jordan when establishing irrigation schemes of what crops to produce in these irrigated areas and whether Jordan is producing the right types. Should more food crops be raised for local consumption or should products be grown especially for eXport? In determining what are the right products to produce in Jordan, it may not be sufficient to expect that Jordanian farmers are capable of deciding this for them- selves. While this may be true under the conditions of soil and climate with which the farmers have to work, it is very often beyond the capacity of the farmers to decide whether the circumstances themselves should be or can be 75 changed. For example, dry farming techniques may be forced upon the farmer as the only means for achieving the maximum results with the given rainfall pattern and the soil struc- ture imposed by nature. However, it may not be within the power of the far- mer to change the dry farming tradition through irrigation. An irrigation system may have to be established by the Jordan government, as in the case of the East Ghor, before the far- mer can learn to produce those products which will maximize the gains for himself and for the country. Similarly, a farmer may go on producing the same products even after an ir- rigation system has been installed simply out of habits of farming which cannot be changed without instruction and provision of security against the chance of failure when he tries the new crops. The most suitable agricultural products cannot, therefore, always be determined, in transitional phases of improvement, by the farmers themselves. What criteria then, will determine the correct choice of farm products? A review of the historical pattern of farm production is necessary to gain insights into this problem. Rainfall is very erratic in Jordan from one year to the next and as we have seen, production of those crOps which depend on this rainfall also show an erratic pattern. If we return to chart IV, which shows the historical pattern of wheat production as related to rainfall we notice that the record is very erratic, in common with other crops in Jordan 76 which depend on rainfall. Thus, total agricultural prod- uction suffers from considerable fluctuations because of the predominance of such non-irrigated crops. Such fluctuations are, of course, reflected in erratic incomes to farmers and in the loss to other sectors of Spending which farmers must forego in bad years. From this brief picture, one criternxifor det- ermining at least what not to produce may be gained. The erratic behavior of wheat production is chronically dis- turbing to farmers and to the country as a whole. Some flexible cropping patterns should be developed which will mitigate the effects of this erratic wheat production, Jordan's largest crop in terms of tonnage. On the other hand, chart VI shows the same relation- ship between tomato output and rainfall. The evidence in- dicates that for various reasons the growth of tomato out- put has escaped the dependency upon an erratic rainfall. To a significant extent, this may be attributed to irrigation. A similar pattern can be shown for other irrigated crops. This evidence seems to suggest that those products which can be liberated from the effects of an erratic rain- fall would be the best to produce in Jordan. This would be the simplest, but by no means necessarily always the only conclusion to be drawn from the simplified examples given. It would mean greater emphasis on promoting and developing to the maximum the irrigation potential of the country. Pro- duction statistics of irrigated and non-irrigated crops support this conclusion, as shown in table 14. The change in the 77 output pattern between 1952-1960 is particularly dramatic, as the latter years experienced serious drought. The 1961 rainfall was better and rain-fed products showed a sharp im— provement. The role of irrigation in stabilizing the growth in output in many cases is clear. Given an irrigation system, the farm products which should be produced are not necessarily the same as would be produced without such a system. The farmers in such cases must be trained to produce those products which will utilize the irrigation system to the Optimum. This may re- quire that farmers be taught to produce crops they do not like to produce, or do not want to produce, or do not know how to produce. They may have to learn to market in an entirely different way from the product marketing practice that they had been using, prior to the installation of an irrigation system. ff TABLE 14 Production of Malor Non-Irrigated and Irrigated Products in Jordan 1952-1961 UK \0 (\I O\ H r-I ('W C<3 r4F\ O (\I in H 03 N H 675.5 .7 4 608 ted Product- (-00 tons) rriga * ota‘ r-,« U; . '."'-'. r"‘,‘ "'\ O 1 ‘V 78 comb-:10 O O O O O O ONNr-ICDO (“WU CID-N H \O (“CEO-MB- . . . . . . ('\('\r—I\O ('\{\- 3H r-I-Ifr—I Woman—1N ...... rwuournd:i O\o HUM—l NOQNOW ...... CNN MQ\PIH C‘h-II‘ 33¢) NV\:t:I’®0\ I O O O O O WNSNCDD- 'NON \Cfir—I N t». (D U) m +3 C) H Cu O div—3 0; :.- {Am (1' .1. tr» -.-1 0.1 to :1 03 (1' r1 S—t orI _-’: ."z r)": t. .i (‘1 [1. 315.3 212.1 136.4 451.2 297.6 341.7 159.5 464.3 330.6 794.0 tal To $1 I— : rigated OCOOC'VID O O O O O O 3 r-INO\O m r—‘I-Z'T “Mr-I PI 01 \O OWMr-I N O O O O O O “\O H O t\.{\. WC‘~V\N PI PI 0 (ONCE C‘- O O O O O O \omdi—imm NOC'WO.’ r-I vii—1 :I'Mr—INr—Ir-I O O O O O O :I‘ (\N O MC’N L\I\o(\lr-I r-I iii—MOO O O O O O O WO~MCDNN \OOH r-I Nr—INmmN ...... NwNmr-‘C‘Q wwora ONMWC‘!‘ . . . . . . €000.4me :I'dr-I H HC£IO\L\ O O O O (VI-[\NN ‘4 \C‘Jr-Ir—I r-I 2:." r-I\O max: . . . . . . ONC\l\-I—Il\ 4?“ CO Nd O\I.\U'\ coco {\‘now N U‘\ snt ‘ ,Lf v o‘-‘. JC‘ _c;mber in Tit-.13.) I' arrnt‘ Other Vegetables Citrus :anana .- “ m ‘\ hf, N " 367.1 luded in .4 N (H C’\ 130.6 149.1 206.2 200.2 306.1 203.5 Total production of all cereals, fruits & vegetables. 143.? ncludes on the average approximately 85 percent of total output. 106.5 Inc Products . . 4L 3" - l 5" ._‘.~1 4.. ‘ Statistical Yearbooks, different years. II (\1 f (3 79 Imports offer another guide as to what to produce. The question arises whether the country should try to promote import substitution. For example, Jordan imports substantial amounts of vegetables and citrus fruits which it produces itself. The decision must be made on the basis of objective studies whether more is to be gained on the principle of com— parative advantage from producing high yield per dunum products and selling them abroad, while importing those products which bring only a low yield per dunum at home. The role of ir- rigation in Jordan and the role of import substitution as a guide in determining what to produce will probably be closely related. A further insight into these issues is seen in chart IX which shows the value per dunum of certain major irrigated and non—irrigated crops in Jordan. Given the main- tenance of a costly irrigation system, it is imperative that crops be chosen which will pay for the system and also bring the maximum returns from a combination of domestic and export sales. Once these determinations are made, farmers, especially those newly attracted to irrigated lands, should be assisted in learning the techniques in promoting such crops. 80 CHART Ix Value per Dunum of major irrigated and non-irrigated crops in Jordan. Irrigated ' 0 S 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 JD. Veg. (Winter) Dates Citrus Bananas Non-irrigated Karsanneh Sorghu m Lentils Barley Wheat Sesam Olives Vegetable Figs Grapes SOUISIHH! ECONOMIC DIVIIOPMINT Of JOIDON CHAPTER III PRESENT IRRIGATION SCHEKES We have seen the undoubted benefits that irriga- tion will bring not only for the future development of Jordanian agriculture along but also for the economy of the country as a whole. We shall now consider the existing irrigation schemes both for their importance to the economy and as a guide for the development of future areas. By far the most important new irrigation scheme in the whole country both in terms of present irrigated area and future expansion is the East Ghor Canal. Before examining this scheme we shall have to look first at the water resources available for present and future use in the forms of the Jordan River and several of the side-wadis of the Jordan, extending from the Wadi Yarmouk on the north to the West Zerqa on the south. The Jordan Rivg ”-wur ‘— Next to the East Ghor Canal the most important area of irrigation at present is the Jordan River Basin. The Jordan River Basin is unusual in that the Jordan Valley was originally formed by the down faulting of a long strip of land about 20 kilometers wide and not by the erosive process of natural drainage. Natural drainage systems have of course 81 paw .. a A.» ivy. fl.\.\ 82 developed on the flanking escarpments forming what are referred to as the 'side-wadi'. On the eastern side of the Jordan Valley the two side-wadis, the Yarmouk and Zerqa, have cut back far enough to capture parts of the internal drainage systems of the eastern plateau, and as a result have much larger catchment areas than the other side—wadis. The Jordan River Basin whose catchment area amounts to about 17000 square kilometers, can be conveniently divided into two parts. The upper Jordan River flows into Lake Tiberias and its catchment, comprising 16 percent of the total catchment area of the Jordan River Basin, lies entirely out- side Jordan territory. The lower Jordan River flows from Lake Tiberias to the Dead Sea and collects the important flow contributions of the Yarmouk and Zerqa on the way. It lies mostly within Jordan (9300 square kilometers) but partly in Syria (5000 square kilometers). The average annual precipitation in the Jordan River Basin is about #50 mm., The average precipitation varies from more than 1500 mm, on the lepes of Jebel Sheikh (Mount Hermen) to about 100 mm. on the north shore of the Dead Sea. South of Lake Tiberias the Jordan River follows a meandering course across the silts and gravels of the Rift Valley floor, an area known to the Arabs as the "Ghor". In these deposits the river has cut a minor valley, known as the "Zor“, up to a kilometer in width. The main channel of the ' lower Jordan is between 20 and 30 meters wide, but during the 83 larger floods it overflows its banks and may inundate the Zor completely. The distance between Lake Tiberias and the Dead Sea is 105 km. but because of meanders the river length is 320 km. The major tributaries of the lower Jordan are the Yarmouk and the Zerqa both of which have a substantial perennial base flow. In winter most of the flood flow in the lower Jordan comes from these two tributaries. A number of the other side—wadis also have perennial base flows, notably wadis Arab, Ziglab, Yabis, Kufrinja, Rajib, Shueib, Kafrein and Hisban on the East Bank and Wadis Faria, Auja and Qilt on the West Bank. The discharge of all the side-wadis, including the Yarmouk and Zerqa, consists of two main components which are sharply defined. The main component is the base flow which is de- rived from ground water discharge mainly through springs. Typically this is fairly constant with relatively small annual and seasonal pluctuations. The second component is the flood flow derived from storm rainfall. These flood flows are of typical flash type, rising in a few hours or even in less than an hour, and receding in a few hours or at the most, days. In the case of the East Bank side-wadis the flood hydrographs are typically multi-peaked because the main storms always move up the catchments, and consequently there is a marked tendency for the flood flows of the tributaries to move down the main channel in succession rather than to compound 84 themselves into one single-peaked flood. Another curious feature of the flood runoff in the side-wadis is not be- cause the down stream parts of the catchment lie in the high rainfall zone the flood flows from the lower tributaries tend to be greater than from the upper tributaries. This effect is further compounded by the fact that catchment and channel slopes in the downstream parts of the catchment are generally steeper than in the upper parts which once formed part of the eastern plateau so that runoff from the lower tributaries tends to be more intense. This typical sequence is particularly noticeable in the case of the Yarmouk where flood flow from one of its tributaries (Wadi Ragaed) preceeds, and exceeds, flow from the upper Yarmouk. The irregularity and varied intensity of these floods (which occur only during the winter season) create problems of water control. Small diversionary dams and structures built by the farmers may be destroyed during a particularly violent flood. The construction of new large dams will effectively control much of this flooding and by storing the excess water will help to regulate the flow of the wadis. Present water use and irrigation practices in the Jordan Valley Irrigation has been a feature in the development of agriculture in the Jordan Valley since the earliest times of which there is any record. Evidence of old works indi- cates that at one time this area was much more highly de- veloped and more intensively cultivated than today, support- ing a population considerably larger than the present, and permitting export of agricultural products to surrounding areas. Some of these early developments. principally among those constructed during the time of the Roman occupation, continue in use even now. Earlier prosperity, resulting chiefly from the nearby overland trade routes, created a demand for the produce of the Valley. However, because of changes in the trade routes and movement of population centers, this demand diminished and irrigation works were neglected to the point where most of them became inoperative. At the present time, to varying degrees of intensity, water for irrigation is supplied by gravity flow from the Yarmouk and Zerqa Rivers, by pumping from the Jordan River. by gravity flow from perennial wadis. by springs, by wells, and by ancient fuquaras constructed for development of ground water. There have been only minor attempts to coordinate these 86 sources of water, and no plan integrating all water supplies into one system providing optimum deve10pment of the Jordan Valley has ever been put into effect. Irrigation from springs and wells 0n the East Ghor 1960 dunums lying in the Wadi Arab area are registered as irrigated from Duga Spring, located about # km. above the mouth of the wadi. In the wadi Jurum area 2660 dunums within the irrigated area about 2 km. west of the diversion dam, and certain minor areas, parti- cularly in the vicinity of Wadi Shueib, wadi Kafrein, and Wadi Hisban, receive either a full or supplemental supply of irrigation water from wells. Few of the wells used for irrigation have been in useful intensive production long enough to establish the recharge rate. Furthermore, in many of the wells the quality of the water is questionable except for the production of highly salt tolerant crops. Particularly in shallow wells the quality may be expected to deteriorate as intensive irrigated agriculture /‘ ,/ is developed in surrounding areas. Irrigation from ancient works Evidence of 22 Fuquaras, constructed during the Roman occupation for deve10pment of ground water, has been discovered in the Jordan valley. Two minor areas continue to receive irrigation water from these ancient sources. The flow from one fuquara is used to irrigate an area on the East Ghor north of Wadi Shueib, and the flows from these fuquaras have 87 been conbined to irrigate an area on the west Ghor north of Wadi Fari'a. It is also probable that many of the springs within the Jordan Valley are the only remaining outward mani- festations of other historical developments which have be- come blocked through lack of maintenance. Sub-surface Drainagg Presently very little use is made of subsurface drainage waters. There are some instances where shall- ow open ditches have been constructed for draining high water table areas and such water has sometimes been used for irrigation purposes, but as a whole, facilities for subsurface drainage of such areas are inadequate. These are certain locations in the northern part of the East Ghor where subsurface waters find their way to the Zor below and these waters are reused for irrigation and for livestock and domestic water. In some instances drainage water has percol- ated through soils of a saline nature and the use of such water has done much to lower production on the Zor lands. Irrigation Methods Irrigation methods are influenced to a major deg- ree by the source of the water supply. In many cases water is available in relatively large quantity for a short period of time. The tendency is to use a large head of water with no regard for the water intake rate of the soil or topographic features of the land. In such instances, as most field head ditches are unlined, a degree of erosion takes place which eventually eliminates their usefulness and new ones must be 88 constructed. Such practices also tend to spread a given amount of water over a large area with inadequate penetra- tion at any one place. Cereals which are generally irri- gated with a semiwild flooding technique, seldom receive full benefit from water applied in this manner. Vegetables and fruits are usually irrigated by the basin methods. Good distribution of water is generally obtained with a minimum of waste. Irrigation methods used for certain crops At present mainly the zig-zag system is applied in irrigating vegetables. The advantage of the zig-zag sys- tem is that less levelling is required than e.g. in furrow- irrigation. Disadvantages are the labor-intensive digging required for the zig-zag system and the impossibility of mechanized intercultivation. As labor will become expensive over time these disadvantages will count more heavily in the future. Therefore it is likely that a change to furrow- irrigation will be made in the future. Irrigation of one dunum by the zig-zag system takes about 0.1 man-day at present. The labor requirements for this type of irrigation in vegetabhagrowing in the U.S.A., where syphons and canvas dams are used, show that some re- duction will be possible. For this reason it has been es- timated that labor requirements for irrigation of one dunum will have been reduced by 25 percent by the year 2000. The number of applications of irrigation water depends mainly on the season. For tomatoes, eggplant, . . a v . . l. . .. c r. V . .fih T; A). f: 4|. a ab 1?. 4“ I- .1 .1 WU ( .11. I or. 1'4- R\u 89 squashes and potatoes the calculations are based on one irr- igation in Dec. and Jan. and 2-3 irrigations in Nov. and Feb. In the other months irrigation water is applied once a week. For cabbage, cauliflower and beans 2 irrigations are assumed in Dec. and Jan. and weekly irrigation in the other months. Irrigation of Wheat At present wheat is usually irrigated by means of wild flooding. Under the assumed higher standard of wheat- growing in the future a transition to basin irrigation will be imperative. The number of applications of irrigation water, at present being no more than 2 or 3 during the growing season, will increase to about 7 in 1990 and 2000. There is hardly any difference between the labor requirements for the irrigation of cereals and that of vegetables. Irrigation of fruit Both basin and furrow irrigation may be applied in fruit tree cultivation. Bananas are irrigated with weekly intervals under present conditions, except in December and January when l or 2 irrigations per month are common. Also citrus is irrigated with weekly intervals at present, except in November and February when 2 irrigations per month are normal practice, and in December and January when the trees are usually not irrigated at all. Present Yields Yields are considered to be low although they are reasonable compared with those in other developing count- ries particularly for vegetable and fruit crOps. The wide 90 range in yields which was found for individual crops is an indication that there is much scope for improvement. Certain factors responsible for these variations cannot be controlled such as climate and soil; others such as drainage, irrigation, farm management, fertilizer applications and pest control may, however, be improved over time. Cold winters have a harmful effect on the yields of tomatoes and bananas. The tomato crop is sometimes a final loss locally and the yields and quality of bananas are substantially reduced. Hot and dry wind in spring damage the flowers and young fruits of citrus trees. Soil textures and soil structures do not seem to be responsible for the variations in yield. Exceptions are the low-productive heavy soils in the north which require drainage. Low yields owing to salinity are reported, but this is rather a matter of quality of the irrigation water and of irrigation techniques than of soils. Present variations in yields are especially due to differences in water supply, fertilizer application, insect control and farm management. The present yields are shown in the Table below: they are given as an average of bad, reasonable and good years. (A) J L) 91 TABLE 15 Present Yieldsl Type Kilogram per Dunum Wheat 150 Maize 200 Tomatoes 1200 Eggplant 2000 Peppers 700 Cabbage and Cauliflower 1500 Broad Beans 600 Cucumber and Squash 750 Potatoes 900 Onions 750 Citrus 700 Bananas 1500 66 lDepartment of Statistics. Statistical Yearbook. 19 . 