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" lllll illlllllllllfllllmll 31293 00643 7424 This is to certify that the thesis entitled The Relation Between Work Roles and Information Needs in Women's Information—Seeking Behavior presented by Wanda Del Toro has been accepted towards fulfillment of the requirements for Master of Arts degree in Communication f I ‘4» profess/or J 13 1984 Date une ’ 0-7639 MSUis an Affirmative Action/Equal Opportunity Institution MSU LIBRARIES “ RETURNING MATERIAL§: Place in book drop to remove this checkout from your record. FINES will be charged if book is returned after the date stamped below. r 2"!“ “1.3“ 5" J (— 3 his? K . ~ ‘a I ”—11.1 I 260' V ’.‘ 4'91.§ more 2 W APR 0 21% - OD THE RELATION BETWEEN WORK ROLES AND INFORMATION NEEDS IN WOMEN'S INFORMATION-SEEKING BEHAVIOR BY Wanda Del Toro A THESIS Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of MASTER OF ARTS Department of Communication 1984 Accepted by the faculty of the Department of Communication, College of Communication Arts and Sciences, Michigan State University, in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the Master of Arts degree. 0/ / Chairman, / / m a 49W ABSTRACT THE RELATION BETWEEN WORK ROLES AND INFORMATION NEEDS IN WOMEN'S INFORMATION SEEKING BEHAVIOR By Wanda Del Toro This study assessed the relationship between women's work roles and information needs in their information-seeking activity. A model for Women's Information-Seeking Process‘ was presented, and a segment of it was here investigated. The segment under consideration contends that women's in- formation needs and the sources of information used to satisfy these needs are influenced by women's work roles considering the amount of time available. ' A systematic randomized sample of households in a midsized Michigan community produced 623 completed tele- phone interviews. The results indicated that the higher the frequency for an expressed information need, the higher women's information-seeking activity depending on their work roles. In addition, two general trends emerged from the data: a general profile of women's work roles based on their information needs, and a general profile of informa- tion needs based on their work roles and the sources of information used. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I would like to express my most sincere gratitude to my advisor, Dr. Felipe Korzenny, for his guidance and con- tinuous encouragement throughout this project. Our one-hour meetings which extended to three-to-four hours of endless discussions proved to be very enriching and illuminating. Likewise, my thankful appreciation to Dr. Richard V. Farace and to Dr. Bradley S. Greenberg for their help, advice, and support. Furthermore, I thank my assistant in data collection, Phillip Perrin. Phil was always there when I needed him. His responsible, accurate, and always friendly attitude soothed the headaches attached to data collection. Moreover, this project has been presented thanks to the diligence of Cindy Shinabery who did a wonderful typing job and was extremely patient with my modifications. Finally, there are several important people who deserve a special acknowledgement. These are my loving parents, my brother, and my daughter. I will always be grateful to my parents for their endless love and support, but especially 'for taking care of my daughter while I pursue my graduate studies. Hence, thanks to my daughter, the motivating force behind all my efforts, for her patience, understanding, and forgiveness during our temporary separation. ii TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF TABLES LIST OF FIGURES CHAPTER I - INTRODUCTION Why Women . . Sociology of Work Roles Information Needs Information Seeking . . A Theoretical Model of the Information- Seeking Process Main Hypothesis CHAPTER II - METHODS Subjects Procedure Instrument Exogenous Variables Endogenous Variables Description of the Sample Exogenous Variables Endogenous Variables Statistical Analyses CHAPTER III - RESULTS Main Hypothesis . Quantitative Path Models General Profiles . Profiles by Work Roles . Profiles by Information Needs CHAPTER IV - DISCUSSION Conclusions Implications Limitations FOOTNOTE iii Page vi REFERENCES APPENDICES . Appendix Appendix Appendix Appendix Appendix Appendix Appendix Appendix Appendix ICU'TI [Tl U 0 w> TABLE OF CONTENTS (Continued) Pilot Instrument Telephone Survey Questionnaire How to be a Good Interviewer Telephone Numbers Tally Sheet . . Telephone Interviewing Instructions Coding Instructions Job Classifications . Descriptive Statistics for Unaggregated Information Needs . . . . . . . Descriptive Statistics of Information Needs by Work Roles iv Page 97 101 101 110 118 120 121 124 127 Table 10 ll 12 13 LIST OF TABLES Work Roles Age Level of Education . Annual Household Income Marital Status Number of Children . Varimax Rotated Factor Structure for Information Needs One-Item and Low Factor Loadings for Information Needs Which Were Analyzed Independently . Regressions of Information Needs on Work Roles and Demographics Regressions of the Information- Seeking Measures on Information Needs and Time Available R2 and Wilks Approximate F for the Regressions of the Information- Seeking Measures on Information Needs and Time Available-. Regression of Time Available on Work Roles and Demographics Descriptive Statistics of Time Available by Work Roles 44-46 46 57 S8 59 60 61 LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1 Women's Information-Seeking Process 2 Path Model of Women's Work Roles and Their Information-Seeking Activity 3 Modified Path Model of Women's Work Roles and Their Information- Seeking Activity 4 Quantitative Path Model of Professional Workers and Their Information-Seeking Activity 5 Quantitative Path Model of Managers and Their Information-Seeking Activity 6 Quantitative Path Model of Clerical Workers and Their Information- Seeking Activity . . . . 7 Quantitative Path Model of Sales Workers and Their Information- Seeking Activity 8 Quantitative Path Model of Operatives and Their Information-Seeking Activity 9 Quantitative Path Model of Service Workers and Their Information- Seeking Activity 10 Quantitative Path Model of Students and Their Information-Seeking Activity 11 Quantitative Path Model of Retired Workers and Their Information- Seeking Activity vi CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION For years women have been revolutionizing their lives. They have been moving into the labor force, staying single or getting divorced, having fewer children, and going to college in greater numbers than ever before. Thus, women need information to c0pe with their changing roles. Their different work roles create information needs that will vary from woman to woman and from occupation to occupa— tion. As a response to these needs, women will actively seek information through the sources available to them. They will choose a particular medium expecting to obtain the desired information. The acquired information may satisfy those needs providing her with gratifications. Thereafter, women will use the information according to their unique interests. If the need is not satisfied, then women must further seek through alternative channels. Information seeking has not been formally linked to the uses and gratifications approach nor to the expectancy theory of motivation. The uses and gratifications per- spective assumes that individuals select media because of the latter's ability to satisfy or gratify people's needs. It seems to be that information seeking can be encompassed by the uses and gratifications approach, since the informa- tion seeker is an active individual who is looking for a gratification, in this case, "information." On the other hand, the core notion of the expectancy theory of motiva- tion is that the motivational force upon a person to per- form an act depends upon the valence of the outcomes of the act and the expectancy that those outcomes will occur. There- fore, information seeking can be related to expectancy theory, since the information seeker exposes herself to a particular medium because she expects to find the desired information. Focusing the present investigation on women has several implications. Women have long been stereotyped as passive, conformists, insecure, and, in general, not in- formation oriented (Darley, 1976). Women's main occupa- tions ought to contribute to the creation of needs for in- formation. In this study women are seen as active seekers of information influenced by their work roles. Being able to determine which are women's information needs and which are their preferred sources of information can be highly beneficial for society, in general, and for their employers and the mass media, in particular. For in- stance, if women have information needs related to their present jobs, it is important for the employers that these women acquire the desired information, since it will most likely improve their performance in the workplace and, as a possible consequence, will increase their productivity. In relation to the mass media, realizing that they are not reaching segments of their audience can justify restructur- ing aspects of their programming. The mass media contin- uously thrive on the increasing number of their audience, Networks compete to attract each other's audience. The discovery of possible unsatisfied information needs can, therefore, provide the media with new options for attracting and retaining their audience. There are four key aspects in this investigation that need further consideration. First, why women? What makes this group the target of the study? Second, the term work roles needs clarification, since it is prone to misinterpre- tations. Hence, a definition of work roles is imperative together with a discussion of why the study of women's work roles demands researchers' attention. Third, information needs require a workable definition as well as an explana- tion of their role in this study. Finally, information seeking must also be defined within the framework of this project. In addition, a model of the Women's Information- Seeking Process is proposed highlighting the segment of the model that motivates this investigation. Why Women In the last few decades, a profound change has occurred in the labor force participation of women. By 1982 women constituted 52.6 percent of the total labor force (Norwood, 1982). Women have been joining the labor force in increas- ing numbers. Along with this increase, there have been social changes as well as structural changes in the nature of work itself. Virtually no aspect of American society has remained untouched by the rush of women into the labor market since the 19405. The female labor force has changed dramatically in composition and in size. The work force has become younger, marital patterns have changed, fer- tility rates have dropped, and women have increasingly sought higher education (U.S. Department of Labor, 1982). Employed women are changing every sector of society -- from the institution of marriage to their consumer behavior. The rise in the numbers of employed women has been a subtle revolution (Hoffman G Nye, 1974; Myrdal, 1956; Stromberg G Harkess, 1978). Economists contend that it is employed women who are helping maintain high standards of living in the face of inflation (Stromberg 8 Harkess, 1978; Waite, 1981). Women are getting and holding on to male-dominated positions in the work force. With this flow into male- dominated occupations has come a change in women's role in general. The number of children from women who are in professional areas are shrinking, and husbands are sharing in the wives' home responsibilities and in child rearing (Fogarty, Rapoport, G Rapoport, 1971; Stromberg G Harkess, 1978). Women are moving out of the house and into the office and factory, taking over jobs that men used to dominate. However, women and men work for similar reasons: to provide for their own welfare, their families, or others. As indicated by the U.S. Department of Labor (1982), "about two-thirds of the women in the labor force worked to support themselves and their families, or to supplement low family incomes. Of course, all women in the paid labor force or those working at home contribute to the well-being of themselves and their families” (p. 1). The women's movement has also contributed to the in- crease in women's labor force participation. The way society has been structured rewards typically masculine qualities. Hence, the women's movement is also leading the change toward a greater acceptance of androgyny. As Robinson (1977) states: With the rising education of women, we have seen more concern with equalizing their bread- winning role in the world of work and a libera- tion from their traditional role as child-bearers and "house” wives. The equalization or libera- tion of women has in turn been one impetus toward their increased participation in the world of work, with its lags in marriage and child- bearing. (p. 1) Therefore, a combination of economic and psychological needs mediated by their marital status, number of children, educational level, and family income appear to be motiva- ting women to work. Women's potential earnings are also a major determinant of whether or not they choose to work and, thus, accumulate experience. More experience leads to higher earnings. Consequently, altering any of these variables is likely to trigger a change in women's roles. Although not all women have the same preferences and priorities, these appear to be changing over time. These trends suggest the changing roles of women. Due in part to the growth of female labor participa- tion, sociologists have begun to give more attention to women's work roles in the labor market and in the home (National Commission for Manpower Policy, 1978). Until recently, little attention had been devoted to women. Attention had been concentrated on male—dominated occupa- tions neglecting female-dominated ones (Stromberg 8 Harkess, 1978). The labor force participation of women had been seen as slightly important compared to that of men. An argument supporting male dominance relates to the traditional male and female stereotypes: "men are breadwinners and women are wives or widows; men provide necessary income for their families, but women do not; women and families are supported by men not women" (Blaxall G Reagan, 1976, p. 8). These stereotypes have delayed the attention to women's work roles and their important contri- bution to society. The role of women in the working world varies con- stantly; this is particularly so in our contemporary in- formation society. The increased use of technology in working environments is producing changes in the composi- tion and structure of work roles. For instance, consider the clerical positions and in particular the role of a typist. Traditional methods of typing are gradually being replaced by word processors. Consequently, due to the efficiency and time reducing capabilities of this new tool, the ”typist” role has had to transform in order to adjust to technological innovations.