$801M. AND PROFESSIONAL DIMENSIONS BE THE IMAGE OF BUSINESS: A STUDY OF THE ATTITUDES OF COLLEGE STUDENTS AND RECENT CQLLEGE GRADUATES REPRESENTING SELECTED MAJOR FTELDS OF STUDY Thesis for the Degree of Ph D. MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY LESLTE M. DAWSON 1968 TTTTTTTTTTTTTWIT ‘ ”“1 00658 2526 _ , >- Mtcilngan Scam University This is to certify that the thesis entitled Social and Professional Dimensions of the Image Of Business: A Study of the Attitudes of College Students and Recent College Graduates Representing Selected Major Fields of Study presented by Leslie M. Dawson has been accepted towards fulfillment of the requirements for PhoDo degree in BUS111§88 Major professor Date 6/5/1968 0-169 2' '§ f" Bmomo BY 1" ; ’1 HUN} 3 SUNS' . 300K BlNDLRY lNU. LIBRARY“ emosns b. '/ lllll ; Im .1."‘"~?9_F_!.!e:c::::.. T ’5 lam—9’ g3 8 {999% .. . . A. . . .. . LVJ vi)» r! '.k‘l..}trll)¥xll .r. .v cl... v...l p «. fiealflhtc... ,4 tlil'lp! . v in tn); . . .ulfi IntEft'rftl Illa...“ in T n t u at It: ll‘ . "l‘l ABSTRACT SOCIAL AND PROFESSIONAL DIMENSIONS OF THE IMAGE OF BUSINESS: A STUDY OF THE ATTITUDES OF COLLEGE STUDENTS AND RECENT COLLEGE GRADUATES REPRESENTING SELECTED MAJOR FIELDS OF STUDY by Leslie M. Dawson A large volume of recent literature attests to a concern that the discomfort of American culture with the businessman may be growing at an alarming rate. Special concern has been voiced over the attitudes of the present college generation toward business. Fears have been ex- pressed that the brightest of our young people have become at best apathetic, and at worst openly hostile, toward the business world. Unfavorable attitudes toward business on the part of college youth suggest two equally dismaying prospects: (1) that an increasing number of college students will shun business careers because of a perceived conflict with business values, and (2) that an increasing number of others will enter business careers reluctantly, bring- ing with them an aura of negativism born out of ideological aversion to business values. Little scientific effort has been devoted to deter- mining how deep and widespread the problem may be. Most of Leslie M. Dawson the concern has been based upon a few opinion polls of college students, the results of which have been subject to varying interpretations. Even less is known about the attitudes of college graduates who have chosen business careers. The objective of this study is to investigate more thoroughly the image of business as reflected in the attitudes of college students representing selected major fields of study and class levels, and college graduates in the early stages of assimilation into business careers. A research instrument was created which would pro- vide a quantitative measurement of attitude within five key dimensions of business: (1) Basic Economic Convic— tions; (2) Social Responsibility; (3) Ethical Norms: (4) Business Career; (5) Business Education. The sum of a respondent's score on the five scales--termed the General Score--is operationally defined as a measure of "attitude toward‘business." The first phase of field research involved the administration of the research instrument to a sample of students at Michigan State University. The 581 respond- ‘ents in the college-student sample represent four major fields of study (Business, Engineering, Education, and Arts & Letters) and five class levels (freshman through master's). The second phase of field research involved admin- istration-of the instrument to a sample of college graduates Leslie M. Dawson employed by one of America's billion-dollar corporations-- the Dow Chemical Company. The 179 respondents in the: college—graduate sample represent three of the same under- graduate major fields (Education excluded) and career stages ranging from 1 to 8 years. Analysis of the college—student sample data indi- cated that the attitudes of students at the freshman and sophomore levels could not be differentiated on the basis of choice of major field. A divergence of attitude became evident at the junior level, with Arts & Letters students moving toward an unfavorable pole and Business students toward a favorable pole. The trend persisted into the senior and master's levels. Engineering and Education. students showed virtually no attitude changes over the levels under study. Among other variables tested, grade-point average was found to correlate inversely with attitude toward busi- ness, but socio-economic background bore no relationship. It was found that students intent upon business careers held substantially more favorable attitudes than students intent upon other career choices. Analysis of the college-graduate sample revealed that attitudinal differences among graduates of the dif- ferent major fields persist into the business career, but tend to diminish as the career progresses. The weight of Leslie M. Dawson evidence leaned toward the conclusion that general atti- tude toward business is a factor in employee productivity, but in the strictest sense the test of this relationship was inconclusive. SOCIAL AND PROFESSIONAL DIMENSIONS OF THE IMAGE OF BUSINESS: A STUDY OF THE ATTITUDES OF COLLEGE STUDENTS AND RECENT COLLEGE GRADUATES REPRESENTING SELECTED MAJOR FTELDS or STUDY BY ‘r. ‘ \ L) ¢./ Leslie Mi Dawson A THESIS \Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Department of Marketing & Transportation Administration 1968 Q C ’3‘ f; "3 _/ ,Jv/‘j; Mgr/w} CDCopyright by LESLIE MI TTEN DAWSON 1969 ACKN OWLE DGMENT S The dissertation effort is the culmination of a doctoral program, the successful completion of which is owed to the varying contributions and support of many more persons than can ever be properly acknowledged. In particular, the author wishes to express his gratitude for the contributions of the following persons: Dr. Bernard J. LaLonde, Professor Marketing, Michigan State University, who served as chairman of the author's dissertation committee, and from the beginning provided the inspiration and proper focus for the research. An invaluable resource, he never once failed the author when called upon for time, advice, or encouragement. Dr. E. Jerome McCarthy, Professor of Marketing, Michigan State University, for his contributions as a member of the dissertation committee, and especially for his guidance in the original formulation of the problem and the scope of the study. Dr. Thomas A. Staudt, Professor and Chairman of the Marketing Department, Michigan State University, for his contributions as a member of the dissertation committee, as well as for his support and encouragement throughout the author's doctoral program. ii Dr. H. David Russell, Manager, Professional Liaison Program, College Relations Department, The Dow Chemical Company, for his enthusiastic particpation in this study and his willingness to assume the burden of many of the unexciting details which are part of any social research project. Finally, to Elizabeth Anne for contributions far too numerous even to recall, and far too often taken for granted; and to Jennifer Lynn and Valerie Mitten for their as yet unrealized sacrifices in helping their father to attain his goal. iii TABLE OF CONTENTS ACKNOWLEDGMENTS . . . . LIST OF LIST OF LIST OF Chapter I. TABLES O O O O O FIGUMS C O O O APPENDICES . . . INTRODUCTION . . Background . . Nature of the Importance of Need of Study Problem the Problem Feasibility of Studying "Attitude Toward Business" . . . . . . SCOpe o o o o a Statement of the Problem . . . . The Research Hypotheses . . . . . Preliminary Description of the Research Methodology . . . . Limitations . . Potential Contributions . . . . . Definitions of Terms . . . . . . Organization of the Report: A Preview of Subsequent Chapters . . . iv Page ii viii xi xii 12 17 18 21 27 29 31 35 Chapter Page- II. CONCEPTUAL FOUNDATIONS: A REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE o o o o o ‘ o o o o‘ o o 37 IntrOduction O O O O O C O O O O O O O O 37 Theory and Techniques of Attitude Measurement . . . . . . . . 39 General Summaries of the Field The Prominent Techniques Comparisons of the Techniques General Studies of the Attitudes and Values of College Students . . . . . 48 An-Overview Studies Predominantly Cross- Sectional in Nature . . . . . . Studies Predominantly Longitudina in Nature An Appraisal Studies of Attitudes Toward Business . . 59 An Overview ‘ The Opinion Polls Expert Opinions Scientific Research An Appraisal Studies of the Behavioral Correlates of Employee Attitudes . . . . . . . . 71 Attitudes and Productivity Specific Studies Pertaining to the Relationship of Employee Attitudes to Productivity Interpretations of the Studies' An Appraisal Summary of the Literature Review» . . . . 79 III. RESEARCH DESIGN 0 O O O O O O O 0 O O O O O 82 Introduction» . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82 The Research Instrument .7. ... . . . . . 83 General Considerations Generation of Opinion Statements The Preliminary Instrument The Pre-Testing Procedure Final Selection of Items The Final Instrument Chapter Page The College Student Sample . . . . . . . 92 General Considerations - Drawing the Sample Collecting the Data Analysis of Non-respondents The College Graduate Sample . . . . . . . 103 General Considerations Drawing the Sample. Collecting the Data Data Handling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106 Statistics to Test the Hypotheses . . . . 108 IV. THE FINDINGS O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 113 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113 General Observations . . . . . . . . . . 114 Distribution of Scores A Further Test of the Internal Con- sistency of the Research Instrument Interpretations of Test Scores The College Student Sample . . . . . . . 122 The Major Hypotheses--Major Fields and Class Levels An Additional Test of the Major Hypotheses The Class Level Groups The Major Field Groups Hypotheses Pertaining to Other Variables The College Graduate Sample . . . . . . . 153 Undergraduate Major Field and Career Stage A Test of Interaction Between Major Field and Career Stages Attitudes and Performance Rating Other Findings . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161 A Concluding Note . . . . . . . . . . . . 162 vi Chapter Page The College Student Sample . . . . . . . 92 General Considerations Drawing the Sample Collecting the Data Analysis of Non-respondents The College Graduate Sample . . . . . . . 103 General Considerations Drawing the Sample Collecting the Data Data Handling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106 Statistics to Test the Hypotheses . . . . 108 Iv. THE FINDINGS O O 0 O O O I O O 0 I O O O O 113 IntrOduCtj-on C O O O O O O O O O O O O O 113 General Observations . . . . . . . . . . 114 Distribution of Scores A Further Test of the Internal Con- sistency of the Research Instrument Interpretations of Test Scores The College Student Sample . . . . . . . 122 The Major Hypotheses--Major Fields and Class Levels An Additional Test of the Major Hypotheses The Class Level Groups The Major Field Groups Hypotheses Pertaining to Other Variables The College Graduate Sample . . . . . . . 153 Undergraduate Major Field and Career Stage A Test of Interaction Between Major Field and Career Stages Attitudes and Performance Rating Other Findings . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161 A Concluding Note . . . . . . . . . . . . 162 vi Chapter Page V. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS . . . . . . . . . . 163 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163 General Summary of the Study . . . . . . 163 Review of the Hypotheses and Findings . . 167 The College Student Sample The College Graduate Sample The Major Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . 177 Implications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181 Proposals for Action . . . . . . . . . . 184 Suggestions for Future Research . . . . . 188 A Final Comment . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191 APPENDIX . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193 BIBLIOGRAPHY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225 vii Table 1. 10. 11. 12. 13. LIST OF TABLES Final Composition of the College- Student Sample . . . . . . . . . . . Final Composition of the College- Graduate Sample . . . . . . . . . . Calculation of Discriminatory Power of Opinion Statement . . . . . . . . Average Discriminatory Powers of Opinion Statements used in each Scale of Final Instrument . . . . . Total Enrollment of Students at Michigan State University for Selected Major Fields and Levels as of Fall, 1967 . Composition of the Original College-Student Sample . . . . . . . Distribution of Respondents in College-Student Sample-~by Numbers and Percentages . . . . . . Analysis of Reasons Given for Non- response, in Telephone Interviews . Final Composition of the College- Student Sample . . . . . . . . . . . Frequency Distribution of Scores of the College-Student Sample . . . . . Frequency Distribution of Scores of the College-Graduate Sample- . . . . Matrix of Pearsonian Product Moment Coefficients of Correlation Among General Scores and Scores of Five Sub-scales Summary of Analysis of Variance of Attitude Scores of-College Students at Five Major Fields . . . viii Page 25 27 90 91 100 100 100 102 106 115 116 119 123 Table Page 14. Summary of Analysis of Variance of Attitude Scores of College Students at Five Levels . . . . . . . . . 126 15. Mean General Scores of College-Student Sample . . . . . . . . . . 129 16. Two Way Analysis of Variance of Attitude Scores of College Students Classified by Major Field and Leve1--Genera1 Scores On1y . . . . . . . . 129 17. Summary of Analysis of Variance of Attitude Scores of Freshman Students . . . 131 18. Summary of Analysis of Variance of Attitude Scores of Sophomore Students . . 132 19. Summary of Analysis of Variance of Attitude Scores of Junior Students . . . . 133 20. Summary of Analysis of Variance of Attitude Scores of Senior Students . . . . 134 21. Summary of Analysis of Variance of Attitude Scores of Master's Students . . . 135 22. Summary of Analysis of Variance of Attitude Scores of Business Students . . . 140 23. Summary of Analysis of Variance of Attitude Scores of Arts & Letters Students 0 O O O O l O O O O O O O O O O O 141 24. Summary of Analysis of Variance of Attitude Scores of Engineering Students . 144 25. Summary of Analysis of Variance of Attitude Scores of Education Students . . 145 26. Statistics of Correlation Between General Score and Socio-economic Background . . . 147 27. Statistics of Correlation Between General Score and Grade-point Average . . . . . . 148 28. Statistics of Correlation Between General Score and Age . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149 ix Table Page 29. Statistics of Correlation Between General Score and Prior Work Experience . . . . . 150 30. Statistics of Correlation Between General Score and Source of Education Funds . . . 150 31. Summary of Analysis of Variance of General Scores of College Students Expressing Different Career Plans . . . . 152 32. Summary of Analysis of Variance of Attitude Scores of College Graduates Representing Three Undergraduate Major Fields of Study . . . . . . . . . . 154 33. Summary of Analysis of Variance of Attitude Scores of College Graduates Representing Four Career Stages . . . . . 156 34. Mean General Scores of College Graduate Sample . . . . . . . . . 158 35. Two-Way Analysis of Variance of General Scores of College Graduates Classified by Undergraduate Major Fields and Career Stage . . . . . . . . . 158 36. Summary of Analysis of Variance of Attitude Scores of College-Graduates Representing Four Performance Rating Categories . . . . . . . . . ... . 160 37. Comparison of Mean Scores of the College- Student and College Graduate Samples . . . 161 38. Mean General Scores of Cells in College-Student Sample Matrix, Relative to Mid-point Score of 300 . . . . 178 Figure 1. 2. LIST OF FIGURES Foundations of the Research . . . . . . . Frequency Distribution of Scores of the College-Student Sample . . . . . Frequency Distribution of Scores of the College-Graduate Sample . . . . .> Mean Scores of the College Student Sample Mean Scores of the College Graduate Sample xi Page. 37 118 118 172 175 Appendix A. B. C. D. LIST OF APPENDICES The Final Research Instrument . . . . Data Collection Instruments . . . . . The College Student Sample: B-lo B-2. -3 -40 -5 (U m an Initial Letter Sent to all Subjects Double-card Enclosed with Initial' Letter Second Request Sent to Non—respondents Third Request Sent to Non-respondents Final Request (for Mail Return) Sent to Non-respondents The College Graduate Sample: B-6. Initial Letter Sent to All Subjects Discriminatory Power Rankings of Opinion Statements Used in Pre-Test . . . . C-l. C 2. C-30 C-4. Social Responsibility Scale Ethical Norms Scale Business Career Scale Business Education Scale Statistical Formulas and Procedures . D-lo "t" Test of Significance of Difference Between Mean General Scores of 581 Respondents and‘ 84 Non-respondents in College- Student Sample "t" Test of Significance of Difference Between Mean General Scores of 581 Respondents in College Student Sample and 179 Respondents in College-» Graduate Sample xii Page 193 198 205 218 Appendix Page D-3. Analysis of Variance D-4. Correlation Statistics' xiii CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION Background Nature of the Problem The Protestant Ethic, with its emphasis on the im- portance of success as a sign of God's grace, is an integral part of the American heritage. From the start, it enabled businessmen of this country to enjoy unusual social pres- tige in comparison with the "merchant class" of other na- tions. Describing America at the turn of the century, one historian writes: No culture can be satisfactorily characterized by a single phrase. Yet businesslike values and respect for them seemed the most pervasive common element in American culture, more so than religion, world mission, the democratic spirit, or similar formulations of Amer- ican ideals. Those were the not-too-distant days of the Horatio Alger tales, wherein the poor-but-honest hero would rise above his beginnings as a street urchin to captain some great industrial enterprise. No accomplishment could better 1T. C. Cochran, The American Business System: A Historical Perspective, 1900-1988 (New York: Harper &8Row, E57) ' pp. 4-50 have epitomized "success in life" for the great mass of American youth. There were, of course, very deep and genu- ine problems in American society then as now, and reformers and crusaders were by no means lacking. Generally, however, these persons were temperate in regard to business values: They did not intend to stir the American people to dras- tic action which would transform American society. They did not attack the business system; indeed . . . their solution of many of the problems was through the appIi- cation of modern business methods. This was especially true in regard to corruption and inefficiency in govern- ment. So the business ideology was spread continuously in the bloodstream of American life. It was strength~ ened, not weakened, by the muckrakers as they extolled 'modern business methods' and 'efficiency' and connected these with progress and reform in the public mind.1 The prestige of the business community probably was never at a higher peak than in the 1920's, a time of un- precedented prosperity for the nation. The opening of com- mon stock ownership to the masses had given the average citizen a feeling of participation in the successes of the business sector. In the realm of higher education, private colleges and universities were dominant, and these relied heavily upon business interests and alumni—businessmen for support. Most academicians looked upon the business world as the place where things got done, while regarding the government as a largely sterile operation, bogged down in 1R. E. Callahan and H. W. Button, "Historical Change in the Role of Man in the Organization: 1865-1950," in Be- havioral Science and Educational Administration, D. E. _— Griffiths (ed.) (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1964), p. 78. bureaucracy, and badly colored by graft and scandal. In the main, the businessman of this era was considered to be a friend and ally of the cultural element. Young peo- ple could look up to him as a hero of his time. It would be easy to point to the Depression as the single event which swept the businessman from his pedestal in American life; indeed it went'“far toward this end. But it seems nearer the truth to say that there has always been some degree of ambivalence in the attitudes of the public toward business. One rather innocuous example of this is the typical portrayal of the businessman in entertainment media. Children grow up in a world of comic-strip bosses, usually dull and grumpy tyrants who fire their loyal "Dag- woods" at the drop of a hat. One industrialist makes this complaint: The corporation is uniformly presented as impersonal and sinister. From the crooked lawyer in the Western, representing the 'big interests' back East, to the con- temporary mad financial tycoon who is attempting to take over the world, it is hard to find a character you would even allow in your living room - much less introduce to your daughter. For the college set, a catchy new jargon has been created out of the titles of some of the more sensational exposes of life in the business world. Thus the businessman has become an "organization man," a "pyramid climber," and 1L. A. Kimpton, "Unrest on the Campus: Business Careers," Vital Speeches, XXXII (March 1, 1966), 302. "the man in the gray flannel suit." None of these descrip- tive labels is intended as complimentary. Such manifestations of ambivalent attitudes toward the world of business are hardly alarming. Some believe, however, that the discomfort of American culture with the businessman is growing; perhaps at an alarming rate. After conducting a nationwide survey on "What Americans Think of Business," Newsweek magazine reached this conclusion: A storm is brewing, in the minds of millions of Ameri- cans. It is small now, a cloud no bigger than a vague dissatisfaction. But it may swirl up angrily on the horizon for American business management. No one would deny that the values of our younger generation, tempered by war and social upheaval, have changed and matured. "Money" and "success" no longer are synonomous terms. The rags-to-riches story is too sim- plistic a measure of self-fulfillment to a generation en- tranced by visions of reaching the mobn, conquering can- cer, and eliminating poverty. The youth of today live in a unique mass communication era, and tend to be more deeply involved in social issues. It is not entirely clear whether these new goals and values tend to be perceived as incompatible with the free enterprise system as it functions presently in this nation. Persons close to the management scene in American lapeak Now , . . A Neyeueek Regen; (New York: Newsweek magazine, 1966), p. 1. business today know of the great changes that have occurred in post-war years‘afid’df the many intriguing challenges which confront business leaders today. Many of the chal- lenges involve questions of the greatest human import, such as how American production and marketing knowledge can be harnessed to the task of transforming the economic base of underdeveloped nations, and how the unparalleled product research facilities of American industry can contribute to the development of cheap means of feeding and clothing impoverished pOpulations. There is deepening suspicion, however, that more and more young people are visualizing American business not in the terms described above, but instead as materialistic, conformist, and obstructionist. Importance of the Problem At the risk of a sweeping generalization, the prospect of a growing disenchantment of American youth with the world of business should be a matter of deepest concern to all persons interested in the future of the nation. Clearly, the very strength of America is inex- tricably linked to the vitality of its business sector. In the broadest sense, a disdain of business careers by the brightest young people can be said to involve scarcely less than America's survival as a first-class industrial power. Perhaps a more pragmatic, and certainly a more immediate concern of business is the increasingly difficult task of finding talented young college graduates to fill the training positions intended as the wellspring of future top management in industry. It has been claimed that only two out of three executive—trainee career Openings are being filled today, and the continuous corporate recruiting campaign on the college campus visibly has become a dogged competitive scramble among the bidding firms. Fortune magazine made an in-depth study of the class of 1966 at Harvard University, and found that of 1,091 seniors, only 51 expressed an intention to accept jobs in business.1 One of the conclusions of the researchers was that the lower a man's class standing, the more apt he was to choose a business career. Louis Harris and Associates, commis— sioned by Newsweek magazine to sample student opinions toward business in colleges and universities across the country, summed them up as "a general lack of interest tinged with a faint distaste."2 Only 31% of the students interviewed in the Harris poll said that they were "seri- ously considering" a career in business, and only 12% made such a career their first choice. Several other recent studies have suggested that there is a growing, general 1D. Norton-Taylor, "Private World of the Class of 1966," Fortune, LXXIII (February, 1966), 128. 2Speak Now . . . A Newsweek Report, p. 6. tendency among college students to feel that "business is for the birds" when it comes to career choice. There is yet another source of concern which spreads hazily over both of the concerns mentioned above, befogging each. The last concern centers upon the attitudes of those young people who 93 elect business careers. There is the possibility--undoubtedly heightened by high-pressure cor- porate recruiting tactics--that many college graduates enter the world of business as a path-of-least-resistance, bring- ing cynical and negative attitudes with them. Many such graduates may become "business dropouts" at a later date, but surely a considerable number feel trapped in the arena of business life. There exists the portent of a gradual infusion of a spirit of negativism in corporate ranks, com— bined with less-than-best-effort performances born out of apathy and distaste. The very insidiousness of such a process might well mark it as the most serious concern of all. Need of Study Despite the abundance of literature testifying to widespread interest in the attitudes of the public toward the business sector, there has been a notable lack of scientific inquiry in the general area. There exists, for example, only an impressionistic patchwork of opinions to illuminate the role of the college experience in shaping attitudes toward business. An editor of Marketing Insights complained recently that: . . . strangely enough - the campuses remain silent . . . there is too little useful information coming from the campuses to enable business to feel secure about the Opinions of those students it would like to interest in careers.1 The same author quotes a New York management consultant firm which has put forth a call for massive new research to learn what students think about business: Knowing that students as a whole have a negative impression of business as a whole is not enough for decision-making. What business needs to know is what liberal arts students think of the food or cos- metics industries, what engineering students think of government service, and other similarly detailed, measureable breakdowns of opinion.2 Confounding the confusion is the fact that those studies which have been made in the area have frequently produced 3 While one business leader warns conflicting results. that hostile student attitudes are approaching crisis pro— portions, another argues that it is all a grossly exag- gerated tempest in a teapot. The question of the behavioral correlates of atti- tudes toward the business system is a crucial one. Attitude studies have become fairly popular in business in post-war years, but the focus has been upon attitudinal objects 1D. W. Imhulse, "Students' Attitude Toward Busi- ness: Is It Really Poor?" Marketing_lnsights, II (Novem- ber 6, 1967), 14. 21bid. 3See Chapter II for a number of citations. directly related to the job, such as supervisors, working conditions, and company image. Even insofar as studies of this type are concerned, there is sharp disagreement as to whether employee productivity has been established to be a correlate of employee attitudes.l To the authors knowledge, no serious attempt has been made to investigate the general feelings about the American business system held by college-educated persons in the early stages of business careers. Certainly, no evidence has been offered on the question of whether such attitudes appear to be related to the productivity of employees. Feasibilityof Studying “Attitude Toward Business" It becomes necessary at once to come to terms with the phrase "attitude toward business." Is this frequently— used phrase really meaningful? The variety of meanings which may attach to both the first and the last words make the specification and delimitation of the intended conno- tation of these words imperative.2 Although the word "business" is rarely defined in literature pertaining to "attitudes toward business," it generally seems quite apparent that the intended meaning 1See Chapter II for citations. 2Webster's Third International Dictionary (1967) lists for "attitude" seven senses and numerous sub-senses, and for "business" six senses and even more numerous sub- senses. The entry for the latter term occupies nearly half a page column. 10 is that of an inclusive term to encompass all private trade, commerce, and industry; i.e., the business sector of our economy. Such a broad connotation conceives of business in the broadest sense: as a social institution, alongside, for example, government and religion. Sometimes, however, the intended meaning may be slightly different from the broad connotation, and nearer to what is commonly referred to as "big business." This latter connotation might corre- spond roughly to what C. W. Mills calls the "economic order," made up of the "corporate chieftans," which is part of the "power elite" in contemporary American society.1 At still other times, the intended meaning may come closer to a type of occupation; a career choice. When used in the last way, a new element of vagueness is introduced. A corporate lawyer is surely a part of "big business," but in a career sense he may be more of a "professional man" than a "businessman." The distinctions among the various connotations is no doubt real, but far from being clear. The present investigation is oriented to the cast- ing of the word "business" in the broadest sense of a social institution in American culture. There is no help— ing the fact that different people attach different mean- ings to this same word. The solution to the apparent 1C. Wright Mills, The Power Elite (New York: Oxford University Press, 1956). 11 dilemma is the realization that if one is interested in what peOple think about business, then the meaning they attach to the word matters most of all. If the stimulus "business" evokes in some person's mind the response "Wall Street Tycoons," then indeed something quite significant has already been learned about that person's "attitude toward business." The word "attitude" presents a somewhat different problem. The definition itself is not too difficult, for even though the word has multiple meanings it is rather easy to pick out the definition pertinent to an "attitude toward business." In Webster's Third International, it would be the following: Attitude: A disposition that is primarily grounded in affect and emotion and is expressive of opinions rather than-belief. One of the most eminent authorities in the field of attitude research, L. L. Thurstone, defines "attitude" thusly: The concept 'attitude' [is used] to denote the sum total of a man's inclinations and feelings, prejudice or bias, preconceived notions, ideas, fears, threats, and convictions about any specific topic. Thus a man's attitude about pacifism means all that he feels and thinks about peace and war. It is admittedly a subjective and personal affair.1 The problem is not the meaning of the word, but rather whether the word is meaningful; i.e., can such an obviously 1L. L. Thurstone, The Measurement of Values (Chica- go: University of Chicago Press, 1959), p. 216. 12 complex mental state genuinely be comprehended? Thurstone provides an eloquent answer to this question as well as to the corollary question of whether it is feasible to attempt the measurement of attitudes: It will be conceded at the outset that an attitude is a complex affair which cannot be wholly described by any single numerical index. For the problem of measure- ment this statement is analogous to the observation that an ordinary table is a complex affair which cannot be wholly deScribed by any single numerical index. So is a man such a complexity which cannot be wholly rep- resented by a single index. Nevertheless, we do not hesitate to say that we measure the table. The context usually implies what it is about the table that we pro- pose to measure. We say without hesitation that we measure a man when we take some anthropometric measure- ment of him. . . . Just in the same sense we shall say here that we are measuring attitudes. We shall say or imply by the context the aspect of people's attitudes that we are measuring. The point is that it is just as legitimate to say that we are measuring attitudes as it is to say that we are measuring tables or men. The feasibility of a study of "attitudes toward business" is thus predicated in part upon (1) the desira— bility of subjective interpretation of the word "business," and (2) the established scientific validity of attitude measurement. Scope There are a great many gaps in the present state of knowledge and understanding of the total complex in- volving the attitudes of peOple toward business and the lIbid, p. 217. 