THE QUEIZALCOATL PROPHESY AND INTERPRETATION OF “REALITY IS A GREAT SERPENT" IN CHICANO EXPRESSION Dissertation for the Degree of Ph. D MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY DAVID STEVEN WESSEL 1977 JIIIIIIIIIIIIIII‘IIIII IIIIIIIIIIIIII e- 3 1293 00659 8415 This is to certify that the thesis entitled THE QUETZALCOATL PROPHESY AND INTERPRETATION OF "REALITY IS A GREAT SERPENT" IN CHICANO EXPRESSION presented by David Steven Wessel has been accepted towards fulfillment of the requirements for Ph.D. College of Arts degree in and Letters LIBRARY Michigan State University 0-7639 ABSTRACT THE QUETZALCOATL PROPHESY AND INTERPRETATION OF "REALITY IS A GREAT SERPENT" IN CHICANO EXPRESSION BY David Steven Wessel Chicanos are utilizing ancient American symbols as part of their aesthetic expression in literature and art. Reflecting upon the past the Chicano simultaneously disseminates their future concepts through aesthetic expression. Thus, Chicano aesthetic expression is important as an aid in understanding an ethnic people in a pluralistic society, as an indigenous American heritage, and as an addition to the wealth of man's achievement in the Humanities. Among the traditional symbols which frequently appear in works of Chicano art and literature is the serpent. In "Pensamiento Serpentino" Luis Valdes states that "Reality is a Great Serpent." This study was con- ceived to interpret the meaning of "Reality is a Great Serpent." The evocation of the ancient Serpent is affirmed by the Chicanos in the belief in a prophesy that the David Steven Wessel Feathered Serpent, Quetzalcoatl, will return to this land August 16, 1987. Through an examination of the historico-mythological Quetzalcoatl, the ages of the world, the heavens and hells, and the time of the arrival of Hernan Cortes it was established how the date, August 16, 1987, was achieved. An exploration through a maze of controversial conjectures on Mesoamerica led to the discovery of the Serpent and the key to its meaning--re1ated to the agricultural world--in ancient American cultures. The interpretation of "Reality is a Great Serpent" was derived from reading hieroglyphs on codices, stelae, and panels, and interpretations of architectural concepts by scholars both ancient and contemporary involved in Nahuatl expression. Symbolic veneration of the Serpent was first recognized with the appearance of an imitation volcanic pyramid at an excavation site of the earliest known culture in Mesoamerica. Through apperception of the volcanic action-~enriching the earth for vegetation—-the ancient people translated the volcano symbolically into a Great Serpent. Dependence upon the land led to a unique trans- cendence: humanity and vegetation are derived from a single primordial source; generating, germinating, and David Steven Wessel sustaining itself. This primordial source is symbolized by the Serpent. Reality is cyclic--a11 things have their time of existence: birth, life, death, and rebirth-—and is symbolized by the Feathered Serpent, Quetzalcoatl. The feathers represent vegetation. The human represents the Serpent. The Serpent is the Serpent. Certain aspects of the original cultural tradi- tion have exhibited a remarkable resistance to change while having been remolded and reinterpreted in con- formance with underlying aesthetic values in Chicano literature and art. A graphic example, Moonsong, by Ray Chavez, of the evolutionary change of the Serpent into a tree is presented. THE QUETZALCOATL PROPHESY AND INTERPRETATION OF "REALITY IS A GREAT SERPENT" IN CHICANO EXPRESSION BY David Steven Wessel A DISSERTATION Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY College of Arts and Letters 1977 © Copyright by DAVID STEVEN WESSEL 1977 to Janet ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The author gratefully acknowledges Michigan State University, the faculty, and in particular the members of my committee: Douglas Lawder (Chairman), Robert Anderson, Jack Bain, Fernando Gomez, and Robert Unkefer, in Interdisciplinary Studies, in providing the opportunity to develop an individualized learning program to meet my special needs. I would like to express particular appreciation to Warren Peters, director of the Detroit Institute of Arts Library, and to the City of Detroit for collecting and preserving the ancient hieroglyphic literature. iii TABLE OF CONTENTS Page LIST OF FIGURES . . . . . . . . . . . . V NAHUATL PRONUNCIATION . . . . . , , , , , Vii Chapter I. INTRODUCTORY STATEMENTS WITH DEFINITION OF TERMS O O O O O O O I O O O O 1 II. THE PROPHESY . . . . . . . . . . . 19 Historico—Mythological Quetzalcoatl . . . 19 The Ancient Calendar . . . . . . . . 36 III. IN SEARCH OF THE SERPENT . . . . . . . 43 IV. THE INTERPRETATION . . . . . . . . . 71 Evolution . . . . . . . . . . . . 108 V. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION . . . . . . . 117 BIBLIOGRAPHY . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120 iv 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. LIST OF FIGURES The Thirteen Heavens and Nine Hells The Nine Hells and the Thirteen Heavens The Nahua Heavens . . . . The Calendar . . . . . . The Ancient Calendar and Division The La Venta Site . . . . The Cuicuilco Monument . . Monument l9 . . . . . . The Serpent Glyph . . . . Crotalus durissus terrificus Crotalus durissus durissus . La Venta: Underground Serpentine La Venta: Underground Sculpture of the Serpent's Mouth . . . . The Feathered Serpent . . . The Serpent as Female . . . The Female Serpent as Death . Anthropomorphic Serpent as Female The God Quetzalcoatl . . . The Intercardinal Points . . The Emergence of the Aztec . Sculpture. Page 27 29 31 34 39 46 49 56 60 61 63 65 68 72 72 75 75 78 80 82 Figure 21. 22. 23. 24a. 24b. 24c. 24d. 25. 26a. 26b. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. 33. 34. Tlaltecuhtli . . . . . The Ancient Calendar . . The Sun—Earth Cycle . . . Serpent-Sun Symbol . . . Dynamic Conversion . . . The Hook . . . . . . The Reverse "S" . . . . The Chalcatzingo Relief . Movement-Time Spirals . . The Feathered Serpent . . The Calendar Wheel . . . Rattlesnake Motif . . . The Serpent's Split Tongue Young Maize Plant . . . Humanity and Sustenance . The Panel of the Cross . . The Tzotzil Visual World . Moonsong, by Ray Chavez . vi Page 84 86 88 92 92 92 92 95 96 96 98 101 103 105 107 110 112 113 NAHUATL PRONUNCIATION The vowels: A as in cat E as in set I as in give 0 as in hot U X Z H as in true like sh in show like 5 in say is pronounced with a soft aspira- tion as in English. It is like w in way; huethuetl, way-waytl CH as in chat QU has a k value HU and GU have a w sound when preceding a vowel TCH as in catch TL both letters pronounced so fast they blend as though one TZ like ts in cats TL, T2, and TS represent single sounds and are not to be divided The consonants: The dipthongs: 0A and UA like wa as in Swahili UEI like way HUIT like wit OU like 0 in pole The accent in the Nahuatl language falls on the penulta- mate syllable and therefore on every second syllable. English phonetic equivalents have been provided for the examples: Ixtilxochitl (eeshtleel-SHO-cheetl) Chalchiuhtlicue (chal-chee-OOT-lee—kway) Chichen Itza (chi-CHEN eet-ZA) Quetzalcoatl (kayt-zal-CO-atl) vii Teutihuacan (tay-o-tee-wah-CAN) tonacatecuhtli (to-na-ca-tay-COO-tli) Ehecatl (ay-HAY-catl) Tezcatlipoca (tez-cat-LI-po-ca) Xolotl (SHO-lottl) Chignahuapan (chi-na-WA-pan) Huitznahuacans (weetz-na-WA-cans) Xochimilco (sho-chee-MEEL-co) Tenochtitlan (te-notch-ti-TLAN) Cuicuilco (kee-KEEL-co) Tonalpohualli (to-nal-po-WAHL-li) Oaxaca (wah-HAH-cah) Nezahuacoyotl (ne-za-wal—COY-otl) Nahuatl (NA-watl) Ixachilan (Ish-ah-chi-LAN) Ixachilankak (Ish-ah-chi-LAN-ka) viii CHAPTER I INTRODUCTORY STATEMENTS WITH DEFINITION OF TERMS The inscription at the entrance to the National Archives in Washington D.C. reads, "WHAT IS PAST IS PROLOGUE." Chicanos are identifying with their ancient historical and cultural roots as a prologue to contempo- rary expression. This past does not begin with Columbus "discovering" a new land, nor with the foundation established by early Americans as demonstrated by a Chicano poet, Richard Olivas: I'm sitting in my history class, The instructor commences rapping, I'm in my U.S. History class, And I'm on the verge of napping. The Mayflower landed on Plymouth Rock. Tell me more! Tell me more! Thirteen colonies were settled. I've heard it all before. What did he say? Dare I ask him to reiterate? Oh why bother It sounded like he said, George Washington's my father. I'm reluctant to believe it, I suddenly raise my mano. If George Washington's my father, Why wasn't he Chicano?1 The original inhabitants of the Americas did not migrate from other lands but traveled to other lands. Arnold C. Vento asserts in an article "Myth, Legend, and History of Aztec Origins: The Oral Tradition," that it was not the Nahuas who were discovered,but Europe, Asia and Africa by the Nahuas.2 Dr. Vento refutes the idea established by Elliot Smith that the Egyptians migrated to the continent of America and founded the ancient cultures.3 Autochthonous man began in this continent in Ixachilan according to Dr. Vento.t In Nahuatl, Ixachilan means "immensity." The inhabitants of this continent were called Ixachilankah; the race was known as Ixachilankah, and contained many dialects in which Nahuatl was the dominant tongue.4 The term "Nahua" was used collectively for all peoples who successively inhabited Ixachilan in different periods. The Nahuas shared a common linguistic bond as well as cultural similarities. For this reason Miguel Leon-Portilla, a Mesoamerican scholar, attached to the ancient pe0ples the term Nahuatl, and refers to them collectively as the Nahuatl culture.5 Irene Nicholson, also a Mesoamerican scholar, uses the term Nahuatl to mean "those whom the whole cultural complex--language, myth, and symbol--first sprang."6 Nicholson's evidence was based on the fact that so many myths among the peoples of Central Mexico, the Yucatan Peninsula, and parts of South America were so similar it would be reasonable to suppose the existence of some common parent stock. The scope of this study is thematic and generic based on examination from diverse areas and periods of ancient and contemporary resources. It is not important in the present purpose of this study to distinguish between various peoples. It is important to recognize a new ecumene--a culture unrelated to any other such as the European culture--the autochthonous Nahua. Periods are generally designated according to the time the people of Mesoamerica moved from a simple site-- village agriculture, sometime after 1500 B.C.--to the ceremonial civilization of the great city of Teotihuacan, 200-700 A.D. Pre-classic is the term given before Teotihuacan. Classic is the period during the flourishing of Teotihuacan, and Post-classic is the period after Teotihuacan up to the Spanish Conquest in 1523 A.D.8 Mesoamerica is that part of the continent differ- entiated from other areas by a common cultural basis and common tradition. Geographically it extends from central Mexico--from the Soto La Marina River in Tamaulipas and the Fuerte River in Sinaloa--to central Honduras and western Costa Rica. Its cultural tradition started around 2000 B.C., but as a civilized area its history only begins with the Olmecs.9 Archaeologists have excavated many sections of Teotihuacan. It was a city of airy spaciousness con- structed along horizontal planes with massive sloping walls by architects who knew their skill.10 Located some twenty-four miles north-east of Mexico City, it so impressed the Aztecs that it appears in their mythology as the birth place of the universe, the gods and man. In 1941 historians held a congress and passed a resolution that the capital of Quetzalcoatl was a certain Tollan--Tu1a, one hundred twentyefive miles from Mexico City, and not as previously thought to be at Teotihuacan. It was at Teotihuacan that the cult of Quetzalcoatl found expression, states the archaeologist Laurette Sejourne, and the image of Quetzalcoatl existed a thousand years before the discovery of the city of Tula, but did not exist before the time of Teotihuacan.12 In Chapter III of this study an obvious Olmec Feathered Serpent of a time long before Teotihuacan is presented. There are many controversial conjectures mentioned in this study. The above controversy over the time of existence of Quetzalcoatl, Tula or Teotihuacan is not important to the purpose of this study. The intent of this study is to interpret the various symbolic aspects of the Mesoamerican Serpent, not to solve the controversial conjectures. It is understood that the interpretation of the Serpent in the dissertation is itself an addition to 'the many conjectures that exist. The representation of saurians or reptiles con- stitutes one of the most prominent motifs in Mesoamerican art, architecture, and sculpture. The symbol of Quetzal- coatl is a serpent adorned with feathers of the Quetzal bird. The name Quetzalcoatl means literally "quetzal- serpent" which is either called "feathered or plumed" serpent. The Quetzal, native of Guatemala, also lived during ancient times in Mexico and was regarded as one of the most beautiful birds in the world. It takes its name from "quetzalli," a Nahuatl term for tail feather, which came to mean "precious" or "beautiful."13 The word "coatl" means "serpent" and also "twin." Thus, the word Quetzalcoatl may also be translated as "precious twin."14 David Kahan writes in an article "Chicano Street Murals: People's Art in the East Los Angeles Barrio," that among the traditional symbols which frequently appear in the murals is the snake, the Feathered Serpent, Quetzalcoatl, the chief diety of the Nahuatl pantheon.15 Indian forms and symbols are no affectation for the Chicano, says Guillermo Guenfrios in "The Emergence of the New Chicano," "they are in his blood, his religion, and his culture."l6 The archaeologist H. J. Spinden, referring to the symbol of the Serpent, writes: When we can begin ourselves to feel the serpent symbolism of the Mayan artists as we feel, for instance, the conventional halo that covers the ideal head of Christ, then we shall be able to recognize the truly emotional qualities of Mayan architecture. Laurette Sejourne suggests that the image of the Feathered Serpent had for the Nahuatl culture the same evocative force as the Crucifix for Christianity.18 Symbols consti- tute a meaningful code to those whose existence it is baSed. Carl Jung states: "What we call a symbol is a term, a name, or even a picture that may be familiar in daily life, yet that possesses specific connotations in addition to the conventional and obvious meaning."19 The term "culture" is an essential part of the language of today. In this study culture means inherited traditional beliefs; it comprises observable modifica- tions caused by human actions aesthetically expressed in succeeding generations. Chicano culture is the new generation. It is essential to identify this culture through its aesthetic content as an aid in understanding an ethnic people in a pluralistic society, as an indige- nous American heritage, and as an addition to the wealth of man's achievement in the Humanities. There are several different concepts over the meaning of the term "Chicano." Two letters published in the Los Angeles Times Newspaper express vigorously different viewpoints. The first letter was written by Ruben Salazar. He states: A Chicano is a Mexican-American with a non- Anglo image of himself. He resents being told Columbus "discovered" America when the Chicano's ancestors, the Mayans and the Aztecs, founded highly sophisticated civilizations centuries before Spain financed the Italian explorer's trip to the "New World." When you think you know what Chicanos are getting at, a Mexican American