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CHARACTERIZATION. GENESIS. AND MANAGEMENT OF SOILS
WITH CALCIUM CARBONATE-RICH HORIZONS
IN EAST-CENTRAL MICHIGAN

By

Shawel Haile-Mariam

A THESIS

Submitted to
Michigan State University
in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of

MASTER OF SCIENCE
Department of Crops and SoiT Science

1984

ABSTRACT
CHARACTERIZATION, GENESIS, AND MANAGEMENT OF SOILS

WITH CALCIUM CARBONATE-RICH HORIZONS
IN EAST-CENTRAL MICHIGAN

By

Shawel Haile-Mariam

Soils with carbonate-rich horizons were identified in Tuscola
County. Through field studies and laboratory analyses, the distribu-
tion of these soils in Tuscola, Bay, Saginaw, and Huron counties was
determined. The formation of the carbonate-rich horizons was investi-
gated and related management probelms were identified.

The carbonate-rich horizons are only found in Tuscola county.
In these horizons three terrestrial and thirteen aquatic species of
molluscs and one plant specie were identfied. The presence of shells
and the glacial history of the area suggest the calcium carbonate rich
horizons are geologic in origin. A limnic subgroup is proposed to
classify mineral soils with marl layers. Based on transect observa-
tions, Tappan soils occupy 70% of the Lenawee variant-Tappan complex
mapping units. Therefore, it is suggested this mapping unit be named
Tappan-Lewanee variant complex. Tappan soils had very high levels of
available phosphorus and relatively higher levels of extractable zinc

and manganese than Thomas and Lenawee variant soils.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The author wishes to express his sincere gratitude to
Dr. D. L. Mokma, the author's major professor for his guidance
help, constructive criticisms and his moral encouragement and support
throughout my educational process. His patience during the course of
this study is greatly appreciated.

The author also wishes to express his appreciation to his
other guidance committee members: Dr. H. D. Foth, Dr. L. Grahame,.
and Dr. L. S. Robertson for their cooperation and guidance.

Thanks are also extended to the Tuscola soil survey staff
members, especially to Mr. Ken Mettert and Mr. Marty Kroell who
provided invaluable assistance and technical advice in the field work.

Special thinks are also due to the land use planning project
of Ethiopia assisted by the FAD/UN, for providing the funds for the
author's course of study overseas.

The author also would like to thank George Vance for stimu-
lating discussions and strong friendship; and Barb Anderson for her
technical assistance and Wuleta Aklilu for typing the draft of this
paper.

Last, but not least, my mother and father, without whom some

of this would have been impossible.

ii

TABLE OF CONTENTS

LIST OF TABLES
LIST OF FIGURES .
Chapter
I. INTRODUCTION
II. LITERATURE REVIEW .

Calcic Horizons and Carbonate Morphology .

The System CaCO C02- H20 (Soil Carbonates).
The System MggO 3-C02- -H 0 . . .
The Relationship of Ca + Mg in Solution
Carbon dioxide in Natural Waters

Marl Formation . .

Formation of Calcic Horizon .

III. CHARACTERIZATION AND GENESIS OF SOILS WITH CARBONATE
RICH HORIZONS IN EAST CENTRAL MICHIGAN. . .

Introduction . . .
Materials and Methods .
Study Area .
Soils .
Field Methodology
Laboratory Analysis .
Results and Discussion .
Particle Size Distribution
Parent Material Homogeneity . .
Particle Size Distribution of Carbonates .
Organic Carbon
Calcium Carbonate
Shell Fragments . .
Genesis of Soils with Calcium .Carbonate Rich
Layers . . . . . . . .
Classification of Pedons
Mapping Unit Composition

iii

Page

vi

Chapter Page
IV. MANAGEMENT PROBLEMS ON SOILS WITH CALCIUM CARBONATE

RICH HORIZONS . . . . . 41
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
Procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
Results and Discussion . . . . . 44

Bulk Density and Hydraulic Conductivity . . . . 44
Soil Reaction . . . . 48
Cation Exchange Capacity and Base Saturation . . 48
Exchangeable Potassium . . . . . . . . . . 50
Exchangeable Magnesium . . . . . . . . . . 51
Exchangeable Calcium . . . . . . . . . 52
Calcium Carbonate Equivalent. . . . . . . . 53

Available Soil Phosphorus . . . . . . . . . 54
Extractable Zinc . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
Extractable Manganese . . . . . . . . 56
Suggestions to Improve Management . . . . . . 59

V. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS . . . . . . . . . . . 61
APPENDICES -. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64

A. Profile Descriptions . . . . . . . 65
3, Calcium Carbonate Equivalents Determined . . . . . 76

REFERENCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85

iv

Table

0‘ 01 -§ 00 N
o o o o o

10.

11.

LIST OF TABLES

Particle-size distribution, organic carbon, and
inorganic carbon contents (%) . . . . .

Silt and sand ratios of nonclay fractions .
Molluscs identified in the study areas

Glacial lakes that have covered the study area
Classification of soil series . . . . .

Particle size distribution, hydraulic conductivity, and
bulk density . . . . . . . . . . .

Chemical analysis of 5 pedons sampled

Phosphorus (P205) recommendations for corn, sugarbeets, :

and dry beans on mineral soils . . . .

Potassium (K20) recommendations for corn, sugarbeets,
and dry beans on mineral soils . . . . . .

Manganese fertilizer needs as indicated by soil tests
(O.1N Hcl extractable) for responsive crops

Zinc fertilizer needs for mineral soils as indicated by

soil tests (0.1N HCl extractable) for responsive crops .

Page

24
26
33
36
43

47
51

54

59

6O

60

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure Page
1. Location of the study area . . . . . . . . . . 19
2. Soil map of the study area: (a) North Akron and

(b) Gilford Townships . . . . . . . . 22
3. Particle size distribution of fine earth carbonate . . 28

4. CaCO3 equivalent of the five pedons . . . . . . .. 30

5. Stages in the formation of landscape and soils in the
study area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4O

6. Soil bulk density of the five pedons . . . . . . . 46
7. Hydraulic conductivity of the five pedons . . . . . 67

vi

CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

Calcic horizons usually occur at some depth in soils in the
arid and semiarid regions of the world. The finding of soils with
calcic horizons in the upper 50 sun of humid Saginaw Valley soils
which receive an average of 762 mm/yr (30 inches) of precipitation
was unexpected.

Calcic horizons had not been identified in Michigan until the
Tuscola County soil survey team began investigating some mapping units
as to the variability of crop yields in the northwestern part of the
country. Four pedons were described and sampled in the mapping units.
Two were classified as Calciaquolls and two as Haplaquolls (Mausbach,
1982). These soils are found in association with Haplaquolls on
nearly level terrain or in slight depressions on the glacial lake
plain of Saginaw Bay.

The dominant crops grown in these soils were corn, sugar beets,
and dry beans. However, their growth is stunted and yields are low.
Plant chlorosis, phosphorus and micronutrient deficiencies are
common. With good management, higher yields have been produced.

There are several accepted theories on the formation of calcic hori-
zons in arid and semiarid areas; however, in humid regions, there are

only a few theories.

This study was undertaken to determine the distribution of
soils with carbonate-rich horizons, to characterize pedons of
Calciaqudlls and Haplaquolls, to investigate the formation of the

carbonate-rich horizons and to identify the management problems.

CHAPTER II
LITERATURE REVIEW

Calcic Horizons and Carbonate Morphology
The accumulation of secondary calcium carbonate or of calcium
and magnesium carbonate in a soil profile is defined as Calcic
horizons, if they meet specific carbonate content criteria (Soil
Survey Staff, 1975). Calcic horizons are found in humid, semi-arid,
and arid regions of the world. Although soils with calcic horizons
are common in many areas of the world, they are characteristic of
arid and semiarid regions. The term caliche, croute calcaire for
the hardened caliche, and calcisols are alternating terms in old lit-
erature for calcic horizon.
Soil Survey Staff (1975) points out that calcic horizons have
two forms:
In one the underlying materials have less carbonate than the
calcic horizon. Ths form of calcic horizon includes horizons
of secondary carbonate enrichment that are 15 cm (6 inches) or
more thick, have a carbonate content equivalent to 3.15 per-
cent CaCo , and have a.Ca CO3 equivalent at least 5 percent
greater tfian C horizon. In the other form, the calcic hori-
zon is 15 cm or more thick, has a CaCO3 equivalent 3 15
percent and contains 1 5 percent, by volume, of identifiable
secondary carbonates as pendants on pebbles, concretions,
or soft powdery forms. If this calcic horizon rests on
limestone, marl, or other very highly calcareous materials
(> 40 percent CaC03 equivalent), the percentage of carbon-
ates need not decrease with depth.
The 15 percent requirement for CaCO3 is waived if_the text-

ural class is sandy, sandy-skeletal, coarse-loamy, or loamy-skeletal

3

4

with less than 18% clay. However, to be considered as a calcic
horizon, the horizon must have at least 5% (by volume) more soft
powdery secondary calcium carbonate than an underlying horizon, and
the calcic horizon must be at least 15 cm thick.

Calcic horizons range widely in carbonate content, bulk
density, consistency, texture, and manner of carbonate occurrence. -
Some calcic horizons are soft, others are extremely hard, and some are
indurated (Gile, 1961). Roots and fluids penetrate some Ca horizons
rather easily, but not other calcic horzons. Calcic horizons become
hard and strongly indurated with maturity (Price, 1933). Calcium and
aluminum silicates were more abundant near the upper surface, making
up as much as 10 to 15% of the total, and the silicates were thought
to be responsible for the hardness (Shreve and Mallory, 1933).

In New Mexico soils Gile (1961) illustrated two basic occur-
rences of carbonate: (1) carbonate distributed throughout a horizon,
which probably encompasses the Nfinely disseminated? carbonate noted
by Harper (1957) in other western U.S. soils; and (2) carbonate segre-
gated within a horizon, which consists of concentrations of carbonate
separated by the soil matrix. Indurated and nonindurated nodules and
concretions fall in the segregated category, and have been described
by many workers (Gile, 1961; Gile et al., 1966; Sehgal and Straps, 1972;
Soil Survey Staff, 1975). Joffe (1949) stated that the more compact,
hardened concretions in Chernozems (Mollisols) formed in worm and
spider channels. Cylindrical nodules in old cicada burrows in New
Mexico were noted by Gile et al. (1966). Micromorphologically, the

above carbonate forms would be included in Brewer's (1976) glaebules;

glaebules commonly include part of the soil matrix, indicating an
in situ origin (Soil Survey Staff, 1951; Brewer, 1976). If acid-
insoluble residues of carbonate nodules approximate the same sand and
silt contents as the carbonate-free soil matrix, then such assays
provide further evidence of the in situ, pedogenic origin carbonates.

Other segregated carbonate forms include: (1) threads, webs,
or filaments that result from carbonate deposition along soil pores;
and (2) channels, seams, viens, and ped coatings of carbonate (Gillam,
1937; Joffe, 1949; Soil Survey Staff, 1951; Harper, 1957; Gile, 1961;
Peterson et al., 1966). The micromorphological equivalents are Brewer's
calcans and crystallaria (Brewer, 1976).

Mircomorphological analysis of carbonate morphology can be
particularly useful in evaluating the conditions of carbonate pre-
cipitation. Folk (1974) indicates that fine-grained micrite is
characteristic of rapid precipitation, as by dessication, while in
more dilute conditions such as beneath a water table, coarse-grained
(>4pm) carbonate is formed, often via recrystallization.from finer-
grained precursor carbonate. Sehgal and Stoops (1972) noted a dis-
tinct correlation between soils influenced by shallow fluctuating
water tables, and the presence of compound carbonate-sesquioxidic
nodules and associated neoferrans (segregated iron). Thus, carbonate
morphology can be a particularly useful tool in evaluating the genesis
of the soils in the absence of biogenic carbonate forms, such as
coral or mollusk shells, and the lack of fossils of organisms.

Several studies indicate that carbonates of clay and silt size

are more comon in. horizons of secondary accumulation (Harper, 1957;

6

Redmond and McClelland, 1959; Rostad and St. ArnaUd, 1970; Wilding
et al., 1971). Carbonate particle size depth functions are useful
indicators of secondary carbonate precipitation.

A number of workers have shown that calcic horizons exhibit
varying degrees of expression or stages of development (Redmond and
McClelland, 1959; Gile, 1961; Arkley, 1963; Rostad and St. Arnaud,
197D; Birkeland, 1974; Soil Survey Staff, 1975). Gile (1961), in a
study in New Mexico, classified Ca horizons from weak to very strong
on the basis of unconfined compressive strength, carbonate content,
bulk density, and infiltration rate. Bulk density and unconfined
compressive strength increased with carbonate content, while infiltra-
tion rate decreased.