92 The Yarmouk River The Yarmouk River is the largest tributary of the Jordan, its catchment area being about 6800 square kilometer or 40 percent of the whole Jordan River Basin. About 1800 square kilometer of the Yarmouk catchment lie within Jordan, the remaining 5000 square kilometer lie within Syria. The Yarmouk River originates at the confluence of three tributary streams, the Wadi Shallalah which rises in north Jordan between Irbid and Mafraq, the Wadi Zeizoun which rises near Muzeirib in south Syria and the Wadi Allane which rises near Nawa, also in south Syria. These tributaries Join just upstream of Maqarin; a town located south east of Lake Tiberias. These three wadis drain the rolling plateau country of the east Yarmouk catchment, but downstream of the points at which their perennial base flows rise they begin to enter deep canyon—like valleys which Join at Magarin to form a gorge several hundred meters deep. Several proposals have been made for building a dam in this gorge. From Maqarin the Yarmouk flows westward to Join the lower Jordan about 7 km. south of Lake Tiberias. In this lower reach there is a minor addition to the base flow from springs at ElHemmeh, about 8 km. from the confluence with the Jordan, and the Wadi Ragged, whose catchment is the main source of flood runoff in the Yarmouk, joins the Yarmouk from the north. The Yarmouk is the major supplier of water for the East Ghor Canal which will be discussed later. The purpose of 93 the Khalid—Bin—AlWalid dam on the Yarmouk is to store water to supply the canal during the summer months, when the base flow of the river is low and when the demand for water is greatest. Work on this dam was stOpped during the 1967 Arab—Israeli War and has not been renewed yet. Another pur- pose of the dam is the irrigation of lands below the dam. Irrigation Nine thousand dunums of land in the Jordanian section of the Yarmouk basin, mostly at Adassiya and Baqura, are being irrigated by simple diversion of water. Few hundred more dunums are irrigated from the Yarmouk and scattered all along its course. Vegetables, bananas and citrus are intensively cultivated. At present, most of these areas are not fully utilized because of the military situation in the area. 94 Wadi Arab The most northerly of the side—wadis is the Wadi Arab. Its catchment area is about 265 square kilometers and ranges in height from 850 meters above sea level just south of Irbid to 140 meters below sea level where it enters the Ghor. (Map 10) The source of the base flow in the Wadi Arab is from springs in the Wadi itself and from springs in its tributary Wadi Zahar. Because of the abundance of this base flow a proposal has been made to build a conservation dam. A pro- posal has also been made to build a dam on this Wadi as a part of the total utilization of the water resources of the Yarmouk Jordan plans, according to which it would receive directed Yarmouk water. Just upstream of the Wadi's entrance into the Ghor, near the town of North Shouat, a concrete diversion weir and canal system have been built which divert and uti- lize the base flow. Prior to the construction of the East Ghor Canal, this irrigation scheme irrigated about 16 thousand dunums. The East Ghor Canal Authority has now acquired most of the Arab water shares of the areas commanded by the canal, except for 3775 dunums which are still served from the Arab irrigation scheme. At one place, the East Ghor Canal is taken underneath the Arab irrigation canal by means of a siphon, and in two other places the Arab water is carried over the East Ghor Canal by means of pipes. The main purpose of the proposed Wadi Arab reservoir is to store excess discharge in the Wadi 95 MAP 10 233 23 33 230 4,230 225} .425 220 -220 °\ \ ~ """"""""" , w. Tai iba '\,\\~\\w-\_k ‘- (_ '/./ 215 w. 2‘ \'\, \\\ \\ \ / ~21!) slab \.\.;“\ \‘t‘w 1. I 11 dd - ‘~\_ \ \- Wy \'\--\,_~.{"‘ 3") \ I 5““ '\ ‘. K Husn 210 0L . . . . SIKM. ‘\‘.\.(;‘ W l 1 2° 207 210 25 7‘62 Ti? 235203 Wadi Arab ..C'dtchment Irrigated area 96 Arab during the winter months, when there are adequate sup- plies in the Yarmouk for the East Ghor Canal system and releases water during the summer months when the Yarmouk is deficient.1 The average rainfall in the catchment area varies from 550 millimeters near Irbid down to 400 millimeters at the Ghor. This amount of rainfall provides for good rain- fed agriculture in the area. Irrigation There is intensive cultivation through irrigation along the wadi wherever there is sufficient local widening of the wadi floor. Most of these areas are planted with bananas. 0n the areas served by the Wadi Arab irrigation scheme, bananas also are the principal crop, particularly south of the town of North Shouat and along the south bank of the Wadi. To the north and west of North Shouat the irrigated land is under vegetables, with some maize, and in the vicinity of Baqura citrus groves and nursery plantations predominate. 1)Sir M. Macdonald and Partners, East Bank Jordan Water Resources, Vol 2., Eash Ghor Side Wadis, Lion House London, 1965. (The study was prepared for the Jordanian Central Water Authority) 97 Wadi Ziglab The next significant side wadi to the south of Wadi Arab is the Wadi Ziglab, with a catchment area of about 100 square kilometers. (Map 11) The Ziglab catchment mainly consists of steep hill sides with the drainage channels in deep valleys. Much of the upper catchment, which has a maximum elevation of 1050 meters above sea level, has low natural forest cover but is partially cultivated. Part of the lower catchment, particularly around Deir Abu-Said is rich loamy soil on which fruit, vegetables and grain crops are cultivated with- out need of irrigation. The average rainfall again varies from about 550 mm in the headwater area down to about 400 mm at the Ghor. The base flow comes from a single spring about 6 km. from the entrance to the Ghor. To conserve this base flow a small dam has been built close to the point where the wadi enters the Ghor. The dam, called Sharhabil Ibn Hasneh, is 44 meters high and the total live storage is 4.2 million cubic meters. The purpose of this dam is to control flood water and store water to sup- plement East Ghor Canal supplies in times of shortage. Irrigation releases are also given to lands above the East Ghor Canal. Irrigation The existing gravity system irrigates an area of about four thousand dunums scattered along the course of 98 MAP 1]. Irbid O 5 ------- \. a \. q \.—°\. 5 . ..‘:0...:: \ > .5. 1 . ° \. 3:". I \.\' ' ) .r- \ x ,.J \\ \ 'v' WAD! ZIGLAB CATCH MENT —EAST anon CANAl IRRIGAI’ED AREA 99 the Wadi. To the west the system is bounded by the Jordan River Valley and the supply is supplemented by some pumping both from the river and from wells. This area is however, part of the larger area now supplied by the East Ghor Canal. Vegetables, bananas and fruit trees are intensively cultivated with the irrigated area in both summer and winter seasons. Grain crops, especially wheat, barley, maize and lentils are cultivated in late winter months and they are partially irrigated. There is some vine cultivation on the steeper hillsides where they are supplied by the canals.1 lIbid. part II, p. 4 100 Wadi Yabis, Wadi Kufrinja, Wadi Rajib The catchment of the Wadi Yabis (125 square kilo- meters), Kufrinja (110 square kilometers), and Rajib (84 square kilometers) provide the principle western surface drainage for Ajlun mountains. The elevation rises from an average of 200 meters below sea level in the East Ghor to a height of 1250 meters near Ajlun in a distance of about 20 km. The rainfall is equally varied. At the Wadi Kufrinja in the Ghor the annual average rainfall is 270 mm whereas at Ajlun it is 560 mm. The area is deeply dissected by the three main valleys and those of the main tributaries. The higher part is forested with low scrub much of which is under control of the Forestry Department. Outside the forest all suitable land is intensively cultivated and some terracing to reduce run-off and erosion is evident. However, towards the west the valleys become deeper and the rainfall decreases so that cultivation is limited to the valley bottom and to the sides where they are gentle enough to be cultivated and commanded from the main streams.l (Map 12) Studies indicate that there are no suitable dam sites in Wadis Kufrinja and Rajib. They also indicate that such schemes are unfavorable economically. Irrigation in Wadi Yabis During the summer months all the water originating from Ain El-Beitha and Ain Tannour, which are the main springheads from the Yabis, is utilized by irrigating lands lIbid., part IV, pp. 1, 2. 10] . " . - a . ' . K}; -_ ,x . \J ’ -{'.'.‘ ;,,-_ VLYOb,‘ 2m ’- r ,. -\\I ‘~- \ _\ \_‘--..‘ s \ 0 Am Tanuor _\ . ‘ . .. ~ ~ ‘,_\ txa-g‘ \ y \n. ‘.-/ - c—l' . , ,,-- y'Ajlun“~\ ’\ ,-’ I / ‘ ' 4’ ’ .; .) " ‘~ 3 ‘1“ ..‘.-a" .‘7 ,r'Anjara ,-’ i ‘4. ' . O ’.a' 'I‘ . o yfrlnja j l‘ l "V \\ \‘ I . g , ,.-. \r—fll ‘~ \. r‘ / ' \~* - . , \ I" [,4’ \ I, -’ ‘ ‘ I, II a’ / 's ’r’ I _ "fl‘J. \~_.‘ I ’ I ‘,.‘.~ ~ _,- 1’ \' I‘g“" r' ' r'( I, I, .._‘_,r- l \ I \’,.s‘r'--- . .. _ .’ ORaJ'b ’.__’:\.\-__f v , I -\ fi.a «I "-.. r 4 . "‘“W. r“\ a _ r J ’3‘ x \\ , f L v—fi \\ x- r 1 """" \ ' I-{"‘~‘~ /‘ ‘—~\ - W - ,- l ' ‘ ‘\ \\ ‘\’ ‘ -.5 - _ - . x x a-“ . / . ‘\ / ~ ,’ | z’ . ' '\ \ a"‘. "" . ‘ \__/za ,, . . _ ( , ,. \ . - , \;-__, _ ‘ ,~ , \ \ -“ \ x 1 . ~._ , .-—- .I .\ \ -' \ $ 0‘ I ‘1." A./ \f- r \ .‘ I \ .' ' I’ ,n ' I ‘ " 1 ---_ , ,- v — - . — ‘7 ,, x \ . " /~-— ~c l ‘ ’ , ‘-- - ’ L —_— ‘- I u' . ’ I z, r \ ," . ,"‘-—- ’ ‘ — I “-- . ’ - .’ II / Wadis . . , x 1’ I: {I ;'l “ x'l.’ ." l ‘y'l ‘: N: ’I " x' . .’ I c r Alla ,o ; ' I I I n l 'l 215 2 2&3 Scale .5 K 1 0 SKm. L I l l Yabis and Kufrinja and Raiib Catchment Areas — East Ghor Canal Irrigation area Bonndarie S 102 immediately downstream. The intensive cultivation is devoted mainly to fruit trees, figs, apricots and apples, supplied from offtakes continuously along the wadi. Even where the side slopes are particularly steep, the land has been terraced and planted with vines, fed from small laterals taking off at suitable points in the wadi. Although the existing off-takes are seldom used simultaneously it is apparent that availability is dependent on abstractions upstream. Some extensive canals to irrigate additional land have been constructed in few places. They are however rarely in use as in dry seasons and throughout the late summer months, the wadi flow in these reaches appears to be insufficient to satisfy even the meager domestic requirements. The main headspring, Ain Tannour, is being developed to supply domestic requirements over a wide area. The other main springs above the dam site, the Ain Beitha and the Ain Basun, are wholly diverted for irrigation, the wadi only carrying the return flow. The total irrigated and partially irrigated area in the upper catchment is about 5000 dunums of which a small portion was irrigated directly from small springs which did not contribute to the base flow. Irrigation in Wadi Kufrinjg There are very few diversions from the base flow 103 in the wadi between its main summer source Ain Quantara near Ajluh until it reaches the East Ghor. In winter, the head- spring is Ain Ajluh which rises in the town of Ajluh. During summer the water from this spring is almost entirely utilized as the domestic water supply for Ajluh. The irrigated and partially irrigated areas are about 4000 dunums planted mainly in olive trees and vine yards. Such irrigation that is done on the hillside terraces along the wadi is derived from small local springs. Irrigation in Wadi Bajib Although the summer head spring rises at Ain Sakkina east of the town of Rajib, no water is taken off here from the wadi for irrigation. However, two earth— channels are found further down (5 kilometers) both of which traverse very rough country and are in a poor state of repair. After a further drop in height of approximately 60 meters, a series of channels are led to irrigate the plateau land below Rajib. The area which has a traditional share of this water is about 2000 dunums. The existing cultivation is for pomegranates, olives, figs, some citrus fruits, vegetables and wheat. There is a marked lack of terracing which prevents the best use of the available land. 104 Wadi Zerqa The Wadi Zerqa carries the largest perennial base flow of all the rivers wholly in Jordan. It is second only to the Jordan in respect of total annual discharge. On this account the Zerqa has been the subject of several previous investigations for possible storage and hydroelectric works. UNBWA, the Clap Mission, the U.S. Bureau oflknlamation, Sir M. Macdonald and Partners, Harza-Baker and Jordan Govern- ment Departments have all made preliminary investigations of various sites.1 The catchment area of the Wadi Zerqa is 3500 square kilometers. It is roughly triangular in shape, with its apex at the confluence with the Jordan. The southern boundary runs along the high plateau lands a few kms. south of Amman. To the east there is an ill—defined boundary with the inter- nal drainage area which is centered roughly on Azraq. 0n the north it joins the Yarmouk catchment and extends on the foothills of Jebel Druze. (Map 13). The character of the catchment is unusual in that the head waters drain the low rainfall high plateau lands in the east and mountainous re- gions with high rainfall are traversed in the lower reaches. The river emerges on to the East Ghor near Dier Alla, and flows in wide pebbly flood plain for 12 kilometers south- west to join the River Jordan near the village of Damiya. 11bib. put v, p. 1. 105 eta-30:. a...) loo-O. :1. ca-DOn 042 3m 9: 3w on — )1 4 11 ‘1 1‘44111111d .582 c O— ou.< tram...“ Soon 8!. _ucoo .on .mow IIII (O¢m~ 5(3 8.1 s. \. .\ I: ._ I..I \. . l,. ....f. ...( l...\... (r I.’ I. \.J.. r. .. . . _ . \ .... 1 r . P. r . ., 1 1.. .. .\..I..I.. ‘ 1 a Isl. \ q, .I. .. .1 8A1 . I . . ...... ... . . - -. m...o..c9wx1oo: . . .. .... . - as. arm .W .m:xnmmquCbm ormxn ,9 t c I... s ”...... 1. .-.... 7:1 a). . l w .. . .. .NVDCW. , 1.... V... .1. 11.1 ..\ . 5.7 ..w. o . nlv OWA \ 1. ., .....,-. .. Q. ‘, d4 .. . . ‘ a on x . - - we 94 6.. ._ ..\ . .. . . to. .Hz»%.\ : .3 , 1qmzmw/x. _ - m . - 094,...19 \. -. ... . . . c x e .. ..o . , . ..1 oafi1 c . o 1 . l.l.l o x. / ..\ ,- I. :l. \ .l..’.\" \.. \ .\\11 .11 1 , \n \ I../....._ , .\ q...Jro .1 x1 11. . . \u \ nix? \ \ \ .. .. 1 x].-. .. . .. .\ I. \ \. s ..\ 4.1. . .\ max: ...i...l.....l\J.. ,1\. as .. . ..... 1.1.1 ..\ ..\..\ I. .x 1 .. \ \ 1n a. .«x1. \.\ \c/f AIL «a \.I..1 \ )cohw. r . o/ I .\ 1.. Q} .. .\ .Jo l. .\ .. _. 1.. .1..- . ... . \.. O C a. I. l \. (a 1 IL\:-\ fivel. a: K\ . 1-2x? <~ m > m ..I. .l . l . I O. , .... 1 s I III. ’0'.-. 9H 3.30 no t. .3... . .. u .1 $.11, c 9 Tales}, l1 ,1 as - 9» 4.1.1. jilafiluj. .. .N Kym... 0.5. . 2:: (III 3:35.? a... , .o .79 ’9’.‘ \ .7 A .40.... no. we... ... .9 L43. -_.. -.--..L- ..- O O p ”a? ... _ “é--.— d- lom~ n— «(2 106 In elevation the catchment area rises very ste— eply at the escarpment along the Riftside from a general level of minus 350 meters to 1000 meters near Salt. Further east the general land drops to between 500 and 600 meters, but gradually rises to 850 on the slepes of Jebel Druze. The rainfall over the catchment area is varied. To the west the area lies within the high rainfall zone, with annual rainfall exceeding 500 millimeters. To the east the annual precipitation rapidly decreases until in the desert region where mean annual rainfall is only 100 mm. Here the rainfall is very irregular and years may pass with no rain recorded. The rain occurs in this region main- ly as thunderstorms of a very local character. Large river discharges have been observed which are unrelated to any recorded rain. The northeastern part of the catchment area is drained by the Dhuleil system, (will be discussed later) which joins the Zerqa about two kilometers north of the village of Sukhna. The upper Zerqa drains the highlands around Amman. From the Dhuleil confluence onwards to the west, the river meanders in a deeply incised valley where it is joined by small tributaries. The largest of which are Wadi Rumeimin on the south and Wadi Jeresh on the north. At the present time there is a perennial base flow in the river from a point just upstream of the Dhuleil con- fluence. Formerly there was base flow higher up the Zerqa 107 and Dhuleil but exploitation of the water reserves in the valley in recent years has stopped this flow. At Sukhna upstream from the diversion Weir, flow appears from two strong perennial springs much of which is immediately utilized for irrigation along the Wadi sides. From this point onward, base flow steadily increases due to addition of water from spings. Few temporary diversions irrigate all available land at the lower levels. There is no significant irrigation below Sukhna until the new Jeresh road bridge. The area irrigated between the new and the old Jerash road is of interest, since the greater part is supplied from one canal on the right bank, which takes off about one Kilometer downstream of the new bridge. Considerable ingenuity and initiative have been shown in the construction of this canal. Due to the meanders of the wadi in this reach, irrigable lands occur as isolated pockets at the apex of bends, separated by cliff sections. To command those on the left bank, use has been made of small diameter pipes to syphon supplies across the river. Some increase in base flow occurs in this reach. Some two and a half kilometers below the old bridge the river is joined by Wadi Runeimin, which contributes to the flow. From this point there is no irrigation of sig- nificance until a point two and a half kilometers above the diversion weir near Dair Alla. The diversion weir at Dair Alla is situated about two kilometers upstream of the point where the Zerqa enters the Ghor. The base flow is diverted by the weir into a 108 rectangular concrete lined canal on the left bank. An escape is provided back into the river about 700 meters downstream of the headworks. Just below this escape the canal crosses the river at a high level in a reinforced concrete flume. In this section of the canal there are several minor ir- rigation offtakes. The main canal continues to follow the foot of the hills for a distance of a little over one kilo- meter. Thereafter, the water is distributed by means of proportional weirs, into four main canals, and several minor canals. The system at Dair Alla will be considerably re- organized when the irrigation from the recently completed East Ghor Canal is fully develOped. The East Ghor Canal will incorporate all irrigated land supplied from the Zerqa and located in the Ghor area. When further storage works are constructed on the Zerqa, it will be necessary to institute strict control over all abstractions by means of offtakes, weirs and head gates. It will then be possible to increase the area under ir- rigation along the valley, particularly in the reach ex- tending for fifteen kilometers downstream of Sukhna. The existing pumped irrigation schemes on the Dhuleil and Zerqa above Sukhna have shown the economic feasibility of farming in the area, which has ready markets in Amman and Zerqa for market garden produce. The irrigated areas found along the course of the Zerqa river total seven thousand dunums. They are found along the river between Amman and Sukhna, around Sukhna and.from below the new Jeresh road bridge to Dair Alla. (Map 13). 109 The Dhuleil System* It was indicated earlier that the Dhuleil system drains the northeastern part of the catchment of the Zerqa river. (Map 13). This system is of special interest because it is being used as a settlement scheme for the Nomadic Bedouins in Jordan. The purpose of the discussion below is to indicate the pattern of development and the types of agriculture and agricultural products, produced in the area. There has not been enough time yet to determine the success of the project as a settlement scheme. Further research and more time are needed to judge the merits of such an undertaking. The type of deve10pment envisaged in the Dhuleil area is one of government sponsored and controlled settlement based on individual, peasant small-holdings. It is considered that this type of development is more likely to achieve, on the one hand, a rapid and sustained ex- ploitation of water resources and, other, the prime aim of government policy which is the settlement of as many Nomadic Beduin as possible. This aim of government raises many prob- lems foremost of which is the low capital low knowledge status of would-be settlers. To overcome these, 20 dunum holdings, and on them phases of development, embodied in farm plans, are recommended. In the first phase of initial settlement, it- The Dhuleil System comprises a number of small wadis tributary to the Dhuleil, the largest of which are the Zatari and the Sueida. 110 a programme of fairly intensive vegetable production is envisaged and after some 4 years this is supplemented by apricot production. This phase produces a fairly substantial income quite rapidly and should provide a sufficient level of savings to enable the settler, in a short-time, to move into the second phase. This phase introduces local milk cows on to the holding as an integral part of the farm system. It is a temporary expedient, for it is somewhat less profit- able than phase 1, but it is a necessary apprenticeship stage of training the settler in the ways of animal husbandry. Within five years, it should then be possible to move into the third phase of development, by which time sufficient funds and knowledge will have been accumulated to facilitate the practicing of intensive, highly profitable farming syst- ems which alone will justify the heavy investments which irrigated farming require, and secure the economic use of precious water resources. The third phase includes plans for milk production, based on exotic dairy cows which are the most profitable, and beef and lamb production. And although these latter are less profitable, they should be attractive to the farmer who has not the skill required for dairying, particularly if they introduce an egg-laying unit which augments income significantly. The plan of devel- Opment discussed above has not yet been complete. Dry farming 0n cultivable land within the project area, the principal pattern of land use combines the speculative 111 cultivation of rainfed winter cereals with the semi-nomadic grazing of sheep and goats. The main crop grown is winter wheat and since, on the plateau, successful growth depends on a low and uncertain rainfall, the attainment of economic yields is only occassionally achieved. In the valleys, which cover a relatively small area, additional water is available from run-off and river flooding so that, on their deep al- luvial soils, cereal growing is somewhat less risky. The fact that winter rains occasion the flooding of valley bot— toms, suggests that the practice of irrigating these favor- able soils, if this were contemplated, would be undesirable. Although this rudimentary form of land-use may appear of low productivity, in the absence of additional sup— plies of water, it undoubtedly uses the meager resources available to the best advantage. Nevertheless, even though it is not possible to estimate accurately the annual value of produce from the project area, it is apparent that it provides the local nomadic Bedouin with no more than a mini- mal standard of subsistence. This is substantiated by the fact that only a few years ago, before water on the peri- phery of the area had been discovered, the best cultivable land sold at no more than one dinar a dunum. Irrigated farming A number of private holdings have been established, within the last two or three years, on the peripheny of the project area. The first settler was Miss Coate, who origin- ally found water in the area in 1961, and who began to exploit it in mid-1962 for irrigated farming purposes. Her 112 initiative was enough to stimulate others to undertake the risky business of locating water reserves and digging wells and there is no doubt that their efforts have been well compensated. These pioneer farmers have concentrated so far almost exclusively on the production of vegetables which have yielded quite well. The farming of these virgin soils has had the initial advantage of being completely weed-free, but there is no doubt that weeding costs will rise within a comparatively short—period. Miss Care is on the point of establishing a dairy herd of exotic Friesian cows and there is the likelihood that others will follow suit. Apart from growing a wide range of winter and summer vegetables, these Dhuleil soils are potentially capable of growing a number of other crops with economic yields. The pioneer farmers have themselves experimented with some of these including: vines, olives, cotton (wheat has given good samples) and potatoes. The haulms of the latter grew well but the low humus status of the soil led to compacting after irrigation which seriously restricted tuber growth. It is thought that after some years of farming these soils, potatoes and sugar beet should yield well. But these exploratory trials should surely lead to further government- sponsored experimentation. Apart from the areas of irrigation supplied by the side—wadis already discussed there are several areas which lie outside of theEast Ghor Canal system. These are the areas irrigated by the wadis Shueib, Kafrein, Hisban, Zerqa-Main, Mujib, Faria and others. CHAPTER IV THE EAST GHOR CANAL IRRIGATION PROJECT We now come to the most important of the existing schemes at present in operation in Jordan. The East Ghor Canal Project. This project not only comprises the largest area of irrigated land in the country, but forms the first stage of the total development of Jordan Valley water resources. History The concept of diverting the waters of the Yarmouk River to the lands of the East Bank of the Jordan River and perhaps even to the West Bank, had been studied and discussed at various times in the past. There have been a number of plans for developing the water resources in the Jordan Valley. In general most of these plans called for (a) bringing a large area under irrigation, (b) making the supply of water more dependable, and (c) making larger volumes of water avail- able per dunum so that higher income crops could be grown and production could be increased. After a long series of proposals and studies had appeared1 and complicated negotiations had been carried on for years, the East Ghor Irrigation Project was selected 1The Ionides Plan of 1939, the lower Milkplan of - 1939, the Hager Plan of 1949, the MacDonald Report of 1951, The Beenger Plan of 1952, the TVA Plan of 1953, the Develop- ment and Progress of Johnston Negotiations of 1953, and the Arab Plan of 1954, the Cotton Plan of 1954, and the Baker- Harza Plan of 1955. 