will tell you that Chicano is an insulting term and may even quote the Spanish Academy to prove that Chicano derives from Chicanery. A Chicano will scoff at this and say that such Mexican Americans have been brainwashed by Anglos and that they're Tio Tacos (Uncle Toms). This type of Mexican Americans, Chicanos will argue, don't like the word Chicano because it's abrasive to their Anglo-oriented minds. These poor people are brown Anglos, Chicanos will smirk. What, then is a Chicano? Chicanos say that if you have to ask you'll never understand, much less become a Chicano. Actually, the word Chicano is as difficult to define as "soul." For those who like simplistic answers, Chicano can be defined as short for Mexicano. For those who prefer complicated answers, it has been suggested that Chicano may have come from the word "Chihuahua--the name of a Mexican state bordering on the United States. Getting trickier, this version then contends that Mexicans who migrated to Texas call themselves Chicanos because having crossed into the United States from Chihuahua they adopted the first three letters of that state, Chi, and then added cano, for the latter part of Texano. . . . In New Mexico they call themselves Spanish Americans. In other parts of the Southwest they call themselves Americans of Mexican descent, people with Spanish surnames or Hispanos. Why, ask some Mexican Americans, can't we just call ourselves Americans? Chicanos are trying to explain why not. Mexican Americans, though indigenous to the Southwest, are on the lowest rung scholastically, economically, socially, and politically. Chicanos feel cheated. They want to effect change now. . . . Chicanos, then, are merely fighting to become "Americans."20 A Mexicano that did quote from a Castillian dictionary was Reverend Thomas Sepulveda, an army chaplain, who expressed his views in a letter published in the Los Angeles Times on January 5, 1970. The letter states: The constant barbaric use by Mexican Americans and the general public of the word Chicano instead of Mexicano urged me to break my long silence against the wrong use of the word. According to Vastus's "Diccionario Enciclo- pedico de la lengua Castellana" the word Chicano or chicana signified "mentiroso"--liar or "embustero"--tricky. The meaning of this word Chicano is even worse if one interprets it etymologically. So, I hope this statement will help the general public and the people who have pride in calling themselves Chicanos, when they really mean to call themselves Mexicanos. I feel proud to be a Mexicano and I forbid people to call me and my people Chicano or Chicanos because when they do they are calling us mentirosos——liars--"embusteros"--tricky-—and something worse. REV. THOMAS SEPULVEDA Chaplain, General Hospital‘ Denver, Colorado In a short story by Mario Suarez, a Chicano writer, called "E1 Hoyo" (The Hole), on the cultural multiplicity among Chicanos in the barrio, there is a reference to the term "Chicano" which states: "While the term 'Chicano' is the short way of saying 'Mexicano,’ .it is the long way of referring to everybody."22 There are over seven million Americans of Mexican descent in the United States. Aztlan, a mythological name for "homelend," is considered the place of origin of the Chicanos. Aztlan is geographically located in the southwest: Texas, New Mexico, California, and Arizona. It appears that there is no single term designating Americans of Mexican descent. The terms "Mexican Americans" or "Mexicanos" are used in California, "Latin American" or "Tejano" in Texas, "Nuevo Mexicanos" or "Hispanos" in New Mexico. "La Raza" (The Race) is a term which unites nearly all Americans of Mexican descent into an ethnic solidarity and a movement. Two tenets of this movement are "Chicanismo" and "Carnalismo." Chicanismo is a recognition of a socio-political and cultural emergence. Carnalismo is the recognition of an ethnic kinship or brotherhood which binds everyone of Mexican descent together regardless of station in life. Contemporary relevance of Chicano expression lies in their ancient past: "as ancient and as beautiful as life itself," and from this, says Luis Valdez, "the Chicano is able to grasp a new percpective on the world he lives in."23 10 The inspiration for this new perspective in the field of art is proclaimed by Manuel J. Martinez: "The most 'ancient' art of our history is purely Indian and is still considered the natural and most vital source of inspiration."24 In Chicano literature this preoccupation with the‘ancient past is not mere nostalgia but "a ritual of cleansing and a prophesy," states Tomas Rivera.25 Reflecting upon the past the Chicanos simultane— ously disseminate their future concepts through aesthetic 'expression. Thus, understanding Chicano aesthetic expression lies in their very ancient roots. The evocation of the ancient past is affirmed in the belief in a prophesy which relates to a concept expressed in "Pensamiento Serpentino" by Luis Valdez that: . .. Reality es una gran Serpiente a great serpent that moves and changes and keeps crawling out of its dead skin despojando su pellejo viejo discarding his old skin to emerge clean and fresh la nueva realidad nace de la the new reality is born realidad vieja26 from the old reality . . . no hay que olvidar Do not forget that according que segun 1a profesia to the prophesy of ancient de los tiempos antiguos times, QUETZALCOATL esta por volver Quetzalcoatl will return to al mundo . . . the world . . 11 en el ANO CE ACATL EN EL in the year one reed on the DIA CE ACATL day one reed. y cae e1 16 de Agosto de 1987.27 August 16, 1987. (English trans. by the author) (The recognition of the aesthetic values of their ancient past is part of the Chicano movement. Or, is it the Quetzalcoatl movement? A question which may take on a new meaning in the process of this dissertation. The illumination of the Quetzalcoatl prophesy is found in a concept whose contents refers to "Reality is a great Serpent. The approach is to study the symbol of the Serpent in its various aspects for an interpretation of "Reality." The question is: What did the Serpent really mean to the ancient Americans as an "old reality" that so inspires "new reality" in Chicano expression. History and myth are intermingled concerning Quetzalcoatl, the Feathered Serpent, and the personage who bore that name. The importance, whether history or myth, is the prophesy that Quetzalcoatl will return to reclaim his "Kingdom" on the day of his birth. The main premises of this dissertation are pre- sented in three chapters. The second chapter discusses the historico-mythological Quetzalcoatl, the ages of the world, the heavens and hells, and the ancient calendar. With this knowledge and the Gregorian calendar a calcula- tion of the exact date of the prophesied return of Quetzalcoatl was achieved. Chapter IUZpresents the 12 Serpent and the meaning for its existence. The fourth chapter presents an holistic explanation tying together the various aspects of the Serpent and is a demonstration of the Chicano affirmation of ancient indigenous thought and expression. It presents the symbol of the Serpent as it relates to the ancient primordial source, and explains American indigenous thought expressed in the symbol of the Serpent. The ancient people came to realize that the Serpent is the Serpent. Information concerning ancient Mesoamerica is derived from reading hieroglyphs on codices, stelae, and panels, and interpretations of architectural concepts by scholars both ancient and contemporary involved in Nahuatl studies. The term "codex" usually refers to European illuminated manuscripts consisting of pages bound on one side. This term is really a misnomer when referring to the ancient Mesoamerican picture writing which are screen- folds of animal skins or bark paper that can be opened in accordian-fashion to the shape of a long rectangle. The images of the picture book are painted in various colors, encased in black outlines. A good available example is the Codex Nuttal published in 1975 which con- tains many hieroglyphs of the Feathered Serpent.28 Codices are generally named after the library or city where they are preserved. Some, however, like the 13 Codex Nuttall carry the name of the owner or are given a new name which does cause confusion in references in published litarature. The Nuttall Codex is at times referred to as Codex Zouche after an Englishman known as Lord Zouche who owned it. Zelia Nuttall brought the Codex—-the original is in the British Museum-~to the attention of scholars. She had the original manuscript painted and published in 1902 by the Peabody Museum of Harvard University. Because of her contribution the director'of the Peabody Museum of American Archaeology and Ethnology of Harvard University gave the name Nuttall to the codex, in her honor. Codex painting was an art of the nobles, painted by and for the ruling class. Insight is given by a Dominican, Father Burgoa, on how the codices were used: The painted manuscripts were executed by the sons of noble families who were chosen to be' priests and were taught from childhood the art of pictographic writing and the stories and legends to be painted. . . . The historical manuscripts were explained by the Indians who were learned in the stories of the lineages and their achievements, and that the painted screenfolds were placed around the rooms of nobility as decoration.29 In 1932, the archaeologist, Alfonso Caso, dis- covered in a tomb which he labeled as "Tomb 7" the Codex Bodley among other objects of art. Caso states: Tomb 7 yielded more than five hundred pieces of jewelry and objects of art, and with them a wealth of information on Mixtec craftsmanship, l4 metalworking, and religion, much of it paralleled in the brightly colored folded Mixtec picture books of deerskin that survived the Spanish Conquest.3O It is preserved in the Bodleian Library at Oxford. The subject matter of the Bodley Codex contains genealogies and histories of specific people and areas. It begins in A.D. 692 and ends abruptly in 1521, when the Mixtecs-- inhabitants of the Valley of Oaxaca--were conquered by the Spanish.31 An English nobleman by the name of Lord Kings- borough compiled in nine volumes the first publication of hieroglyphic literature and named it Mexican Antiquities. Kingsborough devoted his entire life trying to prove that the indigenous Americans of Mesoamerica were descendants of the thirteen lost tribes of Israel mentioned in the Bible. He spent his time and fortune to this end gathering material for evidence. The publication and printing of Kingsborough's Mexican Antiquities was so costly he was unable to pay the debts he incurred and was put into prison in London where he died in penury. The significance of the first publication of hieroglyphs for scholarly research into these ancient codices must not be underestimated. A facsimile of the 1831 publication of Kingsborough's work is preserved in the library of the Detroit Institute of Art. A list of the contents of the nine volumes is included in the 15 bibliography in this dissertation for those interested in future research. The bibliography lists all codices, literature about the codices, as well as works such as the Popol Vul and Bernardino de Sahagun's Florentine nggx'which were derived from hieroglyphic writing under the heading "Hieroglyphic Literature." The bibliography is divided into sections with an introductory statement defining the material in each section. Certain aspects of the original cultural tradi- tion have exhibited a remarkable resistance to change while having been remolded and reinterpreted in conform— ance with underlying aesthetic values. As studies continue, and new excavations are discovered and explored, new information--such as the horizontal dimension dis- cussed in Chapter IV--will aid in the understanding of the continent on which we live. FOOTNOTES: CHAPTER I lIgnacio Octavio Romano and Herminio C. Rios, eds. E1 Espejo--The Mirror (Berkeley: Quinto Sol Publications, Inc.), leaf. 2Arnold Vento, "Myth, Legend and History of Aztec Origins: The Oral Tradition," Grito de Sol (Berkeley: Tonatiuh International, Inc.), p. 98. 3Friedrich Katz, The Ancient American Civiliza- tion (New York: Praeger Publishers, 1969), p. 9. 4Vento, p. 83. 5Miguel Leon-Portilla, Aztec Thought and Culture: A Study of the Ancient Nahuatl Mind, trans. by Jack Emory Davis (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1963), p. xviii. 6Irene Nicholson, Firefly in the Fight: A Study of Ancient Mexican Poetry and Symbolism (London: Faber and Faber, 1959), p. 19. 71bid. 8George C. Vaillant, Aztecs of Mexico (Baltimore: Penguin Books, Inc., 1965), p. 33. 9Ignacio Bernal, Mexico Before Cortez: Art, History, and Legend (Garden City: Doubleday and Company, Onc., 1963), p. 1. 10George E. Stuart and Gene S. Stuart, Discovering Man's Past (Washington, D.C.: The National Geographic Society, 1973), p. 65. 11Laurette Sejourne, Burning Water (London: Thames and Hudson, 1965). p. 83. 12 Ibid. 13Stuart, p. 41. 16 17 14Alfonso Caso, The Aztecs. People of the Sun, trans. Lowell Dunham (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1958), p. 62. 15David Kahan, "Chicano Street Murals: People's Art in the East Los Angeles Barrio," Aztlan: Inter- national Journal of Chicano Research (Los Angeles: Chicano Studies Center, University of California, Spring, 1975), Vol. 6, No. 1, p. 110. l6Luis Valdez and S. Steiner, eds., Aztlan: An Anthology of Mexican American Literature (New York: Random House, Inc.; Vintage Books, 1972), p. 288. 17Frank Water, Mexico Mystique, The Coming Sixth World of Consciousness (Chicago: Sage Books, 1975), p. 47. 18Sejourne, p. 25. 19Kahan, p. 118. ZOJulian Nava, Viva La Raza: Readings on Mexican Americans (New York: D. Van Nostrand Company, 1973), p. 156. 21 Ibid. 22Mario Surez, "E1 Hoyo," in Voices of Aztlan, ed. D. E. Harth and L. M. Baldwin (New York: New American Library, 1974), p. 13. 23Matt S. Meir and Feliciano Rivera, Readings on La Raza: The Twentieth Century (New York: Hill and Wang, 1974), p. xiv. 24 Valdez, p. 350. 25"Raza Art and Media Collective Journal" (Ann Arbor: The Raza Art and Media Collective, Inc., March 1, 1976), Vol. 1, No. 2, p. 1. 26Luis Valdez, "Pensamiento Serpentine," Chicano TheatreOne (San Jose: El Centro Cultural de la Gente, Inc., Spring, 1973), p. 8. 27 Ibid., p. 19. 28Zelia Nuttall, ed.,'Codex Nuttall (New York: Dover Publications, Inc., 1975), p. viii. 18 29Mary Elizabeth Smith, Picture Writing from Ancient Southern Mexico (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1973), p. 20. 30Stuart, p. 68. 31Ibid., inside cover. 