Gile et al. (1961) depicted two "morphogentic" sequences for
these same soils, one for gravelly soils and one for nongravelly soils.
The sequences ranged from minimal development on the youngest geomor-
phic surface (stage I) to petrocalcic horizons on the oldest surfaces
(stage IV). The latter stages were termed K horizons, a term proposed
by Gile et al. (1965) for carbonate enriched horizons, in which fine
grained secondary carbonates separate primary skeletal grains. A
similar phenomena was noted by Gouide (1972) in calcrete (caliche)
deposits.

Harper (1957) rated soils with carbonate accumulations as
minimal, medial, or maximal. In South Texas, along bottoms and
terraces of the Rio Grande River, Hawker (1927) described five stages
of carbonate accumulation in soils. The degree or amount of accumu-

lation increased as land surfaces became older, culminating in

7

indurating caliche (petrocalcic horizons). In the three development
stages proposed by Sehgal and Stoops (1972), indurated nodules and
fine-grained carbonate were characteristic of the most advanced stage
of development, as was the development of a K-fabric. In general, it
appears that extensive carbonate impregnation of the soil matrix and
more numerous carbonate nodules are typical of advanced stages of

carbonate accumulation.

The System CaCQg - C02 - H29 (Soil Carbonates)
The chemical system of CaCO3, C02, and H20 has been studied
extensively. The chemical reaction for this system is given by

Miller (1952), Birkeland (1974), and Bohn et al. (1979) as follows:

+
pa2 + co2 + H20 = CaCO3 + 2H+ (1)

Calcium and magnesium carbonates may be used interchangeably in these
equations.

Alkaline conditions favor CaCO3 by consuming H+ and driving
the reaction to the right. A decrease in partial pressure of CO2
results in carbonate precipitation while an increase favors carbonate

dissolutions.

2+

CaCO3 + co2 + H20 = Ca + 2Hco3 (2)

Biological oxidation of organic matter leads to an increase
in C02 partial pressure of the soil air, which promotes carbonate

dissolution in upper soil horizons (Birkeland, 1974). The solubility

8

of CaCO3 depends on temperature and C02 pressure in equilibrium.with
water. At constant temperature and increasing C02 pressure, the solu-
bility of CaCO3 increases; whereas with constant C02 pressure and
increasing temperatures the solubility of CaCO3 is low. For example,
it has been observed that at a temperature of approximately 300°C,
calcite is less soluble in.pure water than is quartz (Miller, 1952).
Increase in temperature results in decreased carbonate dissolution
because the solubility ofCO2 in water decreases with increasing tem-

+ .
2 concentrat1ons and

perature. In soils, the relatively high Ca
limited water contents tend to force reaction (I) to completion and
to repress reaction (2). At a lower pH CaCO3 dissolves by reversing
equation (1).

Evaporation has little or no effect on the precipitation of
CaCO3. Van Hook (1937) concluded that the rate of evaporation, even

in an atmosphere of zero relative humidity, was not rapid enough to

have significant effect on precipitation.

The System MgCO3 - C02 - H20

 

The solubility of magnesium carbonate in water is related to
C02 pressure is qualitatively similar to calcium carbonate. At con-
stant temperature, the solubility of MgCO3 increases with an increase
in C02 pressure, and at constant C02 Pressure the solubility decreases

with increasing temperature (Faust, 1949).

The Relationship of Ca + Mgin Solution
It has already been stated that the solubility of calcium and
magnesium carbonate is qualitatively related. They are not, however,

equally soluble in a given water solution. For example, at C02 pressure

of one atmosphere and a temperature of 19.5°C MgCO3 - H20 is soluble
to the extent of 42.3 grams per liter, while only 1.08 grams of calcium
carbonate per liter are soluble at a C02 pressure of one atmosphere
and a temperature of 18°C (Faust, 1949).

The data show that a magnesium-rich solution may be derived
from a solution of calcium and magnesium in equilibrium with C02.
Data from Faust (1949) clearly showed the process. Natural waters,
rich in calcium and magnesium first showedadecrease in calcium con-
tent because of the lower solubility of CaC03, compared to MgC03
(Faust, 1949; Freeze et al., 1979).

Many natural waters are supersaturated with respect to CaC03
(as calcite). This apparent high solubility of CaCO3 is greater than
that predicted by equilibria equations, even taking into account dis-
solved C02 levels (Krauskopf, 1967). This phenomena has also been
noted with soil carbonates. Olsen and Watanabe (1959) found that solu—
tions equilibrated with calcareous soils had a greater solubility for
the soil carbonates than solutions in equilibrium with pure calcite.
They postulated that an unstable phrase of CaCO3 that is more soluble
than calcite was present controlling solution equilibrium; Mg-
substituted calcite was suggested as one possible unstable phase.
Suarez (1977), in an investigation of ion activity products of Ca++
and C03" in water under irrigated soils known to contain calcite,
also found a greater solubility of soil carbonate than would be
expected were calcite or even aragonite the controlling phase; in.fact,
the waters were in equilibrium with known.crystalline form of CaC03.

They discounted Mg-substitution in calcite as a factor, however, and

of one atmosphere and a temperature of 19.5°C M9003 — H20 is soluble
to the extent of 42.3 grams per liter, while only 1.08 grams of calcium
carbonate per liter are soluble at a C02 pressure of one atmosphere
and a temperature of 18°C (Faust, 1949).

The data show that a magnesium-rich solution may be derived
from a solution of calcium and magnesium in equilibrium with C02.
Data from Faust (1949) clearly showed the process. Natural waters,
rich in calcium and magnesium first showeda decrease in calcium con-
tent because of the lower solubility of CaCO3, compared to MgC03
(Faust, 1949; Freeze et al., 1979).

Many natural waters are supersaturated with respect to CaCO3
(as calcite). This apparent high solubility of CaC03 is greater than
that predicted by equilibria equations, even taking into account dis-
solved C02 levels (Krauskopf, 1967). This phenomena has also been
noted with soil carbonates. Olsen and Watanabe (1959) found that solu-
tions equilibrated with calcareous soils had a greater solubility for
the soil carbonates than solutions in equilibrium with pure calcite.
They postulated that an unstable phrase of CaCO3 that is more soluble
than calcite was present controlling solution equilibrium; Mg-
substituted calcite was suggested as one possible unstable phase.
Suarez (1977), in an investigation of ion activity products of Ca++
and C03-" in water under irrigated soils known to contain calcite,
also found a greater solubility of soil carbonate than would be
expected were calcite or even aragonite the controlling phase; in fact,
the waters were in equilibrium with known.crystalline form of CaC03.

They discounted Mg-substitution in calcite as a factor, however, and

10

.‘

cited surface poisoning of calcite crystal growth by polysaccharides
and possible nonequilibrium conditions as explanations. The above
studies indicate that a number of carbonate minerals may exist in

soils in addition to calcite, which is commonly reported.

Carbon-dioxide in Natural Waters

There are several processes which tend either to enrich or
deplete the amount of carbon dioxide in natural waters. The atmosphere
contains carbon dioxide to the extent of 0.03 percent by volume or
approximatley 300 ppm. Falling rain entrains and adsorbs this carbon
dioxide in excess in the normal atmospheric concentration. Dissolved
lair may contain as much as 2.14 percent or 21,400 ppm 002 at 20°C
(Clarke, 1924). Miller (1952) stated that ground water in the vadose
zone may attain a high CO2 content due to soil bacterial actions. The
soil air frequently has a C02 pressure more than 100 times that of
the atmosphere, due primarily to the root respiration and microbical
decay of organic matter (Bohn et al., 1979).

The several phenomena which tend to deplete the C02 content of
natural waters are photosynthesis, agitation of the water, and increas-0
ing temperature (Miller, 1952). The role of photosynthesis is an
important aspect to be considered in the precipitation of calcium
carbonate.

Miller (1952) estimated that rain water in equilibrium with
the atmosphere could dissolve 0.044 grams of calcium carbonate per
liter at 25°C. This would mean that each inch of rain which fell on

a limestone area could dissolve 3J1tons of CaCO3 per square mile.

11

Water at 0°C and in equilibrium with the atmosphere could dissolve
0.081 grams of CaCO3 per liter, or nearly twice as much as rain water
at 25°C.

Ground water is more complex chemically than rain water
because of the presence of materials such as organic acids dissolved
from soils during percolation. Most ground water contains less than
200ppm of calcium carbonate, though in some cases, it may contain as
much as 400ppm. A C02 pressure 300 times greater than that prevailing
in the atmosphere would be necessary to maintain this concentration of

calcium carbonate in solution (Miller, 1952).

Marl Formation

Limestone and marl are formed by precipitation of calcium
carbonate or of calcium and magnesium carbonate just as are calcic
horizons (Soil Survey Staff, 1975).

Bergquist et al. (1932) defined marl as a loosely consoli-
dated earthy material composed largely of calcium carbonate. It is
essentially a form of limestone which has undergone partial consoli-
dation, but it varies considerably in composition from one deposit
to another and often within different portions of the same bed.
Deposits of marl are widely scattered in the region of the Great
Lakes, extending through Canada .and southward into the states of
Michigan, Wisconsin, and Minnesota and also the northern parts of
Indiana, Illinois, and Ohio.

Some of the early work was done by Bergquist (1932) in Michigan.

He has observed and described the formation of marl primarily by

12

chemical precipitation and accumulation by plants and animals. As

the lime-charged waters flow naturally into the basins or depressions,
some of the carbon dioxide is liberated and insoluble calcium car-
bonate is precipitated and deposited on the floors of swamps, lakes,
and stream channels as marl. In some areas precipitation is generally
assumed to result from the utilization of carbon-dioxide in photo-
synthesis. The chemical precipitation of calcium carbonate from the
waters of swamps, lakes, and streams has been greatly aided by the
growth and activity of certain types of plants and animals. Similarly,
many of the lower forms of animal life inhabiting lime-impregnated
waters accumulate lime which, in turn, deposited on the floor of the
lake or swamp when they die (Bergquist et al., 1932). This is evidenced
by the numerous fragments and shells of molluscs and other shell-forming
animals found in many of the marl deposits. The wide distribution of
these animal and plant remains in marl beds of Michigan indicate that

organic agencies have been active in their formation-

Formation of Calcic Horizon

Calcium carbonates in soil may be either geologic or pedogenic’
(Birkeland, 1974). Differentiation between these origins within a
soil is not easy and was not studied in detail. Determination of the
solubility of calcium carbonate in the laboratory or in the field
(Olsen and Watanabe, 1959; Plummer and Wigley, 1976; Suarez, 1977) did
not differentiate between the detrital and pedogenic carbonates,
although it may be expected that they react differently in soil

processes. For instance, the rate of dissolution is known to be

12

chemical precipitation and accumulation by plants and animals. As

the lime-charged waters flow naturally into the basins or depressions,
some of the carbon dioxide is liberated and insoluble calcium car-
bonate is precipitated and deposited on the floors of swamps, lakes,
and stream channels as marl. In some areas precipitation is generally
assumed to result from the utilization of carbon-dioxide in photo-
synthesis. The chemical precipitation of calcium carbonate from the
waters of swamps, lakes, and streams has been greatly aided by the
growth and activity of certain types of plants and animals. Similarly,
many of the lower forms of animal life inhabiting lime-impregnated
waters accumulate lime which, in turn, deposited on the floor of the
lake or swamp when they die (Bergquist et al., 1932). This is evidenced
by the numerous fragments and shells of molluscs and other shell-forming
animals found in many of the marl deposits. The wide distribution of
these animal and plant remains in marl beds of Michigan indicate that

organic agencies have been active in their formation-

Formation of Calcic Horizon

Calcium carbonates in soil may be either geologic or pedogenic'
(Birkeland, 1974). Differentiation between these origins within a
soil is not easy and was not studied in detail. Determination of the
solubility of calcium carbonate in the laboratory or in the field
(Olsen and Watanabe, 1959; Plummer and Wigley, 1976; Suarez, 1977) did
not differentiate between the detrital and pedogenic carbonates,
although it may be expected that they react differently in soil

processes. For instance, the rate of dissolution is known to be

13

affected by the presence of minor elements, such as Mg (Berner, 1975),
which are commonly found in the detrital carbonates, but sometimes
occur in pedogenic carbonates (Arnaud, 1979; Magritz and Kafri, 1979).
The pedogenic carbonates being relatively mgre concentrated in fine
grain fraction may dissolve at faster rates than the detrital carbon-
ates. The high specific surface of the pedogenic carbonates may lead
to greater reactivity and higher disoolution rates.