‘ Because of the rapid increase of working women, their roles are gaining in importance as they vary in response to environmental changes. There- fore, women need information to c0pe with these changes. Sociology of Work Roles Work can be defined as a "goal-directed expenditure of energy" (Vroom, 1964, p. 42). This definition implies that almost everyone works -- students, volunteers in com- munity organizations, and housewives, as well as partici- pants in the labor force (Stromberg G Harkess, 1978). Work is not considered as synonymous to paid employment; hence, workers are not equivalent to those employed or seeking employment. By definition, the labor force in- cludes peOple either seeking employment or holding paid jobs (U.S. Department of Labor, 1976). Pe0p1e not in the labor force are "those not classified as employed or un- employed; this group includes persons retired, those engaged in their own housework, those not working while attending school, those unable to work because of long-term illness, those discouraged from seeking work because of personal or job market factors and those who are voluntarily idle" (U.S. Department of Labor, 1976, p. S). For the women involved, household responsibilities at home represent a particular occupation, a kind of work. Similarly, for students who are pursuing some academic goals which require performance of specific tasks -- a kind of work. Moreover, students will join either the paid or unpaid workers after attaining their academic goals or while doing so. That these particular work roles are not classified as occupations affects many employment studies. "Women at work, their accomplishments, and even their pro- ductive potential are measured and analyzed by standards and terminology developed for the labor force, even where (as in the case of women's work at home) these are inap- propriate" (Stromberg 6 Harkess, 1978, p. 14). There are several misconceptions about housework. In general, it is thought that housewives work fewer hours, at their own pace, and less strenuously, than other workers (Hoffman G Nye, 1974; Stromberg G Harkess, 1978). Although housewives use many labor-saving appliances and services, many researchers have shown that housewives continue to work long hours (Oakley, 1974; Smuts, 1971; Vanek, 1974). Furthermore, many married women are housewives in addition to holding paid jobs. ”Indeed, if we consider keeping house as an occupation, then it is by far the most impor- tant occupation . . . which shows approximately the same distribution of intelligence and of all aptitudes as the general population” (Caplow, 1954, p. 260). LOpata (1971) also argues that being a housewife is a full—time job re- quiring skills and responsibilities towards herself, her family, and society which are no less important than those corresponding to any other occupation. Work has served as a foundation for the conceptualiza- tion of the structure of society (Caplow, 1954; Stromberg G Harkess, 1978). What is to be studied in the sociology of the work has been constrained by the concept of labor force. The labor force includes those seeking employment and those holding paid jobs; it excludes the unpaid workers. Thus, the category labor force is not congruent with women's work reality. Since analytic categories are only tools for approaching the empirical world, the U.S. Department of Labor's Occupational Classification for Women (U.S. Depart- ment of Commerce, 1973) plus the classifications for unpaid workers will be used in this study as the measure of women's work roles. This synthesis provides a better understanding of the work lives of women considering all women who work, whether for pay or not. A common and condensed categorization of paid workers is by type of worker and occupation (Stromberg G Harkess, 1978). They are: l) White-collar workers which include professional-technical workers, nonfarm managers and ad- ministrators, clerical workers, and sales workers; 2) Blue- collar workers which include craft and kindred workers, Operatives including transport, and nonfarm laborers; 3) Service workers which include private household workers, and all other service workers; and 4) Farm workers which in- clude farmers and farm managers, farm laborers and supervisors. 10 The more education a woman has, the more likely she is to be in the labor force. According to Krause (1971), the American educational system can be viewed as the key to the present occupational structure of the society. Occupa- tions could be considered as links between individuals and society. The occupations perform a mediating role between the aims, goals and needs of the individuals and those of society. Any changes in the organization of society may lead to a change in employment opportunities and job re- cruitment of workers. Depending on the type of occupation, the individual can establish a relationship with her oc- cupation, or the occupation can bear down on her to the point where she is made over in the image of the occupa- tion. Either way, information is needed to create this relationship. "The underlying sociological rationale seek to look at the character of work as a shaper of the character of individuals" (Bell, 1979, p. 178). Women can build lines of communication within their organizations so that they can receive and share important and necessary information. Putting women in contact with necessary information, as well as building ties between women, employers, educators, and the government involves extensive networking. Ideas and actions in the form of information flow in and among networks and much is accom- plished through loose, informal arrangements (Blaxall G Reagan, 1976). Everyone is part of a network, and most networks are informal. For example, a woman's relationship 11 with her family form one type of network; her business contacts form another (Blaxall 8 Reagan, 1976). However, these connections are ever-changing. Therefore, informa- tion obtained by women from their networking can be a powerful tool; for instance, if prOperly used, this infor- mation can help her cope with environmental changes as well as provide a basis for constructing or opening new lines of communication within their respective work roles. Information Needs Women's information needs and sources of information is a t0pic demanding more theoretical and practical con- cern. Perhaps there is more pressure to define the type of information that a woman needs to assure her well- being in contemporary society. In this study, needs will refer to a requirement of information essential or de- sirable that is perceived as lacking. Obviously, infor- mation needs are diverse among women, but an overlap in certain basic information needs is expected. One of the concerns of this study is the correspondence between women's information needs and their work roles. The present information society has brought about changes in the labor force. New technology has affected the amount and kind of jobs available. Along with these changes there have also been changes in women's roles. These changes began to attract attention when women env tered the labor force (Coser, 1980; Frieze, Paisons, 12 Johnson, Ruble, G Zellman, 1978). Since this entry has had an impact in society's composition and structure, women need information to cope with their changing roles. Their wide array of work roles also create information needs. Of course, information needs vary among women and their corresponding work roles. But women will actively seek information through the sources available to them in order to satisfy these needs. She will select a particular medium expecting to obtain the desired information. The acquired information may satisfy those needs providing her with gratifications. Notwithstanding, women will use this information according to their unique interests. If the need is not satisfied, then alternative sources may be used to seek the information. Information Seeking The present "Information Age" has focused on the con- struct information, and researchers have devoted increasing attention to the processes of information seeking. Infor- mation has been conceptualized and operationalized in di- verse ways. Some scholars approach information as external to the individual, providing a complete description of reality so it can be quantitatively and unidimensionally measured (Dervin, Jacobson, G Nilan, 1982). An alterna- tive approach views information as capable of providing only an incomplete description of reality. In addition, 13 this second relativistic approach assumes that information exists internally in the individual; thus, it can be mea- sured in terms of multidimensional qualities (Dervin, Jacobson, G Nilan, 1982). In this second approach, indi- viduals actively participate in information seeking and use in order to make sense out of their world (Dervin, 1976). Information seeking will be defined in this study as an activity the individual engages in to gather essential or desirable data that are perceived as lacking. Informa- tion seeking appears to be influenced by certain social factors that incline peOple to use some information sources rather than others (Beinstein, 1977). A Theoretical Model of the Information—Seeking Process The process of women's information seeking proposed in this investigation (see Figure 1) has conceptual ties to the expectancy value theory of uses and gratifications advanced by Palmgreen and Rayburn (1982). This theory integrates the expectancy theory of social psychology and the mass media uses and gratifications approach, dis- tinguishing between gratifications sought and gratifications obtained. Vroom (1964) popularized the expectancy theory of motivation with his model proposing that motivation is equal to the product of expectancy, valence, and instru- mentality. This theory considers the interface of the in- dividual with the situation and the environment. Therefore, 14 the likelihood that women will select a particular medium depends on their expectation that a message of interest will follow their choice, and on how important that message is in satisfying their personal needs. 'On the other hand, the uses and gratifications approach assumes that people select a particular medium while searching for a particular content because of that medium's ability to satisfy or gratify their needs. Moreover, the uses and gratifications perspective states that mass media are functional alterna- tives for gratifying needs (Cazeneuve, 1974). According to Palmgreen, Wenner, and Rayburn (1981), the expectancy perspective of gratifications sought is de- fined as the "seeking of a particular outcome mediated by the expectancy of obtaining the outcome, times the evalua- tion of the outcome" (Palmgreen 6 Rayburn, 1982, p. 565). Analogously, in the process of women's information seeking, gratifications or satisfactions are sought from a medium X, with the belief that X possesses some attribute or that a behavior related to X will have a particular outcome which is important to her; subsequently, she evaluates the parti- cular attribute or outcome. A woman's purpose in behaving must be analyzed with respect to the person's perceived likelihood that her action will lead to a certain outcome or goal and with respect to the valence of said outcome. The specific outcomes that a person attains depends both on her choices and on the events beyond her control. Thus, 15 personal cognitive needs will motivate women to seek or expose themselves to varying amounts of information. Although, in general, this model may also be applicable to men, what makes it idiosyncratic of women is the fact that the process is first initiated from the current work roles of women. Given the emergence of androgyny and the fact that women are getting and holding on to male-domi- nated positions, they are bound to be more conscious of their information needs in order to succeed in the present male-dominated societal structure. Hence, every woman has her individual needs for information. The eventual satis- faction of these needs goes through several stages in the information-seeking process. 16 Women in their current work roles (-——' 3> Establish information need E <——— Information seeking—l {—— Information obtained Q dz k— Satisfaction of No satisfaction .J information need of information need Uses of the information Figure 1. Women's Information-Seeking Process 17 Establishing the need, Before women can seek any in- formation, they ought to have a need for said information. They should realize the existence of a gap (i.e., something that is lacking) that is to be filled by the acquired in- formation. Therefore, establishing a need is a prerequisite for any information-seeking activity. Nevertheless, it is certainly true that women, as well as pe0p1e in general, are bombarded by numerous messages, and that they may selectively attend or perceive some but not others depending on their particular interests. Fur- thermore, based on their selectivity, they will obtain some information on certain topics. However, in this situation they become acquainted with the information without actively seeking it. Notwithstanding, the knowledge gained by this information may establish needs they were not previously aware of and for which they may seek additional informa- tion. Hence, a distinction can be drawn between information sought and information selectively exposed to in order to reduce the overload of messages produced by the media and/ or by interpersonal channels. The focus of this study is on information actively sought by women. Information seeking. Now that the woman is aware of her need for information, she actively engages in the infor- mation—seeking activity. Various sources can be used to seek the desired information. Women may seek information 18 from the mass media or through interpersonal relations. The channel or channels she chooses depends on the type and availability of the information she seeks, the time avail- able, and her relatively easy access to the channel. At this point where women are actively seeking the needed information, they are being exposed (selectively or not) to a wide variety of data. In the next stage, they will selectively perceive the data they will process and convert into information. Information obtained. From all the sources of infor- mation available to her, the woman chooses the particular source where she will get the information. That is, she acquires the particular data from a particular source(s), and she converts the data into information. This informa- tion is retained or stored for further use. The degree to which women can get the desired information is contingent upon its availability. If this information is not cur- rently available to them, the information need will not be satisfied. As previously stated, this has implications, especially for the mass media. This situation leads to the fourth stage of the process. Satisfaction versus no satisfaction. If the informa- tion acquired by the woman is the information she needed and/or wanted, then that need is said to be satisfied. Thus, this information will be retained and may later be retrieved for use (Weick, 1979). How women use this 19 information is a function of their work roles and of mul- tiple factors such as motivations, attitudes, individual interests, aspirations, age, education, to mention just a few. The retrieval of the information and its subsequent use will trigger and establish additional needs which will start another 100p in the process. On the other hand, if the woman perceives that the acquired information is inadequate, incomplete or irrelevant to her needs, then it can be said that the need for infor- mation is not satisfied. This information may or may not be retained depending on the degree of relevance of this information to her particular needs. Consequently, she is still aware of this unsatisfied need which starts another loop in the process of information seeking, perhaps uti- lizing alternative channels. As seen the information-seeking process is complex. It goes through several stages, and the gathering of infor- mation may or may not be gratifying. The present investi- gation will focus on a segment of the information-seeking model. The contention is that the type of work role (in- cluding paid and unpaid workers) will create or sustain in- formation needs. Women will seek this information by ex- posing themselves to different sources of information in order to satisfy those needs. 80 this study will attempt to determine women's information needs as influenced by their work roles and the sources of information used con- sidering the amount of time available. 