THE INFLUENCE OF CONTRASTING ADJACENT SOIL REGIONS ON THE AGRICULTURAL SYSTEMS OF SELECTED AREAS IN ILLINOIS, INDIANA, AND OHIO Thesis for the Degree of Ph. D. MICHIGAN. STATE UNIVERSITY ARTHUR G. LIMBIRD 1972 LIBR =1RY truism Michigan State University This is to certify that the thesis entitled The Influence of Contrasting Adjacent Soil Regions on the Agricultural Systems of Selected areas in Illinois, Indiana... and. Ohio presented by Arthur G. Limbird. has been accepted towards fulfillment of the requirements for Ph. 1). degree in Geography ' Mr Major professor Date December 9, 1971 0-7639 . I amomc av I I HDAG & saw I», I" 38K BINDERY we 9. LIBRARV BINDLRS I 5-: summon. MICHIGAN II I I * IIIIIIIIIIIIIIII II 3 IIIIIIIIIIII L 293 00649 8962 d ' {We/é: A?“ 0 @‘eV 5 filth h fl‘" -- . Kat," ' ‘- #Su;.§ 1;). -/N } ABSTRACT THE INFLUENCE OF CCNTRASTINC ADJACENT SOIL REGIONS ON THE AGRICULTURAL SYSTEMS OF SELECTED AREAS IN ILLINOIS, INDIANA, AND OHIO by Arthur G. Limbird Contrasting adjacent soil regions were used in this study as a framework to examine agricultural sys- tems, to demonstrate the influence of soils on these systems, and to show that soil is a primary agent in effecting differences in agricultural systems in gen- eral. The farming types which characterized each agricultural system were examined in detail to deter- mine the extent and degree of contrast between the adjacent soil regions. The group of factors analyzed included: farm size, allocation of land use on the farm, types of crops, crop yields, crop rotations, fer- tilizer application rates, and land values. The study was located in three separate areas of the Central Lowlands of the United States. One area was in east central Illinois, the second in southeast Indiana, and the third in southwest Ohio. Each area had a northern region of Wisconsin age till plain soils and a southern region ofIllinoian age till plain soils. A Wisconsin age terminal moraine marked the boundary between soil regions in each area. Limbird--2 A group of twenty-five farms was selected at ran- dom in each of the soil regions chosen for this study. Data on the production aspects of each farm were gathered from records in the Agricultural Stabilization and Conservation Service office in each county and from direct interview of individual farm operators. Most of the data gathered in the field was analyzed using a one-way analysis of variance test. The rest of the data, pertaining to the presence or absence of a factor, was analyzed using the Chi-square test. All tests were conducted at a .01 significance level. The results of the analyses indicated that six factors dis- played significant differences between soil regions in all three study areas. These factors were: the Storie Index (soil productivity), value of land per acre, percentage of farm in cropland, percentage of farm in ‘woodlot, percentage of cropland in corn, and type of artificial drainage. Five other factors--corn yield, phosphorus fertilizer application rate on soybeans, potassium fertilizer application rate on soybeans, total fertilizer application rate on soybeans, and percentage of cropland in soybeans--showed a significant difference between soil regions in two of the study areas and approached the .01 level of significance in the third study area. Limbird--3 The results of analysis of data classified each of the three Illinoian age soil regions as a mixed farming type region. The Wisconsin age soil regions in Ohio and Indiana were classified as corn-livestock farming type regions. The Wisconsin age soil region in Illi- nois was classified as a cash grain farming type region. Thus, the adjacent soil regions in each study area were classified as different farming types based on the soil differences. The number of significant variables for each study area in this thesis did not appear to be the result of other factors than the contrasting soils. Thus, the initial hypothesis that contrasting adjacent soil re- gions influenced differences in agricultural systems of these regions was accepted. It was felt that this study reiterated the value of using soil data to verify the existence of contrasting physical regions, provided a better insight into the role of soils in influencing differences in agricultural systems, indicated the factors within the agricultural systems which could vary significantly with differences in soils, and indicated the need for further studies of a similar nature in other areas to demonstrate the role of soils in influ- encing land use patterns and agricultural systems. THE INFLUENCE OF CONTRASTING ADJACENT SOIL REGIONS ON THE AGRICULTURAL SYSTEMS OF SELECTED AREAS IN ILLINOIS, INDIANA, AND OHIO by t. W" Arthur GU‘Limbird A THESIS Submitted to Michigan State University In partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Department of Geography 1972 DEDICATION This dissertation is dedicated to the memory of my brother, William S. Limbird, Jr. (11/3/h0 - 8/22/71) ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The writer of this dissertation wishes to express his appreciation to all those persons who contributed their time and effort to bring this undertaking to fruition. Special words of thanks go to Dr. Ian Matley of the Geography Department for his service as chairman of the Guidance Committee and as dissertation adviser. His suggestions and constant support were invaluable in both the research and writing stages. Special words of thanks go also to Dr. Jay R. Harman of the Geography Department for his valuable counsel and support in preparing the dissertation pro- posal, in the selection of the areas of research, and in the writing of the dissertation. Thanks to Dr. Stanley Brunn of the Geography Department for his advice in the use of statistical methods for this research and for his support in carrying out the quantitative analyses of data. Thanks to Dr. Henry Foth of the Soil Science Department for his personal concern which influenced this writer's interest in soils and soil related research. Thanks to the County Extension Agents in Coles and Jasper Counties, Illinois, in Decatur and Ripley Coun- ties, Indiana, and in Clinton and Warren Counties, Ohio, iii for their cooperation and assistance in carrying out the field research for this dissertation. Most of all, a special thanks to my wife, Kay, who both typed this dissertation and offered strength and understanding throughout my five years of graduate school. iv TABLE OF CONTENTS page DEDICATIONOOOOOOOOOOOO0.0.0....00.000000000000000011 ACKNOWLEWWNTS. O O O O O O O O O O 0 O O O O O O 0 O O O O O O O O O O O O O 0 iii LIST OF TABLES. O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 0 O O O O O O O O O O O O O Vii LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O X Chapter 0 INTRODUCTION. 0 O O O O O O O O O I O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 1 Part 1. Agricultural Systems and the Phy- sical Environment................l Part 2. An Approach to the Interaction of Soils and Agricultural Systems...9 Statement of the Problem...........9 Study Areas: East-Central Illi- nois, Southeast Indiana, and Southwest Ohio..................ll Methods and Anticipated Results...15 II. THE RELATIONSHIP OF SOIL FORMING FACTORS IN THE STUDY AREAS AND THE RESULTANT SOILS...OO0..O...COCOCOCOCCOOOOOOOCCOO0.3“ Cltheeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeee3h vegetation...OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO0.00037 TopograthOOOOOOO00.00...000.000.000.00039 Parent uteriaIOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOAO TimeOO0.00.0.0000...OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOQI Resultant 30118--Gen8r81.......o.......ohh Resultant Soils-~Illinois Study Area....h8 Resultant Soils--Ohio and Indiana StUdY AreaSeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeee51} III. RELATIONSHIP OF SOILS TO AGRICULTURAL SYSTEMS IN THE STUDY AREAS..............62 mud useOOOOOCOO0.0.0...00.0.0000000000063 crops.OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO000.000.00.00 9 Yields and Fertilizers..................76 Iand valueBOOO0.0.0.00.0...000.000.000.085 Tenancy and Operator's Age.............. TABLE OF CONTENTS Chapter P989 IV. AN ANALYSIS OF THE AGRICULTURAL SYSTEMS IN THE THREE STUDY AREAS...............91 hnd 080......OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO.0.00.096 ComOOOOOOOOOOOCOO...OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOIOO SOYbunSOOOOOOO0.0.00.00.00.0000000000106 Wheat and o‘tSOOOOOOOO0.00.00.00.00000108 Other Agricultural Production Factors.llO Farm Ownership and Labor..............112 und V‘lue Per AchOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOIM V. A SUMMARY OF THE FACTORS ANALYZED IN THE THREE STUDY AREAS AND CONCLUSIONS.....115 SWrYOOOOOOOOOOO0.00.00.00.000000000115 Conclusions...........................121 SEIECTED BIBLIMRAPHYOOO...0.0.00.000000129 vi LIST OF TABLES Table page 1. Soil Modifying Conditions: Percentage Values According to Storie (l933)..........26 2. Rating Values for Crops Grown in Rotation....30 3. General Climatic Data for Study Areas........36 A. Dates of Furthest Advance of Wisconsin Gla- cial Stage, by Carbon-1A Dating-~Ohio and IndiaMOOOOOOOOOOOO0.......0...OOOOOOOOhS 5. Comparative Nutrient Content of’MaJor Soil Series in Illinois Study Area..............52 6. Comparative Nutrient Content of‘MaJor Soil Series in Ohio and Indiana Study Areas.....57 7. Percentage of Soil TeSts in Low, Medium, and High Categories for Potassium and Phosphorus and in Ranges of pH Values......57 8. Allocation of Land Use in Southeast Indiana-- Wisconsin and Illinoian Soil Regions.......65 9. Agricultural Land Use, Decatur County and Ripley county, Indiana--196heeeeeeeeeeeeeee66 10. Agricultural Land Use, Coles County and Jasper County, Illinois--l96h..............68 11. Agricultural Land Use by Soil Type, Clin- ton county, Ohio--196leeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeee7o 12. Crop Rotation Systems by Soil Type in Ohio...7h 13. Estimated Crop Yields for Major Soil Series in Illinois Study Area--Average (A) and High (H) Levels of’Management..............78 1A. Estimated Crop Yields for Ma or Soil Series in Ohio and Indiana Study reas--Average (A) and High (H) Levels of Management......79 15. Soybean, Wheat, and Oat Yields for Study Area Counties in Illinois and Indiana......81 vii LIST OF TABLES Table page 16. Pounds of Nutrients Removed with Har- veSt, PerAcreOOOOCOOOCOOOOCOOCOOOOOOOOOOOOBA 17. Average Crop Yields and Variability in Yield, Coles and Jasper Counties, Illi- “Dis--1927-1953eeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeee85 18. Level of Significance of Variables Analyzed Using Analysis of Variance Test............92 19. Values for Chi-square Test and Significance of Variables Analyzed Using Chi-square TestOOOOOOOOO...0.0....0.0.0.0000000000000093 20. Storie Index Values for Soil Regions in the StUdY AreaSOOOOOOOO0.0000.00.000.000000000095 21. Type of Artificial Drainage in Study Areas, by 8011 RegionSOOOOOO0.0.00.00000000000000095 22. Land Use Allocation for Study Areas, by 8011 RegionSOOO...OOOOOOOOOOOOOO0.0.0.0.0009? 23. Percentage of Farms Maintaining Farm Size and Cropland Size 1968-1970, by Soil Re- gionOOOOOOOOIOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO...00......100 2A. Agricultural Activity Values and Percentage of Agricultural Activity Contributed by the Two Primary Activities in the Study Areas, by Soil Region.....................102 25. Percentage of Cropland Devoted to Indivi- dual Crops and Average Livestock Numbers in Study Areas, by Soil Region............103 26. Crop Yields and Fertilizer Application Rates for the Three Study Areas, by Soil RegionSOOOOOOOOOOO0......0.0.00.0000000000105 27. Salter Productive Balance Values for CrOp Rotation Systems in Study Areas, by Soil RegionSOOOOOOOOOOOOOO0.0.0.00.000000000000111 viii LIST OF TABLES Table page 28. Farm Ownership and Farm Labor in the Study Areas, by Soil Region....................113 29. Land Value Per Acre in Study Areas, by $011 RegionOOOOOOOOO...OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOIIh ix LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS Figure page 1. Location of Study Areas....................12 2. Soil Regions--Illinois Study Area..........16 3. Soil Regions--Indiana Study Area...........l7 A. Soil Regions-~Ohio Study Area..............l8 5. Location of Farms--Illinois Study Area.....20 6. Location of Farms-~Indiana Study Area......21 7. Location of Farms-~Ohio Study Area.........22 CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION Part 1. Agricultural Systems 52g the Physical nv ronment Agricultural geography is one branch of human geo- graphy which concerns itself directly with both cultural and physical phenomena. It concerns itself more with the physical environment than any other segment of cul- tural geography.1 Agricultural patterns are in fact good examples of spatial distributions that are influ- enced both by man and by the physical environment. The distribution of agriculture throughout the world lends itself to explanation partially by limits imposed by the environment and partially by human choices.2 As expected, many research studies have discussed agricul- tural patterns in terms of man's influence, while a number of others have discussed such patterns in terms of the influence of physical factors.3 There is strong agreement among geographers that the primary objective of agricultural geography is the ‘1. Howara F. Gregor, Geo ra h ,2; A iculture: ' Themes ig Research, Prentice-HIII, Englewooa CIIfIs, New Jersey, I975, p. 31. 2. Maurice H. Yeates, Ag Introduction to guantita- tive Anal sis in Economic Geo re 5 HbCrawCRi 3005 Company, New YEFk, I953, p. A%. ’ 3. See Gregor, gp. git., for several examples. 2 study of the areal variation of agriculture, no matter which mode of explanation is used. The agricultural geographer endeavors to understand the spatial differ- ences in agriculture and the reasons for these differences. Often the areal variations of agriculture are discussed within a regional context as in the work of Baker,” Weaver,5 and COppock.6 It remains true that different areas of the world possess agricultural char- acteristics which clearly distinguish one area from another. Agricultural geography attempts to define these areas of variation. The concept of the region thus is considered to be of fundamental importance in studies of agricultural geography. The majority of regional studies in agricultural geography have been restricted to a single region or to the regional pattern of single features. Mere re- cently, there has been an increasing interest in more‘ complex regional phenomena such as farming types.7 Regional comparisons have been introduced in order to understand more fully the similarities and differences h. DIET—Eiker, "Agricultural Regions of North Agerica," Economic Geo ra h , vol. 2 (1926), pp. 459- A 3- 5. J.C. Weaver, "Crap-Combination Regions in the Middle West," Geographical Review, vol. Ah (195h), pp. 175-200 and 560-57 . 6. J.T. Cop ock, "Crap, Livestock, and Enterprise Combinations in ngland and Wales," Economic Geo ra h , vol. #0 (196A) pp. 65-81. 7. Gregor, pp. gi§., p. 112. of two regions. The regions compared are usually simi- 8 and Lewth- lar ones, such as in the articles of Neinig waite,9 because the common characteristics were the attracting forces for the researchers. There thus appears to be a need to examine farming types or agri- cultural systems on a comparative basis between dissim- ilar regions. The agricultural region can be viewed as being as large or as small as the particular study demands. From the individual standpoint, the farmer, influenced by physical and cultural factors, makes decisions on adapting various forms of work and production into a farming type. These decisions by several farmers help to create a combination of similar characteristics which integrates the farming type into an agricultural system of a region. The areal extent of the region may or may not correspond with physical regions or with political units. Thus, the identification and descrip- tion of farming types and agricultural systems along with the areas they occupy have long been a major ‘E. DJW}Meinig, "Colonization of Wheatlands: Some Australian and American Comparisons," Australian Geo ra her vol. 7 (1959) pp. 205-213. 