Several processes have been proposed to explain the formation
of calcic horizons, but they all have one factor in common: water.
One of the most important driving forces in soil development is water
movement (Barshad, 1964). Water has a particularly strong impact on
carbonate translocation because of the relatively soluble nature of
CaC03. The genetic mechanisms of calcic horizon formation involve
moisture movement, coupled with carbonate solution, translocation, and
reprecipitation.

One of the most commonly reported mechanisms for carbonate
enrichment is dissolution and leaching from the upper solum and subse-
quent precipitation'Hilower horizons. The carbonates may have been
inherited from the parent material (Sehgal and Stoops, 1972) or repre-
sent external additions, such as calcareous dust fall (Gile et al.,
1966) or result from synthesis from weathering products of Ca-bearing
minerals (Marbut, 1951; Harper, 1957; Birkeland, 1974). Increased
leaching potential and partial pressure of C02 from biological activity
in the upper solum promotes carbonate dissolution (Arkley, I963). The

by-products of carbonate dissolution move with the wetting front and

14

subsequently precipiate in the subsoil due to: decreased C02 partial
pressure, increased pH, and/or decreased water content as the front
infiltrates drier soil or moisture is depleted via evapotranspiration
(Harper, 1957; Arkely, 1963; Birkeland, 1974). Calcic horizons are
often reported to occur at the depth of effective moisture penetration
(Joffe, 1949; Marbut, 1951; Harper, 1957; Arkley, 1963).

Another mechanism, proposed by Rostad and St. Arnaud (1970),
is a dynamic alternating system of carbonate leaching during wet
winter months and reprecipitation of carbonates in the leached zone
during drier summer periods. This mechanism explains their observed
higher calcite/dolomite ratios in zones of secondary carbonates: both
dolomite and calcite are initially leached, while only calcite is
reprecipitated in summer months. Such a relationship should be expected
to hold only if the soils contained primary dolomite and no secondary
forms. .

Deposition by capillary rise from shallow ground water has been
proposed to account for calcic horizons in some soils (Joffe, 1949;
Birkeland, 1974). Harper (1957) used the term "ground water calcisols"
for soils developed under impeded drainage conditions that contain
calcic horizons due to the above mechanism.. He also noted that
these soils might contain several calcic horizons, separated by earthy
material comparatively 10w in carbonate. Glinka (1963) noted that
"continuous layers of powdery carbonate" in Solonchalks are typical
in cases of shallow water tables. As height of capillary rise is
generally less than two meters, their mechanism will usually be found

in more poorly drained soils (Gillam, 1937; Jenny, 1941; Hillel, 1971).

15

Lateral distribution.of carbonates within a landscape has
been postulated to explain carbonate enrichment of soils; this is a
secondary concentration mechanism which has been invoked on a large
and small scale by a number of workers. Such a redistribution process
was termed “capillary concentration? by Muller (1960) who used it to
explain the development of Chilean nitrate deposits. In essence, Hsu
and Siegenthaller (1969) studied the same mechanism, calling it "evap-
orative pumping," and used it to explain recent supratidal dolomitiza-
tion, as have other workers (Zenger, 1972). Redmond and McClelland
(1959) suggested a similar mechanism on a more local scale to explain
the genesis of calcium carbonate Solonchalks around ponded depressions
in North Dakota.

Despite the various names given to the process, it is merely a
consequence of basic soil water flow principles, based on water move-
ment from an area of higher potential to one of the lower potential.
This mechanism makes use of a concept cited by Jenny (1941) of "locally
humid" and "locally arid" soils within a landscape; it involves the
generation of greater hydraulic heads in depressions relative to
surrounding soils because of greater moisture input and ponding. As
a consequence of a potential gradient, soil water will tend to move
out to the surrounding soils with the lower hydraulic head, trans-
ferring carbonates dissolved from the depressions to the soils
surrounding the depressions; upon water withdrawal via evapotrans-
piration dissolved carbonates would precipitate. This mechanism would
be favored in areas of low runoff and reduced deep precolation such as

found in the poorly-drained soils of the Saginaw Valley.

16

The presence or absence of calcic horizons in an area is
related to the climate of the region. Jenny and Leonard (1934) were
able to establish a positive correlation between rainfall and depth of
carbonates, which was related to climatic great soil groups. Arkley
(1963) improved on this correlation for soils in California and Nevada
by taking the moisture holding capacity of the soil into account. He
also calculated water movement in several soils from climatic data and
correlated this data with observed carbonate depth functions. Sehgal
and Stoops (1972) observed that an increase in rainfall was positively
correlated with depth to carbonates in some Indian soils. In the humid
parts of the eastern United States carbonate rocks and calcareous
variants of alluvium and glacial drift are leached (Brkeland, 1974);
it is anomalous to find carbonate enriched soils in areas of high rain-
fall, indicating that some factor or combination of soil forming
factors are acting to retard carbonate loss. Theoretically, any
variation in soil forming factors other than climate might disrupt
positive rainfall/depth to carbonate correlation (Jenny, 1941). Spe-
cifically, upward soil moisture movement, decreased soil permeability,
topography, and pore-size discontinuities within the profile are some

of the other variables that can retard carbonate leaching.

CHAPTER III

CHARACTERIZATION AND GENESIS OF SOILS WITH CARBONATE
RICH HORIZONS IN EAST CENTRAL MICHIGAN

Introduction

 

One of the soil series mapped by the Tuscola.soil survey team
in Tuscola County, Michigan, was classified as Typic Calciaquolls
(Mausbach, 1982). Secondary carbonate rich horizons below a plow
layer were not expected in the humid Saginaw Valley, which receives an
average of 762 mm/yr (30") of precipitation. These soils were found
in association with Haplaquolls on nearly level terrain or in slight
depressions on the glacial lake plain of Saginaw Bay.

Free secondary carbonates usually occur at some position in
soils of arid, semiarid, and subhumid regions of the world (Foth,
1984). Arkley (1963) ascribed this occurrence to precipitation insuf-
ficient to leach carbonates from the sola. Carbonates are frequently
leached from the soils of humid region soils with calcareous parent
materials (Birkeland, 1974). Though it is anomalous to find carbonate
enrichment near surface horizons in areas of high rainfall, the
presence of this horizon is prevalent in some soils with poor or
restricted drainage (Harper, 1975; Glinka, 1963; Sehgal and Stoops,
1972; Sobecki and Wilding, 1983). Although Jenny and Leonard (1934)
established positive correlations between rainfall and depth of car-

bonates, this correlation might theoretically be disrupted by some

17

18

variations in soil forming factors other than climate such as upward
soil water movement, topography, reduced soil permeability and poor
size discontinuities within the profile (Jenny, 1941).

The objectives of this study were to characterize pedons from
the Calciaquoll and Haplaquoll mapping units and to investigate the I

genesis of the carbonate-rich horizons.

Materials and Methods
Study Area

The study was conducted in four counties in east central Michi-
gan (Fig. 1). Sites selected for study were based on soil surveys of
Tuscola, Saginaw, Bay, and Huron Counties. Old soil surveys had mapping
units of burned muck over clay or marl which were used as a guide for
locating transects in Tuscola, Bay, and Saginaw Counties.

The study area is located on the nearly level glacial lake
plain of Saginaw Bay at 595 ft. a.s.l. (181 meters). This portion of
the glacial lake plain is comprised primarily of somewhat poorly
drained and poorly drained soils of loam textures. The materials were
laid down by ice and water during the Wisconsin stage of glaciation
and were subsequently smoothed over by the waves of glacial lakes.

The area is characterized by long winters, relatively short
summers, and fairly low evaporation. The rainfall is generally well
distributed throughout the year. Average annual precipitation is

approximately 762 mm/yr (30").

19

Figure l.--Location of the study area.

Legndz.

4
6

10
12
14
18
25
36
53
55
58
63
64
67

78

Covert sand, 0 - 6% slops
Tappan--Wixom complex, 0 - 3% slopes
Tappan--Londo loams, 0 - 2% slopes
Pipestone fine sand, 0 - 4% slopes
Corunna sandy loam

Avoca loamy sand, 0 - 3% $10pes
Essexville loamy fine sand

Londo loam, 0 - 3% slopes

Tappan loam

Sloan loam

Cohoctah sandy loam

Thomas muck

Bach very fine sandy loam

Lenawee variant--Tappan complex

Pipestone loamy find sand, loam, loamy substratum,
0 - % slopes

Olentangy mucky silt loam

 

20

 

 

 

ARENAC
F' o ,
. l
l 1...
' sacmaw
I an > :0 wunow
! . N
l L-_.__——-'-—-——-'-'---—
.l Law—-fi. :.§E* 'TUSCOLA I SANILAC
I_.__..J 5.4.0 ‘
.10.
O
I ' .-l l
' l
| SAGINAW ' r——‘—i‘|
a . . a?
! -____L..._._1’-—’ |
I j canvases : LAPEER ;____-._.-..—-
Location of transects
Location of pedons sampled
HILES
0 IO 20 ' 30 4O 50 60 70 BO
0 20" 40 60 80 DO 120 .
KILOMETERS

Fig. 1. Location of the study- area.

21

s91:

Five pedons were selected and sampled (Fig. 2). They are
described in detail in Appendix A. Pedon 1 was located in a Thomas
muck mapping unit; Pedons 2 and 4 were located in the Lenawee variant-
Tappan complex and Pedons 3 and 5 were in the Tappan loam mapping
units. The soil series classifications are as follows:

Lenawee variant Fine-silty, mixed, mesic, Typic
Calciaquolls.

Tappan Fine-loamy, mixed (calcareous),
mesic, Typic Haplaquolls.

Thomas Fine-loamy, mixed (calcareous),

mesic, Histic Humaquepts.
Field Methodology

The pedons were described according to the soil survey manual
(Soil Survey Staff, 1951). The composition of these mapping units were
determined using point-intercept transect method (Mokma, 1972).
Transects were located on the basis of being repressentative of a
larger area. The observations were made at 75-meter intervals.

Bulk samples were collected from each horizon of each pedon
for physical and chemical analysis. The bulk samples were air dried
and crushed to pass a 2-mm sieve. In addition, five undisturbed cores
were collected from each horizon of each pedon for bulk density and
hydraulic conductivity measurements.

For identification of shells present in the carbonate-rich
horizons, approximately 15 cm (6") cubes of soil were collected from
carbonate-rich horizons of Thomas muck and Lenawee variant in sections

20 and 21, Gilford Township, respectively. The samples were sieved

22

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

0 Location of pedons sampled.

1+ Pedons described by Tuscola soil survey

@ Section number

Fig. 2. Soil map of the study area: (1) North Akron and
(b) Gildord Townships.

23

using 2 and 0.5 mm sieves. Shells larger than 2 mm and 0.5-2.0 mm
were identified by Professor Barry 8. Miller, Department of Geology,
Kent State University.

Laboratory Analysis

 

Particle size distribution was determined by the pipette
method (Soil Survey Staff, 1972). Calcium carbonate was removed from
most samples with 1 N_sodium acetate pH 5 and for highly calcareous
samples with 1 N_HCl (Jackson, 1956). Organic matter was removed by
oxidation with 30% ;hydrogen.peroxide (H202). Free iron oxides were
removed by dithonite-citrate-bicarbonate (Jackson, 1956).

Inorganic carbon content was determined using the titrimetric
method (Bundy and Bremner, 1972). Organic carbon was determined using

the heat of dilution method (NOR-13 Staff, 1980).

Results and Discussion

Particle Size Distribution

All five pedons have a fine-loamy particle size class (Table 1).
Clay contents of individual horizons vary from 12 to 42 percent. In
all pedons medium and fine sand predominate in the sand fraction and
fine silt in the silt fraction.

Thomas, Lenawee variant-1 and Tappan-1 pedons have developed
in two parent materials: lacustrine silt loam and/or silty clay loam
over loam glacial till (Table 1). Thomas and Lenawee variant-1 pedons

have carbonate-rich horizons below the plow layers.