113 114 by the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan and the United States Agency for International Development (USAID) with the aim of rais- ing the standard of living for the small farmers of the area and to increase the national income of the country. The scheme is a modified version of the first stage of the Yarmouk-Jordan Valley Project set forth in the Master Plan Report of 1955.1 The Baker-Harza Plan (Feasibility Study) The American engineering firms of Michael Baker, Jr.. Incorporated and Harza Engineering Company cooperated between 1953 and 1955 in drawing up a detailed plan for ir- rigating 514,000 dunums of land in the Yarmouk-Jordan Valley. The completed plan, contained in an eight-volume report, was submitted to the government of Jordan on July 15, 1955. The total cost of making the plan was $2,481,031.0f this $1,214,812 was contributed by the predecessor of the pre- sent USAID Mission, $1,056,219 by UNRWA, and $210,000 by the Jordan Development Board. Major features of the plan were: (a) a storage dam on the Yarmouk River at Magarin (or alternatively a few kilometers downstream at Wadi Khalid), (b) a diversion dam at Adasiya near the mouth of the Yarmouk River, (c) a main 1Yarmouk-Jordan Valley Project, Master Plan Report. Michael Baker, Jr.. Inc.. Rochester, Pennsylvania, and Harza Engineering Company, Chicago, Illinois, 1955. 115 canal from Lake Tiberias and the Adasiya diversion dam ex- tending 113 kilometers down the East Ghor, (d) a West Ghor Canal stretching 47 kilometers from a point near Jordan's northwest border almost to the Dead Sea (e) a siphon across the Jordan River to connect the East Ghor Canal with the northern end of the West Ghor Canal, and (f) four large hydro-electric plants on the Yarmouk River and two smaller ones on the East Ghor Canal (Map 14). The plan relied on gravity irrigation to the maxi- mum extent possible with only 104,000 dunums of land, about 1/5 of the total, being irrigated by pump. Nine pumping stations were included in the plan for non-gravity irrigation. Total cost of the irrigation facilities was esti- mated at $116,874,000, or about $216 for each dunum of land to be irrigated. The hydro-electric power construction was estimated at $53,119,000, making total construction cost $169,993,000. The report stated datlztyears would be need- ed to complete the irrigation and power projects. It was estimated that the cost of operating and maintaining the irrigation facilities would be $1.86 per dunum per year. The Baker-Harza report predicted that the project would raise net farm income in the valley from an estimated 116 MAP H 200 ZIO 220 230 F ' l r Avmtslcc Dcmur. _ cal-ohm East Ghor PrOJect 270 -270 Israrlu Trucc Llnt Mum canal — Z 0 (502ml lutuve -_.-___-. b _ x ensuon Wu 3 . Lalzrlol ._ ._. umplng station .p-o Demllnlanz a 13mm 250 -250 b 5 non Isrucll hand Dam 21.0 _ZLO Maqqann Dam no, 3 I I 230 ‘1 230 I, l I \ I I 220 1 flvbud I I“. ecl «_K—m ‘glflb 1 \‘~ . {—-\ 1 BalsanOSIdL- " b Tunnelsoc ) ,0 2‘03: +112an 0!" Abu SOld : —<2 ,Jur . _ _ I -“l Lbuc l_(_39 na sccllon zoo ‘ 3.“:- 1. .211. "\ I, ’I x 2‘ _1 . 3‘ 1' '-: w 1’ 49 '-'- 6!, rub Ajlun ‘. i" . o I 190- at. o ___ nLam 1_Igo “ 1 §%°’,fimnja \~"\J‘0'us;’~’l : _-;r’ [J‘~ I I 'WRaU ( I l ‘30“ {I 90‘" Alla “'80 \l . arq R I \‘ ‘/ \‘\ I I ') ._‘ 170.. g ‘x‘ _‘ _1l70 ‘ . ~ ' K70 WMI\ , ' I ‘dg ,. End scclll ll 1: - , . \ 599 1““. 'I I l '._ N ‘ 160 Egan \__'W$Whh -150 I ‘ ‘ _ 1' uhqais/ \‘\ I ‘ \\ i, 1 53) o ‘ am a ‘ ”qr i m _, / Amman.150 1' ,I’ I, ‘ / / v ,’ Shmfl Nu ’m ’,.\ -4:wa I Br K ' -_ LO — Eloy: cl - Ha gig m \\ \ " 31“ “Assn-m m ‘ 9' ¢ '\ \ \ \ _«m minigmaon I223 rom‘pnpoud mom canal 0 5 |O|lm \—A—J Dcad Soc I-‘NI J l 1 L 200 210 223 230 Ian-z Agmuluul 7:04.101" Au Inna. I.- l or... c-ul hunt I'fi (I (I) 117 $725,000 to $14,237,000 annually in the first 20 years. This forecast assumed that there would be 30,700 irrigated farm units in the valley, and that the net income per farm would be $463. It further assumed that good farming prac- tices would be followed and that the cropping pattern would be such as to yield the maximum income per dunum. Project Description The East Ghor irrigation project is seen as stage one of the overall development of Jordan Valley water re- sources for agricultural utilization. The development of this project has been one of the major efforts of cooperation in economic development between Jordan and the United States Agency for International Development. The project is locat- ed on the East Bank of the Jordan River in the northern part of the Jordan River Valley (Map 14). The total area of the project is 120,000 dunums. The project is bounded on the north by the Yarmouk River, on the east by the Main Canal, on the west by the Jordan River, and on the south by the Zerqa River. The project aims at diverting the Yarmouk River waters by gravity flow through an intake structure leading into a tunnel one kilometer in length and three meter in diameter. The water is then conveyed in a canal parallel with the River Jordan and running along the foot of the 118 mountains for a length of 70 kilometers. Seven small perennial side-wadis flow into the Main Canal thus adding to the water supply. The total water supply feeds an irri- gation and drainage system that covers 120,000 dunums. No water is used in the project from the Jordan River. The canal capacity is ten cubic meters per second at present and was designed to permit a doubling of capacity in the fUtureo l The concrete lined tunnel and other related structures are also designed and constructed to take the double capacity. The distribution and drainage systems, which total 700 kilometers, are built so that each farm unit in the Project Area receives water at its highest point through concrete laterals and head gates. The area of the project has been divided into 3,424 distributable farm unitsz, the average size of which is 35 dunums. The farm units were distributed to qualified farmers according to the East Ghor Canal Law of August 1962. This law specifies the qualification of recipient farmers and limits the size of individual ownership to 200 dunums. 1The government of Jordan has recently begun the work of raising the sides of the Main Canal to double its capacity. Arab League funds areteing used for this project. Work on this project has stopped since 1967. 23324 used farm units or 97% had been distributed to owners as of May 1967. 119 Construction of the Project Construction of the project began in July 1958. and was completed in July 1966 except for final touches on the Wadi Ziglab earth-fill dam which was finished in May 1967.1 The first work on the project was excavation of a six kilometer section of the northern end of the Main Canal. This was done by a crew employed by the government of Jordan. A contract was awarded to Imprese Venete Construzioni from Italy in November 1959 for construction of the tunnel and for lining and installing related struc- tures of the first 22.8 kilometers of the Main Canal. In September 1961 the first 22.8 kilometers were completed and water was first delivered to farm units in Section One. In May 1960 United States Agency for International DevelOpment provided funds for construction of a distribu- tion system (laterals) and an initial drainage system for 33,000 dunums (Section Two) of land adjacent to the first 22.8 kilometers of Main Canal. Part of the distribution system in Section One (10,000 dunums) was built by the Shahin Company. a Jordanian contractor and the remainder was build by the government of Jordan. 1Supervision of the construction of the storage dam on Wadi Ziglab was by the United Kingdom while assis- tance for construction was provided by the United States. 120 The contract with the above mentioned Italian firm was amended to provide for extension of the Main Canal to 70 kilometers. This was completed in June 1963. All the laterals and primary drains in the Project Area were completed in July 1966. The total length of laterals is 398.6 kilometers. The following photograpn3(Figures 1-9) show stages of the construction of the canal and products grown. 121 Fig. 1. -—A scene from the north Ghor Area showing farms and the east Ghor Canal* *All photos were taken by the photography staff at the Agency for International Development. 122 Fig. 2 and 3. -- Photos above and below show beginning of work in East Ghor Canal showing location of canal in relation to eastern plateau. 123 ,f , , 7 “ Fig. 5. --Completed section of East $156.1:le Fig. 6. --Farm workers splash through East Ghor Canal lateral during transplantation of young banana plants. Fig. 7. --Banana plants, barely six months old in East Ghor Canal development area. 125 Fig. 8. --Water from canal irrigates crops. Fig. 9. --Eggplants being harvested in East Ghor Canal development area. 126 Major flood protection channels and cross drain- age facilities for the Main Canal were completed in July 1963. Additional construction of flood protection facili- ties for critical areas in Section I and II were completed in July 1966. The network of maintenance roads was com- pleted in June 1966 to provide reasonable access to all facilities for Operation and Maintenance personnel. These roads were built by the operation and maintenance division of the Natural Resource Authority. The installation of a telephone system by East Ghor Canal Authority technicians was completed in December 1966. This system assists in the operation and maintenance of the project facilities by providing rapid contact with 20 points on the Main Canal. The East Ghor Canal Authority (EGCA) was organiz- ed in 1959 to supervise the construction of the project and to manage the project facilities. The EGCA in 1960 insti- tuted a land redistribution program for ownership and water rights. Other governmental institutions which are parti- cipating in the development of the project area are: 127 l. The Ministry of Agriculture. which provides extension and research assistance to farmers. 2. The Agricultural Credit Corporation (here- after referred to as the A.C.C.) which pro- vides long and intermediate term credit to the farmers.1 3. The Jordan Cooperative Credit Union which assists in developing agricultural co- operatives and provides them with short- term credit. 4. The Ministry of Public Works, which is active in the construction of farm-to- market roads. A 332 kilometer network of these roads is being built with USAID support. 5. Other ministries are involved in carrying out various public services. Cost of the project was approximately $21,000,000, more than two thirds of which was provided by the U.S.A.2 Objectives of the Project: Realization of the potential economic benefits of the East Ghor Canal Project for the general and economic welfare of its people is of the highest priority to the government of Jordan. In attempting to realize this, the government has placed highest priorities on the project in its plans and objectives for Jordan's economic development. In brief, the objectives of the East Ghor Canal Project are: 1The World Bank has provided loans to the Agri- cultural Credit Corporation to assist in farm financing. 2Including the cost of Wadi Ziglab Dam. 128 1. To provide farms in the area with water for full irrigation by constructing a main canal and a distribution system of laterals. 2. To consolidate land ownership and to redis- tribute farm units (limit in land ownership to a maximum of 200 dunums per person) so as to obtain a pattern of farms serviceable with the irrigation system. 3. To provide assistance to farmers for the development and modernization of the 3h2h farm units of the project to assume maximum benefit from the irrigation facilities. Assistance includes: a. Technical services for land development b. Technical services for farming improve- ments (Extension Services). c. Financing for development and operation of farms. d. Establishing cooperatives to supply short term financial needs. supplies and mar- keting for the farmers. 4. To provide irrigation water which will increase the agricultural output of the lands by proper utilization of services. 5. To provide a high “standard of living“ for families in the East Ghor Canal Irrigation Project Area by raising the income devoted to family living. Management of the East Ghor Canal Project Discussion of the manner in which the East Ghor Canal Project is administered requires the examination of the project from three angles: First, the legal framework which has governed the setting up of the East Ghor Canal Authority and its functioning. including the redistribution of ILand and the other aspects of the operation: second. the actual implementation of the major provisions of the laws in force: third, the administration or management of the pro- ject in the narrow sense of the term. Each of these angles will be examined separately in the next three sections. A fourth section will set forth certain recommendations aimed at greater efficiency and effectiveness of the project and of any like project that will be launched as a result of new irrigation undertakings in the Kingdom. The Legal Framework Eight laws govern the establishment of the East Ghor Canal and its authority and their operation, the last law of which established a new authority of much broader scope. Three of these laws are of minor significance. and will not be discussed here. The first piece of legislation is Law 14 of 1959. It laid down the foundation for all future legislation. Law 13 of 1960 followed with certain changes. This law was amended later in the year in various major aspects. The situation was consolidated in the third piece of legislation: Law 31 of 1962. which again brought into effect significant changes. Laws 21 of 1963 31 of 1964 and 35 of 1965 brought about minor adjustments. Finally, Law 37 of 1966 came into being and brought with it radical struc- tural changes. 130 No detailed examination and comparison of these laws will be undertaken here. However. a number of salient features will be selected and their evolution across the different laws traced. with the implications of this evolu- tion indicated. All five basic laws share the same major features as to the delineation of the project area that will be (or is being) irrigated by the East Ghor Canal, and the authori- zation of the East Ghor Canal Authority (or the National Resources Authority) to develop the area and to assign water allocations to it. to divide the area into plots or farm units thus changing the size structure in existence. to set a system of priorities for selection of holders, to set up committees of valuation and appeal which are to deal with the valuation of land and other rights to be surrendered by former landowners, and of the new units and water rights to be assigned to new holders. to determine the manner of settlement of account between the Authority and the new holders. and generally to operate the project and to develop it in social. economic and technical respects. These rights and powers of the Authority are not in question: what has changed over time is the definition of these powers and their content. This change will not be examined. 131 The points of examination are: definitional matters. including the notion of family, holder farmer. and lessee (or sub-lessee): organizational matters (includ- ing the formation of the Authority, the Valuation Committees. the Appeal Committee, and the Holders Selection Committee: and economic matters including the setting of the size of the farm units: with minimum and maximum sizes, and the settlement of the accounts involved in land redistribution. Definitional Matters The definition of the family remained basically unchanged all through. "Family" or "farm family" is taken to mean "all those persons living in one household and jointly supported by one head person whether they are off- springs. descendents or wives. including his descendents, wives. servants. relatives and any other person for whom the individual is legally responsible for managing his affairs and supporting him." (Official translation.) How- ever. though the legal definition has remained unchanged, its application has changed considerably. as will be indi- cated below. "Farmer” has been taken all along to mean a pro- fessional farmer who makes his living out of agriculture and who works other people's land within the project area, whether as a cash tenant or a share tenant. It is most 132 important to note that the laws are all silent about the farmer who works as wage laborer. Essentially, it is the legislation's purpose to do away with wage labor and to have farm units completely operated as family farms without hired hands. A significant shift took place in the amended Law of 1960 from previous legislation (Law 1h of 1959 and Law 13 of 1960) with regard to the definition of land "holder." Until the amendment. the Authority, for allot- ment of farm unit purposes, considered the holder as ”the person or persons in whose name or names the land or water or both is/are registered in accordance with a registration deed." and alloted one farm unit to this "person or persons." However. the amendment gave the Authority the right to "Consider them all or any of them as one holder." The word "all" (emphasis added) has had a drastic effect in implemen- tation, an effect that has to some extent distorted the original purpose and import of the land reform measure of land reallocation. Three types of "lessee" were given certain rights in the land. First, the lessee of state domain who had had the land for at least five years (later changed to three in the Amendment of 1960) without interruption and who had developed it. For the purpose of allocation, he was con- sidered a "holder" with land and/or water rights. The 133 second type of lessee is the farmer who had had private land on lease for at least 15 years without interruption. A third category of operator who was treated as ”holder" is the share tenant who planted trees on the leased land, with the knowledge and approval of the owner. The Authority has the right (beginning with the amendment of 1960) to treat this farmer ”as having replaced the landowner in the share alloted to the farmer...'Furthermore.' in case the trees are jointly owned by the landowner and the farmer, the two parties shall be considered as one holder." Organizational Matters The composition of the valuation. appeal. and holders selection committees does not concern us much here, except in the sense that the tendency over the years has been to reduce the Size of these committees in order to give them greater flexibility and to speed up work, and to add high-ranking members of the judiciary to the first two committees. Both developments are justifiable and of ad- vantage to the work of the Authority and to the project. The East Ghor Canal Authority itself has under- gone an important change. It began by consisting of a Director-General and two members.wmxe appointment was de- cided upon by the Council of Ministers and approved by His Majesty the King. The Amendment Law of 1960 stipulated for 13L: the formation of a Board for the Authority separate from its administration, although the Director-General was made Chairman of the Board. The Board further included two mem- bers who were appointed and approved in the same manner as the Authority members under the old law. The East Ghor Canal Authority enjoyed autonomy, and all along it came under the Prime Minister directly. Law 37 of 1966 changed the situation structurally in important respects. The new Natural Resources Authority (N.R.A.). likewise a body enjoying autonomy, is headed by the Prime Minister as President. Its actual operation is under a Vice-President with ministerial rank. It further has six members: Director of the Agricultural Credit Corporation. Under Secretary for Economy, Under Secretary for Agriculture, Under Secretary for Municipal and Rural Affairs in the Ministry of the Interior. Director of Lands and Surveys, and a representative of the Development Board. The Natural Resources Authority also has a Director-General. The NRA is assigned the responsibility of exploitation, operation, and control -- in the widest sense possible -- of all natural resources, i.e. ”all inanimate resources of natural wealth whether metalic or non-metalic. existing on the surface of, or under. the ground or in the territorial or inland waters or rivers. Natural resources shall also 135 mean all surface and underground water resources, including rivers, streams, wadis, lakes, reservoirs, cisterns, water springs, rainfalls and natural gases; as well as all minerals and pertinent ores, precious stones and similar others; and also soil, rock materials and their by-products used in con- structional and paving works, including stones used for decoration purposes." (Official translation.) The East Ghor Canal Authority has thus been totally submerged in the Natural Resources Authority—-no entity for the East Ghor Canal Authority is maintained. How the East Ghor Canal Project is conducted in practice will be dis- cussed in Section below. Apart from the structural change described, Law 37 of 1966 differs from Law 31 of 1962 in only a few other respects, as far as the East Ghor Canal is concerned. Economic Matters Serious changes have been enacted in farm unit sizes, as between one law and another. Three scales were enacted: in Law 14 of 1959, Law 13 of 1960, and Law 31 of 1962. The only point of general agreement in all laws is the minimum size if the soil is Class I or Class II, in which case the farm is to be no less than 30 dunums. The scale and the maximum size vary from there on as can be seen from the following tabulation. TABLE 16 Comparison of Unit Size Scale in Law 1h of 1959, Law 13 of 1960, and Law 31 of 1962 Number of Irrigable Dunums Held Prior to the Project A. Law 14 of 1959 30-50 51 - 100 101 - 500 501 - 1000 Over 1000 B. Law 13 of 1960 30 - 7O 71 100 101 - 500 501 - 1000 Over 1000 C. Law 31 of 1962 30 - 50 51 - 100 101 - 500 501 - 1000 Over 1000 Number of Irrigable Dunums to be Alloted to Holder To be alloted in full 50 dunums plus 50% of excess area 75 dunums plus 25% of excess area 175 dunums plus 15% of excess area 300 dunums To be alloted in full 75 dunums plus 50% of excess area 87.5 dunums plus 25% of excess area 187.5 dunums plus 22.5% of excess area 300 dunums plus 10% of excess area provided total doesn't exceed 500 dunums. To be alloted in full 50 dunums plus 25% of excess area 62 dunums plus 17% of excess area 130 dunums plus 12% of excess area 200 dunums. 