13 operational effects of such attitudes. This study is an attempt to fill certain of the gaps. The first major phase of the research is the crea- tion of a test instrument which will make possible a measurement of "attitudes toward business." Since it is virtually impossible to measure the entire complexity of a total state of mind of an issue, the scope of the in- strument is limited to five key attitudinal dimensions of business as part of society. A description of each of these dimensions follows: 1. Basic Economic Convictions--concerns preferences and leanings as to the basic economic order. Within this dimension, the favorable end of the attitude continuum might be associated with such labels as "free enterprise," "laissez fairef'or "conservatism;" the unfavorable end might suggest such terms as "regulation," "socialism," or "communism." 2. Social Responsibility--concerns the general area of the contribution of the business sector to society. Within this dimension, the favorable end of the continuum would suggest the feeling that business has nobly dis- charged its responsibilities to the society which supports it; the unfavorable end would suggest the feeling that it has failed to do so. 3. Ethical Norms--concerns the matter of existent ethical standards in modern business practice. Within 14 this dimension, the favorable end of the continuum denotes the impression that a high level of morality prevails in the business world; the unfavorable end denotes an Oppo- site impression. 4. Business Career--concerns the prestige and status of the career in business. Within this dimension, the favorable end of the attitude continuum would suggest the feeling that the businessman is culturally admired and respected. The unfavorable end would suggest an anti- thetical view of the cultural status of the business career today. 5. Business Education--concerns the matter of the value and calibre of college-level business education. The inclusion of this dimension warrants special expla- nation. The fact that different meanings attach to the word "business" has been dealt with at length. This re- search focuses upon college students and recent college graduates. When the university campus has business students, business faculty, business courses, and a busi- ness building, it is not difficult to imagine that in the aggregate they represent at least one important conno- tation of "business" to the academic community. For many inexperienced students, the stimulus "business" might well evoke this aggregation as a response. Finally, business education in our colleges and universities is an important dimension of the social institution of 15 business. Favorable attitudes within this dimension would suggest a high regard for the goals and activities of our business schools; unfavorable attitudes would suggest an opposite feeling. It is net claimed that the dimensions enumerated are the five most important dimensions of business; nor is it claimed that they each necessarily represent clear- ly separable and bounded aspects of business. It is claimed that: (1) they are important dimensions of busi- ness; (2) they represent factoral categories of the criticisms and comments which run like threads through the literature on attitudes toward business; (3) they are dimensions especially well fitted to the objectives of this study; (4) a composite of all five dimensions permits a meaningful measurement of the state of mind referred to as an "attitude toward business." The second major phase of the research is to learn more than is presently known about the attitudes of college students toward business, and particularly to provide at least one segment of the "detailed, measureable breakdowns of opinion" referred to above. The first group of research subjects consists of a large sample of students at one of the nation's largest state universities. The sample rep- resents four different fields of study (Business, Arts & Letters, Engineering, and Education), as well as all levels from freshman through master's. By administering the test 16 instrument to the sample, an attempt is made to quantify the extent of differences in attitude among students of these different major fields and levels, and to discover whether any correlations exist between such attitudes and certain selected personal variables, such as socio-economic background, grade-point average, and prior work experience. The third major phase of the research is to learn more than is presently known about the attitudes toward business of college graduates in the early stages of assimilation into business careers. The second group of research subjects consists of a sample of college graduates employed by one of the nation's billion-dollar corporations; a firm included among the 50 largest firms in the United States in Fortune magazine's ranking by sales volume. Subjects in this sample represent three of the undergraduate major fields mentioned above (Business, Arts & Letters, and Engineering) and career stages rang- ing from 1 year through 8 years. By administering the same test instrument to the sample, an attempt is made to quantify the extent of differences in attitudes that may be accounted for by differences in college major field backgrounds and differences in length of service, among employees in the typical industrial corporate setting. Of special importance, attitude scores of individuals in the sample are matched against their respective perform— ance ratings on a uniform, company-wide rating scale, in 17 an attempt to determine if the latter correlate to a significant degree with the former. Statement of the Problem An abundance of literature appearing in recent months and years testifies to a widespread interest in the matter of the attitudes of the American people toward the world of business. Yet, there has been a notable lack of scientific inquiry in the general area. Although attitude measurement is a scientifically reputable endeavor, no existing instrument.has been found which will provide some meaningful measurement of an "atti- tude toward business." The first major purpose of the study is to devise such an instrument. Past research has not provided a systematic and detailed study of the attitudes of college students toward business. The second major purpose of the research is to determine how these attitudes may differ across different major fields of study, how they may change during the course of the college career, and how they may be related to such personal variables as socio-economic background, grade-point average, and past work experience. Past research similarly has not yielded scientific insight into the attitudes toward business of college graduates in early stages of assimilation into business careers. The third major purpose of this research is to 18 determine how these attitudes may differ in accordance with differing college backgrounds and career stages among employees of a typical industrial corporation, and how they may be related to employee productivity. The Research Hypotheses A review of the literature related to the scope of the research yields much speculation concerning the nature, causes, and correlates of public attitudes toward business. Many of the conclusions found in the literature are contradictory. Much of the evidence upon which the conclusions are based is far from being scientifically acceptable. Since it is intended that the research provide a basis for confirming or refuting a number of these speculative conclusions, the study is organized around a set of general hypotheses suggested by the relevant literature.1 The following general research hypotheses relate to the college—student sample: 1. There are significant differences in attitude toward business depending upon major field of study. Among the major field groups, Business students have particularly favorable attitudes while Arts & Letters students have particularly unfavorable attitudes. 1See Chapter II for a representative sampling of this literature. 19 Differences in attitude depending upon major field of study will not be significant at the freshman level, but will be significant and increasingly wider at each level from sopho- more through master's. 2. Significant changes in attitude toward business occur during the course of the college career, but the direction of change differs depending upon major field of study. Such changes will tend to be off-setting, and thus differences in attitude will not be detected when class levels are compared in the aggregate. a. As a group, Business students display increas- ingly more favorable attitudes-toward business at each level from freshman through master's. As a group, Arts & Letters students display increasingly less favorable attitudes toward business at each level from freshman through master's. There will be no significant differences in attitude toward business within the Engineer- ing and Education groups to distinguish among the levels from freshman through master's. 3. Significant relationships exist between attitude toward business and certain personal variables. a. An inverse relationship exists between attitude toward business and socio-economic background. As a group, students of lower status background 20 hold the most favorable attitudes; students of higher-status background the least favorable. b. An inverse relationship exists between attitude toward business and grade-point average. As a group, students of lower grade-point average hold the most favorable attitudes; students of higher grade-point average the least favorable. c. A direct relationship exists between attitude toward business and the characteristics of experience and maturity. When these charac- teristics are measured by such factors as age, financial independence, and prior work experi- ence, they will correlate directly with the degree of favorableness of attitude. 4. No significant relationship exists between attitude toward business and occupational plans. As a group, stu- dents intending-to enter business careers do not hold significantly more favorable attitudes than those students intent upon non-business careers. 5. There will be no significant differences in atti- tude among employees of a large industrial enterprise which can be attributed to differing major field back- grounds in college. 6. A direct relationship exists between attitude to- ward business and length of time in the business career. Attitudes become increasingly more favorable as the assimi- lation process continues. 21 7. A direct relationship exists between attitude to- ward business and employee productivity. When employee productivity is measured on a performance rating scale, a positive correlation will exist between the favorableness of the rating and favorableness of attitude. Preliminary Description of the Research MethodOlogy1 Numerous approaches to the quantification of atti- tudes have been developed over the years, primarily in the field of social psychology. Likert scales, Thurstone Equiv- alent Intervals, Guttman scales, and the recent Semantic Differential are some of the best known. None is completely satisfactory. The Likert scale is one of the least complex methods and yet "the technique stands up remarkably well compared to more sephisticated approaches; indeed it yields virtually identical results."2 The technique may be out- lined as follows: 1. For each scale, or dimension of attitude being tested, normally about twenty opinion statements are for- mulated. 2. Statements are classified as "favorable" or "un- favorable" and approximately the same number of each type is used. 1See Chapter III for further details on all phases of the research methodology employed. 2Bernard S. Phillips, Social Research: Strate and Tactics (New York: The Macmillan Co., 1966), p. 2 . 22 3. Five categories of response are listed for each statement: "strongly agree;" "agree;" "undecided;" "dis— agree;" and "strongly disagree." 4. Scores such as 5, 4, 3, 2, and l are assigned to the response categories for favorable items, and reversed for unfavorable. 5. A pre-testing procedure known as "item analysis" is used in constructing the final instrument. A large number of statements--usually twice the number desired for the final scale-—is administered to a fairly large group, reasonably representative of the final sample group to be tested. The highest and lowest scoring subjects within this "judging" group (usually high and low quartiles) pro- vide the criterion groups for the evaluation of each opin- ion statement. The statements which reflect the greater power in discriminating between the two groups are used to construct the final instrument. These procedures were fol- lowed in the construction of the test instrument used in this research, which consists of five attitude scales-- representing each of the attitudinal dimensions specified earlier--each scale being composed of twenty opinion state- ments.1 The final testing instrument of one hundred state- ments is reproduced in Appendix A. 1The Economic Conviction scale was adepted, in com- pleted form, from a well-known and widely-used instrument, "The Minnesota Survey of Opinion." This scale was con- structed by its originators in exactly the same fashion 23 The first stage of the field investigation phase consisted of the administration of the instrument to the college-student sample. The basic objective of the college- student sample design was that it provided the opportunity for comparison of several different major fields and class levels. Therefore, the conceptual basis of the design is that of a stratified sample representing four major fields of study--Business, Arts and Letters, Engineering, and Education--and each level from freshman through master's. Since a great portion of freshman and sophomore students have not yet elected major fields and are classified as "No Preference," this designation was included in the de- sign as an additional "major field" at the freshman and sophomore levels. A paramount concern in this stage of the investiga- tion was to control the environment in which the test would be completed. A mailing procedure was rejected for example, because of the possibility that unknown, extraneous influ- ences might affect a subject's responses during the time interval in which the test was in his possession. The ob- jective was to simulate the control of classroom testing procedures as nearly as possible. The technique ultimately selected may be described as follows: The universe was as described above. For details of its construction, see E. A. Rundquist and R. F. Sletto, Personality in the De- ression (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 9 6 . 24 'represented by the 1967 Michigan State University Student Directory; a publication listing the names, addresses, ma- jor fields, and levels of all students enrolled at the university for the 1967 Fall term. .A random selection of students in the desired categories was conducted.. A total of 930 subjects was selected. Over a three-week period early in the Winter term of 1968, the selected students were invited to appear at various testing sites where the instrument could be completed under the personal super- vision of the researcher. Although a subsequent mail sur— vey was conducted to ascertain certain characteristics of. non-respondents, the findings relating to the college- student sample are based only upon the total number of subjects participating in the testing sessions. The final ' composition of the college-student sample is illustrated in Table l. The test instrument made it possible to generate scores for each of the five sub-scales. In addition, the instrument included a "personal data sheet" to provide the required personal facts pertaining to each respondent. The Michigan State University 3600 computer system was utilized in the analysis of the data collected from‘ the college-student sample. Correlation statistics, F- Ratio significance tests, and Analysis of Variance formulas were all employed in the testing of the research hypotheses, as described fully in a subsequent chapter. 25 Table l.--Final Composition of the College-Student Sample Class Levels Major Fields Fresh. SOph. Jun. Sen. Mstr.‘ Total Business 30 26 32 33 25 146 Arts & Letters 33 30 25 26 21 135 Engineering 30 27 31 23 22 133 Education 21 23 26 18 25 113 No Preference 29 _ 25 X X X 54 Total 143 131 114 100 93 581a aThis represents 63% of the 930 students origi- nally drawn for the survey. However, it would be mis- leading to consider the remaining 37% as true non- respondents. An unknown number were never reached or were not on campus during the time of the survey. For more details, see Chapter IV. The second stage of the field investigation phase consisted of the administration of the test instrument to the college-graduate sample. The basic objective of the college-graduate sample design was that it provided the opportunity for comparison of different major field col- 1ege backgrounds, similar to those in the college-student sample, and different career stages. Therefore, the con- ceptual basis of the design is that of a stratified sample representing the three undergraduate major fields of 26 Business, Arts & Letters, and Engineering,1 and career stages ranging from 1 year through 8 years. For obvious reasons, the control of testing condi- tions could not be maintained in administering the instru- ment to the college-graduate sample.. It was necessary to conduct testing of this group by mail. However, an execu- tive of the subject firm provided the covering letter to accompany the instrument, which unquestionably helped to ensure that the test would be treated seriously and con- sidered conscientiously by each of the subjects. A special retrieval program enabled the subject firm to utilize its data processing equipment in the selec- tion of a random sample of employees possessing the speci- fied characteristics. A total of 200 subjects was selected, and during the month of March, 1968, questionnaires were mailed to each subject. A total of 179 questionnaires were ultimately returned, and Table 2 illustrates the fi- nal composition of the college-graduate sample. Additionally, the subject firm furnished a per- formance rating value for each respondent. The rating is based upon a value assigned annually to every employee of the corporation by his immediate superior, based upon a / uniform five-point rating scale. 1The subject firm does not employ a sufficient number of Education majors to include this as a fourth category. 27 Table 2.--Final Composition of the College-Graduate Sample Undergraduate Career Stage (in years) C°11ege M33°r 1-2 2-3 3-4 Over 431 Total Business 19 7 7 7 40 Arts & Letters 16 21 17 18 72 Engineering 20 16 13 18 67 Total 55 44 37 43 179b aIncludes subjects in 4 to 8 year stage, with aver- age length of service of 5.6 years. bThis represents 89.5% of the 200 subjects origi- nally drawn for the survey. For more details, see Chapter III. Statistical programs on the 3600 computer were used to test the hypotheses relating to the college-graduate sam- ple, in very much the same fashion as has been previously described in connection with the college-student sample. Limitations While this study will go farther than past related efforts in investigating the relationship between attitude toward business and a number of important personal vari- ables, it is nonetheless important that its limitations be recognized: l. The research instrument is composed of five scales,, each of which is designed to measure a particular dimension 28 of attitude toward business. In the final analysis, these dimensions are arbitrary selections of the researcher, and the designation of an "attitude toward business" is based only upon these dimensions of a very complex state of mind. As Thurstone has pointed out, 331 measurement suf— fers the same limitation. 2. There is no reason to believe that the students used as subjects in the study will not be representative of the total pepulation for each major field and college year at Michigan State University, nor that M.S.U. stu- dents are not representative of the great mass of college students at tax-supported institutions throughout the land. Similarly, there is no reason to believe that the college graduates will not be representative of the total pOpula- tion for each major field and career stage at the subject firm, nor that such persons are not representative of college-graduates in the early stages of business careers throughout the American business scene. Thus, it is be- lieved that the findings of the study have wide applica- tion. But neither sample--students at a single school nor employees of a single corporation--is necessaarily an ex- ample of a natural or unselected population, and this fact must be noted in generalizations of the findings. 3. Wherever correlations between attitudes and par- ticular variables may be demonstrated, it does not follow that a cause and effect relationship has been proved. 29 The purpose of the study is to establish the association between attitudes and such variables with greater pre- cision than has been heretofore possible. 4. Subjects in each of the samples chose to pursue certain major fields in college. The choice of a major field may reflect the operation of unknown, unique per- sonality variables. Any conclusion that the college ex- perience is responsible for observed attitude changes, must be tempered by the realization that the changes may be the result of the emergence of latent personality fac- tors. 5. The study is cross-sectional in nature. Subjects grouped according to different class levels and career stages are studied at the same point in time. Where dif- ferences among the groups are detected, there cannot be absolute assurance that the differences would be identical were a single group of subjects to be studied over the time dimension constituted by the levels and stages. Potential Contributions It is hOped that the study will be a meaningful addition to the existing body of knowledge concerning at- titudes and their correlates. Certain specific contribu- tions of both a methodological and a substantive nature are enumerated below. 30 1. An instrument was created for the attitude measure- ment required in the study, since an extended search of the literature disclosed no existing device which would provide a measurement of a person's general attitude toward busi- ness. The instrument makes possible a degree of quantifi- cation in an area thus far characterized only by opinion and surmise. It is possible to envision several potential applications of the instrument beyond its use in this par- ticular study. For example, a university Business Adminis- tration department could administer the device at the be- ginning of an introductory course in business and again at the end, to measure the impact of such a course on stu- dent attitudes; or, in a similar vein, the instrument could be used in longitudinal studies of the attitude changes in students over the duration of a specific college program or over the entire four-year college experience. 2. The analysis of the college-student sample may pro- vide a more precise understanding of college students' at- titudes toward the business sector. It-is hoped that the study will illuminate attitudinal differences as they re- late to important variables such as major field and college year, as well as differences in the component dimensions of the general attitudes toward business of the sample sub-groups. As pointed out by the editor of Marketinngn- sights, if business is to influence students to think more positively about business and business careers, it must 31 first have insight into the depth and nature of unfavorable impressions. Such insight is not only of concern to the businessman, for surely the business educator as well is profoundly concerned with the impact of the college experi- ence upon such impressions. 3. Comparisons of the college-graduate sample with the college-student sample, as well as comparisons of the sub-groups of the college-graduate sample at different career stages, may make possible an appraisal of the po- tency of the business environment in affecting general attitudes toward business. The test of a relationship between general attitude and productivity contributes ad- ditional empirical evidence to the controversial question of a relationship between employee attitudes and employee performance. Definitions of Terms The following are offered as operational definitions of terms used in the research hypotheses and elsewhere in the study. Attitude.--One of the many terms that refers to an aspect of personality involving a persistent mental state of readiness to react to a certain object or class of ob- jects, not as they are, but as they are conceived to be. The term is discussed at greater length in pages 8-11. (See also Values below.) 32 Attitude Toward Business.--A hypothetical construct represented, for purposes of the study, by a subject's gen- eral score on the research instrument. Behavioral Correlates of Attitudes.--Specific acts or patterns of human behavior related to particular atti- tudes. Business.--An inclusive term encompassing all pri— vate trade, commerce, and industry; i.e., the business sec- tor of the economy. Business Career.--Pursuit of profession or occupa- tion in business and industry. Career Stage.--Length of time in career, expressed in years. Class Level.--A student's class standing (freshman, sophomore, junior, senior, or master's) determined by the number of college credits earned to date in accordance with Michigan State University regulations. College Experience.--The four-year college program. College Graduate Sample.--Sample of college grad- uate employees of the Dow Chemical Company. College Population.--A term loosely referring to the segment of the population composed of college students, persons in graduate schools, and recent college graduates; i.e., persons whose attitudes and values might reasonably be expected to reflect the impact of the college experience. 33 College Student Sample.--Samp1e of students at Michigan State University. Employee Productivity.--A measure of the effective- ness of employees in bringing forth, from their efforts, results of the type desired by their employers. Employee Output is nearly a synonomous term, but bears a connotation more closely linked with manual production. For purposes of this study, the measure of emplgyee productivity is a performance-rating value assigned annually to all employees of the firm involved in the study. Experience and Maturity.--A term chosen for conven- ience to encompass three personal variables involved in the study: Age, Prior Work Experience, and Financial Independ- ence. Financial Independence.--One of the personal vari- ables tested in relation to the college student sample. The variable is intended as a measure of the degree of independence from parental support exhibited by respondents in the financing of their college educations. General Score.-—Total score of subject on the re- search instrument, equal to sum of five sub-scale scores. Grade-Point Average.--Cumulative statistic, com- puted according to Michigan State University regulations, indicating student's grade performance in courses to date. Major Field of Study.--A student's chosen area of course concentration in college. For purposes of this 34 study, a student's major field of study will be determined in accordance with the particular school at Michigan State University which administers the student's major subject area. The schools included in the study are Business, Arts & Letters, Engineering, and Education. Opinion.F-A belief that one holds which is capable of verbal expression. Verbal expressions of opinion are considered to be revelations of attitudes and values. Prior Work Experience.--One of the personal vari- ables tested in relation to the college student sample. 'Due to the problem of incomparability of varying types of work backgrounds, prior work experience was treated as a perceptual variable. That is, respondents were asked to describe the extent of their pgior work experience on a five-point scale. Socio-Economic Background.--One of the personal variables tested in relation to the college student sample. The variable was intended as a measure of the socio-eco- nomic class standing of the respondent's family. Re- spondents were asked to indicate their father's occupa- tion, which was used as the basis for classifying each respondent along a scale from 1 (highest) to 7 (low— est). The scale is based upon the Revised Occupational Rating Scale of W. L. Warner, et a1.1 1W. L. Warner, M. Meeker, and K. Eells, Social Class in America (Chicago: Science Research Associates, 1949), pp. 121-59 (Rating table is on pp. 140-1). It is 35 Subject Firm.--The Dow Chemical Company. Vgipe.-—An abstract concept, often merely implicit, which defines for an individual the degree of worth as- cribed to an object or activity, or class thereof. Values are of the same character as attitudes, but suggest the operation of a more definite judgement factor. (See also Attitudes above.) Organization of the Report: A Preview of Subsequent Chapgers The following paragraphs will provide an idea of the manner in which the material constituting this study is presented in the chapters that follow. Chapter II is entitled CONCEPTUAL FOUNDATIONS: A REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE. This chapter reviews the rele- vant literature in each of four general areas.) These areas are identified as the "building blocks" which provide the necessary underpinnings of this study. Chapter III is entitled RESEARCH DESIGN. This chap- ter offers complete details on the methodology employed in of course recognized that occupation is but one measure of socio—economic class standing, but there is ample evidence to suggest that it is the key measure. For example, Kahl and Davis in "A Comparison of Indexes of Socio-Economic Status," American Sociological Review, XX (June, 1955), 317-25, conclude thatlff . . our data agree with Warner's that occupation (as he measures it) is the best predictor of either social participation or the whole socioeconomic cluster represented by the general factor identified by factor analysis." (p. 323). 36 this study. The various steps in the construction of the research instrument are described. A full explanation of the selection of both the college-student and college- graduate samples is provided. Finally, a step-by-step de- scription of the data collection procedures is included. Chapter IV is entitled FINDINGS. The research hy— potheses are re-stated in this chapter, and an explanation of the statistical techniques employed in testing the hy- potheses is provided. A complete presentation is made of the results of the analysis of the data from each of the field research stages. Chapter V is entitled CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS. This chapter attempts a summary of the study, and presents the conclusions of the author based upon the analysis of the data. The chapter also discusses the implications of the findings, and offers some suggestions for future re- search undertakings. APPENDICES at the end of the report contain a sample of the final research instrument; reproductions of the data collection materials; discriminatory power rankings of the opinion statements used in the pre-test; and explanations of the procedures and formulas underlying the statistical analysis. CHAPTER II CONCEPTUAL FOUNDATIONS: A REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE Introduction In Chapter II an effort is made to establish the con- ceptual foundations of the study by reviewing a representa- tive portion of the literature pertaining to four general areas. Figure 1 illustrates the "building blocks" of past research which-form the underpinnings of the investigation. Each of these "blocks" constitutes a major section of Chap- ter II. Social and Professional Dimensions of the Image of Business: A Study of the Attitudes of College Student and Recent College Graduates Representing Selected Major Fields of Study STUDIES OF THE BEHAVIORAL CORRELATE OF EMPLOYEE ATTITUDES [STUDIES OF ATTITUDES TOWARD BUSINESSI GENERAL STUDIES OF THE ATTITUDES AND VALUES OF'COLLEGE STUDENTS ~THEORY AND TECHNIQUES OF ATTITUDE MEASUREMENT I Fig. 1. Foundations of the Research 37 38 The literature pertaining to the theory and techniques of attitude measurement establishes the scien- tific authenticity of attitude measurement, and the consid- erations which led to the adoption of the Likert technique as the one best suited to the purposes of this study. Past research on the attitudes and values of col- lege students provides insight into what is already known (or thought to be known) about the differences and similar- ities among sub-groups of college students, and about the effects of the college experience on attitudes and values. This literature provides an important part of the bases for the research hypotheses. A review of past studies of attitudes toward busi- ness reveals how much controversy exists over what college students really think about business, and how little hard evidence is available to provide answers. The literature: in this area is also an important basis for the research- hypotheses, and in addition was the source for many of the opinion statements used in the construction of the research instrument. Finally, a review of past studies of the behavioral correlates of employee attitudes sets the proper basis for the study of the college-graduate sample, and especially the key inquiry into the possibility of a relationship between general attitude toward business and employee productivity. 