9. G. . Lewthwaite, "Wisconsin and the Waikato: A Comparison of Dairy Farming in the United States and New Zealand," Annals of the Association 2; American Geo ra hers, voI. 5A.TI95AI pp. 59-37. l, concern to agricultural geographers.10 When discussing the variations of agricultural systems within a restric- ted location, the examination of individual farms to determine how they fit into the context of the farming type--agricultural system--agricultural region hier- archy seems desirable. Gregor11 observes that conditions in the United States have favored a close adjustment of agriculture to differences in the physical environment. A number of physical environments are found in a subcontinental framework; a well developed transportation system exists in the country; the economy is dominantly commercial; agricultural technolOgy is more advanced than in many other areas; and most importantly, rural populations are strongly rationalistic in their attitudes toward the land. These assumptions in whole or in part have pervaded past studies in agricultural geography in the United States as related to the physical environ- ment. Approaches to the question of the relationship be- tween agriculture and the physical environment have been varied and changing over the past half century in agricultural geography. Early in this period it was IO. ‘LeSIIe Symons, A ricultural figgéggphy, Freder- ick A. Praeger, Inc., New IorE, I967, p. . 11. Gregor, gp. cit., pp. AZ-AB. 5 realized that commercial agriculture is a highly compe- titive industry making crop and livestock production sensitive to even small physical advantages or disadvan- tages of a particular region. Physical factors can in large degree influence the utilization of land within an area. Baker12 discussed the increased tendency for the patterning of land use in close relation to varia- tions in topography, soils, temperature, and moisture. He stressed that an area characterized by homogenous agricultural conditions--especially in the type of crops grown--was mainly determined by climate. Sub- divisions of these regions were due to differences in slope and in soils which could influence variability in the proportion of land used for crops or the relative importance of the crops.13 Intensive study of the increasingly closer adjust- ment of agriculture to areas with the best physical environment revealed that agriculture is more extensive on poorer lands and more intensive on better lands. The best land for agricultural production is that which is the most fertile and easily cultivated and which shows higher yields than less fertile land. These pro- Ii. O.E. Baker, "The Increasing Importance of the Physical Conditions in Determining the Utilization of Land for Agriculture and Forest Production in the United States," Annals of the Association of American Geogra- phers, vol. II (I§2IT-pp. I7-45. 13. O.E. Baker, "Agricultural Regions of North America," Economic Geography, vol. 2 (1926) pp. h59-h93. 1h- Gregor, gp.‘gi§., p. L2. 6 ductive areas tend to attract labor and capital more readily than do less productive areas. Physicalfactors, then, may be important in influencing differences in agricultural systems within agricultural regions. In attempts to discern the spatial patterns of these so-called "better lands" a number of research studies have separated the physical environment into its component parts. Several earlier studies, such as those of Rose,15 Weaver,16 and Vischer,l7 stressed the effects of climate on agriculture. Other studies dealing with climates examined those climatic locations suitable for various crops.18 Work by geographers in analyzing the influence of topography in agriculture has had a long period of development. Plains in partic- ular have received abundant attention because of their close relationship to agricultural activity.19 Studies have included the entire terrain of an area or dealt with single landforms. 13.3.K. Rose, "Corn Yield and Climate in the Corn Belt, " Geo ra hical Review, vol. 26 (1936) pp. 88-101. 16. 5.5. Weaver, "Climatic Relations of American Barley Production," Geographical Review, vol. 33 (19L3) pp. 588-596. 17. 3.3. Visher, "weather Influences on Crop Yields," Economic Geo ra h , vol. 16 (l9h0) pp. A36-AA3. 18. orntfiwafte, "An Approach Toward a Rational Classification of Climate, " Geographical Re- view, vol. 38 (l9h8) pp. 55- 9h. 19. J. J. Hidore, "Relationship Between Cash Grain Earming and Landforms," Economic Geo ra h , vol. 39 (1963) pp 8A- 89. 7 Research on the influence of soil on agricultural patterns has been less intensive than the influence of climate and topography. Some geographers have been con- cerned with optimum soil areas for individual crops. A few others have combined soils and climate to discern the most productive soil for a crop. One way of studying the effect of man on soil productive capacity is to concentrate on specific soil regions. Wolfanger carried out such studies in the 1920s and 19303.20’ 21 Since that time, few geographers have been willing to give priority to soils. They prefer to consider them as a secondary element in agricultural processes.22 Soil scientists and crop scientists have done much research which the geographer can draw upon and place in a spatial framework. They have demonstrated that differences in the degree of soil weathering and soil development can result in many important variations in soils. These variations can strongly influence produc- tion and management practices on farms, such as artifi- cial drainage, fertilizer applications, and cropping systems.23 Soil development depends on climatic forces 25. L.A. Wolfanger, "Economic Geography of the Gray-Brownerths of the Eastern United States," Geograph- ical Review, vol. 21 (1931) p. 277. 21. L.A. Wolfanger, "Abandoned Land in a Re ion of Land Abandonment," Economic Geography, vol. 7 1931) pp 0 166 -176 e 22. Gregor, pp. g;§., p. 37. 23. B.W. Ray, "Degree of weathering and Develop- ment Affects Soil Properties and Management Practices," Agronomy Facts, University of Illinois, SP-h, 1955. 8 acting on parent materials under the influence of vege- tation and landforms over varying lengths of time.2h These five factors of soil formation--climate, vegeta- tion, topography, parent material, and time-~can result in different soil types which in turn may reflect con- trasting agricultural systems. Differences in soils can be local or regional in nature. Each soil type occurs in a definite geographic area and in certain spatial patterns with other soil types. Neighboring soils may have large or small dif- ferences which may have an important bearing on their use or management. A large number of soils within a small area often have many features in common. Thus, regional differences are normally larger and are usually related to climate or vegetation. However, in places, important differences reflect variation in topography, ages of land surfaces, or the character of the parent 25 material. Wolfanger26 found that such was the case in the Chesapeake Bay Region. He studied an area of contrasting soils; one old, infertile, and aged by nature on a level surface and the other younger, more 2:. T. E. Bushnell, A Sto of Hoosier Soils, Peda- Products, West Lafayette, In ans, *1 p.11. 25. Roy W. Simonson, "What Soils Are, " Soil, the Yearbook of Agriculture, 1957, USDA, washington, *D.CTT PP- [7‘51- 26. L. A. Wolfanger, "Abandoned Land in a Re ion of Land Abandonment, ' Economic Geo ography, vol. 7 1931) 9 fertile, and more physically capable of crop production. Yields were low, potential was low, and the farms often abandoned on the old soil. The production capability was good, yields were relatively high, and few farms were abandoned on the younger soil. The principle of intensification of production on better soils seems to lend itself to a regional geo- graphic approach to contrasts between natural fertility and soil productivity. The spatial context of such re- search is clearly within the realm of agricultural geography. However, there has been comparatively little recent work done by geographers on the interaction be- tween soils and agricultural patterns. There exists an apparent need for more detailed work on the relation- ships between soils and agricultural systems in a spatial framework. Further, there is a need to examine agricultural systems by comparing them in dissimilar regions. Part 2. An A roach to the Interaction g; Soils and EErIcuItural_Systems Statement 2; the Problem Although it is recognized that a relationship can exist between soils and agricultural systems within a region, little geographical research has been carried out on the extent and magnitude of this relationship. 10 The use of contrasting soil regions as a framework to examine agricultural systems may demonstrate the influ- ence of soils on these systems and show that soil is a primary agent in effecting differences in agricultural systems in general. It is hypothesized that contrasting soil regions located adjacent to one another result in differences in the agricultural systems occuring between these regions. In order to investigate the validity of this statement, three concise, separate areas of the midwest are included in the study. Each area has con- trasting adjacent soil regions and presumably, contrast- ing agricultural systems. Thus, the influence of soil variations on these systems is examined within limited and well defined areas. As the purpose of this study is to determine the effect of contrasting adjacent soil regions in each of the three chosen study areas on the agricultural system in each region, the systems must be broken down into their component parts. The farming types which charac- terize each system need to be examined factor by factor to determine the extent and degree of contrast between the adjacent soil regions. The group of fac- tors includes farm size, allocation of land use on the farm, types of crops, yields, crop rotations, fertilizer application rates, farm labor, and land value. 11 In this thesis the farming types in each region of the study area are investigated. A sample group of individual farms in each region forms the framework of analyzing those agricultural factors which comprise the farming type and thus influence the agricultural system. Each sample group is used to determine which of the non-physical agricultural factors contrast in each of the study areas. While the actual data may vary among the three study areas, these factors can be use- ful measures of the degree of contrast in each area. Therefore, in investigating the relationship between the contrasting soil regions and the agricultural systems, a basic secondary hypothesis is examined. It is theorized that similar non-physical agricultural factors contrast in each of the three study areas, indicating that a similar degree of contrast exists in each area. Study Areas; East-Central Illinois, Southeast Indiana, and Southwest 0 The study is located in three separate areas of the Central Lowlands Province of the United States. One area is in east central Illinois, the second in south- east Indiana, and the third in southwest Ohio (see Figure 1.) These three particular areas of the midwest are chosen for analysis because of the apparent con- trasting adjacent soils found in each of them. This study is restricted to three portions of the area which 12 ‘ 1 .\/ .4 Ali 833m Mu a a To.» « .colu.\t I/xamfi/c w 85!. 35...! 53.8.5 I a \1). at. w 3.1.85 @ x. r. .v _ E 8.3... a \ t. 1.2.55: . «<92 53m 3 2928.. \t X. (z. 3).. K) . Ev; \ X I. (.x (cl/r wt 8— ct... , \ P« u... ._ ». z.\ x .= \ . \ x t Vé: . .1... el- )\ _ . _ _ _ _ _ _ _ .358. _ _ _ 19310 _ Blese . _ . _ . _ fl _ ._ _ _ . 0:6 _ $252. _. 29.3.: _ _ _ . . _ u _ . . u _ l . II! III I: Glacial Map 2; the United (Source: States East of the Rocky Mountains, Geological Society of LOCATION OF STUDY AREAS. America, 1959.) Figure 1. 13 possibly could be studied and to sample groups of farms within each portion in order to more intensively inves- tigate the relationships under examination. Each of the three study areas has a southern re- gion which was covered by the Illinoian age ice sheet and is part of the nearly level till plain of that age. The soils of these southern regions are "planosolic" Alfisols,27 which developed on gentle slopes where sur- face drainage has been deficient and internal drainage slow. The subsoil is characterized by a relatively impermeable claypan or fragipan horizon.28 In Illinois, the "planosolic" soil region is extensive, covering all or part of twenty-nine counties in the southern part of the state. Jasper County has been selected to represent this "planosolic" soil region. In Indiana, the "planosolic" soils are scattered over parts of five counties. The "planosolic" soils of Decatur County and Ripley County have been selected to represent this soil region. In Ohio, the "planosolic" soils cover scattered parts of five counties. The "planosolic" soils of warren County and Clinton County have been sel- acted to represent this region. Each of the three ____—§7___VEIEHosolic" Alfisol is a term used in this study to indicate an Alfisol of the 7th Approximation soil classification which has the claypan or fragipan characteristic of the planosol of older soil classifi- cations. 28. University of Wisconsin, Soils of the North e ion of the United States Central R griculturaI Ex- periment Station BETIet n hh, I§EO, pp 6-37 1h sample regions has been selected because of nearness to an adjacent contrasting soil region and because of available soil survey data. Each of the three study areas has a northern region which was covered by the Wisconsin age ice sheet at a much more recent time than the Illinoian ice sheet covered the southern region. The northern regions are parts of the nearly level to gently rolling till plains of Wisconsin age. The soils of these northern regions are imperfectly to poorly drained Alfisols and Mollisols developed on gentle slopes where surface drainage has been deficient and internal drainage moderate.29 The claypan or fragipan horizon characteristic of the Illinoian age soils is absent in these Alfisols and Mollisols. In all three study areas, the Wisconsin age till plains cover relatively extensive areas. Each northern region has been selected to represent the larger till plain area on the basis of its nearness to the adjacent contrasting region to the south, on the availability of soil survey data, and on the physical similarities between the adjacent regions which are controlled to be constant factors in this study--till plain landform, slight topographic relief, slopes less than five percent, and silt loam or silty clay loam 29. IIBId. 15 surface soil texture. In Illinois, the till plain Mollisols of Coles County have been selected to repre- sent the Wisconsin age till plain area. In Indiana, the till plain Alfisols and Mollisols of Decatur County have been chosen to represent the till plain of this area. In Ohio, the till plain Alfisols and Mollisols of Warren County and Clinton County have been selected. As defined in this thesis, the study is composed of three areas, one each in Illinois, Indiana, and Ohio. Each area is composed of two regions, one of Illinoian age soils and the other of Wisconsin age soils. Each region is restricted in size to the soil associations under consideration in this study within the boundaries of the counties selected. Thus, the study areas are limited in their areal extent and their boundaries are well-demarcated to facilitate the inves- tigation process (see Figures 2,3, and h.) Methods and Anticipated Results The hypotheses of this study were tested using a research plan in which the first step was the verifica— tion of the existence of the adjacent contrasting soil regions. Once this existence was established, the next step was the study of a number of factors associated with agricultural systems generally found in the section of the midwest chosen for the study location to deter- mine the degree of contrast each individual factor l6 Coles County _/ / ./ 9 \ S l Josper Counly :lI//q / § l 5 \3 \. \_ \ l. \ SOIL REGIONS Illinois Study Area IO SOIL REGIONS FROM WHICH STUDY Cl 0 L—I.__.l Miles AREA FARMS WERE CHOSEN (Source: Fehrenbacher, - OTHER SOILS a WISCONSIN-AGE MORAINE Walker, and Wascher, Soils of Illinois, University of Illinois SOIL REGIONS Illinois Study Area. Agricultural Experiment Station, Bulletin 725, 1967.) Figure 2. l7 Decatur County _/ / _/ l \. \ l I / \._ Ripley County v ,-/" " .__.\ /‘ 1 /" \ \‘iO‘N:<\)5$ / \ ./€ / - v1. / SOIL RE I ‘ . G CNS 1 SOIL REGIONS FROM WHICH STUDY InleflO Study Area -‘ :3 AREA FARMS WERE CHOSEN 0 IO ' .. L 1 J l - OTHER .30st Miles ‘/ ./'/ WISCONSIN-AGE MORAINE \ Figure 3. SOIL REGIONS Indiana Study Area. (Source: Bushnell, A Stag g_f_ Hoosier Soils, Pads-Products, West Lafayette, Indiana, 1958.) 18 J IO 1 Clinton County ‘2‘ 3 3 U 5 , t .’,_Lf” 3 /" -- / E I .5 l ‘c’ ,/‘ '6 r " ’i. l \ \ S " ,1; ./ 3 ." .