J A CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK FOR ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCAHON ADAPTED TO THE PHTUPPINE ENVIRONMENT Dissertation for the Degree of. Ph. D. MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY PAZ CONCEPCIONMEDEL I 97 4 LIBRARY Michigan State niversity 1;" --,- ,‘IW H -- 3 4m ‘ u 313:!“ “ ‘Ib”-‘““ - ‘ i .n {4- __‘- “3% o ‘:_ e 1”,: i . “.71.? u ’ ‘ ‘ ' ‘- ‘ -' ' . I I -.v-_‘V.‘----- nu. . 35,5; Iii-i“ I; 1". 4' This 1s to certlfy that the -g_3;':.'i$'- ' mesmefitifled 7 A CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK' FOR ENVIRONMENTALWUCATION ADAPTED TO THE PHILIPPINE ENVIRONMENT presented by Paz Concepcion—Medel has been accepted towards fulfillment of the requirements for Ph. D. Education degree in flmflt A Major professor ziDate April 8, I974 . . . - 0-7639 3' IV "ME 8 SflNS' HUGE 3.NDEnY.. ”.3 , .“SLI LIBRA ARY am 3'" SPRINRWRE. Wallis“ -n_..i I73 I ' E'EEP 12%9931I : 1' 9 I... A CONCEI The purpose : fer an ecological 1Y opment and impleme The structural four of education for II; C?" the country and edltamn; (1+) th {N the present st I'cnprogrars in I A theoreti< “I its Contribut 34‘5" trawewor‘k c0 5Nation and gui iisses for envi rc 269135 for envi rI “‘4 dEIlnes for i ABSTRACT A CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK FOR ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION ADAPTED TO THE PHILIPPINE ENVIRONMENT By Paz Concepcion-Medel The purpOSe of this study was to develop a conceptual framework for an ecologically-oriented science curriculum, as basis for the deve- lopment and implementation of environmental education in the Philippines. The structural foundations were derived from: (i) the goals and purposes of education for national development; (2) the socio-economic conditions of the country and its physical environment; (3) the role of science education; (A) the environmental concerns of a developing country; and (5) the present status, organization and content of environmental educa- tion programs in the United States and some countries. A theoretical conception of the goals of environmental education and its contribution to aims of national development led to the concep— tual framework consisting of four parts: |. Approaches to environmental education and guidelines for its implementation; II. Concepts and pro— cesses for environmental education; Ill. Some suggested teaching stra- tegies for environmental literacy and ecological conscience; and IV. Guidelines for in-service education of teachers and suggested program /_=/q‘r;. J oiacfivities. The conceptua ecological elements processes derived i I the environmental pl asmtivating force oftheconceptual s has finite resource learn to harmonize \ ll ities and ecosyste Within the < following conclusir l. Environr :Nard comunity d vaehent of the 2. The nee “‘5 learners and t ' m9 corinunity e em"- Iohhental edu< 3- Scieno “T‘C'ulum \‘Iherei m ‘~ Y _ ‘ and secondar The mu ‘ETdivlsions all Paz Concepcion-Medel of activities. The conceptual framework developed in this study integrates the ecological elements in the existing science curriculum, the learning processes derived from first-hand experiences with the environment and the environmental problems of the community, and the affective objectives as motivating force for an environmental ethic. The scope and sequence of the conceptual scheme is based on the ecological theme: The earth hgggfinite resources and all life depends on how successfully_man can learn to harmonize his use of the earth's resources with natural commu- nities and ecosystems. Within the context of the thesis develOped in this study, the following conclusions are made: i. Environmental education for development goals is directed toward community development, growth of environmental ethic and the improvement of the environment. 2. The needs of the community, psychological characteristics of the learners and the socio-economic conditions and bio—physical aspects of the community are important foundations for curricular programs in environmental education. 3. Science teaching can provide the core element in the existing Curriculum wherein ecological concepts can be integrated in all elemen— tary and secondary levels. 4. The multidisciplinary approach that cuts across subject mat— ter divisions allows for learning experiences within educational schemes of rural and agricull cation and coomunity S. The strat size experiences Out inquiry processes, n too. 6. "Awarene development and “ac ronnental issues pe T. Teachers CJHCEDTS, QTOCESSE‘ Tess, iaareve thel :orricolun oevelOD 8. Cooperé cents. oarents, It tiles oi governne E‘s hill enhance 9, There ‘eotei education Wile teachers 7V6 onhrel la of The inper Search regarding atilOn . Evaloar Paz Concepcion-Medel of rural and agricultural education, conservation education, value edu- cation and community education. 5. The strategies that are found in the program designs empha— size experiences outside the classroom, the use of community resources, inquiry processes, multidisciplinary applications and value clarifica- tion. 6. ”Awareness—oriented“ teaching must progress toward ”attitude“ development and ”action-oriented“ strategies from a broad base of envi- ronmental issues pertinent to the community. 7. Teachers need extensive in-service education in environmental concepts, processes and values to increase their understanding and aware— ness, improve their teaching skills and expand their participation in curriculum development. 8. Cooperative efforts and close working relationship among stu- dents, parents, teachers, businessmen, community leaders and representa— tives of governmental agencies in the confrontation of environmental prob- lems will enhance the goals of environmental education. 9. There is no single Curriculum and no easy answer to environ- mental education; instead this study provides curricular options to enable teachers in developing countries to operate within some descrip- tive umbrella of environmental education. The imperatives developed in this study have implications for re— search regarding effective experiences for attitude change and social action, evaluative instruments, instructional materials and resources “- Nu— as it relates to ti several actions to directed to the Der sions in the count Paz Concepc i on-Medel To the Philippine environment. It also indicates i @Ifi.to be considered for the implementation of this study fi‘to the Department of Education and Culture; the school divi- J' gfieoe in the country and the Environmental Center of the Philippines. A CONCE I Dena A CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK FOR ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION ADAPTED TO THE PHILIPPINE ENVIRONMENT BY Paz Concepcion—Medal A DISSERTATION Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Department of Secondary Education and Curriculum I974 DEDICATION To Armand, who in his OWn way inspired this study, and To Joy, Carol, Alberto, Cherie and Gina, for a better environment in their lifetimeu I am part national Educat‘ my doctoral Stul not have been pi To Dr. II. connittee, who Of this study w tern and friend To Dr. R Beriheiner, new oi or thinking deeply grateful To Dr. , aCViCe and en“ and Hathmaticg Elatiori. i also I parthUlT EXTended [0 me iiOTldi FOUndat Dleticm of thi iion ADD [0 StandingY SaCr enable me to f soecia] hay, ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I am particularly grateful to the Institute of Inter— national Education for the scholarship and travel grant for my doctoral studies, without whose support, this study would not have been possible. To Dr. Martin Hetherington, chairman of my doctoral committee, who have guided my efforts toward the preparation of this study with his helpful suggestions, professional con- cern and friendship, I am most grateful. To Dr. Robert George, Dr. Peggy Miller and Dr. Glenn Berkheimer, members of the committee, who have influenced some of my thinking in my courses and interactions with them, I am deeply grateful for their guidance and friendly assistance. To Dr. Julian Brandou and Dr. Richard McCleod, for their advice and encouragement in developing my program with the Science and Mathematics Teaching Center, I am extending my sincere appre— ciation. I also thank the Philippine-American Educational Founda— tion, particularly, Dr. Vitaliano Bernardino, for the support extended to me as a “Fulbrighter”, and to the Altrusa Interna— tional Foundation, Inc. for their grant-in—aid toward the com- pletion of this dissertation. And to my husband, children and family, for their under- standing, sacrifices and moral support during my stay abroad, to enable me to fulfill a dearest wish, I thank them in a very special way. IIIIFIER I. INTRODUCT The PM Backgn Purpos Signif Proced Assump Defini Delimi Organi ”- REVIEW OF COHCep His Def Guidel Approe Cur Inl DEV 0m lnStn De Le TABLE OF CONTENTS CHAPTER Page I. INTRODUCTION . I The Problem. . . . . . . . . . . I Background of the Study. . . . . . . 2 Purpose of the Study. . . . . . . . . . . 9 Significance of the Study . . . .' . . . I0 Procedure and Sources of Data. . . . . . . . II Assumptions of the Study . . . . . . . . . IQ Definition of the Terms. . . . . . . . . . I5 Delimitations of the Study. . . . . . . I8 Organization of the Study I9 ll. REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE . 2I Concept of Environmental Education . 2] 2i Historical PerSpective . . . . . . Definition of Environmental Education . . . . 29 Guidelines for Curriculum Development 3] Approaches to Environmental Education . 34 Curriculum Reform. 35 Integration of Environmental Education into Existing Curricula . 37 Development of Special Units of Study . 40 One- semester Credit Courses . 43 Instructional Concerns , 44 Development and Organization of Concepts . . _ 44 Learning Techniques and Teaching Strategies . . 48 Outdoor Education. . . , , 50 Environmental Investigations and Studies . . 52 Facilities and Resources . . . . . . . 55 Academic Simulation Games . . . . . . , 57 Value Education . . . . . . . . . _ 59 MuItimedia Approach . . . . . . . , 6i Multidisciplinary Approach. . . . . . . 62 In- -service Education of Teachers. . . _ . 64 Environmental Concerns of Developing Countries . _ 66 Problems of Human Settlements. . . . . , _ 68 Problems of Management and Use of Natural Resources. , , . _ 69 Problems from Industrial Development . . , _ 7] III. THE PHILIPPINE SET Physical Envirc Socio-economic The Constitutic Objectives of | Science in Gen. Environmental Ill. DEVELOPMENT AND I ENVIRONMENTAL Perspective. Enviromnental Environmental Part I. ADSr. anc Science E Conserve: Rural anc Value Edt Youth Or, GUIdEIIrM Envir, Part ||_ Co Ed Concepts UDdErStE UDdersté PrOCESS Part III. , TeachEr Educ WDEre E Efluc The Cumr Eco Env IV. THE PHILIPPINE SETTING . . Physical Environment. . Socio— —economic Conditions . The Constitution and Patrimony of the Nation. Objectives of Elementary and Secondary Education Science in General Education . Environmental Issues in the Philippines DEVELOPMENT AND IMPLEMENTATION OF ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION Perspective. . Environmental Education for Developing Countries Environmental Education and Goals of Development Part I. Approaches to Environmental Education and Guidelines for its Implementation . Science Education Conservation Education. Rural and Agricultural Education Value Education . . . . . Youth Organizations. . Guidelines for Development and Implementation Environmental Education Concepts and Processes for Environmental Education . Part II. Concepts for Environmental Education . Understandings for Elementary Levels Understandings for Lower Secondary Levels Process Skills Some Suggested Teaching Strategies for Environmental Literacy and Ecological Conscience . . . Part III. Teacher's Changing Role in Environmental Education . . Where to Teach -— Places for Environmental Education . . . . . . . The School Site . Community Resources and Facilities. Ecological Study Areas. Environmental Education Centers 99 99 I00 I02 IO6 IO6 lIO III ll3 II6 ll9 l25 I26 I27 I37 I43 1148 I48 l53 “35 I56 l57 l59 —... “w: fit“, _ 7__ . W ..0‘ T'; a; I I‘ i I II' I I | i Strategy I. Concept De Topic Heb Objectives Area DiSCI Area Studl Strategy II. Concept m Objective Topic Heb Pre-trip Field Act Post- Fie Teacher's Strategy IlI Dam and I Concept I Objective Pfe-TIEII Field Tr Post-Fie The Role Strategy IV Inquiry Objectiv General Suggests POSt-act Strategy V The Role ActIVItI ACTIVIP ACLIVI t PartIV. 30mg of T and Plan a I Sensirg SUSgeSI Ian ; 2 SessIor Ian :3 SUWW . Strategy I. Explorations in the School Grounds. . I60 Concept Development . . . . . . . . . . 161 Topic Web . . . . . . 161 Objectives of the Outdoor Activity . . . . . 162 Area Discussions . . . . . . . . . . . 162 Area Studies . . . . . 163 Strategy II The Seashore Along the Bay . . . . 16h Concept Development . . . . . . 165 Objectives of the Field Trip . . . . . . . 165 Topic Web . . . . . . . . . . . I66 Pre- trip Discussions. . . . . . . . . . 166 Field Activities . . . . . . . . . 167 Post- Field Trip Activities . . . . . . . 167 Teacher's Role . . . . 169 Strategy III. Ecosystem Analysis of La Mesa Dam and Watershed. . . . . . . . . . . 170 Concept Development . . . . . . . . . 171 Objectives of the Field Trip . . . . . . . l7l Pre- field Trip Discussions. . . . . . . . I7I Field Trip Activity . . . . . . . . I72 Post- Field Trip Activities. . . . . . . . I72 The Role of the Teacher. . . . I72 Strategy IV. A Lesson in Question and Answer Inquiry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I73 Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . I74 General Procedures . . . . . I74 Suggested Activity for the Demonstration . . . I75 Post- -activity Discussions . . . . . . . . I76 Strategy V. Value Clarification. . . . . . . I76 The Role of the Teacher. . . . . . . I78 Activity # I Rank Order Technique . . . . . I78 Activity # 2 Values Continuum . . I79 Activity # 3 Counter Attitudinal Role Playing . I79 Part IV. Some Guidelines for In-service Education of Teachers for Environmental EducatIon and Suggested Program of Activities. I8I Plan # I Seminar—Workshop in Environmental Sensitivity. . . I85 Suggested Program of Activities for Three Days I88 Plan # 2 An In— —service Institute with a One— Week Session and Bi—monthly Meetings . I89 Plan # 3 A Two— week In- residence Summer Institute. I9I I92 Summary . vi I. 5mm, concwsu IntroductiOn Sunmary . Conclusions . Implications aI Recomendat Recmnendat of the S BIBLIOGRAPHY . APPENDICES A- fist of Sources Fundamental Conservatiop B. Score Sheet fOr V. SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS Introduction Summary . Conclusions . Implications and Recommendations . Recommendations for Further Research. Recommendations for the Implementation of the Study. . . . . . BIBLIOGRAPHY . APPENDICES A. List of Sources Used for the Development of Fundamental Concepts for Environmental Conservation Education. B. Score Sheet for Ecosystem Analysis. I94 I94 I95 I97 200 200 202 204 223 225 LIST Figure I, An lnput-OutpUt "0‘ Environmental EI Development . I. A"Total” Educatio tion Showing th 0f Each Scheme mic and Scienti Environment . 3. Vertical Developne is the product AHorizontal Deve‘ things are intI environment. \ II. 5. Allultidisciplina the school are \ 5- Montent/Process or o ulation their hereditv \L Grid Suggesting S concePtual Tht of i w Figure I. 2. 3. 5. 7. LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS An Input-Output Model to Illustrate the Contribution of Environmental Education to the Goals of National Development A ”TotalII Education Approach to Environmental Educa- tion Showing the Contribution and Interrelations 0f Each Scheme Toward a Social, Political, Econo- mic and Scientific Outlook of Man Towards His Environment Vertical Development of the Concept: A living thing is the product of its heredity and environment. A Horizontal Development of a Subconcept under: Living things are interdependent with one another and their environment. . . . . . . . . . . . . A Multidisciplinary Approach to the Subconcept: Around the school are many kinds of plants and animals.. . A Content/Process Design for the Concept. Organisms jggipopulation of Olfléfliiflél,are the product of their heredity and environment. . Grid Suggesting Some Areas of Objectives for the Conceptual Theme: A living thing is thegproduct of its heredity and environment. viii Page I05 I07 I40 I41 I42 I46 I47 Environmental quali‘ issue not only in industrii and Japan, but also in und Problems of high industria of land and water resource Iized or pre-technological Iopulations, scientific kr IIISS, has brought about ( fiononic development usua The world faces an Many instances in the .runs In the face of soci :e‘ ' .n to the enVIronment II “Oiled into a global cor ride ' enwronmental educai AMgram of envi “In .Itv ' ant to Its socio-eci i‘uir Unnental prob I ems a 511m hi -. Csuccesses. ther Oh to I‘IGI'OS [he Improve CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION Environmental quality is fast emerging as a social and political issue not only in industrial societies like the United States, England and Japan, but also in underdeveloped and developing countries as well. Problems of high industrial concentration, pollution and mismanagement of land and water resources affect all economies, whether industria- lized or pre—technological societies. The converging of exploding populations, scientific knowledge and pursuit of what is called pro— gress, has brought about consequences of environmental change. With economic development usually comes environmental deterioration. The world faces an environmental crisis of its own making. As in many instances in the past, societies turn to education for solu- tions in the face of social crises. The awareness of threatening dan- gers to the environment which gained momentum in the 60‘s has now de— VEIOPed into a global concern for environmental quality and a world- WIde environmental education movement for the 70's. The Problem A program of environmental education in the Philippines must be relevant to its socio-economic goals as a developing country. Since environmental problems are a result of a nation's technological and economic successes, there is a need to reorient the curricular frame- work towards the improvement of the environment, towards environmental survival and chug: In va Inflamtal problem of th Ifaconceptual framework therelationships between curricular development an The awareness of III: last decade or so sp Iho are alert. The Conf in I968, recognized the tion concerning resource quality. It had suggest and strengthened with re onthe problem of man an govermental and non-gm Ion-governmental intern; In 1970, an unprI taienplace in the Unit for dealing Wi th envir attion turned its atten \ I . II the Bl-Jnlted Nations 5 ere, Nah 2 Ibid \-IP. 21], survival and change in values towards community social action. The fundamental problem of this study is the identification of the elements of a conceptual framework for environmental education and to indicate the relationships between those elements that will guide and direct curricular development and implementation. Background of the Study The awareness of threatening dangers to the environment has in the last decade or so spread to many countries where there are persons who are alert. The Conference on Resources of the Biosphere in Paris,I In I968, recognized the need for improved education and public informa— tion concerning resource management problems and loss of environmental quality. It had suggested that international programmes be expanded and strengthened with regard to research, education and implementation on the problem of man and his biosphere.2 This would involve inter- governmental and non—governmental support and participation of relevant non-governmental international scientific organizations. In I970, an unprecedented concern with environmental quality had taken place in the United States. Federal organizational structure for dealing with environmental problems was reshaped and congressional action turned its attention to environmental issues through significant 1United Nations Economic and Social Council, Use and Conservation 0f the Biosphere. Natural Resources Report No. IO, I970, p. I97. 2|bid., p. 211. In ad fact-finding I183 strmgtllened with increas mlmnental insults, ec andpollution control tec By 1971, citizens tional nature of their c nations realized they ne grams to deal more effec Canada, France, Germany, land, Singapore, Switzer Iented or planned reorga grains.ll In the Philippi establishing basic poll to bring about social ar planning.5 Recently, this a under the influence of Torment in Stockholm. \-—~__________ '3U.S. Departmeni Icatlon Education TI mung Office, 197ll i1 Ir lieu ‘ IIIIIIQ IICII of Env \"Niiy (Vashin laws and fact—finding hearings. Federal environmental programs were strengthened with increased research and development on the effects of environmental insults, ecological relationships and natural processess and pollution control technology.3 By 1971, citizens of many nations had awakened to the interna- tional nature of their common concern - - a polluted environment. Many nations realized they needed to upgrade their domestic environmental pro- grams to deal more effectively with environmental decay. Australia, Canada, France, Germany, Japan, Great Britain, India, Kenya, New Zea- Iand, Singapore, Switzerland and the United States all had either imple— mented or planned reorganization of their environmental protection pro- grams.“ In the Philippines, Congress had approved a joint resolution establishing basic policies which shall guide the country in its efforts to bring about social and economic development through environmental planning.5 Recently, this awareness expanded to global intensity, partly under the influence of the 1972 United Nations Conference on Human Envi- ronment in Stockholm. This conference brought about new perspectives 3U.S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare, Environmental Education, Education That Cannot Wait (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 197]), p. 3. “Council of Environmental Quality, Second Annual Report, Environ— mental Quality (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 19715, p, 28. 5Committee on Natural Resources, Senate of the Philippines, A Report. The Philippine Environment (Manila: National Media and Produc- tion Center, 1972)m P- 2l' nonlrollental Issues In IIIeStocIrhoII Conference r dotIIe developing countrie oftlie industrialized soci deaIIIith then, but in ad Ilcct the poverty and the The evolution of 5 should seek different sol growth with the requi reme plain the value of consi developed and developing their economic and socia intone below $500 per ca fast as those of wealthii liable climates than tho Iical risks and damage f Due to difference \m t 6United Nations I III,StockhoIIn, 5-16 J1 lint/11375. p. 12. IU . nlted Nations int, SIOCIIII iuIIUra1A 01m: 5'I6 J W 1111 Barbara llard ar Pany, 1m” ‘97: on environmental issues in the basic concerns of developing countries. The Stockholm Conference recognized the inescapable reality that not only do the developing countries face many of the same environmental problems of the industrialized societies without having the resources with which to deal with them, but in addition, their major environmental concerns re- flect the poverty and the very lack of development of their societies.6 The evolution of societies show that the developing countries should seek different solutions designed to reconcile swift economic growth with the requirements of good environment.7 Ward and Dubos8 ex- plain the value of considering differently environmental issues between developed and developing countries because of sharp contrasts between their economic and social pressures. Countries with a level of national income below $500 per capita, have population growing almost twice as fast as those of wealthier countries. Their fragile soils and less re- liable climates than those in temperate zones result in different ecolo- gical risks and damage from expanding outputs in farming. Due to difference between developed and developing countries in 6United Nations General Assembly. Conference on the Human Environ— ment, Stockholm, 5-l6 June l972. An Action Plan for the Human Environment, A/Conf./ 48/5. p. 12. 7United Nations General Assembly, Conference on the Human Environ- ment, Stockholm, 5—l6 June, 1972. Educational, informational, Social and Cultural Aspects of Environmental issues. A/Conf. 48/9, p. 23. 8Barbara Ward and Rene Dubos, Only One Earth (New York: w.w. Norton and Company, Inc., l972), pp. 47-48. auditions and Opportuni any educational approach iW-im comtries fr phic and educational se an approach:9 tion and the cha One gap asserted tional programs in sch glcal balance, or as o is clearly underlined the Biosphere, educati Mtproperiy designed l of the very nature of i material suited to the let available in this national Union for the \_ glinited Nations lit hei3 h”Ehements of a i Nation 1 flow, Nov. 23458 1‘ fail“: OfflCe of l conditions and opportunities which affect their environmental outlook, any educational approach needs to view the environmental concerns of low-income countries from a separate base of social, economic, geogra— phic and educational setting. The Stockholm Conference underscores such an approach:9 There is no disguising the fact that such a course, bring- ing to the forefront the need to preserve and develop the quality of the environment through education, in the broad sense of the term, entails changes in the educational systems. These changes, will, of course, be based on the individual outlook of each na- tion and the characteristics of its educational systems. One gap asserted by environmentalists is a lack of adequate educa- tional programs in schools dealing with environmental quality and ecolo— gical balance, or as one puts it, there is a need for ”green studies“.‘0 As clearly underlined by the l968 UNESCO' Conference on the Resources of the Biosphere, education at all levels and in all countries at present is not properly designed to produce adequate understanding and appreciation 11 They add that very little of the very nature of environmental problems. material suited to the actual requirements of developing countries is as yet available in this field, although efforts by the UNESCO and the inter- national Union for the Conservation of Nature are in progress to produce 9United Nations General Assembly, Environmental issues, p. 20. 