39 Theory and Techniques of Attitude Measurement The question of whether it is possible to develop meaningful quantitative measurements of the attitudes of individuals has occupied the attention of many social scientists in recent decades. The available literature on the subject is extensive. The following paragraphs discuss some of the more significant contributions to the literature pertaining to, first, general summaries of the attitude research field; second, the various techniques of attitude measurement; third, comparisons of the methods. General Summaries of the Field A number of general summarizations of the entire field of attitude research are presently available. In~ general, the summarizations provide a discussion of the logical bases of attitude measurement and brief explana- tions of the prominent attitude scaling techniques. T. M. Newcomb discusses "social attitudes and their measurement" in the 1937 article.1 In 1939, E. Nelson provided a three-part review of the attitude research field, covering the nature and development of attitudes in general, social attitudes in particular, and the 1T. M. Newcomb, "Social Attitudes and Their Measurement," in Experimental Social Psychology, rev. ed. edited by G. Murphy, et al., TNew York: Harper's, 1937), pp. 912-1046. 40 measurement of attitudes.1 A 1946 article authored by Quinn McNemar offers a comprehensive, and notably critical,_ review of opinion-attitude methodology.2 D. T. Campbell reviews the literature pertaining to the indirect assess- ment of social attitudes in a 1950 contribution.3 B. F. Green offers a cogent review of the field in Lindzey's Handbook of Social Psychology, published in 1954.4 An especially complete bibliography is part of his contribu- tion. J. P. Guilford, in the second edition (1954) of his Psychometric Methods, furnishes extensive, evaluative 5 treatment of the various scaling methods. Among books offering comprehensive coverage of the field, Allen L. Edwards' Techniques of Attitude Scale Construction is certainly one of the best known references.6 j 1E. Nelson, "Attitudes: I. Their Nature and Devel- opment. II. Social Attitudes. III. Their Measurement." Journal of General Psychology, XXI (1939), 367-99, 401—16, ZQUinn McNemar, "Opinion-Attitude Methodology," Psychological Bulletin, XLIII (1946), 289-374. 3D. T. Campbell, "The Indirect Assessment of Social Attitudes," Psychological Bulletin, XLVII (1950), 15-38. 4B. F. Green, "Attitude Measurement," in Handbook of Social Psycholo , ed. G. Lindzey (Cambridge, Mass.: Addison-Weéley PuBI. Co., Inc., 1954), 335-69. 5J. P. Guilford, Psychometric Methods (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1954). 6Allen L. Edwards, Techniques of Attitude Scale Construction (New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, I957). 41 The author presents the theoretical bases for the leading- methods of scaling, plus detailed discussions of their practical implementations. This is an indispensible refer— ence for the researcher who is undertaking some form of attitude measurement. Perhaps the most recent book on the subject is Scales for the Measurement of Attitudes, by Shaw and Wright.1 Although somewhat cursory in its treat- ment of theory, this reference source is an attempt to pull together in one place all of the attitude scales on specific subjects which have been used in behavioral research over the years. The Prominent Techniques Edwards, in Techniques, visualizes two general cate- gories of attitude measurement techniques. The first of the general categories includes the methods requiring the use of a panel of judges in determining the degree of favorableness or unfavorableness of the items or statements making up a scale. All such methods, according to Green,2 are variants of a method originated by Thurstone and elaborated upon fully by Thurstone and Chave in 1929.3 1M. E. Shaw and J. Wright, Scales for the Measure- ment of Attitudes (New York: McGraw—Hill, 1967). 2Green, op. cit., p. 341. 3L. L. Thurstone and E. J. Chave, The Measurement of Attitudes (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1929). 42 It is not uncommon to see any of the variants labelled as "Thurstone scales." The specific technique of equal-appearing~intervals is representative of methods belonging in this category. In this technique, a panel of judges considered to possess expert judgement in the subject of the attitude scale is selected. A large batch of opinion statements bearing upon the subject is presented individually to each judge, where- upon the judge sorts these statements into a fixed number of categories (usually 7, 9, or 11), scaled in order of favorableness. The intent is that the category intervals will be subjectively equal in distance, hence the name given this method.1 By using some measure such as the median of the judges' scale values, each item can be given a scoring value. Subjects can then be scored on the basis of their endorsement or rejection of the opinion statements used. Edwards' second general category includes the methods which dispense with the need of a panel of experts as judges. Two prominent techniques in this category are the Likert scale and the Guttman-scale. 1Much has been written on the subject of whether this is ever possible, as well as on the related question of the effect of judges' biases on the scaling. See K. Hevner, "An Empirical Study of Three Psycho-Physical Methods," Journal of General Ps cholo , IV (1930), 191- 212, on the flrst point; J. A. FisHman and I. Lorge, "The Influence of Judges' Characteristics on Item Judgements," Journal of Social Psychology, XLIX (1959), 187-205 on the second point. 43 The steps involved in the construction of a Likert scale (also known as the method of summated-rating) have already been outlined on page 19.1 In contrast to the method of equal-appearing intervals, Likert scale items need only monotonically measure points along an attitude continuum; i.e., no claim is made about the size of the' intervals between different response categories. The Guttman scale (also known as scalogram analysis) is an elegant and complex technique designed to eliminate two of the major limitations of all other techniques: locating the point of neutral attitude on the continuum, and establishing definite unidimensionality.2 Guttman 1The original source for this technique is R. Likert, "A Technique for the Measurement of Attitudes," ArchiVes of Psychology, No. 140 (1932). 2E. A. Suchman and L. Guttman, "A Solution to the Problem of Question Bias," Public Opinion Quarterly, Fall, 1947, 445-55. Also reported in detail in S. A. Stouffer et al., Measurement and Prediction (Princeton: Princeton UHiVErsity Press, 1950T. Critics dispute the achievement of these goals; see J. P. Guilford's comments on page 46. Also, proponents of the Likert scale technique argue that it too produces unidimensionality. Their argument is based upon the theory that the general factor being measured is present in every item on the Likert scale, whereas unintended factors occur at random. Thus, where there are twenty items on a scale, the effects of the general factor are said to accumulate very fast, while the effects of unique factors cumulate more slowly and often cancel out. For a full discussion on this point, including mathematical models, see Green, 22. g£E., p. 352. Hula QI 44 scales have a cumulative property; i.e., a person is ex- pected to agree with the fifth item on the scale only if he agrees with the preceding four. This is the feature which, through somewhat laborius construction procedures, is intended to assure unidimensionality. The position of neutrality of attitude on the Guttman scale is determined by securing an "intensity rating" from each respondent on every scale item; i.e., some variant of the question "how strongly do you feel about this?" is asked. Compu- tational procedures, involving both the original scale values and the intensity scores, yield a U- or J-shaped curve, the low point of which is considered to indicate the point of division between positive and negative attitudes. The Semantic Differential is a recently developed technique certainly deserving of mention, although it does not fit conveniently into either of Edwards' general categories.1 In this method, subjects are required to rate a given concept on a numbered scale between two polar adjectives. Thus, the concept "communism" might be judged according to such paired adjectives as "good-bad," "strong- weak," and "active-passive." In this fashion, it becomes possible-to develop an individual's "semantic profile" of a given concept. One application of the technique would *— 9‘ L 1C. E. Osgood, G. J. Suci, and P. H. Tannenbaum, She Measurement ofMeaning (Urbana, 111.: University of Illinois Press, 1957). 45 be to average the ratings of members of each of several groups, in order to compare the group semantic profiles of a particular concept. The object of the Semantic Differential approach is to get at the underlying meanings of concepts to individuals, and it probably occupies a position tangential to attitude 1 measurement per gs. Comparisons of the Techniques As indicated in several footnotes in the preceding section, none of the prominent techniques has remained free from criticism. As a consequence, much of the literature is occupied with comparisons of the efficacies of the var- ious approaches. B. L. Riker compares the Likert and Thurstone meth- ods in a 1944 article, and concludes that they yield sub- stantially the same results and that the Likert.scale is to be preferred because it is easier to deal with.2 Edwards and Kenney reach the same conclusion after conducting 1Critics of the Semantic Differential have pointed to the reluctance of respondents to take the more extreme posi- tions on the scale, thus lessening the desired sensitivity. It will be recognized that the same criticism would apply to several of the other methods as well. The point is discussed fully in W. A. Mindak, "Fitting the Semantic Differential to the Marketing Problem," Journal of Marketing, XXV (April, 1961), 3l. 2B. L. Riker, "A Comparison of Methods Used in Atti- tude Research," Journal of Abnormal Social Psychology, XXXIX (1944), 24-42. 46 experiments involving these two methods.1 The authors add that the Likert approach was found to yield slightly great— er reliability, and that in their Opinion the use of judging groups is not necessary in attitude measurement. Still an- other comparison test of the Likert and Thurstone methods is reported by Barclay and Weaver, who state that "the Likert scales . . . exhibit-a very significantly higher degree of reliability (r = .97) than do the Thurstone scales (r = .66)."2 J. P. Guilford presents extensive material relating to comparisons of the various methods in Psychometric Methods. He summarizes his thinking on Guttman scales in the following manner: The critics of this method have been many. . . . There is much agreement on some of the criticisms. For example, it is pointed out that the criterion of scalability is rarely achieved, even where total scores reach an accept- able-level of reliability. The criterion is variously described as 'unrealistic,‘ 'useless,‘ and even 'harm- ful.‘ . . . The point of minimum intensity score is taken as the indifference point. 98 indicated before, this is not very accurately located. 1A. L. Edwards and K. C. Kenney, "A Comparison of the Thurstone and Likert Techniques of Attitude Scale Construction," Journal of Applied Psychology, XXX (1946), 24-42 0 2J. E. Barclay and H. B. Weaver, "Comparative Relia- bilities and Ease of Construction of Thurstone and Likert Attitude Scales," Journal of Social Psychology, LVIII (l962), 109-20. 3Guilford, op, cit., p. 461. 47 Guilford's recommendations take the following form: . . . It would appear that the choice of a method to use for the development of an attitude scale lies between the Thurstone and Likert procedures. Which of theselshould be used depends on what kind of score we want. It isevident that comparisons of the various methods of attitude measurement are imperfect, and that far from enough empirical evidence has been gathered to make defini- tive statements about the efficacy of one technique over an- other. Still, some reasonable inferences can be made on the basis of the available literature: 1. The Semantic Differential is not strictly a quan- titative attitude measurement technique, and its results re- quire a fair degree of qualitative, interpretative judgement. 2. The Guttman procedure is a more.ambitious endeav- or than either the Likert or Thurstone techniques, but commen- surate with its greater complexity is a greater controversy over the authenticity of its products. 3. The Likert and Thurstone approaches have been the most widely used of the attitude measurement techniques. In choosing between the two, a strong case can be made in favor of the Likert scale on the grounds of: (l) evidence pointing to a somewhat greater reliability; and (2) a markedly greater ease of construction and administration. Ibid. 48 General Studies of the Attitudes and Values of College Students An Overview The college student population of the United States has been a frequent object of behavioral science research. Much of this research has concerned the impact of the col— lege experience On student attitudes and values. Gener- ally, such studies of the attitudes and values of college students begin to appear in the literature in the mid and late nineteen thirties. One major portion of the research has been cross— sectional in nature. Studies of this type attempt to ap- praise differences between the college population and the general population, or differences among various sub- groupings of the college population itself. Groupings of the latter type might be made on the basis of major field of study, level, or personal attributes or characteristics. The hallmark of all studies in-the cross-sectional cate- gory is that all observations and measurements are made at the same point in time. The other major portion of the research has been longitudinal in nature. These studies have focused upon the changes in attitudes and values associated with the college experience. The hallmark of all studies in the longitudinal category is that, in one way or another, they investigate the same population sample(s) over a time interval. 49 The "Jacob Report" of 1957 is an outstanding synthesis of the significant studies of the attitudes and 1 While values of college students made prior to 1957. some of this investigator's conclusions based upon his' exhaustive review of the literature have been challenged by other authorities, the extremely well-structured and complete annotated bibliography which forms the last sec- tion of the report is an indispensible research guide. A more recent overview of the entire field is provided by Robinson in a 1963 paper.2 Following a brief review of important student attitude studies in this cen- tury, the author discusses trends in current research. He sees present efforts as veering away from studies of attitudes and values pg£_§§, and toward studies of the underlying personality tendencies and traits that affect attitudes and values. Prominent examples of research of both of the major types described above are discussed in the following sections. Such past research efforts provide an important basis for some of the hypotheses in the study, because they suggest the extent to which differences in attitude may be expected when students are grouped according to 1P. E. Jacob, Changing Values in College (New York: Harper & Bros., 1957). 2D. W. Robinson,."Student Values--Methods of Ap- praisal and Some Implications," Liberal Education, (May,‘ 1963), 221-43. 50 such dimensions as major field of study, class level, and personal variables. Studies Predominantly Cross- Sectional in Nature A 1938 paper by Nelson is an illustration of one of the earliest studies of the cross-sectional type.l After studying freshmen, sophomores, juniors, and seniors at eighteen colleges and universities, he reaches the con- clusions that: (1) freshmen are more homogeneous in attitudes than seniors; (2) on the average, freshmen are more conservative in their views; and (3) freshmen are more favorable toward religion and more likely to be church- goers. A well-known study by Newcomb made its appearance in 1943.2 Intended as "a study of attitude formation in a student community," this study is limited to the all- female student population of Bennington College. Among the various test instruments administered to this student body was the Allport-Vernon Study of Values. One of the researcher's principal conclusions is that there are sig- nificant differences in values among the various major field student groupings. 1E. N. P. Nelson, Radicalism-Conservatism in Student Attitudes. (Washington: American Psychological Association, l9§§). Pyschological Monographs No. 4. 2T. M. Newcomb, Personality and Social Change (New York: Dryden Press, 1943). 51 A 1955 study by Carl Sternberg, while not strictly an investigation of attitudes and values, nevertheless is a highly significant contribution to the knowledge of major field differences.1 Sternberg studied two-hundred- seventy students at an Eastern metropolitan college, representing ten major fields. He administered instruments designed to measure interests, values, and maladjustment tendencies, in an effort to develop "profiles" of the dif- ferent major field groups. Employing factor analysis, Sternberg was able to differentiate among the groups accord- ing to such factors as "aestheticism versus practicality;" "go-getter versus passive aesthete;" and, "quantitative detail versus social welfare." His general conclusion is that: Each sub-group may be said to exhibit a pattern of traits which is different from the patterns character- istic of all other sub-groups in the study population. . . . The differences may be seen most clearly when students in different areas of study - humanities and fine arts, social sciences, 'humane sciences,‘ and physical sciences and mathematics - are compared.2 A study closely related to the Sternberg research is reported by Bendig and Stillman in a 1958 article.3 These investigators studied differences in job incentive lC. Sternberg, Personality Trait Patterns 9; 99;- lege Students Majorin in Different Fields (Washington: American Psychologicai Association, 1955). Psychological Monographs No. 403. 21bid., pp. 14-15. 3A. W. Bendig and E. L. Stillman, "Curricular Dif- ferences in Job Incentive Dimension Among College Students," Journal of Education Psychology, XXXI (June, 1958), 121-36. 52 attitudes among college students in eleven major fields. It is their finding that significant differences do exist among the major field groups. Generating dimensions by factor analysis, they report that on a "masculinity" factor Business Administration and Engineering students rated high, while Education students rated low; on a "tender-minded social service versus tough-minded prac- ticality" factor, these positions were virtually reversed; and on a "science and technology interest" factor, Engir neering students rated predictably high, while Business and Education majors rated low.1 In 1959, a preliminary report was released on one .of the most thorough college student studies yet made--the Lehmann-Dressel study of the 1958 freshman class at Michi- gan State University.2 Nearly three thousand entering freshman students were tested for: (l) attitudes of stereotypy; (2) dogmatism; (3) traditional versus emergent value orientation; and (4) critical thinking ability. The investigators found that significant differences mark off each of the major field groups in terms of each one of . 1Arts and Letters, as such, was not one of the major fields included in the study. 2This-was incorporated in a final report published in 1962: I. J. Lehmann and P. L. Dressel, Critical Thinkin , Attitude§L_and Values in Hi her Education (East Lansing: Michigan State University, 962). Since ulti- mately this was a longitudinal study, additional details' are presented in the next section. 53 these measures. Moreover, they report that significant differences exist on the first three measures when students are grouped according to size of home community--students from a rural background displaying the greatest degrees of stereotypy, dogmatism, and traditional value orienta- tion. Similar results are reported for student groupings on the basis of socio-economic background--with students from the lower categories displaying the same characteris- tics as those from the rural home community. The studies cited thus far suggest a notable het- erogeniety in college student populations. Lest it appear that all investigators are agreed upon this point, mention should be made of the conclusions reached by Jacob sub- sequent to his analysis of the research literature up to 1957.1 He states: For the most part, the values and outlook of students do not vary greatly whether they have pursued a con- ventional liberal arts program, an integrated general education curriculum, or one of the strictly profes- sional-vocational options. . . . Nor is there a sleeper effect. The alumnus of several years exhibits no un- usual trademarks identifying the character of his undergraduate curriculum. Jacob sees a "remarkable homogeniety" among college stu- dents, considering the variety they represent in social, 1Jacob, loc. cit. 21bido ' pp. 5-6. 54 economic, ethnic, racial, and religious background. It is his opinion that: The main overall effect of higher education upon stu- dent values is to bring about general acceptance of a body of standards and attitudes characteristic of college-bred men and women in the American community. There is more homogeniety and greater consistency of values among students at the end of their four years than when they begin. . . . The 'typical' college graduate is a cultural rubber-stamp for the social heritage as it-stands rather than the instigator of 1 new patterns of thought and new standards of conduct. Pierson, analyzing the education of American busi- nessmen in 1959, arrived at a similar conclusion concern- ing the inability to differentiate among students in different major fields. He makes the following statement: . . . It should be recognized at the outset that there is comparatively little known about the interests, motivations, and learning capacities or processes of college students, particularly when grouped by pro- grams of major study, so these are not matters which can be discussed with much assurance. This comment . . . holds with special force for undergraduates, and even general graduate students, in broad, vaguely defined areas like business administration and the liberal arts.2 The "Cornell Values Study," a project undertaken by researchers at Cornell University on a Carnegie Corpo- ration grant, probably is the most comprehensive investi- gation of the attitudes and values of American students thus far attempted. The study has provided the basis for lIbid., p. 4. 2F. C. Pierson, The Education of American Business- men (New York: McGraw-HiII Publ. Co., 1959). 55 several books and numerous articles. A general summary of the project is available in What College Students Think, by Goldsen, et al., published in 1960.1 The main body of data in the Cornell research was derived from the adminis- tration of a lengthly questionnaire to approximately five thousand students, representing a cross-section of male undergraduates at eleven universities--U.C.L.A., Cornell, Dartmouth, Fisk, Harvard, Michigan, North Carolina, Texas, Wayne, Wesleyan, and Yale. Some of the value dimensions included in this study are human nature, family, political and economic philosophy, race, civic obligations, religion, and life satisfactions. One of the most significant con- clusions of the study is that value patterns within these dimensions do not differ among the groups of students in different major fields; this was found to be true within each school as well as across all eleven. On the other hand, the research shows that there are significant dif- ferences among major field groups on the question of the main purpose of a college education. While "provide basis for general appreciation of ideas" ranked first among stu- dents in the arts and humanities, "provide vocational training" ranked first among students in the professional curriculums. Additionally, the study concludes that stu- dents move away from the latter position and toward the 1R. K. Goldsen, et al., What College Students Think (Princeton: D. VanNostrand Co., Inc., 1960 . 56 former as they progress through school, and that the voca- tional objective is strongest among students from the lower socio-economic categories. Studies Predominantly Longi- tudinal in Nature Certain of the cross-sectional studies described above have studied students at different levels in college, with the aim of discovering how attitude and value patterns may differ at each level. Longitudinal studies are ad- dressed to the same basic question, but use a different approach: the study of the g3mg_group of students over a time interval. These studies are focused upon the changes that occur in attitudes and values as students progress through college. One of the earliest of the longitudinal studies is one reported by Jones in 1938.1 Jones studied the attitudes of students in two college classes over a four-year period. His focus was upon four attitudinal objects: war, race, religion, and church. He observed significant changes in attitudes toward all but the second of these objects, and concluded that student attitudes move discernibly away from the conservative and toward the liberal as they progress through college. 1V. Jones, "Attitudes of College Students and the Changes in Such Attitudes During Four Years in College," Journal of Educational ngchology, XXIX (1938), 213-26. 57 Similar results were reported by Arsenian in 1943, following his four-year study of male students at Spring- field College.l Focusing on religious attitudes, Arsenian found that marked changes occurred over the four-year dura- tion of the college career, but that the extent and direc- tion of change depended upon major field of study. A 1958 paper by Webster reports upon the work of the Mary Conover Mellon Foundation project, which studied changes in the attitudes and values of women college stu- dents over a lengthly period.2 Webster makes these com- ments: Data support some previous findings that there are substantial changes in attitude during college, and that the attitudes expressed will vary with age, sex, and culture. . . . Reports are interpreted as support- ing those personality theories which emphasize increas- ing complexity, differentiation, ability, and inde- pendence during late adolescence; they do not support the view that college students become more alike in their general attitudes whil attending college.3 Undoubtedly, the previously cited Lehmann-Dressel study constitutes the most exhaustive attempt to measure intellective and attitudinal changes during the four-year college experience. These researchers administered their instruments to the entire entering freshman class at lS. Arsenian, "Changes in Evaluative Attitude," Journal of Applied Psychology, XXVII (1943), 338-49. 2H. Webster, "Changes in Attitudes During College," Journal of Educational Psychology, IL (1958), 109-17. 31bid., p. 116. 58 Michigan State University in 1958; to random samples of the same class at sophomore and junior levels; and to the entire remaining class population at the senior level. Among the conclusions reached are the following: In nearly all instances, there was a significant im— provement in critical thinking-ability, a lessening of stereotypic beliefs, and a movement away from the tra— ditional—value'orientation-in each of the freshman, Sophomore, junior, and senior years. Although the changes from-the freshman to senior year are statistically significant, the data suggest that the major changes take place sometime during-the first two years of college. In-fact, the changes in critical thinking ability and value orientation are of greatest magnitude in the freshman year. Before the junior year, courses and instructors were rarely mentioned as having marked impact upon student attitudes and values. From the junior year on, however, the formal, academic experiences (especially courses and instructors in the students' major) began to assume increased importance. An Appraisal The most obvious conclusion to be reached after a review of the literature relating to studies of the atti- tudes and values of college students, is that the research is inconclusive. When students are grouped according to major field of study, are there significant attitudinal differences among the groups? Do the attitudes and values of college students change as they progress through college? The author would interpret the weight of evidence as favor- ing affirmative answers to each of the stated questions. 1Lehmann and Dressel, op. cit., pp. 265-9. 59 The hypotheses around which the study is organized reflect such an interpretation. But it should be recognized that the literature reflects disagreement; perhaps to a greater extent upon the first of the stated questions than upon the second. Studies of Attitudes Toward Business An Overview There is a considerable, and growing, volume of literature pertaining to the attitudes of the American people toward business. Much--perhaps most--of the lit- erature concerns what will be referred to here as the "college population;" a group composed of the college students of America as well as very recent college gradu- ates. The latter fact is undoubtedly owed to a recognition of the extremely influential role of the college population: as "opinion leaders" in our society. Upon examination, the great mass of literature breaks down loosely into two cate- gories, while a very small amount falls into a third.- The first of the major categories is composed of the type of studies usually referred to as "opinion polls." The category includes projects wherein population samples of varying sizes have been quizzed as to their feelings about specific issues related to business. By generalizing the findings to the college population as a whole, it be- comes possible to make such statements as "X% favor more 60 government regulation of business," "Y% feel that business has not lived up to its social responsibilities," and so forth. Such undertakings are analogous to the pre-election polls which-attempt to gauge the public mood on vital issues of the day. The second of the major categories is composed of articles, speeches, and pronouncements by various persons --mostly business leaders--who feel especially qualified to interpret the mood of the college population on issues which involve business. The qualifications of such per- sons may be rooted in experience, such as campus job re— cruiting, or in dialogues of one sort or another with students and graduates. The conclusions of such authori- tative spokesmen not infrequently are diametrically opposite. The thirdcategory, into which but a small share of the literature falls, might be labelled as scientific research. None of the literature in the two major cate- gories could be termed "scientific research" in any rea- sonable definitiOn of the term. With no attempt at rigidity, the last category could be said to include re- search where problems were identified, hypotheses for- mulated, and a reasonably thorough methodology devised to test the hypotheses. A representative sampling of the literature in each of the three categories is discussed in the following 61 sections. The discussion is limited to contemporary examples; i.e., contributions pertaining to the present college population. It is the very fact that this literature is so replete with contradiction and uncertainty that provides another important foundation for the study; because it suggests-how-little we really know about the attitudes of the college population toward business. The Opinion Polls The opinion poll undertaken by Louis Harris & Associates in 1966 for Newsweek magazine remains-as a controversial source of much discussion.1 The pollsters interviewed some two thousand Americans "in all income brackets and walks of life." Interpreting the results, Newsweek submits that, while Americans respect the accom- plishments of the business sector, they harbor ambivalent feelings toward business. The poll included a sub-survey of eight-hundred college students, and this group was found to be especially critical toward business. Accord- ing to Newsweek, students rank careers in government and education far above careers in business, on the measure of prestige. Seventy-four percent of the students felt that the business world is aptly described by the phrase "dog 1Speak Now . . . A Newsweek Report. 