24

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

NN N.N ,NN .. N N. N. . . N. N. N. NN.-.N NN
NN ..N .N N. N N. N. . . NN NN N. .N -N. NN
N N.N N. N. N N. N. N . NN .N N. N. -NN . .N
. N.N NN N. N N. N. N . .N NN .. NN -N N.
Am cocoa. ~1¢NNNNN
NN N.N .N N. N N. N. . N .N .N N. NN.-NN. ..NN
NN N.N NN N. N N. N. . . NN NN N. NN.-NN NNN
NN ..N NN N. N N N . . .N N. N. NN .NN NN
. N.N .N N N N N . N N. N. NN NN 1N N.
.n cocoa. .-NNNN-N
.N N.N .N N. N N. N. N . .N NN N. NN.-N.. NNu
.N ..N NN N N N. .. N . NN NN .. N..-NN NNN
NN N.N NN N N N. NN N . .. NN NN NN -NN NN
NN N.. N. N N NN NN N . .. NN NN NN 1N a.
A. cocoa. ~1aco.ca> ooxoeo.
.N ..N NN .. N .. N. N . NN N. NN NN.-NN. NN
.N ..N NN NN N N . . . NN N. N. NN.-NN NN
.. N.N NN NN N . N N N NN .N N N. 1N. NN
N. N.N N. N . . N N N N. NN N N. -NN N
N. N.N NN N. N N N . N NN NN N. NN 1N a.
AN cocoa. _1u=N.c~» cox-co.
NN N.N NN N. N N. N. N N NN NN N. NN..NN. NNN.
.N ..N .. N. . N N . . NN NN N. NN.-NN NNNN
NN ..N NN N N .. .. N N NN .N NN NN 1.. .NNN
N. ..N N. N N N. N. N N N. .N .N .. -NN N
N. N.N. N. N. N N. N N N NN NN .N NN -N N.N
.. Nov... NNNNN.

u a 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1.51 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

NNN NN.N NN.N ..u N.“ . N . N NNN N NNm.u N N N Na NNN.LN=

-NN.N -NN.N -..N 1NN. - 1 1 . x - . . -
.NN..N.=NN Neat-N . . NNNNN
NNNNN o.N.NLN ...N N ...N N N.) N. NN NNN NNN N..N ...N NNNN
...N NNNN ..No.

 

an. Naeoaceu coacou u_:.aco=. we. concqu uNNNNNo .co—N:NNNNN.9 «N.m1o—u.ucam11.. u.a<p

25

The thickness of the lacustrine material varies from 50 cm in
pedon 3 to almost 120 cm in Thomas and Lenawee variant-2 pedons (Table
1). Similar ranges in thickness were found in the transect observa-
tions.

The sand fraction in the loam till is greater (40-59%) than
in the lacustrine material (2-37%). In the lacustrine material silt
contents range from 49 to 60% and clay contents range from 22 to 42%.
In the till silt content range from 27 to 46% and the clay contents
range from 14 to 25%. The calcium carbonate-rich horizons above the
lacustrine material have 51 or 56% silt and widely varying sand and
clay contents.

An abrupt increase in total sand content occurs as the parent

material changes from lacustrine to glacial till.

Parent Material Homogeneity

Parent material homogeneity was investigated to support the
concepts of multiple parent materials in pedons 1, 2, and 3 and unifonn
parent material in pedons 4 and 5. Asady and Whiteside (1982) used
silt to sand ratios to assess homogeneity of materials. The silt/sand
ratio of the overlying horizon was divided by the silt/sand ratio of
the underlying horizon and one was subtracted from the quotient.
Values between t 0.37 indicate uniform parent material.

The silt/sand ratios calculated from the five pedons are
given in Table 2. Based on these calculations Lenawee variant-2 and
Tappan-2 pedons did not show any lithologic discontinuities. Litho-

logic discontinuities were-identified between each horizon in the

26

TABLE 2.--Silt and sand ratios of nonclay fractions

 

% Sand % Silt

 

- _, ii 51/59 (1)* 51/5: (1)
Horizon Depth 22,},05 0.03m0.002 5 51/5, (37 s1/s.F2)

-1

 

Thomas (Pedon 1)

 

Gap 0- 30 24 53 2.21 1,
c 30- 41 37 51 1.38 1'23 8:23.;
2091 41- 59 32 31 0.97 0'29 -0'71**
3092 59-120 18 60 3.33 3°51 2°51**
4093 120-150 . 40 38 0.95 '._ '

 

Lenawee variant-1 (Pedon 2)

 

Ap O- 25 13 55 4.23

 

 

 

 

 

 

c 25- 43 2 56 28.00 9-1? '8'§§**

Cg 43- 70 3 64 21.30 7'55 6'55**

2C1 70-125 17 48 2.82 1.77 0.77**

302 125-170 29 46 1.59 ‘ '

Lenawee variant-2 (Pedon 4)

Ap 0- 38 59 27 0.46

89 38- 50 50 36 0.72 g'gg _g'§g

Cg 50-115 44 36 0182 0.88 _0.12

c 115-150 41 38 0.93 ' - '
Tappan-1 (Pedon 3)

Ap 0- 30 20 40 2.00 _

89 30- 50 17 49 2.88 3'83 g'g§,,

2Cg 50-100 40 , 38 0.95 1'08 0'08

20 100-150 42 37 0.88 ' '.
Tappan-2 (Pedon 5)

Ap 0- 32 44 32 0.73

01 32- 45 46 31 0.67 3'93 . _g'gg

C2 45- 54 43 37 0'85 0:92 -O:08

C3 64-150 43 40 0.93

 

*(1) Overlying horizon; (2) Underlying horizon

**Indicates lithologic discontinuity

27

.-

Thomas pedon- Lenawee variant-1 pedon has lithologic discontinuities
between Ap and C, Cg and 2Cl, and 2Cl and 302. Tappan-1 pedon has a
discontinuity between Bg and Cg. These discontinuities occur where an
organic layer overlies a carbonate rich layer, a carbonate-rich hori-
zon overlies lacustrine material and where lacustrine material over-
lies loam till.

Particle Size Distribution

of Carbonates

The percentages of the fine earth total carbonates inca given
size separate of Thomas and Lenawee variant-1 pedons are shown in
Fig. 3. The CaC03 rich horizons in both pedons have about equal
amounts of clay and silt size carbonates. They have about 20% sand
size carbonates.

The lacustrine materials have predominantly silt-size carbon-
ates, ranging from 53-79%. The clay and sand size carbonates increases
in the glacial loam till, but the silt size predominates.

Previous studies (Harper, 1957; Rostad and St. Arnaud, 1979;
Sobecki and Wilding, 1983) suggested secondary carbonates tend to pre-
cipitate in the fine silt and clay fractions. Clay-size carbonates
were found to be very unstable in a leaching environment (Sobecki and
Wilding, 1983). In this study the high content of clay size carbonates
near the surface is thought to result from limited downward water move-~

ment because of the naturally high water tables present in these soils.

28

CaCO3 Equivalent

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

% . 0 go 49 §0 _80 100
C C
2Cgin CS
3ng. 2C
4Cg3 3C

 

 

 

THOMAS LENAWEE VARIANT

 

 

 

 

 

 

Clay

Silt

Sand ': E
“$.81

 

Fig. 3. Particle size distribution of fine earth carbonate.

29

Organic Carbon

 

As expected organic carbon contents decrease with depth (Table
1). The contents of organic carbon in the surface horizon range from
40% in Thomas with a histic epipedon to 13% in Lenawee variant-2. An
abrupt decrease from the surface horizons (Oap, Ap) to the horizons
below and a gradual decrease with depth in subsurface horizons were
observed in all the pedons.

Organic carbon is a very dynamic fraction of the soil. It
can be built up and destroyed as rapidly through specific soil manage-
ment practices. A portion of the study area is shown as burned muck
over clay or marl in the soil survey of Tuscola, Bay, and Saginaw
counties, Michigan (Deeter et al., 1926; Wonser et al., 1931; Moon

et al., 1938).

Calcium Carbonate

 

The calcium carbonate equivalent observed in the soil samples
varies widely (Table 1 and Fig. 4). Increasing calcium carbonate
equivalents with depth is not observed in all pedons. Thomas and
Lenawee variant-1 pedons have the highest calcium carbonate equivalent
(70 and 76%, respectively) in the horizon below the surface horizon
(Oap or A). In the other pedons the highest calcium carbonate content
is found at depth. The mean calcium carbonate equivalent of the till
parent material in all pedons is 32% (:2). The range varies from 30%
in Tappan-1 to 34% in Lenawee variant-2. The high calcium carbonate

content in the Ap horizon in Lenawee variant-1 could be explained by

DEPTH (GM)

100w

32°-

MOI!

 

C)

.30
Ca 003 E01? IVALENT

lo

to to a. a. so 00 H 00
I l 1 1 1 L I 1

 

 

.~
I”

THOMAS
LENAWEE V.-1

LENAWEE V.-2

TAPPAN-I
TAPPAN-2

Fig. 4. CaCO3 equivalent of the five pedons.

31

plowing (38 cm) which might have mixed a calcium carbonate rich layer
below the original A into the present Ap.

Based on transect observations carbonate-rich horizons are
absent in the Tappan.loam mapping unit. The mean calcium carbonate
equivalent of the till is 30% (:2) and the lacustrine material is
27% (:5). There is no significant difference between the calcium
carbonate content of the two materials.

In the Lenawee variant-Tappan complex mappingunit, 18 of 60
observations had carbonate rich horizons under the surface horizon.
The mean calcium carbonate equivalent of these horizons is 55% (:6).
The mean calcium carbonate content of the lacustrine materials is 32%
(:3) and of the till is 31% (:3). The mean calcium carbonate content
of the till and the lacustrine material are not significantly differ-
ent.

In section 20, T.16N., R.10E. of Winsor Township in Huron
County a mapping unit of Bach has high calcium carbonate content, 54%
(:7), in the Ap horizons. The calcium carbonate equivalents of sub-
surface horizons in these soils are 26% (:2). The Tappen loam mapping
unit in the same section has low calcium carbonate contents, 13% (:5)
in the surface horizons.

Calcium carbonate rich horizons were not observed in the Bay
and Saginaw Counties portion of the study area. Lacustrine materials
were absent, but a buried organic layer containing many shells at
depth (60-100 cm) was observed in section 1, T.12.N, R.6E., of Blum-
field Township in Saginaw County. The mean calcium carbonate equivalent

of the till in Saginaw County is 28% (:7) where as the till in Bay

32

County contains 33% (:2). In Bay County the lacustrine material has
lower CaCO3 contents, 22% (:1), than the till, 33% (:2).

The calcium carbonate equivalent of the till in the entire
study area varies from 5% in Tuscola to 39% in Saginaw County, whereas
the mean varies from 26% in Huron to 33% in Bay County. Water samples
from Rush Lake in Huron County and from a tile drainage system in
Section 21, Gilford Township, Tuscola County, have similar CaCO3

equivalent content, i.e., 862 and 850 ppm, respectively.

Shell Fragments

Throughout the study area the presence of shell fragments was
observed; however, the amount varied widely. Abundant shells were
observed in areas where carbonate-rich horizons were identified. Shells
were identified in samples from the carbonate-rich horizons of a
pedon in the Lenawee-Tappan complex and of a pedon in the Thomas
muck (Table 3).

Three terrestrial and 13 aquatic species of molluscs and one
plant species were identified. Most of these species have been found
in other parts of Michigan (Hale et al., 1903; Goodrich, 1932) and in
south western Ontario, Canada (Miller et al., 1979).

Shells in the pedon from the Lenawee-Tappan complex were all
from aquatic species. This association of spedies is characteristic of
lakes, ponds, or slow-moving portions of rivers. Aquatic species also
made up the overwhelming majority of shells found in the pedon from

Thomas muck. However, two species of Vertigo and Stenotrema sp., are

33

TABLE 3.--Molluscs identified in the study area

 

> 2mm 2 - 0.5mm

 

Lenawee Variant

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Fossaria decampi Fossaria cf. decampi
Valvata tricarinata Valvata tricarinata
Valvata sincera Valvata sincera
Gyraulus parvus Pisidium spp.
Gyraulus deflectus Gyraulus parvus
Pisidium spp. Cf..Succinia
Lymnaea reflexa Physa-5p.
Helisoma companulatum Lymnaea cf. reflexa
2111s: sp-

Thomas Muck
Physea gyrina*** Charaphyte oogonia*
Helisoma trivovis Vertigo morsei**
Planorbula aronigera Vertigo ovata**
Fossaria decampi Valvata tricarinata
Valvata tricarinata Valvata sincera
Valvata sincera Fossaria decampi
Helisoma campanulatum Gyraulus parvus
Lymnaea elodes Cf. Succinea
Fossaria exigua Pisidium spp.
Cf. Succinea vetusa Physa gyrina***
Stenotrema sp.** Lymanaea Cf. elodes

 

 

*Aquatic plant species
**Terrestrial snails
***Inhabit temporary bodies of water

34

terrestrial snails that probably were washed into the pond or lake that
supported the remaining molluscs.