— (’ 5 \. x \. _ ———————————————— —---—--fi vuvnom \ [A \ ‘ '\__ 1 '\ son. REGIONS ‘L Ohio Study Area SOIL REGIONS FROM WHICH STUDY AREA FARMS WERE CHOSEN m WISCONSIN-AGE MORAINE - OTHER SOILS Figure 4. SOIL REGIONS Ohio Study Area. (Sources: Ohio Department of Natural Resources, Progress Report 13, An Inventory_ of Ohio Soils: Clinton County and Progress Report 24, An Inventory_ of Ohio Soils: Warren Coun_y. ) l9 exhibited between the adjacent contrasting regions and to determine which factors varied significantly in relation to differences in the soils. In testing the factors of agricultural systems, it seemed best to re- late them to a sample of individual farms in each of the study areas and to statistically analyze the findings concerning each sample group of farms. The initial step in the collection of data was the selection of farms in each region of the study areas. A system of coordinates 100 by 100 was placed on a map of each region. The individual farms were located by selecting a pair of two digit random numbers from a table of random numbers. Each coordinate value was chosen independently of the other values obtained. One random number within the range of the coordinate values of the Y-axis (1-99) and the other within the range of the coordinate values of the X-axis (1799) located the sample farms. A group of twenty-five farms was selec- ted in each of the six regions chosen for the study (see Figures 5,6, and 7.) The farms chosen as the sample group in each re- gion met certain criteria to be a part of the group: each farm'was located on soils indicated as being part of the study area; each farm was functioning as a farm- ing Operation; and each farm was run by a full-time farm operator. If a farm did not meet these standards, 20 Coles County S "' \ILLI \ -\ Jasper County \ 3 '\. \ I. I. \ LOCATION OF FARMS Illinois Study Area It FARMS - WISCONSIN AGE REGION 0 IO Miles * FARMS - ILLINOIAN AGE REGION Figure 5. LOCATION OF FARMS Illinois Study Area. 21 Decatur County / / ,/ I * 'Ver iII.-. \.\y I I I ‘4 Ripley County v ’/ M, / ‘4 ”"“ “NEI’ CX‘ // \\ $3/€$‘0 / ~- / 1 LOCATION OF FARMS '0 I. Indiana Study Area 1 J / Miles /« . FARMS-WISCONSIN AGE REGION ( aIz FARMS-ILLINOIAN AGE REGION PC Figure 6. LOCATION OF FARMS Indiana Study Area. 22 I ., o._ 8? Jo 298E mo< z<52....=Imzm saaaaaaua oo Am.4v uwoa hawaoupn who> no Ao.m-m.av shad hawsOtam oaIQH toad ands mu Ao.ouo.mv egos aaopwuooo: oonoa Room mm Am.o-o.ov sass aaaamaam om-om hash and Ao.sv Happaoz Rooanoa soou Away aaaeaua Aawaaaaau Huauamapau mass; on: emanate gamma. owuopm op waauuooo< mosamb owapaoohom uncouuwvcoo wcwhmdnuos Hwom .H 0..”me 27 acreage to attain a final farm rating value. The farm rating for each farm then was compared to the other farms in each study area using an analysis of variance test at a .01 level of significance. It was hoped that the Storie Index would more clearly indicate the con- trast in soil capabilities between regions, despite requiring an empirical evaluation on the part of the observer. It seemed to be a relatively satisfactory method of assigning a basic numerical value, the farm rating, to each farm as a basis for comparing soil capacities. Data on the production aspects of each farm were gathered from records in the Agricultural Stabilization and Conservation Service office in each county and from direct interview of the individual farm operators. Units of operation were compared rather than units of ownership because it was felt that land owners might rent land to others or from others. Thus, operators might be owners, part-owners, or tenants. Information was collected on how the land on each farm was being utilized. The size of the farm was re- corded along with percentage figures and acreage totals .for: the amount of land on the farm in cropland, the amount of cropland being used for crops, the amount of cropland used only as pasture, the amount of non- cropland used only for pasture, the amount of land 28 untilled, the amount of land uncleared, idle, or used for buildings, the amount of woodland, and the amount of woodland used as pasture. It was felt that these figures would help to indicate how fully the land on each farm was being utilized for agricultural produc- tion. It was expected that there would be a significant difference between the contrasting soil regions in each study area in the percentage of land on the farms allo- cated for various uses. The factors measured were ex- pected to show a more intensive use of land on the Wisconsin age soils and a less intensive land use on the Illinoian age soils. The percentage figures of land use for each of the study areas were analyzed using the analysis of variance test at a .01 signifi- cance level. The types of crops grown also were studied. The acreage for each crop was recorded along with the per- centage of total cropland for each crop. Yields per acre for each crop were collected. The amount of fer- tilizer applied per acre was recorded for each crop. The yields were evaluated in terms of fertilizer applied. It was felt that more fertilizer would be necessary on the "planosolic" soils to reach yield levels comparable to those on Wisconsin age soils. It was anticipated that farms on the "planosolic" soils would have more soybean acreage and a higher percentage 29 Of land devoted to soybeans, while farms on the Wiscon- sin age soils would have more corn acreage and percen- 36 It was believed that tage of land devoted to corn. crop yields would be higher on the Wisconsin age soils. Crop yields, percentage of cropland devoted to each crop, and fertilizer application rates were analyzed for each of the three study areas using the analysis of variance test at a .01 significance level. The crop rotation system employed by each farm operator was evaluated using an index system devised by Salter and his associates.37 The soil productivity index for a given crop was designated as the approxi- mate change in the productive capacity of the soil caused by growing each crOp for a single year. It was used to measure the balance between the favorable and unfavorable effects of a crop on the capacity of the soil to produce. Crops in rotations were evaluated using the ratings in Table 2. Adjustments were then added for each 200 pounds average commercial fertilizer applied per acre (0.125.)38 The index system was applied to the rotation system used on each farm in the 36. J.C. weaver, ”Changin Patterns of Cropland Use in the Middle west," Econom c Geo ra h , vol. 30 37. RSM. Salter R.D. Lewis, and J.A. Slipher, Our Herita e--the Soii Ohio Agricultural Experiment S't'itlon EuEIeti'il—l75, 1936. 38. Ibid. Results of experiments in Ohio showed this value was a fair allowance for fertilizer applica- t ons. 30 Table 2. Rating Values for Crops Grown in Rotation alfalfa, two years in row +3.0 alfalfa, one year in row +2.0 clover +2.5 timothy 0.0 soybeans, seed 0.0 oats, barley, and wheat -l.0 corn -2.0 31 study group. It was anticipated that the soil produc- tive balance would be higher or positive on the Illi- noian age "planosolic" soils because of the lower natural fertility levels and lower or negative on the Wisconsin age soils because of "short cuts" in the rotation scheme due to higher natural fertility levels. The Salter index was analyzed using the analysis of variance test at a .01 significance level for each of the study areas. Data on farm labor were collected from the indivi- dual farm operators. The number of farm workers on each farm and the composition of the labor force were exam- ined to determine the number of family laborers and the number of non-family laborers. The amount of farm work was measured by months and fractions of a month. The total months of labor applied to each farm were calculated by adding the months of work for each labor- er on the farm. It was expected that more work would be applied to the Illinoian age soils to produce yields comparable to those on the Wisconsin age soils. These farm labor factors were analyzed using the analysis of variance test at a .01 significance level. Government subsidy programs were examined to deter- mine what influence they had on the size of non-cropland acreage on each farm. It was suggested that more non- cropland acreage, as a part of the land use pattern on 32 farms in a region, could be attributed to subsidy pro- grams than to soil aspects. Diverted acres as a percen- tage of total farm acreage was evaluated using the analysis of variance test at a .01 significance level. Land value per acre for the sample farms was secured from tax records at the county assessors Office in each county of the study area. The dollar value of land per acre was the assessed value of land for tax purposes. It was expected that this figure would show significantly higher values for the farms on the younger soils and lower values for the farms on the older "planosolic" soils. Thus, land values would tend to reflect productivity levels. The land value per acre was evaluated for each of the study areas using analysis of variance at a .01 significance level. In addition to the factors examined using the analysis of variance test, the Chi-square test was used to determine if there was a significant difference between adjacent contrasting soil regions for: the presence of artificial drainage, the type of artificial drainage, the presence of a full-time hired hand, the status of the farm operator (owner, part-owner, tenant), changes in farm size, and changes in cropland size. The Chi-square tests were conducted at a .01 signifi- cance level. 33 It was hoped that this study would contribute the following: 1. A reiteration of the value of using soil data to verify the existence of contrasting physical regions; A better insight into the role of physical factors, especially soils, in influencing differences in agricultural systems; An indication of the factors within the agricultural systems on could expect to vary significantly with differences in the physi- cal environment; The need for further studies of this type in other areas to show the role of soils in land use patterns and agricultural systems. CHAPTER II THE RELATIONSHIP OF SOIL FORMING FACTORS IN THE STUDY AREAS AND THE RESULTANT SOILS The physical environment in each of the three study areas is one of similarity rather than of contrast. Except for the soil factors, each of the study areas appears to be relatively uniform from a physical stand- point. The contrasts in soils thus become the focal point of this study and must be considered in detail. Within the study areas, the soil forming factors of climate, vegetation, topography, and parent material are of relatively comparable influence. Variation in the time factor between the adjacent regions in each area makes this factor of primary importance in soil development. Climate Temperature and precipitation can be important climatic forces exerting direct influences on soil de- velopment.1 In the study areas, the temperatures of the darker soils of Wisconsin age are warmer than those of the lighter colored "planosolic" soils of Illinoian I. 'United States Department of Agriculture, Soil Sum Clinton Count Ohio Soil Conservation Service Series’lw , no. 96 5, 50. ’ 3h 35 age. Poor drainage on the "planosolic" soils causes much surplus water which does not soak into the soil but must be evaporated.2 The "planosolic" soils seem to remain colder in spring because drainage is less than adequate while the younger soils warm more rapidly because of better natural drainage or successful arti- ficial drainage. The extent and intensity Of’processes in soil for- mation are closely related to the magnitude and dura- tion of soil temperatures above freezing. Most soil- forming processes function only when temperatures are above freezing and tend to increase with higher temp- eratures.3 Thus, the processes relate to the length of the growing season. Within the confines of the areas of this study, the growing season is essentially uniform (see Table 3.) Precipitation largely governs the supply of mois- ture at the soil surface. Runoff, erosion, infiltra- tion, and leaching are closely related to the total quantity of precipitation, the rate at which it reaches the surface and the seasonal distribution.“ Precipita- 2. ‘R.CT‘Ross and H.C.M; Case T§pes of Farmin in Illinois: An Analysis of Differences _y razs Univer3- —— -——.. ’ sity of IlIIno s, griculturaI Experiment Station Bulletin 601, 1956, p. 1h. 3. University of Wisconsin, Soils of the North Central Re ion of the United States, KngEuIEEraI Exper- Iment StatIon BEIlEEIh 5h£,‘North—Central Regional Publication 76, 1960, p. 12. A. University of Wisconsin, _2. gig., p. 10. 36 Nnmmmsitbmowlmmmosna mea tmm_pcueoammsmui possum .dme ..O.Q .COQMMM noonum sound: on» no oapmstu .ooaossoo mo pcoepamaoa moumum vegan: .wm “meson“. Amonocwv n.55 0.05 .unoo.os o.mb w.mw N.mw ohov .paomsam: .awomam . see .aaooam Hmdcc< aaswiceoz Hmscc< mcflzouu omwuo>< ommao>< mwmao>< m m.mm sma o . mm «2 .pmoo.sm .memuH s.mm 55H o.~m ASH m.mm 05H ..aov Amanda .QEoe condom owm§o>< ommue>< mmop< hvsum pom mama oapmsaao Hmaocoo mwocaaaH .uoamou naoaaaaH .noaoo mamHocH .hoaafim acmanH .aspeooa oano .coaumz oaao .sooasao hpqzoo .m magma 37 tion in the study areas is relatively uniform, ranging from an annual average Of 38.6 inches in Coles County, Illinois, to ht.3 inches in Clinton County, Ohio. About one half of the precipitation falls during the growing season (May to September) with averages for this period varying from 18.0 inches in Decatur County, Indiana, to 19.a inches in Clinton County, Ohio. The rainfall is fairly well distributed over the growing season and generally is enough to produce good crops. Climate affects soils through a combination of tem- perature and precipitation on a broad areal scale. However, even relatively small differences in climate can cause pronounced differences in the develOpment of soils. While it is recognized that average figures do not begin to show the variations in climate that can exist over short distances, certainly among the three areas of this study no one area appears to exhibit a climatic advantage or disadvantage in relation to the other areas (see Table 3.) The fairly uniform climate throughout the study areas seems to indicate that soils differ because of local differences in the other soil forming factors. Vegetation Two general types of vegetation are recognized in the study area, a prairie or grassland type and a forest type. While soil development is more intense under 38 trees, the same type of weathering processes occur under both forest and grassland vegetation. Upland soils formed under grassland have relatively large amounts of organic matter and can be considered productive soils. Forest soils developed on uplands are lighter colored, contain less organic matter, and are somewhat less productive than grassland soils.6 In the Ohio and Indiana study areas, all soils have developed under forest vegetation.' Vegetation is a common factor throughout the contrasting adjacent soil regions and appears to have relatively little effect on differences in soils. The two counties selected for the study area in Illinois contain both soils developed under grassland vegetation and soils developed under forest vegetation. The grasslands predominate in both counties, so the sample group of farms includes only those farms with grassland soils, in order to maintain vegetation as a constant factor. Examining soils influenced by only one general vegetation type in each study area appears to be a method of eliminating an extraneous variable which could affect the degree of contrast being measured. 6. University of Illinois, Coles County Soils, Agricultural Experiment Station SOII Report an, 1929, p. 5. 