10”Elements of a New Environmental Ethic,” from Summary Statement Of the i3th National Conference of the U.S. National Commission for UNESCO, Nov. 23-25, 1969, The Case for Environmental Education (Washing- t0n, D.C.: Office of Education, U.S. Dept. of Health, Education and wer— fare. 1970), pp. 31-32. HUnited Nations Economic and Social Council, Problems of the Human Environment, E/4667. p. l2. M snob Iterials. Today's science cu according to Glass.2 have role of science in the ma present world and the fai vide a strong curriculun lhtional Science Teacher Science Education for th That science tion that interrel science, technolog and economic consi it is vital that s rental problems. The N ing actions:Ill . That significa included in tl N . That multidis which the sci developed and L,» . That teachers \ l2 Bentley Glass, l ,Lter l',.No 37, Novembr l3 . National Scie iron for the 70. ., If] iiillropiint "STA committee "locilliltb ”lithe SC"enc ctbOer 1970) such materials. Today's science curricula, even the newest and the best of them, according to Glass12 have in part failed to deal sufficiently with the role of science in the making of human culture, with the problems of the present world and the fair or dread vision of the future of man. To pro- vide a strong curriculum more in tune with the needs of the times, the National Science Teachers Association, in its position statement on School l3 Science Education for the 70's, makes the recommendation: That science education programs include environmental educa- tion that interrelates natural phenomena, environmental influences, science, technology, social implications of science and technology and economic considerations. It is vital that science educators concern themselves with environ- mental problems. The NSTA Committee on Issues strongly urges the follow- ing actionszll'i i. That significant components of environmental education be included in the science learning activities of all students. 2. That multidisciplinary approaches to environmental studies in which the science teacher contributes his unique talents be developed and implemented at all levels of education. 3. That teachers seek out and sieze upon the opportunities ZBentley Glass, ”The Philosophy of a Curriculum Study,” BSCS News- letter, No. 37, November, 1969, P- 5- _ 13National Science Teachers Association, “School Science and Educa- tion for the 70's,” The Science Teacher, XXXVlll (November, l97l), p.49_ IANSTA Committee on Issues, "NSTA Positions on Critical issues Confronting the Science Teaching ProfeSSlOrls'l IEE_§ELEEEE_I§EEDEE: XXXVII (October, i970), pp. 55—56- to exert a lea ing environmel priate behavi< Enviromientalissi tion alone. Admitting t mmedin Hving organis l5 . ronnent, Hurd pornts C science, one that focuSE bnnmngconcepts togetl understanding human behl The l972 Stockho ples of the Declaration environmental matters, lnorder to broaden the duct by individuals, ET the environment.16 Hal ta ryand secondary levt to ‘ ' Infuse envr ronmenta tunehesto changing \ is D IPaul deHart l in th e Middle Unit Evil, Stockhol d Natior l\lioni. hS/b m, June l7 iétlon 1 Garrett Hard .stitute f, Ed‘ by E Ca kinks. Departn . p. 24. to exert a leadership role in community action toward solv- ing environmental problems and that they exemplify appro- priate behaviors in relation to the environment. Environmental issues are not mainly the concern of biology educa- tion alone. Admitting that the problems that concern us the most are rooted in living organisms, particularly man and the quality of his envi- ronment, HurdIS points out the need for a new curriculum base for teaching science, one that focuses upon man and his existence in the broadest sense, bringing concepts together from related disciplines which are useful for understanding human behavior. The l972 Stockholm Conference on Human Environment in its princi— ples of the Declaration of the Human Environment state that education in environmental matters, especially for the younger generaitions is essential in order to broaden the basis for enlightened opinion and respectable con- duct by individuals, enterprises and communities in protecting and enhancing the environment.16 HardinI7 believes that science teaching in the elemen- tary and secondary levels need to be radically ecologized. The approach is to infuse environmental and ecological concepts in all studies which lend themselves to changing man's life style to One in harmony with his world,l8 M— ISPaul deHart Hurd, ”Guidelines for Development of a Life ScienCe Program in the Middle School,ll BSCS Newsletter, No. 34, April, 1969, p.2_ l6 United Nations General Assembly, Conference on the Human Environ— ment, Stockholm, June 5-l6, l972, Draft Declaration on Human Environment. A/Conf. 48/4. I7Garrett Hardin, “Education for Tommorrow,“ Environmental Edu- EELEELJQZQs ed. by Everett Hafner and others. (new York: Scientists' institute for Public information, l970), P- l0. l8U.S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare, Education That There is “0“ an exp standing of the Gill/l romeo of the environment. Our r lenging problems in basic tion as valuable as the t challenge to science eduC fronting societies today ecological content. Asocial adaptive to the inevitable danger ran becomes fully consci is incumbent upon those tent concern for the em reWires attitude of tl't ‘Glivation toward impFO‘ Won throughout the t o‘imoinnendations for the Philippine senate c Dub ’ - llC engrlr0nment COH‘ l . gun'md Nation 20 . Willia All ‘ m B‘ trillion: A SOUrcebié Oik‘. John m lEY l committee 0n There is now an explosion of knowledge regarding our under- standing of the environment, especially the relationships between parts of the environment. Our natural environment offers some of the most chal- lenging problems in basic science. It is in itself a source of instruc- 19 The tion as valuable as the traditional subjects in educating mankind. challenge to science education in the midst of environmental crises con- fronting societies today is the establishment of curricula with relevant ecological content. A social adaptive process is needed with the sense of alertness to the inevitable dangers of technological advance. Increasingly, as man becomes fully conscious of his reponsibilities to the environment, it is incumbent upon those in education to instill in the students a persis— tent concern for the environment. This cannot be accomplished easily but requires attitude of trusteeship toward land and other natural resources, motivation toward improving the environment through concerted effort and action throughout the total experience of the individual.20 In its list Of recommendations for a well-balanced program of environmental welfare, the Philippine Senate Committee on Natural ResourcesZI sought for general public environment consciousness and involvement campaign. The long range '9United Nations General Assembly, Environmental Issues, p. 20. 20William B. Stapp, “Environmental Encounters, Environmental Education: A Sourcebook, Ed. by Cornelius Troost and Harold Altman (New York: John Wiley and Sons, I972), p. 235. 2| . . . . Committee on Natural Resources, Philippine EnVIronment, p, 6, conponent of the campalgr relevant courses on the E The Philippines hi United Nations to strive nated expressed the impe . Economic between technolog In other words, p be bought at the Of the environmei The Philippine at the development of a ne teaching and learning 5 ronmental education. This study was i a . nvrronmental educat i o 1. Goals of environme andinpienentation ll tion for integration i Strategies for enviror iuideiines and prograr It is aimed at We of envi ronmenta 'cieis and with the n {PA ‘ho‘ili'ag 9.0 to USE ECC \ 22in &. i). 3 component of the campaign called for the inclusion of the needed and relevant courses on the environment in the educational curricula. The Philippines has a common effort with other countries of the United Nations to strive for environmental quality. The Philippine Se— nated expressed the imperative that:22 Economic planning and ventures should strike a balance between technological utilization and environmental breakdown. In other words, progress and a standard should living should not be bought at the cost of certain and inevitable deterioration of the environment and the quality of life of the future. The Philippine educational system, therefore, should undertake the development of a new curriculum design applicable to nearly all teaching and learning situations that would enhance the goals of envi— ronmental education. Purpose of the Study This study was undertaken to develop a conceptual framework for environmental education for Philippine schools consisting of four parts: |. Goals of environmental education and guidelines for its development and implementation ll. Concepts and processes in environmental educa— tion for integration into the existing science curriculum Ill. Teaching strategies for environmental literacy and ecological conscience and IV. Guidelines and programs for in-service education of teachers. It is aimed at providing a broad perspective of the field and Scope of environmental education at the elementary and lower secondary levels and with the hope, that teachers in developing countries will be encouraged to use ecological education concepts and materials as they 22ibici., p. 3. _._._s --."TE.’. ..§_._ .. : teach toward goals of nat §i nns study is an a ideas which may be helpft imtmcUonN conditions lmhg l. The identific education; N . The developme mentation of w . The organiza concepts, pr J:- - The construc teaching; an m The deve l Opr “9965 ted p in Particular, l- ltwill cia tion for develOping Cc It will pm ca" tion conceptS as SW 3. it will Dli Cllu ' ‘ m in envirOnmema It Will Dr c TOT an inTSel-Vl million To teach toward goals of national development. Significance of the Study This study is an attempt to provide a structure of important ideas which may be helpful to educators at all levels in developing instructional conditions in environmental education through the fol- lowing: l. The identification of the needs and goals of environmental education; 2. The development of criteria for the development and imple- mentation of environmental education in the schools; 3. The organization of important environmental conservation concepts, processes and values; 4. The construction of suggested strategies for meaningful teaching; and 5. The development of guidelines for in-service education and suggested programs of activities. In particular, this research is important because: l. It will clarify goals and objectives of environmental educa— tion for developing countries, its processes and social implications. 2. It will provide an organized structure of environmental edu- cation concepts as suggested base for instructional purposes. 3. It will pinpoint the wide range of approaches vital to curri— culum in environmental education. 4. It will provide guidelines for its implementation and sugges- tions for an in-service training program for teachers of environmental education. 5, ltwill provid environmental education F The conceptual fra Hhhthebasic framework mgemenences,it will anomaMzing and con nnmopg for classroom nrncMar experiences; hgastnmture in which mdforschool committee hnerbaus upon which thtanyenterprise as hidOi theoretical or Hopefully, this Work that will stimulat guedimction to the l This study is di Examining t ‘\---.--——-— 3S" ience Educa h. C Mhntmy :chool Scie .l. iNU , .0 M br%aytharles Roth. lt Environmer versity t. . “‘WW.IUni ThurtHllda Taba, i , cc and N ll 5. It will provide baseline information for the evaluation of environmental education programs and materials. The conceptual framework generally is not only an overview scheme. With the basic framework and the tangible models for teaching and learn— ing experiences, it will serve as a common fountainhead for school person- nelinorganizing and conducting environmental education conferences and workshops; for classroom teachers in developing materials and selecting curricular experiences; for learners as “curricular options” in develop- ing a structure in which to categorize ideas, concepts and experiences;23 and for school committees, administrators and other clients to have a better basis upon which to judge scope and intent.21+ Taba25 suggests that any enterprise as complex as curriculum development requires some kind of theoretical or conceptual framework to guide it. Hopefully, this study would meet the need for a conceptual frame- work that will stimulate and direct general curriculum development and give direction to the ideas taught in environmental education programs. Procedure and Sources of Data This study is descriptive and it involved the following procedures; I. Examining the foundations for curriculum development in ‘ 23Science Education Center, Oklahoma University, ”Evaluating Elementary School Science Curriculum,“ Science and Children, X (December, l972), p. l4 2“Charles Roth, ”A Massachusetts Audubon Society Program,“ Processes fpr Quality Environment, ed. by Robert 5. Cook and George T. O'Hearn (Green Bay; Wis.: University of Wisconsin-Green Bay, 1971), p° l08. 25Hilda Taba, Curriculum Development, Theory and Practice (New York; Harcourt, Brace and World, Inc., l962), p. 413. envirormental education. The areas considere lution of environmental ei needs of minimizing and Si point of a developing COU goals and purposes of env 2. Describing the The more significa ronment and aspects of Pt and negative influence up if the Philippine educat Educational schemes havii tentai education are con 3. Determining t This involved an More Of the structure concerned and the proces h‘ Adapting guic mm. ASynthesis of pi the“ l” 30 far as they kll’mh regard to the when. 5' Translating libel ‘ program dESigns Develop}nq ( environmental education. The areas considered were (a) the historical perSpective and evo- lution of environmental education as response to societal need (b) the needs of minimizing and solving environmental problems from the stand- point of a developing country striving for economic growth and (c) the goals and purposes of environmental education. 2. Describing the Philippine environment and educational setting. The more significant geo-economic resources of the Philippine envi- ronment and aspects of Philippine society which exert direct positive and negative influence upon curriculum development are identified. Goals of the Philippine educational system from different sources are described. Educational schemes having implications for the implementation of environ— mental education are considered. 3. Determining the approach toward curriculum structure. This involved an analysis of the general areas of science teaching as core of the structure, its scope and sequence appropriate for levels concerned and the processes and teaching strategies useful for the goals. 4. Adapting guidelines for curriculum development and implemen- tation. A synthesis of principles available from literature was under— taken in so far as they are applicable to the Philippine educational syS- tem, with regard to the development and implementation of environmental education. 5. Translating the conceptual structure into suggested intruc- tional program designs for some levels. 6. Developing guidelines for in—service teacher education Prograns and suggested 6C The major sources the United Nations (2) F Education and Welfare (01 of Agriculture and others Iiichigan; Cooperative Ex Educational Resources In concerning environmental education (ii) articles pine origin pertinent tc and (5) selected literai environmental education Several textbook Studies26 on principles were reviewed to develo ““th goals. This Ii T0 the members of the i revision. AFEVised 1 deveIOped and Sequence. Wing Criteria;27 The Content use \ rmpts See Appehdix 27 J0 n w - Go d lliiihgm nd instrui ratio, lgslinStruig programs and suggested activities. The major sources of this research consist of (l) documents of the United Nations (2) publications of the U. S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare (Office of Environmental Education ); Department of Agriculture and others; Department of Natural Resources, State of Michigan; Cooperative Extension Service, Michigan State University; and Educational Resources Information Center (ERIC) (3) some literature concerning environmental quality and various aspects of environmental education (4) articles in newspapers, magazines and journals of Philip- pine origin pertinent to its environmental problems and relevant topics and (5) selected literature on curriculum development in general, and environmental education, in particular. Several textbooks and teachers' study guides as well as related studies26 on principles on conservation, ecology and environmental science were reviewed to develop a list of concepts important to the defined cur- riculum goals. This list obtained from thirteen sources was submitted to the members of the researcher's doctoral committee for comments and/or revision. A revised list of conservation-related concepts was finally developed and sequenced horizontally and vertically according to the fol~ lowing criteria:27 The content used in the organizing center — — 26See Appendix A. List of Sources for Conservation—related ConceptS. 27John I. Goodlad, ”The Curriculum,” Rational Planning in Curriculum and Instruction, National Education Association Center for the Study of Instruction (Washington, D.C.: National Education Asso- cvation, I967), p. l3. (a) . _ , must be determined by (b) . . . must ha to other I305S rienced- (c) . . . should student fUH‘ thinking and (d) . , , should ing books, V so on; and (e) , . . should Some informatior national conferences C leaching, Detroit, Hal tion, Detroit, March : ciation, August l2~l6 Shops, conversations tormental education I. Man's attr the ' kind and quality Wilma] experiences The aims i Cu“ iilCulurn must be 5 {\h' .ccletyl l4 (a) . . . must be authentic and important to the field, as determined by leading scholars in it; (b) . . . must have linkage value; that is, it should relate to other possiblities already experienced or to be expe- rienced. (c) . . . Should have great potentiality for involving the student fully, for assuring that he will become active in thinking and doing; (d) . . . should present alternative avenues of approach — - read- ing books, viewing films, experimenting in the laboratory and so on; and (e) . . . should lead the student to discover for himself. Some information were also gathered from attendance in relevant national conferences of the National Association of Research in Science Teaching, Detroit, March 27-29, I973; National Science Teachers Associa- tion, Detroit, March 30- April 2, I973; and Conservation Education Asso- ciation, August l2-l6, I973, Murray, Kentucky; and from seminars, work- shops, conversations and dialogues with educators in the field of envi- ronmental education. Assumptions of the Study l. Man's attributes and attitudes will depend increasingly on the kind and quality of his socio-economic environment and on his edu- cational experiences. 2. The aims of education change with social changes and the Curriculum must be sensitive to the changing conditions and needs of society, 'r I. 3. Literature re environmental concerns ai rormental education prog in the United States can Conservation ma ‘ Y natural resources. It i dependence with his env lopment of a culture wh and practices necessary Conservation edL \ attitudes in human heir to conservation.29 Ecology is the laniled, how the treat idnction. It is the s iionship to their envi ii things .30 Env ironmental l \ 28 Paul F l, 1967) .Brani ii). l3. l I hpfl . 29in :cucation (Elan id. 8m \ nglewood 30Ra [Nth ‘ Ylil0nd F. E “W: John Idi Ie 15 3. Literature related to problems of human settlements, global environmental concerns and the development and implementation of envi- ronmental education programs in the school systems, which are available in the United States can be used as a guide in this study, Definition of Terms Conservation may be defined as the protection and wise use of the natural resources. It consists in the recognition by man of his inter- dependence with his environment and with life everywhere, and the deve— lopment of a culture which maintains that relationship through policies and practices necessary to secure the future of a sanative environment.28 Conservation education refers to the development of concepts and attitudes in human beings which is reflected in their behavior relative to conservation.29 Ecology is the study of ecosystems to determine how they are or- ganized, how the creatures within them interact, and how total systems function. it is the science involved in the study of organisms in rela- tionship to their environment; it is concerned with the relationship of 0f things.30 Environmental literacy refers to a new understanding and new M— 28Paul F. Brandwein, “Conservation,” The Science Teacher, XXXIV (April. 1967), p. i3. 29Julian w. Smith, Reynold E, Carlson and others, Outdoor Edggatigg (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.; Prentice Hall, Inc, I963), p. 26. 30Raymond F. Dassman, Environmental Conservation, 3rd ed. (New Yrodk; John Wiley and Sons, Inc., l972), p. l2. awareness of man's relati our surroundings and on ‘ aviareness that is couple to alter these condition Environmental man loonent of an area or in yield in improved qualit Environmental gue sible or tolerable -- 0i tion of the atmosphere uoeuthrophication of b areas, damage to animal and herbicides, destruc sound pollution, therme environmental quality Env lronmental si I . lls concerned with a if - =YStems approach to will ]\ El W L. Sale e 3 Lar W (Nev 32Ddssman, 33 Env Sale and Lee Philips W F ”“9 System Lea l6 awareness of man's relation to his environment. . . of our dependence on our surroundings and on the natural systems which support life, but awareness that is coupled with full realization of man's enormous capacity to alter these conditions.31 Environmental management means an ecological approach in the deve- lopment of an area or in its protection in order to provide the greatest yield in improved quality of living for mankind.32 Environmental guality refers to the conditions that make life pos- sible or tolerable -- or the contrary.33 Solid waste disposal, contamina- tion of the atmosphere through the proposed supersonic transport, stepped- up euthrophication of bodies of water, overcrowding of people in urban areas, damage to animal life through DDT and other residual insecticides and herbicides, destruction of animal and plant life through oil spillage, sound pollution, thermal pollution are only few of the factors that affect environmental quality. Environmental science is another name given for general ecology. It is concerned with all aspects of environmental quality and is a kind 0f Systems approach to nature and the way man interacts with his environ- 34 ment, 3lLarry L. Sale and Ernest w. Lee, Environmental Education in the W (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Inc., 1972), p, 83, 32Dassman, Environmental Conservation, p. l0l. 33 3“Philips W. Foster, IntroductiOn to Environmental Science (Homewood: ”1.: Learning Systems Company, l972), P- 1° Sale and Lee, Environmental EducationL p. 83. lb Human environmen attention is drawn to ti ther this environment i tions. In another appr his total relation to h ders the natural envi rc action.35 Mm topics at appropriate ' developed horizontally the contributions of i ennronmental problems Integrated scie concepts and principle demental unity of scie 0n the distinctions be Organizing eler as threads from which \ 35 UNESCO, Prob lrvvi i H n L. Sl ibblem) The tie e \nC 7 ‘lllil P-‘E. Richmc (Paris: unescc ‘A \ 38 Ralph Ii. I mail T), onal - Educatio EX erlenc llz‘lh.n) Part ll I7 Human environment may be interpreted in many ways. In one approach, attention is drawn to the biological environment which surrounds man, whe- ther this environment is “natural” or whether is is the result of man's ac— tions. In another approach, attention is directed towards man himself in his total relation to his environment. In other words, it primarily consi- ders the natural environments as well as those profoundly modified by human action.35 Integrated approach is a term which refers to the teaching of core topics at appropriate grade levels in schools where curriculum is organized, ‘ developed horizontally as well as vertically, so that students can utilize the contributions of interdisciplinary studies in understanding and solving environmental problems.36 Integrated science is defined by UNESCO as those approaches in which concepts and principles of science are presented so as to express the fun- damental unity of scientific thought and to avoid undue or premature stress on the distinctions between the various scientific fields.37 Organizing elements refer to the concepts, skills or values serving as threads from which specific learning stimuli are to be organized.38 35UNESCO, Problems of the Human Environment, p. 26. 6Irwin L. Slesnick, ”Population Education -- a Response to a Social Problem,” The Science Teacher, XXXVIII (February, l97l), p. 22. 37F. E. Richmond, editor. New Trends in Integrated Science Teaching Vol- I (Paris: UNESCO, I97l), p. 52. 38Ralph w. Tyler, ”Curriculum Organization,” The Integration of Educational Experiences. The 57th Yearbook, National Society for the Study Of Education, Part III (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, I958), pp.ii2-lb. .,__.—.-§- '- - '-" orgnizing center tire and place, through damental organizing elel It is a learning climat riences that take place tions and attitudes nee and activities .ho Multidiscipl inal to infuse instructiona‘ lil areas. It also mean! the environment so the understanding and sol v I. The curricu only to environmental 07 the elementary ( gré levels, Smith and 0t Lil SlESnick’ IIF LI . 