32Katz, p. 9. CHAPTER II THE PROPHESY Historico-Mythological Quetzalcoatl History and myth are intermingled concerning Quetzalcoatl, the Feathered Serpent, and the personage who bore that name. Whether history or myth, the essential part of the historico-mythological episode is that Quetzalcoatl, upon his departure, prophesied to return on the year and day of his birth. It was for this reason that the conquest of Mexico by Hernan Cortes was so effective; the Aztecs did not fear any human being, only the gods could destroy them. Cortes arrived in the year One Reed, on the very day of the birth of Quetzalcoatl, and was believed to be the god returning to reclaim his "Kingdom." Historical records contain dates of the birth and departure of QuetzalCoatl. Aztec mythology divides existence into ages. Four ages have passed and we are presently living in the Fifth Age. The ages are further divided into thirteen heavens and nine hells through which each age must pass before completion and the beginning of a new age. Thisrinformation along with the 19 20 ancient and Gregorian calendars, a calculation of the exact date of the prophesy can be achieved. The historical Quetzalcoatl is based on the legend that he was Ce Acatl Topiltzin Quetzalcoatl; translated it means Our Lord, One Reed Feathered Serpent. Historical reality was established by Bernardino de. Sahagun who mentions a king called Quetzalcoatl who reigned many years in the city of Tollan--a name for Tulla which Sahagun mentions many times in relation to the Toltecs.l The historian H. J. Spinden states that Quetzalcoatl is: . . . the greatest figure in the ancient history of the New World, with a code of ethics and love for the sciences and the arts.2 In the beginning of the tenth century, according to the legend, a Toltec Chieftain, Mixcoatl, led his peOple from the north to conquer the Valley of Mexico. Mixcoatl married the daughter of Huitznahuacanos, Prince Chimalma. Mixcoatl died in 947 by a contender for his throne before the birth of his son. Chimalma died in childbirth and the son was named Ce Acatl Topiltzin after the calendrical sign that ruled the year of his birth. Ce Acatl Topiltzin became a priest and eventually was elevated to the high priesthood of the religion of the god Quetzalcoatl, the Feathered Serpent. He then 21 assumed the name of the god whose living incarnation he was to be, and was thus known as Ce Acatl Topiltzin Quetzalcoatl or simply as Quetzalcoatl. Quetzalcoatl led his people in 980 to build his city, Tula. Myth attributes to him not only the city of Tula but all the benefits of civilization: corn, the calendar, the arts, and writing. In 999 Quetzalcoatl was forced to flee Tula and traveled across the Gulf Coast to Chichen Itza on the Yucatan Peninsula.3 The village of Tulla was mentioned by Sahagun in relation to a time of peace and plenty, and how the Toltecs had to leave their city with Quetzalcoatl. The tale states that Quetzalcoatl was reared and considered a god, and in ancient times they worshipped him in Tulla. His subjects did not lack anything at all; they never suffered famine or lack of corn. The corn was so big they had to carry it in their arms, and never ate the small ears, but heated their baths with them instead of fire-wood. There was an abundance of cocoa- trees, and squash grew to a fathom (six feet) in circum- ference. They sowed and gathered cotton of all colors: red, yellow, purple, white, green and many others. These colors of cotton grew naturally. Also, in this town of Tulla, they reared many different kinds of birds of rich plumage in many colors as well as song birds who sang very sweetly and softly. The Toltecs were skilled 22 in all the arts which had their origin and commencement with Quetzalcoatl. Quetzalcoatl also did penance by pricking his limbs and drawing blood with the maguey points, and he bathed at midnight in a spring. This custom was adopted by priests; they do exactly what Quetzalcoatl used to do in the town of Tulla. The time came when the good fortune of Quetzal- coatl and the Toltecs came to an end. Tezcatlipoca had arrived, disguised as an old man, and the servants did not want to let him in to see Quetzalcoatl in his palace. However, Quetzalcoatl replied to his servants: "Let him come in here and appear before me, because I have awaited him for many days." Quetzalcoatl knew it was the beginning of the time of Tezcatlipoca, who reigns over the nine hells discussed below. Sahagun records many trials and tribulations in Book III of his "History" before Quetzalcoatl finally departs on a raft of snakes.4 As god, Quetzalcoatl was defeated by the evil spell of Tezcatlipoca, traveled toward the east, built a raft of serpents and sailed away. In another version Quetzalcoatl cast himself into a bonfire he built himself, thus turning himself into the planet Venus.5 The Aztecs believed the origin of the gods, the world and man took place after four ages of time at a 23 city called Teotihuacan. The remains of this city stand today as a memorial testimony of the past. About 200 B.C. there was built the city called Teotihuacan. About 750 B.C. Teotihuacan was sacked and burned, and all the people left. Who these people were no one knows. Moctezuma made pilgrimages to the city which the Aztecs named Teotihuacan, City of the Gods, because here, when one died he became a god, when one would say he became a god, it meant he died.6 Aztec mythology states that it was at Teoti- huacan where the gods, the world and man were created. The origin of the gods, the world and man was called Ometeotl: "Ome" means two and "teotl" means god. OmeteOtl was both masculine and feminine, and through his generative and conceptive powers he activated the concept of duality which continues throughout life's existence. Ometeotl was self-created by his own will and authority. In other words, by his own volition he came into being, and by his own will the gods, the world, and man came into existence. Ometeotl first created the ages. Each age was represented by a sun, and each sun was considered a god—- the sons of Ometeotl--and given a name: Tezcatlipoca, Quetzalcoatl, Tlaloc, and Chalchiuhtilicui. The sons of Ometeotl were entrusted with the creation of the other gods, the world and man. While each god or sun was in 24 power an age existed. The competition for supremacy over the destiny of man kept the world in tension and ultimately led to destruction. Thus, the world had been created and destroyed four times. The first Sun was Tezcatlipoca. Quetzalcoatl struck him with his staff knocking him into the water. Changing into a Jaguar, the symbol of Tezcatlipoca, he devoured the giants, who inhabited the world. Quetzalcoatl, as Ehecatl the wind god, was the second Sun, until he was struck down by the paw of the Jaguar, in which case, a great wind arose uprooting trees and most of mankind was destroyed. Those that survived were turned into monkeys. The third Sun was Tlaloc, god of rain and fire, who showered the earth with fire-rain, and those not destroyed were changed into birds. The fourth Sun or Age was Chalchiuhtilicue, goddess of water. The earth was flooded by Tlaloc and once again men were destroyed and those left were trans- formed into fish. Tezcatlipoca and Quetzalcoatl had to lift up the sky, since it was made of water and had fallen upon the earth, so that land might appear again. Now the earth was without light again so the four sons of Ometeotl, and the other gods they had created, decided to gather at Teotihuacan to create once again a 25 Sun that the earth might have light. They set about building a great fire in order that one of the gods would jump into the fire and sacrifice himself so there would be light. Two of the gods volunteered for the sacrifice: one very rich and one very poor and sickly. For four days the two gods fasted and sacrificed for the trial ahead. On the fifth day a fire was built and one of the two gods were to throw themselves into the flames in order to emerge purified to illuminate the world. The rich god was to throw himself into the fire first. He tried three times but could not get himself to do it. The poor sickly god then leaped into the flames the first try. When the rich god saw this, shamed by his cowardice, he leaped into the flames and was also consumed. The gods waited for the sun to appear. Then a great light appeared but there were two Suns. The gods enraged by the audacity of the deliberating Sun threw a rabbit at it and struck it in the face dimming its light; thus creating the moon. However, the Sun did not move--all was still. Many times they tried to make the sun move. Then a great wind arose and made the sun move along its path.7 This is the Fifth Age or Sun of the world. It is the present age in which we live. The Fifth Sun will end after having traveled through the remaining sections of 26 the nine hells, August 16, 1987, which begins the Sixth Sun, or age, in its travels through the thirteen heavens. Ometeotl and the thirteen heavens and nine hells are expressed in hieroglyphs in the Codex Vaticanus (Figure 1). The explanation of the heavens below is taken from Book VI of the Kingsborough edition containing the Vaticanus Codex. The numerical sequence on Figure 1 does not follow the explanation in Book VI. Two inter- pretations of the arrangements of the hieroglyphs taken from Codex Vaticanus for clarification follow: Alfonso Caso's from The Aztecs: People of the Sun (Figure 2); and that of Irene Nicholson's from Firefly in the Night (Figure 3). The explanation of the heavens: Omeyocan, the place where dwells Tonacatecutli, which signified creator generally. Tonacatecutli and Tonacatecuhtli, "Our Lord and Lady of Subsistence" as manifestationf of Ometeotl's duality of being masculine and feminine. Omeyocan was the heavens of heavens or the highest heaven. The next four heavens symbolize the four ages of the world. The last of the four is Quetzalcoatl or the age of Flints and Roses which is the present age. The age of Quetzalcoatl is not named "teotl" (god), the appelation by which the three preceding ages are distinguished, nor is it symbolized like them by a ray of the sun, because in this age no destruction of the world-- extinction of the sun or creation of a new one-- was supposed to take place. The heaven next in order to Omeyocan was the green or light azure heaven, to which succeeded the green and black or dark azure heaven. 27 Figure l.--The Thirteen Heavens and Nine Hells. Codex Vaticanus, Kingsborough Edition, Vol. II. Detroit Institute of Art, pp. 1 and 2. 28 27 Figure 1.--The Thirteen Heavens and Nine Hells. Codex Vaticanus, Kingsborough Edition, Vol. II. Detroit Institute of Art, pp. 1 and 2. 28 * I- {62010193 /\/\l\/'\A «AAA/\N‘ AAA/\AAAAAAAI AAA/\AAAAAAN (\I\ AAAAAAAAAAD AAAA l\l\ AAN’U‘ 29 Figure 2.--The Nine Hells and The Thirteen Heavens. Arrangement by Alfonso Caso, The Aztecs, People of the Sun, trans. Lowell Dunham (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1958). p. 61. 30 58v T 39/! my 0 Cocoon 31 Figure 3.--The Nahua Heavens. Arrangement after Irene Nickolson, Firefly in the Night: A Study of Ancient Mexican Poetry and Symbolism (London: Faber and Faber, 1959). P. 56. 32 Dual god —— Dual god: —— Innocent children nobody knows§::l Gods Gods —— tempests Dust -— . Air __1 Night and day F irey snakes —— Shooting stars Birds -— Venus 400 men created by tezcatlipoca —— 5“" Female skeleton ——Milky Way Pair of male and —— Moon and clouds female stars N — River and yellow dog — Two mountains — Obsidian mountain , — Bitter wind — Banners — Arrows — Wild Beast — Narrow place — Soul at rest 31 Figure 3.--The Nahua Heavens. Arrangement after Irene Nickolson, Firefly in the Night: A Study of Ancient Mexican Poetry and Symbolism (London: Faber and Faber, 1959). P. 56. 32 Dual god —-— Dual god: —— Innocent children nobody knows§:_} Gods Gods —— tempests Dust —— . Air __} Night and day F irey snakes —— Shooting stars Birds -— Venus 400 men created by tezcatlipoca —_ SUD Female skeleton ——‘Milky Way Pair of male and —— Moon and clouds female stars N / I — River and yellow dog — Two mountains — Obsidian mountain ‘ — Bitter wind — Banners — Arrows — Wild Beast — Narrow place — Soul at rest 33 The symbol distinguishing the fifth heaven is the head of the goddess Chalchiuitlicue. The goddess may always be recognized by the symbol of "atl," or "water" upon her head denoting that she presided over the element. Tonatiuh, the name of the sixth heaven, signifies "the heaven of the Sun." Citlalicoe is perhaps the seventh heaven. It would then be the "heaven of the stars": since "Citalal" means star. Tlalocaypanmeztli, the name of the eighth heaven signifies the god Tlaloque and of the moon, or of "Paradice" and of the moon. The ninth and last heaven was called Tlalicipac, which is here interpreted "the earth." Tlalicipac was an epithet which was bestowed on their (Book VI refers to "Mexicans") supreme diety Tonacatecutli, which its etymology refers more to the creation of light, or the work of the first day. The symbol of the ninth heaven resembles in its square form to the superior heavens. ‘ In order to reach Mictlan, the place of rest, the soul or dead must pass through nine hells. The soul must cross a river called Chignahuapan, pass between two mountains that were joined together, climb over a mountain of obsidian, be subjected to an icy wind, so bitter it out like obsidian knives, pass through a place where flags waved, be pierced by arrows, pass the place where wild beasts ate human hearts, go over narrow paths between stones, and, after a period of four years, finally reach the place called Chignahumietlan, where souls found repose.8 34 Figure 4.--The Calendar. Arranged by the author. Glyphs are from the Codex Laud, Kingsborough Edition, Vol. II, Detroit Institute of Art. Alligator Wind House Lizard Serpent Death Dear Rabbit Water 009 Monkey Grass Reed Ocelot Eagle Vulture Motion Flint Rain Flower 2 9 3 10 4 11 5 12 6 13 8 2 9 3 10 4 11 5 12 6 13 7 2 9 3 10 4 11 5 12 6 13 10 11 12 13 10 11 12 13 10 11 12 13 35 1O 11 12 13 10 11 12 13 10 11 12 13 10 11 12 13 1O 11 12 13 10 11 12 13 10 11 12 13 10 11 12 10 11 12 13 1O 11 12 13 10 11 12 13 36 The Ancient Calendar In order to understand how Cortes could be taken for the mythical hero-god, and Luis Valdez could prophesy the return of Quetzalcoatl, August 16, 1987, it is necessary to look at the Mesoamerican calendric system (Figure 4). There were several ways of writing numbers in ancient Mesoamerica. The Olmec of La Venta, and the Maya used a "bar and dot" system.9 To write a number "5" a bar was used. One dot equalled "1", two dots equalled "2", etc. There are 260 numbers, 20 horizontal and 13 vertical. 20 x 13 = 260. On the left are drawn glyphs. Each number signifies a day and each glyph is the sign of that day. Beginning with l Alligator read down to 7 Flower. Then start the next column to the right which begins with 8 Alligator and ends with 1 Flower. Continue reading from left to right in this manner until reaching the last number, 13 Flower. This ends the 260 days of the first year of time which was called 1 Alligator. The year continued until you passed through 260 days when you reached 13 Flower. Then the year sign changes and becomes "Year 2 House: one of the 4 "Year Bearers" that comprise the cycle discussed below. The first day of year 2 House is l Alligator. It will take 37 exactly 260 years to reach the year 1 Alligator, Day 1 Alligator again. The cycle comprised 52 years or four revolutions around the calendar. 13 x 4 = 52. There were 4 "Year Bearers" which carried the names "House," "Rabbit," "Reed," and "Flint." According to the combination of numbers each "Year Bearer" could only occur once every 52 years. The day 1 Reed, the date and year in which Quetzalcoatl was born could only occur once in the 52 year cycle. Cortes arrived on the very day and year: 1 Reed. Actec mythology reveals that four ages have passed and we are presently living in the Fifth age. Each age had a calendrical name: "Jaguar," "Wind," "Rain," and "Water." The fifth age, "Movement," began in 843 A.D.10 Each age consists of thirteen heavens and nine hells: 13 + 9 = 22. After this completion a new age, in this case the Sixth, begins. Each age consists of twenty-two 52 year cycles. 