39 Topography Topography, both locally and regionally, has a governing effect on drainage, runoff, and erosion and thus contributes to the formation and distribution of 30113.7 More moist conditions occur more often and for longer periods on very gentle slopes or near level areas due to greater intake of precipitation and re- duced runoff. Such a situation is conducive to greater weathering rates and to restricted aeration and oxida- tion. Soils on upland sites, inward from the margins of a slope, often are soils of considerable age with hydromorphic or "planosolic" variants in the central, poorly drained parts of the wider uplands.8 The soils of all three study areas can be placed in this upland location, thus weathering rates and moisture conditions can be considered similar. The topography throughout all three study areas is essentially flat land; slopes are less than five percent. Runoff and erosion are reduced to comparative- ly insignificant rates while infiltration and soil formation rates are greater than on neighboring soils on slopes. The natural drainage is the predominant g. ‘Uhiversity of Wisconsin, J. cit., p. 10. . Brian T. Bunting TheG rOf Soil Aldine Publishing Companyzfi h cago, JI86%,“ p. 7I. hO topographic factor which seems to vary between adjacent regions in each of the study areas. The difference in drainage can be attributed to the internal obstructions found in the claypan or fragipan horizon of the "plan- osolic" soils on the older Illinoian till. The pan characteristic is not developed in the soils on the younger Wisconsin till. All three study areas have imperfectly, poorly, or very poorly drained soils. Parent Material Two major sources of soil parent material are recognized in the study areas. One is Older Illinoian age till deposited in near level till plains. The till has been modified greatly by deep leaching of carbon- ates and other weatherable minerals. The till averages from ten to fifteen feet in depth, with some locations being shallower and a few deeper. The other parent material is younger Wisconsin age till deposited in near level to gently sloping till plains. The till has been less altered by weathering than the Illinoian till and can be considered more naturally fertile.9 The boundary between the two parent materials is often abrupt with a sharp drop from gently rolling lands on the younger till to a lower, near level surface on the older till. 9. _United States Department of Agriculture, 22. ci ., p. 49. bl Both parent materials are glacial tills of loam or silt loam texture with high available moisture stor- age capacity and mixed mineralogy. Both tills were calcareous and relatively well supplied with plant nutrients when deposited. A shallow layer of loess, not over five feet thick at any site, covers the till throughout the study areas. The thin loess cover in the study areas is material that was deposited slowly and in small amounts which weathered while being depos- ited. Soils are strongly to very strongly developed where weathering occured during deposition of the loess in areas underlain by materials of Illinoian age. These older materials probably aided in accelerating soil formation.10 The two parent materials seem to be essen- tially similar in texture, in mineralogy, and in struc- ture. The age of the two tills and the degree of soil development on them varies markedly, however. Time The time factor in soil formation usually is not measured in years, but in degree of soil development. Clearly, a shorter period of years in which the whole complex of environmental influences is changing has far I0. J}B. Fehrenbacher, B.W. Ray, and J.D. Alexan- der, "Illinois Soils and Factors in Their Development," The Quaternagy 9f Illinois, University of Illinois, 53925“ o Agricul—‘S'turc, pecial Publication 11., 1968, p. I ' #2 more effect on soil development than a longer period of years in which factors do not change but create a state of equilibrium.11 Development is more rapid in a humid climate which supports a good vegetative growth, as in the study areas, than in drier climates with sparse vegetation. Leaching of plant nutrients is more rapid in coarse textured, permeable parent material than in fine textured, slowly permeable parent material. Acid soils develop more rapidly from materials low in carbonates than from carbonate rich material. Both the Illinoian till and the Wisconsin till of the study areas were relatively rich in carbonates prior to leaching. 0n stable landscapes, such as the interfluve divides where the soils of this study are located, soils are more strongly developed, more highly leached, and have stronger horizon differences with increased time of exposure to weathering processes.12 The effect of time can be shown by a lack of dark-colored soils, by a more highly dissected landscape, and by areas of claypans in near level topography associated with the ‘II. Bunting, 22% cit., p. 83. 12. J.B. Fehren aEESr, G.O. walker, and H.L. Was- cher, Soils 3; Illinois, University of Illinois, Agri- culturaI Experiment Station Bulletin 725, 1967, p. 39. 1+3 older soils of Illinoian age.13 Prolonged weathering has decomposed primary soil minerals and has moved large amounts of clay from the surface to the subsoil. The relatively young Wisconsin age upland soils are evidenced by a low degree of stream dissection, by a high proportion of dark colored soils, and by the absence of claypans. Deep intense weathering may re- sult in the decomposition of all minerals except those most resistant to weathering. Even the Illinoian age "planosolic" soils have not reached this stage as yet. The parent materials in the study areas are of two general age groups, Illinoian age and Wisconsin age. A number of dates have been assigned to these two glacial stages in the literature, measured in years before the present. The older materials are of the Illinoian glacial stage modified somewhat by a thin loess deposited partly during the Wisconsin stage. Bushnelllh assigns an age of 700,000 years Old to the Illinoian deposits, while Ray15 gives a date of 22,000 years ago for the initiation of weathering and develop- ment of the "planosolic" soils. More frequently esti- mates range from 100,000 to 200,000 years old for the 913. T.H. Bushnell, g Sto 9; Hoosier Soils, Peda- Products, west Lafayette, In ana, 1958, p. 5. 1h. Bushnell, gp.‘gi§., p. 9. 15. Ray, _2. g__, Ah Illinoian stage.16 Bushnell17 claims the oldest Wiscon- sin stage deposits to be 180,000 years Old, but Ray18 places an age of 12,000 years ago for the development of Wisconsin age soils since the end of loess deposi- tion. More exact dating of materials embedded in the terminal moraines in Ohio and Indiana have placed the furthest advance of the Wisconsin glacial stage about 20,000 years ago (see Table A.) However, the actual age of the glacial stages in years does not appear to be important. Rather, the relative age of the two tills and the relative development of soils appear to be the key factors of contrast between the two regions in each study area. It is the relative age of the two parent materials which has influenced the develOpment of much more weathered, leached, and acid soils in the older Illinoian material and much less weathered, less leached, and less acid soils in the younger Wisconsin material. gggultant Soilge-General Varying influences of the five soil forming factors can result in the development of soils which differ in their productivity or natural fertility levels, in their ability to respond to fertilizer treatment, and in their I6. —UnIted States Department Of Agriculture, _p. cit., p. 51. 17. Bushnell, gp.lgi§., p. 9. 18. Ray, _2. gig. #5 .0 ohm .mmOH .mh mmoamoam Mm.ho>psm HmmwwOHoov .aompmeaomcoo mo pcoeuamaon mamanH .mcmwvcH cw mocwmpoz cropnunwwcm was OHHH>ncaogxemm_wmb .oahmz .w.3 .om .moiso .aa ..9Ho .ooa :.OHno .mpadoo coups: .ocamaoz Haozpamx on» eomhlepmplconueoowumx 4r .npamaom .A cash was Resume mama one mnwmiomm .aa ..uwo .ooa =.owno chopmoz cw maafie camcooma3 mo cow» ImpoaapopCH cam wcwaamz emu on mwaom mo companApcoor .nphmaom .q mama ”00H -oma .sa AmooH. no .Hos .oocoaom do Aactsos oaao a.oaso .auasoo nnoa .aaoaooa amoz masque: HmcHEhoe camaoomwz scum boos mo om<= .nuhmaom .A been. .OH can A ooo.o~ nanaocH .sacaoo carcass .oaaasnaocsoo ac .m oom H 00m.oa mnmwocw .apssoo smcpsm .eapmmoaoouo com I cem.o~ ucsaocH soasoo canon .uaassxoom anoz One N 004.H~ eamavcH .mucsoo owa> .opsem canoe umoz cos a ooonma cane ”accsoo once ”oaoooaaaaao so .3 cos a cmo.mH oaso spsaoo unom unamoaaaano so .3 om: u ~o~.sa .oano sacsoo nmom annauo< mo .3 com H can on case socaoo tuapam oaaaraosanm mo .2 own name» «mm H Hmo.oa oano .mpcsoo coupe: .aanmnzos xooao oaphsa ommcmavcH use Hownoliwawpan saiconhmo he .ommpm Hmwoeao camcoomam ho oonmbv< unbroken no woven .s oases #6 structure and moisture content. These differences can in large part determine the supply of nutrients to growing plants, the availability of moisture for plant demands, and the development of plant roots in suffi- cient quantities. Limiting morphological features, such as claypans and fragipans, can be found on nearly level drainage divides, given proper time for formation and the proper combination of climate and parent material factors. These pans have high moisture storage capacity due to the high content of finer textured materials. However, weakly developed structure in these pans restricts root penetration and restricts moisture utilization.21 Soils which are similar, except that they lack the claypan or fragipan, usually have ade- quate root penetration and allow more nutrients and moisture available for plant growth. The five factors of soil formation, especially time, have contributed to apparently contrasting soils in the adjacent regions of the three study areas. The soils develOped on the Illinoian till, the "planosolic" Alfisols, are the central focus of this thesis. Vari- ous factors of agricultural systems are compared be- tween younger Wisconsin age soils and the "planosolic" soils. The "planosolic" soils form one of the most l 21. Fehrenbacher, Ray and Alexander, 93. _i§., p. 73. #7 distinct and extensive soil groups in the south-central part of the midwest. They are silt loams with a compact subsoil and low natural fertility, and are limited to near level or gently leping topography. The surface drainage is deficient and internal drainage is slow, due to the high percent of clay in the subsoil.22 The compact, fine textured pan in the B horizon represents a large and sharp increase in clay content from the A2 horizon. Plant roots penetrate the pan only along cracks and in small numbers, so that plants must Obtain moisture from the surface soil. During wet periods water accumulates above the claypan and can stand for several days after a heavy rain. Periods of rainfall deficiency can easily dry out surface horizons, so that crops suffer after ten to fifteen days without precipitation. The critical moisture problem makes timing of agricultural operations very important. The "planosolic" Alfisols are low in productivity, have low fertility levels, and need artificial drainage to be utilized for agriculture. Organic matter once accumulated at the surface has been dissipated. The basic cations have essentially been removed, leaving a strongly acid condition with low base saturation. Large amounts of fertilizer are needed for satisfactory 22. University of Wisconsin, 93. cit., p. 66. 48 crop yields. The "planosolic" soils can be drained by surface ditches and they do respond to ample amounts of lime, nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium.23 The "plan- osolic" soils have lower percent organic matter, lower cation exchange capacity, and lower percent base satur- ation in the A horizOn, and greater clay concentration in the B horizon than the Wisconsin age Alfisols and Mollisols being compared to them. The Wisconsin age soils generally are less acid, more fertile, higher in productivity, and lack the claypan subsoil horizon. Resultant Soils--Illinois Sgggy,gggg The "planosolic" Alfisols of the Illinois study area are known locally as the "common hardpan prairie."2h The general profile is distinguished by a tight yellowish gray mottled clay subsoil at a sixteen to twenty inch depth. water passes slowly through this claypan subsoil making it sticky and plastic when wet. It is stiff and hard when dry. The "planosolic" soils in Illinois developed under grassland vegetation in two and one half to four feet of loess over Illinoian till. The soils are characterized by their low inherent fer- tility due to prolonged weathering and leaching.25 Ray, _§. cit. Cyril opEIHs and James Pettit, The Fertility of Illinoian Soils, University Of Illinois AgricuItural Experiment StatIOn Bulletin 123,1908, p. 210. 25. Fehrenbacher, Walker, and wascher, _p. gi§., p. 11. 49 They are strongly to very strongly acid, with natural pH values often below 5.0. Nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium supplying powers are low. The soils need improved drainage, large amounts of fertilizer and lime, and well planned crop rotations to be useful for crop production. The Cisne silt loam soil type is the most exten- sive soil, comprising nearly three-fourths of the "planosolic" soil region of the Illinois study area. SlOpes are less than one and one-half percent, permea- bility is very slow due to the highly plastic and impervious claypan, and the soil is strongly acid. Nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium levels are low com- pared to Wisconsin age soils (see Table 5.) Poor nat- ural drainage can be alleviated only by surface drain- age using furrows and ditches. Lime and fertilizers are needed in large quantities, but response is less than on other soils of the region.26 The Hoyleton silt loam soil type covers about one- fourth of the region and occurs on slightly sloping sites. Slopes range from one and one-half percent to three and one-half percent, permeability is slow due to the compact, plastic claypan subsoil, and the soil is strongly acid. Nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, and 26. University of Illinois, Jas er County_Soils, University of Illinois Agriculture Experiment Station Soil Report 68, l9t0, p. 9. 50 organic matter content are low, similar to that of the Cisne series.27 Imperfect drainage is the result of a combination of good surface drainage and slow sub- surface drainage. As in the Cisne series, tile drains do not function adequately because of the tight subsoil. Open ditches operate successfully to remove excess water. Soil improvements to ameliorate the relatively poor natural state Of these "planosolic" Alfisols involves overcoming a complex of problems. Evaporation is much more effective in removing available moisture from these light colored soils than from the darker Wisconsin age soils in the Illinois study area.28 Root development is restricted to the A2 horizon, due to the tight subsoil, unless proper fertilizer treat- ment is applied. The shallow root system increases the hazard Of drought damage to crops. Adequate amounts of fertilizer can improve root penetration and reduce the 29 drought threat. Adequate ditch drainage must be in- stalled to remove excess water which can accumulate, especially in spring. Lime must be applied to increase the soil pH, and organic matter, nitrogen, phosphate, 27. I5I3., p. 15. 28. Ross and Case, 22. cit., p. 11. 29. J.B. Fehrenbacher, ETW. Ray, and J.D. Alexan- der, "Root Development of Corn, Soybeans, Wheat, and Meadow in Some Contrasting Illinois Soils," Illinois Research, University of Illinois Agricultural Experi- ment Station, Spring, 1967, pp. 3-5. 51 and potash are needed to overcome deficiencies. The use of recommended amounts of lime and fertilizer can maintain fertility levels and represents the key to good management Of a crop rotation system in the region.30 While most crops respond well to soil treat- ments, yields are only moderately high under high level management.31 As one passes from the older Illinoian soils to the younger Wisconsin soils, there is an increase in the nutrient content of the soil. Higher amounts of phosphorus and potassium in the grassland soils of the Wisconsin glaciation compared to the Illinoian glacia- tion are due in large part to the loss by longer wea- thering and leaching on the Illinoian till. Potassium is more subject to loss from weathering and leaching than phosphorus, and thus a better measure of the con- trast between the two soil regions32 (see Table 5.) The Wisconsin age Mollisols of the Illinois study area are highly productive soils relative to the "plan- osolic“ soils to which they are compared. The gener- alized profile is a friable very dark brown to black silt loam or silty clay loam horizon over a subsoil of 30. Eric'Winters, "The East-Central Uplands," Soil, Yearbook Lf AgricultureL 1957, United States Department of AgricuIture,‘W§§hington, D. 0., p. 571. 1131. Fehrenbacher, Walker, and wascher, _p. cit., p. O 32. Hepkins and Pettit, _p. cit., p. 210. 52 Table 5. Comparative Nutrient Content of Major Soil Series in Illinois Study Area 3 (available plant nutrients, pounds per acre) Series N P K Lime needed Cisne 58 8 62 2-5 tons/acre Flanagan 101 12 91 rarely Drummer 157 20 88 none 33. I5Id., p. 202. 53 silty clay loam or heavy silty clay loam. The claypan feature of the "planosolic" soils is absent. These soils developed in one and one-half to five feet of loess over Wisconsin age loam till. The soils are characterized by their very high inherent fertility. The supplying power for nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium is the highest in the state.34 Generally, these Mollisols have medium to slight acidity, with pH values around 6.5. Still, the soils respond to lime and fertilizers. The Flanagan silt loam and the Drummer silty clay loam are the two major soil types of this region of the Illinois study area. The Drummer soil has slopes of less than one percent, moderate permeability, and poor natural drainage. The Flanagan soil has slopes of one to three percent, moderate permeability, and imperfect natural drainage. Both soils have relatively loose subsoils which permits better root penetration than in the "planosolic" soils in the contrasting region. The consequence is much better drought resistance on the Flanagan and Drummer soils. Drainage facilities are needed over most of the region, but in contrast to the Cisne and Hoyleton soils, tile drains function well 3h. Fehrenbacher, Ray and Alexander, "Illinois Soils and Factors in Their Development," loc. cit., p. 17h. 5k and drainage is relatively easy and highly profitable to install.35 Soil improvement in this region is a much less complex task than in the "planosolic" soil region. The soils are rich in organic matter, have much greater amounts of available nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassi- um, and need less lime to correct acidity than on the older 3011336 (see Table 5.) Management involves main- taining proper fertility levels, tile drainage, and adequate tillage to maintain good physical conditions. The high available moisture storage capacity and the response of crops to relatively small amounts of fer- tilizers make these soils very highly productive under a high level of management.37 Resultant §gil§--Ohio and Indiana Study Areas The Illinoian age "planosolic" Alfisols of the Ohio and Indiana study areas are known locally as the "crawfish lands" or the "pin-oak flats."38 The general profile is distinguished by a firm, compact mottled silty clay loam subsoil at a twelve to sixteen inch depth. The subsoil has the effect of retarding air and moisture circulation in the profile. The soils have 35. Ross and Case, 22. cit., p. 11. 