62 eat dog;" sixty-four percent agreed that business cares too little about the individual; fifty-nine percent be- lieved that business-has failed in its responsibilities to technologically—displaced workers; fifty—three percent felt that business has failed to help the Negro with bet- ter job opportunities. Newsweek believes that the poll clearly demonstrates a demand by students that business move on from a mere profit-making goal to a new and broader set of social goals. They describe it as "a clear and cogent mandate." Some of the findings of Norton-Taylor's interviews with the Harvard class of 1966, pertaining to rejection of business careers, have already been mentioned in Chap- ter I. Among the additional conclusions reached in this report are the following: Anti—business feelings are strong now, but also growing; and, the lower a man's standing in his college class, the more apt he is to choose a career in business. A very recent and comprehensive survey by the Re- search Institute of America embraced some fiveethousand students on a dozen American campuses. The Institute's report, released in 1967, begins with these words: Never have the young been so publicly studied, analyzed, reported and 'explained' - and never has so much fiction been spun out of so little fact. . . . Business, par- ’ ticularly has been surprisingly ready to accept the exaggerations and distortions that stem from two 63 sources: an aiticulate minority and a sensation- seeking press. The RIA report reaches a conclusion very different from that of the Harris poll: Widely considered antagonistic toward business, col- lege students are actually more critical of government and education; rate business first as a career choice. When asked the question "where do you see the most promising opportunities for yourself, in terms of your own personal fulfillment?" business scored first, being chosen by twenty-four percent of the RIA sample; politics and government rated only fifth, with eight percent; education scored a lowly seventh, with only four percent. Where questions asked by RIA seem to show some nega- tivism, the Institute's interpretation is that they actually reveal an "enormous ignorance" about business rather than criticism and disapproval. RIA points to the question, "do you think that U.S. business, as a whole, is concerned with social problems?" On1y twenty-two percent of the sample said "yes," but at the same time only twenty-seven percent said ”no." The remaining fifty-one percent chose "not sure." Thus, at several points in the report, the Insti- tute stresses its conviction that the real problem between the generations comes down to a "misinformation-gap." 1Research Institute of America, The Youn er Genera- tion--An RIA §urveyof College Students. Staff report of the Research Institute 0 America, dated September 25, 1967. 64 Expert Opinions The number of "experts” proffering their opinions as to the opinions of the college population has become so vast that it is practical to provide only a small sampling here. L. A. Appley, President of the American Manage- ment Association, states in a 1963 paper that the very nature of our social environment makes inevitable the poor attitudes of young peOple toward business.1 He points out that with the majority of American college students now in tax-supported schools, the average academician has become openly hostile toward the business community since he no longer views the latter as his source of support. Appley stresses that the young man educated in a school respecting business leaders, turns out quite differently than one educated in a school which ridicules them. J. L. Munschauer, Director of Placement at Cornell University, admonishes business in a 1966 article that it is "wasting its time" going after the scholar.2 This per- son, says Munschauer, is searching for "beauty" and "truth" and business will just never be perceived as fitting such idealistic ends. Business should, he argues, concentrate 1L. A. Appley, "Alternative: More Non-Economic Motivations or Indigent Mediocrity," Journal of College Placement, XXIV (December, 1963), 108-18. 2J. L. Munschauer, "Big Question: Why is Business Losing the Bright Ones," Journal of Coll_ge Placement XXVI (April, 1966), 22- 5. 65 on the "bright youngster with entrepreneurial bent or talent in the applied sciences." Such a person has no fundamental hostility toward business, but nonetheless is tending today to eschew a business career in favor of fields such as government and education. As Munschauer sees it, the problem is essentially one of communication in that business has failed to project an image of "fas- cinating challenge" as have the other fields. L. A. Kimpton, Vice-President of Standard Oil of Indiana, warned in a 1966 speech that business is probably taking the extremists too seriously.1 He feels that their rantings against business mostly represent publicity- seeking. Kimpton does, however, acknowledge a widespread indifference to business among young people. He attributes the indifference largely to the unfair portrayals of busi- ness and businessmen in our cultural media, as well as to the "shockingly poor" teaching of business and economics in our lower schools. Harry G. Taylor, a recruitment officer of Humble Oil and Refining, feels that business has a problem of "some magnitude" with its image oncampus.2 However, the 1L. A. Kimpton, "Unrest on the Campus: Business Careers," Vital Speeches, XXXII (March 1, 1966), 302-5. 2H. G. Taylor, "Campus Image of Business," Dun's Review, XC (November, 1966), 21-8. 66 general tone of an article he authored in 1966 is that the available evidence fails to identify the scope and loca- tion of the problem, and that the entire situation may well be greatly exaggerated. R. D. Clark, President of San Jose State College, agrees in'a 1967 piece that there may be~a gross exaggera- tion of student hostility toward business. He-states that: The assembly of student testimony is a collage, not an- empirical study. The journalists have taken bright and colorful statements and pasted them together to make an abstraction entitled 'Business is for the Birds.‘ The youngsters quoted are highly verbal. They delight in tormenting the Establishment. But . . . we-must do better than~Henny-Penny in collect- ing evidence before we conclude that the sky is fall- ing down. Discounting the exaggerations, Clark still admits to a probable disaffection with business on the part of today's youth. He diagnoses the causes of such disaffection to be twofold: (l) the failure of businessmen and educators alike to dispel the belief that business is dull and routine; (2) the actual failure of business to try hard enough to solve the problems it has created through its own actions. J. Clark and L. E. Saline, both college recruiters at General Electric..question the validity of the opinion polls on student attitudes toward business.2 They believe 1R. D. Clark, "Bearded Youth and Stereotyped Gray Flannel," Financial Executive, XXXV (March, 1967), 42-9. 2J. Clark and L. E. Saline, "College Students and Business," Challenge, XV (July 8, 1967), 22-8. 67 that often the questions used have been "loaded" against business. Their experiences have convinced them that while Liberal Arts students do seem to rally around the criticisms of business, students in-most of the other disciplines are not at all antagonistic. They report, for example, their finding that Engineering and Science students think big business is"great." Clark and Saline opine that people jumped to an unwarranted conclusion-in believing that college students generally are hostile to the business world. Scientific Research The author has been unsuccessful in locating any general study of the attitudes of college students toward business, which would meet the definition of scientific research in any reasonable definition of that term. Studies of a scientific nature have been made, however, on specific topics closely related to such a general study._.Two such studies will be discussed. Qccupatigns and Values, published in 1957 by M. Rosenberg EE_E$3' reports upon a special sub-study of the Cornell Values Study previously described in these pages.1 The sub-study is described by the authors as a study of decision-making, decision-change, and decision conflict 1M. Rosenberg, et al., Occu ations and Values (Glencoe, 111.: The Free Press, 7). 68 in occupational choice. Rosenberg and his associates attempted to measure the values held by students against their choice of occupations. They hypothesized that the former would be found to be a causal factor in the latter. This hypothesized relationship was found to exist, but interestingly the relationship appeared to be two-way. Not only does the value pattern appear to affect occupa- tional choice, but the occupational choice--once made-- appears to exert a pressure for change in the value pattern. The investigators further determined a "reluctance factor," by comparing the first preferences of students with their actual occupational choice. The three occupa- tions displaying the highest reluctance factors are all in business: finance and real estate, sales and promotion, and business--unspecified. Rosenberg and his colleagues concluded that "people are more likely to view business as a sorry second-best rather than an area of golden oppor- tunity)‘ Pushing their research further into the factors underlying this reluctance, the authors state that: Our data indicate that one reason the reluctant busi- nessman is unhappy about going into business is that, relatively speaking, his socio-economic ideology tends to be at loggerheads with the principle of unrestricted private investment for profit. . . . The Reluctants have an even stronger ideological opposition to big business than the mass of students who do not enter business at all. lIbid., pp. 114-5. 69 The researchers view this as "pointing to a social problem of some seriousness, because: (1) many students will ap- parently spend their lives doing work they abhor, and (2) the possibility exists that a substantial number of poorly motivated workers may be inducted into the work force who may do their jobs perfunctorily and without inspiration. O'Dowd and Beardslee reported in 1960 on the out- come-of a research project "designed to provide a basic body of information on student perceptions of social dimensions of the occupational structure which awaits them-after college."l These investigators employed the Semantic Differential technique in an effort (1) to estab- lish the general outlines of student thinking about occu- pations, and (2) to determine the agreements and differ- ences among various categories of students in terms of their beliefs about occupations. The categories used are based upon such variables as sex, level, socio-economic background, and occupational choice. The data were ob- tained from a sample of over one-thousand freshman and senior Liberal Arts students at four Northeastern colleges. The Semantic Differential approach enabled the researchers to create semantic profiles of a number of occupations. The following are excerpts:2 1D. D. O'Dowd and D. C. Beardslee, Colle e Student Ima es of a Selected Group of Professions and Occppations M dletown, ConnectiCut: Wesleyan University, 1960), p. l. 21bid., pp. 37-9. 70 Business Executive--The business executive role is the ultimate aim of many of the undergraduates who start out for business careers and of others who select this option after abandoning professional aspi- rations. The business executive is extremely high in social status, wealth and success. He has power in public affairs . . . a pretty wife . . . a confident, assertive, masculine manner. . . . The business execu- tive has both weaknesses and personal problems that offset to some degree his wealth and status. Sales Manager--This man appears to be rather shallow and extroverted. He has a fair degree of forceful confidence and a friendly, sociable manner. At the same time he is a selfish, impulsive, and somewhat undependable person. . . . The sales manager is be- lived to have but limited intelligence and he is rated as very insensitive in the aesthetic sphere. Accountant--If the doctor is the occupational hero, the accountant is the anti-hero of the occupational world. Clearly his negative properties are dominant. He is low in status, not well-to-do, and unsuccessful. . . . There is some doubt in the beliefs of students as to whether or not the accountant is alive. Among the conclusions reached by O'Dowd and Beards- lee in connection with the grouping of students into cate- gories are the following: (1) differences in occupational images between freshman and seniors are not significant, and the effect of four years of college in this respect is not clear-cut; (2) socio-economic status does not con— trol any meaningful segment of Variability in the images held by students; (3) college men and women are in great agreement on their conceptions of occupations. Anggppraisal In terms of volume alone, the researcher interested in the attitudes of college students toward business will 71 find the supply wholly adequate. In terms of answers to the questions which this study seeks to answer, however, the supply will be found wholly inadequate. There are reports of opinion polls, but often the reports reach op- posite conclusions. There are expert opinions, but often the experts contradict one another. Some efforts at sci- entific measurement have been made, but only in areas tangential to the issue of general attitudes toward busi- ness. Studies ofEhe Behavioral Correlates of Employee Attitudes Attitudes and Productivipy The relationship of attitudes to employee produc- tivity is part of the larger question of what motivates man to work--an issue far beyond the scope of this review. Let it simply be said that there are a number of differing psychological schools of thought-on this broader issue. Generally, they do agree upon these two points: (1) adult motives are infinitely varied and complex, and (2) a pat- tern of motives, drives, and needs represents the main- spring of human behavior. The significance of attitudes in the process has been described as follows: In general . . . it is possible only to infer the exist- ence of drives, needs, and wants, in part, from observed changes in behavior, especially in controlled experi- mental situations, in part from measurements of atti- tudes which express the way in which and the extent to which given objects or situations are felt to satisfy 72 wants, needs, desires, etc. . . . The fact that atti- tudes, motives, and conduct are closely interrelated has suggested the possibility that a cEange in atti- tudes can induce a change in behav1or. The above constitutes the theoretical framework, built up from psychological theory, which has supported the many attempts at attitude measurement which have been made in personnel studies over the years. These efforts often have been directed toward establishing the behavioral cor-- relates of employee attitudes. Among the correlates which have been hypotheSized, are turnover rates, absence rates, mental hygiene, and--productivity. Specific Studies Pertaining to the Relationship ofEmployee Attitudes to Productivity One of the earliest, classic studies to probe the relationship between the attitudes of employees and their productivity was reported by Kornhauser and Sharp in 1932.2 These investigators administered a questionnaire-measuring job satisfaction to a sample of several hundred female plant workers. Scores on the questionnaire were then matched against efficiency ratings. The researchers reached the conclusion that "efficiency ratings of em- ployees showed no relationship to their attitudes." 1M. S. Viteles, Motivatign and Morale in Industry (New York: W. W. Norton & Co., Inc., 1953), pp. 73-4. 2A. Kornhauser and A. Sharp, "Employee Attitudes: Suggestions from a Study in a Factory," Personnel Journal X (1932), 393-401. 73 Giese and Ruter used a "morale questionnaire" in studying the employees of a small mail-order firm in 1949.1 They searched for a correlation between this attitude measurement and "three objective measurements of perform- ance." The investigators reported finding no significant relationships. A study by Lawshe and Nagle, reported in 1953, focused upon some two-hundred non-supervisory office em- ployees of International Harvester.2 The investigators sought to determine the relationship between the attitudes of employees toward supervisors and the ratings given to employees by supervisors. These researchers state that they obtained a Pearsonian Correlation Coefficient of .86, significant at the 1% level, for N = 14; i.e., a definite and strong relationship. Part of the extended research carried out by Herz- berg, Mausner, and Snyderman on the matter of work and moti- ‘ €~vation, involved an empirical study of attitudes and be- havior. These researchers took a somewhat more qualitative~ approach than their predecessors, employing the depth inter- view technique with a sample of some two—hundred accountants and engineers. They sought to measure a number of job- related attitudinal factors against a number of behavioral 1W. J. Giese and H. W. Ruter, "An Objective Analysis of Morale," Journal of Applied Psychology, XXXIII (1949), 421-70 2C. H. Lawshe and C. H. Nagle, "Productivity and Attitude Toward Supervisor," Journal of Applied Psychology, XXXVII (1953), pp. 159-62. 74 effects, including job performance. Some indication of their findings is conveyed in the following comments: According to the people we interviewed, attitudes toward the job exerted an extremely important influ- ence on the way in which the job was done. In over 60 percent . . . an improved performance related to improved job attitudes and a decrease in performance related to a change of attitude in a negative direc- tion. . . . We can make two statements. First, job attitudes are a powerful force and are functionally related to the productivity, stability, and adjust- ment of the industrial working force. Second, the differenaaabetween satisfiers and dissatisfiers . . .. involve not only a qualitative difference in factors but a difference, largely quantitative, in effects. Specifically, the positive effects of high attitudes are moie potent than the negative effects of low atti- tudes. G. Singer employed the factor analysis technique in a 1961 study.2 Rejecting-conventional-definitions of "morale," he included forty-five variables to distinguish "high satisfaction" from "low satisfaction" in measuring employee attitudes. Singer reports finding no connection between high satisfaction and high productivity. Interpretations of the Studies The small sampling of the empirical literature in the preceding paragraphs is enough to illustrate its lack 1F. Herzberg, B. Mausner, and B. Snyderman, The Motivation to Work (New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1959), p. 96. 2G. Singer, Morale Factors in Industrial Management --The Examination of a Concept (New York: Exposition Press, 1961). 75 of consistency. Several attempts have been made to inter- pret, and draw conclusions.from, the-literature. Brayfield and Crockett, in a well-known 1955 paper, reviewed the major studies of employee attitudes and their consequences up to the 1955 date.1 They state that while it is commonly assumed that attitudes affect performance, the empirical evidence fails to substantiate this. They are highly critical of design.and analysis imperfections in the various empirical investigations. They point out that there has been no consensus in the literature on the matter of definitions. Investigators have-measured atti— tudes which they claim reveal "job satisfaction" and/or "morale," but definitions of these terms often are vague or missing altogether. Such measurements have been related to behavioral variables such as "excessive turnover" or "productivity," but the operational criteria for measuring- such‘terms have been far from uniform. ”Brayfield and Crockett conclude that productivity may be only peripherally related to the real goals toward which workers strive, and that "it is time to question the strategic and ethical merits of selling to industrial concerns an assumed relationship between employee attitudes and employee performance." 1A. H. Brayfield and W. H. Crockett, "Employee Attitudes and Employee-Performance," Psychological Bulletin, LII (1955) . 76 As a precursor to their empirical investigation, Herzberg and his associates published in 1957 a notably thorough review and analysis of the literature. The authors’ announced intention was ”to review and system- atize what had been gleaned from the research and con- templation of a half-century of effort."1 The investiga- tors agree with Brayfield and Crockett that the field is characterized by much disagreement and confusion,.which~ they too attribute largely to the unstable nature of the subjective definitions and interpretations upon which the empirical studies were typically based. Herzberg and his colleagues cite some twenty-six empirical studies relating "morale."2 to productivity. They are virtually all correlational studies; i.e., a comparison is made between groups of high and low produc- tivity, measured against high and low morale. Fourteen of these studies show a positive correlation; nine show an absence of correlation; three show a negative~correla- tion. Contrary to Brayfield and Crockett, Herzberg and~ his associates conclude that "there probably is some rela- tionship between job attitudes and output or productivity." They admit to the tenuous nature of the relationship as 1F. Herzberg, et al., Job Attitudes: Review of Research and Opinion (Pittsburgh: Psychological Services of Pittsburgh, 1957), p. 2. 2Various specific and general attitudes are measured in the studies. "Morale" is probably the favorite label applied to such measurements, with "job-satisfaction" a close second. 77 it has been so far demonstrated, and note that the empirical evidence relating job attitudes to such variables as turn- over and personal adjustment appears much stronger. They believe their differences with Brayfield and Crockett rest in the latter's greater scepticism over studies which showed low, but positive, correlations, as well as in the omission of several additional positive studies from the earlier review. The literature review-conducted by Singer prior to his study in 1961, persuaded him that there was no founda- tion for hypothesizing a relationship between attitudes and performance. G. F. Summers offers a more recent critical analysis of theliterature.1 In a paper published in 1965, Summers stated that the measurements both of morale and of the be- havioral variables are still lacking in refinement. Suméf mers suggests that morale, for example, is not merely satisfaction, but rather a multi-dimensional hypothetical construct composed of.an unknown number of factors. Inso- far as the empirical studies seeking to link attitudes to performance are concerned, he states that they have neither been clear-cut, conclusive, nor consistent. 1G. F. Summers, "Morale Research in Industry: A Critical Summary," Personnel Administration, XXVIII (May, 1’6”?“ 39-440 78 An Appraisal Clearly there is no agreement as to whether empir- ical research has established a connection between attitudes and productivity. Yet, there can be no doubt that a posi- tive demonstration of such a relationship would be of the utmost importance to business management. Thus, the search for a conclusive answer to this vital question continues unabated. One authority sees a new trend taking place in con- temporary research: . . . There is a growing recognition of the extreme significance of environmental (cultural, social) fac- tors in the integration of motives, drives, and needs, leading to an organic conception of industry as a social institution and the further elaboration of a conception of society in which economic activities~ take their place as one aspect of the whole social process. thequal significance is the increasing tendency to approach the problem of motivation in terms of the person as a whole - in terms of a total personality functioning in a natural social environ- ment. Another group of experts support the view that studies of motivation are now turning in the direction of more sophisticated and subtle motivators: Because management has been so successful in satisfying its workers subsistence needs, and because workers whose subsistence needs are satisfied are no longer motivated to satisfy these needs, management can no longer use its traditional rewards to motivate them. No amount of good wages, fringe benefits, and good lViteles, op. cit., p. 79. 79 working conditions in and by themselves will motivate: workers to give more than minimum effort. Thus manage- ment seems to be left with obsolescent motivational tools on its hands that have not been 'written off' for new ones.1 It is this new thrust in employee attitude research which provides the basis for the attempt in this study to probe the relationship between a general attitude toward business and productivity. It would be the height of pre- sumption to believe that this study could resolve any of the disagreement concerning the connection between attitudes and performance. But it would also be intellectually frus- trating to stop the research short of a modest inquiry into the possibility that, for the college graduate, general attitude toward business does in truth constitute one of the subtle performance motivations in the present era. Summary of the Literature Review The purpose of Chapter II has been to lay the con- ceptual foundations for the study by reviewing the litera- ture in four general areas. The following paragraphs sum- marize the results of the literature review for each category. w 1A. Zaleznik, C. R. Christensen, F. J. Roethlis- berger, The Motivation, Productivity, and Satisfaction of Workers: A Prediction-Study (Boston: Harvard University, 1958), p. 402. 80 The theory of attitude measurement is well-rooted in the literature of the behavioral sciences, especially social psychology. A number of techniques for measuring attitudes have been devised over the years. None is com- pletely satisfactory. Much of the literature has been devoted to comparisons of the various techniques. The relative advantages of the Likert technique especially recommend it for this study. The college population has been the frequent ob- ject of behavioral science research over the years. Many studies, both cross-sectional and longitudinal, have focused upon the attitudes and values of college students. Although some disagree, the literature provides much evidence to the effect that the attitudes and values of students differ significantly when they are grouped according to Such variables as major field of study, level, and socio- economic background. A great mass of literature is accumulating on the specific question of attitudes toward business, but little of it is in the nature of scientific research. The bulk of the literature falls into the categories of opinion: polls and expert opinion, and its major contribution to the study is to illustrate the lack of consistency which‘ characterizes the area. Studies of the behavioral correlates of employee attitudes have been pOpular in personnel research for some 81 years. Empirical evidence on the question of a relation— ship between attitudes and productivity is contradictory and inconclusive. There is a demand for more empirical evidence. The demand is particularly acute in connection with more subtle and sophisticated attitudinal dimensions, as opposed to conventional dimensions such as salaries or working conditions. An inquiry into the link between a general attitude toward business and employee productivity, a major part of the study, is commensurate with the new directions being taken by research in the general area. CHAPTER III RESEARCH DESIGN Introduction An overview of the research design employed in the study was provided in Chapter I. Chapter III attempts to explain in detail each step of the research methodology. The first major section of the chapter describes the creation of the research instrument. The sources of the opinion statements comprising the instrument are ex- plained, and detailsarefurnished on the pre-testing pro- cedure to which a preliminary version-of the instrument was subjected. An attempt is made to specify all the major considerations underlying the appearance of the final instrument. The second and third major sections of the chapter concern the collection of the empirical data which forms the core of the study. The college-student and college- graduate samples are discussed separately. Details-are' provided on the actual drawing of the sample groups, the techniques-employed in administering the research instru— ment, and the implications of non-respondent groups with- in the samples. Tables presenting important statistics- pertaining to each of the samples are included. 82 83 The-fourth major section of the chapter furnishes a step—by—step description of the handling and processing- of data collected in the field investigation phase. Finally, a major section of the chapter is devoted to an explanation of the statistics used in testing the hypotheses. The Research Instrument General Considerations In Chapter II, a brief review was made of the prominent attitude measurement techniques. The considera- tions were mentioned which favored the adoption of the Likert technique, also known as the method of summated rating, as the best suited to the nature of this study. A preliminary explanation of the steps involved in the construction of a Likert attitude scale was provided in Chapter I. The essence of the Likert technique iS-that a sub- ject be required to express the intensity of his agreement or disagreement with each of.a series of opinion statements pertaining to the dimension of attitude under study. Such opinion statements are commonly referred to as items, and the series-of statements for a particular dimension-of attitude is usually referred to as an attitude scale. Since five dimensions of attitude are the focus of this study, it was necessary to construct a research instrument composed 84 of five attitude scales. It_is generally recommended that a Likert scale contain somewhere between fifteen and twenty- five items,1 and it therefore was decided to structure the research instrument so that each scale would contain twenty statements, or a total of one hundred for the five scales combined. A pre-testing procedure would be necessary to assure that the statements were consistent in measuring the same dimension of attitude. Finally, it was necessary that the instrument provide a means of securing the personal data from each respondent which would be required in testing the research hypotheses. Generation of Opinion Statements The first task in-the construction-of a research instrument which would meet the requirements mentioned above was the generation of opinion statements. It will be recalled from Chapter I that the Basic Economic Convictions scale was adopted in its completed form a well-known exist- ing research instrument.2 Thus, statements would have to be created for the remaining four scales: Social Responsi- bility; Ethical Norms; Business Career; and Business Educa- tion. Since the pre-testing procedure, described in the 1A particularly thorough source for the technical aspects of the summated rating technique is W. J. Goode and P. K. Hatt, Methods in Social Research (New York: McGraw-Hill BookVCo.,.I952). 2See'page 20. 85 following section, would require-approximately twice the number of statements desired for the final instrument, it was necessary to generate-a minimum-of forty opinion state- ments pertaining to each of the four scales. Normally, opinion statements are obtained from any and all available sources--such as books, magazines, news- papers, radio, television, and one’s own knowledge of the problem. Each of these sources was used. Naturally, the review of literature pertaining to attitudes toward busi- ness extended over a wider range of material than is specifically cited in Chapter II. The scanning of much material in the.area produced many of the statements used. At one time, students in one of the author's classes were asked to write briefly of their feelings toward business, and some of their comments provided material for the state- ments. There are established criteria for the writing of~ opiniOn statements which are to be used in attitude measure- ment, and in most cases it was necessary to re-work raw material of the type described above into finished opinion statements.l Although the application of such criteria lThe‘classic'reference on such criteria is C. K. A. Wang, "Suggested Criteria for Writing Attitude Statements," Journal of Social Psychology, III (August, 1932), 367. _---_...—-lc- "...—.5... .. ~\._ 86 cannot always be precise, the general objective was that each opinion statement be (1) relevant to the particular scale, (2) unambiguous, (3) short, (4) complete, (5) clear, and (6) a single thought.1 Well over sixty statements per scale were constructed in this manner. The Preliminary Instrument From the list of opinion statements prepared for each of the four scales, a selection of forty items per scale was made for inclusion in a preliminary version of the research instrument. Additional considerations enter- ing into this selection process were (1) that the state- ments cover a wide range of intensity, and (2) that there be a rough balance between positive and negative items; i.e., statements to which agreement would infer favorable attitude, and ones where agreement would infer unfavorable attitude. Items pertaining to the different scales were mixed in the sequence of statements in the preliminary‘ research instrument, and positive and negative statements were alternated. The general appearance of statements in 1To illustrate the problems involved, a professor of psychology was asked to evaluate the preliminary list of statements. He objected to the statement, "Drug manufac- turers are fleecing the public by charging prices way over cost," on the grounds that this was purely a factual ques- tion to which one could only agree. The item was retained for the pre-test, and proved to be the seventh-best dis- criminating item on the Ethical Norms scale. 