137 As regards lands which are wholly or partially planted with trees. the Authority may, with the approval of the Council of Ministers, not be bound by the provisions of this upper limit, "as necessitated by the inter- ests of the project." The provisions of this Article apply to allotments affect- ed under Law 13 of 1960, "if this excess does not conflict with the techni- cal division of alloted farm units." The implications of the qualifications in Law 31 of 1962 to the maximum size. involving areas planted with trees, cannot be overestimated from the implementation point of view. The principles and priorities set for the selec- tion of holders were the same up to Law 31 of 1962 where they were changed, but they have remained the same since then. Before 1962, the priorities were as follows: First priority: Second priority: Third priority: Holders who themselves exploit their lands in the project area. Holders who utilize their lands by lease or share- cropping within the pro- ject area. Professional farmers re- siding within the project area. 138 Fourth priority: Fifth priority: Professional farmers from district inhabitants. Professional farmers from inhabitants of other dis- tricts. In 1962 an important change was introduced, de- moting absentee landowners from second to fifth priority. and upgrading professional farmers. The new system of priorities stands as follows: First priority: Second priority: Third priority: Fourth priority: Fifth priority: As above Professional farmers re- siding within the project area. Professional farmers from district inhabitants Professional farmers from inhabitants of other dis- tricts. Holders who utilize their lands by lease or share- cropping within the pro- ject area. One final point worth noting with regard to the eligibility of holders and farmers is that beginning with Law 14 of 1959 in which certain exclusions were made. Thus, in this law, persons falling under fourth and fifth priorities were excluded from land allotment if they had land outside the Project Area that fave them adequate in- come. (The term "adequate” has never been defined.) 139 Law 13 of 1960 extended the exclusion to persons falling under the third. fourth and fifth priorities. The pro- vision of exclusion continued until Law 31 of 1962 when it disappeared. Another economic matter is that of settlement of accounts between the Authority and the new holder. Upon the completion of the work of valuation committees the two sides of the accounts were recorded: What the Authority owed the holders for the lands taken over, plus any trees, improvements, and water rights. and what the new holders owed the Authority for the land and the new water rights. The difference between the two sides of each such capital account was to be settled, according to Law 14 of 1959 in ten annual installments if the holder owed a balance. in- terest chargeable at four percent per annum in either case. Law 13 of 1960 amended the installments to make them flmnr for either party. The amended law of 1960 changed this further. making the installments ten if the holder owed the balance. but four if the Authority owed it. Again, Law 31 of 1962 changed the installments to ten for either party. Law 35 of 1965 further changed this provision, making the number of installments twenty if the holder owed the balance (provided no one installment is less than JD 50). but leaving it ten if the Authority owed it. No 140 amendment was introduced in Law 37 of 1966. The trend in respect to number of installments has been to enlarge it for the holder, thus making settlement of debt easy for him. Beginning with Law 14 of 1959 the Authority under- took to perform many functions and services, in collabora- tion with the appropriate ministries and agencies, aimed at providing the farmers with orientation and helping them in technical, economic, social, financial, and health matters. The Authority was also empowered, within its means, to undertake directly any activities connected with agricul- tural loans, formation of cooperative societies, organiza- tion of marketing and extension services, soil preservation, setting up model farms. improvement of farm techniques, and other matters related to raising agricultural, economic, and social levels in the project area. The amendment of 1960 to Law 13 of 1960 went even further by empowering the Authority to determine the appropriate crop pattern, to develop agriculture, and to undertake processing and marketing. Law 37 of 1966, however, is much more modest in the definition of the Authority's economic and social func- tions in the East Ghor Canal. Rather than entrust the functions enumerated above to the Authority, in collabora- tion with appropriate ministries and other agencies, the 141 latest law entrusts these functions to the appropriate ministries and agencies, in collaboration with the Natural Resources Authority. The change of emphasis is significant in that it sets out to avoid confusion of functions and duplication of responsibilities. One major economic and social matter that is pro- vided for in each of the laws and that remains unchanged is the provision that the farm unit is under no circumstances to be less than 30 dunums "approximately," (i.e., ten per- cent more or less,) if the land is of Classes I or II. In the case of death of a holder or a sub-lessee, the laws stipulate that "his rights in the farm unit shall revert to his heirs provided that the area of any farm unit is not thereby reduced to less than the minimum limit pro- vided for under the law." (Official translation.) The significance of this provision is that, formally, it puts a stop to fragmentation of holdings be- low 30 dunums (or 50 dunums, depending on the class of the soil) contrary to inheritance laws and practices. This measure is quite revolutionary in its nature, but it has not in practice meant what it signifies in the legislation, as the next section will show. Implementation of Major Provisions of the Laws The amendments introduced into succeeding pieces of legislation, some of which have been described, suggest the trends of thinking in government circles with regard to the matters concerning which the amendments were formu- lated. In most instances, these amendments reflect grow- ing leniency or a greater desire to make the terms of allotment, or of settlement of accounts, easier for the new holders, or yet to minimize the hardship for the old landowners the area of whose land was large. There is only one amendment which works in the opposite direction, namely against certain old landowners. This is the shift in the priorities among holders introduced in Law 31 of 1962 whereby absentee landlords, or landlords who used to lease out their land, were lowered from second to fifth priority, and professional farmers (priorities 3, 4 and 5 in the old laws) were upgraded (to priorities 2, 3 and 4) as indicated above. Furthermore, it is generally believed that, in addition to the change in provisions to which reference has just been made, actual implementation of these provisions has been marked with further leniency. In other words, in almost all matters left to the discretion of the various 143 committees stipulated for (for valuation and appeal, and for selection of holders), as well as to the discretion of the Authority, the tendency has been more towards leniency than towards a stricter interpretation of the provisions of the law, in effect at the moment. A few illustrations will clarify the point. The definition of the "family" eligible for re- ceiving one farm unit became less rigorous over time. As a result, in a very large number of instances grown-up children, or wives, of the same head of the family, though living with him and maintained by him, were alloted indi- vidual farm units. Joint ownership by the farmer who had planted trees and the old landowner, or by the tenant who had been operating the land for more than 15 years and the old land- lord has been allowed in very many cases. Although the law empowers the Authority to settle rights among the two parties, the Authority has allowed joint holdings rather freely. In fact, joint ownership seems to have gone much further, as Table 17 amply demonstrates. Many joint hold- ings are now creating friction, to the detriment of the pro- ject and of production in general. What is even more serious than joint holding by strangers is the existence of a few hundred holders who 144 jointly (i.e. two or more persons) share in more than one farm unit. This makes the situation much more confusing and detrimental to management of farms and to production effort. The picture emerging from the observations so far made is shown in the following table. TABLE 17 Number of Holders Alloted Farm Units Singly or Jointly Number of holders alloted one unit eaCh O0.......0.........OOOOIIOIOOOOOOOOO.C 9&2 Number of holders, two or more of whom share in one unit ....................1865 Number of holders, two or more of whom share more than one unit ............. 367 Number of holders alloted more than one unit eaCh OOIOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOI. :80 Total number of holders 3554 Total number of units 3361 The discretionary power of the Authority to go beyond the size of the farm allowed under the scale in case trees were planted in the land, also made possible the allotment of areas in excess of what could have been abso- lutely necessary, had the discretionary power been viewed as something to use in rare cases only. The exclusion from allotment of persons under priorities 3, 4 and 5 (under the laws in force from 1960 to 1966) was not rigorously applied. As a result it is believed that some persons who have land outside the 145 project area from which they draw adequate income were given farm units, although they ought to have been excluded. The selection of holders in accordance with the system of priorities was not always rigorous. It is also believed that persons who are not professional farmers, and who are not residents of the project area, or even of the district, have been alloted farm units. Although leasing farm units is not allowed-—the units being meant as family farms to be owner-operated-- many instances have been reported where the land is being leased by the beneficiaries of the allotment. This is particularly true of new holders who were alloted farm units though they had not been entitled to them in the first instance. Although fragmentation is not allowed under any of the laws, yet it is occurring in practice. This is because in many instances units were alloted to families where agree- ment had not been reached as to which members will give up their entitlement to the others. As a result, the land is still held by all and is operated in small patches. The situation reveals a big gap in the law with regard to in- heritance, since the law is rather vague and lays down no mandatory action as to what should happen if several heirs claim the right to the same unit. 146 The valuation committees did not always operate within the same framework of guidelines. As a result, unjustifiable variations occured in the valuation of very similar land, if the valuation was undertaken by different committees. management of the Project Until Law 37 of 1966 came into effect, the project had its own identity and Authority. Now it has no such ad- ministrative identity. It falls under one of the six depart- ments of the Natural Resources Authority, the Department of Irrigation. Specifically, it is run by the Division of Operations and Maintenance of this department. "Operations" means water allocation, while "maintenance" means the upkeep of the installations. The Authority undertakes no other activities for the project area, although the law empowers it to undertake a number of technical, social and economic functions. The operation and maintenance are under a Division Head, who is assisted by technicians for each of the func- tions. Five engineers serve under the assistant in charge of operations: they supervise water allocation for the three sections of the project. These engineers control the work of allocation inspectors whose function is to advise farmers with regard to the use of water, and to control the 147 work of the ditch-riders who go round opening and closing the sluices and collecting the request from farmers for water allocation. Between six and twelve of these ditch- riders operate under each inspector, depending on the size of the area under the inspector's responsibility. On the technical, engineering level, the manage- ment of the Project is quite efficient and satisfactory. It is strict with regard to water allocation and the con- trol of the ditch-riders, and irregularity is virtually un- heard of. However, it is reported that some farmers have managed to make sluice keys, a serious matter that deserves to be attended to, quickly and firmly. The financial ad- ministration is also efficient with regard to the billing of farmers for water allocation at the three offices at Deir-Alla, Wadi Yabis and North Shounat. Settlement of accounts by the farmers is not very prompt: 26 percent of water dues in 1966 were not settled on time after the end of the year. Furthermore, the new holders who owe the Authority money are slow in settling the installments. Payment actually only began during 1966. According to the Authority's records, installments collected so far are JD 213,519 out of a total net debt of JD 2,349,620. On the other hand, the Authority owes old landlords a total of JD 2,278,872 out of which it has already settled JD 1,246,984. The relative discrepancy between the sums paid 148 by the Authority and by the holders compared to sums owed, is an indication of the slowness of holders to face up to their financial responsibilities. The Authority has succeeded in alloting all the area of the project -— a total of 117,000 dunums in the three sections. However, deeds and final records are com- pleted for 63,000 dunums. The pattern of allotment is presented in the following table, which covers some 90,530 dunums. TABLE 18 Distribution of Land by Unit Size in East Ghor Canal Project Area U n i t s Size of Unit (Dunums) Number _Ageg_ Percent of Total Less than 30* 2332 33589 67 37 30 - 50 808 28560 23 32 51 - 62 112 6554 3 7 63 - 130 202 16672 6 18 131 - 200 _?;z .5122 .1 ...6. 3481 90530 100 100 *The existence of units under 30 dunums in area is contary to the spirit and the letter of the East Ghor Canal legislation, where the minimum area is set at 30 dunums. The situation portrayed in the Table has been explained by offi- cers in NRA as being the result of joint ownership where no settlement between the joint owners could be reached. Conse- quently, units less than the legal minimum have been allocated. 149 Recommendations Not withstanding the observations advanced with re- gard to the laws and their implementations mentioned above, the East Ghor Canal operation is quite satisfactory, especially in its legal and economic aspects. Any suggestions to be made now have for aim the improvement of the situation both with regard to the East Ghor Canal area and to any new areas that will come later under irrigation in the Jordan Valley. The following recommendations start therefore from the position that the basis is worthy of being built upon elsewhere in the country, subject to the suggestions that follow. The suggestions are grouped under three headings: legal frame- work, administrative framework, and technical-economic frame- work. Legal Framework The minimum size of farm determined in the present study ought to be retained in legislation regarding the Jordan Valley. The recommendation of a rather small area -- 30 or 40 dunums -- is justified by the heavy pressure of population on land and the very small holdings existing elsewhere and by income expectations from such size. No very wide differ- ential ought to be allowed among groups of landowners in different parts of the country -- especially as the valley is irrigated and fertile. 150 The maximum size ought to be no more than 200 dunums, whether or not the land of the original landowner is wholly or partly planted with trees. The justification of strictness here is, again, the fertility of irrigated land in the valley and the need to observe social considera- tions in not allowing a highly privileged landowner class toemerge. Furthermore, a very large farm will necessitate the employment of a large confingent of employed labor and will cease to be a family farm, for all practical purposes. The letter of the law ought to be observed with regard to the definition of the "family". If the defini- tion is allowed to become loose, the aspect of redistri- bution of land and limitation of size of holding will lose much of its reality. Therefore, it is here recommended 'that no more than one farm unit be alloted per family as "family" is defined by the law. Furthermore, in the case of heirs contending for the same unit, or for joint ex- ploitation of it, if these heirs constitute more than one family under the East Ghor Canal law, the law ought to provide for a final settlement between them in such a way as to leave only one family in possession. Such settle- ment must be made mandatory and not discretionary. The law needs amendment in this respect. 151 It is also recommended to define "professional farmer" to include agricultural engineers, extension agents, and other persons similarly qualified. The object of such interpretation of the term would be to welcome into the valley agricultural technicians whose farming practice would have a valuable demonstration effect. The law ought to be amended in such a way as to permit sale, under strict specified conditions, of farm units of which the holders want to dispose, either because the land is not very rewarding, or because the units are jointly held by persons who cannot operate smoothly to- gether. In the latter case, the sale should only be allowed to single (i.e. not joint) holders. In any further application of the law, it would be advisable for the Authority to use its discretion to- ward avoiding joint ownership between farmers or tenants who had planted trees and absentee landlords, or between tenants who had lease for over 15 years and absentee land- lords. In all such cases, the Authority would be well ad- vised to decide in favor of one party, depending on the merits of the case. Its discretionary power under the law ought to be used in favour of the operator rather than the absentee landlord. 152 Owing to the hardship imposed on the new holder when he is asked to begin paying installments for the farm unit right after allotment, it is hereby recommended that a period of grace of a few years (to be determined) be allowed before the first installment falls due, after which the account must be settled within the balance of the 20 years which the law requires. This would allow the farmer to establish himself before payment starts and would safeguard his operations against underfinancing. It would also spare him the need to borrow money from money-lenders at exhorbitant rates of interest. Alternatively, the installments stream can start modestly and grow over time, as the financial status of the farmer improves. Administrative Framework The East Ghor Canal Project, and any further areas that will be irrigated by major public irrigation works in the valley, ought to be placed under an autonomous Authority, a Jordan Valley Authority (JVA). This Authority, it is here recommended, must be separate from NRA. The JVA will have its own identity, and having no other responsibility, will be able to devote more attention to the Project Area in the technical-engineering, agricultural, economic, and social fields. All aspects of the work will benefit from such a reorganization, from allotment of farm units to allocation 153 of water to participation -- even if at an advisory level -- in the provision of technical and economic services to the new holders. The Authority, whether the Natural Resources Authority as at present or any other body that may replace it, ought to participate in the planning of all service work for the project: extension, credit, cooperation, mar- keting, research and the like. It is not here recommended that the Authority take part in implementation of any plans, but only in their formulation. Such participation will be useful as a two-way exchange of ideas, discussion of prob- lems, and search for solutions. Division of labor and specialization would require that the proper ministries and agencies themselves undertake to carry on any work that is to be done in the fields enumerated. However, most aspects of service work for community development in the Project Area touch on the field of more than any one agency. Hence, the need for a committee for planning whose function will not exceed the advisory. It is also recommended that farmers' representa- tives serve on such a committee, preferably from among active cooperative society members. Such participation would facilitate the transmission of the measures of each of the agencies taking part in the work of the committee. 