36. Ibid. 9 37. Fehrenbacher, walker and wascher, gp. git., p. .38. United States Department of Agriculture, op. cit., p. l. 55 develOped under forest vegetation in one and one-half to four feet of loess over Illinoian till. The soils are characterized by their low level of fertility due to deep leaching, intense weathering, strong acidity, and the compact subsoil. Nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium supplying powers are low. Organic matter content also is relatively low. The soils need im- proved drainage, large amounts of lime and fertilizer, and well planned crop rotations to be useful for crop production. The Avonburg silt loam soil type developed on flat to gently sloping uplands under imperfect drainage. Slopes are less than five percent; nine-tenths are less than two percent. The soil is very strongly acid, has slow permeability, and has low amounts of nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium available for crops. The mottled, gray, firm subsoil restricts roots to a shal- low to moderate zone.39 The Avonburg soil requires surface ditches and bedding lands for successful drain- age because of the compact subsoil. Tile drains are not recommended. The soil will puddle or clod if worked when wet. The Clermont silt loam soil type developed on flat uplands under poor drainage; slopes are less than two 39. Ibid., p. 23. 56 percent. The soil is very strongly acid, has slow per- meability, and has only small amounts of nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium available for crop production (see Tables 6 and 7.) The mottled, thick, plastic silty clay loam subsoil restricts roots to a shallow zone. The very slowly permeable subsoil creates a drainage problem, alleviated by using surface ditches. Drainage is difficult to establish because of the near level surface. waterlogging in spring can delay soil preparation and planting. Both the Clermont and Avonburg soils have moderate moisture supplying capacity, low organic matter content, and low natural fertility. Average pH values for nat- ural soil conditions are near 5.0 in the surface and upper subsoil horizons. The structure of the soils can be improved somewhat with legumes and grasses in rota- tion, usually one year in every three. They badly need lime, fertilizer, and organic matter to be produc- tive.“o Even with regular lime applications, large amounts of fertilizer, added organic matter, and proper management, the potential is limited.“1 #0. afiio Department of Natural Resources, 52 Invento of Ohio Soils: warren Count , Progress Re- port 54, DIVision of EEnds and Soils, E96h, p. 2h. 41. gnited States Department of Agriculture, 0 . 21.9.9.2- 57 Table 6. Comparative Nutrient Content of Major Soil Series in Ohio and Indiana Study Areas h (median values, available plant nutrients, pounds/acre Series K P Lim; required 2T Brookston 200 2A 16% Fincastle lhO 21 27 Ragsdale 170 30 20 Clermont 95 13 41 Table 7. Percentage of Soil Tests in Low, Medium, High Categories for Potassium and Phosphorus and in Ranges of pH Values K P pH 5 Low Med. High Low Med. High <5.5 6.5 >6.5 Brookston h 29 67 16 46 38 h 62 3 Fincastle 25 52 23 20 51 29 12 60 2 Ragsdale ll #1 A8 12 45 #3 6 6h 30 Clermont 7h 19 7 38 A9 13 31 5h 15 #2. 3.B. Jones and 0. L. Musgrave, Fertilit oStatus of Ohio Soils as Shown b Soil Tests in Agricultural—Experiment tatibn ReseaFEh CI rcular 118, p. 10. #3. Ibid. 58 In Ohio and Indiana, as in Illinois, the nutrient content of the soils increases from the Illinoian age soils to the younger Wisconsin age soils. Greater amounts of phosphorus and potassium in the soils of the Wisconsin-aged landscape compared to the Illinoian-aged landscape are due primarily to the loss by greater leaching and longer weathering of the Illinoian till. The Wisconsin age Alfisols and Mollisols of the Ohio and Indiana study areas are much more naturally fertile soils than the "planosolic" soils to which they are compared.hh The Wisconsin age soils have de- veloped in one and one-half to five feet of loess over calcareous Wisconsin till. The potassium and phosphor- us supplying capacity is relatively high, the soils are medium to low in acidity, productive capacity is high. The Brookston silt loam or silty clay loam soil type is a dark gray soil occupying slightly depressed areas in the upland. The soil has high organic matter content (greater than three percent in the plow layer), high moisture-supplying capacity, and is well supplied with potassium and phOSphorus, making it a highly fer- tile and very highly productive soil.“5 The soil is poorly drained and permeability is slow, making drainage hh. united States Department of Agriculture, 22. cit., p. l. _55. Ohio Department of Natural Resources, QB. £12- . pp. 30-31. 59 the main problem to overcome. Properly installed tile drains work well. Slopes are under two percent on the Brookston soil. Fertilizers are used to maintain high yields and to maintain the naturally deep rooting zone. Lime is seldom needed because the soil is slightly acid to neutral in reaction. The Fincastle silt loam soil type is a lighter colored soil than the Brookston soil and occupies near level upland sites with slopes less than five percent; most are less than two percent. The soil has a moder— ately high organic matter content, medium moisture-sup- plying capacity, and is less well supplied with potas- sium and phosphorus than the Brookston soil (see Tables 6 and 7.) Nevertheless, it is a productive soil with prOper management.’+6 The soil is imperfectly to poorly drained and permeability is slow. However, tile drains work well in reducing the excess water problem. The Fincastle soil responds well to lime, fertilizer, and additions of organic matter. The Ragsdale silt loam soil type is a dark brown soil occupying near level topography where slopes do not exceed two percent. The soil has high organic matter content, high moisture supplying capacity, and #6. United States Department of Agriculture, Soil Survey of Decatur County Indiana Bureau of Soils T1 22, p. 21.. ’ ’ ’ 60 is well supplied with potassium and phosphorus, making it a highly productive soil. The soil is poorly drained and permeability is medium to slow, but tile drains function well. The deep root zone can be main- tained with fertilizers while lime can reduce the medium to slight acidity. The Reesville silt loam soil type is a relatively light colored soil occupying sites with slopes less than two percent. The soil has moderate organic matter content, moderate moisture supplying capacity, and is relatively well supplied with potassium and phosphorus, making it moderately high in productivity.“7 The soil is imperfectly drained and permeability is slow crea- ting a seasonal high water table problem. Tile drains work well in reducing excess water. Lime is needed occassionally to modify the slight natural acidity. The Reesville soil responds well to adequate fertilizer and additions of organic matter to maintain fertility and a moderately deep root zone. Each of the four Wisconsin age soils in the Ohio and Indiana study areas requires proper management to be productive. Drainage, lime applications, fertilizer applications, and additional organic matter must be L7. Ohio Department of Natural Resources, 92. cit. p. 31. 61 accompanied by a good crOp rotation system and proper tillage to maintain soil structure. Under good manage- ment these soils can be highly productive. CHAPTER III RELATIONSHIPS OF SOILS TO AGRICULTURAL SYSTEMS IN THE STUDY AREAS Assuming that the soils of the adjacent regions of each study area contrast in their natural fertility and productive capacity, the relationships of soils to the agricultural systems in each study area should be examined. This subject has been dealt with at length in the literature. Previous studies concerning the study areas and other areas of similar soil contrasts thus will be reviewed. Data on land use, crops, and crop yields for the counties in which the study areas are located also will be presented to lay the founda- tions for the analysis of data from the sample groups of farms investigated in this thesis. The types of farming in any area, and thus the agricultural system, is not a haphazard growth, but the result of farmers' efforts to adjust organization and operations to definite factors such as soils.1 Soils help to set definite limits to agricultural production, determining the extent of choices of farm types feasi- ble in an area. The majority of the more fertile soils 1. P.E._MCNall and W.J. Roth, Fgrces Agfgcting Wisconsin A riculture With Resultin fpes g_l arming, University 0 isconsin—AgricuItural Experiment Station Research Bulletin 131, 1935, p.1. 62 63 support good agricultural production; land use is adap- ted to the soil productivity level.2 The better the soil quality, the more land in an area is in farms.3 The trend in agricultural land use is towards a concen- tration of resources and a more intensive use on more fertilie or more level land. Land of poor quality tends to revert to pasture.“ In fact, according to Hart,5 land quality appears to be the underlying cause of much land abandonment. Often a long period of underuse pre- ceeds abandonment. Underuse can be measured well by the percent of land on each farm being utilized for agricul- tural production. Land Use Land use by regions in Indiana shows the influence of general land character.6 However, a closer correla- tion exists between the characteristics of soil types and their average use. The soils on the flattest land in Indiana tend to retain more of the original forest cover, probably due to the difficulty in draining soils 2. J.S. Gibson, "Soil Factors in the Character of Land Use in the Tennessee Valley," Economic Geography, vol. 13 (1937) Pp. 385-392. 3. Bushnell, gp. cit., p. 97. 1.. 0.15:. Baker, "1565 Utilization in the United States: Geographical Aspects of the Problem," Geograph- ical Review, vol. 13 (1932) pp. 1-26. . .F. Hart, "Loss and Abandonment of Cleared Earm Land in the Eastern United States," Annals of Egg Assofiiation 2; American Geographers, vol. 58 (I968) PP- I7-Eh5- 6. Bushnell, __p. 91.3., p. 1.3. 6h on the upland divides far from outlets and with claypan subsoils. The tendency is reflected in the allocation of land use in the Illinoian age soil region of south- east Indiana compared to the Wisconsin age soil region in the same general area (see Table 8.) More than fifty percent of the land on the Illinoian soils is in permanent pastures, idle land, timber land or miscel- 1aneous uses, compared to just over twenty-five percent on the Wisconsin age soils. A further indication of the contrast in land use between the two soil regions in southeast Indiana seems to be evident when comparing the land use statistics for Decatur and Ripley Counties. Although the data are not restricted to the soil types studied in this thesis, they do give a general indication of the degree of contrast between the two adjacent soil regions (see Table 9.) The relatively large difference in cropland harvested, fifteen percent more in Decatur County, seems to imply a more intensive use of land on the younger Wisconsin age soils. Total cropland as a per- centage of land in farms adds support to this implica- tion, as Decatur County has seventeen percent more land in cropland. The principle of underuse as stated by Hart7 seems to apply well to Ripley County because more 7. IHart, _p. cit. 65 Table 8. Allocation of Land Use in Southeagt Indiana-- Wisconsin and Illinoian Soil Regions Wisconsin Illinoian Corn and So bean 2 Small Graing S 21% 16% Rays 15 ll Pastures 11 22 Idle and waste 8 9 Timber and Miscellaneous 8 20 S. Bushnell, 22. 933., p. h2. 66 IIIIII.IhmmnH_hhbhhl.copmcanmm3 .msmcmo one mo smoasm .doma propane -anm< mm msmceo mopmpm oceans .mopmssoo mo greenhouse mopmpm mouse: .0 e.aHH m.sea mono<--ouam scam mwmcm>< n.am H.ma mshmm ca puma mo R we assumed empowered and osmaoooz deuce a.wa wdw mermm :a snug mo R we easemmm processed 0.0H m.m msumm cw puma no R we consumed ooz tomatoes b.m m.© mshmm :a coma no R we consumed ocmHuooB m.oe H.ea agree as seen no R we eemaaoco Hence m.HH $.0H marsh cw mama mo R we consumed so oopmo>umm poz pamadoao m.w H.HH marsh ow coma no R mm ohspmmm mm mace pom: ocmaaouo Rm.o: Ro.mm memes cw puma no R we oopmo>um= ocmaaopo heaaum aspmooa soofl--a=aae=H .spnsoo sesame ecu hunsoo mnemooa on: psmq amuspasownm¢ .0 canoe 67 than thirty percent of the land in farms is in woodland or permanent pasture while less than twenty percent of Decatur County is devoted to these uses. The average farm size seems to indicate a more efficient use of land in Decatur County than in Ripley County.10 The desirable farm size in Illinois is supposed to be somewhat larger than 260 acres, which provides for optimum use of land, labor, and capital.11 Inten- sive use of land for agricultural production can still be maintained with such a farm size. The average farm size in Coles County compared to that of Jasper County appears to approximate more closely the optimum size and thus implies a more efficient use of land (see Table 10.) A larger percentage of cropland harvested and a larger percentage of total farm land used as crop- land in Coles County tends to support the suggestion that land use is more intensive than in Jasper County. The small percentage of land devoted to woodlands and permanent pasture in both counties reflects the predom- inance of grassland soils in both regions. It does not seem that Hart's principle of underuse can be applied to Jasper County, from the data presented in Table 10. IO. “MfL.‘Mosher Farms are Growing Lar er Univer- sity of Illinois Agricultural Experiment Station Bulle— tin 613, 1957C,1 p. 12. ll. bi . 68 II .ombwihhohblhmmuwcwnmm3 .msmceo one mo smousm .eooa caspasoHrM< mo mommoo mopmpm oceans .oonoesoo no prosppmaoa mmpmpm panama .NH m.oo~ n.0mm mouo< e.ma 0.0 magma cw puma mo R mm crewman pcenmshmm one ocmaoooz Hmpoe N.¢ m.~ mshmm cw ummq Ho R mm manpmmm pcmsmshmm H.o m.m march cw mama mo R we cardamom poz ocmaoooz H.m m.m magma ca ocmg mo R we umpspmmm ocmaoooz magma a“ pang no u m.mm magma cw ocmq no R mm unmadopo Hmuoa O. R we oopspmmm no ompmo>umm poz ocmaaouo o.m 0.: march am one; no R mm muspmmm mm maco pom: camaeono Ra.uo Re.mn magma a“ pang mo R we voumobhmm vcmamono poammw moaoo N sooauumaocwaaH .hpcsoo search one spruce moaoo mm: puma ampspHSoHAw¢ .oa magma 69 However, other factors of the agricultural systems in the Illinois study area indicate the contrast which apparently exists. The boundary between the contrasting adjacent soil regions in Ohio also divides both Clinton and Warren Counties. As a result, county land use data do not reflect the contrast between the soil regions. Land use by soil type for Clinton County (see Table 11) does indicate the apparent relationship of more intensive use, hence a greater percentage of land devoted to cropland, on the younger Wisconsin age soils. A greater percentage of forest and permanent pasture on the Illinoian age soils appears to support the principle of underuse. The implied relationships of soils and land use in the two soil regions appears even more evident if the percentage of idle and miscel- laneous land uses are compared in addition to the forest and permanent pasture percentages. Crops Topography, climate, and soil can each limit the 13 With- kinds of crops successfully grown in an area. in the restrictions of a level to gently rolling land- scape, soil characteristics are the determining cause l3. ‘ROss and Case, _p.lgit., p. 16. 7O py.a~-o~ .aa .Nwoa .m .oc .mmoa mmwnom .mo«>pom cofipm>pomcoo Hwom .oHso .HMdsoo copcfiao .Hm>r:m Hmom .opspfisowpw< mo pcmsurmemm moumpm ompmcb .ea m m H o m.m m.m o.m o.mm oHHa>moom m.o o.o o.s ~.m e.H o.so oaaemwmm o.m H.o m.© o.~ ©.m w.oo chmmocwm s.o H.o m.m m.~ o.m e.mo copmxoomm mw< Cam—.5093» ¢.H 0.0 w.@H ¢.