Charaphyte oogonia, a plant species was identified in the

 

Thomas muck sample. Chara, a marl forming algae, may be responsible
for the deposition of the fine-textured marl (Johnston et al., 1984).
This plant inhabits fresh-water lakes of the temperate region and is
known for its tendency to deposit lime. Precipitation is generally
assumed to result from the utilization of carbon-dioxide in photo-
synthesis. Johnson and Williamson (1916) pointed out that in order
for carbonates to be precipitate‘d‘by algae, the water surrounding them
must be saturated with respect to calcium carbonate. Chara is often
gray because of the lime encrustation and sometimes commits suicide
by depositing so much calcium carbonate that the plants are starved
due to decrease in the photosynthetic rate (Mathews, 1960).

Although there are 3 individuals that belong to a terrestrial
taxon, the overwhelming majority are aquatic forms which typically

inhabit permanent bodies of water. Physa gyrina is typical of tem—

 

porary bodies of water habitats, an environment which certainly would
support marl formation. The source of calcium carbonate is undoubtedly
the glacial deposits.

The presence of abundant shell fragments, the absence of car-
bonates as concretions and pendants; the position of calcium carbonate
rich horizon in the profile, and the geographic position indicate the
carbonate-rich horizons are not pedogenic in origin, but rather are

geologic in origin.

35

Genesis of Soils with Calcium.
Carbonate Rich Layers

As the glacier retreated from the Port Huron Moraine a ground
moraine was formed. During the retreat of the glacier melt waters were
trapped between the glacier and the Port Huron Moraine forming a
glacial lake. Wave action eroded material from the higher areas on
the ground moraine. Deposition of silts and clays occurred in the
lower areas. The resulting landscape had less relief than the original
ground moraine (see Fig. 5).

With further retreat of the glacier and isostatic rebound,
the glacial lake drained. Low areas in the lake plain continued to
contain water. Marl formation probably took place post Lake Algoma.
The glacial lakes that have covered the study area are listed in
Table 4. Marl was deposited by aquatic plants and lower forms of
animals over the lacustrine materials. The source of CaCO3 was the
glacial materials. Rainfall and subsequent runoff could dissolve
CaC03 from the glacial materials and transport it to the ponded areas.
Ground water flow could also dissolve CaCO3 from the glacial materials
and transport it to the bodies of water. Lower forms of animals
inhabiting such ponds or lakes accumulate CaCO3 in their bodies which
are deposited on the floor of the waterbody when they die. Chara,
known as a marl forming algae (Johnston et al., 1984), increased the
accumulation of marl.

Subsequently organic materials accumulated in these ponded
areas. Organic soils or mineral soils with histic epipedons were

formed. As a result of widespread fires in the Thumb Area of Michigan

36

 

 

 

 

TABLE 4. Glacial lakes that have covered the study area
Elevation

Lake Stage (3;?)

” ' Feet Meters
Warren 690-682 ,210-208. 12,700 - 12,200
Wayne 655 199.6m 11,300 - 11,000
Lowest Warren 675 205.7 11,000 - 10.500
Grassmere 640 195.0 10,500 - 10,100
Lundy 620 189.0 10,100 - 9,800
Early Algonquia 605 184.4 9,800 - 9,200
Algonquih 605 184.4 8,900 - 8,000
Nipissing 605 184.4 4,000 - 3,000
Algoma 595 181.4 3,000 - 2,250
Source: Hough, 1958; Farrand and Eschman, 1974.

37

in 1871 and 1881 (Park, 1953; Schultz, 1964) some of the organic
materials were destroyed. At least some of these areas are identi-
fied on soil surveys made in the early 1900s in Bay, Saginaw, and
Tuscola Counties (Deeter et al., 1926; Wonser et al., 1931; Moon
et al., 1938). Development of these soils for crop production
include the installation of tile drains and the deep drainage ditches.
Rush Lake in Huron County is an existing lake probably similar to the
areas included in this study.

The Lenawee variant-~Tappan complex and Thomas mapping units
occur in the depressional areas while the Tappan mapping unit occurs

on the higher areas (595 ft. a.s.I.).

Classification of Pedons

 

All pedons have organic carbon contents in the surface horizon
of greater than 0.6% (Table 1) which is required for mollic epipedon
(Soil Survey Staff, 1975). Thomas pedon has a histic epipedon and
Lenawee variant-2 and Tappan pedons have mollic epipedons. Lenawee
variant-2 failed to have a mollic epipedon because of a IOYR 6/1
dry color (detailed descriptions of the five pedons are given in
Appendix A). To waive the color requirements for a mollic epipedon,
Lenawee variant-2 pedon should have > 40% finely divided lime and
organic carbon content 3. 2.5% (Soil Survey Staff, 1975).

All pedons lack diagnostic subsurface horizons. All pedons
have aquic moisture regimes. Based on morphological, physical, and
chemical data, Thomas (pedon-1) classified as Histic Humaquepts, fine-

loamy, mixed (calcareous), mesic. Lenawee variant-1 and Tappan pedons

38

classify as Typic Haplaquolls; fine-loamy, mixed (calcareous), mesic.
Lenawee variant-2 pedon classified as Typic Haplaquepts; fine-loamy,
mixed (calcareous), mesic.

Because the carbonate rich horizons present in Thomas and
Lenawee variant-1 pedons and possibly Lenawee variant-2 are composed
of marl they do not qualify as calcic horizons. Management problems
(requirements of P, Zn, and Mn fertilizers and drainage) associated
with the soils with carbonate rich horizons are unique. Because
Lenawee variant-1 and Tappan pedons are classified in the same family,
soils with these problems are combined with those which lack these
problems. A limnic subgroup is being proposed to indicate mineral
soils with carbonate-rich horizons such as marl, which are geologic
rather than pedogenic. This would permit separation of these soils
above the soil series level. Using this proposal Thomas pedon would
classify as Limnic Humaquepts and Lenawee variant-1 pedon as Limnic
Haplaquolls.

Other soil series, for example Harps and Harpster, have been
classified as Typic Calciaquolls. However, the presence of snail
shells has been described in both soil series (Hallbick and Fehren-
bacher, 1971; Alexander and Hallibick, 1974; Steinkamp, 1980; Russel
et al., 1974; Voy, 1980; Sherwood and Max, 1982; and Diderikensen,
1983). This suggests the origin of the carbonate-rich horizons may
be similar to that in this study. With the proposed amendments these

soils may also classify into Limnic subgroups.

39

Mapping Unit Composition

The Lenawee variant-Tappan complex mapping unit is 30% Lenawee
variant and 70% Tappan loam soil. It seems logical to change the
mapping unit name to Tappan-Lenawee variant complex since Tappan is
dominant in this mapping unit. Thomas Muck mapping unit includes small
areas of Tappan soils and Olentangy muck. These included.soils make up
4 and 1% of the unit, respectively. Included soils in Tappan loam
»mapping unit are Londo soils which are found on low knolls. This

soil makes up 5% of the unit.

40

    

mum-11: 21.4

5’4 , ,_ J...
9511:1'
, a.
u‘ z
,. :. ..
,.

     

D
Lacustrine
§ Till

Fig. 5. Stages in the formation of landscape and soils in. the
study area.

CHAPTER IV

MANAGEMENT PROBLEMS ON SOILS WITH CALCIUM
CARBONATE RICH HORIZONS

Introduction

 

Secondary calcium carbonate rich horizons had not been iden-
tified in Michigan until the Tuscola County soil survey team began
investigating some mapping units as to the variability of crop yields
in the northwestern part of the county. Calciaquolls (poorly drained
soils with secondary carbonate rich horizons near the surface) and
Haplaquolls (poorly drained soils with no secondary carbonate rich
horizons) were identified and mapped. Those soils with secondary car-
bonate rich horizons (Lenawee variant) are found in association with
Tappan loam (Haplaquoll) on nearly level terrain or in slight depres-
sions on the glacial lake plain of Saginaw Bay.

The dominant crops grown on these soils and many others in
the county are corn, sugarbeets, and drybeans. However, growth is
frequently stunted and yields are low where the carbonate rich layers
are near the surface. Plant chlorosis, phosphorus, and micronutrient
deficiencies are common (Soil Survey, 1975). High yields have been
obtained on these soils with special management.

The purpose of this study was to determine some physical and

chemical properties of the soils found in the Lenawee variant-Tappan

41

42

complex, Thomas Muck and Tappan loam mapping units in the study area
(Figs. I and 2). The classification of these three soils are given

in Table 5.

Procedures

 

Five pedons were described by standards outlined in the Soil

Survey Manual (Soil Survey Staff, 1951) and profile samples were

 

collected in September, 1982. Two pedons of Tappan were located in
the Tappan loam mapping unit, two pedons of Lenawee variant were located
in the Lenawee variant-Tappen complex and one pedon of Thomas was
located in the Thomas muck mapping unit. All pedons are located in
nearly flat, poorly drained areas of Saginaw Valley.

Five undisturbed core samples were collected from each horizon
(Blake, 1965). Hydraulic conductivity was determined by measuring
the volume of water flowing through the saturated core samples under
a constant head of 2.54 cm for a specific length of time (Klute, 1965).
Bulk density was obtained by dividing the weight of the oven dry soil
(after hydraulic conductivity measurement) by the volume of the core
(Blake, 1965).

In the laboratory the bulk samples were air dried and crushed
to passa 2 mm sieve. The pH of each sample was determined using a
1:1 soil-solution ratio. Both water pH and salt pH (0.1 KCl) were
measured. Soil test method for Bray-1 phosphorus was used (Kundsen,
1975). Extractable phosphorus was measured colorimetrically.

Cation exchange capacity (CEC) and exchangeable bases of each

sample were determined using ammonium acetate pH 7 (Soil Survey Staff,

43

TABLE 5.--Classification of soil series

 

 

. . . Parent Soil Mgmt. Capability
501‘ Ser1es Fam1ly Material Group sub-class
.Lenawee Variant Typic Calciaquoll Lacustrine '
Tappan Complex fine-loamy, mesic over loam. 2:5 c-c IIIw
(Pedone 2&4) mixed till
Thomas Muck Histic Humaquept Lacustrine
(Pedon 1) fine-loamy, mixed over loam 2:5 c-c. IIw
(calcareous), till
mesic
Tappan Loam Typic Haplaquoll Loam till
(Pedons 381 5) fine loamy, mixed 2:5 c-c IIw

(calcareous),

mesic

 

44

1972) as modified by Warncke et al. (1980). The supernatants from the
three initial extracts (In Ammonium acetate, pH7) were used in the

base saturation determination. The samples were washed with n-propyl
alcohol to remove excess ammonium ions. Exchangeable magnesium content
was determined colorimetrically. Exchangeable calicum and potassium
leVels were determined by flame photometry. Zinc and manganese
extracted by 0.1 HCl (Whitney, 1980), were determined by using atomic

absorption spectrophotometer.

Results and Discussion

 

Bulk Density and Hydraulic
Conductivity

Values obtained for bulk density and saturated hydraulic
conductivity are presented in Table 6 and Figs. 6 and 7. Values of
bulk density range from 0.62 to 1.90 gm/cc. The pattern, in general,
is an increase in bulk density with depth in the profile. All surface
horizons have values less than 1.57 gm/cc. Most subsurface horizons
have bulk densities greater than 1.50 gm/cc.

The bulk density values are similar to those anticipated.
With five exceptions all values represent conditions where crop root
growth rate is likely to be limited. Robertson (1976) has suggested
that a value of 1.3 gms/cc is a valid threshold number for Michigan
crops and soils. \

The hydraulic conductivity decreases with depth. In Lenawee
variant-2 and Tappan Loam-2 hydraulic conductivity shows a slight

change with depth in the loam till, but is very slow in the basal

45

TABLE 6.--Particle size distribution, hydraulic conductivity, and
bulk density

Particle Size

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Distribution Hydraulic
Hori- De th Sand Silt Clay Textural conduc— Bulk
zon P 2- 0.5- <0.002 Class tivity Density
0.5mm 0.002mm mm . (K) (gm/cc)
----- % - - - - - cm/hr
Thomas (Pedon 1)
OAP 0- 30 24 53 23 Silt loam 7.05 0.62
C 30- 41 37 51 12 silt loam 1.88 1.23
2Cgl 41- 59 32 31 37 clay loam 0.74 1.81
3CgZ 59-129 18 60 22 silt loam 0.62 1.69
4Cg3 120-150 40 38 22 loam
Lenawee variant-1 (Pedon 2)
Ap 0- 25 ' 13 55 32 silty clay 16am 1.79 0.97
C 25- 43 2 56 42 silty clay 1.12 1.03
2Cg 43- 70 3 64 33 silty clay loam 0.28 1.50
3C1 70-125 17 48 35 silty clay 0.15 1.54
4C2 125-170 29 46 25 loam
Lenawee variant-2 (Pedon 4)
Ap 0- 38 59 27 14 sandy loam 2.36 1.57
89 38- 50 50 36 14 loam 2.31 1.59
Cg 50-115 44 36 20 loam 1.86 1.74
C 115-150 41 38 21 loam
Tappan-1 (Pedon 3)
Ap 0- 3O 20 40 40 clay loam 3.56 1.05
Bg 30- 50 17 49 34 silty clay 0.37 1.65
209 50-100 40 38 22 loam 0.33 1.80
20 100-150 42 37 21 loam 0.10 1.89
Tappan-2 (Pedon 5)
AP 0- 32 44 32 24 loam 2.95 1.44
89 32- 45 46 31 23 loam 2.65 1.58
CI 45- 64 43 37 20 loam 2.13 1.68
C2 64-150 43 40 17 loam 0.30 1.90

 

46

‘1I
2
CE
0.
0.
CE
'—
I
Z
CE
0.
CL
CL'.
1—
N
l

L..\/.-1 L..\/.