5E Izlillliam 8.: liiinzmonmental Edu; iicbgraphed‘) D. 9 l8 Organizing centers refer to those stimuli for learning, points in time and place, through which the student is guided toward the more fun- damental organizing elements underlying the curriculum.39 Outdoor education means learning i3, gpppp and £9; the outdoors. It is a learning climate which applies to a wide variety of learning expe- riences that take place in an outdoor setting and to the skills, apprecia- tions and attitudes needed for maximum satisfaction in outdoor recreation #0 and activities. Multidisciplinary approach is used in a subject-centered structure to infuse instructional activities appropriately placed in other subject areas.h‘ It also means linking subject areas that relate most closely to the environment so that both social and scientific knowledge important to #2 understanding and solving environmental problems are properly developed. Delimitations of the Stgdy l. The curriculum development model developed in this study refers only to environmental education integrated into science teaching programs of the elementary (grades I—VI ) and lower secondary (lst and 2nd year) levels. 39Virgil E. Herrick, Strategies for Curriculum DeveIOpment, edited by James B. MacDonald and others (Columbus, Ohio: Charles E. Merrill Books. 1965), p. 87. 40Smith and others, Outdoor Education, p. 24. AISIesnick, ”Population Education”, p. 22. QZWIlIiam B. Stapp, “Development, Implementation and Evaluation of_Environmental Education Programs (K-IZ)”. University Of Michigan, 1973“ (Mimeographed.) p. 9. he” 2. There is no a tics of the Filipino Chi tion. 3. Evaluation a: vered in this study. Ii. The study do culum development and i Philippines. 5. The projecte conditions and were not 6. The adminisi of environmental educa‘ study. Presented in th midi, the significant aSSunptions of the stl and organization of ti Chapter II con orieily with a histor Educa ‘ . “on, guidel ines Itotal education, the teach erg iOF envi ronn lepi ll QCOUntries Chaoter in d, l9 2. There is no attempt to describe the psychological characteris- tics of the Filipino child as related to learning for environmental educa— tion. 3. Evaluation as an element in the curriculum design was not co- vered in this study. h. The study does not discuss the partiCular constraints to curri- culum development and implementation of environmental education in the Philippines. 5. The projected program designs have not been tried under field 6. conditions and were not the products of experiments in the Philippines. The administrative and political aspects in the implementation of environmental education in the Philippines were not considered in this study. W Presented in this chapter were the problem, background of the study, the significance of the study, the procedures and sources of data, aSSumptions of the study, definition of terms, delimitations of the study and organization of the study. Chapter ll consists of a review of selected literature, dealing briefly with a historical perspective to the goals of environmental education, guidelines for curriculum development, approaches to environ- mental education, the instructional concerns, in—service education of teachers for environmental education and environmental concerns of deve- loping countries. Chapter lll describes the Philippine setting -— its physical environnent, the socio-e elerrentary and secondary its environmental proble Chapter IV preser developing countries, gi followed by a developme education, its concepts for learning and sugges guidelines and plans fc EhaPter V concl {allOnS of the researci for the implementation 20 environment, the socio-economic conditions, legal foundations, goals for elementary and secondary education and science in general education and its environmental problems. Chapter IV presents a perspective of environmental education for developing countries, guidelines for its development and implementation, followed by a development of the conceptual structure for environmental education, its concepts and processes, the teachers' changing role, places for learning and suggested teaching strategies. Also in the chapter are guidelines and plans for in—service education of teachers. Chapter V concludes the study with a summary, suggesting impli- cations of the research for future study and specific recommendations for the implementation of the study. REVIEW There is consider aspects of environmenta of the world. Some rep ties, trends and innova of this study. The are cation (b) guidelines ronmental education (( lionof teachers for ei ions of developing cou Conce Historical Persgective Various terms a Inorder to provide a Edication in today's . liovth and evolutiona The need for i an - on, at times refe 3‘: the Century. Natl. or ' iocdates at Cornel' CHAPTER ll REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE There is considerable amount of literature dealing with various aspects of environmental education in the United States and in some parts Some representative literature showed certain commonali- of the world. ties, trends and innovations which were extremely helpful for the purposes The areas considered were (a) concept of environmental edu— of this study. (c) approaches to envi- (b) guidelines for curriculum development (6) the in-service educa- cation (d) instructional concerns ronmental education tion of teachers for environmental education and (f) environmental prob- lems of developing countries. Concept of Environmental Education Historical Perspective Various terms are being used in relation to environmental education. in order to provide a better understanding of the role of environmental education in today's society, it is necessary to review its historical growth and evolutionary characteristics. The need for learning in environmental science or environmental edu- cation, at times referred to, as nature study, dates back to the beginning Nature study was initiated by Liberty Hyde Bailey and 0f the century. associates at Cornell University and its major purpose was to get children 21 7' to know and love their e ingot, v. Jackman2 in study requires that stut their imnediate environr pie, truthful observatii ture study movement was andliilliam James who e 3 rience. As the nature st lopinga rising concerr wildlife, water, soil 2 Theodore Roosevelt, Gi' tionistsl philosophy t Conservat adVanCe and gov mlnds and their hany agencies S agricultwe, park boar through the years. Pa \ ileVo Von B name] aller’ Edu iitman (Ne “Catmn A 5. EN York; JO ll ‘3ch aCkman ll icientifics Study of E ”'0 O'CharlLY‘ E QUtub ”N DougiaSH El Pub ubi'Shing 22 to know and love their environment by observing their surroundings. In l904, W. Jackman2 in Nature Study stated that the spirit of nature study requires that students be intelligently directed in the study of their immediate environment, in its relation to themselves based on sim- ple, truthful observation. The mental discipline theory used in the na4 ture study movement was in opposition with the influence of John Dewey and William James who emphasized that learning can best be done by expe— rience.3 As the nature study movement started to fade away, there was deve- l0ping a rising concern for the depletion of natural resources, such as wildlife, water, soil and forests. individual leaders such as President Theodore Roosevelt, Gifford Pinchot and Aldo Leopold spurred the conserva- tionists' philosophy that:£l Conservation cannot be achieved solely by technological it must work through the men's advance and government control; minds and their attitudes toward the world they live in. Many agencies such as state departments of natural resources, agriculture, park boards and commissions became involved in conservation through the years. Parallel to this federal interest, educational leaders ILeVon Balzer, ”Environmental Education in the K-l2 Span,” Environ— A Sourcebook, edited by Cornelius J. Troost and Harold mental Education Altman New York: John Wiley and Sons, lnc., l972), p. 242. 3rd Yearbook. National Society of the _ 2W. S. Jackman, Nature Stud , SCIpntific Study of Education lChicago, University Of Chicago Press, l904). L p. usa Y. Qutub, Secondary Environmental Science Methods (Columbus, 3M Ohio: Charles E. Merrill Publishing Co., l973), p. Douglas H. Strong, The Conservationists (Menlo Park, Calif: Addi50n_ thley Publishing Co., 197’), P- l O such as Charles R. Van I curriculum of few C0] le the public schools-5 A were found in high schO Aware that erode stock and non-creative rural people to make e1 schools had for one of natural resources.7 Au Strang8 if it helps al resources, use their 1 and Produce the food a Bathurst9 repor SitY has for nearly he Schools and were desic MutaIOng the l ines c ran and the teachers , developed or exhauste \ 5 . rd“: . Amerlcan Assc wr‘jilo in Americar rean ASSOCiatiOn QUtub ) m , National uhfimUn- . SOC W. The Fif ‘ 952): p. 1+6 lb'\d p. 50 ,r Eff" llashlngtonieDGt he; 23 introduced conservation education into the such as Charles R. Van Hise, curriculum of few colleges and eventually into the programs of some of principles of conservation the public schools.5 According to Qutub, in Tennessee. were found in high school curriculum as far back in l92l Aware that eroded soil, absence of home gardens, inferior live— stock and non—creative use of leisure Were evidences of failure of the rural people to make effective use of land and natural resources, rural schools had for one of its objectives the development and conservation of natural resources.7 Accordingly, a rural school is successful, wrote Strang8 if it helps all the people to make the best use of their natural resources, use their land appropriately, maintain and improve its fertility, and produce the food and fiber needed by society. Bathurst9 reports that the College of Agriculture at Cornell Univer- sity has for nearly half-century published literature for use in rural schools and were designed to help in the interpretation of the rural environ- ment along the lines of good conservation. These were helpful for the lay- man and the teachers who live and work where natural resources are being developed or exhausted. 5American Association of School Administrators, Conservation Twenty-ninth Yearbook ( Washington, D.C.: Education in American Schools. American Association of School Administrators, l95l), p. 37. Qutub, Secondary Environmental Science Methods, p. 3. National Society for the Study of Education, Education in Rural Communities, The Fifty-first Yearbook. (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, I952), p. 46. 8Ibid., p. 50. Conservation Education in Rural Schools 9Effie G. Bathurst, editor, l943l, pp. 33-34. “QShington, D.C.: National Education Association, .. ln lgliir, the impc tion of natural resourcr inthecurriculum: (ll ditions; (3) survival in their environment. Study of Education, wit - ll tron, noted: Probably ni his ideas and a ship or conserv Alongside the d lug and outdoor educat that the development c SociO-econOmic forces that the trend toward iary satisfaction ari assessed camping educ tions, Tear . Secondary Env H The National Education in merica “Iversity of Chicag Donald R, He t 21. In ISA“, the importance of and some of the methods for conserva- tion of natural resourceswere suggested by Craig10 into four major areas in the curriculum: (l) kinds of living things; (2) changing earth con- ditions; (3) survival of plants and (4) interdependence of living things in their environment. By l9h6, the National Society for the Scientific Study of Education, with regard to the use of natural resources in educa- tion, noted:H Probably no child will study science without having his ideas and attitudes on such matters as health, citizen- ship or conservation, modified. Alongside the development of conservation education, school camp- ing and outdoor education started and grew rapidly. Hammerman12 reported that the development of camping education was a natural outgrowth of the socio-economic forces at work in America during l930-l960. He explained that the trend towards urbanization necessitated the return to the elemen— tary satisfaction arising from outdoor living. Sharp and Partridgel3 assessed camping education as a movement toward realism and naturalism l0Gerald S. Craig, Science in Childhood Education (New York: Bureau of Publications, Teachers College, Columbia University, l944), cited by QUtub, Secondary Environmental Science Methods, p. 2. HThe National Society for the Scientific Study of Education, Science Education in American Schools, Forty-sixth Yearbook, Part I. (Chicago; The University of Chicago Press, l947, pp. 35-39. [ZDonald R. Hammerman, “A Historical Analysis of the Socio-Cultural Factors that Influenced the Development of Camping Education,” University Microfilms, Ann Arbor, Michigan, l96l, cited by Robert Roth and Stanley L. Hegelson, A Review of Research Related to Environmental Education (Columbus, Ohio: The Ohio State University, l972), p. 4. 13L. B. Sharp and E. DeAlton Partridge, “Some Historical Backgrounds Of Camping,“ Outdoor Education, A Book of Readings, ed. by Donald R. Hammer— man and William M. Hammerman (Minneapolis, Minn.: Burgess Publishing Co., l973), p. 59. % 1f ilhichrnet a latent need squalor and artificialil tion was viewed as an ii school. Asignificant ac lopment of a broadened of the outdoors as a la and skills necessary i< suits conducted in clo school.m In the midd Educational method whi ing to a greater appre natural environment ir New thrusts tm | 50 5 due to the increr iization, exploding P‘ to environmental degr lnhis State of the U Said: ”The great qUE roundings or shall ws Tor the damage we ha‘ 1 “Smith, "A D 15 . Smith and 0 1E)Sal ,5 e and L W) p. H187, e 25 which met a latent need in society to break away from the ills of poverty, squalor and artificiality. The total living experience of camping educa- tion was viewed as an ideal laboratory for expanding the function of the school. A significant achievement during the period l955-l965 was the deve- lopment of a broadened concept of outdoor education which includes the use of the outdoors as a laboratory for learning and acquisition of knowledge and skills necessary for the wise and satisfying outdoor interests and pur— suits conducted in close alliance with the subject matter areas of the school.‘q In the middle 50's outdoor education had become recognized as an educational method which offers an opportunity for direct experiences lead- Ing to a greater appreciation, a clearerinterpretation and wiser u5e of the natural environment in achieving the purposes of education.‘5 New thrusts toward environmental education came about in the late 60's due to the increased conCern for environmental problems. Industria— lization, exploding populations and depleted natural resources contributed to environmental degradations and provided new imperatives for education. In his State of the Union message in I970, President Richard M. Nixon said: l'The great question of the 70's is, shall we surrender to our sur- roundings or shall we make peace with nature and begin to make reparations for the damage we have done to our air, to our land and to water?”16 ILlSmith, ”A Decade of Progress“, p. l07. I5Smith and others, Outdoor Education, p. 19. 6Sale and Lee, Environmental Education, p. 6], citing EQESEEEEIQQEL M. p. H187. Faceduith an envir' , toparticipate in a be and lakes decisions. lust develop a new un to his environnent, a literacy“. ‘7 An educational ingenvironnentai qua the only living thing use, preserve or dest actions - - and their formal education.18 romentai education" “outdoor education" a ted that to use this to include interdisci lations and institut‘ The impetus fl ma nationwide basi W ‘70. s. Depar Enuirorunental Educat 18u. 5. [level That Cannot llait, P W I9”. 5. Depa ip" 26 Faced with an environmental crisis, the American nation was called upon to participate in a basic reform in the way society looks at problems and makes decisions. To bring about this reform, the entire society must devel0p a new understanding and a new awareness of man's relation to his environment, and which, President Nixon calls “environmental literacy”.l7 An educational response had to be made to the problem of maintain- ing environmental quality° It was vital for man to recognize that he is the only living thing which can consciously manipulate, control, wisely use, preserve or destroy his environment, and to gain a knowledge of his actions — — and their environmental consequences, from his formal and non- formal education.18 Thus, concerned educators began to use the term IIenvi- ronmental education” in lieu of the long standing ”conservation education”, 'butdoor education” and”resource management”. The Office of Education sta- ted that to use this new term is to take a holistic or integrated approach, to include interdisciplinary or multidisciplinary concepts, methods, inno- vations and institutions.19 The impetus for curriculum improvement in environmental education on a nationwide basis was brought about by the Environmental Education Act \h— I7U. S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare, The Case for W522 p. 4 I8U. S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare, Education W p. 19U. S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare, A New Role for American Education (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, ______________________ I970), p. 6. of mu.” Educating this Act. \lith federa longed to establish cu relate learning experi l lea-solving in the c Conservation e tion, all have a c 21 natural world. The either outdoor or con Environme with involving no claims to dents exposed interested in a primary aim. Stapp23 states primarily oriented tc environment and its a are the characterist w 20Advisory Co llashington, M. to 2“Definition uental Education“. I Education Associatic 22James Swan Itlta Kappan, LI (5' 238mm), llEnr SOurcebookI p. 233- 27 of I970.20 Educating man to live with his environment is the goal of this Act. With federal funding and support, school systems were chal- lenged to establish curricula with relevant ecological content, and to relate learning experiences to actual environment improvement and prob- lem-solving in the community. Conservation education, outdoor education and environmental educa- tion, all have a common goal —- the understanding and appreciation of the d.21 The difference between environmental education from - . . . 22 either outdoor or conservation education IS explained by Swan: natural worl Environmental education is different in that it is concerned with involving people in environmental problem-solving. It makes no claims to making people naturalists. Undoubtedly, many stu— dents exposed to an environmental education program would become interested in nature, but this is a secondary benefit, rather than a primary aim. Stapp23 states that current programs in conservation education are Primarily oriented to basic resources; they do not focus on the community environment and its associated problems. He added that what are stressed are the characteristics, interrelationships and uses of natural resources K“ 20Advisory Council on Environmental Education. Second Annual Report. (Washington, D.C. Government Printing Office, I973), P- 7- 2I“Definition: Conservation Education, Outdoor Education, Environ: mental Education“. A paper from the National Conference of the Conservation Education Association, Lafayette.Louisiana, August, I970- 22James Swan, “ The Challenge of Environmental Education,ll Phi 2§l£E_EEEEifl, LI (September, 1969), pp. 27—28. 23Stapp, “Environmental Encounters,“ Environmental Education: A We. p. 233 in the elementarY grade dary level. In another cation is an education; inworking individuall' that affect their well environment, an awaren tions to work toward t Today's current the unique roles of at Donaldson and Donaldsi environmental/conserv the environment. The conservation, Outdoor maybe included in ar The significai Hawkins and Vinton: 2‘ 0f prim of attitudes mg of educat to the world realize that \ _‘ Will' mutation," TthAB‘ mei 25G ‘h . eorge W, i is Promising Futurr lo 2 Donald E 28 in the elementary grades and levels of management and policy in the secon— dary level. In another instance, Stappzli explains that environmental edu— cation is an educational approach which emphasizes the role of the citizen in working individually or collectively toward the solution of problems that affect their well-being, based on knowledge concerning the bio-physical environment, an awareness of how to solve these problems and with motiva- tions to work toward their solution. Today's current environmental push has resulted in an awareness of the unique roles of outdoor education. As an on—going educational method, Donaldson and Donaldson25 describe it as precisely tailored for community environmental/conservation objectives, peculiarly useful in learning about the environment. The consensus is that, environmental education is not - - conservation, outdoor resource management or nature study, although these may be included in an environmental education program. The significance of environmental education today is summarized by Hawkins and Vinton:26 Of prime importance in the world today is a re—evaluation of attitudes toward the environment and a subsequent restructur- ing of educational programs concerned with man's relationship to the world around him. In fact, educators are beginning to classroom. realize that the environment is an ideal ZQWilliam B. Stapp and others, ”The Concept of Environmental Education,” The American Biology Teacher, XXXII (January, I970), p. l5. ZSGeorge W. Donaldson and Alan D. Donaldson, “Outdoor Education: Its Promising Future,” Outdoor Education: A Book of Readings, pp. l30-31. 2 Donald E. Hawkins and Dennis A. Vinton, “Environmental Qflflfl¥fl;§§g§ation: A Book of Readings, p. I93. Education,“ I ‘. I. i The Environmen education as the "edU iiithhis natural and of population, polIUt tion, transportation. total human envi ronme tal education may be process, attitude am expands the federal tional process of de priate to fostering dence with the natur tical, cultural, ecc en“moment. Likewi tal education as thi relationship of man vironmentu_29 \ 2 2 7 7Advisory C 28k! Wsconsin ill“ r\ W973 Murray, l‘ 295 Stat lilill'll28e1g;1r 29 Definition of Environmental Education The Environmental Education Act of l970 defined environmental education as the “educational process dealing with man‘s relationship with his natural and man-made surroundings, and includes the relation of population, pollution, resource allocation and depletion, conserva- tion, transportation, technology and urban and rural planning to the total human environment.“27 While many educators claim that environmen- tal education may be an undefinable term because it contains elements of the Wisconsin Environmental Council28 process, attitude and orientation, expands the federal definition by stating that it also means the educa- tional process of developing concepts, attitudes, values and actions appro— priate to fostering man's harmonious relationship with man and interdepen- dence with the natural and man-made surroundings including the social, poli— tical, cultural, economic, esthetic and bio-physical dimensions of the total environment. Likewise, the Michigan Legislature has referred to environmen— of attitudes and skills involving the tal education as the ”teaching relationship of man with the quality of his cultural and bio-phygical en- vironment”.29 27Advisory Council on Environmental Education, Second Annual Report, 28 . . Wisconsin Environmental Education Plan. A handout during the National Conference of the Conservation Education Association, August l2— 16, 1973, Murray, Kentucky. 2 . State of Michigan Legislature, Senate Concurrent Resolution No. 69. April 28, l97l. Vivian,30 Benn that environmental ed knowledgeable concern problems, awai of hc work toward their sol was modified by Roth, ted “to work toward l environments that ar. that the aim of envi human and physical r Contribute to the le l dents awareness of and above all, to me needs, both inmedial Kormondy35 Wl MtonW Saving man \ 9W JerSey nmental E . 30N L” Enviro I ' “Ce 01‘ Edu 314 New JerSe 35 :m. Edi tvlsrted’ulird J. M 3O 32 concur Vivian,3O Bennett and Willinck,3] and Stapp and others that environmental education is aimed at producing a citizenry that IS knowledgeable concerning the bio-physical environment and its associated problems, aware of how to help solve these problems, and motivated to The last clause of the preceding statement work toward their solution. h,33 who intended that the citizenry would be motiva- was modified by Rot ted “to work toward the maintenance and further development of diverse Further, Ambrey3h indicates environments that are optimum for living”. is to make use of the wealth of that the aim of environmental education human and physical resources in every community, which can reinforce and contribute to the learning process. to add understanding to the stu- dents' awareness of the variety and complexity of life around them. and above all, to make the educational process relevant to the students' needs, both immediate and the future. Kormondy35 wrote that environmental education has the mission of not only saving man but of improving the quality of his future. He adds 30New Jersey Environmental Education Council. ”The Master Plan . Washington, D.C.; for Environmental Education: A Proposal for New Jersey” U. S. O fice of Education, l97l. _ 31Dean B. Bennett and Wesley H. Willinck, “Organization and Opera- tion of a K—l2 Environmental Education Program“. Maine Environmental Education Project, Yarmouth, Maine, l973. p. l. . l5. 32$tapp and others,”Concept of Environmental Education,” p 33Robert E. Roth, ”Fundamental Concepts for Environmental Manage— ment Education (K—l6),“ Environmental Education, I (Spring, l970), p. 65, 34New Jersey Environmental Education Council, Master Plan, p, 2_ 35Edward J. Kormondy, “Environmental Education: the Whole Man ReVisited,“ The American Biology Teacher, XXXII! (January, l97l), p. l6 that the alteration of and appreciation of ma inagreement with the Environmei values and cla and attitudes relatedness am roundings. En decision makln about issues c Guide The foremost 5 today is the need for this end, Fischer37 l organizing principle pests that the first disciplinary approac that the educational vironment and since presently in the cur iitation for such CL \ 6. 