13 heavens + 9 hells = 22 22 x 52 years = 1144 There are 1144 years in each age. 5 ages x 1144 years = 5,720 years the Fifth age will have traveled through the thirteen heavens and nine hells at which time it will end on August 16, 1987-— 38 the date that Luis Valdez states in "Pensamiento Serpentino" when Quetzalcoatl will return: Y no hay que olvidar Do not forget that que segun la profesia according to the prophesy de los tiempos antiguos of ancient times, QUETZALCOATL esta por Quetzalcoatl is going to volver a1 mundo. return to the world. (Tezcatipoca su cuate Tezcatlipoca, his evil twin, malicioso llego en forma has arrived for the last time de Cortez la ultima vez in the form of Cortez en 1519). in 1519. Pero por hay viene e1 But the day and year will dia y ano del nacimiento come on the birth of the de la SERPEINTE EMPLUMADA Plumed Serpent (according to (segun la cuenta antigua) the ancient tale) in the en el ANO CE ACATL EN EL year one reed on the DIA CE ACATL day one reed y cae e1 16 de Agosto de 1987. August 16, 1987.10 This system of utilizing 13 heavens and 9 hells. along with the calendar was divised by Tony Shearer, an American Indian. In Shearer's book Beneath the Moon and Under the Sun, he offers the world his formula as a new way of teaching mathematics and corre- lating history.ll According to Shearer, the Fifth World began on 843 A.D. exactly thirteen 52 year cycles before Hernan Cortes landed in Mexico and ends in 1987. Ce Acatl Quetzalcoatl Topiltzin was born in 947 A.D. and will return August 16, 1987. Shearer began his system with the birth of a new age at the beginning of the first of 13 heavens. He began the nine hells the year of the arrival in Mexico of Hernan Cortes. Luis Valdes, in "Pensamiento Serpentino" states: 39 fixxm . 'afio‘rwflfliiw 903: WWW 4', H! l 3? I fiéfifi R o, . Figure 5.--The Ancient Calendar and Division of Time. Illustrated by the author. 40 Tezcatlipoca su cuate mallicioso Tezcatlipoca (Quetzalcoatl's) llego en forma de Cortez la evil twin arrived disguised ultima vez en 1519. as Cortez the last time in 1519. The diagram (Figure 5) shows that the Fifth age began in A.D. 843; thirteen 52 years before the arrival of Cortez. It is divided into 22 equal periods of time; A.D. 843 to 1987. This represents the period of the Fifth age. Each period represents a 52 year cycle established by the calendar and a time-cycle of 1144 years. 22 x 52 years = 1144. What Shearer did was draw a diameter to the point opposite the date of the birth of Ce Acatl Quetzalcoatl from A.D. 947 across to 1519. Ce Acatl died in the year A.D. 999. A diameter is drawn from 999 to 1571, thus forming a spoke-like system to calculate dates. Ce Acatl, born in 947 A.D., had twenty 52 year cycles left in the twenty-two 52 year cycles remaining in the Fifth Age. 20 x 52 = 1040 add his birthdate 1040 + 947 = 1987: the beginning of the first heaven of a new age and the year of the return of Quetzalcoatl. To reach the exact date of August 16, the Gregorian calendar which forms a 30 day month period was used. By dividing 30 days into the ancient 260 day 41 calendar a sum of eight months occurs. Subtract or add according to the numbers in the months to reach an equal thirty days. The calculations follow: January 31 plus 1 February 29 minus 1 March 31 + 1 April 30 0 May 31 + 1 June 30 0 July 30 0 August 31 :11 + 4 - l = 3 Looking at the calendar (Figure 4) the birth of the Sixth World will begin on 1 Alligator 1987. Count down to the day Reed which is number 13. Add 3 numerals which is 16. Thus, August 16, 1987 is the date of the return of Quetzalcatl. An interpretation of "Reality is a Great Serpent" to illuminate the prophesy is the reason for the ensuing chapters. FOOTNOTES: CHAPTER I I Bernardino de Sahagun, A History of Ancient Mexico: Anthropological, Mythological, and Sociai} trans. Fann R. Bandelier from the Spanish version of Carlos Maria de Bustamante (NashVille: Fisk University Press, 1932), Book III. Laurette Sejourne, Burning Water (London: Thames and Hudson, 1956), p. 25. 3Andre Emmerich, Art Before Columbus (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1963), pp. 168-170. 4Sahagun, Book III, pp. 173-189. SSejourne, p. 65. 61bid., p. 85. 7Miguel Leon-Portilla, Aztec Thought and Culture: ”A Study of the Ancient Nahuatl Mind, trans. Jack Emory Davis (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1963), pp. 38-440 8Caso,‘p. 62. 9Tony Shearer, Beneath the Moon and Under the Sun (Albuquerque: Sun Publishers Company, 1975), p. 100. 1OValdez, p. 19. 11Shearer, p. 82. 12Valdez, p. 19. 42 CHAPTER III IN SEARCH OF THE SERPENT There are literally thousands of sites for excavation in Mesoamerica—-the Gulf Coast, Olmec terri- tory, has reported over six hundred sites in the state of Veracruz alone. Only a few of these sites have been explored and only a handful exposed to intensive study.1 It is not unrealistic to state that controversial conjectures are fluent over such subjects as the origin of a culture, a serpent, or a god in Mesoamerica with so many sites yet to be explored. The archaeologist Laurette Sejourne stated that the image of the Feathered Serpent did not exist before the development of the Teotihuacan culture about 200 A.D.2 Yet this chapter presents a stone sculpture of an undeniable image of the Feathered Serpent from the Olmec culture dated by a scientific method of radiocarbon at 1500 to 500 B.C.3 This chapter intends to explore a few of these controversial conjectures in search of the Serpent that Luis Valdez speaks of in "Pensamiento Serpentino," and a possible meaning for its existence. This is a 43 44 necessary procedure before any interpretation of the serpent's symbols can be made. The earliest known culture in Mesoamerica is known as the Olmec and believed by archaeologists, historians and artists to be the "mother culture" of all other Mesoamerican cultures. The first to suspect the Olmec as the "mother culture" from which all other cultures are derived was the historian, George C. Vaillant, and the artist, Miguel Covarrubias. Their premise was based on a study of Olmic influence in art throughout Mesoamerica, and radiocarbon dating.4 Artistically, the Olmec style is recognized throughout Mesoamerica in the different periodical forma- tions of the various cultures: the Maya zone in Uaxactun; the Zapotec (Monte Alban) and Mixtec (Montenegro) cultures of Oazaca; in many sites of central Mexico such as Tlatilco, Las Bocas, Chalcatzingo, Gualupita and Tlapacoya as well as in numerous (as yet to be unexcavated) ancient sites in the state of Guerrero.5 The conclusion that Covarrubias reached is that most likely the Olmecs originated many of the basic elements of Mesoamerican cultures as well as jaguar gods of the earth, the rain, and the sky, which in time evolved into a multitude of gods, mythical dragons, and monsters . 6 45 The Mesoamerican system was thought to be exclusively Mayan until the archaeologist, Matthew Sterling, discovered at Tres Zapotes, an Olmic site, a date recorded in stone of 31 B.C. the inscribed date utilized the same numerical system as did the Maya, and was 300 years before the earliest known Maya date recorded.7 The origin of Olmec culture is presently in dispute. C. A. Burland suggests that the Olmec-style rock sculptures found at Chalcatzingo are earlier than those found from the Gulf Coast.8 Karl Luckert conjec- tures that the Tuxtla Mountain range may be the early Olmec homeland. However, the Tuxtla volcanos have covered these sites with several hundred feet of lava and may never be found. The National Geographic Society-Smithsonian Institute sponsored several research programs carrying on extensive excavations of the Olmec site at La Venta. One such research project sponsored Michael Stirling, during which he obtained the earliest known data on stone monuments. Another, in collaboration with the University of California, sponsored the archaeologists Drucker, Heizer, and Squier, who discovered the earliest known monument in Mesoamerica (Figure 6). 46 .Ammma .ona cwumaasm .mmoaocnpm seafluoad mo smousm u.U.Q .coumcflzmmav mmma .oomonoe .muco> mg um mcofium>moxm .uoflswm .b .m coo .HoNHmm .m .m .uoxooua .m Hopwm a3muo .muHm muco> sq oseil.m ousmflm 47 _ 6.22:8 antom ocaototmuc: v-4. 2:22 _ 6.5838 antom 238903: £82 .6093 ucsototmuc: .wz Erato—Q Bosfitoz 48 It was described as a pyramid shaped like a fluted cone with ten ridges and gullies fanning out from the peak downward. The fans can be seen spreading out at the bottom spaced further apart on the south side. During one of their excavations Heizer was flying over the Tuxtla Mountains and realized that the La Venta pyramid was actually an imitation of a volcano. Heizer observed: The closest parallel to the form of the La Venta pyramid can be seen in the Tuxtla Mountains, the place from which the Olmecs had dragged their immense basalt boulders for their monuments. Dozens of small volcanic cones dot the region around beautiful Lake Catemaco in the center of the Tuxtlas. When Heizer was flying over this region one day the thought suddenly struck him-- The La Venta pyramid is an imitation volcano! Exactly the same sort of ridges and gullies can be seen fanning out from each cone. Here was an example of architecture imitating nature.10 A similar construction of a monument that appears to be patterned after a volcano is the Cuicuihx>Monument (Figure 7). The picture is a reconstruction of the ancient cuicuilco monument by Ignacio Marquina which was dedicated to the wind god, an aspect of Quetzalcoatl, before it was covered with lava by the volcano Xitl about 100 B.C.ll The wind is an essential part of the make-up of the "Great Serpent." The key to the reason for such a task as con- structing a pyramid imitating nature is found in the significance of the eruption of the volcano in Eduardo 49 .m mcflEoA .Aamma .mwmoummm o mamoHomouusm mo ousuflumcH ".m.a .oowxozv moflcommwnonm ousuoouwooum .MCHDvaS GaomcmH an mafipcflom m Moumo GBMHQ .ucoescoz ooaflooflso m:9rr.> onsmfim 51 Villasenor's Chicano novel, Macho. It gives contemporary evidence of the ancient Olmec's rationale for construct- ing symbolic pyramids. Villasenor writes: In 1943 in the flat cornfield of a Tarascan Indian some smoke began rising. A spiraling column. The Indian and his and their team of oxen watched. The ground shock, and a great explosion erupted. . . . and in one week formed a cone five hundred feet high and covered an area of five square miles. The volcano, now officially named the Paricutin, became e1 monstruo and forced four thousand Tarascan Indians from their homes, and then, with the wind, sent a cloud of black ashes to another valley one hundred miles away. . . . Later [they] . . . went out and found their valley black and smooth and as shiny as water . . . . That had been their valley for farming, and now it was covered with blackness. They began having hunger. Years later a first son was born, and he knew nothing of the now dying volcano . . . . He was a Tarascan born one hundred miles away, and all he knew was that in the valley there was a lake of evil where children were not allowed to play. Then one day his father came home all excited. That black, evil lake was God-sent! An old man had found out the volcanic ashes enriched the earth. And the boy watched his father and mother; they 12 were so happy, and that night they ate much . . . . The "Old man's" discovery that the volcanic ashes made the land fertile is evidence. The key to the meaning for constructing imitation volcanos lies in the Olmec agricultural world. "The key to the beginning of civilization," states Burland, "was the discovery of Agriculture.13 The culmination of Olmec culture--Alexander von Wuthenau concludes that Semitic and Negroid peoples must have crossed the Atlantic as early as 1500 B.C., and lived in Mesoamerica--14 evolved from the earliest presence of 52 the human being in the Americas. Proof of an ancient culture was found about 15,000 to 7,000 B.C. in the valleys of the central highlands of Mexico.15 Ancient life style was nomadic. They were hunters of gigantic animals and gatherers of wild plants. Due to the disappearance of the gigantic animals necessary for sustenance the early inhabitants began to attach themselves to the land, . . . gathering wild seeds and grasses. In time, after observing the germination of vegetation, the nomads evolved from food gathering to a sedantary culture which allowed sufficient safety, continuity and organiza- tion to develop their creative vision of the world. Gradually, these early planters began to distin- guish a rhythm in the atmosphere, a change of seasons, the movement of the sun, and slowly accumulated the knowledge necessary to create a numerical system and a calendar. Dependence on the land led to the discovery of the greatest transcendence: the development of agriculture based on cultivation of edible plants, especially the maize plant, which was the principal plant of the ancient Mesoamerican agricultural world as well as the foundation of the early cultures16 and a unique association, linking humanity to vegetation, which began with the veneration of the volcano. 53 Today, as well as in the past, when fire and smoke burst forth from the mouth of the volcano, as the earth trembles, forming clouds in the atmosphere, the volcano is regarded with reverential respect: a mountain "to-be- spOken-to" as Villasenor so poignantly puts it in his novel.17 Not only did the Olmec realize the volcanic pro- ductivity--observing the mountain ranges with volcanic mouths--the ancient Americans watched spirals of smoke rise, form clouds, and rain, making plants grow--when the volcano lifted itself from earth--terrifying and awe- inspiring--it appeared alive! I In order to make manifest and comprehensible the terrifying and awe-inspiring earth phenomenon, the ancient agriculturalists related it to their own existence—- something they could handle and relate to, yet still terrifying and awe-inspiring. They translated their venerable apperception into a visible and tangible anthromorphic god: the Serpent. This startling fact came to light while Karl Luckert, an historian, was doing research for his forth- coming book, The Navajo Hunter Tradition. In the search of defining Navajo religion, Lukert eventually arrived at what he describes as the "earliest now clearly discernible stratum of Middle American civilization--the Olmecs.18 Out of this research he wrote a book called The Olmec 54 Religion: A Key to Middle America and Beyond, in which Luckert offers an in-depth criterion nullifying the Olmec jaguar cult that the artist Miguel Covarrubias saw among Olmec art. Covarrubias insisted that the jaguar dominated the art of La Venta, and that jaguar features of various sorts are its basic motifs, and, that the jaguar fixation must have had a religious motivation, either totemic or related to the cult of the early rain and earth spirits conceived as jaguars. The conjecture that Luckert proposes is that the jaguar as a religious symbol literally "leaped upon" a serpent cult when leaders of hunter societies captured the priesthood of the Great Serpent.20 The jaguar was a Mesoamerican symbol of Tezcat— lipoca, the war god. Thus, beneath the masks of two gods, Quetzalcoatl and Tezcatlipoca, two cultures were in con- flict: champions of a benign god, Quetzalcoatl, who personified all things good and an evil god, Tezcatlipoca, personifying all things bad. The conquest of Ancient America took place long before Cortes arrived, states Luis Valdez in "Pensamiento Serpentino": Cuando los indigenas dejaron when the natives stopped de creer en Quetzalcoatl believing in the Feathered and they began to believe in Serpent . . . . . . . . the Jaguar y 1as fuerzas de the Jaguar and the forces of la noche. the night entonces comenzo then began 1a conquista de Mexico the conquest of Mexico 55 y eso fue cienes de anos antes and that was hundreds of years de la llegada de Hernan Cortes. before the arrival of Hernan Cortes.21 A proposal that Luckert makes is that before the identification of any more Mesoamerican gods the first step would be a photographic survey made of all Mexican serpents, lizards, and amphibians.22 Knowledge of the image of the Feathered Serpent was established at La Venta. It was carved on a stone and is known as Monument 19. Michael Coe states in an article "The Iconology of Olmec Art" that the serpent on Monument 19 from La Venta adorned with feathers and/or wings, is none other than the Feathered Serpent, Quetzalcoatl23 (Figure 8). Monument 19 is a representation of a rattlesnake adorned with feathers and was found during the 1955 excavation at La Venta and reported in the Smithsonian 24 Institution Bulletin. Below is a description from the Bulletin: On the flat upper surface in very low relief, two figures were depicted. One is a seated human figure shown in profile, facing to the left, the other figure behind and partially surrounding the first figure in a protective attitude is a plumed rattlesnake . . . . He is shown wearing a headdress which represents the head of a jaguar. The mandible of the beast is carried downward as though it formed a chin strap, so that the wearer's face is enclosed in the open mouth . . . . Above the headdress is a rectangular area with some fine details which no longer can be made out. . . . Above this set of rectangles is a horizontal rod with a long tasseled end from which hangs a 56 Figure 8.