¢H e.m 0.0m pcoemoao m.m e.H m.aa H.m N.m o.em waspco>< mad cmflosHHHH . omwz GHUH 606003 Ufim UmUOOB .9.me UCMH R R .ummm .Erom R R .enem R nacho R Hooanuoano .hpmsoo sopcaao .oaha Hamw an em: mama Hmnspasowam< .HH canoe 71 of any crap dissimilarities noted in the study areas because in small, adjacent regions climate is essen- tially the same.15 The productive capacity of soils under a given climate is due to the suitability of the soils as rooting mediums and to the ability of horizons penetrated by roots to store water and nutrients in forms available to growing crops. Fundamental to any farming type, and thus to any agricultural system, are the kinds and qualities of crops which can be grown advantageously. An understan- ding of soil factors influencing the production of these crops is basic to the appreciation of the crOpping possibilities in any area.16 On better suited soils, the choice of rotations and cropping systems are among many. As the soil has poorer physical properties or another feature becomes less desirable, the number of systems from which to choose are fewer.17 The varia- tions between the adjacent regions of each study area in drainage capabilities, in amounts of available plant nutrients, and in the capability of root development seem to result in variations in the amount of cropland 15. G. D. Hubbard, "A Case of Geographic Influence Upon Human Affairs," Bulletin of the American Geo ra h- ical Societ of New York, vol. 36‘TI90 A) pp. 145-I57. I6.HcN511 and Roth 0 . cit., p. 1. 17. W. H. Allaway, "Cropping Systems and Soil," Soil ,Yearbook of Agriculture, 19 , United States Depart- ment of Agriculture, 'Washington, .C., pp. 386-395. 72 devoted to specific crops. Corn and soybeans appear to be affected more than other crops. There is a close visual relationship between the corn belt and the extent of Wisconsin age glaciation in southwest Ohio, southeast Indiana, and east-central Illinois.18 This visual relationship may indicate a close correlation between soils and the importance of corn in the agricultural systems. Ross and Case19 point out a distinct relationship between corn acreage and the character of the soil in Illinois. In Coles County, corn is the chief cash crop and is relatively unaffected by competition between other crops for acreage.20 Coles County is well adapted to the use of large machinery because of the near-level tOpography and relatively large fields; corn production is assoc- iated with both large fields and large machinery.21 In Jasper County, soybeans outrank corn as the number one crop. The percent of harvested cropland devoted to corn in Coles County (46.7%) appears to be significantly greater than the percent of harvested cropland devoted to corn in Jasper County (27.5%) as calculated from the ‘18. See the maps in John K. Rose, "Corn Yields and Climate in the Corn Belt," geographical Review, vol. 26 (1936) pp. 88-102. 19. Ross and Case, _p. gi§., p. 71. 20. Ibid., p. #6. 21. McNall and Roth, _2. gig., p. 2. 73 1964 Census of Agriculture data. Corn acreage appears to be dominant on Wisconsin age soils in the Indiana and Ohio study areas as well as in Illinois. The percent of harvested cropland de- voted to corn in Decatur County, Indiana (AA.O%) seems to be significantly greater than the percent of harves- ted cropland devoted to corn in Ripley County, Indiana (27.6%) from the 196A Census of Agriculture data. The relationship is further supported by the percent of cropland used for corn on the major soil types of the Indiana study area: Fincastle (32%), Brookston (39%), and Clermont (23%).22 In Ohio, percentage figures for various crop rotation systems, especially those rota- tions which include two years of corn, a short rotation (three years) with corn or continuous corn, seem to indicate more land devoted to corn on the Wisconsin age soils (see Table 12.) Soybeans grow well on soils too acid for alfalfa or clover. This crop has been adapted to poorer soils as a relatively profitable grain crop. The soybeans can be planted later in the spring than corn and harvested earlier in the fall which helps to spread out the field work on crops.23 The later planting can help to over- come the spring wetness handicap on the "planosolic" 22. ‘fiushnell, _p. cit., p. #3. 23. Ross and Case, 22. cit., p. 71. 7h .mmmalhowo capoaHmm :mnmommm cowwmpm pcosauodxm HmhspHSUfipw< oaso .momNa HHom op voomamm mm mooGoSdmm wmwmaopo paw macho .o>unwmsz .a.o cam .mepmuoz .w.: .mocou .m.w .4N 0:004qu NH p2 NH N wuspco>< upcoEAoao Owgdmhm N mm R: oaaa>moom :oHpmaocwm mEopmth m 306mm: page wcoq o spanned pcocmsnmm o .vmozu.vmozw.vmozr.uc.5mccnoo m .vmozu.ao.Emn:wonhomucpoo J H .Uwozr.vmozu.uo.emuspoo o .paozw.oaozw.uo.smn:poon:poo mm zopuozt.uc.smnshooucpoo 4m zoomozncwauc Hamsmucuoo fin :uoo msoscwpsoo oaaemmqm -coumxoopm once as case Haom an :oapapoe coco .NH capes 75 soils. Soybean plants also have greater resistance to mid and late summer moisture deficiencies of the "plan- osolic" soils than does corn.25 A greater percentage of cropland acreage devoted to soybeans on the Illinoian age soils of the study areas than on the Wisconsin age soils is the anticipated relationship. In Illinois, soybeans compete with wheat, oats, and hay for acreage on the fertile soils of Coles County under a cash grain farming type.26 However, with farming on a smaller scale in Jasper County than in Coles County, much varia- tion can occur in farm income. Soybeans have gained strength relative to corn because of the better adapta- tion to climatic hazards and the greater likelihood of reasonable returns from soybeans than from corn. Soy- bean acreage has increased in Jasper County in more recent years as a means of stabilizing farm income.27 The percent of harvested cropland devoted to soybeans in Jasper County (h5.7%) seems to be significantly greater than the percent of harvested cropland devoted to soybeans in Coles County (33.5%) as calculated from the l96h Census of Agriculture data. The implied rela- 725. J.C. Weaver, "Changing Patterns of Cropland Use in the Middle West," Economic Geography, vol. 30 (195h) PP. hh-h7. 26. Ross and Case, _p.lgig., p. #6. 27. Weaver, gp. gi§., p. A6. 76 tionship between greater soybean acreage and the more acid "planosolic" soils is further supported by the Census data from Indiana; Ripley County has 28.3% of its harvested cropland in soybeans compared to 17.8% for Decatur County. Yields and Fertilizers The yield of a crop on a given site results from a combination of soil characteristics, management, and weather conditions.28 The conditions of temperature and precipitation are essentially uniform in each study area, making soil variations and management practices primary forces affecting crop yields. It generally has been assumed that soils differing in genesis, morphology, or associated characteristics probably differ in yield levels. 29 30 In fact, according to Avery, investigations leave little room for doubt that yields of grain and root crops are significantly affected by soil type vari- ations. However, resultant yields are complicated by the fact that the soil nutrient status, pH, amount and distribution of organic matter, and structure are influ- enced by past land use and management. Various techni- cal improvements, especially increased use of fertilizers, 28. B.W. Avery, "Soil Ty e and Crop Performance," Soils and Fertilizers, vol. 25 {1962) p. 341. 2‘9’.‘ ‘U.A’.“‘"Renn"1e and J.S. Clayton, "The Signifi- cance of Local Soil Types to Soil Fertility Studies," Canadian Journal 9f Soil Science, vol. to (1960) p. 146. 30. Avery, pp. _c___It., p. 363. 77 have raised crop yields, tending to reduce the natural productivity differences between regions; but major soil characteristics are still important factors in crop pro- duction levels.31 Yield estimates have been made for the important soil series in the study areas (see Tables 13 and 14.) The estimates for the Wisconsin age soils seem to indi- cate that higher average crop yields are found on these soils in the study areas than on the older Illinoian age soils. Corn yields are especially affected by soil differences. The highest yields are on the younger soils high in humus and nitrogen. On the older soils corn needs heavy fertilization to produce enough for feed. Corn uses large amounts of nitrogen and demands a high level of fertility. In the corn belt, total soil nitrogen represents a convenient numerical index of soil productivity. Yields of corn under similar climatic 32 conditions vary accordingly. This relationship sug- gests higher corn yields on the younger soils than on the older soils in each study area. Average corn yields from Illinois (Coles County 8h.l and Jasper County 53.5) and from Indiana (Decatur County 7h.5 and Ripley County 68.3), as calculated from 196A Census data, tend to sup- port the relationship. 31. Bushnell, gp. 333., p. 39. 32. Hans Jenny, Factors pf Soil Formation, McGraw- Hill, New York, 19h2, p. 16. 78 .onoa .caoa umasouwb .mom>pmm coflmcopxm m>Hpmpmaooo mwosHHHH mo spampo>flca .mawom mHOCHHHH mo N¢a>wpo§popm .pamznomo .m.3 ppm Haouo h%.m .mm -- -- es om am ea HOH mm copmasom mm 0m m4 ow mm ma ooa mm ocmwo em 00 mm mm 54 Hm flea oo possspa ma an mm Om es mm and am namesaae m < m < m < m < memo among mcmonhom snow m pcosowmcmz no maeboq Amv swam cam Aumm cowmcmmma m>Hpmnmaooo xpwmpm>wcz mumpm owco one .mawom ofino pom opaso huw>wposnopm .moxooz .a.m new .metmemz .s.x .compom .x.o .npmctmm .m.o .mcom .2.m .sm on an em om mm ON 00 mm musseo>< 00 pm On ma mm ma mm Om pcoscwao sm 0m Om on «s mm QNH mm mamemwmm as as ea mm oe ow oaa ms oaawsmmmm am 0m 0m am we mm ous mm copmxoocm Ne os mm om mm om moa cs oaommocna m a m < m < m a homo pmozz memonhom choc pcosmwmcmz mo mam>oq Amv swam ucm A oano ohmsumnflno oocmomecmHm mo Hm>oa Ho. pm mums poop H osam> pcmowmflcmwm n v no.4 Na.a aanmamczo Erma mm.m mm.~ name emtnm mane-aasa No.a am.H oaoa-oooa ounm eaaaaono an «means No.H mm.o oaoa-oooa ouam seem an mwcmno *Om.~s *oo.0m mwmcamnn Hmaoaoaute do oaaa 0H.m mo.~ mmmcaapa Hmaoaonpn< do oucommta mcmnecH maocHHHH poop mpmswmnfino wcwms ooumawc< moanmasm> mo mocmoamwcwwm one once mumswmuHSO sou mosam> .OH wands 94 period (1968 to 1970) delimited by the data collected. However, the same set of variables may be useful to other studies set in a similar framework. The contrast in soil capabilities between regions in each of the three study areas seems to be clearly indicated by the significant difference in the values of the Storie Index (see Table 20.) These values seem to verify the difference in natural fertility and pro- ductive capacity between soil regions. The percentages of farms in the study groups em- ploying artificial drainage give evidence of the rela tively poor natural drainage in both soil regions in each of the study areas. The Wisconsin age soil region has artificial drainage on 100% of the study farms in the three areas. The Illinoian age soil regions of Illinois and Ohio have artificial drainage on 92% of the study farms and this soil region of Indiana has artificial drainage on 88% of the farms. However, in each of the study areas, there is a significant differ- ence in the type of drainage installed in the two soil regions as indicated by the Chi-square test (see Table 19.) In the Wisconsin age soil region of each study area, all of the farm operators use tile drains. In the Illinoian age soil region of each study area, nearly all of the farm operators use open ditch drains (see Table 21.) The significant variation in drainage meth- 95 Table 20. Storie Index Values for Soil Regions in the Study Areas Illinoian Wisconsin Illinois 31.96 57.48 Indiana 34.72 61.48 Ohio 33.88 55.48 Table 21. Type of Artificial Drainage in Study Areas, by Soil Regions Illinois Indiana Ohio Wisconsin Tile drains 100% 100% 100% Illinoian Ditch drains 92% 80% 88% Tile drains 0% o 4% No drains 8% 12% 8% 96 ods appears to emphasize the claypan obstruction to drainage on the Illinoian age "planosolic" soils. The average farm size in the soil regions of Illi- nois and Indiana is considerably larger than Census of Agriculture data indicates (see Table 22.) The larger size can possibly be explained by the exclusion of part- time farmers from this study and thus the elimination of small non-commercial farms which are included in the Census averages. Even though the farms seem to be lar- ger on the average in the Wisconsin age soil regions of Illinois and Indiana than in the respective Illinoian age soil regions, the difference is not significant for the sample group of farms in this study. In Ohio, the average farm size in the two soil regions is not signi- ficantly different for the sample group of farms, des- pite the apparent larger size in the Illinoian age soil region than in the Wisconsin age soil region (see Table 18.) was. The relationship between soil regions in each of the three study areas and allocation of land use may be stated as follows: a significantly greater percentage of farmland is devoted to cropland use on the Wisconsin age soils than on the Illinoian age soils. Further, a significantly greater percentage of each farm is in woodlots on the Illinoian age soils than on the Wiscon- 97 .mmmum 5059m smug» Ham :4 mcofimou Hwom comzpon mononommao pcmoHchmflm *** .msmnmona manoeuvopnm>wo pcoscno>ow Hmnmcow one a“ puma omam ma uoaawp no: mama mo hpanonme one * ----- ----- n.45H 4.5HH n.0mm m.oo~ N.omm 5.NN4 0.00m 4.No~ H.44m m.m54 mama msmcoo Amoho¢ * sham 5.5 m.m 0.5 0.5 m.oa m.5 mo R we mama popho>aa o.H~ m.~H n.0m w.0a 0.4 m.4 consumed poaeooz no a 4.m 4.5 H.m 0.ma 5.0 m.0 eaashmm mo m as mooauoo: o.m m.m m.m «.4 5.~ o.m sham mo 5 mm mama oHcH * spam to a . 5.5 4.0 0.5 5.5 0.HH 5.5 mm eoaaaa 902 can; Show no a we ~.m 0.5 «.4 0.0 m.H 4.~ euuspmma ecaaaotoeoz ccmaaouo mo R m.m 0.~H 4.HH m.0 m.o H.H mm consumaa enmAQOto osmAQOho Ho * 0.~w H.m5 4.00 m.mm 5.0m m.om mm oopmo>nmm camaaono «as spam we $4.5m m0.m5 mm.mm «n.05 mo.mo um.mm a ma enaHQOto Hence .mas .HHH .msz .HHH .mfls .HHH cane «cmaecH maocsaflH mcowwom Hwom 50 .mmop< 5Udpm non :ofipmooaa< om: ccmq .mm magma 98 sin age soils. Analysis of variance tests of the other uses of farm land indicate there apparently is no signi- ficant difference between the adjacent soil regions in the percentage of cropland in crops, the percentage of cropland in pasture, the percentage of non-cropland in pasture, the percentage of farmland not tilled, the percentage of farmland idle, the percentage of woodland used for pasture, and the percentage of farmland in gov- ernment diverted acres programs (see Tables 18 and 22.) The analysis of land use allocation in the adjacent soil regions of each of the three study areas appears to show a more complete utilization of land for agricultur— al production on the Wisconsin age soils and a less com- plete utilization of land for agricultural production on the Illinoian age soils. The significant difference in percentage of land devoted to crops between the adja- cent regions (see Tables 18 and 22) suggests a more in- tensive use of land on the Wisconsin age soils than on the Illinoian age soils. The relatively less intensive land use on the Illinoian age soils suggests that the underuse principle of Hart2 may be applied to these soil regions. The "planosolic" soils may be in the ini- tial stages of underuse, preceeding land abandonment. The significant difference in the percentage of land in woodlots (see Tables 18 and 22) may reflect the 2. Hart, 22. cit. 99 variation in soil productivity between the adjacent soil regions. In Indiana and Ohio, it might be true that less land has been cleared for cropland on the older soils because of their relatively low productiv- ity. Further, this relationship seems to support the findings of Bushnell? that the "planosolic" soils tend to retain more forest cover because of the problems of drainage. A greater percentage of land remaining in woodlots or reverting to forest cover tends to signal an underuse of land for agricultural production. The significant difference in the percentage of land in woodlots in Illinois may be a reflection of the relative ages of the two soil regions. Trees have had a longer time period in which to encroach upon soil areas, class- ified as grassland soils because of their morphology, in the Illinoian age region than in the Wisconsin age region. Changes in farm size and changes in cropland size over the past three years (1968-1970) were analyzed using the Chi-square test. No significant difference was found between the soil regions for either of these factors (see Table 19.) A great majority of farms maintained the same total acreage and same cropland acreage over the period in question (see Table 23.) 3. Hush—fiell, 93. 9__i_t_'._. p. 43. 