'Unesco De 3 P QM» Vll (March, 37 . John F’ 5 isch chwartz (Englewood ohn l, J vanada EdUCa _ :6 S Sill tlnAs 9Pa 1 ‘5 U m, Joumal O Stude V W 3i that the alteration of man's attitudes must be based on an understanding and appreciation of man's place in the nature of things. His views are in agreement with the UNESCO definition which states:36 Environmental education is the process of recognizing values and clarifying concepts in order to develop skills and attitudes necessary to understand and appreciate the inter- relatedness among Man, his culture and his bio-physical sur- roundings. Environmental education also entails practice in decision making and self-formulation of a code of behavior about issues concerning environmental quality. Guidelines for Curriculum Development The foremost social need which should guide the educational system today is the need for a viable relationship to the environment. Toward 37 this end, Fischer proposed that the concept of survival becomes the organizing principle for many fields of scholarly inquiry. Huxley38 Sug— gests that the first thing is to reform the curriculum towards a multi- disciplinary approach with ecology as key subject. Studebaker39 indicates that the educational response must be commensurate with the concept of en— vironment and since environment is everything, this means that no subject presently in the curriculum can escape revision. He reasons that justi- fication for such curricular revision is derived from all sources of 36“Unesco Defines E.E.,” Environmental Education News for School People, Vll (March, l973), P- 3- 37John Fischer,”Survival U,“ Affirmative Education, ed. by Barry Schwartz (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, Inc., l972), p, 148, 38John Passmore, Outdoor Education in Canada — 1972 (Toronto: Canada Education Association, l972), outer back cover. 39Paul Studebaker, 'The Justification for Environmental Education,” IEE_£2E£fl§l_pf Environmental Education, IV (Summer, l973), p. 48. authority - - scientil social, political and Environmental . segnent of the popula children and be relev The affec experience wit grams should t ronmental educ tent and must without being Basic to the ' Knowledgeable of env oi the type of end p Charles Roth“2 descr individual, about wh process to achieve c illiterates are the the inhumane. The l shows one who is car tun "WY Successful b . CatiOn AURichard Ka en II 2.2, 9 Cy , A 1 lil lbid. \ 2 ,5 Charles 0rQualit Envirii 32 authority - — scientific, historical, philosophical, religious, ethical, social, political and legal sources. 40 Environmental education, according to Kay, must involve every segment of the population, and should start as early as possible with children and be relevant to the child's real world. He stateszgl The affective goals are best brought about through direct experience with the environment. Environmental education pro- grams should be built upon the conceptual tool -— ecology. Envi— ronmental education is interdisciplinary in subject matter con- tent and must be sequentially developed yet remain evolutionary without being revolutionary. Basic to the task of school systems in helping citizens become knowledgeable of environmental issues and problems is the identification of the type of end product we are seeking from our educational efforts. Charles Roth42 describes the end product as the environmentally literate individual, about which curriculum developers could design content and process to achieve desired behaviors. Accordingly, the environmentally illiterates are the polluters, overconsumers, the careless destroyers, the inhumane. The behavioral description of the environmentally literate shows one who is capable of developing and living a life style that is humanly successful yet ecologically sound. 40Richard Kay, ”Environmental Education Through the State Edu— cation Agency“, A lecture presented at Idaho State University, l970,, p. 2. lbid. 42 for ualit Environment, p. l08~ Charles Roth, ”A Massachusetts Audubon Society Program,” Processes \ Stapp,)"3 and and function of an en students with a more problems listed the f l. Emphasize and issue 2. Stress ti skills. 3. Develop l social rr h. Develop human ec 5. Involve evaluati 6- 5pan the viding f 7. Arrange and leap 8~ Integral 9' Link Sui activit The New Jer hramoMfication matwould involve \ 1+3 . Exisrin :‘Hlam St , 9 UrriCUp bihOF Edllcationl'JIT 4 EMF Bennett al- Oillllental EdUC' C 1+5 “ The Ha ‘lEh‘J Step QTSep.\‘I 33 Stapp,43 and Bennett and Willinck,4# in describing the structure and function of an environmental education program that would provide students with a more than peripheral acquaintance with environmental problems listed the following considerations for designing a curriculum: l. Emphasize and relate to local environmental topics, problems and issues. 2. Stress the development of attitudes, values and behavioral skills. 3. DevelOp basic affective concepts including the self-concept, social responsibility and environmental sensitivity. Develop basic cognitive concepts related to the natural and human ecosystems. 5. Involve the learner in the process of discovery-inquiry, evaluation-problem identification,rand problem-solving. Span the curriculum, kindergarten through grade twelve, pro— viding for the revisiting and reinforcement of concepts. 7. Arrange the curriculum sequence according to developmental and learning patterns. 8. integrate the program with existing curricula. 9. Link subject areas through interdisciplinary studies and activities. The New Jersey State Plan for Environmental Education“5 called for a modification of the curriculum for elementary and secondary levels that would involve students with real environmental problems in the 1+3William Stapp, ”Integrating Conservation Education lnto the Existing Curriculum of the Ann Arbor Public School System (K-l2),” Outdoor Education: A Book of Readings, pp. 152-53. . 1+4Bennett and Willinck, ”Organization and Operation of a K-l2 Envrronmental Education Program“, p. MSThe Master Plan for Environmental Education: A Proposal for New Jersey, p. l, cormunity or region a and its possible solu for curriculum develo sis on the role of tr the development of st reponsibilities.)48 ill As a broad fir possible approaches Stapp 1‘9 submits at secondary curriculum of environmental edu (3) development of s 985t that the introc Consider the three a \ ushentucky Di ht‘iltI "Kentucky's El hi .1 Governor's u % (Lansing, m, ’p- 59. 973) ; New Hampsh rDOi New Hampghi Te E tpal'tlilent Of Educa h . ‘ul 9W'Hlam B. 5i)V M “a ' ' G l [Ital EdUCatiOn ll: Miler 1973) 34 community or region and provide field experiences with the consequences and its possible solutions. Other state plans which provide guidelines for curriculum development in environmental education also include empha- sis on the role of the outdoor laboratory and school site development}+6 the development of specific behavioral objectives,A7 and school system re5ponsibilities.L+8 Approaches to Environmental Education As a broad field, environmental education offers a variety of possible approaches toward curriculum development and implementation. Stapp #9 submits at least three major strategies for the elementary and Secondary curriculum: (1) complete curriculum reform; (2) integration of environmental education concepts into the existing curriculum; and (3) development of special study units. Galushim and Doraiswami50 sug- SeSt that the introduction of environmental education in schools should Consider the three approaches as successive stages, rather than Kentucky Department of Education, Division of Program DevelOp- ment, ”Kentucky's Environmental Education Program.“ A Brochure. 4 7Governor's Environmental Task Force, Michigan's Environmental Future (Lansing, Michigan: Office of the Governor, State of Michigan, l973 . P- 59. 8 . . New Hampshire Division of instruction, ”Envrronmental Education for New Hampshire Elementary and Secondary Schools,” New Hampshire State Dapartment of Education, Concord, New Hampshire, l97l, p. S. quilliam B. Stapp, ”Environmental Education: Approaches to Curri— Culum Development (K-l2),” Processes for a Quality Environment, pp. 82-83, 50V, M, Galushim and S. Doraiswami, ”Three Approaches to Environ- mental Education in the Schools,” The Journal of Environmental Education, lV (Summer, 1973). PP- 10—11. alternatives. Thus. r second stage, the " geography curricula a bathe third and fina education. Another a courses in the secon the special units cl Curriculum Reform There are two grated science teach and Gardner52 sugges in at least four app relevance and (ii) p mental science and a approaches are signi 0f their relationsh‘ lt rela‘ of basic pedr tion in the practical ap wards proble w 5|Jan Cerovsl in Science Teachini NP. E. Richmond, 52James Ruth“ lit," New Trends I ill. I lParis: UNE 53Cerovskir i. ll]. 35 alternatives. Thus, the first stage, is the ”topics“ approach; the second stage, the ”chapter: or ”unit” approach, mainly in biology and geography curricula and the most complete ”integrated“ approach should be the third and final stage of implementation of school environmental education. Another approach is the development of one-semester credit courses in the secondary level which may be considered an extension of the special units clustered for unified study. Curriculum Reform There are two major trends in science education today: (l) inte- 51 Rutherford grated science teaching and (2) concern for the environment. and Gardner52 suggest that an integrated science course can be designed in at least four approaches: (l) conceptual schemes (2) inquiry (3) relevance and (4) process. The relevance approach focuses on environ- mental science and applied science. But Cerovsky53 argues that all four approaches are significant to environmental education and gives the values Of their relationship as follows: It relates actively to a wide range of general objectives of basic pedagogical importance, for example, active participa- tion in the teaching process, the training of a critical mind, practical application of theoretical knowledge, education to- wards probiem—soiving and decision-making, etc. . 5‘Jan Cerovsky, “Environmental Education as an integrating Concept In Science Teaching,“ New Trends in integrated Science Teaching, edited by P. E. Richmond, Vol. iI (Paris: UNESCO, l973), p. 127. _ 2James Rutherford and Marjorie Gardner, “integrated Science Teach- lng,” New Trends in lnte rated Science Teaching, edited by P. E. Richmond, Vol. l (Paris: UNESCO, 1970 , pp. 52-53. 53Cerovsky, ”Environmental Education as an integrating Concept“, P. 127. A real curricui accomplish an envi row the Swedish National ‘ mmenui Education i idngthe curriculum cation at all school dai subject in i ts c ineoi the first reSL nities. An interesti working teams from pt fUlly in the open ail Restructuring d"Stipiiriary study t would alter the Stru school to make possi Cooperation between According to latest theories of i \ 543 tula- ten Forse ' The Swedish E; 55 1971) ”a“ Terry » Pp. 186-87. 5% tum En app’ ”do ironment 36 A real curriculum reform was recently undertaken in Sweden to accomplish an environmentally oriented curriculum in schools. in l968, the Swedish National Board of Education appointed a Committee on Envi— ronmental Education in Schools, so called SMIL, with the task of ”re- ising the curriculum to provide a basis for efficient environmental edu- cation at all school levels”.54 The Swedish concept is not one of a Spe- cial subject in its own right, but of incorporation into several subjects. One of the first results was the tremendous development in outdoor acti- vities. An interesting project involved the formation of non-graded working teams from pupils of grades 7 - 9 working happily and success- fully in the open air. Restructuring of the school can greatly assist students' inter- disciplinary study that can contribute to environmental education. TerrySS would alter the structure of department and subject divisions within the school to make possible real interdisciplinary education, and stimulate C00peration between teachers and students. According to Stapp56 curriculum reform normally incorporates the latest theories of learning, possesses a well-thought out conceptual _________________________ 5LlSten Forselius ”Environmental Education in the School Curri- cula: The Swedish Example,“ Prospects, ll (Winter, l972), pp. 477—84“ 55Mark Terry, Teaching for Survival 197]). pp. i86-87. (New York: Bailantine Books, 56 tapp, “Approaches to Curriculum Development”, Erggg§§§§_f9£;fl S Quality Environment, P» 82- E: l'. i: i design and focuses on interests of the iear reform as follows:57 The first cmmittee 0” l is to design ‘ phase mlght Cl environmental instructional education Pro' as environmen be to activati grams in sele National Prof Conmittee sho materials and luating the P i‘lariand58 see but the long range c education into vi rtt but as a new approat integration of Envil The approach grades and most cou school system. Sta education into the h ' P ‘H lha . Marl 59 bit Stapp, ”El” 9. 233. 37 design and focuses on problem-solving skills, conceptual thinking and interests of the learner. He describes the approach to curriculum reform as follows:57 The first phase is the creation of a National Advisory Committee on Environmental Education whose foremost function is to design a curriculum model for school systems. The second phase might consist of developing guidelines for establishing environmental education programs, develop content material and instructional aids, evaluate experiences of the environmental education programs and communicate with individuals being trained as environmental education consultants. The third phase might be to activate and evaluate model environmental education pro— grams in selected school systems and during this time, the National Professional Staff working with the National Advisory Committee should continue to develop and disseminate content materials and instructional aids and assist consultants in eva- luating the program. Marland58 sees the need for the preparation of curriculum materials but the long range objectives must be to bring concepts of environmental education into virtually every aspect of learning not as a new subject but as a new approach. I JDEESLEELQn of Environmental Education into Existing Curricula The approach that would integrate environmental education into all grades and most courses in a school system get its direction within the School system. Stapp59 provides a strategy for integrating environmental education into the existing curriculum through the committee, which lbid. 58s. P. Marland, Jr., ”Environmental Education,” American Education, Vl' (May, 1971). P» 8- 59Stapp, ”Environmental Encounters,” Environmental Education: A Sourcebook, p. 233, E develops, implements rest important impac sources and citizens The National tion in Public Schoo determine such progr sons prepared by the ill by the school 5) by other means. The education program, i ing in emphasis, SCl T"naming. The st... SYStens With prograi the title, "outdoor condary SChOOls’jUn ‘Ii . 0i envrronmental e v . atlon education" 6 Cll Study make up tl‘ (a) Educatic ( ) Man and t\ atiorial r ubl' N l r. a l 3““00‘5 (w. 38 develops, implements the program and facilitates communication. The most important impact of such an approach is the use of community re- sources and citizens. The National Education Association study on Environmental Educa- 60 tion in_ggblic Schools, reported on the different methods utilized to determine such programs: (l) by an instructional team (2) by field les- sons prepared by the teacher for each field trip (3) by student interests (h) by the school system and (5) by the state department of education and by other means. Their data points to no general type of environmental education program, but the existence of a wide variety of programs differ- ing in emphasis, scope, curriculum, types of sites utilized, personnel and financing. The study also reports that over three-quarters of the school systems with programs restricted to pupils in the elementary grades, used the title, ”outdoor education”, more than half of the programs in the se- condary schools,junior-senior high levels use the more sophisticated title of ”environmental education” or the more specialized approach of “conser- vation education“.6l The nature of the experiences, activities and areas 62 Of study make up the content of the program, based on the following; (a) Education for and in the outdoors (b) Man and his relationship to his cultural, natural and 60National Education Association, Environmental Education in the Public Schools (Washingt0n, D.C.: National Education Association, l972) p. 35. ’ 6libid., pp. l3-l4. 62lbid. (c) Developmt (d) Conserval (e) Rational (f) Pollutior (9) Nature 51 I ‘ Another repo 3 indicated that most origins in science, flect this orientat integration with va neterials would not Present two prob l err in the decisions at to place a F Secondly, mc rials lack to include. The Nationa‘ produCed by the Na‘ National Park Serv as a Process to be Strands rePresent 39 (c) Development of environmental awareness and ethics (d) Conservation of the natural resources (e) Rational utilization of the environment (f) Pollution control education (9) Nature study and interpretation. 63 Another report, Envirogmental Education Progrgmggand Materials indicated that most existing environmental education programs had their origins in science, conservation, or outdoor education and tend to re— flect this orientation in both materials and processes which restricted integration with various disciplines. it was also found that most of the materials would not fit easily into the ongoing curricular programs which 64 present two problems: In the first case, administrators and teachers must make decisions about where within an ongoing program it is appropriate to place a particular unit dealing with a particular prOblem. Secondly, most administrators and teachers will find that mate— rials lack particular components which they feel are essential to include. The National Environmental Education Development (NEED) program65 produced by the National Park Foundation with the cooperation of the National Park Service was developed not as a subject to be taught but as a process to be integrated in teaching any or all subjects. The NEED strands represent a logical sequence of learning: variety and similarity, 63Putting Research into Educational Practice (PREP) Report NO. 33, Environmental Education Programs and Materials (Washington, D.C.: Govern- ment Printing Office, l972), P» l7~ 6“lbid., pp. 7—8. 6SNatiOnal Environmental Education Development, Adventure in Envi— ronment, Teachers' Guide (Morristown, N.J.: Silver Burdett Company, l97l), PP. iii-iv. patterns, interactio hdonand evolutior dude cross-disciPl munand bringing ti Develoment of Spec The third apl mlcumdttee, stat mohce a series of malnonalcourses romental education andcorrect the def With regard Watthere is a net terExtent the thri idence, social sc nah are being de l” Stile. Ungraded Some exampl a. EflXiIQE iocreate instrucr \ 66 . PREP %. all. Rem 67lbid \‘sp 68R b y OertE WIllOCtober. 40 patterns, interaction and interdependence, continuity and change, adap— tation and evolution.‘ The strategies that are found in the lessons in- clude: cross—discipline thinking, using experiments outside the class- room and bringing the outside environment into the classroom environment. Development of Special Units of Study The third approach to environmental education would have a natio- nal committee, state agency, non—profit organization or publishing house produce a series of environmental education units to be incorporated into traditional courses, to be utilized independently or along with other envi- ronmental education programs.66 These units may supplement the curriculum and correct the deficiency of broad survey approach of many textbooks. With regard to materials reviewed by the PREP Committee, they state that there is a need for materials which balance and synthesize to a grea- ter extent the three basic elements of environmental education: natural science, social science and values,67 They however, noted that more mate— rials are being developed which are interdisciplinary, flexible, modular in style, ungraded and which make use of a variety of media. Some examples are presented here. a. Environmental Studies.68 The job of Environmental Studies is to create instructional tactics and strategies which will enable students 66PREP Report No. 33, Environmental Education Programs and Mate- rials, p,]]_ 67lbid., p, 18, 8Robert E. Samples, ”Environmental Studies,” The Science Teacher, XXXVlll (October, l97l), pp. 36—37. to use their inmedii assignment cards. tigation strategies environment. It is can be used from ki studies, math, art, lens in the ISCS' _F from the biological series of separate dividual experimen‘ course for the 7th learning. Drovidin and to help each 5 d6 State Universit tess orientatior, a c. % WWW of Cali Dhysicg] and life 0‘ . ltWO SerleS 0f |' in l SglntermEd W (l culum .70Ch35ter l , ‘ “Dr in. 135.90‘?Vement Ln to use their immediate environment as resource. ES kit contains 75 assignment cards. They are invitations to develop awareness and inves- tigation strategies to be applied to particular aspects of self and the environment. It is sponsored by the American Geological Institute and can be used from kindergaten through graduate school in science, social studies, math, art, language arts and other disciplines. b. Intermediate Scigflce Curriculum Study leCS).69 The prob- lems in the ISCS' Probing the Natural World, Level 3 are largely drawn from the biological and earth sciences. The program is organized as a series of separate units or ‘hinicourses'h It can be implementedfor in— dividual experimentation according to the student's choice. Like the course for the 7th and 8th grade levels, it is designed for self—paced learning, providing for individual differences in student‘s learning rate and to help each student to evaluate his own progress. DeveIOped at Flori- da State University, it has interdisciplinary content, a structure and pro- cess orientation and an emphasis on active inquiry. c. Science Curriculum lm rovement Stud SCIS 7O Developed at the University of California at Berkeley, the SCIS is an ungraded, sequential, physical and life science program for the elementary school. It consists 0f two series of related and sequential units, one unit in life science and 69|ntermediate Science Curriculum Study, Probin the Natural WorldI Level 3 (Morristown, N.J.: Silver Burdett Company, 1973;. 70Chester A. Lawson, ”The Life Science Program of the Science Curri- culum Improvement Study,“ The American Biology Teacher, XXIX (March, l967), PP- l85-9o. i l l l l l l l momerin physical erscience progra hpMations, Envirc ceMered and concep teching strategy ‘ d. Pe_oL developed by Brenni three major princii areinterdependent arethe Products 0 andenVironments c aPproach to the te lettmatter areas rehtionship of ma suialstudies, hc e. m imada PUblished a Dmgmm of a Schor “ssapproach to \ N Stitoops RObert K1 W (Ch 72M atthew Mir hdeU1um Guide ”hing COmllan #2 another in physical science paired off for each of the six levels. The life science program is composed of six units: Organisms, Life Cycles, Populations, Environments, Communities and Ecosystem. They are materials— centered and conceptually-oriented units of instruction in ecology. The teaching strategy is based on Piaget's theories on how children learn.71 d. People and Their Environmgfl£.72 The interdisciplinary program developed by Brennan and the South Carolina State Board of Education uses three major principles in the heart of the program: that living things are interdependent with one another and their environment; that organisms are the products of their heredity and environment; and that organisms and environments constantly change. As teachers' guides,they suggest an approach to the teaching of conservation as integral part of various sub- ject matter areas at all levels of education. The central theme of the relationship of man to resources and environment is developed in biology, social studies, home economics, science and outdoor education. e. Examining Your Environment.73 Holt, Rinehart and Winston of Canada published a series of units for use in the environmental education program of a school system. Activity—oriented, with emphasis on the pro- cess approach to learning, the investigations are adaptable to different 7lRobert Karplus and Herbert D. Thier, A New Look at Elementary School Science (Chicago: Rand McNally and Company, l967), p. 2i. “—— 72Matthew J. Brennan, editor, People and Their Environment: Teachers' Curriculum Guide to Conservation Education. 8 Volumes (Chicago: Ferguson Publishing Company, 1969)- 730. F. Wentworth, J.K. Couchman and others, Examining Your Environ- ment, (12 Units)(Minneapolis, Minn: Winston Press, l972). ‘, I ' , l l l gradeleVelS' Unit Ecology, Mapping Sm; Small Creatures. 5'“ duct their own ”We nity resources. llhile semeSt are not eXPeCted to of environmental ec "action" courses- tion,”or P3 was oil for grades l0 and concerning the PFOI magazines, newspapi Another cou senior and junior It also emphasized basic ecological c community projects 5P‘éakers from ager E National d . m (Washin: 7Slbid. \’p 43 grade levels. Unit titles are: Astronomy, Birds, The Dandelions, Ecology, Mapping Small Places, Mini-climates, Pollution, Running Water, Small Creatures, Snow and Ice, Trees and Your Senses. The students con- duct their own investigations in their immediate environment with commu- nity resources. One-semester Credit Courses While semestral or summer courses for secondary level students are not expected to provide for the attainment of the long-range goals of environmental education, they are desired either as “awareness” or “action“ courses. A semestral course“Problems of Population and Pollu— tion,”or P3 was offered at University High School, University of Iowa, for grades l0 and ll.7L+ Students were involved in individual activities concerning the problems which were kept current from readings taken from magazines, new5papers or books concerning ecological problems. Another course, ”Science and Survival” was similarly offered for senior and junior students in Shawnee Mission South High School, Kansas.75 It also emphasized current environmental problems, citizen action and basic ecological concepts. Students planned and executed environmental community projects in all media, went on field trips and involved guest Speakers from agencies, industry and research institutions. 74National Science Teachers Association, Pro rams in Environmental Educagion (Washington, D.C.: National Science Teach rs Association, l97ol, PP. l -l7. 