--Monument 19. P. Drucker, R. F. Heizer, and R. J. Squier, Excavations at La Venta, Tabasco, 1955 (Washington, D.C.: Bureau of American Ethnology, Bulletin 170, 1959), p. 198. 57 . x... -e-. .- htfi'sin . e; 1 $934!, a ., d- "%. 58 rectangular bordered banner which looks very much as though it had been intended to contain some glyphs. . . . The banner is fastened to the tasseled rod by two X-shaped elements. . . . Behind and surrounding this figure is that of the plumed rattlesnake. The upper part of the snake's body is drawn back in reverse S-shaped curve. . . . Surrounding the snake's head is a flat crest with two ribbonlike appendages trailing back from the rear part of the head. The snake's mouth is open. . . . Down the middle of the snake's body is a double line marking the separation of the back and belly. A few very lightly incised curves indicate the belly scutes and a few similar lines indicate scales on the back. The tail with three rattles and "button" is shown curled up in front of the human figure. The person within the embrace of the Feathered Serpent, the rectangles, and the S-shaped symbol are glyphs which contain serpentine concepts explained in Chapter III. Drucker, referring to Monument 19, was the first to recognize this realistic presentation as a "Plumed Serpent" thus establishing the "Feathered Serpent" theme in Olmec art.25 Jose Diaz-Bolio, in a Mexican guidebook derided by scholars, stated that the Maya art, architecture, geometry, and religion all derived from the Maya rattle- snake, Crotalus Durissus Tzabzcan. Its skin pattern, the four-votex Canamayte which in Mayan means "Four Corner Square," shows a basic symmetrical design. Bolio based this conjecture on the serpent's rhomboid pattern which outlines Maya thatched roof houses, the pyramid, the 59 temple roof-vault, and the flattened forehead of the Maya himself.26 Diaz-Bolio's statement concerning the rattle- snake's skin pattern coincides with Luckert's conjecture of the serpent glyph found at La Venta (Figure 9). Luckert surmised that this glyph was an unmistakable and timeless writing spelling out the name, with a top- side-bottom View of the Serpent, which is patterned after two rattlesnakes; the Crotalus durissus Terrificus of Central and South America, and the Crotalus durissus durissus of the lowlands of Middle America (see Figures 10 and 11).27 The glyph naming the Serpent was discovered in a pit beside a pattern of rectangular serpentine slabs which Drucker called a "highly conventionalized mask of the Jaguar"28 (Figure 12). Luckert describes the mask: A pit over twenty feet deep had been dug, measuring about forty-one by forty-nine feet at the bottom. Then from a leveled clay base upward twenty-eight well-arranged levels of green serpentine rocks--about one thousand tons--were embedded in olive and blue clay. The color of the clay matrix, obviously, was chosen to match the square block of "green," the serpentine mosaic face was laid out. Then the remainder of the pit was filled in with highly contrasting mottled pink clay.29 The conjecture which is made by Luckert is that the deposit could be seen not as a two-dimensional pave- ment but as a three-dimensional entity: the underground 60 ..q.sss_ a ”cleavaseegss ssoolae_s~o§ss§__ o a o .1... .9 e. .9...% 3. 0 0.3119999 s :1 69..“ 9 1 Fee? 11...... .9 .ernfifégwdfi _ ages _e.:i. sag). eagfiouwg e a s. .7 __ .a& $9. 3. W11,‘ .3 . $.50 e 3% a 05.99% 5; .9. aeamaé;§zgxw ~ __ .7... A Key to Middle University of p. 103. 1934), Olmec Religion: America and Beyond (Norman: Figure 9.--The Serpent Glyph. Karl Luckert, Oklahoma Press, 61 Figure 10.--Crotalus durissus terrificua. Karl Luckert, Olmec Religion: A Key to Middle America and Beyond (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1934), p. 104. 62 63 Figure 11.--Crotalus durissus durissus. Karl Luckert, Olmec Religion: A Key to Middle America and Beyond (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1934), p. 105. 64 65 OQOOOOQOOODMOOOOOOODOOOOOOCOOOOOOQQQCOOC'ODoc Gaza:ammbeQQQdQQBQQQQDQD©mccfiibccom.jd\o CDC: a Oaabcaoocaaa cost-am (3(‘~;.c~«oatgdtqyc:(3(rc. a \o A ”64,“. «fid‘xflr‘ ‘f\(’_’_\__‘,A,:‘z—‘ '-‘/.5f J‘s! ."ut—ok-ll._/ a- r \/ V\ —’ s- .__._, ~11. V...“ , QR‘COQEQ‘Q.:CQOECDor: ,1 ,1,“ p 7,. ~ \ ’- / OCW ,DiflQL:—:n- ___ , _. _ ,_,.__ oqQ(:CQCJQOQQOOQJGQOOC{QOQ QQCQQQQQK‘KfiFDtbO‘baaoggb‘fietcgqva C ch‘b3u13 r" -- _ oaQQOQooc aoQQQQQOQOOcQa/Bcoood‘sccngocgcgugc ObcaeraCC‘echOconc-ocartooaoQQQQQOOong OOOCJOCCQQCRCT' (THQOQQCCL‘QOO OC‘ f‘;_toag17O QéocOQOCDCDQCDQOCDDOOOQQOCQOGOQQQQCCOCJCEO Cacaoceodcoat:QoooOQOT—‘JOOOQQQQcaoocooc-oc OQQOCDQQQCQQQQDQOOOCOOOQQDQCOCJOCCJQO'Q OOCJCDOQOQQQQDQOOQCCDQCC'CQCL’JCDQCQQOCLECE OQQGQQQQQDQO TOOOOQQOJ> (LYQQa—cpzoaoéobgg OQCDCDOQDQQCDCDCSCQOOOOGOgé‘acoqeccsccccec 0 QCDQCQCV3I’NC)KAQOOOOOQOOQ;’BQ(_IC)Q€COOSCO OgmomQ Eiiébaiéloczoococtf (3(5ch CAI-.35.“: c190 c552)" 06530542072: Q. 143 (31¢: ,-::(\CC::.:‘.‘:CTA ‘QCCFCTCJ <21§C.’IAC:‘QVU QQQ CDC) OQAKJFD ngcagc’jé/TCC-‘OQC‘QSCSC/wC2 :1": l) ADJ» \r 1' mi” in l. \ "\Cm , . \‘i ,. I I ~ » x. , r.) \I— — \J/\-... L.«'R«)L-/ kltdv 4k Jde"j\-)\‘\_’ \ ’M l__ l Figure 12.--La Venta: Underground Serpentine Sculpture. Karl Luckert, Olmec Religion: A Key to Middle America and Beyond (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1934), p. 100. 66 sculpture of the earth serpent, and the mask is the serpent's face. Drucker reported that at the southwest corner of the mask there was found a small human kneeling figure of fine-grained basalt.30 It is true that the scientific origin of reality, historical or mythical, may be an everlasting mystery. However, spiritual truth is reality based not necessarily on what one sees but what one believes and is best learned from those who have faith. What the ancient planters felt kneeling by the sculpture may never be realized, but Karl Luckert did listen to those who believe. He listened to "a number of Southwest Indian sages and friends." Luckert said: "On more than one occasion they have pointed to a long mountain range and explained to me what I was actually looking at. Big Snake lies there!"31 Directed onto a serpentine tract by his "Indian sages and friends" Luckert conjectured that the imita- tion volcanic pyramid at La Venta represented the head of a serpent. Luckert observed that the eastern, western and southern sides of the pyramid have only two ridges while the northern has four. He postulated that the north slope of the mountain represents the helmet scales on the Serpent's head similar to the helmets of the colossal basalt heads and the serpent lies in a 67 normal prone position, so the differentiated north slope of the volcano represents the side opposite the Serpent's lower jaw. The mouth, he assumed, points upward in volcano fashion. Thus, the serpent faces south and the Olmecs perhaps danced before it on the ceremonial plat- form directly in front (see Figure 6).32 In a pit at La Venta, thirteen feet deep and sixty-six by sixty-three feet large at the bottom, is a serpentine deposit found north of the mosaic masks (Figure 13). Six layers of serpentine rocks were embedded in green mortar. The rim which rises at the edges of the serpentine layers are none other than lips of an underground serpentine mouth. The suggestion put forth by Luckert as reason for this underground mouth is: On the filled-in ceremonial plaza above the La Venta people stood, wondered, or danced actually in the Great Serpent's open mouth; thus becoming the Serpent's devout followers, not waiting till their time of death to follow him, instead, they would conduct all their ceremonial affairs in the Serpent's mouth while they were still alive.3 Through observation and listening to the faithful the Serpent was discovered opening its jaws in volcanic fashion as its body moved forming mountains. The key that led to the interpretation in the following chapter was the fact that the volcano was related to the agricultural world, 68 .Hm-om .mm .Ammma .osa caumaasm .smoaocaum mo soausm u.u.o .coumcanmozv mmma .oomonoe .mu:m> on no mcofluo>moxm .Hmflowm .h .m can .Hmuwmm .m .m .meooun .m .nuooz m.ucomuom may mo enzymasom ocooumuooco "mucm> wqri.ma madman WOUUUUUDUUOHUAU Org/I 000000 000 Dooooooooooowoflooaao 0 000000 FOOTNOTES: CHAPTER III 1Miguel Covarrubias, Indian Art of Mexico and Central America (New York: Knopf, 1975), p. 40; and Matt 8. Meir and Feliciano Rivera, The Chicanos (New York: Hill and Wang, 1972), p. 5. 2Sejourne, p. 20. 3Covarrubias, p. 78. 4George C. Vaillant, Aztecs of Mexico (Baltimore: Penguin Books, Inc. 5Pedro R. Vazquez, Mexico, Art, Architecture, Archaeology, Ethnography (New York: Alexis Gregory Publishers, 1968), p. 125. 6Covarrubias, p. 82. 7Stuart, p. 64. 8Cottie A. Burland, Feathered Serpent and Smoking Mirror (New York: G. P. Putnam's Sons, 1975), p. 10. 9Karl W. Luckert, Olmec Religion, A Key to Middle America and Beyond (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1976), p. 41. loIbid., p. 41. 11Ignacio Marquina, Arquitectura Prehispanica (Mexico, D.F.: Instituto Nacional de AntrOpologia e Historia, 1951), Lamina 8. 12Edmund Villasenor, Macho (New York: Bantam Books, 1973), pp. 3, 4. 13Burland, p. 7. 14Alexander Von Wuthenau, Unexpected Faces in Ancient America, 1500 B.C.-A.D. 1500: The Historical Testimony of Pre-Columbian Artists (New York: Crown Publishers, Inc., 1975). 69 70 15Vazquez, p. 56. lGIbid., p. 61. l7Villasenor, p. 65. 18Luckert, p. x. 19 . Covarrubias, p. 58. 20Luckert, p. 24. 21Valdez, p. 9. 22Luckert, p. 23. 23Michael D. Coe, "The Iconography of Olmec Art," The Iconography of Middle American Sculpture (New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 1973), p. 9. 24P.'Drucker, R. F. Heizer, and R. J. Squier, Excavations at La Venta, Tabasco, 1955 (Washington, D.C.: Bureau of American Ethnology BulleEin 1970, 1959), p. 199. 25 Ibid., p. 203. 26Frank Waters, Mexico Mystique, The Coming Sixth World of Consciousness (Chicago: Sage Books,’l975), p. 46. 27Luckert, p. 106. 28Drucker, Heizer and Squier, p. 73. 29Luckert, p. 101. 3oDrucker, Heizer and Squier, p. 95. 31Luckert, p. 43. 32Ibid., p. 44. 33Ibid., p. 10. CHAPTER IV THE INTERPRETATION Earth and existence were closely associated to the ancient planter: earth, the place where all things come from and the place to which all things return. It is the place where the bodies or "planted" dead are placed along with plant and animal life. It is the place where the sun, last seen on the horizon, descends into the earth. Each is seen born again: maize every season, the sun each day, humanities' life-span. Symbolic veneration of the Serpent was first recognized with the appearance of the imitation volcanic pyramid at La Venta (Figure 6). With a desire to be closer to their venerable Serpent the ancient planters constructed an underground sculpture of the Great Serpent's mouth (Figure 13). The Serpent and the volcano are one. The volcanic orifice and the Opened jawed serpent represented the entrance and exit to the center of the earth. The Serpent symbolizing the earth was female. The Serpent depicted in codices present nature, or man, as swallowed whole (Figure 14). This hieroglyph of the Serpent is 71 72 Figure l4.--The Feathered Serpent. Codex Fejervary, Kingsborough Edition, Vol. III, Detroit Institute of Art, p. 14. Figure 15.--The Serpent as Female. Codex Laud, Kingsborough Edition, Vol. II, Detroit Institute of Art, p. 41. 74 adorned with Quetzal feathers and is a representation of Quetzalcoatl, the Feathered Serpent. The serpent was a natural choice for this theme because it devours its prey whole. The serpents shed their skin. Serpents became symbols of the cyclic renewal. The form and movement of the serpent led to the association with natural phenomena-- the volcano, man, and the link between human and plant—‘ life. The hieroglyph from the Codex Laud depicts a female wearing a death mask standing in the open jaws of a serpent. Her arms are reaching out to embrace the personage being handed to her (Figure 15). Another hieroglyph from the Codex Fejervary depicts a female wearing a death mask pointing at a serpent facing in a descending direction toward the person in question shown in the open jaws of the serpent with closed eyes (Figure 16). The two hieroglyphs above as well as those below from the Fejervary and Laud codices show the persons being swallowed whole (Figures 17a and 17b). Figure 17a depicts a female wearing a death mask adorned with quetzal feathers, and in Figure 17b, serpent scutes are seen as clothing. Both hieroglyphs represent an anthropomorphic serpent as a human female. The fact that the eyes are open indicates that death was not feared, which is discussed later. 75 Figure 16.--The Female Serpent as Death. Codex Laud, Kingsborough Edition, Vol. II, Detroit Institute of Art, p. 53. Figure l7.--Anthropomorphic Serpent as Female. Codex Laud, Kingsborough Edition, Vol. II, Detroit Institute of Art, p. 6. 76 00000000 77 The god, who is called Quetzalcoatl, is not him- self the Feathered Serpent. The god, Quetzalcoatl, is the one who emerges from the Feathered Serpent (Figure 18). The person emerging from the Open jaws of the serpent is Quetzalcoatl, recognized by the headdress Of Quetzal feathers he is wearing. On the back of the serpent can be seen the maize plant showing its fruit. Quetzal feathers represent vegetation--the plumes are an indication that the serpent is the Feathered Serpent. The diamond shape motif (If the rattlesnake along with "caban" glyphs are recognized on the body and are explained later. The idea that the person in the above hiero- glyphs were swallowed whole was learned through the observation Of the serpent. As ancient planters, Observing the earth, they recognized that even the sun was swallowed whole--seen descending on the horizon with its "shinning—like-eyes" Open, exactly the same way it ascends at sunrise. From the language of the Yucatec Maya Leon-Portilla discusses "the sun in the mouth" and its rebirth: From the time it rises in the east ("la-k-kin") in Yucatec Maya: the "accompanying sun") until it sets in the afternoon ("chi-kin"; "the sun in the mouth," or "the devoured sun"), the sun's travel creates the day, marking its duration and existence. Therefore, "day" is simply a presence or cycle of the sun. The sun does not rest, however. When it is apparently "devoured" in "chi—kin," its setting, it goes into the lower world, crosses it, and triumphantly is reborn.1 Figure 18.--The God Quetzalcoatl. Relief from Yaxchilan. Luis Valdez, "Pensamiento Serpentino," Chicano Theatre One (San Jose: El Centro CulturaI de la Gente, Inc., Spring 1973): P. 9. 