100 Table 23. Percentage of Farms Maintaining Farm Size and Cropland Size 1968—1970, by Soil Region Maintained Maintained Farm Size Cropland Size Illinois Illinoian soils 84% 72% Wisconsin soils 84 84 Indiana Illinoian soils 8O 80 Wisconsin soils 84 84 Ohio Illinoian soils 88 76 Wisconsin soils 96 92 5 The relationships between the soil regions in the study areas and corn production are as follows: a sig- nificantly greater percentage of cropland is devoted to corn in the Wisconsin age soil regions than in the Illi- noian age soil regions in the three study areas; and corn yields per acre in the Wisconsin age soil regions are significantly higher than in the Illinoian age soil regions of Illinois and Indiana. There is not a signi- ficant variation between regions for corn yield in Ohio. The amounts of fertilizer applied to corn acreage-~nitro- gen, phosphorus, potassium, and total fertilizer--appar- ently are not significantly different between adjacent soil regions (see Table 18.) 101 The percentage of cropland planted to corn in the Wisconsin age soil regions of Ohio and Indiana seemingly shows the importance of corn, in a corn-livestock farm- ing type, as suggested by previous farm type classifi- cations.“ In Illinois, the percentage of cropland planted to corn in the Wisconsin age soil region seems to show the importance of corn, in a cash-grain farming type, as suggested in previous studies.5 Corn ranks as the first crop in each of the younger soil regions (see Tables 24 and 25.) The significantly smaller percentage of cropland planted to corn in each of the Illinoian age soil regions appears to indicate a lesser importance for corn in a more mixed farming type in the older soil regions, as previously described by Bushnell6 and Ross and Case.7 Corn ranks as the first crop on the Illi- noian age soils in Indiana and as the second crop on these older soils in Illinois and Ohio (see Tables 24 and 25.) The significantly higher corn yield on the Wiscon- sin age soils than on the Illinoian age soils in Illinois and Indiana seems to indicate: first, the gen- erally higher fertility level of the younger soils; second, the greater importance of corn in the cropping 4. Bushnell, _2. gig. 5. Ross and Case, QB. gig. 6. Bushnell, _p. g_§. 7. Ross and Case, 92. gig. 102 Table 24. Agricultural Activity Values and Percentage of Agricultural Activity Contributed by the Two Primary Activities in the Study Areas, by Soil Region Value % Illinois Illinoian soil region _ Soybeans 202.4 43.3 (Livestock 12.2%) Corn 157.5 g}. Total 7.4 Wisconsin soil region Corn 224.6 51.7 (Livestock 2.9%) Soybeans 169.6 .1 Total 90. Indiana Illinoian soil region Corn 198.9 44.5 (Livestock 12.2%) Soybeans 132.4 2 .6 Total . Wisconsin soil region Corn 296.6 49.7 (Soybeans 8.7%) Livestock 186.5 %I.E Total . Ohio Illinoian soil region Soybeans 225.2 51.5 (Livestock 8.8%) Corn 122.0 2 . Total .4 Wisconsin soil region Corn 279.5 55.8 (Soybeans 13.8%) Livestock 87.9 1 .6 Total .4 * Value is the weighted number assigned to each agricultural activity, according to man-days per acre of crops and livestock units for animals on each farm in each soil region. 103 .040 .p4cs mamnuoco 040550 9400 0:0 .042: 000 mamsvo 0040: 0:0 40 :00 0:0 ”co4paEdmco0 000% 00 00000 0040450400 mam 0440: xoopmo>44 * 5.50 4.004 4.44 004000 4400 00400 4.0m00400 4.44 00400 0.04 004000 4400 0.5 4.5 0.0 004000 4400 4.4 5.0 5.0 004000 4400 4.44 0.44 0.5 004000 4400 0.44 m.m4 0.44 004000 4400 n.54 0.M4 4.04 004000 4400 4.05 4.44 0.05 004000 4400 4.00 5.50 5.54 004000 4400 04.54 40.44 40.45 004000 4400 0400 0004004 04004444 aconmm 440m 50 .meop< 50:40 :4 0400552 00040 400045400H op nouo>oa ncmHaono mo :4mco0043 cmwoc444H cwmcoom43 004004444 :4nco0043 :m4os444H a4mco0043 GadoGHHHH :4mco0042 004004444 *mpHcs xoopmo>44 50: name was anon: memopmom cpoo xoopmo>44 ommao>< 0:0 owmpcoonom .mN sand? 104 system on the younger soils; and third, either an opti- mum use of fertilizer on the younger soils or a rela- tively deficient use of fertilizer on the older soils. Since the differences in fertilizer application rates between the adjacent regions are not significant for any of the three nutrients (see Tables 18 and 26), it appears that a less than optimum rate of fertilizer has been applied on the older soils, especially nitrogen. Corn uses large amounts of nitrogen, and it seems that the amount applied is less than adequate for soils rela- tively low in natural productivity, as the "planosolic" soils. Although the corn yields are not significantly different between the two soil regions in Ohio, it appears that higher yields could be achieved on the younger soils than on the older soils of the area. Several factors may be responsible for the lack of sig- nificant variation in yield: the level of management in the two soil regions, the variety of corn seed used by the individual farm operators, and the timing of planting and fertilizing operations in the two soil regions. None of these factors were measured in this study, but considering the significant variation in natural productivity between the adjacent regions, one would expect a significant yield difference. 105 4.00 4.404 5.044 4.444 4.40 4.044 0.44 4.54 4.54 4.04 0.40 0.54 0.44 0.04 5.04 4.04 5.40 0.54 5.40 0.44 0.44 0.44 0.44 4.04 4.44 4.04 4.44 5.04 0.04 4.44 5.00 0.444 5.04 5.40 0.0 5.00 4.HH m.m0 0.4N 0.04 0.0 4.00 4.44 4.54 5.04 4.44 0.0 4.00 0.4 4.0 0.4 4.4 0.0 0.0 5.04 0.04 4.44 0.54 4.44 5.04 0.450 4.044 4.044 0.404 0.404 4.404 0.50 w.4OH m.m3H 4.mHH 0.0HH N.NNH 4.00 4.00 4.00 0.404 0.004 0.40 4.MNH 0.HNH m.N4H N.54H 4.N4H m.HNH 0.00H H.Ho 0.4mH w.NHH n.4ma 0.50 .mw? .HHH .mwz .HHH .m43 .HHH 04:0 mcmwucH mwocaaaH mco4wom 44cm 50 .mmoa< 50:90 004:9 on» pom mopmm :o44004404< 4004444405 000 mvaoHM mono 40023 no Hanoa 400:3 co m 000:3 co m «\004 00003 00 z <\00 00003 mcwom co Hmuoe mcmom 00 M mcmom co m «\004 mcmom co 2 <\sn ncmmp5om 2400 no 40909 choc no a shoe co m «\mna caoo co 2 «\00 0000 .0m manmy 106 Soybeans The relationships between the adjacent soil re- gions in the study areas and soybean production are as follows: a significantly greater percentage of cropland is devoted to soybeans in the Illinoian age soil regions than in the Wisconsin age soil regions of Indiana and Ohio; application rates of phosphorus, potassium, and total fertilizers are significantly higher on the older soils than on the younger soils in Illinois and Ohio; the application rate of nitrogen is significantly higher on the older soils than on the younger soils in Ohio; and the soybean yield is significantly higher on the Wisconsin age soils than on the Illinoian age soils in Illinois (see Table 18.) The significantly greater percentage of cropland planted to soybeans on the older soils than on the younger soils in Indiana and Ohio tends to indicate the relatively greater importance of soybeans in the mixed farming type on the Illinoian age soils. The signifi- cantly lower percentage of cropland planted to soybeans on the younger soils in Indiana and Ohio appears to sub- stantiate the lesser importance of soybeans in the corn- livestock farming type on the Wisconsin age soils (see Tables 2n and 25.) The percentage of cropland devoted to soybeans on the Illinoian age soils in Illinois seems 107 to confirm the dominance of soybeans in the farming system there, as suggested by Weaver.8 The percentage of cropland devoted to soybeans on the Wisconsin age soils appears to support the statement that soybeans compete with wheat, oats, and hay under a cash grain farming type in Illinois.9 Soybeans are the first rank crop on the older soils in Illinois and Ohio and the second rank crop on the older soils in Indiana and on the younger soils in Illinois (see Table 24.) The significantly greater fertilizer application rates on the Illinoian age soils than on the Wisconsin age soils of Ohio seems to have resulted in soybean yields that are similar to those on the younger soils. The similar yields in the two soil regions, despite significantly different fertilizer application rates (see Table 26), seem to support the contention that much greater amounts of fertilizer are needed on the older soils than on the younger soils to produce similar re- sults in Ohio. The significantly higher soybean yield on the younger soils than on the older soils in Illinois seems to indicate both the generally higher fertility level of the younger soils, and the ability to produce substantial yields on the Wisconsin age soils with a reliance on 8. Weaver, 92. cit. 9. Ross and Case, 92. cit. 108 carryover fertilizers applied to corn the previous year in rotation. The fertilizer carryover is apparent be- cause no fertilizer was applied to soybeans on the sample group of farms in the younger soil region. Des- pite significantly greater application rates of phos- phorus, potassium, and total fertilizers per acre on the older soils (see Table 26), considerably lower yields give evidence of the generally lower fertility level of these older soils and a need for even more fer- tilizers to improve yields in Illinois. Wheat and Oats The relationships between the soil regions in Illinois and wheat and oat production are as follows: a significantly greater percentage of cropland is devo- ted to wheat and oats on the older soils than on the younger soils; wheat yield per acre is significantly higher on the younger soils than on the older soils; and application rates of nitrogen, phosphorus, and total fertilizers on wheat are significantly greater on the Illinoian age soils than on the Wisconsin age soils. An analysis of the relationships between the soil re- gions in Indiana and Ohio and wheat and oat production shows that there is no significant difference in yield, in the percentage of cropland planted to wheat and oats, and in fertilizer application rates. 109 The significantly greater percentage of cropland planted to wheat and cats on the Illinoian age soils compared to the Wisconsin age soils in Illinois seems to support the mixed-farming type classification for the older soil region and the cash grain farming type classification for the younger soil regions (see Table 25.) It appears that wheat and oats have similar levels of importance in the adjacent soil regions of Ohio and Indiana, despite what seem to be different farming—type classifications for the contrasting soil regions. Wheat is the third rank crop in all soil regions of the study areas. The significantly higher wheat yield on the Wis- consin age soils than on the Illinoian age soils in Illinois appears to further substantiate the generally higher fertility level of the younger soils and a defi- cient level of fertilizer application on the older soils. Relatively little fertilizer seems to result in excel- lent yields on the younger soils (see Table 26.) The significantly lower wheat yield on the older soils, despite significantly greater rates of application of nitrogen, phosphorus, and total fertilizers than on the younger soils appears to show the need for improved fer- tilizer programs for wheat on the "planosolic" soils. While the fertilizer application rates are not signifi- cantly different between the adjacent soil regions in 110 Ohio and Indiana, the somewhat larger amounts of fertil- izer applied to the older soils seem to be sufficient to result in yields comparable to the yields on the younger soils (see Table 26.) 9th 5 Agricultural Production Factors The crop rotation systems in the adjacent soil regions of each study area were evaluated using the values from the Salter Productive Balance (see Table 2, Chapter I.) A significantly greater amount of nutrients are removed from the soil by the rotations employed on the Wisconsin age soils than on the Illinoian age soils in Indiana and Ohio (see Table 27.) The negative values in adjacent soil regions appears to clearly indicate that farm operators in both the older soil regions and the younger soil regions are removing more nutrients from the soil in the process of crop production than are being replaced by fertilizers and by alfalfa or clover in the crop rotation system. The values on the Wiscon- sin age soils show the need to improve fertilizer pro- grams and to examine the rotation system more closely, because the potential for improved yields is greater than on the older soils where less severe removal of nutrients is taking place. In Illinois, farm operators in both soil regions are removing more nutrients from the soil than are being replaced by proper fertilizer application rates and by alfalfa or clover in the crop 111 rotation system. All soil regions in the study areas appear to need to increase fertilizer application rates to obtain optimum yield levels over a sustained period of time. Table 27. Salter Productive Balance Values for Crop Rotation Systems in Study Areas, by Soil Regions Illinois Indiana Ohio Illinoian Soil Region -O.59 -O.5h -O.48 Wisconsin Soil Region -O.68 -O.87 -l.05 The average number of livestock units per farm in the Wisconsin age soil regions is significantly greater than the average number of livestock units in the Illi- noian age soil regions in Indiana and Ohio. The larger average number of units on the younger soils (see Table 25) seems to further support the designation of a corn- livestock farming type for these regions. The smaller average number of units on the older soils apparently shows the mixed farming type designation is appropriate for these regions. The average number of livestock units per farm is not significantly different between the soil regions in Illinois. However, the somewhat greater num- 112 ber of units on the older soils compared to the younger soils relates to the somewhat greater percentage of farmland used for pastures and pastured woodlots on the older soils (see Table 22.) Farm Ownership gag £529; The analysis of the relationships between the soil regions and farm ownership and labor shows that there are no significant differences in the variables tested. The total number of farm laborers, the number of family laborers, the months of labor applied to the farm per year, the ownership of the farm, and the age of the farm operator do not seem to vary between the adjacent regions of the study areas (see Table 28.) The average age of the farm operators in the Wis- consin age soil regions is not significantly different than the average age in the Illinoian age soil regions. The relatively similar average age of farm operators in all soil regions seems to negate the earlier contentions of Hart10 and Sitterley11 that there was a relationship between older farm operators and the older soils. IO. Hart, 0 . cit ll. Sitter ey, 23: gig. 113 Table 28. Farm Ownership and Farm Labor in the Studyl Number of laborers Family Laborers Months Labor/Year1 Full Ownership Part Ownership Tenants Age of Operator Areas, by Soil Region' Illinois Indiana Ohio Ill. Wis. Ill. Wis. Ill. Wis. 2.h 2.1 2.0 2.h 2.2 2.3 2.1 1.8 1.9 2.0 2.0 1.8 18.2 18.8 16.8 21.1 18.9 20.6 28% 12% 60% 32% 1.0% 1.8% 72% 6:.% 28% 36% 1.8% 32% 0% 24% 12% 32% 12% 20% 43.5 53.6 #9.8 h5.l 52.4 53.3 1. The months of labor per year are the total of all farm workers, so the total can easily exceed 12 months, as in this study. 114 9012221022200. The relationship between the adjacent soil regions of each study area and land value per acre is as follows: value of land per acre is significantly higher in the Wisconsin age soil regions than in the Illinoian age soil regions. The much higher average value per acre of land exclusive of buildings and other improvements in the younger soil regions compared to the older soil regions appears to indicate the generally greater natur- al fertility of the younger soil region and the direct variance of land value per acre and agricultural pro- ductivity as suggested by Ottoson12 and Bushnell13 (see Table 29.) Table 29. Land Value Per Acre in Study Areas, by Soil Region Illinois Indiana Ohio Illinoian 8011 Region $7#.08 $1h8.20 $172.68 Wisconsin Soil Region $327.92 $319.04 $270.76 12. Ottoson, 92. cit. 13. Bushnell, gp.f§:_. CHAPTER V. A SUMMARY OF THE FACTORS ANALYZED IN THE THREE STUDY AREAS AND CONCLUSIONS Summagy The preceeding analyses of the independent varia- bles, anticipated as being integral parts of the agri— cultural systems of the contrasting adjacent soil regions, have shown that these variables are influenced to varying degrees by their association with the soil regions. Some variables exhibit significant association with the soil regions while other variables do not. The variables which show a significant difference between soil regions in all three study areas seem to be the most important variables within these particular agri- cultural systems. Six variables analyzed in this thesis are significant at the .01 level in all three study areas (see Tables 18 and 19.) The significant difference in the Storie Index in each study area and the significant difference in value of land per acre in each study area seem to substantiate the earlier contentions that the "planosolic" soils are considerably lower in natural fertility and in value for general agricultural production.1 The significant difference in the type of artificial drainage in each 1. see pages 6- of this th 1 "Resultant Soils--Ge%er§1." es 8’ Chapter II’ 115 116 study area appears to support the soil studies in all three states which cite the disadvantage of the claypan subsoil in the "planosolic" soils. The significantly greater percentage of land de- voted to cropland on the younger soils in each of the study areas and the significantly greater percentage of woodlots on the older soils in all three study areas seem to indicate a more intensive use of land on the younger soils and more land reverting to underuse or non-use on the older soils, as suggested by Bart and by Bushnell.2 The significantly greater percentage of cropland planted to corn in each of the Wisconsin age soil regions than in each of the Illinoian age soil regions appears to support the earlier findings of Ross and Case, the corn belt maps of Rose, and the 196a Census of Agriculture data.3 Five other variables are significant in two of the study areas and approach the .01 level of significance in the third study area, meaning that they probably can be considered as integral variables of the different agricultural systems in the adjacent soil regions (see Table 18.) The corn yield is significantly higher on the Wisconsin age soils than on the Illinoian age soils U 2. See page 63 of this thesis, Chapter III, "Land se." 3. See pages 72—73 of this thesis, Chapter III, "Crops." 