75lbid., p. 17. Literature 5 follwing categorie environmental educz ties and resources of 'lvvhat to teach,l goals. “mm The America tance of several w vation) Compiled s tant to a sound pr arbitrary arrange”, significance of th inan attempt to a sources in Specifi study of Visher78 and the quality of \ 3 ice EdUCa [on l 4L. Instructional Concerns Literature selected for review in this section fall under the following categories: the develOpment and organization of concepts for environmental education; methods and teaching strategies; and the facili- ties and resources for environmental education. They answer the questions of ”what to teach,” “how to teach,“ and ”where to teach,” for environmental goals. Development and Organization of Concepts The American Association of School Administrators 76 with the assis- tance of several widely known writers and thinkers in the field of conser— vation, compiled some basic scientific and social concepts which are impor- tant to a sound program in conservation education. It was, however, an arbitrary arrangement, dictated by an apparent logic rather than by the significance of the items. White77 developed a list of 274 understandings in an attempt to associate ”conservation understandings with community re- sources in specific geographic region” for grades 4 through l2, while the study of Visher78 resulted in a considerable expansion of both the number and the quality of concepts appropriate for secondary students. In order 76 American Association of School Administrators, Conservation Education in American Schools, pp. 72-7 - 77Roy C. White, “A Study Associating Selected Conservation Under- standings with Available Community Resources from Grades Four Through Twelve,” University Microfilms, Ann Arbor, Michigan, I967, as cited by Roth and Hegelson, Review of Research, p. . 78Halene H. Visher, ” A Determination of Conservation Principles apd Concepts Desirable for Use in the Secondary Schools“, University Mlcrofilms, Ann Arbor, Michigan, I960, as cited by Roth and Hegelson, Review of Research, p. 7. to avoid a fragnentr developed a listing concepts considered suggested list of c llouser80 as teachin niques and methods The developn in the Ann Arbor Pi nization of themes level that pertain social studies cur and SUPPlementary nuity and prosress The lnterna School Curriculumf tion 01‘ the conter to be adapted to v vials. The C0nten \ lll 79Joseph J CHM“ Nation 0R b o ert E lonservation Educ dill, m- H 8i . in William ‘6 )t e Curricul )Dp. 6.11,. 7‘ mo :7— . ce, . a. 132.33. 0““ #5 79 to avoid a fragmentary approach to outdOor conservation education, Shomon developed a listing of general conservation principles as well as specific concepts considered important by most conservationists and educators. A suggested list of conservation principles was also prepared by Brown and 80 Mouser as teaching guides with general comments proposing various tech— niques and methods relevant to the particular area of study. The development of an outdoor and conservation education program in the Ann Arbor Public Schools, Michigan by Stapp8] involved the orga- nization of themes, understandings and subunderstandings for each grade l level that pertained to outdoor and conservation education. Science and social studies curriculum guides for each grade level were the sources and supplementary materials were also used to provide the desired conti- nuity and progression of the total program. The International Working Meeting on Environmental Education in the 82 School Curriculum in Nevada in I970, prepared a chart to give an indica- tion of the content and objectives of an environmentally-oriented curriculum to be adapted to different national and local situations in a variety of ways. The content and objectives are arranged according to the nine 79Joseph J. Shomon, Manual for Outdoor Conservation Education (New York: National Audubon Society, I968), pp. ~53. 80Robert E. Brown and G. W. Mouser, Techniques for Teaching Conservation Education (Minneapolis, Minn.: Burgess Publishing Co. Inc., 1964), pp. 1-7. . 8William B. Stapp, Integrating Conservation and Outdoor Education Into the Curriculum (K-lZ) (Minneapolis, Minn.: Burgess Publishing Co., 1965), pp. 6-14. 82Cerovsky, ”Environmental Education as an Integrating Concept“, PP- 132-33. categories of envi established in the learning (the hori Yoganzen an romvental educatio romental topics t secondary schools. and objectives a tions between dis Utilizing mental management of conceptual obj ted to envi ronmen organization used Cepts than do the existing in many Brandwein Prepared a concep affective schemes affective schemes W lbid., F 83 8“Robert E m 65-h. 85mm Rep 46 categories of environmental concepts (the vertical component) and established in the three curricular stages of developmental process of learning (the horizontal component) in the chart. Yoganzen and his colleagues83 in one of the USSR centers of envi- ronmental education methodology in Tomsk, thoroughly elaborated on envi- ronmental topics to be allocated to existing teaching subjects in Soviet secondary schools. Its present stage involved distribution of concepts and objectives among all subjects without emphasizing the cooperative rela- tions between disciplines. Utilizing a survey technique, Roth84 obtained and validated environ— mental management education concepts and attempted to develop a taxonomy of conceptual objectives for use in planning programs of instruction rela- ted to environmental management for K-l6. He suggested that the topical organization used represents a more useful and appropriate structure of con- cepts than do the agrarian focused conservation concepts and organization existing in many school curricula and educational materials. Brandwein and his team85 in developing a program called ”Ekistics” prepared a conceptual guide for elementary grades involving three cognitive- affective schemes, moving on to junior highlevel with four other cognitive- affective schemes. These are included in the traditional subject matter lbid., p. 135. 8LiRobert E. Roth,”Fundamental Concepts for Environmental Management”, pp- 65-7h. 85PREP Report No. 33. pp. 50-51. areas of (I) sclen (3) the arts and h Still in it studies developed Mariam,“ is has of a natural syst of the system. Ea tributed accordin 37 Arnsdorf, co-di adiscrete course which to select in Hovvlett88 framework for the considered includ water supply, clei fluencing land us! sion making and l If environ w 86Popul at i Environment Studi Varsity of Delawa lieu-i r 88George l Rationale," Proje llisconsin. (Mimet 47 areas of (1) science, resource technology and health (2) social sciences (3) the arts and humanities. Still in its experimental stage, the population-environmental studies developed by the Population Curriculum Study, University of Delaware,86 is based on one comprehensive conceptual scheme: Man is part of a natural system, the Earth, and is ultimately subject to the limits of the system. Each of the six major concepts have been expanded and dis— tributed according to grade levels in the K-lZ school system. Stegner and Arnsdorf,87 co-directors of the PCS recommend the scheme as a syllabus for a discrete course in population—environment studies or as a system from which to select materials for mini-courses” Howlett88 developed twelve major concept categories that provide the framework for the K-lZ integrated environmental education program. Topics considered include: energy, ecosystems, limiting environmental factors, water supply, clean air, distribution of natural resources, factors in- fluencing land use, values and attitudes, the power of man, economics, deci— sion making and land stewardship. If environmental education is to become effective in changing 86Population Curriculum Study, A Conceptual Scheme for Population- EHVironment Studies. Experimental Edition Revised (Newark; Delaware: Uni- versity of Delaware, l973), PP. 7-10~ 87lbid., p. 6. 88George Howlett, ”Twelve Major Concept Categories and the . Rationale,“ Project l-C-E (Instruction-Curriculum-Evaluation), Green Bay, Wlsconsin. (Mimeographedo) behavior, objectiv Balzer89 designed jectlves in envirc ties and experient A given experienc: components in eac nitive dimension, in the skills dim considerations as and significance attitude develop However, Balzer mental education tual structure m Learning and Tea Pestalloz riences which ar hand scrutiny, q tive avenues thr natural environn teachers not on' a change in the W 89Balzer Sourcebook, PP~ 90I C7" id.. i 0 U— 0.. l 1+8 behavior, objectives with behavioral basis have to be developed. Balzer89 designed a curricular grid suggesting some major areas of ob- jectives in environmental education and illustrates with some activi- ties and experiences which would constitute the volume of the grid. A given experience (visualized as being in a box) would normally have components in each of the three dimensions: unifying themes in the cog- nitive dimension, attitudes in the affective dimension and process goals in the skills dimension. The basis of these selections include such considerations as goals, student interest, appropriateness, validity and significance of content, child development, nature of learning, attitude development, facilities, social context and teacher preparation.90 However, Balzer believes that defining concepts appropriate for environ- mental education appears to be a complex task, inasmuch as their concep- tual structure must be interrelated to other areas. Learning and Teaching Strategies Pestallozi, Herbart and Froebel have emphasized that learning expe- riences which are real, life-like and available to the learner for first- hand scrutiny, questioning and cognition are likely to be the most effec- tive avenues through which children become informed about their social and natural environment.91 The nature of environmental education requires the teachers not only to use a variety of human and natural resources but also a change in the methods of education. M. 89Balzer, “Environmental Education“, fig!i£92£§fl£il_§9££i£flfllL13 Sourcebook, pp. Zhh-QS. 90lbid., p. 244. 9'rbid. in a day. He sta Relev and studen and liste The inqui teaching have i write that if we the structure of school environme explained that t centered experie lems, imagine ex powers. In addi tions can foster children in the W 92John Kl lhildren, VII (l 93M. or Sale aI 95Jonn w dary School (N‘ 96ha rp l u 49 If we are to teach effectively about the environment, Klimas92 emphasized that we must get away from the 2 x h x 6 education - - the twg_covers of the book, the £23: walls of a classroom, the six periods in a day. He states furtherz93 Relevant environmental education calls for flexibility and student-centered activity. Students should not be sitting and listening - - they shOuld be doing and discussing. The inquiry and discovery or investigatory schemes in science teaching have important roles in environmental education. (Sale and Lee94 write that if we want children to develop rational powers and to learn the structure of ecology and related disciplines, their classrooms and school environments must encourage investigation. Renner and Stafford95' explained that the exploration—invention-discovery sequence in inquiry- Centered experiences provide learners with opportunities to analyze prob- lems, imagine experiments, classify, compare results and develop rational POWers. in addition, Karplus and Thier96 maintain that wise use of ques- tions can foster the kind of inquiry that would deepen interest of the children in the tOpic under study. M 92John Klimas, ”Education and the Ecological Crisis,’I Science and Ma, Vll (March, 1970), p. 3l. 93lbid. 94 95John w. Renner and Don G. Stafford, Teaching Science in the Secon- dary School (New York: Harper and Row, 1972), pp. l06, ll2. 96Karplus and Thier, A New Look at Elementary School Science, p. 86. Sale and Lee, Environmental Education in Elementary School, p. l63. dactic and proce Outdoor E is premised on t can best be taug the natural envi full sensory rat According when an individu that startles or interaction bet wand,‘°' w 97l‘lusa QL LVl (Apri l-June, 98Donald: 99cm 0 haHy Know How P.l6h. many] ii horEnvironmen D.lL lo‘Charle hrflll Publish 'Ozsmun 103Brenna 'Olsnirie ton “clumbust 50 l To enable the teacher to communicate with more students and meet the varying needs of students, Qutub97 suggests a combination of methods as lecture and self—directed; process-managerial and self-directed; di- dactic and process-managerial techniques applicable to secondary students. Outdoor Education. The growth and interest in outdoor education is premised on that famous statement of L. 8. Sharp:98 ”Those things which can best be taught outdoors should there be taught.” Blough99 state that the natural environment as a living laboratory porvides an opportunity for full sensory rather than an abstract approach to subject matter. According to Gross and Railton,‘00 significant questions are raised when an individual is confronted in a natural environment with a situation that startles or intrigues him and there is an immediate involvement and interaction between the individual and the event. 104 Mand,IO] Smith and others,]02 Brennan,103 and Brehm have 97Musa Qutub, “How to Make Science Interesting,” Science Education, LVl (April-June, l972), p. 23l- 98Donaldson and Donaldson, “Outdoor Education -- A Definition“, p. 7. 99Glen 0. Blough, ”Science and Outdoor Education or Nobody Can Really Know How I Feel,” Outdoor Education ed. by Hammerman and Hammerman, p. 64 100Phyllis Gross and Esther P. RailtOn, Teaching Science in an Out— door Environment (Berkeley, Calif.: University of California Press, 1972), P. ll. 101Charles E. Mand, Outdoor Education (Columbus, Ohio: Charles E, Merrill Publishing Company, 19725, pp. 36—101. 1025mith and Others, Outdoor Education, pp. 25-28. ______——————--— ‘03Brennan, People and their Environment, A Teacher's Handbook for Study Outside the Class- 104 . Sh'rley R’ Brehm’ 95 E. Merrill Pu lishing Co., 1969). pp- £223 (Columbus, Ohio: Charl suggested multidi 5 various subject ar creative skills, v themselves and the quality of the em An inquiry in l963,105 recei 0f the envi ronmen local circumstanc countries to exp] tiles, there is a lam is not so muc Sign“ t0 the stl we £0“th to al 5| suggested multidisciplinary activities in the out—of-doors to enhance various subject area goals, i.e. constructive use of leisure time, creative skills, wise use of natural resources, understandings about themselves and the world they live in, together with concerns about the quality of the environment. An inquiry taken by the International Bureau of Education, Geneva, in I968,105 received replies from 79 countries which showed that the study of the environment is rich with opportunities, but that lack of resources, local circumstances and other difficulties make it impossible for certain countries to exploit them as fully as they would wish. In developing coun— tries, there is a need of adapting teaching to the surroundings. The prob- lem is not so much one of syllabuses, as of methods. Among the aims as- signed to the study of the environment which are more of less similar from one country to another are: 106 (a) ensuring pupils' active participation in teaching by obser— vation and by experiment; (b) basing teaching on concrete ideas; (c) an introduction to intellectual work, training in observa- tion, encouragement to think, compare, analyze, synthesize, research; (d) providing a better introduction to certain ideas; (6) developing love and respect for nature; (f) facilitating children's adjustment to their surroundings; (9) providing a link between home and school backgrounds; (h) helping to improve living conitions later on, housing, hygiene, nutrition; (i) encouraging collective work and thereby beginning of social education. . loSlnternational Bureau of Education, The Study of the Environment In School (Paris: UNESCO, 1968), P-V- M 106lbid., p. xxii. l . r. I' i i, ll Environrnen tation, students suggest teachers proach in which 5 to environmental Brehm108cl tigation as (1) \ tigations or fiel LambErt and Good: Should be taught and (3) M it i: fleld trip” can Child acQuaintan than a ”Whole lo spark or fOrest Hamslll 107Troost 108 Brehm, l09 J.M. E 0i ECOlogy’y. ll» Blackwell me; 110 Childr Matthev \En) VII (i 52 Environmental Investigations and ExperimegEs. Through experimen- tation, students gain insight into relevant concepts. Troost and Altmanl07 suggest teachers plan exercises and investigations, using the inquiry ap- proach in which students manipulate concrete materials to discover answers to environmental problems. Brehml08classified the teacher-planned outside the classroom inves- tigation as (l) visiting trips (2) collecting trips and (3) field inves- tigations or field studies. In teaching ecology through field studies, Lambert and Goodman,‘O9 state that the problems concerned are: (l) EDEE should be taught at any given level, (2) HEELS it is to be carried out, and (3) hgw it is to be presented. BrennanHO suggests that a “conceptual field trip” can be used effectively, lasting 5 to lo minutes, offering the child acquaintanceship with a single concept of the environment, rather than a ”whole load” experience that teachers attempt during a trip through a park or forest. lll Harris would plan environmental studies on a framework requiring '07Troost and Altman, Environmental Eggcation, p. 398. 108Brehm, Study Outside the Classroom, pp. 9-18. I 09J.M. Lambert and G. T. Goodman, ”Basic Problems in the Teaching 0f Ecology,” The Teaching of Ecology, edited by J.M. Lambert (Oxford: Blackwell Scientific Publications, l967), p. 7. ll . 0Matthew J. Brennan, ”The Conceptual Field Trip,” Science and M. VII (March. 1970). pp. 34-35. HIMelvilIe Harris, Environmental Studies (New York: Citation Press, 1971), p. 3i. three major elem aclarification gesting starting tainment of the Outdoor i rewarding than a 1oilical exercise cant lot connnuni for elementary 5 soil which organ Should form the Wed activitie Problem SOlVing Proach, individu games, and Wes to amine part] the operations c OVEFCaShl 5/ l eAmeri ll3 ROiJel-t n 6% BaCo , 1970 llh Michael Can BIC Th / ThOmas 53 three major elements: the examination of the potential of the environment; a clarification of the educational objectives of the approach; and sug- gesting starting points in the environment that can be utilized in the at- tainment of the objectives. 1'2 can often be more Outdoor investigations, according to Fall, rewarding than a ”discovery” in the laboratory and he recommends such eco- logical exercises as habitat survey, productivity of a garbage can, the va— cant lot community and so on. Sund and others”3 designed some experiments for elementary students which focus on the pollution of air, water and soil which organized activities under the principle that conceptual schemes should form the controlling ideas for the study of science. Brehman‘lh sug gested activities with strong emphasis on an interdisciplinary approach to problem solving for secondary students. They utilize the case study ap- proach, individual student projects, role playing and other simulation games, and investigations of ecological problems. Students were encouraged to analyze partiCUlar problems of interest and to relate their findings to the operations of basic eco-principles. OvercashHS illustrates that with moderate effort, the teacher can H2Michael w. Fall, “Teaching Ecology in the Urban Environment,” The American Biology Teacher, XXXl (December, l969), pp. 572-73. 3Robert E. Sund, Bill w. Tillery and Leslie Trowbridge, Elemen- tary Science Discovery Lessons: The Biological Sciences (New York: Allyn and Bacon, l970), p.3. lluThomas R. Brehman, Environmental Demonstrations, Experiments and Projects for Secondary Schools (New York: Parker Publishing Company, 'nC~, l973). _ IISJ. Rosson Overcash, “Environmental Studies in the City,“ 132 Scrence Teacher, XXXVIII (February, l97l), Po ‘8- begin the develoi through studies i insects or flora cated studies of cation of the en Environme core of an envir thel exPose the formed about the lop a Plan of ac be utiliZed to t ment and to expc A5 a proc type of field h ti0n programs. ProtesS’ the st! knowledgeab‘e 0 SQFVQ as bas | S \ H6 3 Stapp, W» p. e: M1 (Him CEIQar.‘ '18P hell DEQn B Sim “Writer 2. ( [meogra 54 begin the development of an environmental ethic in the urban student through studies of old buildings, trees in the mini-park, colonies of insects or flora and fauna in an old cemetery or to the more sophisti- cated studies of water and air pollution to show extent of man's modifi- cation of the environment. Environmental study or ”environmental encounters“ can form the ll6 core of an environmental education program. Stapp points out that they expose the learner to an environmental problem or issue, become in- formed about the problem, are encouraged to suggest solutions and deve- lop a plan of action and implement that plan. For lower grades, they can be utilized to bring out basic awareness and appreciation of the environ- ment and to expose the children to ecological principles. As a prOCess and product, the community survey or inventory is a type of field investigation that is significant to environmental educa— tion programs. Stapp,H7 and Bennett and MacGownH8 state that as a process, the students become aware of local environmental problems and knowledgeable of the means to solve these porblems; as a product, it can serve as basis for determining needs and goals of the community. ll6 Stapp, “Environmental Encounters,“ Environmental Education: A Sourcebook, p. . 117 ”Community Profile and Life—style Survey,” A Handout In a Seminar-Workshop on Problems of the Human Environment,“ at Higgins Lake, Michigan, Teachers' Environmental School, July l5-l9, l973. (Mimeographed.) IlSDean 8. Bennett and Richard H. MacGown, ”The Community Environ- mental lnventory,“ Maine Environmental Education Project, Yarmouth, Maine, 1972. (Mimeographed.) pp. 3-4. An enviror tern analysis. It tors that compris achecklist as be Site ecosystem wl concepts and ski‘ Facilities inum utilization ( Cm‘lnity rescuri ficant role fer i SChOOi 5i more than just a bute to the tOta Department of Ag ac‘lnservation p Ces‘ it 9iVES de and understandin described the Co of l8 school Sit ll 9C0096ra EUiietIn E‘763 55 An environmental education program can be built about an ecosys- tem analysis. It involves an on—the—spot evaluation of the various fac- tors that comprise the existing ecosystem. George and others”9 developed a checklist as basis for an in—depth study and assessment of the total site ecosystem which provides the means for teaching basic environmental concepts and skills. Facilities and Resources. While outdoor education suggests maxi- mum utilization of the out-of-door, out—of-school environment, including community resources, specially developed learning facility have a signi- ficant role for environmental education. School site development rests on the philosophy that the site is more than just a place to house the physical facilities; it must contri- bute to the total education process. The Soil Conservation Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture,120 in assisting the school site development on a conservation plan, state that as a place for creative learning experien— ces, it gives depth, meaning, and new dimensions to generalizations about and understandings of relationships of man to his environment. Schwien‘2] described the community interest and participation in changing the face of l8 school sites in Pueblo, Colorado, as Outdoor classrooms for IIgCOOperative Extension Service, Ecosystem Analysis. Extension Bulletin E-763. Michigan State University, April, l973. 120Soil Conservation Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Outdoor Classrooms on School Sites (Washington, D.C.: Government Print- Ing Office, 1972), p. l. 12IJerry Schwien, “Changing the Face of School Sites,” Soil Conservation, XXXIX (August, 1973), pp. lO-ll. M i i I l l l | l l l l enviromrental stu aschool site can tal management la amultiple-use sc The report trates the use 01 as essential resr general types of or rural corrmuni tial and industr tion. Regional ted level of eXp around a “Dique "“8 guidelines ter, Oriented to Study opportunit Menesini i \ M. 122Richarc aine Enviromner 99‘ ' ~ 2. 123 EdUCat mPla - . Ces tones, inc, ll 125 . Mar. al C0 56 environmental studies. MacGown122 presents the important roles that a school site can provide: as an ecological laboratory, an environmen- tal management laboratory, a natural history interpretative area, and a multiple-use school and community recreation area. 123 illus- The report on Environmental Education/Facility Resources trates the use of community facilities, its people, places and processes as essential resources for environmental education. It classifies four general types of resources and facilities applicable to urban, suburban ‘ or rural communities as natural sites, public works facilities, commer- cial and industrial resources, and historical sites and tourist attrac- tion. Regional environmental education centers afford a more sophistica- ted level of experiences by providing facilities for effective learning, around a unique outdoor setting. Places for Environmental Education124 lists guidelines for developing a resident environmental education cen- ter, oriented to directing, coordinating and interrelating a multitude of study opportunities available throughout the environment. Menesinil25 would categorize environmental awareness sites into 'ZZRichard H. MacGown, “The School Site in Environmental Education,“ Maine Environmental Education Project, Yarmouth, Maine, l972. (Mimeographed) PP. l — 2. lZ3 . . . . . Educational FaC|iltleS Laboratories, Inc., pp. l8—3l. 12“Places for Environmental Education, A Report from Educational Facilities Laboratories, Inc. (New York: Educational Facilities Laborau tories, lnc., l97l). 125Mario M. Menesini, The Environmental School (Orinda: Calif.: Educational Consulting Service, 1970). by." four envi ronmenti order to assist ‘ awareness site, i tions for identi multidisciplinar Academic S environmental ed students assume adds that under judgments, inter Rasmusser low students to Caiof the phys the author of a tion We as an fectively graspi Games ca mm by Doran \ J l26E. Nel Fred The American Bi 5. 