79 The fact that the serpent devours its prey whole and also sheds its skin renewing itself, the ancient planters--depicting descent and ascent in the codices with open eyes—-shared a concept of life and death as one and the same: a cyclic process rather than a termi- nation. The sun, maize and humans all descend into the earth, are renewed, and return. The sun and the earth were not abstract entities but realities. The earth was the place from which all things emerge and to which they returned. The sun was the governor Of the cycles of the seasons and of day and night. Existence was lived out on the surface of the earth represented by the Serpent's body in a horizontal poSition. The serpent in a horizontal position worn as a waist band above the cross in Figure 15 is an indication of the surface of the earth. The X-shaped symbol is the key tO the horizontal plane on which life is lived. It is the symbol of the sun which is based on the intercardinal points-—sunrise and sunset--suggesting a rectangle rather than the cardinal points--east, west, north, and south--which form a square. This concept is a developing new idea in ancient American studies. A graphic image of the sun at sunrise and sunset in the moment Of its maximum declinatiOn at the solstices is presented in Figure 19. 80 .mma .m .mpma .mmmum cocoa . m we amp u mmwcmcnom cam mmaflom .A moaumno .mcouu .mwmm.onmumw n :9 ecu cw Suwamom cam mafia .maafluuomicooq Hosea: .muaflom HOOHOHMOHODOH ocaii.mH musmam _N 59580 63:3 .5 o E o outflow 5:55 _N noowmemm.wmmwmuw we a. e. e fw\ 62.53 I .663 .6 We Mod 9 0:: “mm... _N _.. . cam _N 0:2. tomcam oozgo BEE: m m oozeom .oEE3m 81 An explanation of the sun's solstices is offered by Alfonso Rojas: Two points correspond to the rising and setting Of the sun on June 21 (summer solstice), and two more resulting from the rising and setting of the sun on December 21 (winter solstice). The moment when the sun passes through the zenith is repre- sented by the fifth point. The four points placed to the sides Of the equinox line are no further than 24°3' from it, either tO the north or to the south, lacking 20 degrees to arrive at the mid- point between the extremes Of the compass. The graphic figure forms a rectangle, not a square, with two corners toward the east and the other two toward the west.2 The horizontal or rectangular plane posed by Rojas is the place where existence is lived: the surface Of the earth; the serpent's body. The Serpent emitting people,animals, food and other Objects, called "The Emergence of the Aztec," onto the earth's serface reflects the horizontal concept (Figure 20). Open mouthed caves can also be considered as serpent's mouths or volcanic orifices. This repre- sentation depicts the tradition that the Axtecs first derived from a cave in the north.3 . At a meeting of Maya specialists in 1962, Evon Voght, in a context that nullified the meaning of the cardinal points, states: The Maya spatial orientation Of the four corners of their universe is not based upon our cardinal directions Of north, south, east and west, but probably to either our intercardinal points (northeast, northwest, southwest and southeast), or toward two directions in the east and two in 82 Figure 20.--The Emergence Of the Aztec. Karl Luckert, Olmec Religion: A Key to Middle America and Beyond (Norman: University Of Oklahoma Press, 1934), p. 111. 83 the west, that is to say, sunrise at winter and summer solstices, and sunset at the same two solstices.4 Voght discovered among the Tzotzil Indians that their language has no words designating north or south. East and west were expressed in terms "lOkeb-kakal" (rising sun) and "meleb-kabal" (setting or disappearing sun).5 These aspects concerning horizontal space are only beginning to be known. Rojas mentions that the implication to be grasped from the horizontal concept will take a great amount of information and research. The sun in its relationship with earth was ruler of day and night, and the seasons which were so important in an agricultural world. In this aspect he was Tlaltecuhtli, "Lord Of the Earth." The earth was always represented by the ancient people as a goddess except in one case: Tlaltecuhtli, the male frog (Figure 21). A frog-like figure of Tlaltecuhtli is represented Opposite the sun glyph on the ancient calendar from the Codex Ferjervary (Figure 22). At sunset, the sun is seen at the horizon sinking into the serpent's mouth. As frog, the sun is male, the earth female, and the act is impregnation, the constant cycle of procreation. A reading of the hieroglyphs on the ancient calendar explains the process of the earth—sun 84 Figure 21.--Tlaltecuhtli. Alfonso Caso, The Aztecs, People of the Sun, trans. Lowell Dunham (Norman: University Of Oklahoma Press, 1958), p. 52. 86 *._000 0000000 00» at:- '5. ‘2 IVs—5’s“ Figure 22.--The Ancient Calendar. Codex Fejervary, Kingsborough Edition, Vol. III, Detroit Institute Of Art, p. 14. 87 relationship. This calendar is a graphic representation of the process in the cycle Of self-procreation. The entire calendar must be looked upon as a single entity although comprised Of many parts. The divisions Of the calendar are: the sun as frog, the penis; the lips Of the mouth Of the Open jawed Serpent, the vulva; the Opening in the tree, the vagina; the pot in which are found human bones, the womb-- the place of the primeval germination. The center of the calendar represents the place Of the primordial source. Sunset is the beginning of the process. The sun descends to the Open jawed serpent, enters the earth and descends into the womb, represented as the pot, where it is rejuvenated-—or sheds its Old day to begin a new one. It emerges once again at sunrise from the Open jawed serpent, ascends to its zenith. There it starts the cycle over again. The manner in which Leon-Portilla arranged the sun-god symbolism in his book Time and Reality in the Thought Of the Maya gives credence to the above conjecture (Figure 23). My interpretation of these heiroglyphs along with Leon-Portilla's captions7 (indented) follow: Figure 23a: The sun-god as phallic symbol. The sun in its relationship with the earth with glyphs Of "caban." Temple Of the Sun, Palenque. 88 Figure 23.-—The Sun-Earth Cycle. Miguel Leon-Portilla, Time and Reality in the Thought Of the Maya, trans. Charles L. Boiles and Fernando Horcasitas, Beacon Press, 1973, p. 25. 89 90 The Maya calendar was depicted not only by numerals--a bar and dot system--but by diety glyphs as well. Portilla states that "caban" was a youthful goddess of the earth, Of maize, and of the moon: a young and at the same time aged god.8 It is significant that on this figure the glyph is a conception of both female and male components; the idea, Of course, self-perpetuation. Figure 23b: The sun-god in its diurnal aspect. The face Of the sun in the table Of the eclipses. Dresden Codex 56a. Figure 23c: The sun-god at birth emerging from the jaws of a saurian. Diety with a sunglyph on its forehead. It emerges from the jaws Of a crocodile. Copan. Figure 23d: The sun-god in the act of impregnation. The sun glyph under a strip of celestrial symbols. It is about to be devoured by the Earth Monster. Madrid Codex 25a. Hieroglyph 23d is undeniably a graphic image of the sexual act. The female is lying on her back. The serpent symbolizes her sexual organs. She is accepting the sun, the act is copulation. The process by which the sun and earth act out existence is explained by the atmosphere which surrounds them. Among its many actions it serves as an agency, using the sun's radiation as a power source to move the currents of air around the earth. 91 The sun radiates its heat through space to earth. The earth absorbs this heat from the sun, is warmed by it, reradiates this heat into its encompassing blanket of the atmosphere. An important change occurs in the process. The terrestrial heat waves going out are longer than those going in--tOO long tO escape through the atmosphere into space so many Of these waves are absorbed by the water vapor in the atmosphere, creating heat energy which powers the complex circulation Of the atmosphere. This energy is the agency which drives the winds, and creates the rain that so directly affects existence.9 The symbols that depict the sun, movement, and the dynamic conversion of the Serpent in the process of germin- ation are the same design (Figure 24a, 24b and 24c). The stamp (Figure 24a) shows two cross designs, a center stylistic serpent motif of the Open jaw, and the split tongue (discussed later) of the serpent enclosed in a horizontal or rectangular plane. This horizontal plane represents the earth-sun relationship which affects vege- tation on the surface Of the earth. The hieroglyph (Figure 24b) depicts two serpents entertwined forming two crosses similar to Figure 24a. The Open center can be associated with the open mouth Of the serpent. The two heads and tails form a design representing the serpent's split tongue. The total configuration of two serpents and 92 Figure 24a.--Serpent-Sun Symbol. Jorge Enciso, Design Motifs of Ancient Mexico (New York: Dover Publications, 1953), p. 144. 24b.--Dynamic Conversion. Codex Borgia, Kingsborough Edition, Vol. III, Detroit Institute Of Art, p. 3. 24c.--The Hook. Jorge Enciso, Design Motifs of Ancient Mexico (New York: Dover Publications, _Fl953 , p. 145. 24d.--The Reverse "S". Laurette Sejourne, El Universo Quetzalcoatl (Mexico, D.F.: Fondo de Cultura Economica, 1962), p. 34. 93 [real b4: . 94 a seed represents the dynamics which converts the serpent into the germ of life.10 There is an ideogram called the Chalcatzingo relief on which is carved various glyphs that represent the peculiar serpentine agricultural world of the ancient planters (Figure 25). The Chalcatzingo relief was discovered near Jonactepec by the archaeologist Eulaliz Guzman in 1943. The symbol Of the "mystery" of the dynamic con- version, the sun, and the earth may be represented on the Chalcatzingo carving resting on the top Of the open jawed Serpent now facing in a horizontal direction. Plant-life was realized through the process of the atmosphere creating energy by the union Of the heat Of the sun and earth. The power or movement is symbolized in the serpentine design Of the "hook" and "S" (Figure 24c and 24d). Laurette Sejourne refers to these designs as stylizations of the serpent in movement.11 These designs are seen on the throne-like seat upon which a person is sitting in the Chalcatzingo carving (Figure 25). The person is also embracing this design with his arm. If the hook on the throne-like seat is continued, a spiral is formed (Figure 26). The movement Of the serpent, especially the coiled serpent, inspired the ancient planter tO conceive movement and tine in the form Of spirals like the currents of air 95 /// II’ ///}//// v /// , / // /' .//4 :9.- T. ~\ I :i ' )IHIIH \I\ \ II Iii-s. "Ceca... I/ In: I \I\I\\ “g: ‘ \ \\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\ ‘ .-.‘.:..«‘~;S:-- "-‘-‘.‘_‘ \\\ \\ ‘H'mn I A“ '3‘ -:ER§‘; ““vNNNN\ ‘$§§§§§F§§§\¥%§‘ ’17 /% ‘ ' 4 g ‘2, 77 fi35:2‘ “v 'c‘ 37474:. Figure 25.--The Chalcatzingo Relief. Karl W. Luckert, Olmec Religion, A Key to Middle America and Beyond (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1976), p. 49. 96 Figure 26a.—-Movement-Time Spirals. Illustration by author. 26b.--The Feathered Serpent. Miguel Covarrubias, Indian Art of Mexico and Central America (New York: Knopf, 1954), p. 34. 97 encompassing the earth. The Serpent can be seen encompass- ing the calendar in Figure 5. Not only does the Serpent encompass time it is also at the center; the place of the primordial source. Bernardino de Sahagun depicts this movement in the ancient calendar wheel (Figure 27). Sahagun states how to read the calendar: The reader might assume four spirals instead of the concentric lines shown. Beginning at the center with One Rabbit, proceed to Two Reed, Three Flint Knife, Four House, Five Rabbit, etc., and end at the outside circumference with Thirteen Rabbit. Begin again at the center with One Reed and proceed as before to the outside circumference at Thirteen Reed; and so on until the fourth spiral, which begins with One House, ends with Thirteen House, thus completing the fifty-two year series.12 In the myth Of the ages Of which there were four completed each had its ascent and descent--thirteen heavens and nine hells--and each begins again. Movement and time were both perceived in spirals, and in this sense, synonymous. Time actually is a measure Of move- ment. As synonymous terms both movement and time had their periods Of birth, growth, death, and rebirth. One of the earliest Mesoamerican circular monu- ments showing four spirals was depicted earlier (Figure 7). This monument is called the Cuicuilco Monument and is dedicated to the gOd of wind. The god of wind was one of the aspects of the Serpent, Quetzalcoatl. Bernardino de Saghagun referring to Quetzalcoatl recorded that "before the waters begin there are great winds." He says: 98 Figure 27.--The Calendar Wheel. Bernardino de Sahagun, Florentine Codes, A General History Of the Things Of New S ain, trans. from the Aztec into English by A. J. 0. Anderson and C. E. Dibble (Santa Fe, N.M.: School Of American Research, 1950), Book III. 100 Quetzalcoatl, although a man, was held as a god who, they said, swept the road clear for the gods of the water. This they supposed to be a fact because always before the rainy season begins there are heavy winds and dust clouds, and this is the reason why Quetzalcoatl was called the god Of the winds who swept the roads for the gods of rain so they might come on with their rain. C. A. Burland and Werner Forman state that the breath of Quetzalcoatl as Wind God gives life: In a painting in the Codex Laud in the Bodleian Library Oxford, he is seen as a wind blowing in the waters; sitting within the water, displaying her Open vulva to him, is the younger moon goddess. The implication is that the breath Of Quetzalcoatl is the fertilizing breath of life,14 and that the goddess will be impregnated by it. Quetzalcoatl was a sexually potent being and when depicted as tumor in the codices he wore a loin- cloth with a rounded end, "apparently as a bag in which to stow this marvelous 'Organ,'" states C. A. Burland.15 One of the earliest Observations of the ancient planters must have been the recognition of their pro- creative endowments from the form Of the Serpent's body. An Olmec style16 rattlesnake design of an open jawed Serpent identifies the sexual parts of the human (Figure 28). The penis is represented by the tail, the rattles and point. The Serpent's mouth represents the vagina. The dot within the vagina signifies the primeval source or germ. All parts are placed in the womb Of the Serpent. The split tongue within the womb is discussed later. 101 a——— Toll III - Open jaw Center AAouth Germ Split tongue 0‘ Figure 28.-—Rattlesnake Motif. Jorge Enciso, Design Motifs of Ancient Mexico (New York: Dover Publications, 1953), p. 74. 102 These symbols are found on the Chalcatzingo carving (Figure 25). Phallic symbols are recognized on the thigh Of the person seated inside the Serpent's mouth. Both male and female symbols are seen on the headgear worn by the figure. The ancient planter realized that the same concept which explains the sun, the earth and vegetation--the ancient planters sustenance--should explain man. With a desire for an explanation Of himself the ancient planter naturally conceived in Serpentine thoughts a transcendental association linking humanity and vegeta- tion. This transcending conception was Visually por- trayed by the Great Serpent's tongue and the young maize plant (Figures 29 and 30). By linking the maize plant and the serpent's tongue the concept that one becomes two developed. Both animal and vegetable were derived from the same primordial source. Thus, the ancient planter associated not only his world but himself with that Of the Serpent. This conception is explained by a hieroglyph from the Codex Fejervary (Figure 31). An erect serpent with split tongue and a maize plant bearing seeds rise as if growing from the Open jawed serpent representing the earth. Animal and plant are derived from the same source. Protruding from the Serpent's closed jaws is the split tongue, the symbol that one becomes two. This 103 Figure 29.