87 this version of the instrument is illustrated by the following: 59. (N-) LIFE IN THE BUSINESS WORLD IS APTLY DESCRIBED BY "DOG EAT DOG" Strongly agree Agree Undecided Disagree Strongly disagree It will be noted that, although for scoring~pur- poses the response categories were valued from one to five (for negative items; reversed for positive), no numerical values appear under or adjacent to the response categories. This format was intended to discourage the development of a "response pattern" based upon the scoring categories; i.e., a subject might begin to regard himself as a "4." The absence of scoring values, and the alternation of positive and negative items, were designed to minimize any automatic marking patterns and the same format was carried over into the final research instrument.1 The complete list of statements used in the preliminary research instru- ment is reproduced in Appendix C. The Pre-Testing Procedure The technique known as item analysis was selected as the pre-testing procedure to assure the internal 1Obviously, a price is paid for this in terms of greater scoring difficulties. The symbol (N-) adjacent to the illustration statement on this page identified the scale- to which the statement belongs for the scorer, and also identified it as a negative item. 88 consistency of each scale in the final instrument.1 The basic idea of item analysis is that if the preliminary group of opinion statements for a proposed attitude scale is administered to a fairly large group of subjects closely resembling the population to be ultimately studied, a deter- mination can be made of the statements which discriminate best between the portion of the group holding the most favorable attitude and the portion holding the least favor- able. The procedure constitutes a measurement of the dis- criminatory power (DP) of the statements, and the state- ments revealed to possess the greatest discriminatory power will yield a scale possessing a high degree of internal consistency. It was believed that student interest groups on the campus of Michigan State University would provide an excellent basis for ensuring a preliminary sample which would possess the desired diversity of attitudes. Early in November, 1967, the investigator arranged through club presidents to make personal appearances at the following organization meetings: Ayn Rand Club; Forestry Club; Mar- keting Club; MSU College Republicans Club; Sigma Delta Chi (Journalism); Delta Phi Epsilon (Foreign Service); and Delta Sigma Pi (Business). In addition, appearances were 1Most of the general summaries of attitude measure- ment techniques cited in Chapter II describe the item analy- sis procedure. A concise description begins on p. 275 of Goode and Hatt. 89 made in several classes varying widely in subject matter. On each occasion, the purpose and nature of the research were explained, and volunteers were requested to complete the preliminary instrument and return it by mail. A total of one-hundred-twenty-four questionnaires were distributed, and ninety—two were returned in time to be included in the preliminary sample group. Each returned instrument was scored for each of the four component scales. Then, for 2392 scale, the upper and lower quartiles were identified, each group consisting of twenty-three subjects.1 A computing sheet, such as that illustrated in Table 3, was constructed for each of the one-hundred-sixty items on the preliminary research instrument. Next, for each of the four scales, statements were ranked in the order of their discriminatory power. The rankings of the forty statements for each scale are repro- duced in Appendix C. Final Selection of Items When using quartiles as criterion groups, it is generally desirable that as many items as possible having a discriminatory power of over 1.00 be used, and that few, 1Sometimes deciles are used in lieu of quartiles, but the latter are considered to provide more reliable criterion groups. (Goode and Hatt, op. cit., p. 276). 90 Table 3?--Calculation of Discriminatory Power of Opinion Statement Item No. 47 Weighted Weighted DP (High Total Mean Weighted Group Num— Score- (Score x (Weighted Mean - ber 1 2 3 4* 5 number Total + Low checking number of WEightEd that score) cases) Mean ' High 23 3 7 7 5 l 75 3.26 .96 Low' 23 0 3 2‘17 1 53 2.30 aAdapted from G. Murphy-and R. Likert, Public Opinion and The Individual (New York: Harper, 1938), p. 289. if any, which drop below .50 be used.1 On the basis of the discriminatory power values generated in the pre-test, it would have been possible to construct an instrument with only two statements out of the desired one-hundred (both on the Business Career scale) dropping below 1.00. However, it was felt that discriminatory power should not be the sole criterion in selecting items for the final instrument. Therefore, in some instances where two items related to the same general topic, and thus quite logically produced com- parable DP values, the lower of the items was passed over in favor of an item of still lower DP, but relating to an 1Goode'and Hatt, op. cit., p. 276. 91 otherwise-uncovered topic within the attitude dimension. Similarly, it is desirable that a Likert scale be roughly equal in the number of positive and negative statements. Once again, occasional substitutions of lower DP items were made in order to achieve such an approximate balance. The exhibit of ranked statements in Appendix C indicates those selected for the final scales, with the above considerations in mind. No statement with a lower DP than .95 was used. The average DP values for each scale on the final instrument are presented below: Table 4.--Average Discriminatory Powers of Opinion State- ments used in each Scale of Final Instrument Scale No. of items Average DP Economic Convictions 20 1.34a Social Responsibility 20 1.39 Ethical Norms 20 1.42 Business Career 20 1.26 Business Education 20 1.51 Overall Average DP - 1.38 aThis DP is based upon the original research by Rundquist and Sletto in the construction of the Minnesota Survey of Opinion. Their item analysis procedure was virtually identical to that described in the above pages, and even their pre-test group consisted mainly of college students. The Final Instrument The final research instrument is reproduced in Appen- dix A. Eight pages in length, the instrument contains: 92 (l) instructions for respondents sufficiently detailed as to render further, personalized explanations unnecessary;1 (2) the one-hundred selected opinion statements; and (3) a personal data page requeSting.the types of personal in- formation on respondents necessary for the testing of the particular research hypotheses in this study. The instru-7 ment was multilithed and stitched in booklet form, with the personal data page perforated for easy‘detachment. The personal data page contained space for the coding of all data including scores, so that once coding was com-‘ pleted, this page could be detached and the remaining body of the-questionnaire set aside. The College-Student Sample General Considerations As has previously been explained,2 the basic con- cept of the college-student sample design is that of.a stratified sample representing four major fields of study-- Business, Artsand Letters, Engineering, and Education-- and each class level from freshman through master's. Also, since a great portion of freshman and sophomore students lThis eliminated another possible source of bias-- inconsistent personal explanations and/or instructions. 2SeerChapter I,_under "Scope." 93 have not yet elected major fields and are classified as "No Preference" students, this designation was included as an additional "major field" at these two levels. Table 5, which for reference convenience is combined with other tables on page 100,illustrates the sample matrix and the total number of students enrolled at Mich- igan State University as of the start of the Fall term, 1967, in each of the matrix cells. It was decided to fill out the sample with an approximately equal number of subjects in each of the matrix cells; i.e., the objec- tives of this study were not commensurate with a sample structured so as to reflect the same proportionate make- up as the total population at Michigan State University for the selected major fields and class levels. Several different possibilities existed for the actual collection of the college-student data. A proce- dure similar to that employed in the pre-test could have been carried out, wherein the instrument would be per- sonally distributed at student gatherings and returned by mail. There were three main objections to using this method: 1. No known student gatherings would provide-sub- jects falling entirely within the confines of the sample matrix. —2. There would be no way to know whether subjects had completed the instrument without "advice" from others, nor 94 whether they had considered the statements seriously, which- might under the other conditions be inferred from the amount of time spent on the task. (3) The problem of non-respondent bias would be introduced into the study. Conducting the entire survey by mail would have elimi- nated the first of the three objections, inasmuch as mailings could have been confined to a random selection of.students falling entirely within the sample matrix. However, the sec- ond and third objections would remain; undoubtedly aggravated by the complete lack of personal contact. Administering the questionnaire to students in classes would have eliminated the second and third objections, and if the classes could be selected at the option of the investiga- tor, would have minimized the first as well. Since classroom administration had much to recommend it, numerous interviews were held with informed university people, during the period of the pre-test in the Fall of 1967. The interviews pointed inexorably to the rejection of classroom administration of the instrument. Understandably, department heads and pro- fessors could not in conscience approve of the significant loss of class time which would ensue. Out of these interviews, however, there evolved an alternative methodology which preserved most (and even im- proved upon some) of the virtues of the classroom testing idea. This method would involve the following steps: 95 (1) selection of a random sample-of students falling within' the sample matrix; (2) establishment of specific testing times and sites; and (3) invitations to the sample subjects to appear at a convenient testing session. The method would preserve the classroom testing atmosphere, while at the same time permitting the drawing of a random sample entirely with~ in the sample matrix. The objection of non-respondent bias would still have to be faced, but of all feasible methods, it:seemed clearly the most highly recommended. (Since it was felt that students would be most receptive to the required investment of time and effort early in.a new school term, it was decided to carry out the data collection as early as possible during the 1968 Winter term at Michigan State Uni- versity. Drawing the Sample The 1967-68 Student Directory of Michigan State Uni- versity was used as the universe in drawing the sample. The directory, compiled from official registration records, lists every student enrolled at the University as of the start of the Fall term, 1967. Information is provided on each student's address, major field, and level. A discussion-was held with the Registrar's Office of the University, on the subject of expected changes in enrollment between the Fall and Winter terms.: This office was able to supply data pertaining to en- rollment changes during the comparable period of the previous 96 year. Of 37,582 students enrolled at Michigan State Univer- sity in the Fall of 1966, 33,541 returned for the Winter term of 1967.1 Thus some 4,041 students, or 10.8 percent of the Fall student body, left school at some point between the two terms. Of this group, 2,176--better than-half--were fresh- men; and the remainder were distributed fairly evenly among the levels from sophomore through‘senior.2 It was reasonable to infer that if a sample was drawn in the Winter of 1968 from the Fall, 1967‘Student Directory, it would include ap- proximately 10 percent of students no longer inschool.3 It was decided to select 40 subjects for each cell in the sample matrix from sOphomore through master's level, and 50 subjects for each cell at the freshman-level to allow for the more severe drop-out problem at the freshman-stage.- Table 6, page 100, illustrates the composition of the original college student sample. A further decision was made to restrict-the sample to male students in the major fields of Business, Arts and* Letters, and Engineering; but to include an equal number of 1New students entering school in the Winter term are not counted in the latter figure. 2"Drop-out" rate 3 at the master's and doctoral level are negligible, by comparison. 3A unique problemwas that returned mailings wou d be no guide to the number falling in this category, since mail: would be sent on to home or forwarding addresses. 97 males.and females inathe field of Education. This decision recognizes the still-limited role of the female in the busi- ness world, but defers to her substantial role in the educa- tion profession--particularly her unique opportunity to influ- ence young, malleable minds at the lower school levels. The actual selection of names-from the Student Direc- tory was accomplished in this manner: twenty letters of the alphabet were chosen (eliminating i, q, u, x, y, and z), and for each sample cell the first two students of the right major field, level, and sex, whose last names begin with these letters, were chosen. The third applicable freshman name was added for the first ten letters. The selection process gen- erated the list of names and addresses of the 930 students comprising the college-student sample. Collecting the Data During the first week of the 1968 Winter term at the University, initial contact was made with each subject in the sample. The contact was a mailing consisting of two items. The first item was an individually addressed multilithed letter, resembling very closely a personally typed letter, advising- the student of the nature and significance of the research as well as the nature and importance of the rolé he was asked to play in it.1 -Second, a double-card form, perforated at 1The contents of the letter reflected the comments of some students in the pre-test group, especially concerning flil‘tl‘ll‘l 98 the center, listed all the times and places scheduled for the following week, where the survey could be completed. Some fourteen two-hour testing sessions had been established, day and evening, at various locations on the University cam— pus. Subjects were asked to select the testing session most convenient to them, mark it on both halves of the card, and return the lower half (which was a stamped postal card) by mail.1 Copies of each of the two data collection devices, as well as all others employed, may be found in Appendix B. As postal cards were returned, a running tabulation was kept of the distribution of subjects within the sample matrix. A campaign of telephone and postal card follow-up was initiated mid-way in the first testing week. Efforts were concentrated on subjects falling into matrix cells which' were running especially weak in numbers of responses. At the end of the first week, 336 completed instruments had been obtained. At the end of the first test week, second printed notices were mailed to all non-respondents. Two versions were used; one for subjects who had returned their postal card but had failed to appear as scheduled, and another for factors which would motivate students to cooperate. For example,_the request for cooperation was said to come from a "fellow-student" and not from the "administration." 1The purpose of this was not as much to schedule appointments, as it was to force students--psychologically-- to come to a decision as to when~and where they would appear.‘ 99 students who had not responded at all. These notices estab- lished a similar series of testing sessions for the second test week, and intensified the appeal for cooperation. The- telephone follow-up campaign was extended into the second test week. At the conclusion of this week, 166 additional completed instruments had been secured. At the end of the second test week, a third notice- was sent to remaining non-respondents. Once again, the notice established a new, but much more limited, series of testing sessions for the third test week. The telephone cam- paign was continued. Efforts of the third test week produced 89 additional completed instruments. At the close of the third week, a total of 581 com- pleted instruments had been obtained. The survey was termi- nated at the end of the third test week. Table 7, page 100, illustrates the distribution-of the 581 respondents among the sample matrix cells, both in numbers and in percentages based upon the numbers of persons originally contacted in each matrix cell. Analysis of Non-respondents‘. The total of 581 completed questionnaires-represents 63 percent of the 930 persons originally drawn for the sample. The point was stated in Chapter I that it would be misleading to consider the remaining 37 percent as non-respondents in‘ the true sense of that term. Enrollment statistics at Michigan 100 .A SUMMARY OF STATISTICS ON THE COLLEGE-STUDENT SAMPLE Table 5.--Tota1 Enrollment of Students at Michigan State Uni- versity for Selected Major Fields and Levels as of Fall, 1967 Major Field Level ' Freshman SOphomore Junior Senior Master's Business 517- ' 674 1024 922 759 Arts & Letters 874 772 1029 893 500 Engineering 788 460 392 296 147 Education 759 824 1172 1018 1385 No Preference 2264 1801 - - - Table 6.--Composition of the Original College-Student Sample _ Level ‘Major Field - Fresh. Soph. Jun. Sen. Mstrs. Total Business 50 40 40 40 40 210- Arts & Letters 50 40 40 40 40 210 Engineering 50 40 40 40 40 210 Education 50 40 40 40 40 210 No Preference. 50 40 - - - 90 Total 250 200 160 160 160 930 Table 7.--Distribution of Respondents in College—Student Sample--by Numbers and Percentagesa Level Major Field Fresh. Soph. Jun. Sen. Mst. Total No % No -% No % No % No % ' No % Business 30 60 26 65 32 80 33 81 25 63 146 70 Arts & Letters 33 66 30 75 25 63 26 65 21 55 135 64 Engineering 30 60 27 68 31 78 23 58 22 56‘ 133 63 Education 21 42 23_58 26 65 18 45 25 63 113 54 No Preference 29 58 25 63 X X 4 X . S4 60 Total 43 67 131 65‘114‘72‘100‘63 93 57 581 63 aThe base for matrix cell from Table all percentages is the figure for each 6 above. 101 State University suggest strongly that at least 10 percent of the original sample subjects were not attending school during the period of the testing sessions.1 It would seem quite reasonable to assume that of the 930 students origi- nally contacted, as many as 100 may have been unavailable and ineligible for the research. If a figure of 830 is used as the actual base, 581 completed instruments consti- tutes a response rate of 70 percent. The campaign of telephone follow-ups which was main- tained throughout the testing weeks produced a dividend in the form of expressed reasons for non-cooperation. Naturally, not every non-respondent was contacted, but a careful record was kept of all telephone conversations in which a specific reason was offered for failure to cooperate. There were 102 such conversations. Table 8 is an attempt to classify the reasons given by these persons into three major categories. The results of this analysis served to lessen concern that the non-respondent group might differ significantly from the respondent group, in terms of content of attitudes. Only the third reason in Table 8 would point in this direction. 1It will be noted in Table 7, page 100, that of the four major fields, Education produced the lowest percentage‘ of respondents. Education majors are required to spend a term off-campus in student teaching, although they remain~ enrolled at.M-S.U. during the period. There is a strong. probability that.this factor probably exerted additional upward pressure on the 10 percent estimate. 102 Table 8.-—Ana1ysis of Reasons Given for Non-Response in Tele- phone Interviews Substance of Reason umber 0f Percent of Subjects Subjects 1) Schedule Problem (Conflicts' in schedule make it impos- sible, or most inconvenient, to come to any test session). 42 41 2) "Survey Saturation" (Subject complains he has already 39 wasted enough time helping 38 out in surveys). , 3) Disinterest or Unwillingness (No more specific reason 21 21 offered). 1 Total 102 100% Nonetheless, an additional investigation of non- re3pondents was performed. At the close of the third testing week, a letter was sent to all remaining non-respondents re- siding on the University campus. Enclosed with the letter was a copy of the research instrument, and recipients were requested to complete the questionnaire-at their convenience and to return it-by mail. A total of 152 such mailings were made, and eventually 84 completed questionnaires were returned through the mail. An Analysis of Variance test was performed to determine whether a significant difference exists between therespondent group of 581 subjects and 84 nonsrespondentS” who ultimately completed the instrument by mail. This teSt, based uponemean general scores for the two groups, indicated 103 that no significant differences exist between the two groups at the .05 confidence level.1 Thus, the weight of evidence seems to favor the con- clusion that insofar as content of attitude is concerned, the respondent and non-respondent groups do not differ signifi- cantly. The College-Graduate Sample General Considerations As has been previously stated, the basic objective of the college-graduate sample study is to learn more than is presently known about the attitudes toward business of college graduates in the early stages of assimilation into business careers. Fortunately the cooperation of one of the nation's largest industrial concerns was secured in the en- deavor. Executives of the firm assumed much of the burden of drawing a sample of their employees to meet the desired specifications, and performing the steps required in the collection of the data. The basic concept of the college-graduate sample is that of a stratified sample representing three undergraduate 1The mean General score for the respondent group was 322.04; the mean General score for the group of non-respon- dents completing the instrument by mail was 313.42. The test of significance indicates that the difference between these“ means is not significant at the .05 level. Complete details- on this significance test may be found in Appendix D. 104 major fields; Business, Arts & Letters, and-Engineering, and four career stages; 1 to 2 years, 2 to 3 years, 3 to 4 years, and over 4 years.1 It was decided to draw 200 subjects for the college-graduate sample. Since a random selection of employees of the sub- ject firm meeting these qualifications would be allocated at random throughout the firm's various locations in the United States, no practical way existed for the collection of data other than by mail. The same primary concern existed with the college-graduate sample as with the college—student sample, however: that the instrument be treated seriously and conscientiously by respondents.- It-was decided that the best.way to assure this would be to enclose with the instrue ment a personal letter from an executive of the subject firm, explaining the importance of the research and urging the em- ployee to cooperate to his fullest capacity. Drawing the Sample The Personnel Department of the subject firm maintains“ a highly saphisticated data processing system for the adminis— tration of employee records. The firm-established a special retrieval.program which utilized-the data processing equipment iThe last category of career stage, over 4 years, in- cludes subjects with between 4 and 8 years service, with an average-length of service of 5.6 years. 105 in producing a list of 200 names representing a random selec- tion of employees meeting the qualifications desired for the sample. The specific constraints built into the retrieval program assured that the list would contain only the names of employees possessing these characteristics: (1) posses- sion of a bachelor's degree with a major in Business, Arts & Letters, or Engineering; (2) birth date of 1938 or later; (3) a minimum of 1 year of employment with the subject firm; (4) no record of employment outside the subject firm subse- quent to graduation from college. Collecting the Data During the month of March, 1968, the research instru- ment, accompanied by the cover letter from the executive of the subject firm, was sent to each subject in the college- graduate sample group. Careful follow-up efforts by liaison officials of the subject firm produced the return of 179 usable instruments by the end of March, and these form the basis of the college-graduate‘study.li The final composition of the college graduate sample is shown in detail in Table 9. In addition to the information contained on the com- pleted questionnaires, the subject firm furnished the most 1Of the 21 subjects in the original sample who are not included in the figure of 179, 4 returned questionnaires that were unusable, and 10 were found to have left the employ of the firm. Thus, there were only 7 non-respondents, in the true sense of the term, in the college-graduate sample. 106 Table 9.--Final Composition of the College Graduate Sample Undergraduate Career Stage (in years) College Major 1-2 2-3 3-4 over 43 Total Business 19 7 7 7 40 Arts & Letters 16 21 17 18 72 Engineering 20 16 13 18 67 Total 55 44 '37 43 179b aIncludes subjects in 4 to 8 year stage, with aver- age length of service of 5.6 years. bThis represents 89.5% of the 200 subjects origi- nally drawn for the survey. recent performance—rating value for each respondent employee. This is based upon an annual rating process involving all employees of the firm, wherein every employee must be as- signed a performance-rating value by his superior. The value is based upon a five-point rating scale which applies uniformly throughout the company. Data Handling Completed instruments from both samples were scored by hand. Clear plastic "masters" had been prepared, which --when superimposed over a questionnaire page--illustrated the point values of response categories for each item on that page. Five different colors were used for these numerals to make it possible for the scorer to distinguish 107 among the five scales. As each component scale of an instru- ment was scored, the score was recorded in the appropriate space on the personal data page. When all five sub-scale scores had been so recorded, their tota1--the General Score --was recorded also. Approximately 1 out of every 10 scored instruments were re-checked for scoring accuracy. The veri- fication procedure reVealed a virtual absence of scoring errors. Next, the personal data page was detached from the body of the questionnaire, and the latter was set aside' inasmuch as it would not again be required.1 In addition to the recorded scores, the personal data page contained the various items of personal informa- tion provided by the subject. A pre-coding guide had been prepared, so that a subject's response to each item on the personal data page could be quickly coded, and the code entered in‘a space provided on the page.- With both the scoring and coding procedures com- pleted, each personal data-contained a series of forty-one‘ numerals running down a column at the right margin of the page. The next step was to transfer this numerical data from each personal data page onto a computer punch-card. .lAll copies-ofgthe.researeh instrument had previously been numbered consecutively, with numbers being recorded on the first and last (personal data) page. Thus, in the event that at some future time a matching between questionnaire body and personal data page was again desired, it would not present a problem. -‘ ll Ill ll‘ 1 I [ll 108 The preparation of punch-cards made it possible to submit the data collected from each of the samples to sta- tistical programs designed for the Michigan State Univer- sity 3600 computer system. The programs applied the sta- tistical tests which would make possible decisions to accept or reject the various research hypotheses. Statistics to Test the Hypotheses The general research hypotheses forming the core of the study are listed in Chapter I. HypothesesILand 2 of the general hypotheses may be referred to as the major hypotheses concerning the college- student sample. Hypotheses 1 and 2 pertain to expected differences in attitude related to the variables of major field and class level. The basic statistical technique employed in testing major hypothesesjland 2, and the several sub-hypotheses derived from them, is Analysis of Variance. The rationale of Analysis of Variance is that a set of measurements in- volving several groups can be broken down into specific parts, each part identifiable with a given source of vari- ation in the data. For instance, independent estimates of the population variance may be based upon calculated vari- ation within the groups and between the groups. The null hypothesis states that these estimates will vary only within the limits of random sampling. Rejection of the null 109 hypothesis indicates that the groups are representative of different parent populations. Tabled values of the ratio between the two variances, referred to here as the F-Ratio, indicate the probability level at which the null hypothesis may be rejected. Table 13 on page 123 illustrates the format used throughout Chapter IV for presentation of Analysis of Vari- ance findings. Rows in the upper section of the Table rep- resent the basis for grouping subjects, while columns dis- tinguish among the General and Sub-Scale Scores upon each of which analysis of variance has been performed. In the "Summary of Analysis of Variance" portion of Table 13 two summary statistics from the Analysis of Variance calculations are provided: (1) the F-Ratio, and (2) the "Significant Gap." The F-Ratio makes possible a determination of whether differences among the mean scores of groups in each column are significant. A single asterisk (*) adjacent to the F-Ratio indicates significance at the .05 probability level, while a double asterisk (**) indicates significance at the .01 probability level. The "Significant Gap" fur- nishes additional information where differences are sig- nificant, by permitting the classification of means into groups that are alike among themselves but differ from one another; i.e., no two means are "different" unless separated by at least the value of the "Significant Gap." In the interest of conciseness, only the summary statistics-are li.‘ l- l‘ 110 presented in connection with each Analysis of Variance cal- culation. Appendix D describes in complete detail the procedures and formulas underlying every table involving Analysis of Variance calculations.1 Hypothesis 3, relating to the college-student sam- ple, involves the relationship between attitude toward business and certain personal variables. The latter may be considered as independent variables (X) while General Score is the dependent variable (Y). Two statistics of correlation-are employed in testing Hypothesis 3. Table 26, page 147, illustrates the manner of presentation of these statistics. Mean scores (General Score only) are listed for each interval of (X). A Pearsonian Product- Moment Coefficient of Correlation is presented to indicate the existence of any linear relationship between (X) and (Y). An F-Ratio statistic pertaining to the Coefficient of Correlation is also presented, as well as the signifi- cance of this value based upon tabled probabilities. The Pearsonian statistic gives the degree of linear relationship, and although it does not assume such a relationship, it will nonetheless underestimate the degree of relationship should (X) and (Y) be related in a non-linear fashion. Thus, in Table 26, a second correlation-statistic--the 1Except for special usage of two-way analysis of variance, which is described in Chapter IV. 111 Correlation Ratio--is presented. The Correlation Ratio serves as a measure of the relationship between (X) and (Y) when the relationship is not linear in nature. The Corre- 1ation Ratio represents the more sensitive test, and the statistic will exceed the Pearson coefficient in all cases except the precise linear relationship (where they will be equal). The F—Ratio, with significance probability indi- cated by asterisks, is shown in Table 26 for the Pearson coefficient and also for the Correlation Ratio. Appendix D describes in full detail the procedures and formulas used in producing the correlation statistics in Table 26, and these same procedures and formulas underlie all other tables involving similar statistics. General hypothesis 4 (college student sample) and hypothesesESthrough 7 (college graduate sample) involve proposed differences in attitude depending upon various bases of classification of the sample groups. Analysis of Variance tests are employed in testing hypotheses 4 through 7, and the nature of the calculations as well as the manner of presentation of the results, are identical to what has already been described. In all tests of hypotheses, a statistical probability level of .05 is considered the minimum requirement for the acceptance or rejection of a hypothesis. Parametric tests of the types described above offer a high degree of sensitivity in detecting relationships. 