20 Information Needs \ Work Roles - Information Seeking Time / vailable Figure 2. Path Model of Women's Work Roles and Their Information-Seeking Activity. Note: Arrows denote the causal paths. It should be noted that other independent variables are closely related to the work roles variable. Work roles do not exist in a vacuum, rather they combine with variables such as age, income, education, marital status, and number of children to produce the information needs. Therefore, there is a high probability that these factors will produce spurious relations between women's work roles and their in- formation-seeking behavior. As will be indicated in the Procedure section, these variables will be controlled for when conducting statistical analyses in order to attempt to exclude alternative explanations in the possible causal link between work roles and information seeking. Main Hypothesis The segment of the information-seeking process under investigation suggests the principal hypothesis of this study: H1: The higher the frequency of an expressed information need, the higher the woman's 21 information-seeking activity depending on her work role and the amount of time available. It is expected that the type of work role will create information needs. Women will establish their information needs as an antecedent that motivates them to engage in information seeking. The different work roles will influv ence women's disposable time. So the time available will be considered as a variable contemporary to the information needs in women's information-seeking activity. Women in paid work roles exist in a continuously changing and turbulent environment. They are likely to need educational and job—related information for maintaining their current work roles and for advancing in their work environment. News information may also be needed to keep on top of events and to appear as knowledgeable in their work settings. Since these women may be more self-conscious due to their self-presentation in their everyday lives (Frieze, et.a1., 1978) it is likely that they may be oriented towards information about women. Based on the work role trends of women, students are expected to be more similar to these occupational categories (National Commission for Manpower Policy, 1978; Smuts, 1971; U.S. Department of Labor, 1982). Working women are considered to have less time avail- able to expose themselves to broadcast media, other than 22 prime-time. Therefore, radio is expected to be used for news information since radio's prime-time hours occur during their daily commuting period to and from work (Greenberg, in press). Furthermore, it is expected that working women will seek educational and job-related infor- mation more frequently from interpersonal sources due to time constraints imposed by their work roles (Ginzberg, 1966; Steeves and Bostian, 1980; Waite, 1981). They will tend to seek educational and job-related information from their established informal networks (Blaxall G Reagan, 1976). Because of the nature of their work role, students are also expected to seek more information about women and news from the print media. Print media are more versatile. Students are likely to have relatively easy access to at least their own school newspaper. In addition, the popular use of the Walkman and portable transistor radios increases the likelihood that students will use these means to seek information about the world and not only for entertainment, relaxation, escapism, or companionship motives. Considering the educational environment to which they are continuously exposed, it is expected for them to seek educational and job-related information from their informal networks. Television is not expected to be highly used for infor- mation-seeking because it is believed that working women use TV prime-time mainly for relaxation and escapism (Butler F q Paisley, 1980). Neither is television expected to be 23 used as a source of news information for the student group. Students have a preference to use television for soap opera viewing and for entertainment (Korzenny & Del Toro, 1984). In American society, the ideology still exists which limits housewives to constricted family roles. The house— wife is seen as Cloistered within their home walls having limited interpersonal contacts (LOpata, 1971). The inter- personal contacts are limited to their family networks. Hence, it is less likely that she will seek information more often from interpersonal sources (Butler G Paisley, 1980). They will tend to be more media oriented. Service jobs are traditional stereotypical occupa- tions defining appropriate roles for women which limit women's Options. Therefore, it is expected that service workers will have information-seeking patterns similar to those of housewives (Fogarty, Rapoport, 8 Rapoport, 1971; Stromberg & Harkess, 1978). Women have been able to enter into the semiskilled and skilled blue-collar jobs. Although their employment in this sector has grown, little research has been done on blue-collar women (Roby, 1975). Similar to homemakers, blue-collar workers are expected to be more consumer and family oriented, preferring mass media rather than inter? personal channels as their sources of information. Even though they have their family networks, information related to their family will most likely be sought from sources outside the system so as to decrease entrOpy. Due to the 24 nature and constraints of their work role, they will probably use more mass media sources. Finally, retired workers are no longer active partici- pants in the labor force. They are expected to have the largest amounts of disposable time and to prefer mass media channels for family related information. Although some re- tired persons engage in community activities, most of their time is spent at home (Oakley, 1974; Stromberg G Harkess, 1978). As women get older, they tend to use the media more often to satisfy their information needs (Butler 8 Paisley, 1980). CHAPTER II METHODS This chapter will begin by describing how the sample was selected, followed by the procedures and instruments used. In addition, the sample obtained will be described based on the exogenous and endogenous variables. Finally, , the statistical procedures for the analysis of the data will be presented. Subjects Six hundred twenty-three women, 18 years old and older, were randomly selected from the Lansing telephone directOry, and were interviewed by telephone.1 The telephone survey was preferred in order to obtain a more representative sample of the population of women. The groups of interest included both paid and unpaid workers. Through the tele- phone survey, these women could be reached at home without intruding in their workplace. Notwithstanding, the survey is obtrusive. Telephone interviews are unnatural intru- sions at a single point in time into the individual's everyday life. As such, people are fully aware of being the subjects of the study. 25 26 However, relative to other types of research, a survey can obtain in a short time a lot of information about many people in many places (Kerlinger, 1973). Furthermore, this method is confidential, fast, cheap, and free of many perceptual biases; over 90 percent of the homes have phones. Considering a margin of error due to sampling, surveys can be used to generalize about many types of women char« acterized by their work roles by studying only a few of them. Procedure Nine undergraduate students enrolled in junior and senior communication courses at Michigan State University during the Summer session of 1983 were trained to conduct a pilot study and a telephone survey (refer to Appendix A for the pilot instrument and to Appendix B for the tele- phone survey). Sixty-eight pilot interviews were conducted as a pre- liminary step in order to determine women's information needs and time use. The name and addresses of the inter- viewees were systematically selected with a random start from the Polk's Lansing City Directory (1983). The Polk Directory is an alphabetical listing of all business firms and individuals, 18 years and older, residing or employed within their canvass areas. As part of the training for conducting the interviews, the interviewers were given instructions on how to ask the questions (see Appendix C). 27 Interviewers had practice sessions in which mock interviews were held in order to increase their confidence and mastery of the questionnaire as well as of the interview situation. The information needs gathered through the pilot study were combined with those suggested in the studies of Steeves and Bostian (1980), Frank and Greenberg (1980), and Williams, Dordick, and Horstmann (1977), to produce the first question of the telephone survey (see Appendix B). Of these previous studies, only Steeves and Bostian's focused on women. However, their purpose was to create a typology of employed women as related to their use of time. Women's use of time, as suggested by Steeves and Bostian's study as well as by question 13 of the pilot study, emerged as a variable that could strongly intervene in women's in- formation-seeking behavior. Although the other two pre- vious studies dealt with males and females, all three studies proved to be very useful as a check of the inclu- sion of a wide variety of information needs that would be sufficiently generalizable. The instrument for the telephone survey was pretested in preparation for the main survey. The interviewers re« ceived an intensive training to minimize errors in telephone interviewing and in the coding of data. In these train- ing sessions, interviewers were warned against forging data. They were trained to scrutinize the questionnaire for errors, omissions, and ambiguous codifications. These training sessions helped keep hang-ups and respondents' 28 unc00perativeness to a minimum. Interviewers received questionnaire instructions as well as telephone inter- viewing instructions (see Appendix E), and coding in- structions (see Appendix F). A random sample was drawn to represent the views of the population. A total of 2106 phone numbers were called during the telephone survey. This study was oversampled in order to fill up the work roles cells so as to have minimum quotas that would allow to make statistical com- parisons. The numbers were obtained by drawing a syste- matic sample with a random start from the Lansing Tele- phone Directory, with the last two digits randomized to account for unlisted numbers and to maximize representa- tiveness within the different work role strata. Inter+ viewees were encouraged to respond honestly to minimize the fact that they could respond differently from how they might if they were unaware of the researcher's interest in them. A final sample of 623 women was obtained after ac- counting for hang-ups, business and disconnected numbers. The telephone survey was conducted during weekday evenings and all day Saturdays and Sundays. The telephone numbers were distributed to the interviewers in the form that appears under Appendix D. The interviewers were in- structed to try each number at least three times at dif- ferent times, before proceeding to the next one as substiv tution. They were also advised against substituting another 29 person for any of the assigned phone numbers. Additional telephone interviewing instructions may be found in Apv pendix E. In order to check if the numbers listed on the questionnaires were actually interviewed, 249 of the com- pleted interviews were randomly verified (approximately 40%). Instrument The questionnaire for the telephone survey consisted of items designed to determine the areas in which women need information, and which sources they use for informa— tion seeking. The instrument had three parts: 1) Pre— quency of experiencing information needs, 2) Exposure to sources of information or information-seeking, and 3) Demo- graphics. Appendix B provides a copy of the instrument used. The exogenous variables were work roles along with other demographic variables such as age, income, education, marital status, and number of children. Amount of fixed time and amount of flexible time were also independent variables. Information needs were considered as antecedent variables to the information-seeking activity. However, in the causal model tested, information needs constituted an intervening step. Although the main exogenous variable of interest was women's work roles, the rest of the demo- graphic independent variables were measured, because they may potentially confound the true relationship between 30 work roles, information needs, and the informationxseeking activity. Following is the operationalization of the exogenous and endogenous variables. Exogenous variables Demographics. Interviewers were asked their age. To qualify as a respondent, women must have been 18 years old or older. Education was measured by asking respondents to indicate the highest level of education they had completed. They were provided with several categories ranging from ”8th grade or less" to "completion of an M.A. or Ph.D." Income was measured through a question that provided ranges from which the reSpondent selected the one which most ap— prOpriately described her household income. The categories ranged from "under $5,000" to "over $40,000." Income was measured because the higher the income, the higher the probability that they will have more sources of information available. Respondents were also asked to state their marital status and the number of children they had. Work roles were measured by asking respondents to state their main occupation. The respondents were asked to specify their job title, place of work, and type of work. The purpose of this threewpart question was to be able to determine as unambiguously as possible respondents' cur- rent work roles. Paid workers were classified according to the Intermediate Occupational Classification for Females (103 Items) with Component Detailed Items (U.S. Department 31 Of Commerce, 1973). This listing presents twelve main job classifications (see Appendix G). These categories were adapted to suit interviewees' responses as follows: Professional, Technical, and Kindred WOrkers. Pro« fessional occupations usually require college training and specialized study in a specific field, such as accounting, engineering, science, education, nursing, medical practice, counseling, and journalism, among others. Other profes— sional occupations require great skill or experience in a particular field. These include art, music, acting, and other forms of entertainment.' Technical occupations generally require some postsecondary specialized training in a field. Technicians work with and under the super- vision of professional workers. Managers and Administrators, except Farm. These are office employees who run or help run businesses or other organizations. Most of these jobs require a college degree from diverse fields. This classification also includes self-employed businesswomen. Sales Workers. These are generally employed in retail trade stores, manufacturing, and wholesale firms, insurance companies, and real estate agencies. Jobs in this category range from salesclerks to more specialized occupations re« quiring more education. Clerical and Kindred Workers. This is the largest occupational group and includes bank tellers, cashiers, secretaries, typists, file clerks, receptionists, office 32 machine operators, and telephone operators, among others. Clerical workers range from highly skilled such as execu- tive secretaries to relatively unskilled jobs such as messengers and file clerks. Crafts and Kindred Workers. This classification in- cludes a wide variety of highly skilled workers such as carpenters, machinists, tool and die makers, electricians, and plumbers. Many skilled workers learn their jobs through an on-the-job training or via apprenticeships. Others learn through educational training programs in trade, technical, or vocational schools.. Operatives, including Transport. This group includes production workers such as assemblers, painters, welders, spinners, weavers, stitchers, and Operators in specialized processing equipment in the food, paper, leather, chemical, metal, and petroleum industries. Transport Operatives drive buses, trucks, forklifts, taxis, and are parking at- tendants, among Others. Laborers, including Farm. This category includes gar- bage collectors, construction laborers, and freight and stock handlers. Most of the learning occurs on-thevjob and usually requires little formal training. Farmers, farm managers, and farm laborers also pertain to this category. Service Workers, including Private Household Workers. Service occupations include a wide range of jobs in food service, such as cooks and food servers; cleaning services; protective services, such as