128David W 129 I ROdne mm” The S i \ 57 four environmental divisions of Earth, Air, Water and Populations. in order to assist teachers to utilize unique elements of any environmental awareness site, he provides guidelines to its development; classifica- tions for identifying characteristics of the site and suggestions for a multidisciplinary approach. Academic Simulation Games. To achieve a flexible curriculum in environmental education, Swinerton]26 recommends gaming simulations, where students assume decision-making roles and respond to game conditions. He adds that under simulations, a student faces situations calling for value judgments, inter-active decision-making and actual problem-solving. Rasmussen]27 indicates that simulation games as a teaching tool al- low students to gain insight into attitudes, concepts, and processes typi- l28 cal of the physical or social phenomena being simulated. Kuhn, who is the author of a simulation game on natural selection considers the simula- tion game as an important pedagogic device to understand processes not ef— fectively grasped through fragmentary classroom exercises. Games can help achieve objectives in the affective domain as demons— trated by Doran and Watson129 who reviewed such games as Extinction, '26E. Nelson Swinerton, ”Environmental Gaming Simulations,“ The Journal of Environmental Education, lll (Summer, l972), p. 50, ’27Fred A. Rasmussen, ”Science Teaching and Academic Gaming,” The American Biology Teacher, XXXI (December, l969), p. 560. '28David J_ Kuhn, “ A Simulation Game on Natural Selection,“ 152 Science Teacher, XXXVI (January, l969), Pa 129Rodney L. Doran and William Watson, ”Games for the Science Class- room,” The Science Teacher, XL (April, l973), p. 32. Natural Selectim with purposeful and relevance of lize the effect ments. They als games through a niques. Conrnercie bl Holobinko ant students discow cant success an, get involved in standard of liv students Unders the Water reSOU Romey’U topic in his SC in the “Write: other, but that lmPEl‘Sona] net. \ 130 Paul he W 58 Natural Selection, Elements, and Disaster. The authors stated that with purposeful interaction, prompt and intrinsic feedback, realism and relevance of games, students can become motivated to learn, rea- lize the effect of value judgements and analyze the basis of such judge- ments. They also recommend that teachers should avoid the overuse of games through a schedule of games and a variety of other classroom tech- niques. Commercially produced games for the life sciences were described by Holobinko and others.130 According to the writers, in Pollution Game, students discover that there is a positive correlation between signifi- cant success and being a polluter. In Plant Management Game, the students get involved in many concernssuch as population expansion, food supply, standard of living and environmental quality. Thermal Pollution helps students understand the origin and perpetuation of thermal pollution in the water resources. Romey,]3] recognizing the importance of games has included the topic in his science methods book. According to Abt and Cogger,‘32 games in the sciences are not designed for students to compete against each other, but that students are privately testing their ability to understand impersonal natural forces. ‘30Paul Hobinko and others, “Synopsis of Games and Simulations in the Commercial Edition of ERC Life Science,“ Troost and Altman, Environ- mental Education pp. 394-95. ________________, 13William D. Romey, inquiry Techniques for Teaching Science, (Engle- wood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, lnc., l968), as cited by Doran and Wat- s0n,”Games for the Science Classroom,“, p. 32. . ‘32Clark C. Abt and Virginia H. Cogger, “Educational Games for the Scrences,“The Science Teacher, XXXVI (January, l969), p. 36 Value Educ tion and clarifi choices and deci issues concernir that value educe in school and m about societal < size the role 0‘ With envi ronmen Linsky‘3' for inculcating Students thrOug endothersi37 e behavim and th dards Which inf \ 133David Concepts and Pr graphed) i . 3h~iames ic ii ll C] if Oil, M l in 36R0na1( W 137 Teach- L0“ 3 S w (COil 59 Value Education. Environmental education involves the recogni— tion and clarification of the beliefs and attitudes that determine the choices and decisions which enable students to deal intelligently with issues concerning the use or abuse of the environment. KuhnI33 indicates that value education should be part of the student‘s science experiences in school and must provide opportunities to explore the student's values 134 135 empha- about societal concerns. Other writers like Shaver and Knapp size the role of the social studies teacher in focusing on values dealing with environmental issues in the context of citizenship education. LinskyI36 states that to stimulate and motivate attitudinal changes for inculcating the concept of environmental ethic, the teacher must guide students through exploration of values which are basic to all men. Raths and others'37 explain that out of experiences may come general guides to behavior and these guides tend to give direction to life and become stan- dards which influence people's activities. I33David J. Kuhn, “Value Education in the Sciences: The Step Beyond Concepts and Processes,” University of Wisconsin-Parkside, I972. (Mimeo- graphed.) 13“James P. Shaver, ”Environmentalism and Values,” The Journal of lV (Fall, l972), pp. 49-5]. Environmental Education, . BSClifford E. Knapp, ”Attitudes and Values in Environmental Educa- t'0n,” The Journal of Environmental Education, lll (Summer, l972), pp.26-27. 136Ronald B. Linsky, “Educational Strategies for Environmental Ethic,” The Science Teacher, XXXVIIi (January, l97l), p. l8 ‘37Louis E. Raths, Merrill Harmin, and Sidney B. Simon, Values and Ifiigfliflg (Columbus, Ohio: Charles Merrill Books, l966), p. 27. —_A Harmin an matter beyond th value-oriented i rification techn of strategies wh calues. Some ex also in displayi 0f the values cl “itive and after Genge am values Clarifyi, ‘5 to provide a. °i Cel’tain concl work and Patten his feelings ab‘ willing, 0r mig in all t examinatiOn, Ex 60 Harmin and others138 suggest that teachers approach the subject matter beyond the facts and conCepts level to the values level or Use the value-oriented inquiry to motivate subject matter study. The values cla- rification technique is discussed by Simon and others'39 in their handbook of strategies which suggests some seventy-nine strategies for clarifying calues. Some exercises not only aid students in identifying values but also in displaying their values. Chamberlain, 0 in describing her use of the values clarification technique, illustrated the integration of cog- nitive and affective objectives in a course in earth science. Genge and Santosuossoiu] presented some exercises which utilize the values clarifying technique of rank-order. The purpose of the exercises is to provide an opportunity for the student to display (l) the knowledge of certain concepts regarding pollution; (2) the organizational frame— work and patterns significant to this knowledge; (3) the awareness and his feelings about pollution; and (4) the exploration of what he might be willing, or might not be willing, to do about the problem. In all the value clarification techniques, there are involved self- examination, exciting teaching—learning experience and practical curriculum 138Merrill Harmin, Howard Kirschenbaum and Sidney B. Simon, ”Teaching Science with a Focus on Values,“ The Scien:e Teacher, XXXVll (January, 1970), pp. l7-2o. 139Sidney B. Simon, L. Howe and H. Kirschenbaum, Values Clarification (New York: Hart Publishing Co., 1972). . ‘ ITOVirginia M. Chamberlain, ”A Description of the Use of a Values Cla- rification Approach in the Teaching of Earth Science Classes.” A Ph.D. disseration, Michigan State University, i97i. l l . . A Betty Ann Genge and John J. Santosuosso, ”Values Clarification for ECOiOQY.” The Science Teacher, XL (February, ‘97“), PP- 37‘39« —_‘ by” development. Multimedia the need for bool tant as available information. Prc tal concept, as effective means ‘ Various 0' Postlethwai is i “4 observations Witl baCkground, Nov. [0 students fOr in comparatively areas that might resources, The Observed to have learning. Harris, iLl 3F0$ter, l l mmeph ingimction Liv m Mslbid 146D 61 development. Multimedia Approach. Study of the environment does not remove the need for books, rather, Harris1le state that it becomes more impor- tant as available references for children in their search for additional information. Programmed instruction materials to develop some environmen- tal concept, as illustrated by Foster“+3 would be a quick, efficient and effective means for students to grasp the essential subject matter. Various other methods are needed to individualize instruction. Postlethwaite144 first utilized the audio-tape to guide students through observations with botanical materials, as well as present some necessary background. Novaklt‘l5 considers the audio-tutorial approach as beneficial to students for allowing them to explore a variety of natural phenomena in comparatively undirected fashion, and permitting instruction in some areas that might otherwise be curtailed by the available teacher skills or resources. The audio-tutorial system described by McGaw and others”1L6 was observed to have fostered more positive attitudes toward the science of learning. lquarris, Environmental Studies, p. 20. lh3 Foster, Introduction to Environmental Science, p. v. lthoseph D. Novak, “Audio— Tutorial Techniques, Individualized lflEELEEELEEL_LlEE_i£_l§ edited by Henry J. Triezenberg iWashington, D. C National Science Teachers Association, 1972), p. . ”*5Ibid. h 1[469 H. McGaw, C. A. McGaw and others, "Audio-Tutorial Learning in t e Secondary School, " individualized instruction, p. iJ r" Richardm newspapers, maga progranmed learr trigger more ins subject or sett environmental a‘ and values are educatiOn. Acct disciplinary be The that rea hended b Hardylsl should be full- dinensiOns of h humanistic_ethi dimensions of l theme in a Part 11+ 7Pau1 l haw, XXX| lh8J "655’” M ames 62 Richard147 cites that enrichment activities through the use of newspapers, magazines, television, film loops, slides, unit booklets and programmed learning units and the student's interaction with them may trigger more insight and result in behavioral changes. Multidisciplinary Approach. There is not a single educational subject or setting which does not have an effect on the development of 148 environmental attitudes and values. Swan states that such attitudes and values are strengthened by continual reinforcement in all areas of 1A9 environmental studies must be inter- l50 education. According to Meeker, disciplinary because the environment is interdisciplinary. He states: The profound truth of the heart of ecological insight is that reality is indivisible, and therefore cannot be compre- hended by studying isolated fragments. l5i Hardy indicates that any approach to environmental education should be full-dimensional in design and should be based on the various dimensions of human experience including the scientist-quantitative, the humanistic-ethical, creative-aesthetic and thevocational-utilitarian dimensions of human experience. For example, to develop a population theme in a particular grade level, the program should involve not only 47Paul w. Richard, “Enrichment in Biology,“ The American Biology Leaflet, XXXI (October, l969), pp. Linn-LIL IQBJames Swan, “Formation of Environmental Values A Social Aware- ness,“ Processes for a Quality Environment, ed. by Cook and O‘Hearn, p, #7, l4 9Joseph w. Meeker, ”Academic Fields and other Polluted Environ— ments,” The Journal of Environmental Education, iV (Sprinqx l973), p. 37. ‘SOIbid. lSl . . . . . . r ClIfford A. Hardy, ”TraInIng Socral StudIes Teachers In Envi- onmental Education,” The Journal of Environmgptal Education, IV (Summer, l973). p. 15, is- science but ever‘ com or traditio Osborn an daytrip, which tan activities fomimodels were 99°9raphl’, meteo theconcept of i ”Wing aCtiviti dmmanllteratUr man. The Natio dpmgmsine whwe the 6C0log Nobgllnliter hgdson and 0th ]\ 52 Slesnic l E - S3R0n Ost llVI Whinental Fl 99' 73~7v l h SThOmaS lem Solving, IssJe C r all . W 156 . 3'39! NathnE Prob l57 PREP Re 63 science but every subject area, whether the curriculum is an integrated core or traditionally subject-centered.I52 Osborn and Spofford]53 utilized an outdoor laboratory for a full day trip, which although aimed primarily toward science, arranged cer- tain activities in mathematics, reading, social studies and English. Land- 15% form models Were used by Brehman and Qutub to correlate materials in geography, meteorology, biology and earth science for an understanding of the concept of interrelationship and to be used as a basis for problem- solving activities of the students. HoemlSS suggested activities in music, drama, literature and art that can help develop environmental education goals. The National Science Teachers Association,‘56 in their compilation of programs in environmental education described a program in Washington, l where the ecological conscience is explored not only in science but the ecology in literature, psychology and sociology, social studies and art. Hegelson and othersl57 in their review of environmental education programs 15ZSlesnick, ”Population Education -- A Social Response,”” pp. 22-23. 153Ron Osborn and Roger Spofford, “interdisciplinary Involvement in Environmental Field Trips,“ The Science Teacher, XXXVll (April, l970), PP. 73-7h. l54 . . . . Thomas Brehman and Musa Qutub, ”EnVIronmental ActIVItIes and Problem Solving,“ The Science Teacher, XXXVIII (April, l97l),pp. 55-56. l55 Jean C. Hoem, “Environmental Education in the Arts,“ Processes 12? a Quality Environment, pp. ll9-28. 15 . NatIonal Science Teachers Association, Environmental Education, 9- 39. l57 PREP Report No. 33, Environmental Education Programs, p. ll. and materials re rials are interr the concepts ani science discipl \ The effe “P0n the sensit Submits that if in the school p teachers must b informed CitiZe tilbute to the PIES of ln‘SEFV cannOt be SEpar and Supervisior instrumenaI c gram as the "tr program. \ 158mm). l i SgHaFOM IEilglelNOOd Cl l‘ lbo Mary | FOgl'amS to D}, t w P and materials reported that much of the environmental education mate- rials are interdisciplinary in scope to the extent that they draw upon the concepts and generalizations from most of the social science and science disciplines. \ In—service Education of Teachers The effectiveness of the environmental education program depends upon the sensitivity and the responsiveness of the teacher. Stappls8 submits that if we are to initiate and implement environmental education in the school program, a comprehensive in-service education program for teachers must be developed. It should consider the ”tools” required for informed citizen action in helping solve environmental problems and con- tribute to the improvement of the environment. In laying out the princi- ples of in-service training, Spears159 states that the in-service program cannot be separated either in spirit or function from Curriculum planning and supervision, the three representing the features of the program for instructional development. Rowe and Hurd160 consider the in-service pro— gram as the “translating device“ to get the new curriculum into the action program. ' Enviroqmgntal Education, p.228. I585tapp, ”Environmental Encountersfl I59Harold Spears, Curriculum Planning Througpiln-service Programs (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, lnc., 1957), p. 315. l6°Mary Budd Rowe and Paul deHart Hurd, “The Use of In—service Programs to Diagnose Sources of Resistance to Innovation,” Journal of fisssgggn_1n Science Teaching, IV, no. I. 1966, pp. 3-13. The Biol fora reorienta break away fron they need less ledge; they nee in responding 5 needs and in 0. To intrc nends more empi andtechniques much as educati that they be a: to the comm. Lernerll Visor as thel r I 1n , 62Abrah ga'New Tren l' 'W l6 3Mart1 tOlIege 0f Edu 65 i6l The Biological Science Curriculum Study emphasized the need for a reorientation and reeducation for teachers now in service, to break away from the teaching-as-you-were-taught cycle. Accordingly, they need less training as givers of information and imparters of know- ledge; they need more training in diagnosing, prescribing and counseling; in responding sensitively to students' needs; in being aware of society's needs and in ordering the environment where learning can take place. To introduce changes in the training of teachers, Blum162 recom- mends more emphasis to the investigation of integrated issues, problems and techniques of interdisciplinary research and decision—making. Inas- much as educators are potential agents of change, HetheringtonI63 suggests that they be assisted to acquire proper knowledge about bringing change to the community and the effective means to correct environmental problems. 16h Lerner indicates the proper use of the teachers' science Super— visor as their most immediate source for a wide range of in-service l6IBSCS Special Publication No. 7, Life Sciencgggin the Middle School, edited by George M. Clark. (Boulder, Colorado: University of Colorado, I969), p. 20. 162Abraham Blum, “Towards Rationale for Integrated Science Teach- Ing,” New Trends in Integrated Science Teaching, edited by P. Richmond, Vol. II, p. 33. 163Martin Hetherington, ”Teaching Aids For Environmental Science,“ College of Education, Michigan State University, January, l97l., p.i, l6b’Marjorie S. Lerner, ”In—service Science Activities for the EIEmentary School Teacher,“ Readinggijn Science Education for the Elemen- IEEHL§£DEQL, edited by Edward Victor and Marjorie S. Lerner (New York: Macmillan Company,l967), pp. 275-77. activities and adds that throc as in-service t and conferences tion and provis m The terr accounts for up all Central am Japan and Asia (except Austra Accordil In H~ - . elec all asPects of tries have div. great majority a common Purpo health and hen iv the new” Popular 165A C latlona] SCIQn 166 l , ___‘ 66 I65 activities and for their professional growth while teaching. Brewer adds that through the supervisor, the teachers can receive such service as in-service training opportunities, awareness of available institutes and conferences, the demonstration of proper use of materials of instruc— tion and provision of opportunities for leadership development. Enviropmgptgl Concerns of Developing Countries The term “developing countries” refer to about I00 nations and accounts for more than two-thirds of the world's population. They include all Central and South America, Africa (except South Africa), Asia (except Japan and Asian Republics of U.S.S.R.), and lands in the Pacific Ocean (except Australia and New Zealand). ‘ According to Abraham,‘66 the developing countries lag far behind I in ”. . . electric power, roads, sanitation, water supply, sewerage. all aspects of social and economic development”. While developing coun— tries have diverse economic potential, political and value systems, a great majority are overwhelmingly dependent on agriculture. They all have a common purpose: to reduce poverty, to insure adequate levels of education, health and housing, food for every citizen; to increase control over nature by the nation and the individual and to broaden the opportunity for choice. Population is growing rapidly, generating social and economic I65A.C. Brewer, “The Role of Science Supervision,“ A Sourcebook for Science Supervisors, edited by Mary B. Harbeck (Washington, D.C.: National Science Teachers Association, I967), p. I3. 166Herbert J. Abraham, World Problems in the Classroom (Paris: UNESCO. 1973). Pp. 96—96. problems, wider mality of envi y ' example, the r: tantamount to 1 3 parts of the WI I rished or stem L. Mala rlStICS of eco national envi r SeParation of agricultural e 0ftraining an The 197 C0nsidering th Cogillzancia of tatiorvs and bi Vertl’ Or the i ari5e Our of 1 The Net tile Envi TOnmei \ ”than. DQII Publish“ Ed I68L- M. w (P. 169Unit l N. 70min atiolldl Re 0 We Vers ~el-r‘ ‘4 67 problems, widening the gap of food production, living standards and quality of environment. In some countries, Mexico and Philippines, for example, the rate of population increase of 3.5 per cent per year is tantamount to doubling the figure in every tWenty-one years.167 In many parts of the world, millions of people in the rural areas are under nou- rished or starving. L. Malassisl68 states that in addition to the general characte- ristics of economic underdevelopment, there are others connected with the national environment or the faulty jointing of production systems (e.g. separation of agriculture and livestock), resulting in low efficiency agricultural economy, not achieving goals of adequate production of food, of training and information and of medical care and emancipation. l69 The I972 UN Conference on Human Environment in Stockholm, in considering the environmental problems of developing countries, took cognizance of the social and cultural dimensions of its general manifes- tations and broadly categorized them as (I) problems arising out of po- verty or the inadequacy of development itself, and (2) problems that arise our of the very process of development. 170 The National Reports on Environmental Problems revealed that the environmental problems of developing countries are predominantly I67Jan Lenica and Alfred Sauvy, Population Explosion (New York: Dell Publishing Co., 1962), p- 52- I68 - ' ' L. MalaSSIs, EconomIc Develggmgfl£_§nd the ELQSLEEELESJZE_EE£EL Education (Paris: UNESCO, 1965). p- 15- '69United Nations General Assembly, An Action Plan, p. l2. I7OUN General Assembly, U.N. Conference on the Human Environment, National Reports On Environmental Problgmg. (Ann Arbor, Michigan: Xerox-University Microfilms, I973). those that ref l rural and urbar devel0pment gel trialization, I sing problems. Majorit' Problems of huI and use of net Pollution come industrial, m be great overl ter mass of ma life ItSelf is vironmenta] Sa iura] dlSaster Rural a 0f C0”Ct-htrati Utncy in fOOc count Cel’lony Egypt delay“ , llaley ”labia 68 those that reflect their poverty and very lack of development in both rural and urban societies. It is also apparent that as the process of development gets under way, environmental issues associated with indus- trialization, urbanization and use of natural resources emerge as pres- sing problems. Majority of the country reportsl7] indicate their problems as (I) problems of human settlements, rural or urban (2) problems of management and use of natural resources and (3) problems from industrial development. Pollution comes in under any of the above groupings, mainly as domestic, industrial, commercial and agricultural,.although in approach, there may be great overlapping. Problems of Human Settlements Rural areas. The problems that arise due to poverty of the grea- ter mass of mankind does not merely affect the ”quality of life”, but life itself is endangered by poor quality housing, unsafe water, poor en- vironmental sanitation and nutrition, by sickness and disease, and by na- tural disasters. Rural areas need to sustain a growing population. The high degree of concentration in Kenya, for example, heightens the need for self-suffi- Ciency in food and aggravates malnutrition as a ranking environmental I7ICountry reports reviewed were of: Afghanistan, Botswana, Burma, Ceylon, Egypt, Ghana, India, Indonesia, Iran, Jamaica, Kenya, Kuwait, Malaysia, Malawi, Nepal, Philippines, Singapore, Sudan, Swaziland, Saudi Arabia and Uganda. problem, along m developing COUI urban planning facilities. 01 wedged in among I” Singallore 01 Social I ”Qt only by uni gains of touri: also led to de‘ ”ted promo”, % Primitii highly deQradei the bane of C61 Pidly IllCI‘easi difficult tob vere Soil Wash valencp of mu (Over dile to d tive managemen '"lgati \ I72uvcsc 69 problem, along with its rapidly expanding population. Urban areas. Urbanization is already a pressing problem in most developing countries, because it has been rarely possible to pro ide for urban planning or enough housing, water and sewerage disposal and health facilities. Overcrowding in major cities has led to shanty—type homes wedged in among modern edifices, devoid of social amenities, such as those in Singapore or Rio de Janeiro. Social problems linked with environmental factors are aggravated not only by unemployment but also by increased incomes. The economic gains of tourism, such as reported in Jamaica led to urbanization, but also led to deterioration of family and other social structures with re— lated problems of crime, delinquency and drug dependency. Problems of Management and Use of Natural Rg§ources Primitive exploitation of natural resources has resulted in a highly degraded environment in many countries. Shifting cultivation is the bane of Central and Northern South America and land hunger with ra- pidly increasing human populations is a vicious cycle from which it is difficult to break.l72 Improper flooding and furrow has resulted in se— vere soil washing in Afghanistan. Soil erosion in Burma is due to pre- valence of mountains and hilly relief, reduction of natural vegetation cover due to destruction of forests and low standard soil and ameliora— tive management. Irrigation, intended for improvement of the fertility of the soil I72UNESCO, Use and Conservation of the Biosphere, p. 33. has on the 0th health problem contributed to soil which res The exp tained yield 111 countries, P0 residential la i0 the rapidly Diminis life are major Portant resoUi rePOrts that I USE and mlSusi reSOurces that trial and agr water safe water SU‘ COunts ter th Ghana. Theb ted human Com soil and as v Mining Whitley of from tai l lngs dust in the P 70 has on the other hand, contributed to the spread of bilharzia, the main health problem dn Egyptianand African irrigation systems. It has also contributed to the migration of clay particles that develop into a sub- soil which restricts water infiltration and root penetration. The exploitation of forest resources without provision of sus- tained yield management resulted in widespread deforestation in many countries. Population pressure in cultivable land and for industrial and residential lands, coupled by the demand for timber products contribute to the rapidly decreasing forest areas in Indonesia. Diminishing flora and fauna and the eradication of species of wild- life are major problems in several developing countries. Wildlife, an im- portant resource in Kenya is disrupted by settlement and cultivation. Iran reports that the natural flora and fauna have suffered destruction from the use and misuse by man and his grazing animals through the ages. Fishery resources that used to abound in rivers in India are threatened by indus- trial and agricultural pollutants. Water resources in many countries of the tropics are abundant, but safe water supply is a great and difficult problem. Water pollution ac- counts for the prevalence of deaths from bowel diseases in Ceylon and Ghana. The building of reservoirs and dams have in some cases disrup- ted human communities, contributed to the salinity and alkalinity of the soil and as vectors of infective and parasitic diseases. Mining activities, although restricted in some countries have the pOtential of degrading the environment although siltation and pollution from tailings, fumes and effluents from smelters and plantS. Cement dUSt in the Philippines and arsenites in the smoke of gold prOCeSSlng l-_.r in Ghana are e; and Kuwait ran! oil exploitativ Problems from The dev mw experienci “unity repOrt Oldevelopment (8) re (bl bi The sic ing uDOn the S vOIVed) and ti For example, ( COUntrles exp: inlarger Cit in Manila_ M 7i in Ghana are examples of environmental hazards. The seas of Indonesia and Kuwait rank high as potential areas of marine pollution from the oil explo itations in the regions. Problems from Industrial Development The developing countries in the process of industrialization are now exper ienchng the environmental consequences as indicated in their country reports. The side effects that can arise out of the processes of development may be grouped as follows:173 (a) resource deterioration: the deterioration, for example of mineral, soil and forest resources; (b) biological pollution: the pollution represented by agents of human disease and by animal and plant pests; (c) chemical pollution: arising out of air pollutants, indus- trial effluents,pesticides, metal and detergent compounds and similar agents; (d) physical disruption: as reflected for example by thermal pollution, silting and noise; and (e) social disruption: of which congestion and loss of com- munity are examples. The side effects manifest themselves in varying degrees depend— ing upon volved, a For examp countries in larger cities. In Manila. Nearly all industrial centers in _________________________ 173United Nations General Assembly, Development and Environment, P- the sectors concerned, the particular geographical regions in- nd the stages of development attained by different countries. le, certain forms of pollution become a problem that deveIOping experience with unequal severity, but of increasing importance Industrial effluents have all but killed Pasig River India have become foci of II. l poHution. Sol L cities. E l The repo problems: On the gene urgent d l general in Indie [ its qua] ment ter of cont: seeming‘ rance, l The obv COnCerng, plus beassessed as countries. 