112 Their use is further recommended by the fact that the distribution of scores in each of the samples of the study closely aPproach the "normal curve."1 1The distributions are discussed fully in Chapter IV. CHAPTER IV THE FINDINGS Introduction The findings of the field investigation phases of the study are presented in Chapter IV. The chapter begins with some general observations concerning the scores of the 581 respondents in the col- lege student sample and the 179 respondents in the college graduate sample. There is a discussion of the distribution of scores in each sample, and the rationale for treating both sets of data as "normal" in the selection of statis- tical techniques for testing the hypotheses. Statistics pertaining to correlations among the scores on the sub- scales of the research instrument for the combined sample ' group are presented as additional indications of the inter- nal consistency of the research instrument. Finally, some comments are offered as to the interpretation of test scores, particularly in connection with identifying a point of "neutral" attitude. The actual presentation of findings pertaining to both the college student and college graduate samples fol- lows the organization of the research hypotheses, first 113 l l. ‘I [all I ( (,1 114 stated in Chapter I. Each of the general research hypoth- eses 1 through 7, as well as the various sub-hypotheses, are restated in the chapter in sequence. Immediately fol- lowing each hypothesis or sub-hypothesis, the results of the appropriate statistical tests are provided. An indi- cation is given as to the acceptance or rejection of each hypothesis, and the probability level at which such judge- ment is being made. Wherever the presentation of statis- tical findings is abbreviated for purposes of conciseness, reference is made to the appropriate section of the Appen- dix where additional clarification of the techniques and procedures may be found. General Observations Distribution of Scores Table 10 presents the frequency distribution of the General Scores of subjects in the college—student sam- ple, and Table 11 presents the same data for the college- graduate sample. Additionally, each of these tables indi- cates the frequency distribution at the same score inter- vals for a "normal curve" of the same number, mean, and standard deviation.1 1A normal curve is fitted to an actual frequency distribution by a process which derives the theoretical fre- quencies that would have occurred had the actual observations conformed more nearly to a normal curve. Calculations are based upon the formula for a normal curve and the table of 115 Table 10.—-Frequency Distribution of Scores of the College Student Sample ‘Mid- Points Score Actual of _ x Ordi-‘ Theoretical Interval Frequency Scores (m-X) S.D. nates Frequencies (X) (n) (m) (X) (11') 161-180 4 170 -152 -3.34 .00151 0.4 181-200 5 190 -l32 -2.93 .00545 1.4 201—220 5 210 -112 -2.48 .01842 4.7 221-240 12 230 - 92 -2.04 .04980 12.8 241-260 20 250 - 72' -l.60 .11092 28.4 261-280 40 270 - 52 -l.15 .20595 52.8 281-300 84 290 - 32‘ - .71 .31006 79.5 301-320 87 310 - 12 - .26 .38568 98.9 321-340 120 330 8 .18 .39253 100.7 341-360 91 350 28 .62 .32918 85.6 361-380 63 370 48 1.07 .22506 57.7 381—400 31 390 68 1.51 .12758 ‘32.7' 401-420 13 410 88 1.95 .05959 15.2 421-440 4 430 108 2.40 .02239 5.7 441-460 2 450 128 2.84 .00707 1.8 Total 581 578.3 X = 322.27‘ S.D. = 45.67 N = 581 i (interval) = 20 . _ Ni . n - S.D. x Ordinate Table design adapted from table on page 110 of H. L. Balsley, Introduction to Statistical Method (Paterson, N. J.: Littlefield, Adams & Co., 1964). 116 Table ll.--Frequency Distribution of Scores of the College Graduate Sample Mid- Points Score Actual of __ x Ordi- Theoretical Interval Frequency Scores (m-X) S.D. nates Frequencies (X) (n) (m) (x) (n') 261-280 270 -86 -2.43 .02083 2.1 281-300 290 -66 -1.87 .06943 7.0 301-320 18 310 -46 -1.30 .17137 17.3 321-340 32 330 -26 - .74 .30339 30.6 341-360 34 350 - 6 - .17 .39322 39.7 361-380 35 370 14 .39 .36973 37.3 381-400 34 390 34 .96 .25164 25.4 401-420 12 410 54 1.53 .12376 12.5 421-440 1 430 74 2.09 .04491 4.5 441-460 3 450 94 2.63 .01256 1.3 Total 179 177.7 3? = 355.70 S.D.. = 35.34 N = 179 i (interval) = 20 . Ni . n — S.D. x Ordinate Table design adapted from table on page 110 of H. L. Balsley, loc. cit. 117 Figure 2 is a graphic presentation of the data in Table 10 pertaining to the college-student sample. The actual frequency polygon is plotted against the best- fitting normal curve for the given data. Figure 3 presents the same illustration for the college-graduate sample. In the case of each of the samples, the graphs offer visual evidence of the close correspondence of the actual distributions to a normal curve. Thus, a firm basis is provided for the treatment of the obtained data as nor- mal, for statistical purposes. A Further Test of the Internal §gnsistency of theAResearch Instrument Item Analysis, described in Chapter III, was designed to ensure the internal consistency of the research instrument. However, the General and Sub-Scale Scores of the grand total of 760 subjects in the college-student and college-graduate samples were correlated with one another in an additional test of the consistency of the five sub-scales in measuring the same general area of attitude. Table 12 presents a matrix of the Pearsonian Product-Moment Coefficients of Correlation for the Scales. ordinates for the normal curve, both of which may be found in most elementary statistics texts. See, for example, H. L. Balsley, Introduction to Statistical Method (Patterson, N. J.: Littlefield, Adams & Co., 1964), p. 99-112. !'| \’\is . Ht ‘- ISM. l l \- 110‘ 10'3-l 10m ()5. 904 85‘ 801 75- 70- 65'( 60‘ SSW 50‘ 45. 40¢ 351 30< 25‘ 20‘l 15‘ 101 Frequercy 45- (60'I 35‘ 118 * 1'“ Lunl l' rcqm-nty _- - .. -. —. Theoretical Freqmncy N=S81 l l l I L l l l 161- 181- 201- 221- 241- 261- 281- 301- 321- 341- 361- 381- 401- 421- 451- 180 200 220 240 260 280 300 320 340 360 380 400 420 440 460 General Score Intervals ‘I 19--’1 J l l A I Fig. 2-- Distribution of Scores of the College Student Sample —-—-—- Actual Frequency --- ----- Theoretical Frequency N = 179 l 1 J, A l l n A j A I n l I 161- 181- 201- 221- 241- 261- 281- 301- 321- 341- 361- 381- 401- 421- 461- 180 200 220 240 260 280 300 320 340 360 380 400 420 440 460 General Score Intervals A Fig. 3-- Distribution of Scores of the College Graduate Sample 119 Table 12.--Matrix of Pearsonian Product-Moment Coefficients of Correlation Among General Scores and Scores of Five Sub—Scales (N = 760) Scales Economic Social Ethical Bus. Bus. Scales General Conv. Resp. Norms Career Educ'n General 1.000 Economic 0.717 1.000 Social 0.872 0.602 1.000 Ethical 0.823 0.505 0.751 1.000 Career 0.859 0.478 0.666 0.596 1.000 Educ'n. 0.786 0.387 0.537 0.485 0.752 1.000 As expected, General Scores and Sub-Scale Scores are positively correlated with one another in all instances. Calculations of F-Ratios indicate that each of the Coeffi- cients of Correlation in Table 12 is significant at the .01 probability level.1 A closer examination of Table 12 reveals that, gen- erally, the highest correlations are between.each of the Sub-Scale Scores and the General Score. Such correlations provide supporting evidence of the internal consistency of "attitude toward the research instrument as a measure of business." At the same time, lower correlations among the 1Formulas and procedures employed in the calculations are specified in Appendix D. 120 various Sub-Scale Scores are suggestive of the power of the instrument in distinguishing among component dimensions of this general attitude. For example, while the scale of Basic Economic Convictions appears to correlate highly with an overall attitude toward business (General Score), it correlates to a notably lesser degree with those scales concerning attitudes toward ethical norms in modern busi- ness practice, business as a career field, and particularly business as a field of education. Thus, in the analysis of results which follows, it will be found that in some instances similarities among groups in General Scores mask important differences in component attitudes. Interpretation of Test Scores In the discussion of the techniques of attitude measurement in Chapter II, it was noted that none of the available techniques appears to enable the investigator to speak with confidence of a mid-point of attitude; i.e., to determine the score or measurement which represents a "neutral" attitude. The difficulties involved are clear. What cannot be defined can hardly be measured, and it is indeed difficult to define a "neutral" attitude toward religion, war, or any other social issue--including busi- ness. It will be recalled that the research instrument is composed of 100 opinion statements, divided equally 121 among five sub-scales. A respondent's score is based upon his response to each item along a five-point scale. The mid-point selection--"undecided"--was assigned a scoring value of 3. It would be tempting to conclude that, since each of the sub-scales contains 20 items, a score of 60 represents a "neutral" attitude on a given scale while a score of 300 represents a "neutral" attitude toward busi- ness in general. With full recognition of the dangers inherent in referring to a General Score of 300 or a Sub-Scale score of 60 as points of neutrality, they SEE at least mid-points in scores. Therefore, in the nature of a concise compromise term, these scoring loci will occasionally be referred to_ as "mythical mid-points" in Chapter IV. The word "mythical" is intended as a reminder to the reader that we have no way of knowing absolutely to what degree a general score of 300 or a sub-scale score of 60 represents a neutral attitude; indeed we cannot even be sure what a neutral attitude is. Nonetheless, these are useful reference points for identifying attitudes which can reasonably be described as "indifferent" or "apathetic," when compared to more extreme scoring ranges on either side. 122 The College-Student Sample The Major Hypotheses-Major Fields and Class Levels The first of the general research hypotheses is: 1. There are significant differences in attitude toward business dependinguponmajor field of study. Among the major field groups, Business students have particularly favorable attitudes, while Arts & Letters students have particularly unfavorable attitudes. Table 13 presents the results of Analysis of Vari- ance tests to detect the significance of differences in General Scores and Sub-Scale Scores among the five major field groups under study. This major hypotheses is sup- ported at the .01 probability level. Mean scores of busi- ness students, both General and for each of the five Sub- Scales, are the highest of the five major field groups. Mean scores of Arts & Letters students, both General and,. for each of the five Sub-Scales, are the lowest of the five major field groups. The mean General Scores of Engineering and Education students are remarkably similar--in fact virtually identical--and occupy a position close to the mid- point between Business and Arts & Letters students. The No Preference group reveals a mean General Score slightly higher than Engineering and Education and at almost the precise mid-point between Business and Arts & Letters. Table 13.--Summary of Analysis of Variance of Attitude Scores of College Students in Five 123 Major Fields (N Mean Sub-Scale Scores = 581) Mean General Econ. Soc. Eth.. Bus. Bus. Major Field Score Conv. Resp. Norms Career Educ'n. No Preference 324.4 68.5 63.7 58.8 66.6 67.2 Business 348.8 71.6 68.2 64.9 70.0 74.6 Engineering 317.4 69.2 64.0 60.2 62.0 61.8 Education 317.6 65.6 61.5 58.4 64.4 67.8 Arts & Letters 300.5 64.0 60.8 57.7 59.2 58.7 Summary of Analysis of Variance F-RatiO 2405** 1209** 1002** 809** 2304** 4808** Significant Gap 10.7 2.5 2.8 2.9 2.5 2.7 Notes: (a) * Significant at .05 level. ** Significant at .01 level. (b) Reference points for significance of F-Ratios: .05 - 2.39 .01 - 3.36 (c) See Appendix D for full explanation of proce- dures and formulas. 124 The Table indicates that a value of 10.7 represents a significant gap in General Scores, so that clearly Busi- ness and Arts & Letters students stand apart at Opposite ends of a continuum along which the other three groups stand virtually together near the mid-point. Mean Sub-Scale Scores reveal the same general pat- tern, but with certain deviations deserving of note. Dif- ferences between Business and Arts & Letters students are significant on each Sub-Scale, but are especially wide on the Business Career and Business Education Scales. While Engineering and Education students show virtually identical General Scores, it is apparent that the composition of the General Scores is not identical. Engineering students show significantly more favorable attitudes on the Basic Economic Convictions and Social Responsibility Scales, and slightly more favorable attitudes on the Ethical Norms scale. Edu- cation students rank significantly above Engineering stu- dents in their view of business as a career (Business Career Scale) and especially as a field of education (Busi- ness Education Scale). Thus it can be said that Engineering students display more favorable scores on the scales relating to social and institutional aspects of business (Basic Economic Convictions, Social Responsibility, and Ethical Norms), while Education students display higher scores on the scales relating more to professional aspects (Business Career and Business Education). There is little basis upon 125 which to isolate No Preference students from the Engineering or Education groups, although they share the significantly more favorable attitudes of the latter as to the career and education dimensions of business. The second of the general research hypotheses reads as follows: 2. Significant changes in attitude toward business occur during the course of the college career, but the direc- tion of change differs depending upon major field of study. Such changes will tend to be off-setting, and thus differ- ences in attitude will not be detected when class levels are compared in the aggregate. The first test of this hypothesis is a comparison of scores of students grouped by class level, but without regard to major field. If the hypothesis is correct, such comparison should reveal pg significant differences among levels since changes among the major field groups tend to be offsetting. Table 14 presents the results of Analysis of Variance tests to detect the significance of differences in General Scores and Sub-Scale Scores among the five class- levels under study. The tests support the hypothesis to the extent that they fail to offer evidence at the .05 probability 1eVe1 or below that mean scores differ significantly among the class level groups. The finding is true insofar as the General Score is concerned, as well as for each of the sub-scales 126 Table 14.—-Summary of Analysis of Variance of Attitude Scores of College Students at Five Levels (N = 581) Mean Sub-Scale Scores Mean A General Econ. Soc. Eth. Bus. Bus. Level Score Conv. Resp. Norms Career duc'n. Freshman 327.4 68.7 64.9 60.4 66.5 66.9 Sophomore 323.2 67.7 64.2 60.2 64.9 66.2 Junior 317.7 67.7 62.8 60.1 63.0 64.4 Senior 321.9 66.7 64.1 60.5 64.7 66.0 Master's 318.0 68.0 62.4 60.5 61.2 66.0 Summary of Analysis of Variance F-Ratio <1.oo <1.oo <1.oo <1.oo* 4.12** <1.oo Significant Gap - - - - 2.7 - Notes: * = Significant at .05 level. (a) ..., = Significant at .01 level. (b) Reference points for significance of F-Ratios: .05 - 2.39 .01 - 3.36 (c) See Appendix D for full explanation of procedures and formulas. 127 with the sole exception of the Business Career scale. Table 14 does reveal differences among the groups on the latter scale significant at the .01 level. Closer exami- nation of the Table indicates that the difference is attrib- utable to the significantly more favorable attitude of freshman students toward business as a career, versus mas- ter's level students. There appears to be a slight tendency (by no means consistent) for scores on all scales to decline from the freshman through master'slevels; but only on. the Business Career scale does there exist adequate evidence that the tendency is statistically significant. An Additional Test of the Major Hypotheses The Analysis of Variance tests described above were one-dimensional in nature; i.e., the independent variables of major field and class level were considered one by one. There is available a more sensitive technique known as two-way Analysis of Variance, wherein two independent vari- ables are considered simultaneously. In order to conduct a two-way-Analysis of Variance with class level and major field as the independent variables, it was necessary to drop the No Preference major field category from the anal- ysis, since this major field category exists only at the first two class levels. DeletiOn.of the No Preference category leaves a matrix with dimensions of four major fields 128 and five class levels, as shown in Table 15. Two-way-Analy- sis of Variance was felt to be a desirable additional test of Hypotheses 1 and 2, despite the loss of 54 No Preference subjects from the analysis. The two-way technique provides a means of testing whether the influence of one independent variable on the dependent variable1 is similar for sub- groups formed on the basis of the second independent vari- able; in short, the test measures the extent of interaction between the two independent variables. The results of the analysis are presented in Table 16. The interaction effect is revealed as being significant at the .01 level. Moreover, the value of the F statistic for major field differences is greater than shown in Table 13, although the value of the F statistic for class level is unchanged from Table 14. Examination of Table 16 makes it immediately evident that differences among the major field groups are far more pronounced at the three upper class levels. However, no significant pattern of differ- ences in scores according to class level can be discerned, even when the major field variable is considered simulta- neously. Thus, the two-way analysis may-be interpreted as indicating that the interaction effect between the two independent variables of major field and class level is 1The two-way analysis was limited to General Score (and not Sub-Scale Scores) as the dependent variable. 129 Table 15.--Mean General Scores of College Student Sample (N = 527) Major Field Level Business Engineering Education Arts & Letters Freshman 346.1 315.6 319.5 317.5 SOphomore 336.0 325.2 325.2 319.4 Junior 343.9 313.4 318.3 288.9 Senior 362.3 319.3 317.6 275.3 Master's 354.2 313.7 307.9 291.4 Table 16.--Two-Way Analysis of Variance of Attitude Scores of College Students Classified by Major Field and Level - General Score Only (N = 527) Source of Sum of Variation Squares d.f. Mean qu. F-Ratio Major Field (Columns) l72,844.3 3 57,615.5 33.6** Level (Rows) 6,606.3 4 1,651.6 See Appendix D for full explation of proce- formulas. Reference points'for significance of F-Values: 135 Table 21.--Summary of Analysis of Variance of Attitude Scores of Master's Students (N = 93) Mean Sub-Scale Scores Mean General Econ. Soc. Eth. Bus. Bus. Major Field Score iConv. Resp. Norms Career Educ'n. Business 354.2 74.9 69.5 68.2 67.9 74.3 Engineering 313.6 70.5 64.2 59.5 58.6 61.3 Education 307.8 64.9 58.1 57.1 61.0 67.2 Arts & Letters 291.4 60.8 57.4 56.5 56.7 60.0 Summary of Analysis of Variance F-Ratio 8.93** 9.61** 5.84** 5.87** 5.42** 10.98** Significant Gap 26.3 5.2 7.0 6.7 6.2 5.8 3 Notes: (a) * Significant at .05 level. ** Significant at .01 level. (b) Reference points for significance of F-Values: 005 - 2072 001 - 4.04 (c) See Appendix D for full explanation of proce- dures and foimulas. 136 of favorableness, but not separated with complete statisti- cal assurance from the larger group (Education in partic- ular). In examining the Sub-Scale Scores reported in Table 17 it is interesting to note that significant differences among the major field groups exist only on the professionally- oriented scales. Freshmen entering the Business curriculum or choosing the No Preference option show significantly more favorable attitudes toward the career and educational dimensions of business, than students entering the other three major fields. On the scales measuring more the broader social aspects of business, freshmen in these five major field areas do indeed appear to hold homogeneous views. It might be inferred that on the fundamental question of belief in the viability of our business system and insti- tutions, entering freshman students cannot be distinguished in accordance with their selection of a major field option. The Sophomore Level.--Table 18 indicates that at sophomore level there is more of a consensus in attitude among the major field groups than at the freshman level. General Scores of Engineering, Education, and Arts & Letters students have risen, while General Scores of Busi- ness students have declined. Also evident is a sharp drop in the scores of No Preference students. Differences in General Scores among the five major field groups are no longer statistically significant, nor are differences on 137 the Business Career scale. Only on the Business Education scale can a distinction among the groups still be made with statistical assurance. The Junior Level.-—At the junior level, differences among major field groups are substantial, as Table 19 indi- cates. At this level, Arts & Letters students can be placed at one end of a continuum, significantly separated from the Engineering and Education groups near the center, in turn significantly separated from the Business students at the opposite end. On the grounds of the mythical mid-point, it becomes possible at the junior level to ascribe to the Arts & Letters group a generally unfavorable attitude toward business. Examination of the Sub-Scale Scores reveals signif- icant differences between Business and Arts & Letters stu- dents in every dimension, but greatest on the professionally- oriented scales--especia11y Business Education--and some- what-less on the economic, social, and ethical scales. Education and Engineering students remain very sim- ilar in all scores at this level. The Senior Level.--The expansion of the ends of the continuum described in the previous section is obvious at the senior level. While General Scores reveal Engineering and Education students to remain in a relatively fixed position, Business students have moved considerably further 138 in the favorable direction while Arts & Letters students have moved considerably further in the negative direction. The increasing polarization of these two groups in atti- tude is striking. On the grounds of the mythical mid-point it can be said at the senior level that Arts & Letters students have uniformly unfavorable attitudes toward business within each of the dimensions under study, while Business students have uniformly favorable attitudes throughout the same dimensions. Meanwhile, at the senior level, there are basically no grounds remaining in the realm of statistical signifi- cance upon which to distinguish between the attitudes of the Engineering and Education groups. The Master's Level.--At the master's level, while the general pattern of the junior and senior levels persists, differences have moderated. Table 21 indicates that the General Scores of Arts & Letters students can no longer be differentiated from those of Engineering and Education students with statistical reliability: although Business students remain more than a significant gap apart from the other groups. The Major Field Groups The Business Group.--Hypothesis 2-a states that: As a group, Business students display increasingly more 139 favorable attitudes toward business at each level from freshman through master's. Table 22 does not support this hypothesis insofar as General Scores, nor scores on any of the five sub-scales are concerned. There does appear to be a pattern of increasing scores from the freshman to at least the senior level, but differences are inconsistent and are not signif- icant at the .05 probability level or below. Evidence presented in an earlier table indicates that students entering the Business curriculum as freShman have significantly more favorable attitudes toward business than students choosing the other major field options under study. On the basis of Table 22, there is little evidence to suggest that the attitudes of these students undergo any important changes--in either direction--during their expo- sure to four or five years of the Business curriculum. The Arts & Letters Group.--Hypothesis 2-b states that: As a group, Arts & Letters students display increas- inglyless favorable attitudes toward business at each level from freshman through master's. Table 23 supports this hypothesis insofar as Gen- eral Scores are concerned, as well as scores on each of the 140 Table 22.--Summary of Analysis of Variance of Attitude Scores of Business Students (N = 146) Mean Sub-Scale Scores Mean General Economic Social Ethical Bus. Bus. Level Score Conv. Resp. Norms Career duc'n. Freshman 346.1 70.1 67.5 63.7 71.2 73.6 Sophomore 336.00' 69.1 65.0 59.6 69.3 74.1 Junior 343.9 71.3 67.4 64.6 68.6 73.6 Senior 362.3 72.6 71.2 68.2 73.1 77.1 Master's 354.2 74.9 69.5 68.2 67.9 74.3 Summary of Analysis of Variance F-Ratio 2.06 2.18 1.82 2.99* 2.58*l dents expressing different career plans. Section (A) of the table relates to respondents' stated plans upon gradu- ation from the 4-year undergraduate program, and includes graduate school as a choice; section (B) relates to ultimate career plans. The table presents the results of Analysis 152 Table 31.--Summary of Analysis of Variance of General Scores of College Students Expressing Different Career Plans (N =)a (A) UPON GRADUATION FROM 4-YEAR PROGRAM Career Plan (11) ' ‘ Mean Gen. Score Graduate School 216 316.5 Government 21 314.0 Business & Industry 122 336.2 Education 86 311.3 Other ' 43 314.3 F-Ratio 7.44** Significant Gap 16.4 (B) ULTIMATE Career Plan (n) Mean Gen. Score Professional f (Law, Medicine, etc) 87 317.7 Government 34 314.1 Business 8 Industry 254 338.0 Education 155 303.9 Other 51 310.0 F-Ratio 17.11** Significant Gap 12.8 Notes: (a) N = 488 for Part (A) for Part (B). (master's level excluded); 581 (b) * = Significant at .05 level ** = Significant at .01 level (c) See Appendix D for full explanation of procedures and formulas. 153 of Variance tests upon the category scores. On the basis of the data in Table 31 the hypothesis must be rejected. Students indicating choice of a career in business and industry, both upon graduation and as an ultimate intention, stand markedly above the other categories in attitude toward business. In fact, students electing the other options can- not be differentiated at all from one another on the basis of mean General Scores; only the Business and Industry group can be set apart from the others with statistical confidence. The College Graduate Sample Undergraduate Major Field and Career Stage Hypothesis 5 reads as follows: There will be no significant differences in attitude among employees of a large industrial enterprise which can be attributed to differing major field backgrounds in college. Table 32 shows the mean General and Sub-Scale Scores for employees of the subject firm reflecting three different undergraduate major fields. On the basis of the data in Table 32 the hypothesis must be rejected. There are signif- icant differences in general attitude toward business among employees with different major field backgrounds. Moreover, it is interesting to note that on the basis of General Scores, the three major fields can be separated from one another in exactly the same relative pattern as in the college- 154 Table 32.-~Summary of Analysis of Variance of Attitude Scores of College Graduates Representing Three Undergraduate Major Fields of Study (N = 179) Mean Sub-Scale Scores Mean Major General Economic Social Ethical Bus. Bus. Field (n) Score Conv. Resp. Norms Career duc'n. Business 40 374.8 76.8 74.5 74.7 72.9 75.2 Eng'g 72 354.6 77.8 71.0 72.3 68.2 65.2 Arts & Letters 67 346.1 76.8 69.0 68.5 66.3 765.4 Summary of Analysis of Variance F-Ratio 8.76** <1.00 4.79** 4.45* 8.05*%15.80** Significant Gap 10.9 - 2.8 3.2 2.2 2.8 Notes: (a) * = Significant at .05 level ** = Significant at .01 level (b) Reference points for significance of F-Values: (C) 005 _ 3.04 .01 - 4071 See Appendix D for full explanation of precedures and formulas. 155 student sample: Business majors at the "favorable" pole, Arts & Letters students at the "unfavorable" pole, and Engineering students in the middle. It will be observed at once, of course, that all three major field groups in the college-graduate sample are skewed much to the favorable side of the mythical mid-point, so that in an absolute sense the mean score of the Arts & Letters group is in fact quite favorable.l Differences among the three groups are significant on all of the sub-scales except for Basic Eco— nomic Convictions. It will be noted that a particularly large gap separates Business from the other two groups on the Business Education scale. Hypothesis 6 reads as follows: A direct relation- ship exists between attitude toward business and length of time in the business career. Attitudes become increasingly more favorable as the assimilationgprocess continues. Table 33 shows the mean General and Sub-Scale scores for employees of the subject firm at 4 different career stages, ranging from the second year to the fifth year and over. On the basis of the data in Table 33, hypothesis 6 must be rejected. There does appear to be a slight trend lReference back to Table, 13, page 123, will show that the mean General Score of Arts & Letters peOple in the college-graduate sample is comparable to the mean General Score of Business majors in the college-student sample. 156 Table 33.--Summary of Analysis of Variance of Attitude Scores of College Graduates Representing 4 Career Stages (N 179) Mean Sub-Scale Scores Mean . Career eneral Economic Social Ethical Bus. Bus. Stage (n) Score Conv. Resp. Norms Career Educ'n. _ 1-2 yrs. 55 354.9 75.5 71.4 72.1 68.2 69.2 2-3 yrs. 44 358.0 78.5 71.0 73.2 69.5 65.9 3-4 yrs. 37 357.2 77.7 71.1 71.5 69.1 67.9 Over 4 yrs. 43 356.2 77.3 70.9 71.9 69.3 67.7 Summary of Analysis of Variance FéRatio <1.00 <1.00 <1.00 74' 72' 7C 68- 66 64 62 Soph. Mean Score Mean Score D) ETHICAL NORMS Mean Score E) BUSINESS CAREER 80 8O 78 P 78 ’ 76 ) 76 ) 74 b 7“ 5 7)» 72 . 70 70ifizr‘ 68 ~ 68 k q:““F"""‘ 66 f 66 :',:!V" b“ 6!. 64 r E 62 62‘?— SNL ‘L 58 + 56 ' 54 * 52 h 50 50 F1. Soph. Mat. fr Sop). Jun. Sen. Mat. Clans Level Fig. 4-- MEAN scomts m: 'mr mums STl'IH-ZNF SAMPLE 80‘ 78 76 74 72 70 68_ Jun Sen. Mat. Class Level F) BUSINESS EDUCATION vvvvv '- r-"' Soph. Jun. Sen. Class Irvel _ 173 socio-economic background; grade-point average; and expe- rience and maturity, as measured by three characteristics. It was assumed (Hypothesis 3-a) that socio-economic background would correlate inversely with attitude toward business; i.e., students from lower class backgrounds would hold the most favorable attitudes. This hypothesis was not supported. A slight direct correlation was found instead, but it proved not to be statistically significant. It was anticipated (Hypothesis 3-b) that grade- point average would correlate inversely with attitude toward business; i.e., students falling in lower grade-point aver- age categories would hold the most favorable attitudes. This hypothesis was supported. The data established a significant relationship between these variables of a negative, linear nature. It was believed that the general characteristics of experience and maturity would correlate directly with attitude toward business (Hypothesis 3-c). Three different variables were selected to represent separate measurements of these characteristics: (1) age; (2) extent of prior work experience; and (3) degree of financial independence as indicated by source of college education funds. The hypothesis can neither be wholly accepted nor rejected on the basis of the data generated in this study. A slight negative correlation between age and General Score was indicated; i.e., scores decreased as age increased. But, this 174 relationship did not meet the minimum criteria of statis- tical confidence. Virtually no connection whatsoever between prior work experience and attitude toward business could be determined from the data. The measurement of financial independence, however, did correlate directly with such attitude. It was found that students with a higher degree of financial independence tended to hold more favorable attitudes toward business. Hypothesis 4 proposed that the attitudes toward business of students intent upon business careers would not differ significantly from the attitudes of students intent upon other career choices. The hypothesis was not supported. Students indicating an intention to pursue a business career, whether upon graduation from the four- year program or ultimately, displayed significantly higher General Scores than students indicating other career choices. To some extent this might be viewed as a refutation of the "Reluctant Businessman" theory of the Rosenberg study,1 wherein the business career is a "sorry second choice" for many students ideologically opposed to business. The College Graduate Sample Hypothesis 5 assumed that attitudes toward business would not permit differentiation of subjects in the college lRosenberg, loc. cit. 175 >h~N1 St‘"\‘* A) (J \))t\L S(WH£LS 5k n: N..u.- ll)HASI(, E(T)NHMI(I(1)NVI(KTIONS "(80 80 P ‘ 7H t 370. M 76 b lfhhu 74‘ \ \ g Hai‘ 7‘ ~‘ 72 \ F‘Nh‘~.‘~."4:.~._‘ ;:)A::::—ofif‘F'r 70 -—-———- l 530’ / M \ 68 P 340 # 6). b b 1’ 62 ’ — 330/ 60 )- 58 b 320 56 ' b 54 t 310’ 52 P . 50 ___J 1-2 yrs. 2-3 yrs. 3-4 yrs. 4-8 yrs. 300 Career Stage b 290’ Mean Score C) SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY I 80 ' 280 78 P 7. 270* 71. r. 72 260 70 1-2 yrs. 2-3 yrs. 3-4 yrs. 4-8 yrs. 68 Career Stage 66 p 62 60 58 ’ --—-— ARTS 6: LETTERS 56 - m ENGINEERING 5" ' . 52 ' 50 1-2 yrs. 2-3 yrs. 3-4 yrs. 4-8 yrs. Career Stage Mean Score D) ETHICAL NORHS Mean Score E) BUSINESS CAREER Mean Score F) BUSINESS EDUCATION 80 80‘_’ 8 78 ’ 7 76 P 7 74 :Y 7 ___.__ 72 - ‘ -§ 7 _‘_.‘r4:;"" ‘\ 70 v -~ 7 68 ’ 1”, ‘-‘- 6 44P-"“'--. 66 L7 6 / ‘4 64 ' 6 62 " 6 — .42. 