police, firefighters, and guards; health services, such as practical nurses, nursing aides, dental assistants, and hospital attendants; personal service, such as hairdressers, cosmetologists, barbers, airline stewardesses, and welfare service aides; and priv vate household service, such as child care, maids, and cleaning jobs. The educational level for these jobs range from no formal training to one or two years of training or education. Categories for unpaid workers were formed from re- spondents' answers as follows: Homemakers, Students, Re- tired, and Unemployed. A homemaker was defined as a woman who does not work for pay outside her home, and/or for whom housework constitutes her full-time work role. Homemakers may or may not have been seeking employment. Either way they remained classified as homemakers since that is the way they perceived themselves. In other words, they acknowledged homemaking as their main work role. The cate- gory Of students included women whose work role consist of attaining an education, and who perceive "student" as their main work role. Retired implies previous employment, but these women are no longer part of the labor force nor are seeking re-entry because they reached retiring age. After retirement, the principal work of these women may be home~ makers. It should be noted though, that the two categories, homemakers and retired, encompass two different types of women with different information needs emerging from their work roles. Women were classified in these categories 34 according to their perception of being a "homemaker" or ”retired." Unemployed women are considered as part of the labor force, but were not employed at the time of the survey, even though they were available for work (U.S. Department of Labor, 1976). Endogenous variables Information needs were defined as a requirement of essential or desirable data that are perceived as lacking. As previously stated, this study is concerned with the in- formation needs established by the women. In other words, the woman has perceived a gap she may fill be seeking in- formation through particular channels. The establishment of this need was measured as the frequency with which they need a particular type of information. The information need items included in the instrument were considered to be adequate and representative of the universe of informa- tion needs. The items were selected as follows. First, a pilot study was conducted to explore areas in which women need information as well as their use of time. The pilot study has already been described in the Procedure section. Second, the information needs found in the pilot study were combined with information needs elicited in the studies of Steeves and Bostian (1980), Frank and Greenberg (1980), and Williams, Dordick, and Horstmann (1977). In- terviewees were asked if they frequently, sometimes, rarely, or never needed these types Of information. Refer 35 to Appendix B, question 1, for the information needs used in the telephone survey. As per Frank and Greenberg's (1980) study, the information needs were arranged in alphabetical order to reduce bias in the ordering of the items. Information seekipg_was defined in this study as an activity the woman engaged in to gather essential or desir- able facts that she perceived as lacking. This variable was measured by their exposure tO mass media and inter- personal sources in order to acquire the information they needed. Thus, for each of the information needs, respon- dents were asked which medium they frequently, sometimes, rarely, or never used to look for the particular type of information. Mass media were followed by interpersonal sources, and they were also arranged in alphabetical order. The sources of information provided were books, magazines, newspapers, radio, television, coworkers, family and friends, professionals, and others. Time available. Several questions were asked to mea- sure the amount of available time women had. Three ques- tions focused on the amount of fixed or nondisposable time. Two of them aimed at determining the amount of time they spend working for pay inside and outside their home, ex- cluding housework. The third question probed the amount of time spent in housework. The more hours they have com- mitted to their main work role, the less time they will have available to expose themselves to sources of 36 information, such as mass media and interpersonal channels. Consequently, these women were expected to be more selective in the information channels they chose. Description of the Sample Exogenous variables A description of the sample respondents according to their main work role, age, income, marital status, and number of children follows. As previously indicated, com- pliance with minimal quotas lead to oversampling. There- fore, high agreement with census data should not be ex— pected. Work roles was the main exogenous variable of in— terest. The sample represented women in the Lansing area. Table 1 presents the percentages of respondents in each work role category. Almost 70% of the sample were employed women while approximately 30% were unpaid workers. The . crafts, laborers, and unemployed categories were deleted from future statistical analyses because of the small per- cent Of respondents in each of these categories. Signifi- cant and generalizable conclusions cannot be derived from such a small representation. 37 Table 1 Work Roles Percent N Professionals and Technicians 16.4% 102 Managers and Administrators 8.5 53 Saleswomen 9.3 58 Clerical Workers 18.3 114 Crafts Workers .2 l Operatives, including Transport 7.9 49 Laborers, including Farm .2 1 Service Workers 9.0 56 Homemakers 12.2 76 Students 7.7 48 Retired 7.7 48 Unemployed 2.2 14 TOTALS 99.6% 620 The sample was relatively young with a median age Of 34.5, a mean Of 37.7, and a modal age group of 26-35 which constitutes almost one-fourth of the sample. third of the sample are over 45 years of age. sents this sample profile. Less than one- Table 2 pre- 38 Table 2 Age (N=592) (in years) . Percent 18-20 ' 10.9% 21-25 16.4 26-35 24.9 36-45 18.6 46-55 14.5 56-65 8.6 Over 65 5.9 Since women have been increasingly seeking higher educa- tion, the sample was expected to reflect this trend. Table 3 indicates that approximately 68% Of the sample had some education beyond high school, and that 61% had some college. It should be noted, though, that 70% Of the sample were working women and that 8% were students. However, this distribution emphasizes the consistent interest of women in increasing their level of education. 39 Table 3 Level of Education (N=621) Percent 8th grade or less .1% Some high school . .2 High school graduate 26.0 Trade/technical/vocational 7.1 Some college . 24.4 2 yr. college graduate 10.0 4 yr. college graduate 14.3 Post college graduate work 6.4 Completed an M.A. or Ph.D. 6.3 Table 4 shows the annual household income for the sample respondents. Over 50% reported an annual house- hold income above $15,000. The mean and the median fell in the range from $25,000 to $30,000, with the mode in the over $40,000 range. Table 4 Annual Household Income (N=537) Percent Under $5,000 4.2% $5,001-$10,000 6.6 $10,001-$15,000 11.9 $15,001-$20,000 12.4 $20,001-$25,000 12.4 $25,001-$30,000 10.8 $30,001-$40,000 10.6 Over $40,000 17.5 40 Over half of the respondents were married (55.7%), one- fourth were single, and 10.3% were divorced as indicated in Table 5. The more formal obligations a woman has, the less time she will have available to seek information. Table 5 Marital Status (N=622) Percent Single 25.7% Married 55.7 Divorced 10.3 Widowed 6.7 Other 1.4 The number of children has declined for the contemporary woman. This was confirmed by a mean of 1.74 and a median of 1.57 for the sample respondents. This was expected since 70% Of the sample were working women and 8% were students. This shrinkage is consistent with the movement of women into the labor force. As women assume new work roles, they have less time for child care, and those who have less number of children will tend to have a lesser need for information con? cerning child care. Since 34.3% report having no children, then over 60% of the sample respondents have one or more children, with 37.1% having one or two. 41 Table 6 Number of Children (N=599) Percent No children 34.3% One child 13.8 2 children 23.3 3 children 14.1 4 children 6.3 5 children 3.2 6 children 2.4 7 children 1.0 8 or more children 1.0 Endogenous variables The 43 information needs, the nine information-seeking measures, and the time available were the endogenous variables. A factor analysis was run on the information needs as a data reduction tool. Factor analysis is a procedure for in- vestigating the possibility that a large number of variables have a small number of factors in common which account for their intercorrelations. The method of factor analysis sorts out a complex set of variables into groups or clusters. It may give some insight about the underlying dimension which each cluster represents. Methods which yield factor loadings provide some indication of the extent of the relationship between the cluster and an individual variable. But it is up 42 to the researcher to interpret the results and determine whether there are any meaningful patterns. The utility of this method is that one may have a better understanding for the observed interrelations in the data through the reduction Of the data to a smaller set of factors. Factor analysis was very applicable to the present in- vestigation in order to explore how the 43 information needs clustered together reducing the number of information needs to a more manageable number having an interpretable conceptual meaning. Rather than subjecting the data to a priori judgments as to what categories to use, data taken directly from the re- spondents was used. With this tool, patterning of variables were explored and detected in order to reduce the data and create indices to be used as new variables in later analyses. All respondents were asked for the frequency in which they needed 43 types of information. The 43 x 43 correlation matrix was subjected to a principal components analysis with communalities in the main diagonal. This was followed by a varimax rotation of factors having eigenvalues greater than or equal to 1.00. The resulting eleven factors accounted for 56.8% of the variance in the correlation matrix. The factor loadings are the simple correlations between each original information need and the new factor. A loading greater than or equal to .31 was the criterion used to retain an information need within a factor. Although generally a .35 criterion is used, the factors with loadings between .31 and .34 were considered to have strong conceptual ties with 43 their underlying dimensions; therefore, they were kept in the factor in which they had the largest loading. In the case of Money Management, its load was .31 both under Factor 1 and Factor 2. Hence, this variable was deleted from the factors due to lack of discrimination among them. How~ ever, this item was used independently, because Steeves and Bostian's (1980) study had indicated that it was a type Of information needed by employed women. Factor eleven was a one-item factor, Advertising, with a loading of .48. The remaining factors with loadings greater than or equal to .31 are presented in Table 7. These factors were named according to the underlying dimension they seemed to repre- sent. These labels will be used to refer to these new variables throughout this study. In addition, communali- ties are indicated. The communality of each variable refers to the total variance of the variable accounted for by the combination Of all common factors. Eigenvalues for each factor as well as the precentage of total variance accounted for in the entire set of 43 information needs are also presented in Table 7. The one‘item factor and those needs with loadings below .31, including the ambiguous case Of Money Management, are presented in Table 8. The informav tion needs in Table 8 were not discarded since they were considered important enough in their own right to merit inclusion in the regression analyses. Thus, the 43 infor- mation needs were reduced to ten composite measures and six independent information needs. 44 Table 7 Varimax Rotated Factor Structure for Information Needs Loadings Commu- Eigen- Percent Of nalities values Variance FACTOR 1: Comprehensive News Information 8.89 20.7 Community Issues .63 .46 Economy .47 .43 Int'l. News .53 .48 Local News .66 .47 National News .78 .60 Politics .47 .45 State News .82 .61 FACTOR 2: Family and House- hold Activities 3.12 7.3 Cooking Ideas .38 .27 Family Relation- ships .36 .40 Housekeeping/ House Care ’67 '39 Personal Care .59 .48 Relations with Others .37 .34 Religion .41 .27 FACTOR 3: Exclusive Women's Issues 2.42 5.6 Coping with Dis- crimination '35 ‘40 Sexual Harassment .31 .40 Women's Movement .84 .61 Women's Rights .73 .60 FACTOR 4: Job-Related Information 1.63 3.8 Career Guidance .58 .40 Employment Op- portunities ‘66 '36 Fashions .37 .35 Job—Related .42 .30 Information 45 Table 7 (Continued) Loadings Commu- Eigen- Percent of nalities values Variance FACTOR 5: Specialized Issues in Education 1.38 3.2 Children/Child care .70 .36 Coping with Multiple Roles '41 '35 Education or Schools .42 .43 Sex Education .37 .33 FACTOR 6: Legal Concerns 1.38 3.2 Divorce .49 .25 Legal Information .45 .29 Marriage Issues .34 .43 FACTOR 7: Consumer and Health Affairs 1.19 2.8 Consumer Infor- mation '39 '34 Health or Nutri- tion .47 .37 Medical Informa- tion .43 .34 FACTOR 8: Culture/Science/ New Technology 1.15 2.6 Cultural Infor- mation '40 '39 Science/New Tech. .53 .32 FACTOR 9: Popular Entertainment 1.12 2.6 Entertainment .55 .27 Sports .39 .17 46 Table 7 (Continued) Loadings Commu- Eigen- Percent of nalities values Variance FACTOR 10: Controversial Issues on Women 1.05 2.4 Abortion vs. Right- to-Life Issues '33 '25 About Women .48 .34 Table 8 One-Item and Low Factor.Loadings for Information Needs Which Were Analyzed Independently Information Needs Loadings Advertising or Marketing .48 Family Planning or Birth Control .28 Money Management .31 Time Management .27 Travel Information .26 Weather Information .18 Indices for the ten factors in Table 7 were created by adding the scores of the items loading .31 or above within a single factor. The survey instrument was constructed so that for each information need there were nine information~seeking measures of mass media and interpersonal sources of 47 information. Therefore, for each information need index formed, nine corresponding media indices were generated. These media indices were also produced by summing the cor. responding scores of each medium for a particular need. Consider, for example, the Legal Concerns Index. The new variable, Legal Concerns, was formed by adding the scores of Divorce, Legal Information, and Marriage Issues. The nine corresponding media indices were Legal Concerns Books, Legal Concerns Magazines, Legal Concerns Newspapers, Legal Concerns Radio, Legal Concerns Television, Legal Concerns Coworker, Legal Concerns Family/Friends, Legal Concerns Pro- fessionals, and Legal Concerns Others. The Legal Concerns Book Index was produced by adding the scores for Divorce Books, Legal Information Books, and Marriage Issues Books. The eight remaining exposure indices corresponding to the Legal Concerns Index were created similarly. Likewise, for the rest Of the nine information needs factors in Table 8 and their corresponding information-seeking measures, the same procedure was followed resulting in ten information needs composite measures and ninety information-seeking indices. Since the amount of fixed time was available, a new variable was created to represent time available. Fixed time refers to the sum Of the number of hours per week women work for pay outside and inside their homes plus the amount of time per week they spend in housework inter- preted as house maintenance. There are 168 hours in a week. Time available is, therefore, the difference between 168 48 and fixed time. Certainly, this is a broad conceptualiza- tion of time available. There are a number of hours people spend sleeping, eating, in