154 It ought to be emphasized with respect to the committee that it will be the counterpart at field level of the governing planning and advisory committee that is recommended else- where to be set up at headquarters level in Amman. The orientation and suggestions made by the latter committee will be transmitted to the field committee which, after re- laying any questions or qualifications it would like to pose, will transmit further down the line the advise, suggestions, or actions it wants to encourage the farmers to take. Lastly, a recommendation relating to administra- tion in a broader sense is for the whole valley area to be made into one administrative district. The area presently falls under the districts of Jerusalem, Nablus, Salt and Irbid. This causes a great deal of administrative fragmen- tation and leads to dissimilarity of measures taken inas- much as different administrators are involved. If the valley as a whole is made one district with its offices in the area, contacts with the government would be greatly facilitated and simplified. Furthermore, the officials offering various com- munity development and other technical services will all refer to supervisors or inspectors who will be placed in 155 the same district, not in cities far away and apart. The recommendation may, of course, lead to some irregularity in the delineation of district boundaries, but with flexibility the disadvantages of such irregularity can be minimized. Technical-Economic Framework Farmers currently get as much water as they ask for, given the overall availability of water. This is a serious matter. Although there is more water, globally speaking, than the collective demand for it on the average, a situation can well arise where shortages may develop. Furthermore, if farmers get used to obtaining all their requests in water without limitation or rationing, they will acquire a habit which it will be difficult to discard later on if rationing becomes essential. Furthermore, the absence of control may lead to the use of the wrong quan- tities for the crop planted. Finally, the lavish use of water by some careless farmers will deprive some others whose needs are legitimate and justifiable from part of their requests, in case total demand for water was nearing totaly availability. For all these reasons, the farmers ought to be trained in the careful utilization of water and should not be allowed more than is technically appropriate for their crops. The determination of the appropriate volume ought to be worked out between the management of 1 5 6 the project and the representatives of the Extension and Research Departments. The planning committee, referred to above, would be the proper body to set water duty limits by region and by crop acreage. Related to the recommendation just stated, there is the need to train farmers not adequately experienced in intensive farming in the proper use of water and other as— pects of irrigated farming in the valley. Such training should be undertaken systematically, through the joint efforts of the various agencies dealing with community and agricultural development. The Extension Department has the appropriate Audio-Visual means, in addition to word of mouth. and demonstration to spread the information desirable. The cooperative societies can play a major role in this res— pect, in collaboration with extension, research and other agencies. The Agricultural Credit Corporation and the agri- cultural cooperative societies can apply decisive pressure to influence farmers to adopt any cropping pattern that may be deemed appropriate by the proper agencies. The lending organizations can apply such pressure by insisting that loans (in cash or in supplies) will only be provided if the farmers applied the pattern suggested. Other farmers will probably be influenced by the demonstration-effect of the results obtained by those who accept the pattern. 157 The combined center at Wadi Yabis, bringing to- gether the representatives of several services involved in agricultural and community development (cooperation, exten- sion, credit, marketing, mechanization, etc.) is a sound idea that promotes effectiveness, efficiency, and economy together. Two similar centers ought to be set up for the rest of the valley: at North Shounet and at Karameh. It is necessary that the field administration of the project apply the strictest supervision over the ditch- riders, so that no irregularity may occur with regard to the allocation of water. Likewise, no leniency ought to be allowed in the case of farmers who make and use sluice keys to get water illegally. The current water rate is one fils* per cubic meter of water for the first 2000 cubic meters, and two fils beyond that. This rate brought in JD 85997 of revenue in 1966. (JD 22712 remained unsettled of the revenue total on clos- ing of 1966 accounts). Against this, the expenses of the Division of Operations and Maintenance amounted to JD 90,255 for the same year. (This sum does not include the share of the project of the overhead expenses of the NRA because no such sharing is calculated by NRA.) The revenue falls short of the administrative expenses, which would *Fils equals one-thousandth Jordan dinar. 158 suggest that the water rates are too low. A proper cost accounting ought to be made, taking into account the project's pro-rated share of the overheads of the NRA and the amorti- zation of the capital costs of the project. The rates ought then to be determined in the light of the data to be includ- ed. Furthermore, the determination of the rates cannot be undertaken in isolation from any policy that might be adopt- ed with regard to the pattern of water used by farmers. But g priori merely by comparing revenue from sale of water, with administrative expenses above, there is a compelling case for increasing water rates. 159 An Economic Evaluation of the Project Attempts have been made by economists to evaluate the impact of the East Ghor Canal Project on the economy of Jorday. Before the Canal was completed to its present stage three main studies were produced. These were: 1. Jordan Valley Agricultural Economic Survey1 2. The Eagt Jordan Valley, a Social and Economic Survey 3. The Yarmouk-Jordan Valley Project, Master Plan Report3 It will be worthwhile here to review each of these studies. The Jordan Valley Agpicultural Economic Survey This survey covered 3,825 farms on a total area of 260,000 dunums. Some 80,000 dunums of the land was classed as non-irrigated, while the remaining 180,000 dunums were partially or fully irrigated. Total agricultural production on this land during the year of the study was 60,989 metric tons. 1Jordan Valley Agricultural Economic Survey, (Mimeographed), UNRWA, Amman, Jordan, 1953. 2The East Jordan Valley, a Social and Economic Survey, Department of Statistics, the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan, 1961. 3Yarmouk-Jordan Valley Project, Master Plan Report, Volume VIII, ECONOMIC, Michael Bader, Jr. Inc., Rochester, Pennsylvania, and Harza Engineering Co., Chicago, Illinois 1955. 160 Average gross income per farm was JD 319, average expenses were JD 242, and average net income was JD 77. Cross agricultural income for the area was JD 1,219,977 of which 93 per cent was attributed to crops, 6 per cent to livestock, and l per cent from other sources. Total ex- penses amounted to JD 925,962 or 76 per cent of the gross income, and the remaining net income was, therefore, JD 294,015. The farm size ranged from less than 10 dunums to more than 1,000 dunums. Three per cent of the farms, 86 units, were larger than 1,000 dunums and covered more than 68 per cent of the total farm land in the area. Ten farms were between 2,500 to 5,000 dunums in size. At the other extreme, 23 per cent of the farms, 909 in all, were 20 dunums or less and covered 0.71 per cent of the farms. Of the 3,825 farm units covered in the study, 51.8 per cent were 50 dunums or smaller. The wide variation in the size of the farm units minimizes, to a considerable extent, the value of income data presented on a per farm basis. Greater emphasis, therefore, should be placed on per dunum income figures. The gross income per dunum for the 260,000 dunums in the area studied was JD 4.? and expenses were JD 3.6, leaving a net income per dunum of JD 1.1. 161 The East Jordan Valley, a Social and Economic Survey The Jordan Department of Statistics conducted this survey under the direction of Mr. Watson, a Ford Foundation consultant. The survey centered on 3341 farm units covering 207,000 dunums in the present East Ghor Irrigation Project. The survey showed that 14.9 per cent was fully irrigated, 58.5 per cent partially irrigated, and 18.4 per cent was rain-fed. The remaining percentage was either fallow that year and/or uncultivable. The gross income for the 3341 farm units was JD 781,199. Total expenses were JD 314,927 and total net income was JD 466,272. The average gross income per farm was JD 234, and the average net income was JD 140. The gross income per dunum on a fully irrigated farm of 20 to 39 dunums given as an example in the study was JD 12.3, ex- penses were JD 2.6, leaving a net income of JD 9.7 per dunum. Agricultural production for the crop year 1959/ 1960 was 54,387 metric tons. This is a very low figure because 1959/1960 was one of the poorest years in Jordan's recent history. Also, the flow from Wadi Kufrinjah was drastically reduced by villagers up-stream who diverted water for their own use: as a result, almost all the crops in the valley area adjacent to this wadi failed. 162 Only 17,735 dunums of irrigated land produced two crops, while the dry land produced only one crop during the year of the study. Compgrison of the two studies A major discrepancy in the two studies is the re- Vported volume of expenses as a percentage of gross farm in- come. The UNRWA survey tabulates expenses at 76 per cent of gross income, and the Watson study of 1961 reports expenses at 40.3 per cent. This variation is attributed to the fact that the earlier study included payments for taxes, depre- ciation, and rent in tabulating total expenses, while the 1961 study did not include these charges. Neither of the studies included charges for interest. The income and expense figures per farm unit are summarized in Table 19 . Table 19 Income and Expenses_per Farm Unit Item UNRWA Study Watson Study Average Gross Income per Farm JD 319 JD 234 Average Expenses per Farm JD 242 JD 94 Average Net Income per Farm JD 77 JD 140 The table above shows the gross income per farm in the Watson Study to be lower. This may be explained by the smaller size of the average farm (62 to 68 dunums) and 163 the poor yeilds of 1959-1960. Because of the first varia- tion, comparison on a per dunum basis may be more useful as presented in the Table below: Tablel20 Average Gross Income, Average Expenses and Average Income per Dunum .1335 UNRWA Study, Watson Study Average Gross Income per Dunum JD 4.692 JD 3.75? Average Expenses per Dunum JD 3.561 JD 1,515 Average Net Income per Dunum JD 1.131 JD 2.242 Production and Income After the Completion of the East Ghor Canal The first study to measure the economic benefits resulting from the East Ghor Irrigation Project was carried out by the United States Agency for International Develop- ment in Jordan in the spring and early summer of 1965. This study was similar to and a predecessor of the 1965-66 study, but dealt with the crop year running from May 1, 1964 to April 30, 1965. During that time, 2,760 farm units were in operation. The sample for this study consisted of 60 farmers distributed over the project area. Only fifty of them were interviewed while the rest could not orwouki not cooperate with the interviewer. They were selected by taking every 164 60th name from the master list. Eleven of the farmers owned more than one farm. Therefore the data acquired was for 70 units totalling 2450 dunums which represented 2.1 per cent of the 117,000 dunums in the irrigation project. Agricultural Income Gross income for the 2,450 dunums in the sample was JD 58,543, total expenses were JD 32,052 and net income was JD 26,461. These data on a per dunum basis were: gross income, JD 23.9: expenses, JD 13: and net income, JD 10.8. Average gross income per farm was JD 836, average expenses amounted to JD 458, and average net income was JD 378. The average size of all farm units in the sample was 35 dunums. The land use in the sample area included grain crops (18%), vegetables (48%), fruit trees (citrus and vanana) (16%) and the remaining 18 per cent was idle. The following table contains figures for pro- duction and income for the crops grown in the sample area. Data were compiled separately for each crop. 165 am sea mNN own cum mm” as: own .mom H~0.H Nos.a mem.~ omm.m oom.NH owe ooa.a on mowcemxm Hmpoe 66H mmm was Hma see new mam mNe.H m:m.a mmo.~ msa.m moo.e 0mm.s omm.oH ooa.m 6mm.en Db msoocH mwono fleece o.om n.3m m.e 6.0m m.Hm 3.:H w.mm m.mm m.om epsa H.sa o.om H.0N o.me m.m~ ~.om ab :09 canvas pmm oowam o o o o o o o o o o OHHHOOOHOOHOO (\-?HU\\O MOCI)\O\O-d’lf\ IOIIWMCDCDQWOO (“-30 O C ..';T o H {\H MN 0 HO coe canvas sacso pom wade» ommse>< oom osa new as mmm cos cameos Composvopm Hmpoe «mac eaqaam on» how osoocH use cofivosvoum Hm wands um mHH HNH m.ama m.mma mom nmm no: Escsa empcaam amp¢ Hayes cowco :eono seamen compo ommnnmo osmmmm m639pwq cofloz Lewes memem cmopm :zoo penszoso nosoamfiazmo pcmaammm msupwo evapom acmcmm amen: cameos mono 166 om.o oa.n oo.oa mm coaco compo mo.s ee.aa ew.ma He smegma cameo 00.6 50.6 mm.ma was owmnnmo mm.H on.w ea.m mm osmmmm He.ma as.e Hm.ew mmm oozepma sm.o ow.s sm.sH mom cOHos topaz mfl.a ms.a mm.m mo wcmmm emopm no.6H mo.m oe.HN m:~.a c860 no.6 so.HH me.aa 6mm popesoso Hm.m mo.m 6H.ea soo.H pmzoaewasmo Ne.m om.aa H~.om mso.a pcmnamwm oo.om oo.mH oo.mm om:.m museao om.HH sm.ea ma.e~ Neo.m opmpom mo.mH mm.aw ma.mm coo.m memcmm m:.d om.a Hm.w ow:.a amen: Ho.m~ es.en os.ss ame.m opmsoe as on as (a. as oeoocH mono sacso hem 83:59 hem 832:0 pom #02 Hence esoocH memCmmxm msoocH aoz Haves mmoeo raaoscapcooe «6.2 macaw m5 pomJosoosH use cowposuoum Hm manna 167 The 1964-65 study included a forecast that total gross income in the project area would be JD 5,591,400 by 1970, or JD 47.8 per dunum. This projection was based on the following assumptions: (a) citrus production would in- crease with more trees planted and more in bearing stage, (b) more land would be planted with high-income crops, (0) all land in the project area would be cultivated, (d) farm- ing methods would improve, (e) irrigation water would be supplied and used efficiently, and (f) there would be ade- quate development of extension and credit services to the farmers. The 1965-1966 Study The study of production and income in the pro- ject area for the crop year ending April 30, 1966 was planned during the summer of 1965 and the interviewing was done from November 1965 to March 1966. This study was similar to the one of the previous year, although it differ- ed in certain minor respects. Both studies were designed to acquire the same kind of information on production and income. The sample for this study consisted of 120 farms covering an area of 4063 dunums which is four per cent of the 3003 farms being farmed at that time. The sample was 168 chosen by taking every 25th name on the master list which was arranged in geographic order from north to south. If one respondent could not be interviewed, the next one on the list took his place. In this way the sample of 120 was maintained. Although a third of the farmers in the sample owned or operated more than one farm unit, only data for the farm unit in the selected sample were acquired. The following table presents data on each of the 16 crops that were grown by the 120 farm units in the sam- ple. Data include the total area planted with each crop, the volume of crops produced, and income and expense figures both total and per dunum. The total gross income for the entire 120 farms during the crop year under study was JD 117,129: expenses were JD 61,849: and total net income amounted to JD 55,280. On a per farm basis then, gross income was JD 976, expenses were JD 515, and net income was JD 461. Income per Dunum and for the Project Area Gross income per dunum for the 4,063 dunums in the study sample was JD 28.8. Expenses per dunum were JD 15.2 and net income was JD 13.6 Figures indicate that the crops yielding the highest net income per dunum was bananas , almost JD 31. Crops providing the lowest net income per du- num were wheat and corn, both less than JD 5. 169 0.00 0.00 00.00 0.0 0.0 0 0000 0.00 0.000 00.00 00.0 0.0 0 0000000 0.00 0.000 00.00 00.0 00.00 00 00050000 0.000 0.000 00.00 00.0 0.00 00 00000 0.30 0.000; 00.00 00.0 0 .00 00 0.0000 0.000 0.000.0 00.00 00.0 0.000 00 0000000 0.000.H 0.000.0 00.00 00.0 0.000 00 00002 00002 0.000 0.000.0 00.00 00.0 0.00 00 00000 00000 0.000 0.000.0 00.00 00.0 0.00 00 000000 00000 0.000 0.000.0. 00.00 00.0 v0.000 000 00300000000 0.000.0 0.000.0 00.00 00.0 0.000 000 00000000 0.000.00 0.000.00 00.00 0.0 0.000 000 000000 0.000 0.000.0 00.0 00.0 0.000 000 0000 0.000.0 0.000.00 00.00 00.0 0.000 000 000000 0.000.00 0.000.00 00.00 00.0 0.030 000 000000 0.000.0 0.000.0 00.00 00.0 0.000 000.0 0000: 00 Q0 90 :09 000005 :09 ofiaums Asscsav mama mmwcmaxm soocH £09 60000:, 55:59 :owposvopm vovcmam H0909 mmopu Hem oofipm hem cawow H0000 «00¢ Hmpoe ommnm>¢ Haves mmp< mamawm an» pom osoocH 0cm cowposwoum Nm manna 170 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.00 0000 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.000 0000000 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.000 00000000 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.000 00000 0.0 0.00 0.00 0.000 000000 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.000 0000000 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.000.0 00000 00003 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.000 00000 00000 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.000.0 000000 00000 . 0.00 0.0 0.00. 0.000.0 00300000000 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.000.0 00000000 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.000.0 000000 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.000.0 0000 0.00 d.mm w.mm m.mwa.m 050000 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.000.00 000000 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.000.0 0000; 00 00 00 00 020000 000 ssczo 000 83:50 00m 83:30 000 902 Hmpoe 0EoocH momcmmxm meoocH 002 00009 00000 00000000000 mmuc wanedm.m:p you mEooCH new cowposuoum NM @0908 171 Since the sample chosen is representative of the total, therefore, the income for the project area is JD 3,372,876. Expenses were JD 1,780,979 and a net income of JD 1,591,902. Land Use: Of the 4,063 dunums in the sample area, 282 dunums, or 6.94 per cent were not planted during the crop year. The total cultivated area then was 3,781 dunums. Of this the total dunums planted including 635 dunums of double cropping, was u,416. These data are shown in Table 23, both by section of the project area and as a total. All figures are in dunums. Table 23 Totals for Sample Area, Idle Area, Cultivated Area, Planted Area and Double Cropped Area Double Section Sample Idle Cultivated Planted Cropped Number Area Land Area Area Area 1 1,270 170 1,098 1,237 139 2 1,281 72 1,209 1,452 243 3 1,512 38 1,uzu 1,222 253 Total “.063 282 3,781 u,hl6 653 Table 2# shows the area planted with each crop, both in dunums and as a percentage of the entire 4,416 dunums planted. 172 Table.24 Land Use in the Sample Area Total Area Area Planted Planted (Per Cent Crop gDunumsz of Totall Wheat 1,574 35.64 Tomatoes 945 21.38 Citrus 432 9.79 Corn 320 7.24 Bananas 306 6.92 Eggplant 232 5.25 Cauliflower 114 2.58 Green Pepper 94 2.15 Broad Beans 77 1.75 Water Melon 69 1.56 Marrow 57 1.30 Cabbage 56 1.26 Potatoes 54 1.22 Jew's Mallow 32 0.75 Onion 22 0.50 Cucumber 19 0.43 Lettuce 8 0.18 Peas 3 0.06 Okra 2 ‘_QL04 Total 4,416 100.00 173 As already noted, approximately seven per cent of the land in the sample was not cultivated. Forty-seven per cent of the land was planted in grain crops, 44 per cent in vegetables, and the remaining 18 per cent in fruit trees, citrus and bananas. These percentages total 116 per cent, the additional 16 per cent representing the extent of double cropping Crops Planted per Farm Thirty-three of the 120 farmers in the sample planted only one crop, while twenty-one planted more than four different crops. One farmer did not plant any crops because the surface of his land is higher than the water sur- face in the delivery box. The remaining 65 farmers planted two or three crops. Farm Ownership More than one farm unit was owned by 41 per cent in the selected sample: two of them owned eight and ten units respectively. Two thirds of the farmers owned only one farm, while 29 farmers owned two farms each. The remaining ten owned between three and five farms each. Sixty-six of the farm unit owners operated their own farms. Hired managers operated five of the units, while 39 were rented on a cash basis. The figures on the operating status of the 120 farm units are summarized in Table 25. 174 Table 25 Distribution of the Sample According to the Operating Status of the Farmers Farm Unit Qperating Status Number of Farm Units Owner operated 66 Hired manager 5 Sharecropper 39 Cash Rental 19 Total 120 Non-Crongncome In addition to the income from crops summarized above, a number of farmers received income from non-crop sources. The total net income received from non-crop agri- cultural activities was JD 13,314. More than two-thirds of this came from the sale of sheep and milk, and the remainder was acquired from the sale of hair and wool, fat, calves, manure and eggs. Several farmers also earned a substantial income from operating gas stations or trucks or from renting tractors. Agricultural Trends in the Project Area A major focus of the USAID/Jordan development pro- gram in recent years has been upon irrigated agriculture, and the East Ghor Irrigation Project has been its principal effort in this direction. 175 The objective of this project was not only to build an irrigation system to bring water to the farmers at the highest point of each unit, but also to start the socio- economic development of the area. In other words, it was meant to improve the land tenure, the pattern of farming operations, the terms of land holdings and the level of liv- ing of the people in the area. In general, it was to create a satisfactory set of incentives for raising and sustained agricultural production and to increase the national income of the country. It is obvious to the observer that positive results have been achieved in the Jordan Valley in terms of increased areas irrigated and increased agricultural production as well as social development. Herein, statistics have indicated that the amount of irrigable land which has been put under intensive irrigation as a result of the execution of the East Ghor Irrigation Project has increased from 25,256 du- nums to 103,029 dunums of irrigable land.1 A sustained period of continuous irrigation in the project area during the last five years, improved farming and irrigation practices, proper use of fertilizers and 1Memorandum entitled ”Increased Number of Dunums of Lands Post-Canal” to Mr. Emorg Howard, Chief. Agriculture Division, USAID/Jordan, by Mr. Abdul Wahhab Awwad, dated February 20, 1967. 