6 ~ 58 t 5 5 S6 ’ S S 54 b 5 5 52 ’ S 5 50 5- S 1-2 yrs. 2-3 yrs. 3-4 yrs. 4-8 yrs. 1-2 yrs. 2-3 yrs. 3-4 yrs. 4-8 yrs. 1-2 yrs. 2-3 yrs. 3-4 yrs. 4-8 yzs. Career Stage Career Stage F18. Sun- MEAN SCORES Us THE COLLEGE GRADUATE SAMPLE Career Stage 176 graduate sample on the basis of their differing under- graduate major fields. The hypothesis could not be accepted, since the data revealed significant differences in scores of the major field groups. In general, the differences followed the same relative pattern as in the college stu- dent sample, but in absolute terms each of the major field groups showed a mean General Score far to the favorable side of the mid-point. Hypothesis 6 proposed that attitudes would become more favorable as length of service with the subject firm increased. The hypothesis was rejected, inasmuCh as no significant differences were detected when subjects in the college graduate sample were classified in four different career stages. A test of interaction in the effect of major field differences and differences in career stage revealed that attitude differences among the major field groups was greatest at the earliest career stage, and diminished there- after. Hypothesis 7 proposed that when employee produc- tivity was measured on a performance rating scale, subjects with the highest rating would reflect the most favorable attitudes. The findings very nearly supported the hypoth- esis, but the relationship between the score variable and the performance rating variable was inconsistent. In view 177 of the pre-established statistical criteria for the accep- tance of hypotheses, it was necessary to reject hypothesis 7. The Major Conclusions The major conclusions based upon the author's interpretations of the research findings are presented in the following paragraphs. 1. On balance, the study cannot be said to support the sweeping generalization that the present college gen- eration is hostile toward business; i.e., the "business is for the birds" proposition. To the extent that a general score of 300 in the study can be interpreted as an approx- imation of a mid-point in attitude,1 this study paints a more favorable picture. Table 38 shows the matrix of the college student sample, with (+) and (-) symbols entered in the cells to indicate, respectively, mean general scores over and under 300. Only 3 of the 22 sample cells can be said on this basis to reflect unfavorable general attitudes toward business. Nonetheless, in the case of many of the cells, mean scores suggest attitudes close to a point of neutrality or indifference.2 Such indifference or apathy can hardly be very comforting to the business community. 1See Chapter IV, "Interpretation of Test Scores," for a full discussion of this point. 2See Figure 4. 178 Table 38.--Mean General Scores of Cells in College Student Sample Relative to Mid-Point Score of 300 (+ 8 Over 300, - - Under 300) Fresh. Soph. Junior Senior Master's Business + + + + + Arts a + _ _ _ Letters + Engineering + + + + + Education + + + + + No Pref. + + 2. There is a prevalent belief that students entering college are already prejudiced against business, because of distorted images reflected in the arts, poorly informed lower school teachers, and even parents. The study fails to support such a belief. Instead, it favors the conclusion that freshman students--even those choosing an Arts & Letters program--enter college with attitudes ranging from quite favorable (Business students) to, at worst, relatively indifferent. The study shows no evidence at all that deep-rooted impressions and experiences must be ”undone" before positive influences can be made effective. 3. The study compels the conclusion that the col- lege experience is more potent in a negative direction, than in a positive, in redirecting attitudes toward business. 179 Only Business students, a group displaying markedly more favorable attitudes than other curriculum groups at the start of their college career, appear to move toward a more favorable attitude as they progress through college; and this change is relatively slight. Education and Engineering students appear to enter college with indifferent or apa- thetic attitudes toward business and to leave four (or five) years later with these attitudes basically unchanged. <3Arts & Letters students appear to enter college with simi- ‘larly indifferent or apathetic attitudes, but to leave four (or five) years later with deeply unfavorable impressions. 4. It is at about the mid-point in the four-year college program where attitudes are hardened in their ultimate direction and intensity. Business and Arts & Letters students, showing surprisingly similar attitudes toward business as freshman--nearly identical in respect to the broader social aspects--are separated as seniors by profound and pervasive differences in attitude. The movement toward opposite poles seems to have its greatest impetus somewhere in the sOphOmore-junior period. 5. The findings of the research compel the dis- maying conclusion that scholastic performance is inversely related to attitude toward business, and that the higher a college student's grade-point average, the less favorable his attitude toward business is likely to be. 180 6. The belief that persons from lower socio- economic backgrounds tend to have more favorable opinions of business than "upper-class" persons, is not supported by the study. The investigation favors the-conclusion that socio-economic background is not a significant factor in shaping attitude toward business. Moreover, as far as college students are concerned, persons from higher socio- economic backgrounds are at least as likely to hold favor- able views of business as are persons from the lower socio- economic background levels. 7. No clear-cut conclusion can be reached as to how the general qualities of experience and maturity affect a student's attitude toward business. Older students seem generally to reflect less favorable attitudes, but at the same time students who have supported their own college education display a definite . tendency toward more favor- able attitudes. The data establish no relationship at all between a student's perception of the extent of his prior work experience and attitude toward business. 8. One of the most strongly supported conclusions of the study is that students planning upon careers in~ business hold substantially more favorable attitudes toward business than students intent upon other career choices. Whether or not this is indicative of some process of post- decision subconscious rationalization, the fact remains that students intending to enter the business world appear 181 to do so with a generally positive attitude in this impor- tant respect. 9. College graduates actively pursuing business careers hold markedly more favorable attitudes toward business than their college student counterparts. In the very early career stages, e.g. the second year, the same relative differences in attitude separate graduates of the different major fields in much the same way as is true with students. However, in absolute terms, the attitudes of the graduates are far more favorable than those of the students. Moreover, there is a tendency for these attitudinal dif- ferences to moderate as careers progress. 10. On the basis of the data produced in this inves- tigation, it cannot be concluded with scientific rigor that attitudes toward business are a factor in employee produc- tivity. Nonetheless, the weight of the evidence does lean in this direction. Implications It is believed that several important implications flow from the major conclusions enumerated in the preceding section. In the main, these are implications for action 'on-the part of business leaders and educators alike. Even though the findings of this study do not reveal the deep-rooted and pervasive hostility toward business claimed in some other sources, they nevertheless suggest 182 that great opportunities to bring positive influence into campus life are very likely being missed. In fact, it is the very indifference or apathy of this study that argues the loudest for some positive actions to tip the scales of attitude more in favor of the American business system. It is highly significant that entering freshman- students, even those choosing the "notoriously hostile" Arts & Letters curriculum, reflect no unfavorable attitudes toward business. The tendency toward homogenity and gen- eral favorableness of attitude apparently persists well into the sophomore year as well. There is strong evidence, particularLyin view of the absence of any correlation between attitude and socio-economic background, that it 15.1“ col- lege that views take their shape, and that only gradually are hostile attitudes nurtured in the minds of some students. The important point here is that on ideological grounds the American business system starts out with at least an even. chance in student minds. Business leaders frequently say that they are inter- ested in attracting the well-rounded individual to a career in business, and that they wish they could persuade more Arts & Letters students to consider business careers. It is important to note that the findings of the study show that it is in the range of the sophomore-junior period that attitudes of major field groups begin to diverge; Arts & Letters students moving rapidly in the direction of an 183 unfavorable pole. If business wishes to influence the latter group to think positively about the business career, it seems clear that the best corporate recruiting campaign imaginable--waged only at the senior or graduate leve1--is largely doomed to failure. In the plainest of terms, it is just too late then. The findings of the study shggest in the main that little happens during the college career to influence stu- dents to think more positively about business. Business students enter college with favorable attitudes toward business, and these appear to be reinforced only to a slight degree by the weight of four or five years exposure to a Business curriculum. Engineering and Education stu- dents have indifferent attitudes at the start, and apparently their careers in college influence them hardly at all, one way or the other, toward business. The Arts & Letters stu- dents are clearly influenced negatively to a marked degree. It appears that the central, and inescapable, impli- cation of the findings is that if business is to change its image on the campus for the better it must enter campus life more actively than in the past or present. Espécially important is that it become a more active part of campus life at earlier levels and across §ii_major fields. The recruiting focus at the senior and graduate level, as well as the concentration on specialized major fields, permits a vast tide of bright young people to pass through college 184 untouched by any meaningful contact with the business com- munity. Proposals for Action There is no suggestion here that it is possible to prescribe a series of activities which, if pursued by the business community, will be a cure-all for the problem described above. Still, it is possible td mention some of the types of actions that could be taken (and in some cases are being taken) in order to fulfill the spirit of the man- date outlined above: 1. Most important is the recognition by business that the hostility which may exist between business and the cam- pus is often a two-way street. Prejudice against the "egg- heads" and "liberals" of the university world has at times blinded business to the legitimate demands of the intellec- tual community for business reforms. The businessman knows that agressive advertising cannot for long overcome product deficiencies, and in the same sense an improved image of business on the campus will partly depend upon the continuing receptivity of business to change. Greater moral leader- ship by business in regard to the social issues of our time, and greater encouragement of creativity and innovation in the business organization,.are more important keys to a better image for business than improvement of channels of communication to the university campus. Particularly relevant 185 to these comments is the finding of this study that college- student grades are inversely related to attitude toward business. The business community has acquired, and not altogether undeservedly, an anti-intellectual image over time, and a first-order requisite for better relations with the campus is a genuine committment to increase the recep- tivity of the business environment to the fruits of intel- lectualism--be they people or ideas. 2. Private industry should provide greater financial support for university research. Approximately 94 percent of current college and university research grants come from public agencies, while only about 6 percent comes from pri- vate business. Faculty members and graduate students who spend their time writing proposals for government research grants are often left with little time for involvement in business problems. Thus, a dearth of contact and interaction between business and university helps to breed mutual mis- understanding. 3. Private industry should make more of an effort to keep faculty members in all major fields current on the needs and challenges of modern business. Monsanto Chemical Company has enjoyed great success with an annual seminar 1 for professors in the physical sciences. Certainly, the idea could be extended into the behavioral sciences as well, l"Seeking Closer Campus Ties," Chemical Week, VC, 186 and why not into all other fields? Many an instructor of Liberal Arts subjects would no doubt enjoy an opportunity, reasonably lucrative, to acquire some first-hand stories for his classes about the moral degeneracy of modern busi- ness; but hopefully he would come away with a very different picture! The objective of programs of the type mentioned would pep be to ggip specialized knowledge for the business firm, but to giyg an opportunity for the involvement of university persons in business problems. Considering the finding of the study that Engineering and Education students are virtually unchanged in their attitude toward business during four years of college, a greater effort along these lines could provide some of the weight needed to tip the scales in the direction of more positive attitudes toward business. Professors who have benefitted by actual exposure to and involvement in the great challenges of modern busi- ness, might well provide the slight additional push to send more Engineering students into business careers and send into the lower schools Education students who will give more emphasis to the accomplishments of the American busi- ness system. 4. Along lines similar to the above, far more large firms should adopt programs similar to the "year in indus- try" sponsored now by Ford and DuPont. Under this program, college professors are given the opportunity to gain a 187 year of actual business experience. Programs such as this could even be expanded into "swap" programs, wherein cor- porations and universities could exchange key persons for some limited period. Once again, however, the spirit behind programs of this type must be one of giving (experience and insight) rather than one of gaining (specialized talent). 5. A conscious effort should be made by major business firms to increase the scope of their contacts with colleges and universities by integrating it as a specific organiza- tional function. Too many firms visualize their relationship with colleges and universities only in a recruiting sense. Instead of this, more firms should establish "college rela- tions departments" such as that of the Dow Chemical Com- Pany. Departments of this type would be responsible for maintaining a professional liaison with the education com- munity covering all areas of mutual interest; including, but certainly not limited to, recruiting efforts. 6. Programs of part-time employment for college stu- dents, particularly in summer months, should be expanded and enhanced. The positions should be such as to introduce students to the side of business where intellectual chal- lenge exists, and not jobs as file clerks and messengers. Efforts should be made to get students from all major fields into these positions. Without belaboring the point, 'Dnce again the guiding spirit behind such programs must be ‘One of giving rather than gaining. 188 These are but a few of the steps business can take (and in some instances is taking) to establish a better working partnership with university administrators, faculty, and students. This is a breaking away from the confines of the pragmatic relationships that generally have existed. In the past, faculty members have been sought out only in? sofar as their special skills might contribute to solving specific problems; students have been sought out only inso- far as they might be desirable employee recruits. Steps such as those mentioned above envision a greater involvement of the business community in academic life--through support for research, not just applied but basic as well; through contacts with administrators and faculty, not just for Specialized skills or help but for better mutual under- standing of objectives and problems; through contacts with Students, not just for recruiting purposes but for genuine intellectual interaction about the role of American busi- ness in the world today. Suggestions for Future Research The issue of public attitudes toward business is nearly boundless in all of its ramifications, and the study Was of necessity limited in itS.SCOpe. In its empirical Phases, it focused upon the college student population at a Single major university, further limited to selected major fields and class levels; similarly it focused upon. 189 college graduate employees of a single major industrial firm, further limited to graduates of selected major fields and at selected career stages. It would obviously be desirable, in future research, to extend the breadth of the coverage. For example, it would be helpful to know whether the attitude patterns uncovered in the student sample at Michigan State University hold true for other types of col- leges and universities. M.S.U. is a public institution; would attitudinal patterns be similar at a private insti- tution? M.S.U. is one of the nation's largest universities; would attitudinal patterns be similar at a small institution? M.S.U. is primarily an institution with a resident student population; would attitudinal patterns be similar at an urban, commuting-type institution? Along analogous lines of thought, it would be helpful to know whether the attitudinal patterns uncovered in the graduate sample at the Dow Chemical Company hold true for industries and firms of differing nature and size. The study has, in fact, been limited to college graduates who chose a career in business--leaving untapped the atti- tudes of the great tide of graduates entering other career fields. It would be equally desirable, in future research, to extend the depth to which the study penetrated. 190 For example, the study focused upon students in four major fields. It would be useful to probe the extent to which attitudinal differences may mark off students in more narrowly defined special fields; e.g., electrical engineering versus chemical engineering, or accounting versus marketing. Moreover, the investigation was limited to five- fairly broad dimensions of attitude toward business. It would enhance understanding of such attitudes if future research probed into more specific attitudinal realms; e.g., attitudes toward specific industries, products, and institutions. The investigation was croés-sectional in nature, and the research efforts described. in the preceding para- graphs suggest studies of the same general type. However, longitudinal studies can provide a degree of confidence about changes which occur over time that can~never quite be matched in the cross-sectional approach. It would there- fore be desirable if a future research effort studied the same college students through their careers in college, or similarly, the same graduates through certain stages of their professional careers. It would be ideal if attitudes toward business could be studied in the same individuals over some extended period of time, say, from high school through career assimilation. 191 Probably the single most intriguing residual ques- tion of the investigation pertains to the connection between general attitude toward business and employee productivity. The evidence of the study has been claimed to lean toward the conclusion that general attitude toward business is a factor in employee productivity, but the null hypothesis could not be rejected with the desired degree of statistical confidence. Recognizing the important implications of such a relationship to business management, a further investigation of the connection--if any--between these variables certainly appears to be of first order importance. A Final Note It has not been possible to demonstrate conclusively in the study that general attitude toward business is a factor in employee productivity, although such an inference has been made. But whether or not this is so, a greater imperative exists for a better working partnership of the business and education communities. In a world of ideol- 7Ogical competitiOn and social upheaval, we.would.hope to convince the developing nations that social and material progress can best be made via an economic system of free choice and open competition, subject only to the degree of governmental restraint necessary for the pursuance of vital social goals. In short, we wish to demonstrate the potency and viability of the free enterprise system. Widespread apathy 192 and indifference toward business among the college population is not an encouraging sign of the nation's capacity to move in this direction. While America needs the brightest and ablest of her youth in fields such as government, education, and science, she can afford nothing less than their moti- vation into business careers as well. APPENDIX A The Final Research Instrument 193 194- Graduate School of Business Administration Michigan State University SURVEY OF ATTITUDES TOWARD BUSINESS - Instructions — The following pages contain a series of one hundred statements. These statements concern various aspects of business — as a part of society, as a career field, and as a field of education in college - and of our economic system in general. We are inter- ested in the extent to which people agree or disagree with the ideas expressed, so each statement is followed by five choices: Strongly sgree - Agree - Undecided - Disagree - Strongly dis- agree. Please circle the choice which best describes how you feel about each statement. Do not hesitate to take "strongly agree" or "strongly disagree" positions even where you feel no strong emotional involvement in the statement. These choices primarily denote the absence of doubt in your mind as to your agreement or disagreement. You may feel you know too little about a particular item to take a position, but what matters is what you think based upon the limited information you may have. Choose "undecided" when you really have no feelings one way or the other. Similarly, you may feel that some of the terms used in the state- ments are ambiguous. But what matters is what these terms signify to you. There are no right or wrong answers. Please respond in terms of how you feel, not how you think others may feel or how society may want you to feel. Please complete the last page of this survey which asks for a few items of personal information essential to this research. (Your name may be left blank if you wish.) WORK RAPIDLY AND RESPOND TQ_EVERY ITEM THANK YOU FOR YOUR COOPERATION 10. ll. 12. 13. 1h. 15. 16. THE BUSINESS COMMUNITY, IF GIVEN A FREE HAND, WOULD RUTHLESSLY EXPLOIT AND DESTROY OUR NATURAL RESOURCES. Strongly agree Agree Undecided Disagree Strongly disagree ONLY A TINY MINORITY OF BUSINESSMEN WOULD EVER CONSIDER OFFERING A BRIEF TO A GOVERNMENT OFFICIAL. Strongly agree Agree Undecided Disagree Strongly disagree THE MODERN CORPORATION STRONGLY DISCOURAGES ANY SOCIAL OR INTELLECTUAL ECCENTRICFH ON THE PART OF EMPLOYEES. Strongly agree Agree Undecided Disagree Strongly disagree PROFESSORS OF BUSINESS ARE MORE IN TOUCH WITH THE REALITIES OF LIFE THAN PROFESSWE IN MOST OTHER FIELDS. Strongly agree Agree Undecided Disagree Strongly disagree WHEN A RICH MAN DIES, MOST OF HIS PROPERTY SHOULD GO TO THE STATE. Strongly agree Agree Undecided Disagree Strongly disagree PRIVATE INDUSTRY CAN DO A BETTER JOB OF ALLEVIATING POVERTY IN THE U.S. THAN THE GOVERNMENT. Strongly agree Agree Undecided Disagree Strongly disagree FOR THE MODERN CORPORATION, "ETHICS" GENERALLY MEANS WHAT ITS LAWYERS SAY IT CAN GET AWAY WITH. Strongly agree Agree Undecided Disagree Strongly disagree AMERICA NEEDS A "HALL OF FAME" TO HONOR THE UNSUNG BUSINESS LEADERS WHO CONTINUE TO MAKE OUR NATION GREAT. Strongly agree Agree Undecided Disagree Strongly disagree BUSINESS EDUCATION IS ESSENTIALLY ANTI-INTELLECTUAL. Strongly agree Agree Undecided Disagree Strongly disagree FOR MEN TO DO THEIR BEST, THERE MUST BE THE POSSIBILITY OF UNLIMITED PROFIT. Strongly Agree Agree Undecided Disagree Strongly disagree AMERICAN OIL COMPANIES IN SOUTH AMERICA OFFER A GOOD EXAMPLE OF HOW AMERICAN BUSINESS EXPLOITS THE PEOPLE OF UNDERDEVELOPED NATIONS. Strongly agree Agree Undecided Disagree Strongly disagree BIG COMPANIES USUALLY BEND OVER BACKWARDS TO MAKE SURE THEIR CUSTOMERS ARE SATISKEL. Strongly agree Agree Undecided Disagree Strongly disagree PEOPLE LIKE SCIENTISTS, SENATORS, AND PROFESSORS HAVE REPLACED BUSINESS LEADERSIE THE HEROES OF OUR DAY. . Strongly agree Agree Undecided Disagree Strongly disagree AS A GROUP, BUSINESS STUDENTS COULD HOLD THEIR OWN IN ANY OTHER CURRICULUM IN COME;- Strongly agree Agree Undecided Disagree Strongly disagree THE GOVERNMENT SHOULD TAKE OVER ALL LARGE INDUSTRIES. Strongly agree Agree Undecided Disagree Strongly disagree JOHN D. ROCKEFELLER CONTRIBUTED AS MUCH TO THE WELFARE OF OUR SOCIETY AS THOMASIA EDISON. Strongly agree Agree Undecided Disagree Strongly disagree 13?. 218. 159. 230. 21” 225 23. 2h. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. 195 MOST BUSINESSMEN WILL DO JUST ABOUT ANYTHING, HONEST OR NOT, FOR A BUCK. Strongly agree Agree Undecided Disagree Strongly disagree THE NON-CONFORMIST IS ALWAYS WELCOME IN THE BUSINESS WORLD. Strongly agree Agree Undecided Disagree Strongly disagree COMPARED TO THE GENERAL STUDENT BODY, BUSINESS STUDENTS TEND TO BE BELOW AVERAGE INTELLECTUALLY. Strongly agree Agree Undecided Disagree Strongly disagree LABOR DOES NOT GET ITS FAIR SHARE OF WHAT IT PRODUCES. Strongly agree Agree Undecided Disagree Strongly disagree BUSINESS TRIES HARD TO KEEP THE COST OF LIVING DOWN. Strongly agree Agree Undecided Disagree Strongly disagree IT IS COMMON PRACTICE FOR "COMPETING" FIRMS IN AN INDUSTRY TO MEET SECRETLY TO FIX PRICES OF PRODUCTS. Strongly agree Agree Undecided Disagree Strongly disagree WHEN HISTORIANS OF THE FUTURE WRITE OF THIS ERA, THEY WILL INCLUDE MANY BUSINESSMEN AMONG THE GREAT MEN OF OUR TIME. Strongly agree Agree Undecided Disagree Strongly disagree AMERICAN HIGHER EDUCATION HAS REACHED A SORRY STATE WHEN A PERSON CAN EARN A PH.D BY STUDYING "BUSINESS." Strongly agree Agree Undecided Disagree Strongly disagree OUR ECONOMIC SYSTEM IS CRITICIZED TOO MUCH. Strongly agree Agree Undecided Disagree Strongly disagree MOST COMPANIES ARE RATHER CRUEL IN THEIR TREATMENT OF EMPLOYEES WHO ARE GETTING "TOO OLD." Strongly agree Agree Undecided Disagree Strongly disagree REPUTABLE PUBLISHERS DO NOT SELL PORNOGRAPHY BECAUSE OF THEIR SENSE OF MORAL DUTY, NOT BECAUSE OF THE LAW. Strongly agree Agree Undecided Disagree Strongly disagree IT IS JUST NOT RIGHT THAT A GOOD SALESMAN CAN EARN MORE MONEY THAN A SUPREME COURT JUSTICE. Strongly agree Agree Undecided Disagree Strongly disagree THE CLIMATE OF THE BUSINESS SCHOOL IS GENERALLY ONE OF THE MOST EXCITING AND VIBRANT ON THE UNIVERSITY CAMPUS. Strongly agree Agree Undecided Disagree Strongly disagree LABOR SHOULD HAVE MUCH MORE VOICE IN DECIDING GOVERNMENT POLICIES. Strongly agree Agree Undecided Disagree Strongly disagree PRIVATE BUSINESS INTERESTS IN AMERICA HAVE DONE A GREAT DEAL TO IMPROVE THE LOT OF THE POOR PEOPLES OF THE WORLD. Strongly agree Agree Undecided Disagree Strongly disagree TELEVISION EXECUTIVES WOULD PROBABLY SEE NOTHING WRONG WITH "FIXING" QUIZ SHOWS AGAIN, ;§_THEY THOUGHT THEY COULD GET AWAY WITH IT. Strongly agree Agree Undecided Disagree Strongly disagree 33. 3h. 35. 36. 37- 38. 39. h0. Al. A2. A3. AA. AB. A6. A7. AB. A9. YOUNG PEOPLE TODAY LOOK UP TO THE GREAT "BUSINESSMEN-STATESMEN" WHO CAPTAIN OUR GIANT INDUSTRIAL ENTERPRISES. Strongly agree Agree Undecided Disagree Strongly disagree THE GOALS OF BUSINESS EDUCATION HAVE LITTLE IN COMMON WITH ANY TRADITIONAL CONCEPT OF HIGHER EDUCATION. Strongly agree Agree Undecided Disagree Strongly disagree A MAN SHOULD BE ALLOWED TO KEEP AS LARGE AN INCOME AS HE CAN GET. Strongly agree Agree Undecided Disagree Strongly disagree BUSINESS WOULD STILL BE WORKING CHILDREN 60 HOURS A WEEK, IF THE LAW LEFT IT FREEID DO SO. Strongly agree Agree Undecided Disagree Strongly disagree THE ACTIONS OF THE HEADS OF OUR BIG CORPORATIONS HAVE EARNED THEM OUR CONFIDENCE AND TRUST. Strongly agree Agree Undecided Disagree Strongly disagree TOP COLLEGE STUDENTS WHO CHOOSE A CAREER IN BUSINESS ARE LIKELY TO REGRET THEIR DECISION TEN YEARS LATER. Strongly agree Agree Undecided Disagree Strongly disagree AMERICAN BUSINESS IS A PARTICULARLY FASCINATING SUBJECT TO STUDY IN COLLEGE. Strongly agree Agree Undecided Disagree Strongly disagree MONEY SHOULD BE TAKEN FROM THE RICH AND GIVEN TO THE POOR DURING HARD TIMES. Strongly agree Agree Undecided Disagree Strongly disagree IF THE GOVERNMENT HAD NOT PROVIDED SOCIAL SECURITY, PRIVATE BUSINESS WOULD BY NOW HAVE COME UP WITH THE SAME OR BETTER PROTECTION. Strongly agree Agree Undecided Disagree Strongly disagree CHEATING ON EXPENSE ACCOUNTS ILLUSTRATES THE LACK OF PERSONAL INTEGRITY CHARACTERISTIC OF 99% OF BUSINESS PEOPLE. Strongly agree Agree Undecided Disagree Strongly disagree HIGH LEVEL SELLING IS A PROFESSION IN A SENSE SIMILAR TO MEDICINE, LAW, OR TEACHHE. Strongly agree Agree Undecided Disagree Strongly disagree NOT ENOUGH VALUE COMES FROM THE TEACHING OF BUSINESS IN COLLEGE TO JUSTIFY THE THE AND MONEY SPENT ON IT. Strongly agree Agree Undecided Disagree Strongly disagree ON THE WHOLE, OUR ECONOMIC SYSTEM IS JUST AND WISE. Strongly agree Agree Undecided Disagree Strongly disagree WE CAN EXPECT LITTLE CONTRIBUTION FROM THE BUSINESS WORLD IN SOLVING THE GREAT SOCIAL PROBLEMS OF OUR TIME. Strongly agree Agree Undecided Disagree Strongly disagree THE VARIETY OF PACKAGE SIZES AND SHAPES ON SUPERMARKET SHELVES SHOWS AN EFFORT TO PLEASE THE HOUSEWIFE, NOT TO TRICK HER. Strongly agree Agree Undecided Disagree Strongly disagree THERE IS A DISTURBING DEGREE OF DEHUMANIZATION WITHIN MODERN CORPORATIONS. Strongly agree Agree Undecided Disagree Strongly disagree BUSINESS IS ONE OF THE MOST IMPORTANT ACADEMIC SUBJECTS FOR YOUNG PEOPLE TO STUDY TODAY. SO. 51. 52. 53. 5h. 55- 56. 57- 58. 59- 60. 61. 62. 63. 6h. 65. 66. 196 THE GOVERNMENT OUGHT TO GUARANTEE A LIVING TO THOSE WHO CAN'T FIND WORK. Strongly agree Agree Undecided Disagree Strongly disagree THE PRIVATE CORPORATION IS THE KEY INSTRUMENT UPON WHICH TO PIN THE DREAM OF ELIMINATING WANT AND HUNGER FROM THE WORLD. Strongly agree Agree Undecided Disagree Strongly disagree THERE IS STILL MUCH TRUTH IN THE OLD ADAGE THAT THE BUSINESSMAN GOES TO CHURCH ON SUNDAY AND FLEECES HIS CUSTOMERS ON MONDAY. Strongly agree Agree Undecided Disagree Strongly disagree IT WOULD BE DISASTEROUS FOR OUR NATION IF OUR BEST YOUNG PEOPLE BEGAN TO TURN AWAY FROM BUSINESS CAREERS. Strongly agree Agree Undecided Disagree Strongly disagree ON THE WHOLE, BUSINESS ADMINISTRATION STUDENTS TEND TO BE RATHER SHALLOW AND SUPERFICIAL. Strongly agree Agree Undecided Disagree Strongly disagree MEN WOULD NOT DO THEIR BEST IF GOVERNMENT OWNED ALL INDUSTRY. Strongly agree Agree Undecided Disagree Strongly disagree THE MAIN REASON FOR THE GREAT SIZE OF MODERN CORPORATIONS IS THEIR DESIRE TO REAP MONOPOLY PROFITS. Strongly agree Agree Undecided Disagree Strongly disagree AMERICAN FIRMS OPERATING OVERSEAS DO A FINE JOB OF PROVING THE MORAL, AS WELL AS ECONOMIC, WORTH OF OUR SYSTEM. Strongly agree Agree Undecided Disagree Strongly disagree STUDENTS AT THE TOP OF THEIR CLASS WHO CHOOSE A BUSINESS CAREER ARE WASTING THEIR TALENTS. Strongly agree Agree Undecided Disagree Strongly disagree COMPARED TO OTHER SUBJECTS, BUSINESS COURSES ARE ABOVE AVERAGE IN BEING INTERESTING AND CHALLENGING. Strongly agree Agree Undecided Disagree Strongly disagree POVERTY IS CHIEFLY A RESULT OF INJUSTICE IN THE DISTRIBUTION OF WEALTH. Strongly agree Agree Undecided Disagree Strongly disagree BUSINESS HAS DONE MORE THAN ITS SHARE TO COMBAT RACIAL DISCRIMINATION. Strongly agree Agree Undecided Disagree Strongly disagree THE TYPICAL BUSINESSMAN SEEMS TO BELIEVE THAT "WHATEVER IS GOOD FOR BUSINESS IS GOOD ETHICS." Strongly agree Agree Undecided Disagree Strongly disagree THE PRESIDENT OF GENERAL MOTORS IS ONE OF THE TEN MOST IMPORTANT MEN IN THE UNITED STATES. Strongly agree Agree Undecided Disagree Strongly disagree IN ALL HONESTY, MOST BUSINESS COURSES DQ_DESERVE THE "MICKEY MOUSE" LABEL. Strongly agree Agree Undecided Disagree Strongly disagree THE INCOMES OF MOST PEOPLE ARE A FAIR MEASURE OF THEIR CONTRIBUTION TO HUMAN WELFARE. Strongly agree Agree Undecided Disagree Strongly disagree BUSINESS IS TOO MUCH DEDICATED TO PRESERVING THE STATUS-QUO IN SOCIETY. Strongly agree Agree Undecided Disagree Strongly disagree 67. 68. 69. 70. 71. 72. 73. 7h. 75. 76. 77. 78. 79- 80. 81. 82. 