175 lMNati 72 pollution. Solid waste disposal is a problem in Bangkok and other cities. The report of Indian!+ exemplifies an outlook toward environmental problems: On account of dire poverty of the masses, lack of education, the general physical debility, the extreme preoccupation with urgent demands of sheer existence, there is often an apathy, a general lack of popular concern about the quality of environment in India. This attitude of mind is undoubtedly a hindrance to its quality. 0n the other hand, continuous neglect of environ- ment tends to make people accustomed to accept it. The problem of control or environmental degradation is thus compounded to seemingly unmanageable proportions by poverty, squalor and igno— rance, not easy for an affluent country to comprehend. The obvious differences in national and regional environmental concerns, plus the peculiar conditions of a developing country must all be assessed as integral to the developmental strategy of developing 175 countries. 174National Reports on Environmental Problems, 13313, p. 6. 175United Nations General Assembly, Develo ment and Environment, p. ll. l... The more ”St Upon its pl' rural scene has impact on its pg 56m”? and edu< tal education 3| The Phil emerged from th of faulting, f0 land W355 means land seas Stret llne of the Uni mare miles Or The Elev l;- llsayas and Mi n CHAPTER III THE PHILIPPINE SETTING The more fundamental or dynamic aSpects of the Filipino nation rest upon its physical environment. As an agricultural country, its rural scene has influenced the social attitudes and with considerable impact on its patterns of life. The dimensions of the socio-economic setting and educational factors which have implications for environmen— tal education are all considered in this chapter. Physical Environment The Philippines is an archipelago of 7,l00 islands, which have emerged from the sea as a consequence of an extremely complex pattern 0f faulting, folding and volcanic activity.] The fragmentation of the land mass means that coastal and offshore environments are of special Importance. The irregular coastline, marked by bays, straits and in- land seas stretch for ll,000 miles, almost twice as long as the coast- line of the United States. The country's total land area is ll5,600 SQuare miles or 296,000 square kilometers. The eleven major islands are divided into three regions; Luzon, Visayas and Mindanao. The larger islands are marked by mountain peaks, With pockets of lowlands watered by small streams which plunge from _.________________________ M. Burley, The Philippines: An Economic and Social I T. EEQELEBQX (London: G, Bell and Sons, Ltd., I973), P- 95- 73 deep slopes and along the shore. yan Valley and l i and Cotabato Va l plains, plateau. i Rainfall Southeast Asia, wettest, and pr Mvided into tr {ember to Febrt ll Pass througr Formosa. The Phi forests with 1. states of em] resources are MstfibutiOn o Wany parts of area, while tt land Surface: \ . 2AntOn Wamla: Cent 3 BUrle 74 deep slopes and create tiny alluvial deltas at irregular intervals along the shore. While Luzon has two inter—montane valleys, the Caga- yan Valley and the Central Plain of Luzon, and Mindanao has the Agusan and Cotabato Valleys, the greater land areas form complex patterns of plains, plateaux and volcanoes. Rainfall is the most important climactic factor. Like most of Southeast Asia, the Philippines belong to the wet tropics - the warmest, wettest, and probably the richest portion of earth. The climate may be divided into the rainy season (June to November), cool dry season (De- cember to February), and hot dry season (March to May). Typhoons annual- ly pass through the archipelago on their way to North China Sea or to Formosa. The Philippines is richly endowed with agricultural lands, lush forests with luxuriant vegetation, untold mineral wealth, in various States of exploitation. Based upon size and population, the natural resources are excessively extensive and incalculably potential.2 The distribution of Philippine soils, however, highlights the fact that in many parts of the islands inferior soils occupy one-fifth of the total area, while the most productive soils, cover a respectable l5% of the land surface.3 Nevertheless, in comparison with other tropical areas M 2Antonio H. Noblejas, Philippine Law on Natural Resources (Manila: Central Book Supply, lnc., I96T), p. l. 3Burley, The Philippines, p. I12. Philippine so extensive vol. prise the off arable farmlar as non-connen sified as mar are Still widr primary Iores and in genera [IanSition be inaccessible VOlCan Tea] Lake, Wh Voltano; MOUn dominates the Imich C0mpri5 0f the thirty AgrlCu host imPOFtan 0f the tOtal thirds of the / [5” ts?- 75 Philippine soils rank among the more fertile due to the occurrence of L. extensive volcanic materials. 0f the 29,7l0,000 hectares which com- prise the official land area of the country, an estimated 33.M% are arable farmlands; 30% comprise commercial forest; 24.8% is classified as non-commercial forest; l0.4% is open and grassland, with .6% clas- sified as marshes.5 The forest lands, despite the influence of man are still widespread, including substantial areas of largely untouched primary forest. The grasslands are in no marked area of concentration, and in general, occupying the rolling uplands which form an area of transition between the intensively cultivated lowlands and the rugged inaccessible mountains. Volcanoes are among the wonders and terrors of the Philippines: , Taal Lake, which is the most active, occupies the crater of an older volcano; Mount Mayon, in southern Luzon with its near perfect cone, dominates the village and bay below it; and a series of six others which comprise Camiguin Island, north of Mindanao. At least a dozen of the thirty odd volcanoes are still active. Socio-economic Conditions Agriculture, including forestry and fishing is the largest and most important sector of the Philippine economy. It provides over half 0f the total employment opportunities, indirectly supports about two- thirds of the population, and accounts for over three-quarters of the b’lbid. 5lbid., citing Philippine Forestry Statistics, I968- total exports. Exports ports, the Phi wood and wood derdeveloped, Philippines li Mining mited in areal and gold, in 1 tion at preser 'mineral of ti are amOng the mineral Tesou Surveted and Indust We I946, ,, American rule assembly Oper “9&5, tObacc teutiCals‘ 8t 76 6 total exports. Exports of forest products earned about 23% of the total ex- ports, the Philippines being one of thw world's leading producers of wood and wood products. The domestic fishing industry has remained un- derdeveloped, contributing to 5% of domestic production, although the Philippines lie in a fertile fishing belt. Mining activities, like those associated with forestry are li— mited in areal extent, but are concentrated in impact. Copper, iron and gold, in that order, are the minerals attracting the greatest atten- tion at present, with nickel the leading contender for the title of 'mineral of the future'.7 The chromite, nickel and copper deposits are among the largest in the world. Although the country is rich in mineral resources, only a small portion of the area has been adequately surveyed and actively exploited. Industrial production has steadily expanded and diversified since l946, when the country became independent after 48 years of American rule. Industrial growth remains centered upon processing and assembly operations.8 Thus, production is concentrated in foods, beve- rages, tobacco products, textiles, clothing, plywood and veneer, pharma- ceuticals, etc. M— 6Ibid., pp. 251—52. 7lbid., p. 89. 8lbid., p. 261. In I97l estimated leve , . I} I such a per cap country". The l9] million. PopL million, the c tion 9T0Wth at although it is 0f the people and Cebu, the The Ph‘ With Other cox Perhaps 10 to alone, there i ThEre . I 0i most of ti serVIng the C( equal to that \\ U.S, BackQI'Ound N0 mPopu Sheetu' (Wash lo HDeli $1 (New Yo I 2Ibi \ l ,_i,,,,, .#____.4 77 In l97l, the real gross national product (GNP) picked up an estimated level of about $7.5 billion or about $205 per capita.9 At such a per capita level, the Philippines is considered a ”developing country”. The I972 population of the Philippines is estimated at 39.h million. Population projections to I985 indicate an increase to 6# million, the country having one of the highest annual rate of popula- tion growth at 3.4.‘0 The overall density is about 327 per Square mile, although it is greater in the islands of Luzon and Mindanao where most of the people are concentrated. In the urban centers of Manila, Davao and Cebu, the rapid population growth is aggravated by migration. The Philippine urban population is rather large, as compared with other countries in the rest of Southeast Asia. They account for perhaps TO to l2% of the total population. In the metropolitan Manila alone, there are about two and a half million people.ll There are l7,000 barrios (rural villages) which serve as home for most of the inhabitants. The greater number of barrios are found serving the country's l0 million hectares of cultivated land, an area eCIual to that of Japan.12 If not engaged in agriculture, the rural 9U.S. Department of State. Republic of the Philtppines, Background Notes, 1972. lOPopulation Reference Bureau,”l972 World Population Data Sheet“, (Washington, D.C : Population Reference Bureau, lnc., l97l), HDelia and Ferdinand Kuhn, The Philippines, Yesterday and 12921 (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, lnc., I966), p. 47. ”mm. ‘— dweller u5ual forestry and along with a logy on the b The to mention a dis the bulk of t Centers whose With the rout decisions whi nate from Man Of the P€0ple graphically, Cities are ch rally, WeSter [riallZatIOn handY the Ind commumtieS a der are Predo srcal 0, Sou \ l3 Burl l p ionof renuCE‘HaH l 51 id \ 78 dweller usually gains his living from the sea. Elsewhere a handful of forestry and mining communities are within their areas of operation, along with a few thousand aborigines. The physical impact of techno- logy on the barrios has been slight. The foremost facets of Filipino culture and development, not to mention a disproportionate segment of the total population, including the bulk of the nation's decision makers, are to be found in the urban centers whose relative liveliness and sophistication contrasts vividly with the routine and poverty of most rural areas.13 The events and decisions which shape the life and livelihood of the Filipino may ema- nate from Manila or other urban centers, but the majority (about 70%) of the people affected live in the rural areas of the country. Geo- graphically, Manila and the more or less urbanized larger towns and cities are characterized by social change and mobility, while cultu— rally, western attitudes and values are at work in the spheres of indus- trialization efforts and in governmental administration.]7 0n the other hand, the indigenous or traditional norms and values operate in the rural communities and barrios, where the social structure and the economic or- der are predominantly stable or static, where there is very little phy- l5 sical or social mobility of technological change. ______________________ l3Burley, The Philippines, p. 9. 14Onofre D. Corpuz, The Philippines (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, lnc., I965), p. 88. lSIbid. 3i Haldi: Philippines i bulk of the I cal power Iii comprise an Classes of PI The I. crop tenancy the majority sub~marginal to aChIeVe gr ti0n of a trt to make the 5 CltlZen5_l8 The PI People (83.83 WligiOUs mir m Krlsto anr the day to d; ‘-‘~“~“‘ l6Burl l 71$fl§ l . 9J0hr Solidaridad F 79 Maldistribution of wealth is an outstanding feature of the Philippines and has a social as well as economic implication.l6 The bulk of the nation's wealth, be it land, industry, commerce or politi- cal power lies in the hands of those described as the 'super rich' which comprise an infinitesimal 0.07% of the population. The middle and ”rich“ classes of Philippine society comprise only 20% of the population.‘7 The land tenure pattern in the Philippines is founded on share- crop tenancy. The best lands are in the hands of a few owners, leaving the majority of landholders with only small lots often on marginal or sub-marginal lands. Land tenure modifications in the country are aimed to achieve greater productivity and higher farm incomes through the crea— tion of a truly viable social and economic structure in agriculture, and to make the small farmers more independent, self—reliant and responsible citizens.18 The Philippines is a Catholic nation with a great majority of 19 Other people (83.8%), identifying themselves as Roman Catholics. religious minorities are Aglipayans, Protestants, members of the Iglesia ni Kristo and others. Regional variations are limited in number, but the day to day influence of religion have considerable impact and the leBurley, The Philippines, p. 251. ”lbid. l81am, p. 155. 19John J.Carroll and others, Philippine Institutions (Manila: sOlidaridad Publishing House, l970), p.40. way of life is As elsev focusing on the failure of his world is very 1 force in perha; in the future ”God will take The mul religious Sphe °Penness of Ph influences hav there is treme ”I“ rapidly t The Phi Asia and Pacif of college gra secondary educ Peop1e5"the F in edUCatiOn, v . ertICa] mOVerr 80 way of life is conditioned by religious belief.20 As elsewhere in peasant societies, peasant religion is concrete, focusing on the vicissitudes of the individual's life, the success or failure of his crops, order and disorder in the community.21 The spirit world is very much a part of the environment of the barrio -- a vital force in perhaps majority of the people. Reliance on divine insurance in the future is to a great extent likewise reflected on the attitude: “God will take care, so why bother?. . . What will be, will be”. The multiplicity of cultural levels is not restricted to the religious spheres, and is accentuated by the great ”permeability“ or openness of Philippine society and culture to western influences. These influences have not been felt equally throughout society and culture as there is tremendous imbalance among society with one segment “modernizing“ much rapidly than the other.22 The Philippines has one of the highest literacy rates on the East Asia and Pacific area. The country ranks high in the world in the number of college graduates per capita. For the average Filipino, primary and secondary education are readily available. 0f the newly independent peoples, the Filipinos are passionately education-oriented. They see in education, the means to attain their aspirations of better life and vertical movement in the social ladder. Unfortunately, however, because of the poor e lack of textb education at complete the The Cc objectives of nal patrimony natural resot rightful her; Sions in the 0fCOnservati E miner; Poteni C65 01 of ag, SSttle n0t be EXplol 0i th< five , Ply, l 0f Wal and 1 0Ut8l( the COUnt ry [ ‘\~‘\‘\“ A Z3uric: in the Phil h 8] of the poor economic conditions in the rural areas, as well as the lack of textbooks and equipment in schools, there is much wastage in education at this stage: only about 50% of those who enter Grade i 23 complete the elementary course. The Constitution and the Patrimony of the Nation The Constitution in its preamble, states as one of the primary objectives of the State, the conservation and development of the natio— nal patrimony.2LlL The concern of the State is the preservation of the natural resource base, the source of the nation's economic growth, as a rightful heritage of the Filipino people still to come. Other provi- sions in the fundamental law of the land, which are the consequences 5 . . . . 2 of conservation as a national policy are the followung: Sec. 8 Art. XlV. All lands of the public domain, waters, minerals, coal, petroleum and other mineral oils, all forces of potential energy, fisheries, wildlife, and other mineral resour- ces of the Philippines belong to the State. With the exception of agricultureal, industrial or commercial, residential and re- settlement lands of the public domain, natural resources shall not be alienated, and no license, concession or lease for the exploration, development, exploitation, or utilization of any of the natural resources shall be granted for more than twenty- five years, except as to water rights for irrigation, water sup- ply, fisheries or industrial uses, other than the development of water power, in which cases, beneficial use may be the measure and limit of the grant. Outside of public agricultural lands,the natural resources of the country may not be sold to any person, not even to citizens. a . 23UNESCO, National Science Policy and Organization of Research In the Philippines (Paris, UNESCO, l970), p. 49. 2“Constitution of the Republic of the Philippines. (Proposed) (Manila: Bureau of Printing, l972), p. i. This Constitution was approved by People's Assembly in 1973. 25lbid., p. 39. Sec. 9, Art. or uti pines associ is owr Lands dustrial or C forest, and E law.27 Furtl ecolog sourC( domair to an) the c( A pri\ 0f publlC do“ in area, A ( hEttares Or a hectares. N( CEI’lSe Oi‘ PErn numeSin m Compll nrious Specl FlsherieS Act am water Rig \ 26lbl< \ 28 m "U j NObl 82 Sec. 9, Art. XIV states that:26 The disposition, exploration, development, exploitation or utilization of any of the natural resources of the Philip- pines shall be limited to citizens of the Philippines, or to associations at least sixty per centum of the capital of which is owned by Such citizens. Lands of the public domain are classified into agricultural, in- dustrial or commercial, residential, resettlement, mineral, timber or forest, and grazing lands and such other classes as may be provided by law.27 Further, Sec. ll, Art. XIV states:28 The National Assembly, taking into account conservation, ecological, and developmental requirements of the natural re- sources shall determine by law the size of lands of the public domain which may be developed, held or acquired by, or leased to any qualified individual, corporation or association, and the conditions therefor. A private corporation or association may hold alienable lands of public domain except by lease not to exceed one thousand hectares in area. A citizen cannot hold such lands in excess of five hundred hectares or acquire by purchase or homestead in excess of twenty-four hectares. No private corporation or association may hold by lease, li- cense or permit, timber or forest lands and other timber or forest re- sources in excess of one hundred thousand hectares.29 Complimenting and supplementing the supreme law of the land are various special laws, such as the Public Land Act, the Mining Act, the Fisheries Act, the Petroleum Act, the Coal-Land Act, the Law of Water and Water Rights and Forest Laws.30 26Ibid., p. no 27ibid. 28mm. Zglbid. 30 Noblejas, Philippine Law on Natural Resources, p. l. 9_b‘j The Cc L A education as I within a regi jectives of e sires and as; Pine Constitt Board of Educ l. Tc Elemel- CitiZenshlpE are baSic iOr \ l - 0nof iii the Sevent ed, by A l0l‘ GradUate 32 Ed M gs _ a “Dillon in ‘5 4.4 83 Objectives of Elementary and Secondary Education The Constitution has pronounced the duty of the State to support education as a means for developing the human potential of its citizens within a regime of liberty and national purpose.31 The fundamental ob- jectives of education in the Philippines are an expression of the de- sires and aspirations of the Filipino people, as embodied in the Philip- pine Constitution. Stated in general terms, they are promulgated by the Board of Education as follows:32 I. To inculcate the moral and spiritual values inspired by an abiding faith in God. ll. To develop an enlightened, patriotic, useful and upright citizenry in a democratic society. To instill habits of industry, thrift, and to prepare indi- viduals to contribute to the economic development and wise conservation of the Nation's natural resources. IV. To maintain family solidarity, to improve community life, to perpetuate all that is desirable in our national heritage, and to serve the cause of world peace. V. To promote the sciences, arts and letters for the enrich- ment of life and the recognition of the dignity of the human person. Elementary education aims to prepare the child for democratic citizenship and ” to provide the knowledge, skills and attitudes which are basic for personal development and modern living in an expanding 3'0nofre D, Corpuz, "Philosophy and Goals of Philippine Education in the Seventies,” Directions for Philippine Education in the Seventies, ed, by A. G. Elevazo and T. N. Boquiren (Manila: Philippine Association for Graduate Education, i971). P- 5' 32Magsasay Committee on General Education, Toward General Education in the Philippines (Manila: University of the East, l960), p,6, 33 society.” the individua ' tation skills and virtues o l . I l i l l l With r tional Progra 0i ele seek t of the dUCti\ light Signet Accort economic nee( enabie the 51 munity]. it 5 Study in ins‘ The a the EdUCatiol 0i tile COUnt satisfaction toward eConol These indica \ RQPOrt’ Edu: Onofre \Co ne E 34 Educationaip Se . i Ph”inn l Par. zzzzzzz___z________.......--Illlllllllllh._ 84 society.”33 Basic education should provide literacy and develop in the individual cognitive power, numerical manipulation and communi— cation skills, giving emphasis to the culture, desirable traditions and virtues of the Filipino people. With regard to secondary education, the Revised Philippine Educa— 34 tional Program has defined its specific objectives as follows: The secondary school shall continue the unifying function of elementary education by providing general education and shall seek to discover the varying abilities, interests, and aptitudes of the youth and offer courses in the different fields of pro- ductive endeavor according to the talents of youth and in the light of community needs. It shall also initiate a program de- signed to develop community leadership. Accordingly, the secondary school, taking into consideration the economic needs of the country, must cultivate vocational efficiency to enable the students to become effective members of their family and com— munity. it shall also offer courses to prepare students for effective study in institutions of higher learning. The attainment of the goals has necessitated various changes in the educational system to conform to the changing conditions and needs of the country. The idea of education for its own sake and for self- satisfaction had given way to another type of education that is slanted toward economic productivity and geared to the needs of the rural areaS, These indicated changes influenced the objectives of the educational 33Presidential Commission to Survey Philippine Education, Survey Report, Education for National Development: New Patternsl New Directions. Onofre D. Corpuz, chairman. (Manila: Presidential Commission to Survey Philippine Education, 1970), P- 67- 3uDepartment of Education, Order No. l, S. 1957. ”The Revised Educational Program Approved by the Board of National Education”, Art.l, sec. i, par. V. program throui school hopes 1 life of relat promotion of ( education of ( munity l ife a the economic l The ai t0 the natiOn mission to su a, To C- To bl To be Societyn inst mnd E. Marcc Pr ‘ . es'dentiai enumerited th \ l , 3Evita \Mani ia: ”105 36 m \' LOUI ylrettiOn’” 9/3), 9. 