THOMHS

 

00/6 ALISNBU N708 1105

Soil bulk density of the five pedons.

Fig. 6.

THF’PFlN-l TRF’PHN-Z

-2

>
_I

L..\/.-l

THOMHS

Jq/wo

47

 

ALIAIIDHUNOD DIWHHEUAH

Hydraulic conductivity of the give pedons.

Fig. 7.

48

till where structure is massive. In general, lower conductivity '
values were associated with soil horizons which had either high bulk
density values, high clay contents, or both.

The calcium carbonate rich horizons in Thomas muck and Lenawee
variant-2 pedons have bulk density values of 1.23 and 1.03 gm/cc,
respectively. These horizons have relatively higher conductivities
than the lacustrine and loam till parent material in the same profile.
Till parent material has higher bulk densities and lower hydraulic
conductivities than the lacustrine material. The till material has
higher sand fraction (29-50%), and relatively uniform clay content

(17-24%), than the lacustrine parent material.

Soil Reaction

SOil pH levels, in general, are above 7.5 because of free
CaC03. The lowest pH reading obtained was 7.0 in Tappan-2 pedon in
the surface and the highest was pH 8.1 in Lenawee variant-2 pedon
below the surface horizon.

The pH levels in Tappan and Lenawee variant-2 pedons increase
with depth or are constant. The highest levels occur in the calcium
carbonate rich horizons in Thomas and Lenawee variant-2 pedons.

All horizons, except the Ap horizon of Tappan-2, had pH values
between 7.0 and 7.5 in 0.1N KCl (Table 7).

Cation Exchange Capacity
andlBase Saturation

 

Cation exchange capacity and base saturation data provided

information about the capacity of the soil to hold nutrients and the

49

TABLE 7.--Chenica1 analysis of 5 pedons sampled

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Exchangeable CaCo
Depth Bases 3 Available Extrnc-
Horizon (cm) H20 09%? Egg K Ca Mg valent P(P205) tabla
Imil
1009“ lbs/acre 5 lb/acra anm:n
Thomas (Pedon 1)
Oap 0- 30 7.5 7.1 72.3 320 7680 763 10.3 62 1 12
C1 30- 41 8.0 7.4 16.8 46 7680 341 70.0 1 1 30
2Cgl 41- 59 7.9 7.4 7.8 145 7360 395 28.8 22 1 44
3092 50-120 7.9 7.4 5.3 114 6933 459 30.8 1 1 59
4Cg3 120-150 7.8 7.3 3.6 114 6827 448 33.2 1 1 48
Lenawee variant-2 (Pedon 2)
Ap 0- 25 7.8 7.2 36.3 272 12160 492 45.21 6 1 17
CI 25- 43 8.0 7.5 19.8 160 7253 554 76.41 1 1 38
269 43- 70 8.0 7.3 9.2 152 7253 373 41.13 3 1 23
3C1 70-125 8.0 7.3 7.2 114 6721 352 34.26 1 1 50
4C2 125-170 7.7 7.4 7.5 53 6933 207 30.96 1 1 26
Lenawee variant-2 (Pedon 4)
AD 0- 38 7.9 7.3 5.6 224 7040 245 27.69 2 1 40
89 38- 50 8.1 7 4 5.4 53 6827 226 26.68 2 1 40
Cg 50-115 8.1 7.4 4.8 76 6720 301 31.65 3 l 49
C 115-150 8.1 7. 4.7 107 6400 _395 33.53 1 1 49
Tappan-1 (Pedon 3)
AD 0- 30 7.8’ 7.1 36.0 320 13013 751 0.75 227 6 36
39 30- 50 7.9 7.2 13.4 200 6400 554 20.23 21 1 19
2C9 50-100 7.9 7.4 4.2 76 6613 341 31.98 1 1 44
2C 100-150 7.9 7.5 3.9 99 6507 384 29.75 2 1 46
Tappan-2 (Pedon 5)
AP 0- 32 7.0 6.7 32.9 152 11947 775 0.8 I'270 14 29
39 32- 45 7.3 7.0 12.9 114 5330 566 9.4 26 1 12
C1 45- 64 7.6 7.2 8.0 99 6507 459 32.5 7 I 25
C2 64-150 7.9 7.4 4.0 76 6507 331 1 1 43

33.1

 

50

amount of nutrients that are being held by the soil. The CES‘s of.
subsurface horizons, except calcium carbonate rich (marl) horizons,
are generally less than 10 meq/IOO gm (Table 7). The higher CEC values
(72.3 meq/IOO gm) in the plow layer of Thomas pedon is due to organic
matter. The calcium carbonate rich horizons in Thomas and Lenawee
variant-1 pedons have CEC values of 16.8 and 19.8 meq/IOO gm,
respectively. The higher than expected CEC values could be due to
some dissolution of free CaCO3 by the IN NH40AC extracting solution
(Carpena et al., 1972). A decrease in CEC with depth is primarily
related to a decrease in organic matter.

Base saturation is high (100%) in all the pedons, except in
the surface horizons of pedons 1 and 2. This is the result of the
presence of free carbonates. Calcium and magnesium.are the most

abundant extractable bases, with lesser amounts of potassium.

Exchangeable Potassium

Potassium comprises less than 2% of the total exchangeable
bases and varied from 0.3 to 1.8 percent. The test levels showed a
wide range varying from 152 to 320 lb/acre in the subsurface horizons
(Table 7). The calcium carbonate rich horizon (marl layer) in Thomas
pedon shows the lowest exchangeable potassium. This could be due to
low clay content (I %).

The levels of exchangeable potassium in the silt loam or silty
clay loam materials (lacustrine) tend to be higher than the loam
textured materials (till). The average levels tend to decrease with

depth except on those soils with different parent material.

51

Potash (K20) recommendations by Warncke and Christenson (1981)
are given in Table 9. Most of the crops grown in the study area do not
need potash fertilizer unless one plans to obtain the maximum yields
(40-60 bu/acre dry beans, 24-28 tons/acre sugarbeets, 180-240 bu/acre
corn grain). Soil test of Tappan-2 indicates 152 lbs/acre, therefore,

additional potash fertilizer is required for most crops.

Exchangeable Magnesium

Magnesium is the second dominant cation in all pedons and
accounts for greater than 8% of the total exchangeable bases. Exchange-
able magnesium varied from.4.7 to 14.9%. As shown in Table 7, quanti-
ties of exchangeable magnesium vary between kinds of soil and also
within pedons. The highest level in all pedons is on the surface
horizon varying from 245 lb/acre in Lenawee variant-2 pedon to 775
lb/acre in Tappan-2 pedon.

Currently, fertilizer recommendations for magnesium are made
when exchangeable Mg level is less than 75 lb/acre or when the soil
Mg as a percent of total bases is less than 3% or when the K level
exceeds Mg. According to these criteria, all horizons have greater
than 75 lb/acre of Mg and also greater than 3% soil magnesium. As a
result, application of dolomite or any magnesium carriers is not

recommended.

Exchangeable Calcium
Calcium is the dominant cation occupying approximately 90% of
the total exchangeable bases. The range varied from 84.2 to 94.9%

(Table 7). In some of the pedons a tendency to decrease with depth is

52

TABLE 8.--Phosphorus (P205) recommendations for corn, sugarbeets,
and dry beans on mineral soils

 

Corn Yield (bu/acre)

 

 

 

 

 

 

Phosphorus
Tait Level 90-119 120-149 150-179 180-209 210-240
Ph05phorus recommendations,*lb P205/acre
0-19 lb P/acre 75 100 125 150 175
20-39 50 75 100 125 150
40-59 25 50 75 100 125
60-79 25 25 50 75 100
80-99 25 25 25 50 75
100-119 25 25 25 25 50
120-139 0 0 0 25 25
140 + 0 O O 0 0
. TSugarbeets (ton/acre) Drybeans (bu/acre)

Yield, ton/acre ‘

18-23 24-28 20-40 40-60
:ggiptgcg? Phosphorus recommendation, lb P205/acre
0-19 lb P/acre 150 200 50 75
20-39 125 150 25 50
40-59 100 125 0 25
60-79 75 100 0 25
80-99 50 75 0 25
100-119 25 50 0 25
120-160 0 25 0 25
160 + 0 O 0 25

 

Source: Warncke et al., 1981.

53

observed. This might be due to the presence of a calcium carbonate
rich horizon (marl) just below the surface in some of the pedons;
calcareous nature of the parent material; and/or continual application
of liming materials. These cause higher levels of calcium in the upper
horizons. The difference in total exchangeable calcium within the
profile could also be due to differences in parent material. Normally,
in the absence of calcium carbonate rich (marl) layers, calcium levels
tend to increase with depth in the profile. This was explained by the
initial calcareous nature of the soil material and continual leaching
of carbonates and bases from the upper horizons.

Because of the very high test levels of exchangeable calcium
in all the Soils, the need of a test for this nutrient is not necessary.
However, excess levels of this nutrient are detrimental to plant?
growth. High pH as a result of excessive calcium carbonate will create
nutritional problems. At pH above 7 the activity of calicum is high
and as a result favours the precipitation of relatiVely insoluble
dicalcium phosphate and other basic calcium phosphates. In order to
alleviate this problem, band applications of acid forming fertilizers
tend to increase the availability of nutrients. The extended use of
high rates of N fertilizers is likely to decrease pH levels, expecially

on sandy soils, low in organic matter.

Calcium Carbonate qujvalent
The calcium carbonate equivalent in the soil samples varies
widely (Table 7). Pedons on Thomas and Lenawee variant-1 have the

highest calcium carbonate equivalent (70% and 76%, respectively) below

54

the surface horizon. 0n the other pedons, the highest carbonate
content is found at depth. The mean calcium carbonate equivalent of
the till parent material in all pedons is 32% (:2). The relatively
high content of carbonates in the surface horizon of Lenawee variant-2
pedon could be due to deep plowing (38 cm) which might have mixed a
calcium carbonate rich layer below the original A in the present Ap.
Calcium carbonate rich horizons (marl) were not found in the
Tappan loam mapping unit. The carbonate rich (marl) horizons were
found in localized areas in Thomas and in the Lenawee variant-Tappan

complex mapping units.

Available Soil Phosphorus

 

Available soil phosphorus levels in the plow layers varied
from 2 to 270 lb/acre (Table 7). Test levels range from 1 to 26 lbs/
acre in the subsurface horizons. In general, the average phosphorus
levels were much higher in the Ap horizon than the lower horizons.

The very high available phosphorus levels in the surface
horizon (Ap) of Tappan pedons are due to higher phosphorus fertilizer
application. The mapping units of Lenawee variant-Tappan complex
and Tappan loam are found adjacent to each other in the same fields.
In the Lenawee variant-Tappan complex mapping unit, the two soils are
in areas so small or intricately mixed that it is not practical to
separate them in mapping. As a result, farmers apply the same rates
of fertilizer uniformly in the field. If a single soil sample of a
composite soil sample is taken only from an area of Lenawee variant

for soil testing, an excess of phosphorus fertilizer will be applied

55

to the areas of Tappan soils. The very high phosphorus levels in
Tappan pedons suggest this may have been done.

The free calcium carbonates decrease the availability of
phosphorus fertilizer. The phosphate ions are adsorbed to the surface
of finely divided CaC03 and subsequently converted to insoluble
apatite or they are precipitated as insoluble calcium phosphates
directly from the soil solutions. The presence of large amounts of
carbonates in theAp horizons or Lenawee variant pedons explains the
very low available phosphorus levels (Table 7). Studies have shown
band placement reduces the surface of contact between the soil and
fertilizer with a consequent reduction in the amount of fixation.