176 improved credit and marketing conditions have given rise to a measurable impact. Trends in agricultural production and income from the pre-canal period to the post-canal show the economic impact of the East Ghor Irrigation Project on the Jordanian economy. This study shows that net income per dunum of land in the project area was JD 13.6 during the 1965-66 crop year. This is an increase of 23 percent over the JD 10.8 figure for the previous crop year, and more than six-fold increase over the JD 2.2 net income per dunum reported for the pre-project crop year of 1959-60.1 This data is indicative of the great economic benefit that has resulted from the irrigation pro- ject. For comparative purposes there are four sources of information on production and income in the project area, two of them for the pre-canal period and two for recent years. The earliest of these is a study made by UNRWA in 1953: the second is a Jordan Department of Statistics study which was published in 1961. Both of these provide data on the entire Jordan Valley, an area larger than the present project area. USAID has conducted two post-canal studies. the one just com- pleted for the crop year 1965-66 and an earlier one covering the crop year 1964-65. 1The East Jordan Valley, op.cit., Table No. 105, p. 254. 177 Income per Dunum Table 26 presents data on a per dunum basis for the four different years covered by these studies. Table 26 Gross Income per Dunum, Expenses per Dunum and Net 1 Income per Dunum for 1953, 1959-1960,,1964-1965,_and 1965-1966 1953 1959-60 1964-65 1965-66 Item JD JD JD JD Gross Income per Dunum 4.7 3.7 23.9 28.8 Expenses per Dunum 3.6 1.5 13.1 15.2 Net Income per Dunum 1.1 2.2 10.8 13.6 Gross income for 1959-1960 was low because of a very poor season. Income and Expenses per Farm Income and expense data per farm unit as reported in the four studies are summarized in Table 27. This series presents an especially good measure of the improved econo- mic well-being of the farmers. The two post-canal columns indicate the income data for the typical farmers since all farms in this period are about the same size. But the pre- canal averages ignore the variations of income which result- ed from great variations in the size of farms during the pre- canal period. lIbid., p. 174. 178 Table 27 Gross Income per Farm, Expenses per Farm and net Income gper Farm for 1953, 1959:60, 1964-65, and 1965-66 1953 1959-60 1964-65 1965-66 .1113. __«lD____J_D___ .4112.— Gross Income per Farm 319 234 836 975 Expenses per Farm 242 94 458 515 Net Income per Farm 77 140 378 460 Total Agricultural Income A During the crop year 1964-65, there were 117,000 dunums of land in the irrigation project and the total gross income from this area was estimated, on the basis of the sample used in the study of that crop year, at JD 2,795,715. The study just completed indicates a total gross income of JD 3,372,876 for the crop year 1965-66 for the 117,000 dunums of the entire project. In the earlier of these two years, more than 18 per cent of the land in the study sample was not cultivated, while in the latter the idle was approximate- ly seven per cent of the total in the sample. Production (weightlper Dunum The increase in gross income is partly due to the decrease in idle land and partly to greater double cropping in the field crops. But it is also the result of increased 179 yield per dunum. Data are available from the four crop years mentioned above on yield per dunum for the major crops that are grown in the irrigation project. Striking increases are noted for most of the crops that are involved, as shown in Table 28. Total Agricultural Production (Weight) The quantity of the agricultural production in the East Ghor Area during the 1965-66 crop year is 108,360 metric tons. Table 29 presents the total agricultural production of the East Ghor Area for 1953, 1959-60, 1964-65, and 1965-66. Table 30 shows that the total agricultural production in Jordan increased by 100.7 per cent between 1959 and 1965. It is not possible to determine the extent to which the East Ghor Project contributed to this increase, but it is certain that it was a major factor. However. an attempt was made to compute the growth rate of various crops in terms of both total production and monetary value to determine the impor- tance of the East Ghor Project in relation to the total pro- duction of the country. Work is also still underway to de- velop a rough cost/benefit analysis of the project. It is planned to issue the benefit/cost analysis as a supplement at a later date. Attempts to make a meaningful assessment of the project's contribution to the country's economy were al- most totally unsuccessful due to the lack of valid data con- cerning the 1962-63 and 1963-64 crop years in the project area. 180 Table 28 Average Yield per Dunum for the Major Crops in the Project Area for 1953. 1959-1960, 1964-1965. and 1965-1966 in Metric Tons 932p 1253 1952-60 1964-65 1965-66 Tomatoes 0.502 0.557 1.371 1.515 Wheat 0.091 0.049 0.211 0.154 Bananas N.A. 1.316 1.400 1.709 Potatoes 1.196 0.820 0.958 0.585 Citrus N.A. N.A. 1.750 1.165 Eggplant 0.970 0.983 1.433 1.614 Cauliflower N.A. 1.557 1.179 1.645 Cucumber 0.194 0.353 0.577 0.705 Broad Beans 0.345 0.206 0.347 0.49? Water Melon 0.479 0.396 1.000 1.580 Corn N.A. N.A. 0.660 1.117 Green Pepper N.A. 0.422 0.462 0.877 Marrow N.A. N.A. 0.736 0.596 Cabbage N.A. 1.363 1.640 2.018 Jew's Mallow N.A. N.A. 3.750 2.313 Onion N.A. 0.505 0.500 1.159 181 The contribution of agriculture to the Jordanian balance of payments problem is appreciable. Although gross imports increased from 13.3 to 15.7 million dinars between 1960 and 1965, it was offset by increases in gross exports which increased from 1.8 to 4.9 million dinars during the same period. Table 29 Agricultural Production of the East Ghor Area for 1953, 1959-60, 1964—65._and 1965-66 Item 1253 1959-60 1964-65 1265—66 Agricultural produc- tion in Metric tons 60,989 54,387 95,315 108,360 Two differences between the UNRIA study and the Department of Statistics study must be noted. First, the gross income reported in the latter study is unusually low because it was based on an extremely poor crop year. Second, the expense data as tabulated in the UNRWA study are higher as a percentage of gross income than that in the other three sources of data because of the inclusion of charges for taxes, depreciation and rent. Because of this latter variation, only the gross income data in the UNRWA study can be correct- ly compared with the other sources. Trends in agricultural production and trade from the pre-canal period to the recent past also show the bene- ficial effect of the East Ghor Project on the Jordanian 182 economy. Table 30 presents data on agricultural production by major components.1 The first tracts of irrigable land were distribu- ted to farmers in 1961 and by 1964 almost all of the farm units in the first two sections of the project were distri- buted. It was during these years then that the project be— gan to show results in the form of increased agricultural productivity. With this observation in mind it can be seen that agricultural imports increased roughly 16 per cent during the period 1960-65 while during the same period ex- ports increased almost 170%. It can also be noted that agricultural produce made a larger contribution to total countrywide exports going from 46.8% in 1960 to 50% in 1965. Annual variations exist in these data, both production and trade, due to variations in the amount of rainfall from year to year which affect annual productivity. Nevertheless, the trends over the period considered are apparent. 1Statistical Yearbook, 1965 and previous editions, Department of Statistics, Amman, Jordan. _PCI‘O 1252 Wheat 10305 Barley 26.0 Other grains Field crop 24.6 Grains and Field Crops 154.1 Tomatoes 126.1 Other Vegetables 224. 8 Vegetables 350.9 Olives 11.2 Citrus 5.8 Grapes 54.1 Other Fruits _2l22 Fruits 112.3 183 Table 30 Agricultural Production1 (000 Metric Ton) 1260 1261 1262 43.6 138.2 111.9 1303 6107 35.7 11.2 28.5 33.2 68.8 228.4 181.5 155.6 213.8 169.4 243.0 319.1 325.1 398.6 532.9 494.5 16.7 144.4 7.4 7.1 16.3 21.4 43.3 78.4 79.0 36.7 52.6 52.6 103.8 261.7 165.4 lIbid.p. 30 1263 75.8 23.0 12.8 116.6 214.6 322.2 537.5 38.7 38.8 58.7 46.8 183.0 1264 294.7 92.2 449.2 227.8 383.2 611.7 97.1 37.1 76.9 48.8 259.9 277.9 94.8 437.8 188.9 582.5 37.4 47.0 79.2 218.8 CHAPTER V PLANNED IRRIGATION SCHEMES AND DRAINAGE SYSTEMS FOR THE JORDAN VALLEY We have so far looked at present irrigation schemes; their nature and development. We will now look at the planned schemes. The government of Jordan is undertaking the develop- ment of these schemes based on studies done by the National Resource Authority, the Baker-Harza Report, and Sir MacDonald's East Jordan Valley water resources. The government of Jordan has (in 1966) begun work on an eight kilometer extension of the Main Canal which will provide irrigation water to an additional 20,000 dunums to the south of the 70 kilometers completed earlier. This extension is entirely Jordanian in planning and execution and is being financed from a Kuwaiti loan. It is expected that the eco- nomic benefits resulting from the irrigation project will encourage further extensions in the near future. There are, however, no plans for such extensions at the present time. Work on this extension has been stopped since 1967 because of reasons stated earlier. The overall valley plan for the development of the Jordan Valley calls for the construction of two nearly parallel main canals which will cover the entire length of the project area. One, forming the continuation of the existing northeast Ghor Main Canal (discussed previously), will run along the bank of the Jordan River and the other, 184 185 branching off with a siphon across this river, will run along the west bank. The two canals, laid out on a very gentle slope, will supply a net area of 375,950 dunums out of a possible irrigable area of 447,500 dunums. Only 34,700 dunums will be irrigated by pumping from the main canals while 342,250 dunums will be irrigated by gravity. The re- maining 71,550 dunums will be irrigated from the side-wadis, either by pumping or by gravity. The regulated flows of the Khalid Bin Al-Walid and Maqarin Reservoirs on the Yarmuk River will, when com- pleted, flow into the main canal system through the Wadi Arab Power station, while a diversion dam at Adassiya will divert the uncontrolled water of the intercatchment area between Mukheibeh and Adassiya to the same canal system. Waters of the side wadis, whether regulated or not, will be used to irrigate areas above the main canals before the balance is diverted into the main canal system. One excep- tion to this is formed by the water of the Wadis Shueib, Kafrein and Hisban which will be diverted completely to the Southeast Ghor Main Canal -- which could otherwise have been irrigated directly from these wadis with groundwater. At present, the existing irrigation in the Jordan Valley covers an area of some 300,000 dunums:l 1Dar Al-Handasah Consulting Engineers, Beirut, and Netherlands Engineering Consultants, the Hague, Jordan River and Tributaries Re ional Cor oration, Jordan Valley project, Agro and Seeio-Economic Study, Vol. 3. Annex J, p. 21. 186 a. Northeast Ghor and north- east Zor areas 122,000 dunums b. Side wadis 79,000 dunums c. Other Zor areas 34,000 dunums d. Groundwater 54,000 dunums e. Springs 10,000 dunums The areas under a and c, 156,000 dunums together, are at present supplied from the Northeast Ghor Main Canal. The areas under b and d are situated above and below the proposed Southeast Ghor and West Ghor Main Canals, whereas the springs only irrigate above these canals. Some modifications will have to be made in this existing irrigation system to adapt it to the new plan. In principle all areas situated below the main canals will be irrigated from these canals by gravity. The groundwater pumps below the main canals will be removed to areas above these canals. The areas to be supplied by pumping from the main canals are to be laid out in their final form right from the beginning. Switching of the irrigation method,, e.g. from groundwater to pumping from the main canal or the reverse will always entail extra cost. Irrigation by 187 groundwater. on the other hand can be substituted for an existing side wadi irrigation. This will be the case with the areas to be irrigated from the Wadis Shueib, Kafrein and Hisban, since this method will in the course of time be superseded by irrigation from wells and springs. Layout of the Irrigation System The layout of the irrigation system is based on the introduction of tertiary units. The size of these units, which depends on topographical conditions. will vary between 300 and 1200 dunums with an average of 800 dunums, between 20 and 25 farms. According to the system now in existence, the Ir- rigation Authority delivers water to each individual farmer. For the whole project area of 447,500 dunums, depending on the farm size, some 11,000 to 14,000 gates would have to be operated by the Authority. This would require an enormous organization and administration. In the proposed system the responsibility of the Authority will be limited to the supply of water to the tertiary units, whereas distribution to the individual farmers within these units is left to the farmers. Thus, the Authority only has to operate some 560 headgates, serving the tertiary units so that skilled manpower and operation and administration costs will be reduced considerably. 188 A further advantage of the introduction of tertiary units is that the water economy will be imporved. If the Authority has to meet the individual demands of more than 10,000 farmers, considerable fluctuations in demand will occur during short periods. As it is not possible to regu- late the flow in the main canals with a length of 150 km, water will be wasted when the demand drops. However, when water is delivered to tertiary units, farmers will establish an inter- nal rotation within the tertiary units and supply to these units will vary only gradually, so that the flow of the main canals can be adopted to actual demand. It is essential for the success of the selected system, that cooperation can be established among the farm- ers in a tertiary unit. Experience in Jordan as well as abroad proves that such cooperation is feasible if the num- ber of farmers. participating in one tertiary unit, is not too great. It may take some time for good cooperation to be achieved and in that case the Authority should temporarily assume responsibility for the water distribution inside the units, e.g. for a period of one to two years. Apart from the above arguments with regard to opera- tion and water economy, the following advantages of intro- duction of tertiary units should be mentioned: 189 The design and construction of the secondary canals can be carried out without the land allotment, provided sufficient right-of-way is arranged for on a provisional basis. The procedure for redistribution and allotment of properties and other time consuming legal actions can take its course over the entire area without being bound to the construction schedule. The possibility is created for proper sizing and orientation of the farm plots in respect to erosion problems.1 The Areas to be Irrigated The net irrigable area have been determined from the soil maps and the topographical maps, and are indicated in Table 18 divided in areas above and below the main canals. Table 31 Irrigable Areas in the Jordan Valleygdunumll Above Below Main Main Ghor and 200 Areas Canals Canals Total Northeast Ghor and northeast Zor 34,500 127,000 161,500 Southeast Ghor 25,000 117,750 143,750 Southeast Zor 17,000 17,000 West Ghor 45,250 64,000 109,250 Northwest and southwest Ghor 12,000 12,000 Total Jordan Valley 104,750 342,750 447,500 1Ibid., p. 2. 190 Large areas can be irrigated by gravity or by pump- ing from either the side wadis, the main canals or from groundwater and springs. The most attractive solution is to use the base- flow of the wadis as far as possible for irrigation of the adjacent land. In this way the cost of conveyance and pumping to the areas along the wadis situated above the main canal is kept low. When the base flow exceeds the water re- quirements of the area along the wadis, it will be diverted to the main canals. Likewise groundwater and water from springs is to be used for areas above the main canals. Water conveyed through the main canals should pre- ferably be used for irrigation of the areas below these canals. Some areas situated above the main canals cannot be commanded by gravity or pumping from the wadis, or by groundwater or spring water. In these cases the water re- quired has to be pumped from the main canals. In conformity with the above guiding~1ines the next areas to be irrigated from side wadis, by gravity and by pumping, have been determined in Table 32. Tab1e 32 Net Irrigable Areas to be Irrigated by the Side Wadis (Gravity and Pumping) and by Pumping From the Main Wadi Area Northeast Ghor Arab Ziglab Jurum Yabis. Kufrinja Rajib Zerqa Southeast Ghor Shueib Hisban Total Canals (in dunums)! Irrigation from side Wadis By GraVity 3600 3350 900 200 1300 800 5050 15,200 5000 650 25.350 1Ibid, p. 3. 1250 800 100 200 2350 2350 By Pumping Total 4850 4150 1000 200 1300 800 5250 17.550 5000 4500 27.700 Pumping From Main Canals Total 2850 7700 850 5000 1550 2550 700 900 8175 9475 2425 3235 11mm 16,950 34,500 5000 4500 16,950 44,650 The source table includes areas of the West Ghor which have been omitted here because they are outside the study area. 192 The total area situated above the main canals, irrigated in this way amounts to 66,400 dunums. Accord- ing to Table 31 the total net irrigable area above the main canals is 104,750 dunums, consequently 35,350 dunums will have to be irrigated with water from groundwater wells and springs, of which 10,150 dunums in the Southlket Ghor Area will supply. Since it is assumed that the quantity of ground- water and water from springs, more or less concentrated in the southern part of the Jordan Valley, is sufficient for the irrigation of 50,000 dunums, extension of the area to be irrigated from wells and springs is to be sought in the Southeast Ghor Area. Therefore, the areas situated above the main canals which are irrigated by gravity from the Wadis Shueib, Kafrein and Hisban, 5,000, 4500 and 650 du- nums respectively will in course of time be supplied by wells and springs and the flow of the three wadis be di- verted into the southeast Ghor Main Canal. Then, only 1500 dunums are left to be irrigated by groundwater below the main canal. A summary of the net areas to be irrigated in the Jordan Valley and the sources of irrigation water is given in Table 33 below. 193 oom.h:d 000 o 005.:m omw.a¢m onm.m oom.oa Hence omN.oNH cow—MN ooo.: omn.mma COW—mm omN.©HH new use pmochsom wmesnvaoz page puma .uom pmwenpsom pogo pmmwnusom oom.HwH om@.wa ooo.NNH omm.m oo~.ma you pwmenphoz page emmonpuoz 0.: on .UfiQHH fleece poem; magnum can sopmzncsoaw an :ofipemflauH MCwmssa an. Amado swae.soum cowpmeapH mooa< you mmou< some one cw hpfi>mnw an mamcmo name.sonm cofiwmwwauH mcanssa an hvd>muw mp wens: scam scam newvwwfiauH Hamezcsn :qummeu< covwwaupH use pops; sowvmwwme mo meousom mm wands 194 Project Subdivisions For purposes of this study the Jordan Valley has been divided into three subdivisions. These are the East Ghor North, the East Ghor South, and the West Ghor. (The last not included in this study for reasons indicated earlier) Each of these was further divided into two pri- mary sub-areas, above and below the main canal. The Zor was segregated in tabulations to indicate its relative im- portance, although it will be an integral part of the area served by the main canals. East Ghor North: The East Ghor North subdivision comprises the lands lying between Yarmouk River in the extreme northern part of the valley and the Zerqa River, which forms an approximate mid-point dividing line of the lands east of the Jordan River. The lands extend from the Jordan River eastward to the steep slopes leading out of the valley. Nine sizeable wadis provide drainage, forming a series of small alluvial fans and interfan area. The general gra- dient is in a westerly direction, and the elevation ranges from approximately minus 212 meters along the Main Canal location in the Adasiya vicinity to about minus 226 meters near the Zerqa River Annual precipitation in this sub- division is of greater magnitude than any other portion of the valley and ranges from about 400 mm. near Adasiya to about 200 mm. near the River Zerqa. 