117 in the Illinois and Indiana study areas and approaches the .01 level of significance (.Oh in the Ohio study area.) The yield differences between the adjacent soil regions tend to uphold the earlier statement that the fertility level for corn is higher on the younger soils and seem to support the findings that corn has greater importance on the younger soils. The percentage of cropland planted to soybeans is significantly greater on the Illinoian age soils than on the Wisconsin age soils in the Indiana and Ohio study areas and approaches the .01 level of significance (.065 in the Illinois study area.) The differences in percen- tage of cropland devoted to soybeans seem to uphold the statement by Weaver that soybeans are the chief crop on the "planosolic" soils and tend to usurp acreage from other crops, especially wheat and hay.“ The phosphorus, potassium, and total fertilizer application rates are significantly greater on the Illinoian age soils than on the Wisconsin age soils in the Illinois and Ohio study areas and application rates of phosphorus (.035 level of significance), potassium (.034 level of signi- ficance), and total fertilizers (.034 level of signifi- cance), approach the .01 level of significance in the Indiana study area. These greater fertilizer applica- h. See pages 75-76 of this thesis, Chapter III, "Crops." 118 tions on the older soils seem to point out the gener- ally lower fertility level of the Illinoian age soils and seem to support the contention that soybeans are of greater importance on the older soils. Six variables are significant in the Illinois study area, but not significant in the Ohio and Indiana study areas (see Table 18.) The relatively large number of variables significant in only one of the study areas apparently indicates two basic differences between the Illinois study area and the Ohio and Indiana study areas. First, the Illinois study area has grassland soils while the other two study areas have forest soils. Second, the emphasis of agricultural production is on slightly different end-products in Illinois than in Ohio and Indiana, making the farming type classifications differ- ent for the Wisconsin age soil region in Illinois than for those in Ohio and Indiana (see Table 2a.) The significantly greater percentage of cropland devoted to wheat and cats on the Illinoian age soils than on the Wisconsin age soils in the Illinois study area, combined with higher fertilizer application rates for nitrogen, phosphorus, and total fertilizers on the older soils than on the younger soils, seem to support the earlier classification of the Illinoian age soil region as a mixed farming region. Thus, a wider variety of crops tend to be emphasized under such a farming type 119 than under a cash grain farming type stressing corn and soybeans, as in the Wisconsin age soil region in Illi- nois. These summary statements appear to be upheld by the significantly higher wheat yields on the Wisconsin age soils than on the Illinoian age soils, because the tendency is towards higher yields with fewer acres planted to a particular crop than with more extensive acreage. Capital and especially labor seem to become more intensified in an effort to produce a successful crop when less acreage is involved. The significantly higher soybean yield on the younger soils than on the older soils in the Illinois study area suggests a similar high level of importance for soybeans in both regions of this study area and the higher level of natural productivity on the younger soils. Soybeans are an integral part of the cash grain farming type on the younger soils while soybeans are an integral part of the mixed farming type on the older soils as an income producing crop.5 One other variable, the Salter Productive Balance value, seems to suggest the basic differences between the Illinois study area and the Indiana and Ohio study areas. The Salter Balance is significantly different between soil regions in Ohio and Indiana, but not 5. See page‘75 of this thesis, Chapter III, "Crops." 120 significant in Illinois. Perhaps the cash grain farming type on the younger soils in Illinois removes less nutri- ents from the soil than the corn-livestock farming type on the Wisconsin age soils in Indiana and Ohio. The agricultural activities in each of the six soil regions were analyzed by converting livestock and crop production to common units.6 The varying intensi- ties of production were differentiated by weighing the values so as to arrive at a proportion of agricultural activity value for each crop and for livestock in each soil region. The analysis used man-days per acre of crops or per head of livestock as a unit of measurement. The results of the analysis appear to support the earlier classifications for the various soil regions (see Table 24.) The older soil region in each of the study areas has the growing of soybeans and corn as the two major agricultural activities, accounting for about three-fourths of the total activity. In each case, livestock is the number three agricultural activity. These regions seemingly are correctly classified as mixed farming type regions. They each emphasize soy- beans and corn and produce relatively important amounts of wheat and oats and livestock. 6. ‘M.H. Teates, 53 Introduction tg Quantitative Anal sis ig,Economig geography, McCraw-Hill, ew or , l , pp. 35-40. 121 Production of corn and livestock, especially hogs, accounts for about three-fourths of the agricultural activity in the younger soil regions of Ohio and Indiana. In each case soybean production is the number three agricultural activity. The heavy emphasis on corn pro- duction with its livestock counterpart classifies these two soil regions as corn-livestock farming type regions. The younger soil region in Illinois appears to be different. Production of corn and soybeans account for nine-tenths of the agricultural activity. Very little livestock is found in the region. The Wisconsin age soil region of Illinois can be classified as a cash grain farming type region with emphasis on corn and soy- beans. Conclusions The above analysis of the factors of agricultural production in the study areas in relation to the con- trasting adjacent soil regions seems to indicate that this study has accomplished, at least in part, what it set out to prove. The differences in agricultural sys- tems between the adjacent soil regions have proven to be somewhat subtle variations in the approach to farming by the farm operators, in the crops emphasized in the agricultural production process, and in the methods em- phasized in producing these crops. It has taken the 122 examination of numerous variables in analysis of vari- ance and Chi-square testing to sort out those variables in the agricultural systems which are significant in each of the study areas. The number of variables found to be significant for each study area in this thesis does not appear to be the result of coincidental differences in other fac- tors than the contrasting soils. Thus, it seems reason- able to accept the initial research hypothesis that contrasting adjacent soil regions influence differences in the agricultural systems of the regions in question. Furthermore, the secondary hypothesis that similar agri- cultural factors contrast in each of the study areas, indicating that a similar degree of contrast exists in each area, can be accepted in part. Examination of the variables appears to show a greater similarity of con- trast, especially the degree of contrast in the Ohio and Indiana study areas. A different degree of contrast is evident in the Illinois study area as described below. At the outset of this research study four contri- butions were expected to result from the analysis of the agricultural systems of the three study areas.7 It is felt that each of these contributions has been 7.4 See page 33 of this thesis, Chapter I, "Meth- ods and Anticipated Results." 123 presented successfully. It was anticipated that this study would reiterate the value of using soil data to verify the existence of contrasting physical regions. The examination in pertin- ent literature of the five factors of soil formation seems to clearly point out the primary importance of the time factor in soil develOpment for the regions un- der investigation in this study.8 The collection of soil data for individual farms in the soil regions is not meaningful by itself, but incorporation of such data into the Storie Index makes it more understandable and completes a picture of soil productive capacity. The index, significantly different between soil regions in each study area, seems to be a reliable method of clearly distinguishingthe natural fertility difference between soil regions. Thus, soil data can be of value in indicating the presence of contrasting physical re- gions. The fertility difference between soil regions appears to be greatest in the Illinois study area. There is a significant difference in corn, soybean, and wheat yields between the two soil regions in Illinois while there is a significant difference only in corn yields between soil regions in Indiana and Ohio. The 8. See pages.Al-hh of this thesis, Chapter II, "Time." 12h significantly higher yields on the younger soils come despite significantly greater fertilizer application rates for soybeans and wheat on the older soils. There is a significant difference in fertilizer application rates only for soybeans in Ohio and Indiana. The fer- tility level seems to be higher in the Wisconsin age soil region of Illinois than in the other two Wisconsin age soil regions and lower in the Illinoian age soil region of Illinois than in the Illinoian age soil regions of Ohio and Indiana (see Table 26.) It was anticipated that this study would provide a better insight into the role of soils in influencing differences in agricultural systems. The analysis of the data collected in this research study seems to in- dicate a definite direct relationship between soil differences and differences in agricultural systems. A factor of the agricultural systems which is signifi- cant in only one study area, such as soybean yield, could possibly be explained by influences other than soil differences. One factor is significant only in Ohio, one only in Indiana, and six only in Illinois. A factor significant in two areas, such as corn yield, probably can be attributed to soil influences, but possibly not. Two factors are significant in Ohio and Indiana, one factor is significant in Illinois and Indiana, and three factors are significant in Illinois 125 and Ohio. A factor significant in all three areas leaves little doubt but what it is influenced by differ- ences in soils. Six variables are significant in all ’ three areas. Five of the six variables significant in two areas approach the .01 level of significance in the third area. Thus, eleven out of the forty-four varia- bles analyzed apparently are influenced significantly by variations in soils between the adjacent study regions (see Tables 18 and 19.) The number of significant variables in this study seem to support Bushnell's contention that despite tech- nological improvements, differences in soils are still reflected in differences in land use and therefore in varying agricultural systems.9 The number of signifi- cant variables thus permits acceptance of the initial research hypothesis that soil regions influence varia- tions in agricultural systems. The influence of soils on differences in agricul- tural systems and more specifically on differences in farming types appears to be most strongly developed in the Illinois study area. In Illinois, seventeen varia- bles are significant compared to twelve in Ohio, and eleven in Indiana. It can be stated that the Illinois study area appears to be distinctly different from the 9. See page 77 of this thesis, Chapter III, "Yields and Fertilizers." 126 Indiana and Ohio study areas. Six variables are signi- ficant only in Illinois. The Wisconsin age soil region in Illinois is classified as a cash-grain farming type as opposed to a corn-livestock farming type for the Wisconsin soil regions of Ohio and Indiana. The three Illinoian age soil regions apparently are similar be- cause of the emphasis on soybeans and corn in a mixed farming type for each of these regions. Perhaps the greater influence of soils on the agricultural systems of Illinois is due to greater fertility differences between the soil regions there and perhaps it is due to the grassland soils-~unlike the forest soils of Indiana and Ohio. It was anticipated that this study would indicate the factors within the agricultural systems which one could expect to vary significantly with differences in soils. Actually, all of the factors examined in this study were expected to be significant because of previ- ous studies reviewed in pertinent literature. However, given a similar physical environment to that of the study areas, with climate, topography, vegetation, and parent material kept constant, each of the variables which is significant in any one of the study areas could possibly vary with differences in soils. It seems likely that a variable significant in two areas has a better chance of being significant in another study. 127 A variable significant in all three areas has the best chance of being significant in another study. It was anticipated that this study would indicate the need for further studies of a similar nature in other areas to demonstrate the role of soils in influ- encing land use patterns and agricultural systems. This study clearly demonstrates that contrasting adjacent soil regions influence the agricultural systems imposed on them. Furthermore, this study demonstrates that a similar degree of contrast can and does exist between the adjacent soil regions in Ohio and Indiana, while a greater degree of contrast seems to exist between the adjacent soil regions in Illinois. Despite the significant findings of this study, four needs appear to be unsatisfied by the results of this research. First, there is a need to demonstrate that the variables significant in all three study areas are "key" variables which can be expected to be signi- ficant under similar conditions elsewhere. Second, there is a need to demonstrate which of the other variables, significant in one or two of the study areas can be or are significant elsewhere. Third, there is a need to determine if other variables, not significant in the study areas, would be significant under similar conditions elsewhere. Fourth, there is a need to deter- mine if the apparent variation in degree of contrast 128 between grassland soils and forest soils in terms of number of significant variables is found under similar conditions elsewhere. This thesis is limited temporally and spatially. In other locations or at other times, where agricultural practices and/or physical factors may vary markedly from the study areas examined herein, the need may arise to employ other variables in analyzing the influence of soils on agricultural systems. However, the factors selected for analysis in this study, the methods of analysis, and the results, each may provide a starting point for other geographical studies of soils and agricultural systems. SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY Books Bunting, Brian T., The Geo ra h of Soil, Aldine Pub- 1ishing Company, Ch cago, 967. Corbett, Janice R., The Livin Soil: The Processes gf Soil Formation,_fi5rtfnd§Ie Fress, West Como,‘New South WaIes, Australia, 1969. Gregor Howard F. 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