--The Serpent's Split Tongue. Karl Luckert, Olmec Religion: A Key to Middle America and Beyond (Norman: University Of Oklahoma Press, 1934), p. 67. 104 105 Figure 30.--Young Maize Plant. Karl Luckert, Olmec Religion: A Key to Middle America and Beyond (Norman: University Of Oklahoma Press, 1934), p. 66. 106 107 Figure 31.--Humanity and Sustenance. Codex Fejervary, Kingsborough Edition, Vol. III, Detroit Institute Of Art, p. 29. 108 concept later developed into the supreme being at Teotihuacan called Ometeotl--the god who willed himself into existence and was both masculine and feminine (see Chapter I). The Chalcatzingo carving is even more explicit (Figure 25). On the headgear worn by the person in the center Quetzal feathers hang like drooping leaves Of the maize plant. The feathers Of the Quetzal represent vege- ; tation. In the center of the Serpent's womb, quetzal feathers and the human together represent the Feathered "we Serpent. Reality is symbolized by the Feathered Serpent. Reality is the Serpent. In other words, the Serpent is the Serpent. Everything else is interwoven together as integral parts Of the Serpent's total configuration. The Serpent is all existence: tangible and intangible; visible and invisible. The Serpent is the primordial source: generating, germinating, and sustaining itself. Evolution The evolution Of the meaning--that one becomes two--Of the Great Serpent evolved into a new expression. The young maize plant grew into a large tree. The ancient cultures expressed this concept as a tree split at the top like the Serpent's tongue. Four Of these trees are represented on the ancient calendar (Figure 22). 109 A similar tree was found at Palenque on the "Panel of the Cross" (Figure 32). Leon-Portilla states that the tree rests on "the monstrous mask of the earth."17 Among contemporary Maya, the Itza Of Tayasal, the tree was called "yaaz-chel-cab," which means "the first tree Of the world."18 Referring to the Itza, Franz Blom states: . . . the cross we see in their dwellings (or huts) is not the Christian cross but the direct descendent of this "Yaaxche,' the tree that demands water in order to flourish. The contemporary Tzotzil who live in the state Of Chiapas express their world visually with a tree and the movement of the sun (Figure 33).20 Ray Chavez, a contemporary Chicano artist, evokes the ancient past by utilizing trees in lieu of the human figure.34 One of his paintings named Moonsonq has four trees arranged within a horizontal plane linking the agri- cultural world with humanity. "Reality" is expressed by the painting Moonsong: the horizontal surface, humanity and plant, the earth, and the sun. It is a "Great Serpent." 110 Figure 32.—-The Panel Of the Cross. E. Forstemann, "The Inscription on the Cross of Palenque," Mexican and Central American Antiquities, Calendar Systems, and History (Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution, Bureau Of American Ethnology, Bulletin 28, 1904), p. 546. 112 E A Q T L4- (‘boJo of the two», can) \moecworzto (55.4. o‘ w. a...“ Midnight @ Figure 33.--The Tzotzil Visual World. Miguel Leon-Portilla, Time and Reality in the Thought Of the Maya, trans. Charles L. Boiies and Fernando Horcasitas, Beacon Press, 1973, p. 141. 113 Figure 34.--Moonsong, by Ray Chavez. Jacinto Quirarte, Mexican American Artists, The John Fielding and Lois Lasater Series, NO. 2 (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1973), p. 104. 114 FOOTNOTES : CHAPTER IV 1Miguel Leon-Portilla, Time and Reality in the Thought Of the Maya, trans. Grace Lobanov and Miguel Leon-Portilla (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, .111 1969), p. 18. 2 Ibid., p. 128. 3Luckert, p. 14. 4Leon-Portilla, p. 130. 5 Ibid., p. 134. 4-1 61bid., p. 124. 7Ibid., p. 40. 81bid. 9Arthur Beiser, The Earth (New York: Time, Inc., 1962), p. 59. loLaurette Sejourna, El Universo Quetzalcoatl (Mexico, D.F.: Fondo de Cultura Economica, 1962), p. 29. llIbid., p. 33. 12Bernardino de Sahagun, Florentine Codex, A General History Of the Things Of New Spain, trans. from the Aztec into English by A. J. 0. Anderson and C. E. Dibble (Santa Fe, N.M.: School of American Research, 1950), Fol., 12 VOl., Book VII, p. 20. 13Sahagun, Bustamente edition, Book I, p. 26. l4Burland, p. 45. lsIbid. 16Covarrubias, p. 34. 17Leon-Portilla, p. 56. 115 116 laIbid., p. 139. lgIbid. 201bid., p. 141. 21Jacinto Quirarte, Mexican American Artists, The John Fielding and Lois Lasater Series, NO. 2 (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1973), p. 108. CHAPTER V SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION . Fw‘ Reflecting upon the past the Chicano culture is simultaneously disseminating their future concepts through aesthetic expression. Among the traditional : symbols from their ancient past which frequently appear in works Of Chicano art and literature is the Serpent. The evocation Of the ancient Serpent is affirmed by the Chicanos in the belief in a prophesy that the Feathered Serpent, Quetzalcoatl, will return to this land August 16, 1987. Through an examination of the historico-mythological Quetzalcoatl, the ages of the world, the heavens and hells, and the time of the arrival Of Hernan Cortes, it was established how the date, August 16, 1987, was achieved. An exploration through a maze Of controversial conjectures on Mesoamerica led to the discovery of the Serpent and the key to its meaning--related to the agricultural world--in ancient American cultures. The interpretation of "Reality is a Great Serpent" was derived from reading hieroglyphs on codices, stelae, and panels, and interpretations of architectural 117 118 concepts by scholars both ancient and contemporary involved in Nahuatl expression. Symbolic veneration Of the Serpent was first recognized with the appearance of an imitation volcanic pyramid at an excavation site Of the earliest known culture in Mesoamerica. Through apperception of the volcanic action--enriching the earth for vegetation-- the ancient people translated the volcano symbolically into a Great Serpent. Dependence upon the land led to a unique trans- “_; cendence: humanity and vegetation are derived from a single primordial source; generating, germinating, and sustaining itself. This primordial source is symbolized by the Serpent. Reality is cyclic-~all things had their time of existence: birth, life, death, and rebirth--and is symbolized by the Feathered Serpent, Quetzalcoatl. The feathers represent vegetation. The human represents the Serpent. The Serpent is the Serpent. Certain aspects of the original cultural tradi- tion have exhibited a remarkable resistance to change while having been remolded and reinterpreted in con- formance with underlying aesthetic values in Chicano literature and art. A graphic example is the painting, Moonsong, by Ray Chavez, Of the evolutionary change Of the Serpent into a tree. 119 Through aesthetic expression in art and litera- ture the Chicanos are sharing with the world the illumi- nation Of the Quetzalcoatl prophesy, and a new inter- pretation Of existence. The dark period Of the nine hells through which existence must pass is ending. A new age of peace and understanding is beginning as the world approaches the thirteen heavens, the period of light. The intent Of this dissertation is to increase knowledge of Chicano expression and its roots. Chicano aesthetic expression, indigenous American heritage, is essential tO understanding ethnicity in a pluralistic society. Of equal importance is the role Of the university in adding to the wealth of man's achievement in the Humanities, and demonstrating the relevance Of humanities in multicultural programs Of study in colleges and schools. BIBLIOGRAPHY 120 BIBLIOGRAPHY I. Ancient Mesoamerica The subject matter in this section covers the plastic arts, architecture, sculpture, prose, poetry and philosophy which relates to the historico-mythological aspects of Quetzalcoatl. Anton, Ferdinand. Art of the Maya. Translated by Mary Whittell. London: Thames and Hudson, 1970. . Ancient Mexican Art. Translated by Betty and and Peter Ros. New York: Putnam and Company, Arias—Larreta, Abraham. Pre-Columbian Masterpieces. Kansas City: Indo-American Library of the New World, 1967. . Pre-Columbian Literatures. Kansas City, Mo.: New World Library, 1964. Astrov, Margot, ed. American Indian Prose and Poetry: An Anthology. New York: The John Day Company, 1972. Beals, Carleton. Stories Told by the Aztecs Before the Spaniards Came. New York: Abelard-Schuman, 1970. Bernal, Ignacio. Mexico Before Cortez: Art, History, and Legend. Garden City: Doubleday and Company, Inc., 1963. . Ancient Mexico In Color. New York: McGraw- Hill Book Company, 1968. . The Olmec World. Translated by Doris Heyden and Fercando Horcasitas. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1969. 121 122 . Los Calendarios Mexicanos. Mexico City: San Angel Ediciones, S.A., 1973. . 300 Years of Art and Life in Mexico. Translated by Carolyn B. Czitrom. New York: H. N. Abrams, 1968. Biart, Lucien. The Aztecs: Their History, Manners, and Customs. Translated by J. L. Garner. Chicago: A. C. McClurg and Company, 1887. Bierhorst, John, ed. Four Masterworks of American Indian Literature. New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 1974. Brandon, William, ed. The Magic World, American Indian Songs and Poems. New York: William Morrow and Company, Inc., 1971. Brenner, Anita. Idols Behind Altars. New York: Biblo and Tannen, 1967. Brinton, Daniel G. Rig Veda Americanas: Sacred Songs Of the Ancient Mexican with a Gloss in Nahuatl. Philadelphia: D. G. Brinton, 1890. . Ancient Nahuatl Poetry, containing the Nahuatl Text Of XXVII Ancient Mexican Poems with a ' Translation, Introduction, Notes and Vocabulary. New York: AMS Edition, 1969. Burland, Cottie A. The Gods Of Mexico. New York: Capricorn Books, 1968. . Feathered Serpent and Smoking Mirror. New York: G. P. Putnam's Sons, 1975. Campbell, Camilia. Star Mountain and Other Legends of Mexico. 2nd ed. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1968. Campbell, Joseph. The Masks of God: Creative Mytholo_y. New York: Viking Press, 1971. Caso, Alfonso. The Aztecs, People Of the Sun. Trans- lated by Lowell Dunham. Norman: University Of Oklahoma Press, 1958. . Los Calendarios Prehispanicos. Mexico, D.F.: Universidad Nacional Autonoma de Mexico, 1967. 123 Cornyn, John H. The Song of Quetzalcoatl. Translated from Aztec by John Cornyn. Yellow Springs, Ohio: Antioch Press, 1931. Covarrubias, Miguel. Indian Art of Mexico and Central America. New York: Knopf,ii957. . The Eagle, the Jaguar, and the Serpent. New York: Knopf, 1954. Duran, Diego. Book Of the Gods and Rites and the Ancient Calendar. Translated and edited by Fernando Horcasitas and Doris Heyden. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1971. Edmonson, Munro S. The Book Of Counsel: The Popol Vuh Of the Quiche Maya Of Guatemala. New Orleans: Middle American Research Institute, Tulane University, 1971. Edwards, Wily. Painted Walls of Mexico: From Pre- historic Times until Today. Austin: University of Texas Press, 1966. Emmerich, Andre. Art Before Columbus. New York: Simon and Schuster, 1963. Enciso, Jorge. Design Motifs Of Ancient Mexico. New York: Dover Publications, 1953. . Designs from Pre-Columbian Mexico. New York: Dover Publications, 1971. Fernandez, Justino. A Guide to Mexican Art. Translated by Joshua C. Taylor. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1961. Gann, Thomas W. F. Mexico from the Earliest Times to the Conquest. London: L. Dichson, 1936. Gendrop, Paul. El Mexico Antiguo: Ancient America. Mexico, D.F.: Editorial TrilIas, 1974. Gerez, Toni de. 2-Rabbit, 7—Wind: Poems from Ancient Mexico Retold from Nahuatl Texts. New York: Viking Press, 1971. Gilmor, Frances. Flute of the SmokingfiMirror. Albuquer- que: University of Arizona Press, 1964. ‘vdi'f. {‘u "r V 124 Gilmor, Frances. The King Danced in the Market Place. Tuscon: University of Arizona Press, 1964. Gordon, Cyrus H. Before Columbus. New York: Crown Press, 1971. Granfill, Thomas Mabry, ed. The Muse in Mexico. Translated by George D. Shade. Austin: University of Texas Press, 1959. Hendrick, B. C. Quetzalcoatl. Carbondale: Occasional F“? Publicationsiin Meso American Anthropology, No. 1, University Of Southern Illinois, 1967. Herring, Hubert, and Weinstock, Herbert, eds. Renascent Mexico. New York: Covici-Friede Publishers, 1935. II 4'.“ 4...“. Hewett, Edgar L. Ancient Life in Mexico and Central America. New York: Biblo and Tannen, 1968. Irwin, Constance. Fair Gods and Stone Faces. New York: St. Nartinis Press, 1963. Katz, Friedrich. The Ancient American Civilizations. Translated by K. M. Simpson. New York: Praeger Publishers, 1969. Lafaye, Jacques. Quetzalcoatl and Guadalupe. Trans- lated by Benjamin Keen. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1974. Lion—Portilla, Miguel. Aztec Thought and Culture: A Study of the Ancient Nahuatl Mind. Translated by Jack Emory Davis. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1963. . Pre-Columbian Literature Of Mexico. Trans- lated by Grace Lobanov and Miguel Lion-Portilla. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1969. . Time and Reality in the Thought of the Maya. Translated by Charles L. Boiles and Fernando Horcasitas. Beacon Press, 1973. Luckert, Karl W. Olmec Religion, A Key to Middle America and Beyond. Norman: University Of Oklahoma Press, 1976. Lumholtz, Carl. Unknown Mexico. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1902. 125 Marquina, Ignacio. Arquitectura Prehispanica. Mexico: Instituto Nacional de Antropologia e Historia, 1951. Moore, James B. "Ophidimania: Quetzalcoatl in Pre- Columbian Art and Myth." Part I. Rackham Literary Studies, Spring, 1973. . "Ophidiamania: Quetzalcoatl in Pre-Columbian Art and Myth." Rackham Literary Studies, 1973. Morley, Sylvanus Griswold. The Ancient Maya. 3d ed. Revised by George W. Brainerd. Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1956. Nicholson, Irene. Firefly in the Night: A Study Of Ancient Mexican Poetry and Symbolism. London: Faber and'Faber, 1959. . Guide to Mexican Poetry, Ancient and Modern. New York: International Publications Services, 1968. ‘ ' . Mexican and Central American Mythology. New York: Tudor Publishing Company, 1967. Ophilolatreia: Serpent Worship. Privately printed, 1889: Michigan State University Library. Popol Vuh: The Sacred Book Of the Ancient Quicke Maya. English version by Delia Goetz and Sylvanus G. Morley, from the translation of Adrian Recinos. Norman: University Of Oklahoma Press, 1950. Reed, Alma M. The Ancient Past Of Mexico. New York Crown Publishers, Inc., 1964. Roy, Cal. The Serpent and the Sun: Myths of the Mexican World. New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 1972. Sahagun, Bernardino de. A History of Ancient Mexico: Anthropological, Mythological, and Social. Translated by Fanny R. Bandelier from the Spanish version Of Carlos Maria de Bustamente. Nashville: Fisk University Press, 1932. 126 Sahagun, Bernardino de. Florentine Codex: A General History of the Things of New Spain. Translated from the Aztec into English by A. J. 0. Anderson and C. E. Dibble. Santa Fe, N.M.: School of American Research, 1950. Fol., 13 vols. Sejourne, Laurette. Burning Water. London: Thames and Hudson, 1956. . Arguitecture y Pintura En Teotihuacan. Mexico, D.F.: Siglo XXI Editores, S.A. Gabriel Mancera, 1966. Shearer, Tony. Lord Of the Dawn, Quetzalcoatl. Healdsburg, Calif.: Naturegraph Publishers, 1971. . Beneath the Moon and Under the Sun. Albuquerque: Sun Publishers Company, 1975. Soustelle, Jacques. Daily Life Of the Aztecs. Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1961. . Arts of Ancient Mexico. Translated by E. Carmichael. London: Thames and Hudson, 1967. Spence, Lewis. The Popol Vuh: The Mythic and Heroic Sages of the Kiches of Central America. New York: Ams Press, 1972; reprinted from 1908 edition. . The Magic and Mysteries of Mexico. London: Rider and Company, 1930. Stuart, George E. and Gene, S. Discovering Man's Past. Washington, D.C.: The National Geographic Society, 1973. Thompson, Eric 8. Maya History_and Religion. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1966. Traven, B. The Creation of the Sun and the Moon. New York: Hill and Wang, Inc., 1968. Twenty Centuries of Mexican Art. New York: The Museum of Modern Art, in collaboration with the Mexican Government, 1940. Vaillant, G. C. Aztecs Of Mexico. Baltimore: Penguin Books, Inc., 1965. 127 Von Hagen, Victor W. World Of the Maya. New York: New American Library, 1960. Waters, Frank. Mexico Mystique, The Coming Sixth World of Consciousness. Chicago: Sage Books, 1975. Wicke, Charles R. Olmec, An Early Art Style of Pre- columbian Mexico. Tuscon: UniVersity of Arizona Press, 1971. Willard, T. A. Kukulcan: The Bearded Conqueror. Holly- wood, Calif.: Murray T. Gee, 1941. Winning, Hasso von. Pre-Columbian Art Of Mexico and Central America. New York: Harry N. Abrams, Inc., n.d. II. Anthropology and Archaeology The subject matter in this section covers studies of sites under excavation in Meso- and North America, and includes several studies of contemporary Americans from which can be gleaned serpentine information. Baldwin, John D. Ancient America in Notes on American Archaeology. New York: Harper andiBrothers Publicationa, 1872. Bandelier, A. F. "Report of an Archaeological Tour in Mexico in 1881." Papers of Archaeological Institute of America. Series II, Boston, 1884. Brunhouse, Robert Levere. In Search Of the Maya: The First Archaeologists. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1973. Carnegie Institution Of Washington. Notes on Middle American Archaeology and Ethnology. Vols. 1-5, 1940-1957. New York: American Service Press, 1969. Coe, Michael D. The Jaguar's Children: Pre-Classic Central Mexico. New York: The Museum of Primitive Art, 1965. . America's First Civilization. New York: American Heritage PubliShing Co., Inc., 1968. 128 Coe, Michael D. Ancient People and Places: Mexico. New York: Frederick A. Praeger, Inc., 1962. Cummings, Byron. Cuicuilco and the Archaic Culture Of Mexico. Tuscon: University of Arizona Press, 1933. Drucker, P., Heizer, R. F., and Squier, R. J. Excavations at La Venta, Tabasco, 1955. Washington, D.C.: Bureau Of American Ethnology, Bulletin 170. Fay, George. A Guide tO Archaeological Sites in Mexico. University Of Northern Colorado, Museum of Anthropology, 1970. Greenman, Emerson F. Serpent Mound. Columbus: Ohio Historical Society, 1967. Guerra, Francisco. The Pre-Columbian Mind: A Study into the Aberrant Nature of Sexual Drives, Dru s Affecting Behavior, and the Attitude Towards Life and Death, with a Survey Of Psychotherapy in Pre- Columbian America. New York: Seminar Press, 1971. Harday, Jorge E. Pre-Columbian Cities. New York: Walker and Company, 1964. Kahan, David. "Chicano Street Murals: People's Art in the East Los Angeles Barrio." Aztlan: Inter- national Journal Of Chicano Research. Los Angeles: Chicano Studies Center, University Of California, Vol. 6, NO. 1 Spring, 1975. Paddock, John, ed. Ancient Oaxaca: Discoveries in Mexican Archeology and History. Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1966. Pollock, H. E. Round Structures Of Aboriginal Middlg America. Washington, D.C.: Carnegie Institute of Washington, Publication No. 471, 1936. Price, Christine. Heirs Of the Ancient Maya: .A Portrait of the Lacandon Indians. New York: Scribner's Inc., 1972. Rivet, Paul. Mayan Cities. Translated by Miriam and Lionel Kochan. New York: Putnam and Sons, Inc., 1960. 129 Scholes, Frances V., and Roys, Ralph L. The Maya Chontal Indians Of Acalan, Tixchel. Washington, D.C.: Carnegie Institute, 1948. Silverberg, Robert. Mound Builders of Ancient America. Greenwich, Conn.: New York Graphic, 1968. Spinden, Herbert. Ancient Civilizations of Mexico and Central America. New York: American Museum of Natural History, 1951. Tax, 801, ed. The Civilizations of Ancient America: Selected Papers of XXIXth International Congress Of Americanists. Chicago:iThe University of Chicago Press, 1951. Terra, Helmut D. Man and Mammoth in Mexico. Translated by Alan Houghton Brodrich. London: Hutchinsons, 1957. Umland, Craig and Eric. Mystery Of the Ancients: Early Spacemen and the Mayas. New York: Walker and Company, 1974. Vazquez, Pedro R. Mexico, Art, Architecture, Archaeology, Ethnography. New York: Alexis Gregory Publishers, 1968. Weaver, Muriel Porter. The Aztecs, Maya, and Their Predecessors: Archaeology Of Mesoamerica. New York: Seminar Press, 1972. Wolf, Eric R., ed. The Valley of Mexico, Studies in Pre- Hispanic Ecology and Society. Albuquerque: University Of New Mexico Press, 1976. Wuthenau, Alexander Von. Unexpected Faces in Ancient America, 1500 B.C.-A.D. 1500: The Historical Testimony Of Pre-Columbian Artists. New York: Crown Publishers, Inc., 1975. III. Chicano Literature This selective literature, including the anthologies, is geared toward the aesthetic concepts of the chicano culture. Acuna, Rodolfo. Occupied America: The Chicano Struggle Toward Liberation. New York: Harper and Row, Publishers, Inc., 1972. 130 Barrios, Ernie, ed. Bibliografia de Aztlan: An Annotated Bibliography. San Diego: Centro de Estudios Chicanos Publications, San Diego State College, 1971. Chicano: A Selected Bibliography. Compiled by Barbara Flynn, Kathleen Bernath, Robert Ewing, Margaret Wyatt, and Cora Albright. San Bernardino and Riverside Counties: Inland Library System, 1971. Chicano Resource Materials. Chicano Studies Institutes to be held in Summer, 1970 in Aztlan, Montal Systems Inc., Washington, D.C. Chicano Theatre, Three. San Jose: El Centro Cultural de la Gente, Inc., Primavera, 1974. Cordova, Marcella, and Royball, Marie. Bibliography on the Chicana. Lakewood, COlO.: Marcella Cordoba, 1972. Coy, Harold. Chicano Roots GO Deep. New York: Dodd, Mead and Company, 1953. Forbes, Jack D. Aztecas del Norte. Greenwich, Conn.: Fawcett Publications, Inc., 1973. Gomez, David F. Somos Chicanos: Strangers In Our Own Land. Boston: Beacon Press, 1973. Gomez, Fernando. A Selected Bibliography on La Cultura Chicano. East Lansing: Department Of Raciai and Ethnic Studies, College Of Urban Development, Michigan State University, 1974. Gomez, Juan. Selected Materials on the Chicano. Los Angeles: Mexican American Cultural Center, University of California, 1970. Gonzales, Rodolfo. I Am Joaquin: YO Soy Joaquin. Denver: Crusade for Justice, 1967. Harth, D. E., and Baldwin, L. M., eds. Voices of Aztlan. New York: New American Library, 1974. Huerta, Jorge A., ed. El Teatro de la Esperanza: An Anthology Of Chicano Drama. Goleta, Calif}: El Teatro de la Esperanza, Inc., 1973. . A Bibliography Of Chicano and Mexican Dance, Drama and Music. Oxnard: Colegio Quetzalcoatl, 1972. 131 Information and Materials to Teach_the Cultural Heritage Of the Mexican American Chiid. Austin: Educa- tion Service Center, Region XIII, 1974. Jordan, Lois B. Mexican Americans: Resources to Build Cultural Understandifig. Littleton, Colo.: Libraries Unlimited, Inc., 1973. Ludwig, Edward W., and Santibanez, James, eds. The Chicanos: Mexican American Voices. Baltimore: Penguin Books, 1971. Meir, Matt S. and Rivera, Feliciano. A Selective Bibliography for the Study of Mexican American History. New York: Hill and Wang, 1972. . The Chicanos. New York: Hill and Wang, 1972. . Readings on La Raza: The Twentieth Century. New York: Hill and Wang, 1974. Nava, Julian. Viva La Raza:. Readings on Mexican Americans. New York: D. Van Nostrand Company, 1973. Navarro, Eliseo, ed. The Chicano Community: A Selected Bibliography for Use in Social Work Education. New York: Council on Social Work Education, 1971. Ortego, Philip Darraugh, ed. We Are Chicanos: An Anthology Of Mexican American Literature. New York: Washington Square Press, 1973. . "Mexican American Literature." Nation, CCIX (September 15, 1969). Parades, Americo. Folktales Of Mexico. Translated and edited by Americo Parades. Chicago: University Of Chicago Press, 1970. Parades, Americo, and Parades, Raymund. Mexican- American Authors. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co., 1972. "Puerto Del Sol." Las Cruces, N.M.: Puerto Del Sol Publications, New Mexico State University, March 1972, VOl. 12, NO. 1. 132 Quirarte, Jacinto. Mexican American Artists. The John Fielding and Lois Lasater Series, No. 2. Austin: University of Texas Press, 1973. Raza Art and Media Collective Journal. Ann Arbor: The Raza Art and Media Collective, Inc., Vol. 1, NO. 2, March 1, 1976. Rendon, Armando B. Chicano Manifesto. New York: Macmillan, Inc., 1971. Rojas, Guillermo. Toward a Chicano/Raza Bibliography: Drama, Prose, Poetry. E1 Grito Book Series, Book 2. Berkeley: Quinto Sol Publications, 1973. Romano, V., Octavio, I., and Riow, Herminio C., eds. El Espejo: The Mirror. Berkeley: Quinto Sol Publications, 1972. Schramko, Linda Flowler. Chicano Bibliography: Selected Materials on Americans Of Mexican Descent. Sacramento: Sacramento State College Library, 1970. Trejo, Arnulfo D. Bibliografia Chicana: A Guide to Information Sources. Detroit: Gale Research Company, 1975. Valdez, Luis. "Pensamiento Serpentino." Chicano Theatre One. San Jose: El Centro Cultural de la Gente, Inc., Spring 1973, pp. 7-19. Valdez, Luis, and Steiner, S., eds. Aztlan: An Anthology Of Mexican American Literature. New York: Random House Inc., Vintage Books, 1972. Vargas, Zarogosa. "Tenocelome: The Jaguar Mouth People." Raza Art and Media Collective Journal, Vol. 1, NO. 2, March 1, 1976, p. 3. Vasquez, Richard. Chicano. Garden City: Doubleday and Company, Inc., 1970. ‘Villasenor, Edmund. Macho. New York: Bantam Books, 1973. 133 IV. Hieroglyphic Literature In this section are listed the codices and studies about the codices. Brinton, Daniel G. Aboriginal American Authors and Their Productions; Especially Those ifivthe Native Languages. Chicago: Chicago Reprints, 1970. Caso, Alfonso. Interpretation Of the Codex Bodley 2858 (A. 75). Mexico City: Sociedad Mexicana de Antropologia, 1960. Coe, Michael D. "The Iconography of Olmec Art." The Iconography of Middle American Sculpture. New York: The Metropolitan Museum Of Art, 1973. . The Maya Scribe and His World. New York: Grolier Club, 1973. Dibble, Charles E., ed. Codex Hall: An Ancient Mexican Hieroglyphic Picture Manuscript. Santa Fe: School Of American Research, 1947. . Codex XOlotl. Mexico City: Universidad Nacional, 1951. Kingsborough, Edward King, Lord. Antiquities Of Mexico. London: Robert Havell, Colnaghi, Son, and Company, MDCCCXXI (1831). Volume I: Copy Of the collection of Mendoza, Bodleian Library, Oxford. Marked Arch. Seld. A.I. Cat. MSS Angl. 3134, 73 pages. Copy Of the Codex Telleriano-Remensis. Royal Library, Paris. Marked 14. Reg. 1616, 93 pages. Facsimile of an original Mexican hieroglyphic painting. Boturini collection, 23 pages. Facsimile Of an original Mexican painting. Sir Thomas Bodley collection. Bodleian Library, Oxford. Marked Arch. Bodl. A. 75. Cat. MSS. Angl. 1858, 40 pages. 134 Volume I (cont.): Facsimile Of an original Mexican hieroglyphic painting. Selden collection. Bodleian Library, Oxford. Marked Arch. Seld. A. 2. Cat. MSS. Angl. 3135. Facsimile Of an original Mexican hieroglyphic painting. Selden collection. Bodleian Library, Oxford. Marked Arch. Seld. A. Tot. 3. Cat. MSS. Angl. 3207. Volume II: Copy of a Mexican Manuscript. Vatican Library. Marked No. 3738, 141 pages. Facsimile of an original Mexican painting given to the University Of Oxford by Archbishop Laud. Bodleian Library, Oxford. Marked Laud B. 65, no. 678. Cat. MSS. Angl. 546. Facsimile of an original Mexican painting. Bologna Library, Bologna, 24 pages. Facsimile Of an original Mexican painting. Imperial Library, Vienna, 66 pages. Facsimile of an original Mexican painting. Donated to the Royal Library, Berlin, by Baron de Humboldt. A Mexican has-relief. Royal Cabinet of Antiquities. Volume III: Facsimile of an original painting. Borgian Museum, College of Propaganda, Rome, 76 pages. Facsimile Of an original Mexican painting. Royal Library, Dresden, 74 pages. Facsimile of an original Mexican painting. In the possession of M. De Fejervary, Pess, Hungary, 44 pages. Facsimile Of an original Mexican painting. Vatican Library, Rome, 96 pages. 135 Volume IV: Monuments Of New Spain, by M. Dupaix from the original drawings executed by Order of the King of Spain, 3 parts. Specimens of Mexican sculpture in the possession Of M. Latour Allard, Paris. Specimens Of Mexican sculpture from the British Museum. Plates copied from the Giro Del Mondo Of Gemelli Careri with an engraving of a Mexican cycle from a painting formerly in the possession of Boturini. Specimen Of a Peruvian Quipus. Plates repre- senting a carved Peruvian box containing a collection Of a supposed Peruvian Quipus. Volume V: This volume contains an explanation of the following codices, paintings, sculptures, and reliefs along with new works presented in Spanish, French and Italian: Codex Mendoza Codex Telleriano-Remensis Codex Mexican Monte Alban Pueblo de San Pable Mitlan De Zachila y Quilapa Tlascala Third expedition Of M. Dupaix (1807) La Palenque, Pedra Trumgal at University of Mexico LibrO Sexto de la retorica y filosofa, moral y telogia de la gente Mexicana, donde hay cosas muy curiosas tocates a los primores de su lengua, y cosas muy delicados tocante a las vertudes morales, por el M.R.P. Frayle Bernardino de Sahagun de la Orden de los Frayles Menore de la Observancia. In a footnote on page 4x Of this volume it is stated: "The General History of New Spain," by Bernardino de Sahagun, from which this book has 136 been extracted, has never been published; it is the possession Of the Right Honourable Lord Viscount Kingsborough. Volume VI: This volume contains the same material in Volume V translated into English with numerous additional notes. Volume VII: This volume contains the History Of New Spain by Bernardino de Sahagun in Spanish. Twelve Books. Volume VIII: Supplementary notes to the Antiquities of Mexico. The notes are a continuation Of those inserted at the end of the sixth volume. Supplementary extracts from Spanish authors: Juan de Torquemada, Joseph de Acosta and Juan Garcia. History Of the North-American Indians, by James Adair (written about 1735). "Cartas Ineditas" (letters not edited) of Hernan Cortes. Five were addressed to Emperor Charles V, and one to the Bishop of Osina. Volume IX: Cronica Mexicana by Fernando de Alvarado Tezozomoc. Historia Chichimeca by Don Fernando de Alva Ixtilxochitl. Nuttall, Zelia, ed. Codex Nuttall. New York: Dover Publications, Inc., 1975. Seler, Eduard, Forstemann, E., Schellhas, Paul, Sapper, Carl, and Dieseldorff, E. P. Mexican and Central American Antiquities, Calendar Systems and History. Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution, Bureau Of American Ethnology, Bulletin 28, 1904. 137 Sejourne, Laurette. El Universo Quetzalcoatl. Mexico, D.F.: FondO de Cultura Economica, 1962. . a1 lenguaje de las formas en Teotihuacan. Mexico City: Editores, S.A., 1966. Smith, Mary Elizabeth. Picture Writing from Ancient Southern Mexico. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1973. Spinden, Herbert. Maya Hieroglyphic Writing. 3d ed. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1970. Thompson, Eric S. A Catalog of Maya Hieroglyphs. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1962. Velasquez, Primo Feliciano, trans. Codice ChimalpOpoca: Anales de Cuauhtitlan_y Leyenda de los Soles. Mexico City: Imprenta Universitafia, 1945. nICHIan STATE UNIV. LIBRARIES IIIIIIIIIII III IIIIIIIIIIIII III III III III III IIIIIIIII 31293006598415