195 The soils of the Ghor have been formed mainly from alluvial materials that were stream borne and by general outwash from the uplands. This mantle was laid down over fine textured lake deposits (marls) and thins out as it approaches the ”break“ between the Ghor and Zor. Textures on the fans vary, but are predominantly medium with rock and gravels in the profiles being a limiting factor. especially in those areas adjacent to the hills. On the edges of the fans, clay loams predominate with clays occuping the interfan regions. Organic matter. while still relatively low. is higher in this northern area than any other part of the valley. Rainfall, together Wi th other weathering agents, has played a principal part in modification of the soils. The lake-laid materials have undergone changes to such an extent that it is diffi- ctilt in most cases to identify the original laminations and in most instances the structure has become softly consolidated. Marls were found to be present in the one and a half meter zone of depth in only 5 per cent of arable area. W! The series of alluvial fans in this area give I‘Z'Lse to slopes who gradient is seldom greater than four Per cent. Complex slopes of short runs occur on the upper 196 edges of the fans adjacent to the foothills. Gradient on the larger fans, such as those of the Wadi Arab and River ZZerqa, is relatively smooth with long uniform slopes. The ikans between the Wadi Rajib and River Zerqa are indicative (3:6 the larger interfan areas which are of medium to heavy fibeaxture with long gentle slopes. Above the location of 13r1e Main Canal, cover is generally composed of rock, while sscyme vegetation removal will be required below the canal. The Zor area is characterized by old stream czriannels which have been filled in by flood action. The ‘Ireesulting complex slopes will require a major degree of ]_£3veling in these instances. C>1rainage Conditions for adequate surface drainage are f?ELvorable, except for localized areas there should be lniuttle difficulty in establishing drainage outlets through flaiftural stream channels. Approximately seven percent of the arable area has <311£tracteristics which indicate present or potential sub- S*urface drainage problems. These areas are primarily indi— ‘3Etted by the presence of'a water table within the meter 211'1d a half depth of soil profile. This condition has deve10p- Efli where there is a pronounced differential in hydraulic 197 conductivity of the soils in connection with a slope differ- ential and in areas where fuguares have been neglected or abandoned. Field observation indicates the clay to be of the expanding lattice type. Under present limited irriga— tion, drainage problems are not acute: however, irrigation with a full water supply will tend to aggravate conditions in this area. Controlled application of water, development with shallow rooted crops, encouragement of water penetra- tion through use of gypsum, and installation of closely spaced drains are recommended. Problem areas on the Zor occur as a result of 1:11e proximity of the Jordan River Water Table, and from seeps or springs from the rough area which separates the Ghor and Zor. Installation of an interceptor ditch will effectively aid the latter condition while arable areas affected by the river water table can be productively farmed to shallow rooted crops with controlled irrigation practices. S a1 inity and Alkalinijx In the area north of the River Zerqa soils are generally low in soluble salts and in exchangeable sodium and gypsum. It has been noted that in practically every 198 case when clay content is below 60 percent the total soluble salts are below 0.2 by percentage, and exchangeable sodium is well below the critical point of 15 percent. Field per- rneability tests also indicate an adequate infiltration rate for the majority of the areas represented by these samples. In the few areas where an excessive degree of aaglkalinity was found, the subsoil was the zone primarily zagffected. This condition is generally restricted to small areas in the vicinity of Adasiya, and where found, the soils sure producing shallow rooted cr0ps successfully. These ssoils show a clay content in excess of 60 percent with <2<>1nndary to about 100 mm. in the southern section. EScafils The most favorable soils are located on the broad, Smooth, gently sloping alluvial fans of the three major ‘WEiciis previously mentioned. Textures on the Wadi Shueib fan aJ?generous. This meant that the whole project was over-capitalized from the start (in relation to the potential productivity of the land). Secondly, an over rapid ten year repayment of compensation was initially demanded of the settlers. Both these factors place an excessive burden of debt repayment on the shoulders of the farmer. The consequence of this is to reduce current net farm incomes to the point where savings would be inade- quate to finance the further development of family holdings. the reverse of what government would consider desirable. In the event. the settlers have strongly opposed rapid debt repayment and charges have been reduced. But the excessive compensation terms cannot be undone. After this experience, it may be thought trite to say that rea- sonable terms of compensation and repayment should be in- sisted upon for future settlement schemes. Nevertheless. it should be constantly borne in mind that savings out of farm income are the major source of investment funds for the further development of peasant holdings. A surplus over and above subsistence must therefore be left in the hands of peasant farm families. If irrigated farming is shown to be economically attractive to the new farmer. then he will be readily settled. Nevertheless. government must be prepared to employ a considerable extension or advisory staff to help overcome the unavoidable deficiencies. men- tioned above, of exclusive nomad settlement. The best method of settlement in the project area will, of course. be a matter for some debate. But if the 225 settlement of small scale farmers is anticipated. then it is essential that the considerable experience of Miss Coate.* for example. at Abdelliyeh (in Wadi Dhaleil Area) should be studied carefully. The aim of settlement here is ulti- mately to hand over the titles of ownership of the holding to the settler once he has proved himself. Ultimate land ownership is looked upon as essential to provide the settler with sufficient incentive to undertake the necess- ary effort and later expenditure of capital which the full development of land and water resources requires. After carefully selecting settlers° families. Miss Coate installs them on a prepared holding (stones cleared and laid out. with house ready to occupy). They are paid an allowance of JD 10 a month in this initial phase: therefore. they are not even tenants but more or less employed labor serving an apprenticeship. The settlers have complete freedom over their cropping decisions. but they receive supervision and advice from a farm manager as to the most profitable crops to grow and the husbandry methods most suitable to the area. In time the settlers are expected to develop into proficient farmers. At this stage they are handed the titles to their farms when they become fully responsible *Miss Coate is a Protestant missionary who pioneered irri- gation in formerly desert areas by pumping underground water. Soon after, many people with capital followed suit. The adjacent areas (Wadi Dhuleil) became the site of Bedioun settlement scheme. 226 for the commercial aspect of their production. The monthly allowance ceases and they reap the full rewards of their own efforts and decisions. They have. of course. to repay in full the money advanced to them. Land Settlement The methods of settlement employed and the suit- able selection of settlers are of supreme importance and must have a profound effect on the successful development of any settlement scheme. Regarding the second point. it is declared government policy that only Bedouin people shall be settled in Bedouin areas. Consequently, develop- ments in the project area will necessarily be based on Jordan nomads. Though it may be unpopular to say so. it should be pointed out on scientific and agricultural grounds that the chances of successful settlement. the rate of development and the possibility of introducing intensive farming systems -- which alone can justify the high invest- ment irrigated agriculture requires will certainly be re- duced with the exclusive settlement of former nomads. Ideally, a certain proportion of refugee farmers should be included in the scheme to serve as an educative element. They are experienced in irrigated farming. more business- like than the nomads (though less skilled in animal husbandry) and would thus serve as demonstrators who would be of enor- mous help to the newly-settled peasant quite uninitiated in 227 the ways of irrigated farming. So, the exclusive settle- ment of nomads will increase the uncertainty of initial stages of development. it will slow down the rate of development and make the successful introduction of more complicated. though highly productive farming systems less assured. This is.in spite of the fact that. the general attitude towards Bedouin settlement is unduly pessimistic. He has been nomadic in the past because he was forced to be by economic circumstances. Indeed. economic land use in Dhuleil and other desert areas required nomadism. But it is held by senior officials that investments which have previously been undertaken on the holding including the cost of land though the repayment terms have not yet been worked out. It is interesting to note that in the first two years of development at Abdelliyeh, titles to ownership are being handed over to five out of nine settlers. One important proviso, which Miss Coate considers to be essen- tial, is authority. In a government sponsored scheme this would also seem to be essential. One particular advantage of this is that the advisory services would be in a stronger position to persuade farmers to adopt the more intensive farming systems which the economic use of water requires and which is underlined by the suggested phases of develop- ment discussed later in this report. This process of 228 settlement is. of course. only one of many that could be employed in the development of the project being tried. tested and proven reasonably successful (it is understood that the apprenticeship period has been considered too long by some of the settlers) and should. therefore. merit serious consideration. On the layout of settlement. Miss Coate considers that village settlement is the most effective way of fos- tering a co-operative spirit among settlers. who might otherwise feel isolated if their houses were sited on their own holdings. From the agricultural know-how point of view the introduction of village life would certainly make it easier for tenants to talk over their day-to-day farming problems and benefit, by discussions. from the knowledge of their more experienced neighbors. From an economic point of view. the village would be cheaper to supply with water. electricity and other services and it would be easier to arrange the collection of children for school attendance. Miss Coate also reckons that it would be a continuance of the Arab village tradition, but this argument is less relevant to the former nomad -- though to introduce him to a social existance is probably desirable. if only for the sake of his children. 229 A final point regarding settlement should be made. After a settlement area has been prepared for occupation, it is clearly impossible to hand over the holdings to settlers and leave them to get on with it. Not only is close and continuous supervision needed, but actual training is re- quired in the techniques of irrigated farming, the produc- tion of new crops and the running of relatively complicated farm systems. The integration of stock into the farming pattern, for example. is a complicated business which will take some time to learn. But until this is done. the farmer will have no inclination or incentive to use a resting fodder crop and hence to preserve soil fertility. At the moment. for instance. the pioneer farmers on the edge of the project area hardly rest their land at all. On new soils. this has had no apparent bad effect to date. but it clearly will do so eventually. In these early years of settlement, not only is close supervision essential, but government financing is also vital if successful development is to follow. This could take the form of a monthly wage (on the lines of Miss Coate) for subsistence of the family. but in addi- tion loans will be necessary for stock, buildings, and planting material. This heavy financial aid would 230 certainly be necessary for the first few years. until stan- dards of husbandry were sufficiently high to achieve satis- factory yeilds from crops and stock and until tree crops had come into bearing. Farm Size: The "Optimal" size of holding is an elusive notion which cannot, as many suppose. be sufficiently defined, for it depends on many variables. In the first place. it de- pends on the availability of land, labor. capital, manage- ment and water resources. A limitation of any of these will alter the optimal farm size. The management factor. for instance. is intimately concerned with the cultivators ability (given capital and labor) to operate intensive farming systems. There is definite evidence that the in- tensive cropping systems being practiced in Zarqa are highly profitable -- far beyond what is known normally. They would clearly enable a farm family to derive a good income from holdings much smaller than is commonly supposed. But if management ability is inadequate to cope with such in- tensive cropping. then larger holdings are needed. Like- wise if capital is not available to allow the operation of these systems. the same consequence follows. Secondly, the "ideal“ farm size is dependent on the purpose of settlement. This might be to maximize SE 231 agricultural production, procure additions to food supplies at minimum cost, increase the employment of rural people, raise farm family incomes and so on. The purpose of settle- ment in the project area is a combination of all these aims. In precise terms. the aim is to settle as many people as possible (on the irrigable area) at a reasonable level of income. In this contest, the minimum size of holding (given the productivity of the farm system being operated) will be limited by the size of income which is considered reasonable and the level of savings thought desirable. From this it will be seen that the crucial factor is the productivity or intensity of the farm system, that is why the need for an efficient advisory service is con- stantly emphasized here to foster their adoption -- for the more productive the system, the more people can be settled at higher incomes. It is clear then that the selection of an ”optimal" holding size must be an approximation balancing. on the one hand, what will appear to be the likely factor endowment position of labor, management ability. water. etc.. And on the other hand. the aims of settlement policy. In determining the desirable size of holdings in the project area a reasonable minimum family income is 232 taken to be JD 200 a year. A number of senior officials independently suggested this figure and the farm sizes developed later aim to equal or exceed this figure. The average size of family is taken to be 5.3 units providing 600 man days of farm labor a year and farm systems are designed not to exceed this family labor supply. One particular factor affecting farm size in the project area is the establishment of tree crops. During the pre—bearing period they occupy land which yeilds no income for a long period -- though this can be partly over- come by intercropping between trees with annual crops. Nevertheless the overall effect will be the need for a somewhat larger arable area and. therefore. a large family holding to achieve the minimum income objective. Land Reform The need for reform The information made available by the 1965 agri- cultural census. though not completely reliable. indicates that the pattern of land ownership is predominantly one of small holdings. This conclusion is in general agreement with the results of an earlier census taken in 1953 but which did not cover the smaller holdings of less than 10 dunums. According to the 1965 census almost half the 233 number of holdings in the country are less than 20 dunums in size and 95 per cent less than 200 dunums. There are about 280 holdings of over 1000 dunums and only 18 holdings of 5000 dunums or more. On the other hand. fragmentation of holdings into smaller dispersed parcels is believed to be wide-spread and to have led to inefficiency of cultivation and production. The extent and problems related to fragmentation of holdings are accentuated by the antiquated legal forms of land rights. the pressure of rural population on the land, the division of ownership among members of large families by inheritance and by the process of land settlement itself which tends to parcel out the communal (Musha'a) land permanently. As to the relations of the land operator to the land. the predominant form of relationship is that of owner- operator. Probably less than 12 per cent of the area of holdings in 1965 were operated by sharecroppers. However. another 20 per cent of the area was partly operated by tenants. There are no laws or regulations which govern or organize the relationship of the tenant to the owner of the land. such relationship being still governed by custom and tradition. 23a The problem of land redistribution and consolidation is not at all an easy one. Apart from the initial legal. social and administrative difficulties it entails. its hurried application may imply a serious economic problem. For exam- ple. redistribution of land by raising the minimum size of private holdings to 30 dunums which is the minimum applied in irrigated land in the East Ghor Canal area. and reducing the maximum size to 200 dunums will not be capable of ab- sorbing all landowners. However. with a rational distribu- tion of existing land. coupled with an appropriate cropping pattern. it would be possible to raise income and employment in agriculture. The general development of agriculture in dry- land farming areas is inhibited by the agrarian pattern. This includes high-value short-term crops and specialized industries which requires little land. Thus. there is in Jordan the development of vegetable growing which falls into the former category. and of fruit. poultry production and peri-urban dairying which come within the latter. The settlement of the nomadic population. esti- mated at 53.000 persons. deserves special attention. The government should start a phased programme for the seden- tarization of nomads and their animals. The experience 235 gained in the pilot settlement scheme at Jafr* should facilitate the expansion of the settlement programme for the nomadic population. Land Reform in the Jordan Valley Land reform in the sense of limitation on the size of ownership and redistribution of land has already taken place in Jordan but is restricted to the land bene- fiting from large public irrigation works. This has been achieved through a series of laws relative to the East Ghor Canal area. and to any other areas in East Jordan that in the future may benefit from major irrigation pro— jects. In other words. the rest of the Jordan Valley will be treated in the same manner when its irrigation. now under study. is affected as well as the areas which will benefit from the irrigation of the side wadis. Though restricted regionally. the land reform measures in Jordan are far-reaching in effect and were implemented without creating social problems. thanks to the flexibility of the laws governing the reform. their moderation. their realism and their fairness. *Jafr is an oasis in the southeastern part of Jordan where pumped underground water formed the basis for the settlement of a small number of Bediouns. 236 Several pieces of legislation have been enacted to govern the area of the East Ghor Canal Project.1 The East Ghor Canal Authority was set up to implement the law and in 1966, a new body of much wider scope, the NRA, was formed to take its place. Laws 31 of 1962 and 1966 empower the Authority to take over all land benefiting from a major public irrigation work and to redistribute it according to certain principles and in plots of certain sizes. Minimum and maximum sizes are set, and the range is reasonable. The minimum, "about" 30 dunums of land of Class I and II, or 50 of Class III, assures the farmer of an income not out of line with the average income of the Jordanian individual, if not better, when citrus trees or bananas are planted. The maximum ownership was set at 200 dunums. A certain measure of differentiation in size of ownership was thus allowed to reflect the original size of ownership. This flexible approach avoided the imposition of strict egali- tarianism in one small area in the agricultural sector, when such egalitarianism was not imposed elsewhere; it also avoided the creation of a privileged class of land owners in the valley where productivity, thanks to irrigation, is much higher than in rain—fed areas elsewhere in the country. Area previously held was alloted according to the following scale: 1Law In of 1959, Law 13 of 1960 and the Ammended Law of 31 of 1962, Law 21 of 1963, Law 31 of 1964, Law 35 of 1965 and Law 37 of 1966. 237 Area alloted under the law to Area Previously Held Holders 30 - 50 Dunum To be alloted in full 51 -100 Dunum 50 dunum to be alloted. plus 25 per cent of area in excess of 50 dunums. 100-500 Dunum 62 dunum to be alloted plus 17 per cent of area in excess of 100 dunums. 500-1000 Dunum 130 dunum to be alloted plus 12 per cent of area in excess of 500 dunum. 100 and over In case where ownership previously was in plots smaller than 30 dunums. the Authority was required to sell or lease to the owner additional land to bring his total holding up to 30 dunums (if land was of Class I or II) or to 50 dunums (if land was of Class III). The most obvious aspects of East Ghor Canal laws have been land redistribu- tion. the promotion of family farms and the setting of a minimum size of holding. The pattern of ownership and of size of holding before and after application of these laws can be seen in Tables 38 and 39. The change is obvious. The distribution now has a much narrower range. roughly between 30 and 200 dunums. The most interesting aspect of the redistribution of land under the East Ghor Canal Laws is the coincidence of the mean and the mode. The mean 238 is just over #5 dunums and falls in the 30-50 dunum size group. which represents 7u.9 per cent of ownership and 5u.8 per cent of area owned. In reallocating the land in the project area. its value was assessed by committees set up under the law. The assessment took into account improvements and investments made by the owner. the planting of trees and any irrigation work done earlier by him. The new value was also set. in- cluding the right to water. The balance was registered to the debit of the landowner or to his credit. as the case may be. Settlement of the balance was to be effected in ten annual installments subject to interest at four per cent. Law 35 of 1965 raised the settlement period to 20 years if the landowner owed money to the Authority. pro- vided no installment was less than JD 50. plus four per cent interest. If the Authority owed money. then it was to continue to settle in ten annual installments. The accounts between the Authority and landholders as of end of May 1967 were as follows: JD Million Value of capital assests and water rights taken over by the East Ghor Canal Authority 8.75 Value of land and water rights re- maining with original owners 6.40 239 Capital value owed by new holders 2.35 Capital value owed by Authority to old holders 2.28 Installments paid by new holders 0.21 Installments paid by Authority to old holders 1.25 Selection of farmers was made under Law 31 of 1962 according to a system of priorities. Priority was given to holders who exploit their lands themselves and then to professional farmers residing in the project area. Professional farmers residing in the project area. Pro- fessional farmers from among district inhabitants and from other districts were given lower priorities. and last priority was given to tenants in the project area. The priority scale thus gives preference for professional farmers over holders who are non-operators themselves. Prior to 1962. non-operator holders had second priority. Another principle embodied in the law is the con- trol of the use of water through a charge which rises with increased water consumption. The rates. however. are so low that income from water charges in 1966 (JD 86.000) failed to cover administrative expenses alone for the year (JD 90,000). What in effect is a very radical break with tra- ditional and legal principle regarding inheritance has been incorporated into the law. This relates to the pro- 'vision that farm units may not be fragmented to a size 240 smaller than the minimum area of 30 dunums. It is note— worthy that this provision created no resistance. The adoption of a similar principle in other areas in the country and a properly adopted application may offer practical means towards meeting the serious problem of fragmentation. However. this provision has not been ap- plied rigorously in the East Ghor Canal area itself. The last observation to be made refers to the consciousness expressed. originally in Law 14 of 1959 which set up the Authority and later in Law 13 of 1960. of the importance of combining irrigation and land redistri- bution with the provision of technical. financial and ex- tension services. To this end. the law stipulated that the Authority set up social and economic programs of com- munity development. This was amended in Law 31 of 1962 to the effect that the Authority. in co-operation with the various Ministries and competent authorities. would pro- vide orientation and help in the various technical. eco- nomic. social. financial and health fields. The Authority is further empowered to undertake. within its means. any actions relating to agricultural loans. formation of co- operative societies. processing and marketing. extension services. soil conservation. setting up of model farms and general improvement of farming techniques and practices. 