personal care, and so forth. However, it has been assumed throughout this study that women are active actors, and as such, they will use their time to suit their best interests. Consequently, this dif- ference has been left Open and at the disposal of women. Statistical Analyses The data collected was analyzed using the routines of the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS). These programs were run in the CDC Cyber 170, Model 750 computer system at Michigan State University. Before run- ning any statistical programs, a printout of the raw data in the computer file was checked against the questionnaires to insure accuracy of the keypunched data. The data file was edited for invalid values or characters. Initial frequencies were run to determine the central tendencies, count, and the distribution Of all the variables. Frequencies indicated that most variables approximated a normal distribution. Some information needs were somewhat skewed depending on how frequently women felt a need for them. (Refer to Appendix H for descriptive statistics Of all the information needs.) A skew was especially notice- able for the following information needs: abortion, di- vorce, family planning or birth control, marriage issues, sex education, and sexual harassment. The private and 49 personal nature Of these information needs may have been the reason as to why women responded as rarely or never having these types Of information needs. The relative tabooness that still exists in our society with respect to personally private issues may have biased the genuine fre- quency of need for information on these tOpics. It should also be noted that the fact that this was a telephone sure vey may have also impinged on the results. Perhaps, had it been personal interviews, different responses could have been Obtained. Regression analyses were conducted to test the main hypothesis and to evaluate the model as a whole. Dummy coding was used to include the categorical work roles variable in the regression analyses. The homemakers cate- gory was left Out as the reference category. The category of homemakers was chosen as the reference category, because it was considered to be the most representative category of the unpaid workers. Therefore, it could provide a more meaningful contrast with the paid workers and with the other unpaid workers in the regression results. To meet regres- sion criteria, marital status was recoded so that the value Of two corresponded to married women, and unmarried women were assigned the value of one. Hierarchical and stepwise solutions were employed con- junctly. Hierarchical regression models include the variables in the regression equation as specified a priori. These a priori specifications were established according to SO theoretical, causal, or logical considerations. Thus, the block Of work roles variables was entered first in their respective equations. In stepwise estimations, variables are entered from best to worst, that is, the variable that explains the largest amount of variance in the dependent variable enters first, followed by the variable that explains the largest amount of variance not explained by the variable already in the equation, and so on. Therefore, variables are entered and removed from the equation based on their unique con— tribution to the dependent variable. Since no specific causal ordering was designated for the demographic variables, but a notable influence was expected, these were entered in.a stepwise fashion so that each variable could account for their unique contribution to the dependent variables. Three main regression analyses were performed. First, information needs were regressed on work roles and demo~ graphics. Second, the regression of time available on work roles and demographics. Third, the information-seeking mea- sures were regressed on the information needs and the amount of time available. In the first regression analyses, the main exogenous variable of interest, work roles, was entered first in the equation as a block variable in order to assess the con- tribution of each work role to the sixteen information needs. As previously indicated, most of these information needs were clustered using factor analysis; they were created to 51 be almost orthogonal to each_other. Therefore, multiple regression analyses were the most appropriate procedures assuming small intercorrelations among the dependent variables. In steps two to six of these regression analyses, the demographic variables were entered stepwise to deter— mine their effect On the endogenous variables as well as on the significant contribution of work roles. Descriptive statistics of the information needs by each work role can be found in Appendix I. a In the second set of regression analyses, work roles and the demographic variables followed the same entry pro- cedures as in the first equations. However, in this case, amount of time available was the endogenous variable. Finally, in the third type Of regression analyses, there were nine information-seeking measures for each of the sixteen information needs. Based on how the question- naire was constructed and how questions one and two of the telephone survey were asked, there was an inherent cor- relation between each information need and its corresponding sources of information. These artificial correlations pro- duced inflated beta weights. Consequently, "Do Loops" were created using SPSS routines in order to screen the data for the number of valid cases in each composite variable and in order to reduce an artificial dependency of the dependent indices on their corresponding independent ones. The existing interrelationships among the nine infor- mation-seeking dependent variables justified the use Of 52 the multivariate multiple regression procedure available in the MANOVA program of SPSS to test the last part of the model. According to the theoretical model, both informa« tion needs and time available are concurrent antecedents to the information-seeking activity. Therefore, they were entered together in the regression equations as predictors of the criterion variables. Since no direct link was hypo- thesized between work roles and information seeking, des- criptive statistics Of media and interpersonal use by work roles is not relevant for this study. Due to the hierarchical nature of the MANOVA program, the information need entered first followed by the amount of time available. This is one of the costs of using the MANOVA program currently available in the system; variables cannot be entered simultaneously. However, the positive aspect is that MANOVA takes into considerationthe inter- correlations among the criterion variables. Although MANOVA ignores the interdependencies among criteria when computing the beta weights, it does take them into account in significance testing. Hence, the multiple criterion Variables are tested simultaneously, increasing the power of the test by maintaining .05 protection levels. SPSS MANOVA prints values for four multivariate tests of significance: Pillais, Hotellings, Wilks, and Roys. If statistically significant, these tests would indicate that there is a significant relationship between the set Of predictors and the set Of criterion variables. For the S3 purposes of this study, Wilks results will be reported since this test constitutes a multivariate extension of the F- ratio test. Thus, Wilks significance test has an approximate F distribution (Monge 6 Cappella, 1980). In all the regression analyses, the conventional prob- ability level Of .05 or less was used to establish statis- tically significant results. The significance of the beta weights will be denoted by an asterisk (*) in the corresponding tables. CHAPTER III RESULTS This section will commence by presenting the main hypothesis of this study. A series of quantitative path models will be presented in support Of the segment Of the Women's Information-Seeking Process Model under investiga- tion. Two general trends emerged from the analyses: a general profile of women's work roles based on their infor- mation needs, and a general profile of information needs based on their work roles and the sources of information used. Main Hypothesis H1: The higher the frequency of an expressed information need, the higher the woman's information-seeking activity depending on her work role and the amount of time available. Table 9 presents the beta weights and the squared multiple correlation coefficient (R) for the regression of information needs on the work roles and the demographic variables. All the results are compared to the reference category, homemakers. The squared multiple R indicates the 54 SS amount of variance accounted for by the variables in the first and last steps of the analyses. Table 10 presents the sources used to seek the sixteen types of information. In addition, Table 11 presents the squared multiple R and Wilks' approximate F for the multi- Variate multiple regressions of the informationvseeking measures on time available with each information need. Wilks' approximate F indicated that the linear combination of the informationeseeking measures was related significantly (p i .05) to each set Of predictors in the different MANOVA runs. Furthermore, Table 12 presents the results of the regression of time available on work roles and demographic variables. Subsequently, Table 13 presents the means and standard deviations of time available by each work role. Work roles influenced the amount of time women had available. It was clear from Table 12 that all paid workers . had less time available than homemakers. On the other hand, students and retired workers had more time available than homemakers. These results held regardless of the demographic variables. These findings were expected since paid workers have to perform according to the multiple roles imposed by their lifestyles. However, Table 10 notes that the amount of time available did not seem to play a crucial role in the selection of information sources. Independently of the time available, women sought the information they needed through various channels. As can be seen from Table 10, entering the amount of time available after the information 56 need had no significant effect on the sources of information chosen to seek a particular type of information. Coworkers were the only source that was almost consistently and sig« nificantly affected by the amount of time available. The general trend detected was that the more time women had available, the less they used coworkers as an information source. Consequently, this interpersonal source was less frequently used to fulfill information needs. Based on the assumptions of this study, if a woman responded that she rarely or never had a particular infor- mation need, then she was not asked for sources of infor- mation. That is, a woman ought to establish a need prior to engaging in any information-seeking activity. Thus, given that the respondent had frequently or sometimes a need for a particular type of information, she sought that information through differential channels. Hence, Table 10 reflects women's information-seeking activity as related to her information needs. Thus, the higher the frequency of an information need, the more women looked for the desired information through the media and/or interpersonal channels. £57 :0299 220» ozu :2 mu2zancmoeov 9:2 mc2vz2uc2 cOu2m ax vs: muzw2ox ago; O22 Ou mpcozmoccou 309 vacuum 0:2 O o2zamcmcsow on» 9:23:2999 c029992uoc 9:2 20 acum .co2umavo .96239999> 29229 on» OH 99c099092ou mm was 995M205 «29; 9o 9:22 999.9 9:9 29902 .ccdunsco oz» hence 90: p96 o25992a> ocu nauao2pc_ 9 me. 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M2299» . . . . . - - . . . - 929922u>< 0529 me .mm m «we «we «fig «ma «we «#9 «ma «NH «mo .Ow:~ mloz o>wnc0£0hmeou a n mvco2cm 2 9x225 mcozwo .99099- K922599 .mcmxou .PP owned .92? .mwafi .9#m 0239229>< 0529 can nvuoz :ONuaEuouc2 co nouSmaoz mc2xoom-:02995909c_ oz» mo mnemmmOhmoaocu 909 m OumENxthn< .anN: v:- Nm .NN oNnah 60 Table 12 Regression of Time Available on Work Roles and Demographics Beta weights Beta weightS' excluding after including demographics demographics Work Roles Professionals -.35* -.43* Managers -.28* -.31* Clerical -.29* -.34* Sales -.27* -.31* Operatives -.31* -.34* Service -.l4* -.l8* Students .29* .21* Retired .17* .13* Demographics Education .07* Marital Status -.14* Number of children —.11* Age .07 Household Income -.03* 61 Table 13 Descriptive Statistics of Time Available by Work Roles B Standard Mean Deviation N Professionals 118.0049 15.2875 102 Managers 116.6223 11.8817 53 Clerical 122.0290 11.0576 112 Sales 118.5101 12.9117 - 58 Operatives 113.0598 17.1438 46 Service 127.3006 17.2663 56 Students 159.9493 9.6872 48 Retired 151.5177 13.5552 47 Homemakers 137.8851 22.1254 74 a Time Available = 168 hours in a week - amount of fixed time Note: The means and standard deviations are in terms of hours per 7-day week. 62 The results presented thus far indicate that the segment of the model of the Women's Information~Seeking Process that motivated this investigation (first three steps Of Figure 1) agree with women's information reality. However, the inclusion of time available in Figure 2 as a possible contemporary variable did not hold. Therefore, possible contemporary variable did not hold. Therefore, Figure 2 ought to be modified as follows: Work ‘ Information ,7 ‘Information Roles ’ Needs ’ Seeking Available Figure 3. Modified Path Model of Women's Work Roles and Their Information-Seeking Activity Furthermore, the main hypothesis could be more accurately stated as: the higher the frequency of an expressed informa- tion need, the higher the woman's information-seeking activity depending on her work role. Quantitative Path Models To further support this segment of the model, a series of quantitative path diagrams are presented (see Figures 4 through 11). The purpose of these diagrams is to clarify the relationship between the particular work roles, and the sources of information needs relevant to the work roles, and the sources of information used to seek the types of informa- tion. 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EN. .2. «cm. 2. «8. «E. .8. Tfiofimsozi. Ocm xHHEmm « mm4H Owwmm .mmz .mmmz .mxm \xfimsmu; mammz oszmmm onHuw>wuu< wcflxoom-:oHumEpowcH pflmce vcm mo>flumhomo mo Home: spam o>fiumpflucmso .w mHDMHm mo. H a « OH. «ma. NH. co. «NH. mo. «em. mo. co. mhmcuo .mMOpm mwcowpm .muxzou >H cwwmm .mmz .mmmz .mxm \meEmm mcfiumthz filllllll Ho msflmfluhm>c< mammz qummm 222585 A ZOHHua>fiuu< mcflxoom-:owuwehom:H pfimse van mom Houoz mpoxuoz mufi>pmm mo Hove: spam m>flumafiucmno .m mpsmfim mo. H a « «HH. «NH. «NH. «OH. «ON. «OH. «HN. «ON. «ON. «ON. «ON. OH. OH. ON. HH. OH. ON. ON. «OH. «HN. OH. «OH. «NN. OH. «ON. «OO. «NN. mgoguo .mMOpm mvcmwnm .muxzou >9 oflwmm .mmz .mwmz .mxm \«HHEOO OOHOOO< «Ir.. OOHOOz NH.- wcm pm53mcoo magmuaou Ommxmoz ¢|||||IHOOOH.«OH.-muH>xmm m :oHmepomcH(\AMMw OOOOHOm-OOO mammz ozHOEmO onszonHzH « ZOHH<2mOmzH .O mpswwm pom ouoz mom “opoz xufi>flpu< wcfixmom-=owum5pomcH uflmnh van mucmvsum mo Hmwoz numm o>NumuOucmso .OH mummOm mo. 