Warncke and Christenson (1981) do not recommend phosphorus
fertilizers be applied for corn when the soil test level is above
140 lb P/acre. For dry beans and soybeans soil test levels above 60
lb P/acre indicate no need for phosphorus fertilizers. When sugar-
beets are to be grown and the test level is above 160 lb P/acre, the
addition of phosphorus fertilizers is not recommended. The recommen-
dations for application of phosphorus were based on soil tests, crops

to be grown and yeild goal as shown in Table 8.

Extractable Zinc

Only the Ap horizons of Tappan loam pedons have more than
5 ppm extractable Zn (Table 7). These two horizons also have the
highest levels of phosphorus and the lowest CaCO3 equivalent. Zinc
deficiencies have been related to soil pH in Michigan (Robertson et

al., 1981).

56

Zinc deficiencies are common on calcareous soils in Michigan
(Mokma et al., 1978; Robertson et al., 1981). Zinc is adsorbed by
carbonates of calcium and magnesium. In the study area calcium car-
bonate rich subsoils (marl) have been mixed with surface soils during
tillage, resulting in adsorption of zinc by the carbonates. According
to Warncke et al. (1981), soils in the study area need 3 to 5 lbs
Zn/acre depending in the pH of the soil and type of crop to be grown

(Table 11).

Extractable Manganese

 

Extractable manganese levels vary from 12-40 ppm in the surface
horizons (Table 7). The high amounts of extractable manganese are
found at depth in the soil profiles. Most of the pedons show an
increase with depth except where there are lithologic discontinuities
(parent material changes). This trend may result from manganese
being soluble in reducing poorly drained environments and subsequent
leaching to the lower horizons.

Precise determination of the manganese availability is diffi-
cult since its availability changes with oxidation state. However,
general guidelines for manganese applied in bands with starter fertili-
zers have been prepared (Table 10) (Warncke and Christenson, 1981).

The Thomas and Lenawee Variant-1 pedons need applications of 4 lb
Mn/acre. The Tappan loam and Lenawee variant-2 pedons do not show the

need for manganese fertilizer.

57

TABLE 9.--Potassium (K20) recommendations for corn, sugarbeets, and
dry beans on mineral soils

 

Potassium Test Corn Yield (bu/acre)

 

Leve‘ 90-119 120-149 150-179 . 180-209 210-240

 

Potassium recommendations, lb KZO/acre, on loams,
clay loams, and clays.

 

 

 

 

 

0-99 lb K/acre 150 200 300 400 400
100-149 100 150 200 300 350
150-199 50 100 150 200 250
200-249 0 50 100 150 200
250-274 0 O 50 100 150
275-299 0 O 0 50 100
300-324 0 0 O O 50
325 + 0 O 0 0 0
Yield
Potassium Test
Level Sugarbeets (ton/acre) Drybeans (bu/acre)
18-23 24-28 20-40 40-60
Potassium recommendations, lb KZO/acre on loams,
clay loams, and clays
0-49 lb K/acre 200 300 100 150
50-59 150 200 50 100
100-149 100 150 25 50
155-199 75 100 O 25
200-249 50 75 O 0
250-299 0 50 0 0
300+ O 0 0 0

 

Source: Warncke et al., 1981).

58

TABLE 10.--Manganese fertilizer needs as indicated by soil tests
(0.1N HCl extractable) for responsive crops

 

 

 

 

Mineral Soils Organic Soils

Egg; ;:§t 6 0p? 5 Above pH Above
. - . pH 6.5 5.8-6.4 pH 6.

- -------- Pounds Mn/acre - - - -.- - - -.- -

Below 5 6 8 12 16
5-10 4 6 8 12
11-20 0 4 4 8
21-40 0 0 0 4
Above 40 0 0 0 0

 

Source: Warncke et al., 1981.

TABLE 11.--Zinc fertilizer needs for mineral soils as indicated by
soil tests (0.1N HCl extractable) for responsive crops

 

 

Soil Test Below pH 6.7 pH 6.7 to 7.4 Above pH 7.4
(PPm Zn) ---------- pounds Zn/acre ---------
Below 2 2 3 5

3—5 0 3 3

5-10 0 2 3

11-15 0 O 2
Above 15 O 0 0

 

Source: Warncke et al., 1981.

59

Suggestions to Improve Management

In fields which are composed of two or more mapping units such
as the Lenawee Variant-Tappan complex and Tappan soils, representative
soil samples form each mapping unit should be collected separately
for evaluating nutrient imbalances and also for measuring trends in
nutrient levels (Shickluna, 1983). The Lenawee variant soil had
abundant shell fragments on the surface while the Tappan soil has few
or no shells. Thus, in collecting soil samples the distribution of
shell fragments on the surface of these soils is one of the major ways
of differentiating them from each other. Fertilizers should also be
applied on the basis of soil test results. Where separate fertilizer
applications of banded planting time fertilizer on each soil type is
not practical, broadcast treatments became feasible. Then a single
low rate of banded planting time fertilizer can be used on all soils.
This permits the use of micronutrients in the planting time fertilizer.
Where rates of micronutrients are wide, foliar treatments may be used
where high rates are needed.

Deeper plowing in the Lenawee variant soil will usually mix
the underlying marl layer with the surface layer. This may lead to
additional phosphorus fixation.and micronutrient deficiencies.

One of the major problems with the Thomas Muck soil is wind
erosion. If erosion is not controlled, the thickness of the plow
layer (histic epipedon) decreases. Furthermore, continued plowing

at the same depth (30 cm) mixes the underlying marl layer with the

60

plow layer, increasing the problem of phosphorus fixation as in
Lenawee Variant-Tappan complex soils.

Tappan loam with its better structure has a relatively higher
hydraulic conductivity than does the Lenawee variant soil with its
poor structure. Narrower spacing of tile may be needed on the Lenawee
variant--Tappan xomplex than the Tappan loam soil to achieve adequate
drainage. Removal of surface water with surface drainage will also
reduce the wetness problem. Improved drainage both surface and sub-
surface will help to reduce compaction as a result of tillage when the

soil is wet.

CHAPTER V

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

The study was carried out to characterize pedons from the
Calciaquoll and Haplaquoll mapping units and to investigate the genesis
of the soils with carbonate-rich horizons. Pedons were described and
sampled in Thomas, Lenawee variant-Tappan complex and Tappan mapping
units. On the basis of field and laboratory data the following con-
clusions were reached:

1. Lithologic discontinuities were observed between layers
of organic, calcium carbonate, lacustrine and till materials.

2. The mean calcium carbonate equivalent in the marl layers
is 54.2 : 7.7. Carbonate rich horizons have high clay and silt size
carbonates. The laxustrine materials have predominantly silt-size
carbonates. The high contents of clay size carbonates near the surface
are probably the result of limited downward water movement because of
high water tables.

3. The shells of thirteen aquatic and three terrestrial species
of molluscs and one plant specie were identified in the calcium carbon-
ate rich layers. The few terrestrial snails were probably washed
into the pond or lake from adjacent higher areas. The plant species
is Chara, a marl forming algae. The aquatic molluscs are found in

permanent water habitats, an environment in which marl would form.

61

62

4. The presence of abundant shell fragments in the carbonate
rich horizons, the absence of carbonate as concretions and pendants and
the glacial history of the inland lakes in Michigan suggest the
calcium carbonate layers are of geologic origin rather than pedogenic
origin.

5. The topography resulting from glaciation was undulating
with many undrained depressions. These depressions are filled by
deposition of silty material from the relatively high areas by wave
action. Subsequently, marl was deposited on top of the lacustrine
materials by aquatic plants and lower forms of animals. As wet land
plants grew and their remains decomposed, organic materials accumu-
lated. Severe fires of 1871 and 1881 in the Thumb Area of Michigan
destroyed some of the organic materials. The Thomas and Lenawee
variant-Tappan complex mapping units occur in depressional areas
while the Tappan mapping unit occurs on the higher areas.

6. In order to separate mineral soils, with and without marl
layers, that are classified in the same family above the soil series
level a limnic subgroup is proposed. This would also indicate the
carbonate rich horizons are geologic in origin.

7. The Tappan loam soil occupies 70% of the Lenawee variant-
Tappan complex mapping unit. As a result, it is suggested that the
mapping unit be renamed Tappan-Lenawee variant complex.

8. The presence of calcium carbonate-rich layer below the
surface, in the Thomas and Lenawee variant-Tappan complex mapping units

has raised the pH of the soil.

63

9. Tappan loam soils had very high levels of available
phosphorus and relatively high levels of extractable zinc and manganese.
These high levels suggest a high rate of fertilizer application has
been used than is suggested by soil test results.

10. Application of acid forming fertilizers in a band near
planted crops will increase the availability of several essential
nutrients in a highly calcareous soil.

11. Surface drainage and subsurface drainage with shorter
spacing of tiles will help to remove surface water and to control

wetness on all soils.

APPENDICES

64

APPENDIX A

PROFILE DESCRIPTIONS

65

Pedon classification :

Series classification:

Soil series

Location

Climate

Vegetation & Land Use:

Parent material
Physiography
Topography
Drainage
Ground water
EroSion

Permeability

PEDON 1

Histic Humaquepts

Histic Humaquepts; fine loamy, mixed
(calcareous), mesix

Thomas muck (58)

Tuscola County, Michigan; 396 ft west and
792 ft south of NE corner of section 20,
T.13 N., R7E.

Average annual precipitation is about 30
inches. Mean annual air temperature is
about 47°F.

Potatoes

Lacustrine clay & silt loam over loam till.
Lake plain. Elevatidn 3 595 ft.

Level, gradient is 0%.

Poorly drained

> 150 cm

None

Very slow

Oap 0-30 cm (0-11.8 inches); Black (10 YR 2/1) and rubbed sapric
material; weak medium granular structure; friable; common
fine roots; moderate effervescence; common shell fragments
(10 YR 8/1); abrupt smooth boundary.

C 30-41 cm. light gray (5 Y 7/1) silt loam; massive very few
fine roots; vertical cracks of Oap in(};friable; violent
effervescence; common shell fragments (10‘02 8/1); abrupt wavy

boundary.

Cgl 41-59 cm. Olive gray (5 Y 5/2) clay laom to clay; massive;
firm; medium effervescence; very few very fine roots; abrupt

wavy boundary.

66

C92

093

67

59-120 cm. light brownish gray (2.5 Y 6/2) stratified silt loam
and clay loam; Many coarse prominent yellowish brown (10 YR 5/6)
and dark yellowish brown (10 YR 4/6) mottles; massive; firm;
very few very fine roots up to 75 cm; 2% rock fragments; mild
or moderate effervescence; used auger below.

120-150 cm. light brownish gray (2.5 Y 6/2) loam; massive;
firm; moderate effervescence.

Pedon classification :

Series classification:

Soil

Location

Climate

Vegetation 8 Land Use:

Parent material
Physiography
Topography

Drainage
Ground water
Erosion

Permeability

68

PEDON 2

Typic Calciaquoll

Typic Calciaquoll; fine loamy, mixed
(calcareous), mesic.

Lenawee variant-Tappan complex (64)

Tuscola County, Michigan; 2508 ft north and
1320 ft west of south east corner of section
16, T. 13N, R7E.

Average annual precipitation is about 30
inches. Mean annual air temperature is
about 47°F.

Sugarbeets.

Till

Lake plain

Nearly level, gradient is 0-1%.
Elevation is 595 ft.

Poorly drained
Deeper than 150 cm on 9-6-82.
None

Very slow

Ap 0-25 cm. very dark gray (10 YR 3/1) gray; (10 YR 5.5/1) dry,
loam; strong fine and very fine granular and strong medium
subangular blocky structure; friable; common fine white
(10 Yr 8/1) sea shell fragments; common fine roots; strong
effervescence; abrupt smooth boundary.

C 25-43 cm. light gray to white (10 YR 7.5/1), white (5 YR. 8/1)
dry, silty clay; massive; firm; very few fine roots; many
(10 YR 8/1) white shell fragments; violent effervescence;
vertical cracks of Ap in C and closer cracks all the way in
C; abrupt wavy boundary.

Cg" 43-70 Cm. Olive gray (5 Y 5/2) slity clay to clay; massive;
firm; no roots but many pores; has some C material in its
upper part; closer cracks all the-way in Cg; strong effer-
vescence; clear wavy boundary.