2Ul There is a notable change in this respect in Law 37 of 1966. To avoid duplication of functions with Minis- tries and other public agencies, the law changed the empha- sis in the assignments set for the Authority to undertake. Instead of stating that the Authority ". . . is empowered, in collaboration with Ministries and Departments . . . ," the new law states that "the Ministries and Departments are required in collaboration with the NRA. . . . " The shift in emphasis aims at efficient operation and the avoidance of wasteful duplication of effort. Some doubt arises with regard to the effect of certain changes that were introduced between the original piece of legislation, Number 1“ of 1959 and the latest, Number 37 of l966—-changes that involved major issues. These issues are: definition of "holder," "family," area of ”unit," maximum area allowed to holder and to family and in fact, the strict adherence to the provisions of whatever law was at the time in effect. The practical effect of changes in the law has been a general relaxation in the rules determining beneficiaries and areas assigned to them. 242 .HMCMo name one Eopn wopmwnppfi on op Unoa mo pfleflfi manponpsom pmoe onp ma >po©n50n onp npsom onp Cw ”po>wm nonnOh cno n305nm» one cnm Hmnmo sono vmom onw nooapon mnflza mvnma nonpo Ham mowsaonfl moon pan .SOQnmmzuH< n“ Unma man no opmpm one an gonzo cnma mo Esnsv omam: ovsaonw P.2moon mono Hmpop one .uovvo cszaoo smog :.m>o>nsm Unm mvnmq mo Psosvpmmoa: wcflon mm ho>psm CH wopmoHUcH oopzom .mma .9 .mo oanme .Hwoa .nmEE< .Ho>psm ofiEonoom Ucm Hmfloom n JmoHHm> chpOb pmmm one .oowpmwpmpm mo Pnoevummooa smma 0.0 osmma m.o OH coon no>o Hmo m.ma omsam 0.0 mm oooa-aom can m.om cams: 0.0 mmm oomuaoa um m.o came H.m mad ooa-os on n.3m omomm o.mm mow msuom 3N s.m osom m.os mum mm-om 3H moo ommm m.ma mos mH-OH s m.m comm s.mm moma mus Esnsm oop< Hopoe Esnzo oop< Hopop one mo ponssz 55:30 manmponzo pnoo pom pnoo pom mfinmponao no oufim mo oop< owmno>¢ wonzo mou< mpoczocnoq mo ponesz Hooma Nana smop< poowosm Hmcmo Mono pmom Cw osflm an mflnwpoCSo ccma mo nowpsnfippmfio mm oanme Table 39 Distribution of Land Ownershiplin East Ghor Canal Project Area After the Reallocation of Land Number of Landowners Area Owned Size of Per cent Ownership of Area Per cent Dunum Number Total angm Total 30-50 1006 74.9 3&860 54.8 51-62 128 9.1 7uao 11.8 63-130 195 14.0 16230 25.5 131-200 19 1.0 3070 u.8 Over 200 ___§ _g,6 _lgzg .211 Total 1396 100.0 63600 100.0 lSweilem M. Haddad. "Principles and procedures used in planning and execution of the East Ghor Irrigation Project." paper presented to the International conference on Water for Peace. Washington. May 21-31. 1967. This land ownership covers only 22 out of 2b development areas. having a total area of 6300 dunums or 52 per cent of 12.000 dunums of the project area. The remaining area of the project is almost completely allot- ed to new farmers but the kind ownership classification records were not ready at the time of preparing the paper for the conference. It is noteworthy that 2158 holders had owned farm units smaller than the minimum holding allowed under the law in the farm of joint ownership through inheritance or addi- tions. Due to the shortage of lands and to the great number of original holders. involved and in order to avoid displace- ment of these holders. the original law was modified to re- duce the maximum limit of ownership from 500 to 200 dunums. The priority scale in the selection of farmers was likewise changed. so that professional farmers in the project area were given priority over absentee holders or those who uti- lize their land by lease or sharecropping. As such. a total area of 1,973.50 dunums of the project was alloted in the form of farm units shared by more than one holder. 22m The East Ghor Reform The Jordan Government has already taken a bold step in the direction of land reform in the newly completed East Ghor project area which covers 12.000 dunums. Land has been acquired by the government and redistributed to farmers under Law 31 of 1962 and 37 of 1966. A reasonable compensation has been paid to the landowners. The value of the land is estimated according to the class of land at current prices. disregarding any appreciation in value from the construction of the project. To these is added the value of customary water rights as well as that of build- ings. trees. etc. The assessment is done according to Article 14 of the East Ghor Canal law by a land Evaluation Committee presided over by a judge. and the evaluation is subject to appeal. The value is payable in ten years. (Extended to 20 years in 1965) and bears interest of four per cent. The area thus taken over is redistributed with a minimum of 30 dunums (3 ha) and a maximum of 200 dunums (20ha). The formula on which the distribution is to be made is given in Article VIII of the law. It is interest- ing to note that the law lays down: ”Under no circumstances may any farm unit be divided or parcelled into several units the size of which is less than the minimum fixed in this paragraph." 245 This provision which is a radical break with tradition and legal principle regarding inheritance has been applied without creating great resistance. It must be said. however. that by far the larger part of the area affected had not been under cultivation only a few years earlier. The East Ghor Canal experience has been demon- strably successful in spite of gaps in the strict applica- tion of the principles governing the selection of farmers who are to benefit from land redistribution. and governing the limitation of size of ownership. Consequently. change in the provisions of the present law -- in so far as bene- ficiaries and area of units are concerned -- should only be undertaken after enough time has passed for considera- tion. However. more rigorous application of the law ought to be sought in any further extension of its application to new areas. There is great merit in having a separate body to manage the East Ghor Canal area. if not an autonomous authority then an identifiable unit in the present NRA. The area should be considered a crucial controlled experi- ment that needs special attention and observation since the results will greatly influence other larger areas to 246 be irrigated in the future. The efficient use of the various technical. economic. and social services. in co- ordination with the land redistribution and irrigation aspects of the project. requires treatment of the area as one unit under identifiable authority and management. CONCLUSIONS As is clear from the foregoing discussion, Jordan is a country of limited resources. Of the total land area only a small portion can be considered as cultivable and less than 10 percent of this is irrigated. Agriculture is still the most important sector of the economy, contributing about 17 percent of the gross national product and employing 35 percent of the labor force. Over three quarters of the population live directly or indirectly from agriculture. Non—irrigated agriculture relies on unreliable rainfall and therefore has been subject to great fluctuations in the past. JExtention of agriculture to new lands is unlikely except 1with irrigation. A number of irrigation schemes have been built or éare in the process of being built. The purpose of these Eschemes is to expand irrigation to new areas especially Zin.the Jordan River Valley. Of these the most outstanding Inas been the building of the East Ghor Canal using water ifrom the Yarmouk River and from the side-wadis of the east- eern highlands of Jordan. Irrigation from the Jordan River has been practiced fiLn the Jordan Valley for a long time. The same is also true C>f some areas along the side wadis. The overall irrigation 21.7 248 plans called for further extension of the East Ghor Canal at the foot of the mountains of the eastern highlands to ir— rigate areas lying to the west between the canal and the River Jordan which cannot be irrigated from the River Jordan. The waters of the Yarmouk are insufficient in the summer months, therefore, a supplementary source is needed. The dams on the side wadis are used to regulate the flow of these wadis and to store water to be fed into the canal when- ever needed. The Ziglab Dam has been completed while work on the others was stopped by the 1967 Arab-Israeli war. The first stage of the overall plan has been the completion of 70 kilometers of the East Ghor Canal extending from the Yar- Inouk on the north to the Zerqa River to the south. It is recommended here that the prOposed 8 kilometer (extension of the canal should be constructed as soon as pos- tsible. The government should also reconsider the Baker- Iflarza recommendation for further extension of the Canal to 1the Dead Sea. Furthermore, the government should commence ‘bhe building of the second stage of Yarmouk—Jordan project. TIhis involves the building of a West Ghor Canal west of the IBiver Jordan with a syphon connecting it to the East Ghor (Banal in order to irrigate areas west of' the River Jordan eexpecially around the city of Jericho. The building of dams on the side wadis should be sapeeded up. As has been pointed out the purpose of these Clams is to irrigate more areas in the valleys themselves and 249 to supply the East Ghor Canal with more water during periods of shortage. The watersheds of rivers especially where dammed would be better managed by planting grasses and trees on the slopes and not allowing goats or sheep to graze in these areas, leading to erosion and hence filling of dams with silt. The Forestry department at the Ministry of Agriculture has em- barked on a forestation program in the water shed areas of the dams. Most officials have complained that not enough money is being appropriated for this program. The dam could become filled with silt befpre the forestation of the watershed area is ever completed. The management of the East Ghor Canal in its technical and administrative aSpects is very satisfactory, but it is less so in its legal and economic aspects. The suggestions made here have for aim the improvement of the situation both with regard to the East Ghor Canal and to any new areas that will come later under irrigation in the Jordan Valley. The following recommendations start, therefore, from the position that the basis is worthy of being built upon else- where in the country, subject to the suggestions that follow. The minimum size of farms of 30 or 40 dunums is justified by the heavy pressure of population on land and the very small holdings existing elsewhere as well as by income expectations from such a size. No very wide dif- ferential ought to be allowed among the size of holdings by groups of land—owners in different parts of the country. 250 The maximum size, on the other hand, ought to be no more than 200 dunums. This limit is justified by the fertility of irrigated land in the Jordan Valley and the need to observe social considerations by not allowing a highly privileged landowner class to emerge. The distribution of farm plots in the East Ghor Canal area is satisfactory and should be extended to other existing or planned irrigation areas. Land redistribution in non—irrigated areas may follow the same principles. The minimum and maximum holdings should be determined in the light of local conditions, type of land, the level of family income, and other relevant considerations. Along with limitation of landownership, adequate economic and technical services should be provided in terms of marketing, cooperation, extension and agricultural credit. The purpose of any new legislation concerning land redistribution should be the stoppage of fragmentation, in name as well as in effect. The setting of minimum sizes should be based on correct and detailed studies keeping in mind that the fewest possible number of farmers should be forced to give up farming. Urban areas are already overcrowded and jobs are scarce. Special studies will have to made if we are to generalize land reforms. The aspect of redistribution of land and limitation of the size of holdings will lose much of its reality if the law is not observed concerning the definition of the "family". The definition should not be allowed to become loose. Further- more, the law should be amended in such a way so as to cover 251 problems of inheritance and settlement of disputes between contending heirs. The definition of "professional farmer" should be extended to include agricultural engineers, extension agents, and other persons similarly qualified. The purpose is to welcome into the valley agricultural technicia 8 whose farming practice would have a valuable demonstration effect. The law ought to be amended in such a way as to permit sale, under strict specified conditions, of farm units. The sale should only be allowed to single (not joint) holders. The law should also be made clear as to the relationship of the tenants and landlords especially absentee landlords. The law should Specify terms of settlement on the merits of the Owing to the hardships imposed on the new holder when he is asked to begin paying installments for the farm unit right after allotment, it is hereby recommended that a period of grace of few years be allowed before the first installment falls due, after when the account must be settled within the balance of the 20 years which the law requires. This will allow farmers to be established and avoid borrowing from money lenders. The experience of the East Ghor Canal area suggests that any land reform measure undertaken elsewhere in the country ought to be closely tied to the provision of the services that are needed for rural develOpment. This would need activation of these services as well as the coordination of the efforts 252 of their respective administration. The most prevalent form of settlement in the newly irrigated areas has been the village type of settle— ment, which was found to be better than the scattered type. Services are easier and cheaper to provide for people in a village than in scattered settlements. It is also easier to dissiminate information and ideas to a group. The administration of the East Ghor Canal or any newly irrigated land should be placed under an autonomous authority, separate from the National Resources Authority as is done at present. The new Authority will devote more attention to the Project area in the technical-engineering, agricultural, economic, and social fields. In my view, the new authority should also participate only in the planning of all service work for the Project, extension, credit, cooperation, marketing, researchand the like. It is also recommended that farmers be represented in planning com— mittees. Their function however should not exceed the advisory. The whole valley should also be made into one administrative district. The area presently falls under the Districts of Jerusalem, Nablus, Salt and Irbid. Farmers at present get as much water as they ask for. This is a serious matter because farmers will acquire a habit of obtaining great quantities of water without any consideration for situations when it may become necessary to limit or ration water. The absence of control may lead to the use of the wrong quantities for the crops planted. Finally, the lavish use of water by some careless farmers will deprive some others 253 whose needs are legitimate and justifiable, from part of their requests, in case total demand for water was nearing total availability. The farmers, therefore, should be trained in the careful utilization of water. Strict supervision should be applied over the ditchriders so that no irregul- arity may occur with regard tothe allocation of water. Like- wise, no leniency ought to be allowed in the case of farmers who make and use sluice keys to get water illegally. The current water rate is one fils. per cubic meter water for the first 2000 cubic meters, and two fils beyond that. The revenues at this rate falls short of the administrative expenses, which would suggest that the water rates are too low. A further study is needed to determine the feasibility of increasing these rates. New farmers should also be trained in the ways of intensive farming and all aspects of irrigated farming. The Agricultural Credit Corporation and the Agricultural Cooperative So- cieties can apply decisive pressure to influence farmers to adopt any cropping pattern that may be deemed appropriate by the prOper agencies. Two combined centers should be established at Karamah in the south and at the North Shounah in the north in addition to the existing one at Wadi Yablis. The purpose of these centers is to bring together the representatives of several services involved in agriculture, cooperation, extension, credit, marketing, mechanization, etc. These 254 centers promote effectiveness, efficiency and economy together. Jordan has an archaic system of land tenure based on the old laws of land inheritance which has led to frag- mentation of property. This applies mostly to non-irrigated agricultural land. This system needs major revision. Newly irrigated lands are subject to new land tenure laws and all the reforms in the system have been applied to the irrigated areas in the Jordan Valley. These reforms have shown great promise if and when they are applied and carried through. The effects of the construction of irrigation schemes on the Jordan economy in general and agriculture in particular have been amply illustrated by the figures on pro- duction and income before and after the building of the canal. Net income per dunum of land in the project area was JD 13.6 during the orOp year 1965/66, as compared to JD 2.2, before the completion of the canal. This example is indicative of the great economic benefit that has resulted from the ir- rigation project. A sustained period of continous irrigation in the project area during the last five years, improved farming and irrigation practices, proper use of fertilizer and im- proved credit and marketing conditions have resulted ina measurable impact. Trends in agricultural production and naturally in income from the pre—canal to the post-canal period show the economic impact of the East Ghor Irrigation project on the Jordanian economy. Whether this economic 255 impact will continue to develop as rapidly as hoped rests on several factors. One is the continuing availability of irrigation water and the avoidance of soil salinization. On the human side, the continuance of Arab-Israeli hostilities will clearly have a very serious inhibiting effect. Even if hostilities cease, the problems of increasing population, lack of technically trained personnel, strict implementation of the laws, and better management of the project have to be overcome. The realization that their political and economic future is at stake has accentuated the desire of the Jor- danian people to ensure the success of their irrigation policy. The possibilities of failure are too serious to contemplate. WORKS CITED Awartani. H.. Progress Appraisal of the East Ghor Rural Development Project. The Cooperative Institute. 1968. Baker. M.. Jr.. Inc. Rochester. Pennsylvania. and Harza Engineering Company. Chicago. Illinois. Yarmouk- Jordan Valley ProjectL_Master Plan Report. Eight Volumes. 1955. Booher. L.. J.. Surface Irrigation. Land and Water Development Division. FAO. 1967. Dajani. N.. Jordan Valley_Land Tenure Survey. UNRWA. 1956. Dar-Al-Handasah Consulting Engineers. Beirut. Netherlands Engineering Consultants (NEDECO). The Hague. Jordan River and Tributaries Regional Corporation. Jordan Valley Project Agro and Socio-Economic Study. Final Report. Volume 3. Annexes H. I. J. K. L. and M. 1967. Department of Statistics. 1953 Census of Aggiculture. Department of Statistics Press. Amman. Jordan. A Social and Economic Survey. the East Jordan Valle . Department of Statistics. Amman. Jordan 1961. 1960 Ponulation Census. Department of Statistics Press. Amman. Jordan. 1961. Statistical Yearbooks. 1953-1967. Department of Statistics. Amman. Jordan. Statistical Guide to Jordan. No. 3. Department of Statistics Press. Amman. Jordan. 1965. Report on Agricultural Census 1965. Department of Statistics Press. Amman. Jordan. 1967. Agricultural Sample Survey 1967. Department of Statistics Press. Amman. Jordan. 1968. 256 257 Department of Statistics. Population and Labor Force in the Agricultural Sector. Department of Statistics Press. Amman. Jordan. 1968. East Ghor Canal Authority. Monthlngrogress Reports on The East Ghor Canal. 1960-1965. Amman. Jordan. Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations. Land Policy in the Middle East. FAO. 1961. Mediterranean Development Project. Jordan County Report. FAO. Rome. 1967. Gruenberg. F.. The Soils of Deir Alla. German Geological Mission in Jordan. 1965. Haddad, S.. Principles and Procedures Used in Planning and Execution of the East Ghor Irrigation Prgject. Natural Resources Authority. Amman, Jordan. 1967. Harzhbarger. J.. W.. Review and Analysis of Ground Water Studies and Development in Jordan. Report Nos. 1. 2. and 3. Tuscon. 1965. International Bank for Reconstruction and Development. The Economic Development of Jordan, the John Hopkins Press. Baltimore. 1957. Jordan Development Board, Jordanian Agriculture. A Series of Seminars Held at Jubeiha. Amman. 1963. Five Year Progpam for Economic Development. 1962- 1967. Jordan Development Board. Amman. Jordan. Seven Year Program for Economic Development, 1964— 1970. Jordan Development Board. Amman. Jordan. Long. 0.. A.. Bioclimatology and Vegetation of East Jordan. FAO Working Paper. 1957. MacDonald. M.. Sir. and Partners. East Bank Jordan Water Resources. Volume 2, East Ghor Side Wadis. Lion House. London. 1965. and Hunting Technical Services Ltd.. Wadi Dhuleil Investigation. London. 1965. Moorman. F.. Soils of East Jordan. FAO Studies. 1967. 258 Natur. F.. S.. Irrigation in Jordan. Land and Water Use in the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan. Natural Resources Authority. Amman. Jordan. 1969. Sossou. G.. Agricultural Production and Income in the East Ghor Canal Project Pre- and Post-Canal. United States Operations Mission to Jordan. 1967. United Nations Relief and Works Agency. Jordan Valley Agricultural Economic Survey. mimeographed, Amman. Jordan. 1953. Atlases and Maps Al—Shalash. A.. H.. Rainfall Atlas of the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan. Amman. Jordan. Geologic Maps of Jordan in the Geology of Jordan by G. Burdon. Amman. Jordan. Topographical Sheets of Jordan. Department of Lands and Surveys. Amman. Jordan. l ’J|1lu\’ljl.l\.(ll\l'l|l\l lll‘