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Limitations The main limitations of this study revolve around the issue of measurement. After completing the study, it is believed that the principal variables could have been mea- sured more efficiently. Considering the types of information needs, responses may not be accurate. Hence, validity checks ought to be established. It should be pointed out that this cr055+ sectional data reflect only a cumulative effect. Measurev ment at least at another point in time may provide a 92 stronger basis from drawing causal inferences. As pre- viously indicated, a better way to approach these needs would have been to reduce the battery of 43 information needs during the pretesting stage. Consequently, the mea— surement of information needs clusters could be accompanied by validity checks without extending the length of the in- terviewing schedule for the main survey. A similar validity problem applies to the information— seeking measures. Some validity checks needed to be 65* tablished. However, the main limitation of these measures was the inherent correlation with the information needs. Even though this problem was resolved using "Do loops" in the SPSS routines, this problem could have perhaps been avoided through the use of a different measure. Asking respondents to rank order the media used to seek each type of information need would present the same problem, although logically it would answer the question as to what media is first sought for a particular information need. There is a catch as to what is conceptually consistent versus what is statistically sound. So far, it is thought that the unpre— dicted problem at hand was adequately resolved. However, there ought to be a better way to measure the particular sources of information used for particular information needs without inducing an artificial correlation between both measures. An additional factor should be taken into considera- tion in future research regarding the interpersonal 93 information-seeking measures. The interpersonal dimension of family/friends should be separated. At the operationali- zation stage of this study, they were considered as part of women's interpersonal networks as opposed to noninterper- sonal networks such as those composed of coworkers or pro- fessionals. Now, this is thought to be a misconception that ought to be avoided in the future. Another limitation of this study was the measurement of time available. Time available was conceptualized as a variable parallel to the information needs and not as a mediating variable. Most likely the unexpected results of a lack of contribution of time available on women's inforv mation-seeking activity was due to systematic error pro- duced by measurement error. Future research examining the relationship of information needs with information seeking considering amount of time available ought to pay special attention to what women consider as time available. To some extent, this is a perceptual issue closely related to the type of work role. Work implies an expenditure of energy, and contemporary women perform many simultaneous roles. In this study, time available was designated as the amount of time per week that is left over after subtracting the amount of fixed time due to working outside and inside their home as well as time devoted to housework. Housework was intended to define cleaning as well as child care, grocery shopping, etc. Yet it was suspected that respondents 94 may have interpreted it only as referring to housecleaning. It was assumed that the time left over was Utime available" in the sense that women had more control on how to dispose of it. However, it may be the case that some women may have additional commitments for which they also devote a fixed amount of time, decreasing the amount of time avail- able. Unfortunately, these additional external or internal commitments failed to be measured. .In spite of this, it was found that women's work roles do affect negatively the amount of time women had available. This study revealed that it is not the time available, but it is the type of information need, which influences the sources of informa- tion used. Nevertheless, it is still believed that the amount of time available ought to affect the selection of information sources, and its inadequate measurement may be the reason for the disappearance of its influence. There- fore, future research is encouraged along these lines, emphasizing what is time available for each type of woman. Furthermore, time available should be investigated as a mediating variable instead of a contemporary variable within the conceptual framework established in this study. Unfortunately, income was measured based on the house- hold income. Future women studies must assess her personal income, her spouse's, and any additional sources of income. It is impossible to make comparisons and generalizations based on the overall household income. Knowledge of women's 95 income based on their work roles would provide a more accurate description of them. Notwithstanding the limitations of this study, two facts are encouraging for future investigations. One is the establishment of an existing relationship between the expectancy theory of motivation and the uses and gratifica- tions approach with respect to the informational needs of women in the present information era. The other is the establishment of the influence that women's work roles may have on their information-seeking behavior based on their felt information needs. However, future research should also address the fact that human beings are not necessarily rational, and that some needs are not first felt, but they are induced by information sources. FOOTNOTE 1 96 FOOTNOTE' With this sample size if there is maximum variance in a measurement (50/50 split in respondents' answers), the level of confidence for that measure- ment is above 95 percent with less than five perv cent margin of error. According to Cohen and Cohen's (1975) Power of Significance Test of r at alpha = .05 (two-tailed) Table, with a sample size of 623, one can detect effect sizes of .10 to .20 with a power of .69 and above .995, respec- tively. REFERENCES 97 REFERENCES Beinstein, J. Friends, the media, and opinion formation. Journal of Communication, 1977, 21, 30—39. Bell, D. The social framework of the information society. In M. Dertouzos G J. Moss (Eds.), The computer a e: A twenty-year review. Cambridge: MIT Press, 19 9. Blaxall, M., 8 Reagan, B. (Eds.). Women and the workplace: The implications of occupational se re ation. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1976. Butler, M., 8 Paisley, W. Women and the mass media. New York: Human Sciences Press, 1980. Caplow, T. The sociology of work. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota’Press, 1965. Cazeneuve, J. Television as a functional alternative of need satisfaction. In J. G. Blumer G E. Katz (Eds.), The uses of mass communications: Current_perspective§_in gratification research. Beverly Hills: Sage, i974. Cohen, J., 8 Cohen, P. Applied multiple regression/cor- relation analysis for {he—Behavioral sEiences. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence ErlBaum Associates, i975: Coser, R. L. Women and Work. Dissent, 1980, 27, 51-55. Darley, S. A. Big-time careers for the little woman: A dual-role dilemma. Journal of Social Issues, 1976, 32, 85-98. Dervin, B. Strategies for dealing with human information needs: Information or communication? Journal of Broadcasting, 1976, 20, 324-333. Dervin, B., Jacobson, T. L., G Nilan, M. S. Measuring aspects of information seeking: A test of a quantitative/ qualitative methodology. In M. Burgoon (Ed.), Communication Yearbook 6. New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction, 1982. Frank, R. E., & Greenberg, M. G. The public's use of television. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage, 1980. Fogarty, M. P., Rapoport, R., 8 RapOport, R. N. Sex, career, and family. London: George Allen 6 Unwin, Ltd., 1971. 98 Frieze, I. H., Parsons, J. E., Johnson, P. B. Ruble, D. N., & Zellman, G. L. Women and sex roleS: A socialgpsychOv logicalgperppective. New'York: W.W?9Norton,71978. Ginzberg, E. Life spyfles of educated women. New York: Columbia University Press, 1966. Greenberg, B. S. Mass media in the United States in the 19805. In E. Rogers, 6 F. Balle (Eds.), Mass communication in the United States and in Western Enrppe. Paiis-Stanford pyblication, in press. Hoffman, L. W., 8 Nye, F. I. Working mothers. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1974. Hunter, J. E., Cohen, S. E., 6 Nicol, T. S. PACKAGE: A system of routines to do correlational analysis. Unpulbished revised manuscript, Michigan State University, 1982. Kerlinger, F. N. Foundations of behavioral research (2nd ed.). New York: Holt, RinEhart and9Winston, 1973. Korzenny, F., 6 Del Toro, W. Work and media behaviors among women. Paper presented at the annual conference of the International Communication Association, Mass Communica- tion Division, San Francisco, California, May 24-28, 1984. Krause, E. A. The sociology of occupations. Boston: Little Brown, and Company, 1971. Lopata, H. 2. Occupation: Housewife. New York: Oxford University Press, 1971. Monge, P. R., G Cappella, J. N. (Eds.). Multivariate techniques in human communication research. New York: Academic Press, 1980. Myrdal, A., G Klein, V. Women's two roles. London: Routledge 8 Kegan Pual Ltd., 1956. National Commission for Manpower Policy. Women's chan in roles at home and on the job (SpecialiReport No. g6). Washington, DC: U. S. Government Printing Office, 1978. Norwood, J. L. The femalevmale‘earnings gap; A review of employment and earnings issues (Report No. 673). *U.S. Department of Eabor, Bureau Of Labor Statistics, 1982. Oakley, A. The sociology of housework. New York: Pantheon Books, 1974. 99 Palmgreen, P., 8 Rayburn, J. D. Gratifications sought and media exposure; An expectancy model. Communication Research, 1982, 9, 561%580. ' Palmgreen, P., Wenner, L. A{, G Rayburn, J. D. Gratification discrepancies and news program choice. Communication Research, 1981, 8, 451-478. Polk's Lansing City Directory, Taylor, MI: R.L. Polk 8 Company, 1983. Robinson, J. Changes in American's use of time: 1965-1975: A progress report. Cleveland: CEmmunication Research Center, Cleveland State University. Roby, P. Sociology and women in working-class jobs. In M. Millman, 8 R. M. Kanter (Eds.), Another voice. Garden City, NY: Anchor Press, 1975. Smuts, R. Women and work in America. New York: Schocken Books, 1971. Steeves, H. L., & Bostian, L. R. Diary and gpestionnaire survey of Wisconsin and Illinois employed women: Procedures, descriptive results, and recommendations for extension. Bulletin 41, Department of Agricultural Journalism, The University of Wisconsin-Extension, Madison, Wisconsin, in c00peration with the United States Department of Agriculture-Extension, 1980. Stromberg, A. H., 8 Harkess, S. (Eds.). Women working: Theories and facts in perspective. Palo Alto, CA: Mayfield Publishing, 1978. U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census. 1970 Census of pppulation, subject reports, occppational characteristics. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1973. U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics. Employment in perspective: Working women (Report No. 665). Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1982. U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics. U.S. working women (Bulletin No. 1880). Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1976. Vanek, J. Time spent in housework. Scientific American, 1974, 231, 116a121. 100 Vroom, V. Work and motivation. New York; John Wiley and Sons, 1964. ‘ Waite, L. J. U.S. women at wOrk.. Santa Monica, CA: The Rand Corporation, 1981. Weick, K. E. The social_psychology of organizing. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley, 1979. Williams, P., Dordick, H. S., G Horstmann, F. Where citizens go for information. Journal of Communication, 1977, 21, 95-99. APPENDICES Appendix A Pilot Instrument 101 WOMEN'S INFORMATION SEEKING PROJECT; PILOT INTERVIEWS Summer 1983 Hello/Good Morning/Afternoon/Evening. My name is I am an interviewer for a research pro- ject being conducted in the Department of Communication at Michigan State University. We are interviewing women/house- wives/unemployed women seeking a job/women that work for pay putside their home, regarding their information needs and their sources of information. Is there such a lady in this household? IF YES, "May I speak to her?" -- REPEAT PROTOCOL IF DIFFERENT PERSON.) (IF NONE OR WOMAN IS NOT IN, "Thank you very much for your time.") Your household was selected at random within the Lansing area. Your answers are very important to this survey, because they represent the responses of hundreds of others which are not in our sample. EVERYTHING YOU TELL US WILL BE STRICTLY CONFIDENTIAL. YOUR NAME WILL BE IN NO WAY CONNECTED TO THE FINDINGS OF THIS STUDY. Some people argue that women have different information needs according to their occupations, lifestyles, and their different roles in life. By information we mean things you need or want to know about. Q.1 How do you think different information needs would correspond to different occupations? 102 (INTERVIEWER: COMPLETE TABLE A FOR Q.2 and Q.3) Q.2 Could you tell me the types of information that you most frequently need? (PROBES: Are there any other information needs you have? What about information needs related to your (work, occupation, job-seeking activity) Q.3 What are the reasons why you frequently want or need to know about these tOpics? TABLE A (Q- 2) (Q- 3) INFORMATION NEEDS REASONS l. (Continue on next page) 103 *Continuation of Table A* TQJ) TQ-B). INFORMATION NEEDS REASONS 7. 8. 9. 10. (INTERVIEWER: COMPLETE TABLE B FOR Q.4, Q.5, Q.6, AND Q.7) Q.4 I will read to you each of the information needs you mention. For each of these information needs, please tell me how frequently you actually seek information. Indicate the frequency in a scale from zero to ten, where 0=Never, 5=Sometimes, and 10=Very Frequently. Where do you look for each type of information? (LIST SOURCES) (INTERVIEWER: FOR EACH INFORMATION NEED, ASK, "Why do you use these particular sources of information?) Of the sources you mention, which is the source most often used for each type of information? (CIRCLE) 104 TABLE B INFORMATION (QT4) RATING (915)97 (0.6) REASONS TOR NEEDS SCALE: 0-10 SOURCES USING THE SOURCES 0=N, lO=VF OF INFO. *MENTIONED 1. 2. 3. 4. 105 *Continuation of Table B* INFORMATION (Q.4) RATING (Q.5) ‘(Q.6) REASONS FOR NEEDS SCALE: 0-10 SOURCES USING THE SOURCES 0=N3 10=VF OF INFO. MENTIONED 9. 10. (INTERVIEWER: IF NONE OF THE INFORMATION NEEDS WERE RATED BETWEEN 0 AND 4, GO TO Q.12; OTHERWISE, COMPLETE TABLE C FOR Q.8, Q.9, Q.10, AND Q.11) Q.8 Q.10 Q.11 In the question which asked you to rate all your information needs, you rated the following from zero to four. Could you please tell me why you seek these types of information less frequently? Do you come across information about any of these tOpics without actually seeking it? 1. Yes 2. No (IF ANSWER 2 or 3, THEN GO TO Q.12) 3. No response or refused IF YES, ASK, "For which areas?" (INTERVIEWER: MAKE A CHECK MARK UNDER COLUMN LABELED 'ACCIDENTAL INFORMATION.') From which sources do you receive this accidental information? 106 TABLE C INFO. (Q.8) REASONS (Q.10) 9(Q.ll) NEEDS LESS INFO. ACCIDENTAL SOURCES OF (Ratings: SEEKING INFO. ACC. INFO. 0-4) ' Q.12 In a scale from zero to ten, please tell me how active you consider yourself in terms of seeking information about your information needs? Not Very Very Active Active 107 Q.13 In a regular week, how do you typically spend your time each day of the week? ‘ MORNING AFTERNOON EVENINGS EARLY (Sam-lZN) (12N-6pm) (6pm-12M) MORNING HOURS (leam) MON. TUES. WED. THURS. FRI. SAT. SUN. 108 Q.14 What is your main occupation? (INTERVIEWER: NOTE THAT HOUSEWIFE IS A TYPE OF OCCUPATION. IF HOUSEWIFE, ASK, "Are you presently seeking a job?” IF YES, THIS WILL BE YOUR UNEMPLOYED INTERVIEWEE. IF UN- EMPLOYED, ASK Q.15. OTHERWISE, GO TO Q.15a) Q.15 What responsibilities does seeking a job entail? Q.15a What responsibilities do you have as ? occupation Just a few more questions: Q.16 What is your age? Q.17 What is the highest level of education you have completed? Q.18 Are you presently, (CIRCLE) 1. Single, never married 2. Married 3. Divorced 4. Widowed 5. Other 6. Refused or no response Q.19 How many children do you have? 109 Q.20 What is the approximate annual income of your household? I will read some ranges, and you stOp me when I've mentioned yours. (CIRCLE) 1. Under $5,000 2. $5,000 to $10,000 3. $10,000 to $15,000 4. $15,000 to $20,000 5. $20,000 to $25,000 6. _$25,000to $30,000 7. $30,000 to $40,000 8. Over $40,000 9. Refused or no response Now that you have a better idea of the type of informa- tion we want to obtain from this study, are there any ad- ditional questions or areas that you think should be included in this study? We will appreciate any ideas or suggestions that you may have in relation to the study in general, wording of questions, etc. My supervisor would like your name and phone number in case there is a need to clarify some items of this interview. (INTERVIEWER: WRITE THIS INFORMATION IN THE FACE SHEET OF THE QUESTIONNAIRE.) Those are all the questions I have for you. Thank you very much for your time and cooperation. Appendix B- Telephone Survey Questionnaire 110 PROJECT: Card #1 WOMEN'S INFORMATION-SEEKING BEHAVIOR Summer 1983 RESPONDENT ID NUMBER (1-4) PHONE NUMBER Hello, I am from Michigan State University. We are conducting a survey research in the Department of Communication to find out about women's information needs, where women look for the information they need or want, and other related aspects. May I speak to the lady of the house? (REPEAT PROTOCOL IF DIFFERENT PERSON.) We would really ap- preciate your cOOperation. Your responses are very important to this survey, because they represent the responses of hun— dreds of others which are not in our sample. There are no right or wrong answers. We are only interested in knowing your honest responses. Since your telephone number has been selected at random, your name will be in no way connected to the findings of this study. We do not have your name, only your number. If you have any questions about this study, you may call Wanda Del Toro at 355-1518. 