69

2Cl ’ 70-125 cm. light gray (10 YR 7/2) very fine sand and Olive
gray (5 Y 5/2) clay loam; many medium prominent yellowish
brown (10 YR 5/6) mottles; massive; friable; strong effer-
vescence; gradual wavy boundary.

2C2 125-170 cm. gray (10 YR 5/1) + brown (10 YR 5/3) clay loam;
massive; firm; many medium prominent yellowish brown (10 YR 5/6)

mottles; strong effervescence.

70

.-

PEDON 3

Pedon classification : Typic Haplaquoll

Series classification: Typic Haplaquoll; fine-loamy, mixed

(calcareous), mesic

Soil Tappan laom (36)

Location : Tuscola County, Michigan; 1056 ft north
and 1320 ft west of south east corner of
section 10, T.13N., R.7E.

Climate Average annual precipitation is about 30
inches. Mean annual air temperature is
about 47°C.

Vegetation & Land Use: Wheat, beans, and corn. Cropland.

Physiography : Lake plain

Topography : Nearly level. Gradient 0-1%

Drainage : Poorly drained or (sw poor)

Ground water : Greater than 150 cm on 9-7-82

Erosion None

Permeability : Moderately slow

Ap 0-30cm. Black (10 YR 2/11) loam; moderate coarse granular struc-
ture; friable; common fine roots; slight effervescence;
abrupt smooth boundary. '

891 30-50 cm, Olive gray (5 Y 5/2) silty clay; weak fine and medium
angular blocky structure; firm; common fine distinct yellowish
brown (10 YR 5/6) mottles around pores; vertical cracks; cray
fish channels 3 cm wide; very few white (10 YR 8/1) sea shell
fragments; few fine roots in cracks; 2% coarse fragments;
slight effervescence; clear irregular boundary.

Cgl 50-100 cm. yellowish brown (10 YR 5/4) clay loam to loam; weak

medium angular blocky structure; firm; very few very fine roots;
7% coarse fragments; cray fish channels; strong effervescence;
pockets of light brownish gray (2.5 Y 6/2) very fine sandy loam;
friable with strong effervescence; clear irregular boundary.

71

20 100-150 cm. Yellowish brown (10 YR 5/4) 103m; weak medium and
coarse platy structure; very firm; 3-5% coarse fragments;
basal till; strong effervescence.

Pedon c

72

PEDON 4

lassification : Typic Calciaquoll

Series classification: Typic Calciaquoll, fine-loamy, mesic, mixed

Soil Lenawee variant

Location : Tuscola County, Michigan, 1188 ft east and
1584 ft north of south west corner of
section 33, T.15 N., R. 8E.

Climate Average annual precipitation is about 30

inches: mean annual air temperature is
about 47°F.

Vegetation & Land Use: Beans 8 corn.

Parent material : Loam till

Physiography : Lake plain.

Topography : Nearly level, gradient greater than 1%
elevation 585 ft.

Drainage : Poorly drained

Ground water : Greater than 150 cm on 9-9-83

Erosion None

Permeability : Very slow

Ap 0-38 cm. Very dark grayish brown (10 YR 3/2), gray to light

gray (10 YR 6/1) dry, loam; clods parting to weak fine granu-
lar structure; friable common fine white (10 YR 8/1) shell
fragments very few soft very pale brown (10 YR 7/4) cinders

'or ash; violent effervescent: abrupt smooth boundary.

39

38-50 cm. grayish brown (5 Y 5/1) loam; weak fine granular
structure; very friable; cray fish channels; common fine
white (10 YR 8/1) snail shells; violent effervescent; few
fine prominant red (10 R 5/6) coating on Reds; abrupt
irregular boundary.

CI

CZ

73

50-115 cm. Dark yellowish brown (10 YR4/6) loam; weak fine
angular blocky structure; friable; many medium prominent
gray (10 YR 4/6) coatings on reds; cray fish channels; strong
effervescent; 7% coarse fragments; clear wavy boundary.

115-150 cm. Brown (10 YR 5/3) loam; weak medium angular blocky
structure; common, fine, distinct yellowish brown (5 Y 5/1)
mottles and light brownish gray (10 YR 6/2) coatings on peds;
firm; strong effervescent. 7% coarse fragments.

Pedon classification :

Series classification:

Soil

Location

Climate

Vegetation & land use:

Parent material
Physiography
T0pography

Drainage
Ground water
Erosion

Permeability

74

PEDON V

Typic Haplaquoll

Typic Haplaquoll fine-loamy, mixed
(calcareous), mesic.

Tappan laom

Tuscola County, Michigan; 2244 ft south and
264 ft east of north west corner of section
15; T13N, R7E.

Average annual precipitation is about 30
inches. Mean annual air temperature is
about 47°F

Beans harvested and plowed.

Loam till

Lake plain

Nearly level. Gradient 0-1%
Elevation is z 595 ft.

Poorly drained
Greater than 150 cm on 9-11-82
None

Slow to very slow

Ap 0-32 cm. Black (10 YR 1/2) loam; friable; moderate fine
granular structure; many very fine roots; 2% rock fragments:
slight effervescence; abrupt smooth boundary.

89 32-45 cm. Gray (5Y5/1) loam; moderate medium and coarse
angular blocky structure; friable; few to common fine
distinct yellowish brown (20 YR 5/6) mottles; few very fine
roots; 2% coarse fragments; very dark gray (10 YR. 3/1) root
channels or animal burrows; few decomposed stones; slight
effervescence; clear wavy boundary.

C1

02

75

45-64 cm. Olive (5Y5/3) loam; weak medium to coarse angular
blocky structure; friable; few very fine roots; 2% coarse
fragments; very dark gray (10 YR 3/1) root channels or animal
burrows; few decomposed rocks; very few shell fragments;
strong effervescence; gradual wavy boundary.

64-150 cm. Reddish brown (5Y5/3) loam; friable; massive;
few decomposed stones; very dary gray (10 YR. 3/1) animal
burrows; 7% coarse fragments; very strong effervescence.

APPENDIX B

CALCIUM CARBONATE EQUIVALENTS DETERMINED

76

Transect No.

1

toooxlmmhwm

NNNNHHHHHHHHHH
wNHosooowmm-bwmr—oo

Location

NW 1/4,
1/41
1/41
1/41
1/41
1/41
1/41
1/41

NW
NE
SE
SW
NE
NW
NE
NW 1/4,
1/41
1/4.
1/4.
1/41
1/4.
1/41
1/41
1/41
1/41
1/41
1/4.
1/41
1/4,
1/41

SE
SW
NW
SE
SW
NW
NW
NE
NW
NE
NE
SE
NW
SE

NE
NW
SE
NE
SW
SW
SE
NE
SE
NW
SE
SW
NE
NW
NE
SW
NE
NE
NW
NW
SW
NE

1/4.
1/4.
1/4.
1/4.
1/4.
1/4.
1/4.
1/4.
1/4.
1/4.
174.
1/4.
1/4.
1/4.
1/4.
1/4.
1/4.
1/4.
1/4,
1/4.
1/4.
1/4.
1/4.

77

Section
Section
Section
Section
Section
Section
Section
Section
Section
Section
Section
Section
Section
Section
Section
Section
Section
Section
Section
Section
Section
Section

Section

20,

—4 —4 -—4 -4 -4 -4 —4 —4 —1 —1 -4 —4 —4 —4 —4 —4 —4 —4 —4 —4 —4 —4 —4

Z Z Z Z Z Z Z Z 2 2 Z 2 Z 2 2 2 Z Z Z
a o o o o o a o o o o o o o o o o a o

2222

R. 10
R. 10
R. 10
R. 6
R. 6
R. 6
R. 6
R. 6
R. 6
R. 6
R. 8
R. 8
R. 7
R. 7
R. 7
R. 7
R. 7
R. 7
R. 7
R. 7
R. 7
R. 7
R. 7

m

rn rn "1 m rn m rn m m m
0 O O O

mmrnrnrnrnm

m
o

m m m m
C

. (Huron)

. (Huron)

(Huron)

. (Bay)
. (Bay)
. (Bay)
. (Saginaw)

(Saginaw)
(Saginaw)
(Saginaw)

(Tuscola)

. (Tuscola)

. (Tuscola)

(Tuscola)

(Tuscola)

. (Tuscola)
. (Tuscola)

. (Tuscola)

(Tuscola)

. (Tuscola)

(Tuscola)

. (Tuscola)

. (Tuscola)

Transect Obs.

1-1

1-2

2-1

2-2

2-3

3-1

3-2

4-1

78

Depth
(cm)

0- 28
28- 60
60-110

0- 3O
30- 45
45- 58
58- 82
82- 90
90-110

0- 25
25- 35
35- 65
65- 85
85-105

0- 25
25- 41
51- 56
56- 78
78- 97
97-130

0- 25
25- 32
32- 49
49- 62
62- 90

7- 27
27- 43
43- 60
60- 98
98-120

0- 32
32-100

100-120

0- 25
25- 50
50- 80
80-115

115-150

CaC03 Equivalent

Transect Obs.

4-2

5-1

6-1

6-2

6-3

7-1

7-3

8-1

8-2

79

Depth
(cm)

0- 30
30- 50
50- 85
85-115

115-150

0- 23
23- 45
45- 85
85-130

0- 20
20- 50
50-110

110-140

0- 30
30- 70
70- 90
90-130

0- 30
30-100
100-140

0- 25
25-110
110-140

0- 30
30- 70
70-140

0- 30
30- 90
90-140

0- 30
30- 75
75-135

0- 30
30- 90
90-120

0- 30
30- 90
90-15-

CaC03 Equivalent

Transect Obs.

8-3

9-1

9-2

10-1

10-2

10-3

11-1

11-2

11-3

12-1

12-2

80

Depth
(cm)

0- 30
30- 75
75-140

9- 30
30- 50
50- 60
60-110

110-140

0- 30
30- 45
45-100

100-150

0- 30
30- 45
45-130

0- 3O
30- 55
55- 80
80-100

100-150

0- 30
30- 75
75-110

110-145

0- 30
30- 50
50-125

0- 35
35- 50
50—150

0- 25
25- 50
50-150

0- 30
30- 40
40-150

0- 3O
30- 50
50-15-

CaC03 Equivalent

Transect Obs.

12-3

13-1

13-2

13-3

14-1

14-2

14-3

14-4

15-1

81

Depth
(cm)

0- 30
30- 50
50-150

0- 25
25- 35
35- 45
45- 90
90-130

0- 25
25- 42
42- 68
68-130

0- 25
25- 50
50- 90
90-110

0- 3O
30- 40
40- 50
50- 85
85-150

0- 30
30- 50
50- 85
85-130

0- 35
35- 50
50-110

0- 32
32- 45
45- 65
65-110

110-150

0- 25
25- 50
50- 90
90-145

CaC03 Equivalent
%

34
35
33

Transect Obs.

15-2

15-3

16-1

16-2

16-3

17-1

17-2

17-3

18-1

82

Depth
(cm)

0- 30
30- 50
50-150

100-150

0- 25
25- 50
50- 85
85-150

0- 3O
30- 40
40- 50
50- 85
85-150

0- 3O
30- 50
50- 85
85-130

0- 30
30- 50
50- 80
80-130

0- 25
25- 47
47- 65
65- 90
90-120

0- 30
30- 43
43- 55
55-125

125-150

0- 25
25- 50
50- 60
60-120

0- 25
25- 50
50- 80
80-150

CaC03 Equivalent

Transect Obs.

18-2

18-3

19-1

19-2

19-3

20-1

20-2

21-1

21-2

83

Depth
(cm)

0- 25
25- 50
50-130

0- 25
25- 50
50-140

0- 30
30- 44
44- 65
65-105

0- 30
30- 43
43- 54
54-120

120-180

0- 33
33- 48
48- 65
65-130

130-150

0- 30
30- 40
40- 6O
60- 75
75-110

110-140

0- 30
30- 40
40- 85
85-120

0- 30
30- 4O
40- 85
85-125

125-150

0- 30
30- 65
65- 95
95-130

CaC03 Equivalent

Transect obs.

22-1

22-2

22-3

23-1

23-2

23-3

23-4

84

Depth
(cm)

0- 25
15- 41
41- 55
55- 75
75-110

110-150

0- 25
25- 4O
40- 55
55-130

130-150

0- 25
25- 40
40- 55
55-130

130-150

0- 30
30- 55
55-100

100-150

0- 30
30- 55
55- 75
75-115

115-150

0- 30
30- 37
37- 90
90-150

0- 3O
30- 45
45- 90
90-150

C8003 Equivalent
%

19
65
36
31
33
30

45
50
49
34
34

 

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85

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