83. EMPLOYERS TEND TO BE HONEST AND STRAIGHTFORWARD IN THEIR DEALINGS WITH LABOR UNITE. Strongly agree Agree Undecided Disagree Strongly disagree CONFORMITY IS ESSENTIAL TO PROGRESS UP THE TYPICAL CORPORATION PROMOTION LADDER. Strongly agree Agree Undecided Disagree Strongly disagree A PROFESSOR OF BUSINESS IS ENTITLED TO RECOGNITION AS A SCIENTIST. Strongly agree Agree Undecided Disagree Strongly disagree LARGE INCOMES SHOULD BE TAXED MUCH MORE THAN THEY ARE NOW. Strongly agree Agree Undecided Disagree Strongly disagree IT IS VERY UNFAIR TO BLAME THE NETWORKS FOR THE "TELEVISION WASTELAND," SINCE THEY ARE ONLY TRYING THEIR BEST TO PROVIDE WHAT THE PUBLIC WANTS. Strongly agree Agree Undecided Disagree Strongly disagree INSURANCE POLICIES USUALLY TAKE AWAY, IN THE SMALL PRINT, MOST OF WHAT THEY GIVE IN THE BIG PRINT. Strongly agree Agree Undecided Disagree Strongly disagree BUSINESS LEADERS GENERALLY MAKE THE BEST CHOICES FOR TOP GOVERNMENT POSITIONS. Strongly agree Agree Undecided Disagree Strongly disagree BUSINESS DEPARTMENTS IN COLLEGES USUALLY HOLD TO LESS RIGID REQUIREMENTS IN ADMITTING STUDENTS THAN MOST OTHER DEPARTMENTS. Strongly agree Agree Undecided Disagree Strongly disagree THE MORE A PERSON LEARNS ABOUT OUR ECONOMIC SYSTEM, THE LESS WILLING HE IS TO SEE CHANGES‘MADE. Strongly agree Agree Undecided Disagree Strongly disagree IT IS NOT SURPRISING THAT THE U.S. IS HATED IN SO MUCH OF THE WORLD, CONSIDERING THE ACTIONS OF AMERICAN BUSINESSMEN. - Strongly agree Agree Undecided Disagree Strongly disagree MOST COMPANIES TRY TO BE TRUTHFUL AND FAIR IN THEIR ADVERTISING. Strongly agree Agree Undecided Disagree Strongly disagree A COLLEGE GRADUATE ENTERING THE PEACE CORPS IS TO BE FAR MORE ADMIRED THAN ONE SIMPLY ENTERING BUSINESS. Strongly agree Agree Undecided Disagree Strongly disagree EVERY COLLEGE STUDENT, REGARDLESS OF MAJOR, SHOULD BE REQUIRED TO TAKE AN "INTRODUCTION TO BUSINESS" COURSE. Strongly agree Agree Undecided Disagree Strongly disagree WITHOUT SWEEPING CHANGES IN OUR ECONOMIC SYSTEM, LITTLE PROGRESS CAN BE MADE IN THE SOLUTION OF SOCIAL PROBLEMS. Strongly agree Agree Undecided Disagree Strongly disagree TOBACCO COMPANIES DESERVE MUCH CREDIT FOR SPENDING THEIR MONEY AND TIME IN SEARGI OF A SAFER CIGARETTE. Strongly agree Agree . Undecided Disagree Strongly disagree DRUG MANUFACTURERS ARE FLEECING THE PUBLIC BY CHARGING PRICES WAY OVER COST. Strongly agree Agree Undecided Disagree Strongly disagree THE ONE AND ONLY REAL APPEAL OF A BUSINESS CAREER IS MONEY. Strongly agree Agree Undecided Disagree Strongly disagree 8h. 85. 87. 88. 890 90. 91. 92. 9h. 95- 96. 97- 98. 99- 100. 197 FAR MORE EMPHASIS SHOULD BE PLACED UPON BUSINESS SUBJECTS AT THE SECONDARY SCHOOL LEVEL. Strongly agree Agree undecided Disagree Strongly disagree IF OUR ECONOMIC SYSTEM WERE JUST, THERE WOULD BE MUCH LESS CRIME. Strongly agree Agree Undecided Disagree Strongly disagree ADVERTISING REPRESENTS A TREMENDOUS WASTE OF RESOURCES. Strongly agree Agree Undecided Disagree Strongly disagree DISHONESTY IN BUSINESS DOES NOT PAY OFF IN THE LONG RUN. Strongly agree Agree Undecided Disagree Strongly disagree THE BUSINESS CAREER IS THE PATH OF LEAST RESISTANCE FOR THE UNCOMMITTED, RUN-OF-THE—MILL STUDENT. Strongly agree Agree Undecided Disagree Strongly disagree LIBERAL ARTS SUBJECTS ARE MUCH MORE IMPORTANT THAN BUSINESS SUBJECTS. Strongly agree Agree Undecided Disagree Strongly disagree MOST GREAT FORTUNES ARE MADE HONESTLY. Strongly agree Agree Undecided Disagree Strongly disagree BUSINESS WILL NEVER VOLUNTARILY UNDERTAKE THE LEVELING OF SLUMS, UPGRADING THE SCHOOLS, OR ANYTHING ELSE THAT IS NOT A MONEY—MAKING PROPOSITION. Strongly agree Agree Undecided Disagree 'Strongly disagree ONE WOULD CERTAINLY TRUST THE PRESIDENT OF GENERAL MOTORS EVERY BIT AS MUCH AS THE PRESIDENT OF HARVARD UNIVERSITY. Strongly agree Agree Undecided Disagree Strongly disagree NO ONE WITH ANY IMAGINATION WOULD CHOOSE A CAREER IN ACCOUNTING. Strongly agree Agree Undecided Disagree Strongly disagree PROFESSORS OF BUSINESS ARE ON A LOWER INTELLECTUAL PLANE THAN PROFESSORS IN THE ARTS AND HUMANITIES. Strongly agree Agree Undecided Disagree Strongly disagree PRIVATE OWNERSHIP OF PROPERTY IS NECESSARY FOR ECONOMIC PROGRESS. Strongly agree Agree Undecided Disagree Strongly disagree .AMERICAN INDUSTRY HELPS PROMOTE THE PICTURE OF INTERNATIONAL CONFLICT AND THREAT, SO IT CAN SELL HUGE AMOUNTS OF WEAPONS. Strongly agree Agree Undecided Disagree Strongly disagree LIFE IN THE BUSINESS WORLD IS APTLY DESCRIBED BY "DOG EAT DOG." Strongly agree Agree Undecided Disagree Strongly disagree A BUSINESS CAREER CAN OFTEN HAVE GREAT APPEAL TO THE INTELLECTUAL INDIVIDUAL. Strongly agree Agree Undecided Disagree Strongly disagree PROFESSORS OF BUSINESS DISCOVER NOTHING REALLY NEW OR IMPORTANT, BUT PRETEND THAT THEY DO WITH A LOT OF "MUMBO-JUMBO." Strongly agree Agree Undecided Disagree Strongly disagree THE GOVERNMENT SHOULD NOT ATTEMPT.TO LIMIT PROFITS. Strongly agree Agree Undecided Disagree Strongly disagree l. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. l6. l7. l8. l9. YOUR FURTHER COOPERATION IN FURNISHING THE FOLLOWING PERSONAL FACTS Do not Write WILL BE APPRECIATED. LEAVE YOUR NAME BLANK IF YOU WISH BUT PLEASE in this Column ANSWER EVERY OTHER QUESTION! THANK YOU 14 1/1 I] sateen-mucu-u-e:eta-metu-nsure-u:sweeten-untu-ettettetaeeetaInu-OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOCumulus”: 5_7 GEN PERSONAL DATA 9-1 l EC . 12-l 5 SR Name 2. Age 3. Sex 4. Manta] Status 174 9 EN _ ___— ‘P _‘l EDUCATION §L§%— - Please check boxes applicable to you: g? Q)? C] now enrolled as undergraduate student El now enrolled as master’s candidate 33 MS Cl hold bachelor’s degree Cl hold master’s degree Undergraduate Major Field 35 MAJ-U Undergraduate School Attended [M.S.U. DOther 36 SCH-U Graduate School Major Field 37 M AJ-G Graduate School Attended D M.S.U. DOther 38 SCH-G YOUR UNDERGWUATE COLLEGE CAREER If currently enrolled, please indicate number Of credits earned as Of end of last term: Clo-39 (Fr) 040-84 (Soph) [385-129 (Jun) [3130/ (Sen) 40 YR Please indicate your approximate grade point average in college (if currently enrolled, as of end Of last term): Cl Less than 1.5 [31.5 - 2.0 C] 2.0 - 2.5 [32.5 - 3.0 C] 3.0 - 3.5 [33.5 & Over 42 CR Please indicate how the costs Of your education (tuition, living expenses, books, etc.) are (were) met by filling in approximate percentages: from parents from own earnings 44 FN # from scholarship or GI. Bill , from 10030 What has been (was) your principal residence while attending college: ClDormitory ClFraternity/Sorority House ClOwn Apt. or House DWith Parents Cl(0ther) 46 LV A. Are (were) you a member Of a fraternity or sorority at college: DYes [3 NO 48 F8 #_ YOUR FAMILY What is (was) your father’s occupation What type Of employer does (did) he work for: DSelf-employed Cl Large business corporation C] F arm H 50 SE DSmall business firm DGovernment Agency ClOther What is your hometown 52 POP J. How would you describe the home environment in which you grew up: DRural CJSmall-town CJSuburban DUrban 54 HTE YOUR WORK EXPERIENCE Which Of the following terms do you feel best describes your work experience? (Naturally, people’s subjective judgments will vary, but generally—“Extensive” might suggest full-time employment for at least two years; “Moderate” mi t suggest full-time employment for a lesser time or part-time employ- ment for a very long duration; ‘ Limited” might suggest a full-time job for a summer or two, etc.): D Extensive Cl Moderate DLimited UVery Limited C] None 56 W #4 . YOUR FUTURE PLANS If you are currently pursuing a degree, please indicate your future plans: IU on Graduation .m DGraduate ScROOl D Professional (Medicine, Law, etc.) 58 Q]; J . [:1 Government [:1 Government C] Business 8:. Industry D Business & Industry 60 UP 4 . D Education (Teaching) E] Education (Teaching) Cum-her) __. __.*_ ___ ___ [3 (Other) APPENDIX B Data Collection Instruments The College Student Sample B-l Initial Letter Sent to All Subjects B-2 Double Card Enclosed with Initial Letter B-3 Second Request Sent to Non-Respondents B-4 Third Request Sent to Non-Respondents B-5 Final Request (for Mail Return) Sent to Non-Respondents The College Graduate Sample B-6 Initial Letter Sent to All Subjects 198 199 3‘1 MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY EAST msmc - MICHIGAN 48823 GIADUATB SCHOOL OF BUSINESS ADMINISTRATION DEPARTMENT OF MARKETING AND TRANSPORTATION ADMINISTRATION ° EPPLEY CENTER I am a doctoral student in the Graduate School of Business Administration and would like to enlist your cooperation in a research study of the attitudes of Michigan State University students toward the world of business. You are probably aware that businessmen and educators alike have expressed concern in recent months over the "communication gap" which seems to exist between your college generation and the business community. We are hopeful that our study will help to bridge this gap by providing something that has been lacking - a detailed breakdown of student opinions about this important area of our society. You are part of a small and carefully selected sample of’your major field and class level. The validity 9£_our research will hingg upon the unanimous cooperation 9£Lthose students, such §§_yourself, who have been included in_ the sample. Your participation would involve the filling out of a written attitude survey, requiring twenty-five minutes at most to complete. The survey requires no deep thought, but rather calls for your spontaneous reactions to various state- ments about the world of business. You may even find it an interesting opportunity to comment upon some important social issues of our day. Your views need not be identified by name if you do not wish. Listed on the enclosed card are the various times and places where the survey form.may be completed during the coming week. We have arranged these in the hOpe that at least one will afford you an opportunity to stop in and complete the survey with a minimum of inconvenience. To give us an idea of when people will come, will you please indicate your preference on the enclosed postcard and drop it in the mail. Naturally, if you are unable to come as you plan, feel free to stop in at any of the other times and places listed. Your views are not only vital to our research, but they will also contribute to a much needed dialogue between the campus and the business sector. Need- less to say, your willingness to take a little time from a busy schedule to contribute to the success of our efforts will be deeply and genuinely appreciated. Sincerely yours, Leslie M. Dawson Please circle your preference on both halves. detach and mail lower half. feel free to stop in at any other of these times.) MON. Jan. 8 11 AM - 1:30 PM Union Bldg. Room 30 2 PM - h PM Eppley Cent. Room 103 5 PM - 7 PM Bessey Hall Room 209 MON. Jan. 8 11 AM - 1:30 PM Union Bldg. Room 30 2 PM - h PM Eppley Cent. Room 103 5 PM - 7 PM Bessey Hall Room 209 ZCHD SURVEY OF ATTITUDES TOWARD BUSINESS - TIMES & PLACES TUES. Jan. 9 ll AM - 1:30 PM Union Bldg. Room 30 2 PM - h PM Engineering Bldg. Rm.238 5 PM - 7 PM McDonel Hall Room 101 TUES. Jan. 9 11 AM - 1:30 PM Union Bldg. Room 30 2 PM - h PM Engineering Bldg. Rm.238 5 PM - 7 PM McDonel Hall Room 101 WED. Jan. 10 11 AM - 1:30 PM Union Bldg. Room 30 2 PM - h PM Horticulture Bldg. (Opp. Berkey)Rm.lO3 5 PM - 7 PM Hubbard Hall Room 128 WED. Jan. 10 11 AM - 1:30 PM Union Bldg. Room 30 2 PM - h PM Horticulture Bldg. (Opp. Berkey)Rm.lO3 5 PM - 7 PM Hubbard Hall Room 128 Name THURS. Jan 11 11 AM - 1:30 PM Union Bldg. Room 30 5 PM - 7 PM Wilson Hall Room C-l THURS. Jan. 11 11 AM - 1:30 PM Union Bldg. Room 30 5 PM - 7 PM Wilson Hall Room C-l FRI 0 Jan. 12 11 AM — 1:30 PM Union Bldg. Room 30 2 PM - h PM Bessey Hall Room 209 Please detach and mail promptly FRI. Jan. 12 11 AM - 1:30 PM Union Bldg. 2 PM - A PM Bessel Hall Room 209 Keep this as a reminder; (If you are not able to make it as planned, SAT. Jan. 13 9 AM - NOON E£l22.Blds- Room 30 SAT. Jan. 13 9 AM - NOON Union Bldg. Room 30 MM- m. (,5 warm; mu AMI W m ”AM-£07»; Mom 1.30 M! 1M”. /30 7A7 Mid/7 Zfl/a/J flag! Maul [PM . MWA / a . Mord I) . JM- ym; 2m - ”M 2%- ,WM pm, 4PM é“ EC; [e x 51,24 eff/dz filfi‘l w ”we 5 (’55! z final/03 PM, 3.3? 707 ./03 IP47! 707 5.7/”'7”? 5707' 7747 .EP/q- 7M 5”,. 7,” ”"3 122m .1453de Wl/Safl few-2°? mm zen/.2? 77m7—7 V’m W aw. fl - ’9 ”Zr- EZZ 2;... 45; ...»... . M’I‘ a“: ' m M ,f ,_'"‘ '7 — 202 J 3'4 . . ':= fl ,ITLAQWB ~i¢49 '77:?“ zébkadkbdhslMLv jaféufl'dldfiravzr.4fi!? f7 204 B-6 ® THE DOW CHEMICAL COMPANY March 8, 1968 Dear Dow Employee: Our company has an interest and concern about current campus attitudes toward business. We as a company have agreed to participate in one part of an excellent survey on the subject being made by the Graduate School of Business Administration at the Michigan State University. Its scope is broad enough to reach a good cross section of the campus. We at Dow have been asked to help by inviting some of our recent graduates to participate in this study. You will be adding the expe- rience dimension reflecting the after graduation attitudes. You have been selected at random from a group of employees that fit the study specifications. Your part is entirely voluntary. It will require a little of your own thoughtful time. The instructions, as supplied by the school, are quite clear. We do ask you to omit your name on Item 1 on the back page. Do not answer questions 18 and 19 on the back page since these are for current students. The survey should be returned to my attention as soon as possible but not later than March 22, 1968. The completed surveys will be forwarded promptly to Michigan State University for analysis. Dow employees will not have access to them since this is a confidential MSU project. We as a company hope to benefit from this study in getting a better understanding of how business is viewed today by the students. We hope to be able to give you, as a participant in the survey, a condensation of the results. Thanks very much for your assistance. Sincerely, H. D. Russell, Manager _ Professional Liaison Program College Relations faflvhn -‘;"ZL'71'J" APPENDIX C Discriminatory Power Rankings of Opinion Statements Used in Pre-Test C-l Social Responsibility Scale C-2 Ethical Norms Scale C-3 Business Career Scale C—4 Business Education Scale Notes: (a) (b) (C) (d) Discriminatory power (DP) rankings are based upon responses of 92 subjects in pre-test group, in accordance with procedures described in Chapter III. The preliminary research instrument used in the pre-test phase of the study was composed of the statements in Appendix C. The statements were alternated by scale. The statements bearing an asterisk (*) were the ones selected for the final instrument. It will be recalled that the Basic Economic Convictions Scale was adapted from an existing research instrument, and thus was not involved- in the pre—test. 205 10.* 11.* 12.* 13.* 1.61 1.57' 1.52 1.40 1.35 1.26 1.26 206 SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY The business community, if given a free hand, . would ruthlessly exploit and destroy our natural resources. American oil companies in South America offer a good example of how American business exploits the peOple of underdeveloped nations. It is not surprising that.the U.S. is hated in so much of the world, considering the actions of American businessmen. Business tries hard to keep the cost of living down. Advertising represents a tremendous waste of resources. Business will never voluntarily undertake the leveling of slums, upgrading the schools, or anything else that is not a money making proposition. Private business interests in America have done a great deal to improve the lot of the poor peoples of the world. American industry helps promote the picture of international conflict and threat, so it can sell huge amounts of weapons. If the government had not provided social. security, private business_would by now have come up with the same or better protection. Business is too much dedicated to preserving the status-quo in society. The private corporation is the key instrument upon which to pin the dream of eliminating want and hunger from the world. Business has done more than its share to com- bat racial discrimination. Tobacco companies deserve much credit for spending their money and time in search of a safer cigarette. 14.* 15.* 16.* 17. 18.* 19.* 20. 21.* 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 1.25 1.22 1.09 1.04 1.00 1.00: 1.00 1.00 207 The main reason for the great size of modern corporations is their desire to reap monopoly profits. We can expect little contribution from the business world in solving the great social problems of our time. Business would still be working children 60 hours a week, if the law left it free to do so. Powerful business leaders see to it that govern- ment arms purchases are tailOred to match what private industry is most anxious to sell. It is very unfair to blame the networks for . the "television wasteland," since they are only trying their best to provide what the public wants. Most companies-are rather cruel in their treat- ment of employees who are-getting "too old." Businessmen will contribute to a new sports stadium which will be "good for business," but not to a new park to relieve surrounding slum life. John D. Rockefeller contributed as much to the welfare of our society as Thomas A. Edison. The business community has been shamefully re- miss in not helping more to curing air and water pollution. If it meant profits, business interests proba- bly Would destroy the Grand Canyon with hardly a second thought. When big-business firms enter foreign markets. they are as concerned with the well-being of. the natives as they are with simply making new profits. A scientist who goes to work for a private company, has, in effect, sold out his integrity. Store chains set a wonderful precedent in in- sisting upon integration in their Southern stores, despite the risks. 27.* 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. 33. 34. 35. 36. 37. 38. 39. 40. .96 .96 .92 .87 .83 .79 .78 .78 .78 .66 .48 .39 .34 .25 208 Private industry can do a better job of allevi- ating poverty in the U.S. than the government. The values and ideals of the typical corporation executive tend to be superficial. The plain truth is that careers in business just do not make any important contributions to society. Even if the government didn't stop them,, American manufacturers would never knowingly sell weapons to our enemies. It really i3 true that "what’s good for General Motors is good for the country." During war years, American business has always placed patriotism ahead of profit. We should be thankful to business for making possible the money and time needed for the pursuit of culture. Business tends to be insensitive to human and social values. The strength of our business firms and the strength of our nation are one in the same. Probably a number of inventions (such as long- lasting lightbulbs) have been suppressed to protect someone's profits. The image of American industry as the dynamic force-which will solve the world's problems, has never been higher than now. Annual style changes,.as in autos, are good for the nation because they increase sales and employment. Business firms usually try to soften the impact of new processes and inventions on employees and the general public. Business is~becoming-more community and employee minded. 10.* 11.* 12.* l3.* 14. 1.56 1.52 1.48 1.47 1.44 1.44 1.30 209 ETHICAL NORMS Reputable publishers do not sell pornography because of their sense of moral duty, not be- cause of the law. For the modern corporation, "ethics" generally means what its~1awyers say it can get away with. Most businessmen will do just about anything, honest or not, for a buck. Insurance polices usually take away, in the small print, most of what they give in the big print. The actions of the heads of our big corporations have earned them our confidence and trust. Life in the business world is aptly described by "dog eat dog." Drug manufacturers are fleecing the public by charging prices way over cost. The great business fortunes in America were made honestly. The typical insurance man sells people the most that he can, and cares little about actual need or ability to pay. The typical businessman seems to believe that "whatever is good for business is good ethics." There is still much truth in the old adage that the businessman goes to church on Sunday and fleeces his customers on Monday. Cheating on expense accounts illustrates the lack of personal integrity characteristic of 99% of business people. Television executives would probably see nothing wrong with "fixing" quiz shows again, if they J thought they could get away with it. The average businessman's ethics are relative --everybody in the game does it--rather than absolute. 15.* 16.* 17.* 18.* l9.* 20.* 21.* 22. 23. 24.* 25.* 26. 27. 28. 29. 1.30 1.27 1.26 1.26 1.26 1.22 1.21 1.17 1.14 1.09 1.09 1.00 .96 210 The variety of package sizes and shapes on supermarket shelves shows an effort to please the housewife, not to trick her. American firms operating overseas do a fine job of proving the moral, as well as economic, worth of our system. One would certainly trust the president of General Motors every bit as much as the president of Harvard University. Dishonesty in business does not pay off in the long'run. Most companies try to be truthful and fair in their advertising. V Employers tend to be honest and straightforward in their dealings with labor unions. It is common practice for "competing" firms. in an industry to meet secretly to fix prices of products. The consumer needs more protection from the government than he is now getting. Most business executives would prefer that clergymen stick to preaching general ethical principles, rather than applying them to real business.situations. Big companies usually bend over backwards to make sure their customers are satisfied. Only a tiny minority of businessmen would ever consider offering a bribe to a government of- ficial. Businessmen still take delight in the old game of beating the government our of money. Business corrupts everything that it touches. Most business executives place honor and in- tegrity above profits. Business has helped preserve old-fashioned ideals and values, such as the "golden rule." 30. .96 31. .92 32. .88 33. .87 34. .83 350 .70 36. .70 37. .70 38. .65 39. .43 40. .05 211 The guiding spirit of American business has always been "a fair return on-a-dollar in- vested." The "business conscience" in America is far higher than it is in the other nations of the free world. Business recruiting on the campus has become a frenzied hard-sell of half-truths and dis- tortions. ' Corporations recruiting on campuses flagrantly exaggerate their job offerings, in order to outdo one another. Business has helped to raise our moral standards. Over the years, business has steadily "cleaned its own house" and raised its moral standards. Government ownership of business tends to lead to dishonesty and corruption. There is much truth in the old saying that a "businessman-is as ethical as he can be, and. as unethical as he need be." Discount store operators are usually untrust- worthy. "Caveat emptor"--meaning "let the buyer beware" --is a silly and needless warning today. Tobacco companies would stop cigarette produc- tion tomorrow, if they really thought cigarettes might cause cancer. BUSINESS CAREER When historians of the future write of this era, they will include many businessmen among the great men of our time. The modern corporation strongly discourages any social or intellectual eccentricity on the part of employees. People like scientists, senators, and professors have replaced business leaders as the heroes of our day. 10.* 11. 12.* 13.* 14.* 15.* 16.* 17. 18.* 1.44 1.44 1.43 1.39 1.35 1.34 1.27 1.26 1.22 1.04 1.04 1.04‘ 212 Conformity is essential to progress up the typical corporation promotion ladder. Young people today look up to the great busi- nessmen-statemen who captain our giant indus- trial enterprises. A college graduate entering the Peace Corps is to be far more admired than one simply entering business. The one and only real appeal of a business career is money. High level selling is a profession in a sense similar to medicine, law,.or teaching. The business career is the path-of least re- sistance for the uncommitted, run-of-the-mill student. Students at the top of their class who choose a business career are wasting their talents. The successful executive of today is a hero for our youth to look up too It would be disasterous for our nation if our best young people began to turn-away from busi- ness careers. There is a disturbing degree of dehumanization within modern corporations. The president of General Motors is one of the ten-most important men in-the United States. Top college students who choose a career in business arelikely to regret their decision 10 years later. Business leaders generally make the best choices for top government positions. No professor, other than one in the business department, would be likely to advise a bril- liant student to enter the world of business. It is just not right that a good salesman can earn-more money than a Supreme Court Justice. 19.* 20.* 21.* 22.* 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. 33. .96 .96 .96 .95 .88 .87 .87 .87 .78 .74 .74 .74 .72 .65 .61 213 The non-conformist is always welcome in the business world. No one with any imagination would choose a career in accounting. A business career can often have great appeal to the intellectual individual. America needs a "hall of fame" to honor the unsung business leaders who continue to make our nation~great. The typical banker sees his customers not as persons, but as "balance sheets" and "financial statements." A bank president deserves a higher salary than a college professor. Making profits for stockholders can be as im- portant to society as curing people of illness. As a group, businessmen tend to be too soft- hearted in keeping on ineffectual employees who should be weeded out. Frequent transfers are a good example of how big companies try to destroy a person's attach- ment to everything except "the Company. Business leaders are not getting the recogni- tion and honor from-the public that they deserve. Business leaders have: become dangerously isolated from the realities of a changing nation and world. The typical businessman's home library is likely to consist mostly of current magazines and paperbacks. The best way to succeed in a typical business job is to "play it safe." The president of a company such as, say Standard Oil, has a truly fascinating job. The businessman is a highly admired and re- spected figure in our society today. 34. 35. 36. 37. 38. 39. 40. .61 .61 .52 .48 .43 .26 .17 1.91 1.87 1.83 1.83 1.79 1.78 1.74 214 As a group, business executives tend to have high and well-defined personal moral codes. + The.modern business executive typically has little civic-mindedness and participates little in community affairs. - Advertising men lead more interesting lives than airline pilots. + The college student planning on a business' career typically is preoccupied with money and conventional "success." - It would take a person of exceptional ability and knowledge to be the credit manager of a large department store. + The fact that the president of General Motors may earn 50 times as much as a college president, is in line with the differences in prestige be- tween the two jobs. + In general, our society accords greater prestige to the businessman than to the educator. + BUSINESS EDUCATION Business education is essentially anti- intellectual. - The climate of the business school is generally one of the most exciting and vibrant on the university campus. + American business is a particularly fascinating subject to study in college. + Compared to the general student body, business students tend to be below average intellectually.- Business is one of the most important academic +_ subjects for young people to study today. Business departments in colleges usually hold to less rigid requirements in admitting students than most other departments. - Liberal arts subjects are much more important than business subjects. - 10.* 11.* 12.* l3.* l4. l7.* 18. 19.* 20.* 21. 22. 1.65 1.65 1.57 1.22 215 Professors of business are on a lower intellec- tual plane than professors in the arts and humanities. - In all honesty, most business courses do deserve the "Mickey Mouse" label. - Compared to other subjects, business courses are above average in being interesting and challeng- ing. + Professors of business discover nothing really new or important, but pretend that they do with a lot of "mumbo-jumbo." - On the whole, business administration students tend to be rather shallow and superficial. - Not enough value comes from the teaching of busi- ness in college to justify the time and money spent on it. - If for any reason a university faced a cut—back in programs, the business department should be one of the first to go. - Far more emphasis should be placed upon business subjects at the secondary school level. + The goals of business education have little in common with any traditional concept of higher education. - Every college student, regardless of major, should be required to take an "introduction to business? course. + Business students, as a group, tend to be poorly informed on cultural topics. - American higher education has reached a sorry state when a person can earn a Ph.D. by studying "business." - A professor of business is entitled to recogni- tion as a scientist. + There is too much vocational emphasis in busi- ness education. - Money spent on business education could be much better spent in important areas, such as medi- cine or science. - 23* 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. 33. 34. 35. 36. 37. 38. 1.04 1.00 1.00 .96 .95 .83 .82 .80 .74 .66 .65 o 61 .57 .53 .52 .47 216 As a group, business students could hold their own in any other curriculum on the campus. + Business education tends to be too materialistic in its focus. - A liberal arts education is the best preparation for any career. - Professors of business are more in touch with- the realities of life than professors in most other fields. + On the whole, colleges of business seem to en- courage a liberal approach to business education.+ Experience prepares one far better for a busi- ness career than business courses in college. - Professors of business enjoy the respect of their colleagues in other fields and disciplines.+ Business courses are designed to make students think for themselves. + Most business courses seem to stress theory and analysis, rather than mere description. + Generally speaking, it is the better students who choose business majors in college.‘ + As a group, faculty members in the business department.tend to be among the most demanding of students. +' Professors of business are making a more impor- tant contribution to our nation today than, say, professors of english literature. + Business departments in colleges are usually slow to implement the latest innovations in teaching and learning theory. - The primary function of business education is to train people for business jobs. - Higher education in the U.S. would be a good deal more sound if our colleges and universities were run by business educators. + Research into the theory and practice of busi- ness is a vital necessity today. + 39. 40. .30 .22 217 If "business" is to be taught at the college level, then auto repairing, tailoring, etc. ought to be taught too. Business students tend to use the library more' than most other students. APPENDIX D Statistical Formulas and Procedures t Test of Significance of Differences Between Mean General Scores of 581 Respondents and 84 Non-Respon- dents in College Student Sample t Test of Significance of Difference Between Mean General Scores of 581 Respondents in College Stu- dent Sample and 179 Respondents in College Graduate Sample. Analysis of Variance. Correlation Statistics. 218 219 Appendix D-l t test of significance of difference between mean general scores of 581 respondents and 84 non-respondents in college student sample. Resp. Non-Resp. Differences Mean 322.04 313.42 8.62 Standard Dev. 45.29 42.24 Number 581 84 1' SE , Vain)2 + (42.24)2 d "3§I"' "—§z-- 2. SEd = 4.97 3. t = %%§%. = gig; 4. Degrees of Freedom = 580 + 33 = 663 Reference points for significance of t at 663 degrees of freedom: .05 - 1.96 .01 - 2.58 220 Appendix D-2 t test of significance of difference between mean general scores of 581 respondents in college student sample and 179 respondents in college graduate sample. College College Student Graduate Sample Sample Difference Mean 322.04 355.70 33.66 Standard Dev. 45.29 35.34 Number 581 179 1 SE (45.29)2 + (35.34)2 -a T ‘wr- 2. SEd = 3.32 3.t=%—'§§= 10.11 4. Degrees of Freedom = 580 + 178 = 758 Reference points for significance of t at 758 degrees of freedom: .05 - 1096 .01 - 2.58 221 Appendix D-3 Analysis of Variance 1. Total Sum of Squares: 2 _ 2 _ (2X) S.S.t - 2x N 2. Sum of Squares Between Groups: 2 2 s.s.g = (3x1) + (ZX2) +...+ (Exm>2 - ( x)2 K1 K2 Km N 3. Sum of Squares Within Groups: S.S.w = S.S.t - 8.8.9 4. Analysis of Variance: Source of Variation Sum of qu. d.f. Mean Square Between Groups S.S.g K-l S.S.g/K-l Within Groups S.S.w N-K S.S.w/N-K Total S.S.t N-l 5. F-Value Mean Square Between Groups F-Value = Mean square Within Groups 6. Significance of F-Value From tabled probabilities. 222 Tukey's Procedure for Determining a Signiicant Gap. a. \Determine value of t for N-K degrees freedom at .05 probability level (from tabled values). b. Significant Gap = VMean Square Within Groups x V-z—- x t W? Where: X = Score N = Number K = Groups References: Allen L. Edwards, Statistical Methods for the Behavioral Sciences (New York: Rinehart & Co. Inc., 1954). Solomon Diamond, Information and Error (New York: Basic Books, Inc., 1959). 223 Appendix D-4 Correlation Statistics 1. Pearson Product'loment Coefficient of Correlation - (2x)N (xx) :lzx x2 - (2x___;_ 222 _(___2x) 2. Significance of Coefficient of Correlation 2 (N - 2)r F (1 - :1) df = 1/(N-2) Significance of F from tabled probabilities. 3. Correlation Ratio UYX ' ' 4. 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