111. mHoocuw HON.H0O No co_umu:du Hoo.HmO xEocoum acm.HwO quo>Oc Hmuuw uHmDE ..w.ou SOHOO .85 H3326 Apoxyoz .mezoOso: Cozuoe «.u.OO moHoC oHuOUHze Hon.NNO :uH: wchou Room» .xOO ..m.oO cofiuucHEHhoONv HON.NHO cud: mcHaou AoH.HO mmovH uconou N. vunw HVN.ch .oOcH hoezwcou qu.mmv muzmmH xuwcsssou «Ono HOO.OOO OHOOUOOOLOHHOO Ave.mmv oocmvwam Muennu mcHuoxaws Hum.mNO No mcHOHuNo>v< AvN.mHO case: uzon< mmzmm_ OO_H.oO.uOOOC HOH.mO .m> :owuuon< Opesuo .mwcna \xHHssH OOOJOQHOU >O oanx whoauzmxoz mocanmm: macaw \NHONcm OOE_uoeom xHucoscuhu pmm_u uzh m3; mqaum koc no .zHohnN .mosHOOEOm .Hfiucu:7ONm :0» OH OE HHOO mmson o: :o_ueEHoOc_ .muHmou Oman» we come co :oHuaELoO .uzose 30c; 0» van: no ago: so» mm:_;u :noe .uo: op 050m vs: 19o: son» Ham :oEoz 050m unzu coHHOENou:_ mo menxu :ox cu vnoh HHN: _ .cHwon oh ._. O 112 Amoxmu .oucmcHw ..m.ov 8TH: H N O .2? N28: Hov.amv H N m .Ou:H Hmu_vw: Hom.HNO a N m magme omwwhumz HON-HHO H N m mzv: HauOH NoH.HO H N m .owcH HOMOH «. tsuw Hom.HN H N O .oOcH vOuOHOL.Oon m30: 8T2: H N O HmcoHHOEOHE OHOO umzo; Hoo.HmO H N m \wchomxumao: :oHuHuusz Acm.HvO H N m »o zuquo: Hov.NmO H N m mconmmm mawzmcoHuwHoC HOOHNO H N O NHHEOO . Hohucou :HHHL No HON.H~O H N m mchcmHa NHHEmu HOOH>oE 3.: TOE AoH.HO H N m “cesaHmHHmucm O. vcmu moHuHcauhonao HOOH: H N O 22.835 mucoHnu Losov OCOLHC .mwoCO \HHHEOO muoxpoxou >H ovaz mponammzoz mocHummwz mxoom \NHoCmm moEHHoEom xHucozcmHa 728.: HO. 113 HOO. «Om HOOH Oh A onHuz mo .>Hmmthm:ommm 30> 0n .mquHmzomnN do >HH2m30mzmnm m< awh<¢ mam: HHzov UUC EOHuNELO CA . OHcoHHOEHoucH Hm vHH HmHmzmz\>Hm¢oc no..>HuHmH .moaHu050m .NHucoscuum so» HH as HHOu ummon .coHumEuoucm mo mouu20m Hmuo>0m so» an vmuh HHH: H .vocoHu=OE o>wn H :oHunEHoqu mo munxu ozu mo some you N.o HOO-HOO H N O OuanH m.:ueoz Hom,HNH H N m ucosm>oe m.:osoz HON.HHH H N m Cognac: HoH-HH H N O .owcH Ho>mch O. OCOL Hom.HNO H N O .uEmE OEHF HoN.HoO H N m Ozo: cuuum HOO.HOO H O O OHLOOO nom.H«H H N m aco5mmnom; szxom Hoa-HOO H N O :oHHmosvo xom HmoHoczu0H Hom-HNO H N O zmz\ou:OHum HON.HHO H N m :onHHom muwzuo HoH.HH H N m :HH: mcoHumHom m. vuww How.HnO H N m muHuHHom Hon.HoH H N N m oumu anoOHom Hoo.HmO H N _ O O30: HmcoHumz OncoHHH Hosoz mpecuo .OHOHH \HHHEOH mgmxpozou >H oHuam Ocegmamzoz mocHnemaz mxoom \NHOHam mmEHHoeom xHucozu0Hu H.ucouv H.o Now I would like to know how much television you usually watch. 114 0.4 0.5 0.6 In a typical weekday, about how much time do you spend watching TV? ______hours _____ minutes (44-46) In a typical Saturday, about how much time do you spend watching TV? _____ hours ______minutes (47-49) In a typical Sunday, about how much time do you spend watching TV? hours minutes (50-52) The next few Questions are about radio. 0.7 Q.8 0.9 In a typical weekday, about how much time do you listen to the radio? _____ hours _____ minutes (53-55) In a typical Saturday, about how much time do you listen to the radio? ______hours ______minutes (56-58) In a typical Sunday, about how much time do you listen to the radio? hours minutes (59-61) Now I will askgyou some questions about your reading_habits. 0.10 0.11 0.12 0.13 0.14 How many days during the past week did you read the newspaper? (62) When you read the newspaper during a weekday, about how much time do you usually spend reading it? _____ hours ______minutes (63-65) How many days during the past week did you read a magazine? (66) When you read a magazine during a weekday, about how much time do you usually spend reading it? ______hours ______minutes (67-69) About how many books do you usually read in a month? (70) Just 0.15 Q.16 0.17 Q.18 0.19 0.20 0.21 115 a few more questions. How many hours a week do you spend working in a paid job outside of your home? _____ (71,72) How many hours a week do you spend working in a paid job inside of your home, excluding housework? (73,74) About how much time a day do you spend in housework? hours minutes (75-77) About how much time a day do you have to do the things you enjoy? hours _____ minutes (78-80) What is your main occupation? Card #7 (1,2) (SPECIFY) Job Title: Place of Work: Type of Work: (IF HOMEMAKER, STUDENT, RETIRED, OR UNEMPLOYED, ASK Q.20; OTHERWISE, GO TO Q.22) Are you currently looking for a job (CIRCLE (3) 1. Yes 2. No 3. Refused or ONE) no response (IF YES, ASK Q.21, OTHERWISE, GO TO Q.22) How long have you been looking for a job? (4) (CIRCLE ONE) 1. Less than a week 5. Over a year 2. About a month 6. Refused or No Response 3. Two to six months 4. Seven to twelve months 0. O 22 .23 .24 .25 .26 116 What is the highest level of education you have completed? stOp when I've mentioned yours. (CIRCLE ONE) 0. 8th grade or less 1. Some high school 2. High school graduate 3. Trade/technical/vocational 4. Some college 5. 2 yr. college graduate 6. 4 yr. college graduate 7. Post college graduate work 8. Completed an M.A. or Ph.D. 9. Refused or No Response Are you presently, (CIRCLE ONE) 1. Single, never married 4. 2. Married 5. 3. Divorced 6. How many children do you have? Would you please tell me your age? Refused I will read some categories. Please (5) (6) Widowed Other Refused or No Response (7) (8.9) What is the approximate annual income of your household? I will read some ranges. mentioned yours. (CIRCLE ONE) 1. Under $5,000 6. 2. $5,001 to $10,000 7. 3. $10,001 to $15,000 8. 4. $15,001 to $20,000 9. 5. $20,001 to $25,000 Please stop me when I've (10) $25,001 to $30,000 $30,001 to $40,000 Over $40,000 Refused or No Response 117 Those are all the questions I have for you. much for your time and cooperation. Date of interview: Thank you very (11,12) Time interview ended: (13,14) Interviewer's name: Interviewer's signature: Student Number: (15-21) Appendix C How to be a Good Interviewer 118 HOW TO BE A GOOD INTERVIEWER Asking the questions Use the qpestionnaire informally. The interview should be conducted in a relaxed manner; the interviewer should avoid creating the impression that the interview is a quiz or cross-examination. Please be careful not to imply criti- cism, surprise, approval or disapproval of the questions asked or the respondent's answers. But don't be leppy in asking the questions. Know the questions so you can read each one smoothly and move on to the next without hesitancy. This means you should study the questionnaire carefully and practice asking the questions aloud, perhaps, by doing a practice interview with someone. Ask the questions exactly as worded in the questionnaire. Since exactly the same questions must be asked of each re- spondent, the interviewer should make no changes in the phrasing of the questions. Also guard against trying to be conversational by inadvertently adding a few words at the end of a question or leaving a few words out. The respondents should be aware of all of the alternatives of a particular question (except for yes-no questions). Ask the questions in the order presented in the ques- tionnaire. The question sequence is planned for continuity and promoting a conversational atmosphere. The sequence is also arranged so that early questions will not have a harmful 119 effect on the respondent's answers to later questions. Fur- thermore, the question order needs to be standardized from respondent to respondent if the interviews are to be com- parable. Ask every question specified in the questionnaire. In answering one question, a respondent will sometimes also answer another question appearing later in the interview. Or, from time to time, the interviewer needs to ask a series of apparently similar questions. In either case, don't skip questions which are apparently answered by an earlier response. Repeat and clarify qpestions which are misunderstood or misinterpreted. Questions may be repeated just as they are written in the questionnaire. If you suspect that the respondent merely needs time to think it over, simply wait and don't press for an immediate answer. If you think the respondent just needs reassuring, you may want to add to the question a neutral remark, such as: "We're just trying to get peOple's ideas on this," or "There are no right or wrong answers, just your ideas on it." Appendix D. Telephone Numbers Tally Sheet 120 COM 300R and COM 499 -- THIS IS YOUR LIST OF NUMBERS TO CALL IN ORDER TO COMPLETE YOUR QUOTA FOR THE WOMEN'S INFORMATION- SEEKING PROJECT. GO DOWN THE LIST IN MAKING YOUR PHONE CALLS. TRY EACH NUMBER AT LEAST THREE TIMES, AT DIFFERENT TIMES, BEFORE PROCEEDING TO THE NEXT ONE AS SUBSTITUTION. DATE 6 TIME ' NUMBER CALL BACKS OF COMPLETION COMMENTS 1 2 Date Time Appendix E Telephone Interviewing Instructions 121 TELEPHONE INTERVIEWING INSTRUCTIONS DO'S *KNOW THE QUESTIONNAIRE COLD BEFORE YOU MAKE YOUR FIRST CALL. PRACTICE -- SPEAK THROUGH IT. *Read everything carefully but not slowly -- we don't want to put our respondents to sleep. *The delivery should be friendly, interested and courteous. You're not a friend though -- no jokes! *Treat the respondent with respect -- they're doing us the favor. In the introduction, use both your names -- people won't remember them but will be suspicious if you use only one name. Circle the number next to the answer the respondent provides. Please watch what you circle -- don't circle more than one number per answer. If the respondent doesn't understand something about the question or choices, re-read them. Thank the respondent at the end of the interview. DON'TS Don't be creative -- read all the questions in the order pre- sented and EXACTLY as worded. Don't assume which of our choices the respondent selected -- if one of our choices is not selected, repeat all the choices (e.g., well, is that . . .) Don't accept multiple answers -- if more than one answer is given, ask the respondent to pick one. Don't force responses. If a respondent doesn't know, circle No Response; if a respondent doesn't want to answer the question, circle Refused and go directly to the next item. Don't reinforce answers (e.g., good, I see, OK, um-hum) -- just start reading the next question. Don't provide your own attitudes or beliefs -- what counts is what the respondent has to say. 122 DON'Ts (cont.) Don't let the respondent talk your ear off -- if they wander off track, gently bring them back. Don't say this is a class project -- people will think it's trivial if you do and hang up. QUESTIONS SOME RESPONDENTS MAY ASK AND SUGGESTED RESPONSES How did you get my phone number? Your number was selected at randOm from the Lansing phone book along with about 2000 other numbers. We have no idea who you are. How do I know you won't hold this information against me? We don't know your name and never will. This infOrmafion will be combined with information from over 600 interviews like this. Who's doing the study? The study is being conducted by an instructor in the Department of Communication at MSU. (IF THEY WANT MY NAME AND NUMBER, GIVE IT, 517-355-1518). Why do you want to know about my age, education . . .? We're calling peOple Of many different ages and—baékgrounds. When we put all the information together, we'll also want to see if there are any differences based on age, years married and things like that. Finding out about your age or number of years married helps us make those comparisons. DIALING INSTRUCTIONS Let the phone ring at least six times before hanging up.- Note all attempts at reaching the number on the sheet given to you which lists the numbers -- this is our way of keeping track of our completion rate. If you encounter a disconnected number, don't use the new number -- just write "dis" next to it. If you encounter a business, don't interview anyone there -- just write down "bus" next to it. Ask to speak to the woman of the house. 123 SAMPLING RESPONDENTS Since the numbers you have been given have been scientifically selected to represent a particular population, you should not substitute another person for a number you have been given. The sample is a systematic sample with a random start from the Lansing phone book, with the last two digits of each number randomized to account for unlisted numbers and to maximize representativeness. Appendix F' Coding Instructions 124 Women's Information-Seeking Behavior Codebook II. III. IV. Q.2 Zeroes are used only when respondent answered Rarely/Never=l in question 1. For items in which respondent answered Frequently=3 or Sometimes=2 (in Q.1), there should only be three's, two's or one's for its corresponding Q.2. Coding Time (Q. 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 11, 13,-l7, l8) Transform all answers to minutes. Maximum three columns. Ex. 2 hrs, 30 min. = 150 min. Q. 10 Range of day reading newspapers is from 0-7; if refused or no response use a 9 or a blank. Q. 12 Range of days reading magazines is from 0-7; if refused or no response use a 9 or a blank. Q. 14 Number of books read in a month ranges from 0-9. For more than 9 books, code a 9. Use a blank if no answer or refused. For number of hours working in a paid job outside (Q.15) or inside (Q.16) home, the range is from 00-98. If refused or no response, code 99. Main occupation code as follows: 00. Professional, Technical, and Kindred Workers 01. Managers and Administrators, except Farm VI. VII. VIII. IX. 125 02. Clerical and Kindred Workers 03. Craftsmen and Kindred Workers 04. Operatives, including Transport 05. Laborers, including Farm 06. Service Workers, including Private Household Workers 07. Student 08. Homemakers 09. Retired 10. Unemployed 11. Sales Workers 99. Refused or No Response For Q.20 and Q.21, code circled item when these questions were asked. If not asked, code a blank. Q. 22, 23, 26 code the circled item. If none was circled, code the no response category. Q. 24 = number of children Range is from 0-8. For more than eight children, code 8. No response or refused, code 9. Q. 25 = Age Range is from 18-98. For no response or refused, code 99. 126 For date of interview, code the day of the month (use two columns). Ex. 8/2 is coded as 02; 8/15 is coded as 15. For time interview ended, code the nearest hour out of 24. Ex. 6 p.m. is coded as 18; 6:25 p.m. is coded as 18; 6:35 p.m. is coded as 19. Type in the student ID number of the interviewer. Appendix G Job Classifications 127 INTERMEDIATE OCCUPATIONAL CLASSIFICATION FOR FEMALES (103 Items) WITH COMPONENT DETAILED ITEMS Professional, Technical, and Kindred Workers 1. Accountants 2. Computer specialists Computer programmers Computer systems analysts Computer specialists, n.e.c. 3. Engineers Aeronautical and astronautical Chemical Civil Electrical and electronic Industrial Mechanical Metallurgical and materials Mining Petroleum Sales Engineers, n.e.c. 4. Lawyers and judges Judges Lawyers Librarians Mathematical specialists Actuaries Mathematicians Statisticians 7. Life and physical scientists Agricultural scientists Atmospheric and space scientists Biological scientists Chemists Geologists Marine scientists Physicists and astronomers Life and physical scientists, n.e.c. 8. Physicians, dentists, and related practitioners Chiropractors Dentists Optometrists Pharmacists Physicians, medical and osteOpathic Podiatrists Veterinarians Health practitioners, n.e.c. 9. Dieticians 10. Registered Nurses ll. Therapists 12. Health technologists and technicians Clinical laboratory technologists and technicians Dental hygienists Health record technologists and technicians OUT 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 128 Health technologists and technicians (cont.) Radiologic technologists and technicians Therapy assistants Health technologists and technicians, n.e.c. Religious workers Clergymen Religious workers, n.e.c. Social scientists - Economists Political scientists Psychologists Sociologists Urban and regional planners Social scientists, n.e.c. Social and recreation workers Social workers Recreation workers Teachers, college and university Agriculture Atmospheric, earth, marine, and space Biology Chemistry Physics Engineering Mathematics Health specialties Psychology Business and Commerce Economics History Sociology Social science teachers, n.e.c. Art, drama, and music Coaches and physical education Education English Foreign language Home economics Law Theology Trade, industrial, and technical Miscellaneous teachers, college and university Teachers, college and university, subject not specified Teachers, elementary and prekindergarten Public Private Teachers, secondary Public Private Other teachers Adult education Teachers, except college and university, n.e.c. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 129 Engineering and science technicians Agriculture and biological technicians, except health Chemical technicians Draftsmen Electrical and electronic engineering technicians Industrial engineering technicians Mechanical engineering technicians Mathematical technicians Surveyors Engineering and science technicians, n.e.c. Technicians, except health, and engineering and science Airplane pilots Air traffic controllers Embalmers Flight engineers Radio Operators Tool programmers, numerical control Technicians, n.e.c. Writers, artists, and entertainers Actors and dancers Actors Dancers Authors, editors, and reporters Authors Editors and reporters Designers Other writers, artists, and entertainers Athletes and kindred workers Musicians and composers Painters and sculptors Photographers Public relations men and publicity writers Radio and television announcers Writers, artists, and entertainers, n.e.c. Other professional, technical and kindred workers Architects Archivists and curators Farm management advisors Forestors and conservationists Home management advisors Operations and systems researchers and analysts Personnel and labor relations workers Research workers, not specified Vocational and educational counselors Professional, technical, and kindred workers -- allocated 130 Managers and Administrators, Except Farm 27. Buyers, purchasing agents, and—Sales managers Buyers and shippers, farm products Buyers, wholesale and retail trade Purchasing agents and buyers, n.e.c. Sales managers and department heads, retail trade Sales managers, except retail trade 28. Restaurant, cafeteria, and bar managers 29. School administrators School administrators, college School administrators, elementary and secondary 30. Other specified managers and administrators Assessors, controllers, and treasurers; local public administration Bank officers and financial managers Credit men Funeral directors Health administrators Construction inspectors, public administration Inspectors, except construction; public administration Federal public administration State public administration Local public administration Managers and superintendents, building Officers, pilots, and pursers; ship Officials and administrators; public administration, n.e.c. Federal public administration State public administration Local public administration Officials of lodges, societies, and unions Postmasters and mail superintendents Railroad conductors Managers and administrators, except farm -- allocated 31. Manufacturing Durable goods Nondurable goods 32. Wholesale and retail trade Wholesale trade Hardware, farm equipment and building material retailing General merchandise stores Food stores Motor vehicles and accessories retailing Gasoline service stations Apparel and accessories stores Furniture, home furnishings, and equipment stores Other retail trade 33. Finance, insurance, and real estate 34. All other industries Construction Business and repair services Personal services All other industries Managers and administrators, n.e.c. -- self-employed 35. 36. 37. 131 Wholesale and retail trade Wholesale trade Hardware, farm equipment, and building material retailing General merchandise Stores Food stores Motor vehicles and accessories retailing Gasoline service stations Apparel and accessories stores Furniture, home furnishings, and equipment stores Other retail trade Personal services All other industries Construction Manufacturing Transportation Communications, and utilities and sanitary services Finance, insurance, and real estate Business and repair services All other industries Sales Workers 38. 39. 40. 41. 42. Demonstrators, hucksters, and peddlers Demonstrators Hucksters and peddlers Insurance, real estate agents, and brokers Insurance agents, brokers, and underwriters Real estage agents and brokers Salesclerks, retail trade Salesmen, retail trade Other salesworkers Advertising agents and salesmen Auctioneers Newsboys Stock and bond salesmen Sales representatives, manufacturing industries Sales representatives, wholesale trade Salesmen of services and construction Salesworkers -- allocated Clerical and Kindred Workers 43. Bank tellers 44. Billing clerks 45. Bookkeepers 46. Cashiers 47. Counter clerks, except food 48. Enumerators and interviewers 49. File clerks 50. Library attendants and assistants 132 Clerical and Kindred Workers (cont.) 51. Mail handlers and—postal clerks Mail carriers, post office Mail handlers, except post office Postal clerks 52. Office machine Operators 53. Bookkeeping and billing machine 54. Key punch Other office machine Operators Calculating machine Computer and peripheral equipment Duplicating machine Tabulating machine Office machine, n.e.c. 55. Payroll and timekeeping clerks 56. Receptionists 57. Secretaries Secretaries, legal Secretaries, medical Secretaries, n.e.c. 58. Stenographers 59. Stock clerks and storekeepers 60. Telephone Operators 61. Typists 62. Other clerical and kindred workers Clerical assistants, social welfare Clerical supervisors, n.e.c. Collectors, bill and account Dispatchers and starters, vehicle Estimators and investigators, n.e.c. Expeditors and production controllers Insurance adjusters, examiners, and investigators Messengers, including telegraph, and office boys Meter readers, utilities Proofreaders Real estate appraisers Shipping and receiving clerks Statistical Clerks Teacher aids, except school monitors Telegraph operators Ticket, station, and express agents Weighers Miscellaneous clerical workers Not specified clerical workers Clerical and kindred workers -- allocated —...—_-q— _H _ .HH... .. . .. 133 Craftsmen and Kindred Workers 63. Craftsmen andikindred workers 64. Decorators and window dressers 65. Foremen, n.e.c. Construction Metal industries Machinery, except electrical Electrical machinery, equipment, and supplies Transportation equipment Other durable goods Food and kindred products Textiles, textile products, and apparel Other nondurable goods, including not specified manufacturing Transportation Communications, and utilities and sanitary services Wholesale and retail trade All other industries Other craftsmen and kindred workers (All other occupations in this major group) Operatives, Except Transport 66. Assemblers 67. Bottling and canning operatives 68. Checkers, examiners, and inspectors; manufacturing 69. Dressmakers and seamstresses, except factory 70. Laundry and drycleaning Operatives; including ironers Clothing ironers and pressers Laundry and drycleaning operatives, n.e.c. 71. Graders and sorters, manufacturing 72. Packers and wrappers, except produce Meat wrappers, retail trade Packers and wrappers, except meat and produce 73. Sewers and stitchers 74. Textile operatives Carding, lapping, and combing Operatives Knitters, loopers, and tOppers Spinners, twisters, and winders Weavers Textile operatives, n.e.c. 75. Other specified operatives Asbestos and insulation workers Blasters and powdermen Chainmen, rodmen, and axmen; surveying Cutting Operatives, n.e.c. Drillers, earth Dry wall installers and lathers Dyers Filers, polishers, sanders and buffers Furnacemen, smeltermen, and pourers Garage workers and gas station attendants 134 Operatives, Except Transport (cont.) 76. 77. 78. Produce graders and packers, except factory and farm Heaters, metal Meat cutters and butchers, except manufacturing Meat cutters and butchers, manufacturing Metal platers Milliners Mine Operatives, n.e.c. Mixing operatives Oilers and greasers, except auto Painters, manufactured articles Photographic process workers Drill press Operatives Grinding machine operatives Lathe and milling machine operatives Precision machine Operatives, n.e.c. Punch and stamping press operatives Riveters and fasteners Sailors and deckhands Sawyers Shoemaking machine operatives Solderers Stationary firemen Welders and flamecutters Winding operatives, n.e.c. Operatives, except transport -- allocated Miscellaneous and not specific Operatives by industry Durable goods manufacturing ' Metal industries Blast furnaces, steelworks, rolling and finishing mills Other primary iron and steel industries Primary nonferrous industries Cutlery, hand tools, and other hardware Fabricated structural metal products Screw machine products, and metal stamping Miscellaneous fabricated metal products and not specified metal Machinery, including electrical Farm machinery and equipment Construction and material handling machines Metalworking machinery Office and accounting machines, and electronic computing equipment Other machinery, except electrical Household appliances Radio, television, and communication equipment Electrical machinery, equipment, and supplies, n.e.c. Not specified electrical machinery, equipment, and supplies Other durable goods Lumber and wood products, except furniture Furniture and fixtures Stone, clay, and glass products 135 Operatives, Except Transport (cont.) 79. 80. 81. 82. 83. Transportation equipment Professional and photographic equipment, and watches Ordinance Miscellaneous manufacturing industries Durable goods Nondurable goods manufacturing Food and kindred products Apparel and other fabricated textile products Textile mill products Apparel and other fabricated textile products Leather and leather products Tanned, curried, and finished leather Footwear, except rubber Leather products, except footWear Other nondurable goods Tobacco manufacturers Paper and allied products Printing, publishing, and allied industries Chemicals and allied products Petroleum and coal products Rubber and miscellaneous plastic products Nondurable goods -- allocated Not specified manufacturing Nonmanufacturing industries Construction Railroads and railway express service Transportation, except railroads Communications, and utilities and sanitary services Wholesale trade Retail trade Business and repair services Public administration All other industries Transport Eguipment Operatives 84. 85. Transport equipment operatives Bus drivers Other transport equipment Operatives Boatmen and canalmen Conductors and motormen, urban rail transit Deliverymen and routemen Fork lift and tow motor Operatives Motormen; mine, factory, logging camp, etc. Parking attendants Railroad brakemen Railroad switchmen Taxicab drivers and chauffeurs Truck drivers Transport equipment operatives -- allocated 136 Laborers, Except Farm 86. Laborers, except farm (All occupations in this major group) Farmers and Farm Managers 87. Farmers andmfarm managers Farmers (owners and tenants) Farm managers Farmers and farm managers -- allocated Farm Laborers and Farm Foremen 88. 89. Paid farm laborers and farm foremen Farm foremen Farm laborers, wageworkers Farm service workers, self-employed Farm laborers and farm foremen -- allocated (class of worker other than unpaid family worker) Unpaid family workers Unpaid family workers Farm laborers and farm foremen -- allocated (unpaid family class of worker) Service Workers, Except Private Household 90. 91. 92. 93. 94. 95. 96. 97. 98. Service workers, except private household Cleaning service workers Chambermaids and maids, except private household Other cleaning service workers Cleaners and charwomen Janitors and sextons Food service workers Cooks, except private household Waiters and food counter workers Food counter and fountain workers Waiters Other food service workers Bartenders Busboys Dishwashers Food service workers, n.e.c., except private household Health service workers Nursing aides, orderlies, and attendants Practical nurses Other health service workers Dental assistants Health aides, except nursing Health trainees Lay midwives 137 Service Workerp, Except Private Household (cont.) 99. Personal service wOTkers ' 100. Housekeepers, except private household Other personal service workers Airline stewardesses Attendants, recreation and amusement Attendants, personal service, n.e.c. Baggage porters and bellhops Barbers Boarding and lodging housekeepers Bootblacks Child care workers, except private household Elevator Operatirs Housekeepers, except private household School monitors Ushers, recreation and amusement Welfare service aides Service workers, except private household -- allocated, and protective service workers Private Household Workers 102. Private househoid workers -- living in Child care workers, private household Cooks, private household Housekeepers, private household Maids and servants, private household Private household workers -- allocated 103. Private household workers -- living out (Detailed occupations shown above) APPEND IX H Descriptive Statistics for Unaggregated Information Needs 1138 Information Standard Needs Mean Deviation Skewness N Abortion vs. right-to-life .220 .493 2.199 623 About women .751 .763 .454 623 Advertising or .565 .779 .931 623 marketing Career - guidance .762 .819 .463 623 Children/ child care .620 .807 .797 623 Community issues 1.014 .780 -.025 623 Consumer , information 1:088 -752 7-447 023 Cooking . ~ ideas .955 .830 .064 623 Coping with discrimination .461 .702 1.202 623 (e.g., sex, race) Coping with multiple roles (e.g., , ”other, house_ .433 .705 . 1.315 6-3 wife, worker) Cultural info. . - . (e.g., music, .669 .763 .698 623 arts) Divorce .189 .500 2.645 623 Economy 1.022 .781 -.039 623 Education or _ ( , schools 1.051 .836 .0)7 6-3 EPP1°YmeB'. 836 .848 319 623 opportunities ' ' Entertainment (e.g., TV, 1.008 .801 -.014 623 movies) Famiiy Planning 783 565 1 881 623 or birth control " ° ' FaPily relati°"' .599 .739 .796 623 ships Fashions 1.030 .786 -.054 623 Health °'- 1.265 .710 -.431 623 nutrition 2139 Ifiiormation ’TStandard Needs Mean Deviation Skewness N figgzgkgzping/ .486 .701 1.102 623 figzgrnationul .796 .795 .381 623 9°b'rela'ed .849 .841 .291 623 info. kesal .570 .698 .818 623 info. Local news 1 265 .734 '.460 623 Marriage issues 377 .671 1.526 623 Medical info. 1.135 .716 -.204 623 Money mgmt. (e.g., finance, .774 .787 423 623 taxes) National news 1 108 .773 -.188 623 Personal care 767 .783 .434 623 Politics 624 .750 .739 623 Siigig°ns "it“ 750 .768 .461 623 Religion 650 .763 .685 623 §:::23§33:" 687 .754 .588 623 Sex education 305 .567 1.709 623 Sexual harassment 324 .609 1.706 623 Sports 579 .743 .856 623 State news 1.003 .738 -.003 623 Time mgmt. 441 .689 1.260 623 Travel info. .900 758 .168 623 Weather 1.191 .798 -.357 623 ggfiin's move‘ .573 .720 .845 623 Women's rights .804 .771 .352 623 APPENDIX I Descriptive Statistics of Information Needs by Work Roles 1410 .coHuaH>ou vuuvcmum ecu OH oan> vacuum ecu nachos: .noHou who: om» cu uuonOou :HHx woo: :oHHOINOHcH coco mo cues ozu OH osHa> Nona: esp Hmwmw OOON. ONOO. OOON. NONN. HONO. NONO. OOON. NOON. OOOO. NOHO. .oOcH OOOH.N OOOO.N OOOO.N NHOO.N HNOH.N OONN.N NONH.N OOOO.N HNOH.N HOON.N Hangs»: OOON. NONO. OOOO. NOON. ONON. OOON. OHNN. OOHN. HOON. 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