2i 85 program through the community school concept. The Philippine community school hopes to enable every Filipino child, youth and adult, to enjoy life of relative freedom from ignorance, poverty and disease.35 The promotion of optimum growth and development of the school child, the education of out-of—schooi y0uth and adults and the improvement of com- munity life are all directions in the community school concept toward the economic development plan of the government. The aims of elementary and secondary education today contribute to the national development goals as defined by the Presidential Com- mission to Survey Philippine Education, namely:36 To achieve and maintain accelerating rate of economic development and social progress; a . b. To assure the maximum participation of all the people in the attainment and enjoyment of the benefits of such growth; and To strengthen national consciousness and promote desira- ble cultural values in a changing world. To be able to attain the economic, social goals of the “New Society“ instituted during the latter half of l972 by President Ferdi- nand E. Marcos, a reorientation in educational goals became imperative, Presidential Decree 6-A, Educational Decree of l972 (September 29, l972) 37 enumerated the following aims of the educational system: 3SVitaliano A. Bernardino, The Philippine Community School (Manila: Phoenix Press, lnc., l958), pp. 26-27. 36Education Survey Report, pp. 62-63. 37Lourdes M. Aguilar, ”72 Years of Policy Making and Educational Direction,” Department of Education and Culture Journal, 1 ( September, l973), p. 2. in— -—~ _.LLP' ‘ a. F t I F l b. l | c. [ < d. l l With tivesof e], greater Str‘ In tl was introdu. F”Wino ch Was an attei jectives We iEieSted in 86 Provide for a broad general education that will assist every individual, in the peculiar ecology of his own society, to (l) attain his potential as a human being; (2) enhance the range and quality of individual and group participation in the basic functions of society; and (3) acquire the essential educational'foundation for his deve- lopment into a productive and versatile citizen; b. Train the nation's manpower in the middle level skills required for national development; c. Develop the high-level professions that will provide leadership for the nation, advance knowledge through re— search, and apply new knowledge for improving the quality of human life; and d. Respond effectively to changing needs and conditions of the nation through a system of educational planning and evaluation. Within the directions and goals of the new society, the objec- tives of elementary and secondary education are redirected to place . 8 greater stress on moral and ethical values.3 Science in General Education In the early days of the Philippine educational system, science was introduced as a subject, in grades four, five and six, to give the Filipino children a broad knowledge in the sciences. In l904, there was an attempt to define the objectives of science education. The ob- jectives were: (i) to stimulate the pupils and students to become in- terested in improving their economic conditions and that of their fami- lies; (2) to train the students in habits of accuracy in thinking; (3) to eradicate the tendency of pupils and students to learn by rote; and (4) to train them to think and reason on the basis of things 38”School Heads Asked to Pursue Programs with Greater Vigor,” DEC Journal, l (October, l973), P- 2- 39 observed. in the the basis of attainment of citizens who bers of their Scienc V0iving time public school '0 irnprove th definite peri my grades, according to for the devel tital thinkir tial to Citiz The re \ Edutatioinag \. D 0m E Dior lementary Sr M21 . e 87 39 observed. In the early thirties, science objectives were formulated on the basis of their functional value and their contribution to the attainment of the aim of general education -- to produce well-balanced citizens who are prepared to take their place as individuals and mem— 40 bers of their respective groups in a democracy. Science in the elementary curriculum underwent many revisions in- volving time allotment and grade placement. In I957, the Philippine public schools adopted a new elementary curriculum which was designed to improve the teaching and understanding of health and science.41 A definite period was provided for the teaching of science in the elemen— tary grades, devoted to the learning of scientific facts and principles according to the capabilities of the children. Also, it has been used for the development of behavior patterns such as ”open-mindedness, cri- tical thinking, resourcefulness and responsibleness, which are essen- IILiZ tial to citizenship in a democracy. The revised elementary school program for I970 provided the 39Magsaysay Committee on General Education, Toward General Education, p. 228. “oibid., p. 232. PlDionisio P. Garzon, ”An Analysis of the Problems of Teaching Elementary Science in the Philippine Public Schools,“ The Phili ine Journal of Science Teachers, V (September and December, l970i, p, 27, Ibid. ‘ following sc lst, lith, The signific offering of the fourth g The s the offering first year a cated for ea The i ti°"ai Boarc “”65 I973, 0i ir area Physi SCier Year) TheSe in the Eleme S~e\_“~‘~ Pings,“ Uttember \ 88 43 following science curriculum: Ist, 2nd, and 3rd grades - Elementary Science and Health 30 minutes a day, 5 days a week. hth, 5th and 6th grades - Elementary Science #0 minutes a day, 5 days a week. The significant change from the I957 to the I970 curriculum is the offering of elementary science separately from health beginning in the fourth grade. The sedondary science curriculum implemented in I957 prescribed the offering of General Science I and General Science II for all the first year and second year, respectively. A 40-minute period is allo— cated for each subject daily. The revised secondary science curriculum, as approved by the Na- tional Board of Education, and promulgated in Department Order No. 20, 4h series I973, gives the following description of science courses: The natural science (biological and physical) consist of integrated science courses with emphasis on a particular area at each level. Science I, (First Year) emphasizes physical concepts; Science II, (Second Year), Biology; Science III, (Third Year), Chemistry; and Science IV, (Fourth Year), Physics. These courses aim to strengthen the science processes developed in the elementary grades and to enable the student to acquire basic 43Aurelio Juelle, “Integrated Science Teaching in the Philip- Pines,” The Philippine Journal of Science Teachers, V (September and December, l970), p. 7. “#Department of Education and Culture, Dept. Order No. 20, s. 1973, ”The Revised Secondary Education Program, I973“, Manila, Philippines, May 30, I973. (Mimeographed) in»: knowledge 0 fically lit The l inquiry and and the sci. lOPers to s grated scie Science Dev. curriculum fields thro. headings; I SPace. The Problems, m. ScienCe dev. the dEVEIOpi Of the Fill, that Can Pa In tl 89 knowledge of scientific concepts and principles making him'scienti- ficalIy literate and therefore a more effective citizen.45 The major task of science teaching in developing imaginative inquiry and concepts to interpret the physical and biological world and the scientific way of reaching decisions has led curriculum deve- lopers to stress upon the concepts and methods of science. The inte- grated science program, for example,was introduced by the Elementary Science Development Project in I966, to study, readjust and develop curriculum guides that reflect the unification of the various science fields through the organization of the content under only three main headings: living things; matter, energy and motion; and earth and space. The learning approach emphasized personal experience with problems, materials and phenomena.46 A report on the integrated science developments submits that the primary consideration underlying the development of the new science curriculum is the widely-felt need of the Filipino society for a more scientifically aware population, that can participate in the economic development of the country.“7 In the secondary level, an adaptation of the Intermediate 45”Newsbriefs“, DEC Journal, I (September, I973), p.8. usJueIle, ”Integrated Science Teaching”, p. 9. 47Asian Regional Workshop on the Progress of Integrated Science Teaching, Integrated Science Teaching in the Asian Region. Final Report, Manila, Philippines, August 3—l7, i970. (Bangkok: UNESCO Regional Office for Education in Asia, 197'), P- li- Science Curr first and se lems and mat set-up.48 T of biologica cerned with Simul '5 the trair at the eleme Education Cc nerVe centei Cher educat lities and , materials if Studies in The 0i science Ratio“, as 90 Science Curriculum Study (ISCS) is being developed to provide the first and second year students with first-hand encounters with prob- lems and materials which are worked out in an individualized learning set—up.i+8 The first year curriculum uses the major organizing themes of biological systems, and the earth in space; the second year is con— cerned with the matter-energy relationships. Simultaneous to these development of new curriculum materials is the training of teachers as a means of improving science education at the elementary, secondary and teacher education levels. The Science Education Center of the University of the Philippines operates as the nerve center for the Regional Science Training Centers (RSTC's) in tea- cher education programs in science and mathematics, by providing faci- lities and materials for practicing teachers, for testing curriculum materials for elementary and secondary levels and conducting research studies in science education.’+9 The Philippine Education Survey of I970 has clarified the goals of science education that contribute to the developmental goals of the nation, as follows:50 I. To make science education more responsive to the needs of the national goals. 48ibid., p. i2. 49Julian R Brandou, ”Science Education in Two Countries in the Far East - A First Hand View,” The Science Teacher, XXXVII (October, I970) 1 pp- 30‘3] . 50Special Area Group for Science Education, “A Report On Science Education in the Philippines.“ Submitted to the Presidential Commission to Survey Philippine Education, I970. (Mimeographed.) p. l28. hi’ wr y The Pines is an inlbbitant c lure CitiZe and solutio The I0nment pitJ Visible anc had also br not be bout the Envi FOr The on HUfilan Er ViFOnmEFital 9i 2. To use science and technology effectively in the achieve- ment of national goals. 3. To produce scientifically literate citizens. A. To stimulate the choice of scientific and allied careers by those with the corresponding aptitudes and thus in- crease the number of scientists, technologists, and tech- nicians. 5. To communicate the excitement and aspiration of scientific endeavors and to increase the power of innovation through an awareness of the methods of science. The current concern for improved science teaching in the Philip- pines is an indication of the recognition that science education has an important contribution to make toward the preparation of pupils as fu- ture citizens in a rapidly changing society and to the understandings and solutions of problems of national development. Environmental Issues in the Philippingg The worldwide concern over the deterioration of the global envi- ronment plus media exposure in the country helped focus on the highly visible and alarming conditions of the Philippine environment. These had also brought out the fact that a rising standard of living should not be bought at the cost of certain and inevitable deterioration of the environment and of the quality of life in the future.51 The National Report of the Philippines to the I972 Conference on Human Environment in Stockholm reviewed the major components of en- vironmental decline as (l) overcrowding and slums; (2) environmental 5iCommittee on Natural Resources, Philippine Environment, p, 6, pollution i endangered These probl pollution, As h highest ann dinand E. N State of th continued e there is 5t over the ye Te“ per cer Students ar covering at ki'OIIIEter.E more dramai 0' "Vine. and fGilli iy \ 52 ‘ Raw 53 P0 Nation arenthood SLi POISOning ‘ 92 (3) industrial and mining pollution; (4) 52 pollution in urban areas; endangered species; (5) deforestation and (6) special diseases. These problems fall within the world's ills which involve the three P's: pollution, population and poverty. As have been previously stated, the Philippines has one of the highest annual rate of population growth in the world. President Fer- dinand E. Marcos, in his message to Congress in January, I970 on the State of the Nation said: “With soaring birth rate, the prospects for continued economic development are considerably diminished. Indeed, there is strong possibility that the gains which we have carefully built over the years may be cancelled by a continuing population explosion.”53 Ten per cent of the country's population live in Manila, excluding the students and workers who commute daily from the provinces. The city covering about 700 square miles, packs 5,300 people for every square kilometer.54 In the rural areas, population growth patterns are even more dramatic when viewed in the light of its impact upon the standard of living, food production, nutrition and health of the mother, infant and family. 52Report of the Philippines on Environmental Problems, National Reports on Environmental Problems. 53Carlos P. Romulo, “The Philippines at the Turning Point,” Population, A Challenge to Environment (Washington, D.C.: Planned Parenthood-World Population, l970), p. l2. 5l'iLevi Marcelo, “Danger: Air Pollution and Water Pollution Poisoning Manila Area,” Bulletin Today, February l0, I973. h“ ' A relat nal migration crowding is nc ly urbanized a households cai dards. Increi to the growth 0i crimes (2 diseases and urban areas, for example i disposal site The ex tion in Matrc out as Primar Air POllutIOr in the COUntr plants} Etc, TOtor VehiCis that there al into the Bret comparatiVel‘ broached dani \ SSREDi 56 COmi 93 A related problem to population growth is urbanization of inter- nal migration brought about by industrialization in the cities. Over- crowding is not only a common occurence in metropolitan cities and high- ly urbanized areas in the Philippines but even in rural areas. Poor households can hardly afford homes which conform to minimum public stan- dards. increasing population pressure and the rural migrants contribute to the growth of slum areas which cause the following: (i) high incidence of crimes (2) widespread and costly fires (3) respiratory and bowel 55 diseases and (4) blighted areas and lower real estate Values. In many urban areas, refuse collection and disposal is a common problem. Manila, for example is so congested that there are no available spaces for waste disposal site. The extremely fast pace of urbanization and rapid growth in popula- tion in Matropolitan Manila area and other cities in the country are pointed out as primarily reSponsible for the environmental pollution in the area. Air pollution is found in Greater Manila and industrial areas elsewhere in the country where there are sugar centrals, cement plants, chemical plants, etc. In Greater Manila, the primary source of air pollution is motor vehicles. The National Water and Air Pollution Commission estimates that there are about 3,000 tons daily of air pollutants being discharged 56 into the Greater Manila atmosphere from 080,000 motor vehicles. Even in comparatively clean and open places like Rizal Park, air pollution has ap- proached dangerous levels. ________________________. 55Report of Philippines on Environmental Problems, p. 29. 56Committee on Natural Resources, Philippine Environment, p. ll, The gri is found in the country. ahigh incid bagasse dust and Pollutio PUlP factory Anoth sion is the near tows, Chemical fer resulting p0 most Philipp that the app agriculture. weeds and Va iul agricult leaching, de Climate thrc deficient Sc \ 57m Se SBU i n w 59 Bur 60' _ | \ 94 The greatest concentration of air pollution from sugar centrals is found in Negros, where there are eight of the 19 sugar centrals in the country.57 In the vicinity of one sugar central, there was found a high incidence of lung trouble among the people which may be due to bagasse dust. ln lligan city, there is a mixture of industrial plants and pollution comes from the steel mill, fertilizer plants, paper and pulp factory and others. Another area of environmental threat caused by population explo- sion is the pressure on land and resources. In the country-side areas near towns, the ”green revolution“ may have led to more intensive use of chemical fertilizers, irrigation water and mechanized methods with the resulting possibility of environmental danger.58 in their natural state, most Philippine soils are deficient in plant nutrients with the result that the application of artificial fertilizers is necessary for efficient agriculture.59 Despite the relatively careful manner of soil preparation, weeds and vagaries of local precipitation are major obstacles to success- ful agriculture. Soil erosion by water, loss of soil fertility through leaching, denudation of forests and local or regional modifications of climate through removal of forests have contributed to flash floods and deficient soils.6O 57lbid. 58United Nations Economic Mission for Asia and the Far East, The Second Asian Population Conference, Tokyo, l-l3 November, 1972. p. 5. 59Buriey, The Philippines, p. 253. lbid., p. 52. \ The ex l the bio-physi ‘ sediment and tion load of llater and Air tive mines wl tons daily, r 29,750 tons ( The ir servable. A altered the i Out regard ti and erosion are no longe netic Sand h. lands bOFder liming in P rESulting in Asilica min lung (“Seam oi mines in OlsastrOUS l \ 6 lBen ”39%”, 95 The extraction of minerals with some attendant destruction upon the bio-physical environment is not yet totally assessed. In terms of sediment and silt, the mining companies contribute the greatest pollu- tion load Of all industrial establishments in the country. The National Water and Air Pollution Control Commission reports that there are l3 ac- tive mines which dump tailings into public streams at the rate of 82,800 tons daily, ranging from 70 tons a day for the small marginal ones, to 29,750 tons daily for the giant ones.61 The impact of mining activities upon the surrounding land are ob— servable. A chromite mine in Zambales practicing open pit mining has altered the composition of the topsoil and excavated much minerals with- out regard to the possible damage to the ecosystem resulting in floods and erosion in the vicinity. The beaches along Santo Tomas, La Union are no longer sandy but rather a stretch of mud and potholes because mag- netic sand have been extracted by the thousands of tons daily. Even tilled lands bordering the beach were not spared the rapacious practice. A mercu- ry mine in Palawan has covered the surrounding terrain with red tailings re5ulting in a situation that the only flora that would grow are weeds. A silica mine, also in Palawan has contributed to the high incidence of lung disease called silicosis in the locality. Multiply this by the dozens of mines in the rest of the provinces and their environmental impact have disastrous implications. 6|Benjamin Afuang, I'Industry's Dirty Business,” The Sunday Times Magazine (Manila), August 29, ]97], P. '4- There . over the coun varying degre out the degre from resident Tinajeros-Tul dustries espe tamination. for effluents and a half of milliOn Deopl river have al reCiDiem of SeiUences f0, ior livelihoc because of pt f'ishpOndS_63 PangaSinan-Le in and MW tail]ngs COW river-‘64 Th( the damage tr ‘\~z.~‘~“_ ozwar( 63 COmr 6h . 1 l( \ i ‘ 96 There are more than 30 rivers of various sizes and lengths all over the country, certain sections of which have reported pollution in varying degrees by industry. Of these, three have been studied to point out the degree of pollution that industrial waste water and effluents from residents have contributed. These rivers are the Pasig River, the Tinajeros—Tullahan River and the Agno River. The pollution from l50 in- dustries especially along the Pasig River have resulted in its total con— tamination. it already uses up to four-fifths of its carrying capacity for effluents - - 40,000 pounds of organic matter daily, between a quarter and a half of it from industry.6 The effluents produced by about three million people in the Greater Manila area, which eventually get into the river have all but killed the river. The Tinajeros—Tullahan River is the recipient of pollutants from i4 industries. This pollution has dire con- sequences for the 20,000 people living downstream. These people depend for livelihood upon the fishponds along the river and its tributaries, and because of pollution, they could not receive the water they need for their fishponds.63 The Agno River, as a major source of irrigation water in the Pangasinan-La Union area in the north has headwaters in the mining country in and around Benguet. There are at least six big mining companies whose tailings come to about 30,000 tons daily which find their way into the river.64 The main problem complained of is the siltation of the river and the damage to the irrigation systems due to mine tailings. 62Ward and Dubos, Only One Earthz p. i74. 63Committee on Natural Resources, Philippine Environment, p. 8. 61+Ibid. l r. "w.“ \ The ex l 20 years or s deforestation and regulatio mal inhabitan extinction.6S the tamaraw a The de and public sc trl’ is a stag reported that sliced to 63 rate of 92,0t preSSure and 0f deforestat “Flat, Boho] ml the two these Unprodr cover Sprawl: Of the diseases l 1k, \ 65pm 97 The extensive deforestation on most of the islands during the past 20 years or so has resulted in the depletion of Philippine wildlife. This deforestation and the ineffective implementation of forestry laws, measures and regulations have contributed to the destruction of the natural and nor- mal inhabitants of wildlife such that some species are in the state of near extinction.65 Examples are the Philippines' endemic monkey-eating eagle, the tamaraw and the various species and sub-species of deer. The denudation of forest in the country is extensive. Both private and public sources claim that the total deforested area throughout the coun- try is a staggering figure -- l,302,000 hectares. A leading forester has reported that in Mindanao alone, 7,302,000 hectares of forests have been sliced to 6,3]3,000 hectares in eleven years or an annual deforestation rate of 92,000 hectares of hard-to—replace timber stocks.66 Population pressure and the boom in the logging trade have contributed to the rate of deforestation. The critical areas are the provinces of Mindoro, Cebu, Tarlac, Bohol and the Mountain Province. Significantly, Luzon and Minda- nao, the two largest islands in the archipelago have high proportion of these unproductive lands. in Luzon, for instance, land stripped of forest cover sprawls over l2.3% of the area, while Mindanao has 9.2% Of the area.67 0f the ten leading disease killers in the Philippines, respiratory diseases like pneunomia, respiratory tuberculosis and bronchitis are among 65Philippine National Report on Environmental Problems, p. 37. thefirst fir l968, commun that pollute A det. l health and s ‘ ment to prot accelerated the quality Problem of p family Plann vate educati into their c PopulatiOn g Presi P°°Ple fro", the e Would netic 98 the first five places with gastro-intestinal diseases in the group. In 1968, communicable diseases accounted for 39% of all deaths. It may be that polluted environment have aggravated these diseases. A deteriorating environment is a threat to the nation's prosperity, health and survival. it is the declared policy of the Philippine govern- ment to protect and transform the human environment in order to bring about accelerated socio-economic development as well as the opportunity to enhance the quality of life of the greater number of Filipinos. Recognizing the problem of population pressure, Philippine Legislature in l970 considered family planning as an official policy. In this connection, public and pri- vate educational institutions have introduced population education concepts into their curricula as hopeful means to bring to a IOWer level the present population growth rate. President Ferdinand E. Marcos makes imperative action to Spare the people from misery that comes from pollution when he said:68 Other nations are now deSperately seeking the restoration of the ecological balance. Let us avoid this. To do otherwise would be to deny our nation the benefits that derive from our national development and achievement. 68Environmental Center of the Philippines, A brochure. p. l. The mental c0n( education, in relatior Proaches oi tatiOn. lt l. attitudes a 2. '0mm unc 3. teache [-5 Ir The from its ou itndant Dro zation) agr aloitation pciulatmn CHAPTER IV DEVELOPMENT AND IMPLEMENTATION OF ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION The perspective of a developing country with regard to environ- mental concerns forms the basis for developing goals of environmental education. This chapter describes the role of environmental education in relation to development goals. Its focus is directed toward the ap- proaches of environmental education and the guidelines for its implemen- tation. It also attempts to answer the following questions: I. What concepts and processes contribute to the understandings, attitudes and values of an environmentally literate individual? 2. What teaching strategies would be helpful to the growth of eco- logical understandings and the formation of an environmental ethic? What principles are important for the in-service education of 3. teachers in environmental education? Perspective The environmental problems of developing countries are fundamentally from its own lack of development. But, there are also in evidence, the at— tendant problems brought about by the process of development. Industriali- zation, agricultural growth, the establishment of new communities and ex- ploitation of natural resources all have environmental consequences. As pOpulation increases, the problems of both rural and urban areas become 99 \ pronounced. ‘ llhi ls i may be al le :1: i : duct do not i problems fr I not detract Vironmental I development The the bIOSphe til’, forest ward the in ration of 1 demands in apply techr C655 that i the benefi trated in I The following wards maki to the dev understend manage,“Ent 44 I00 pronounced. While the major environmental problems of developing countries may be alleviated by economic growth, a rise in the gross national pro~ duct do not by themselves guarantee the amelioration of social and human problems from environmental degradation. Concern for the environment need not detract from the goals of deveIOpment, instead, the recognition of en- vironmental issues in developing countries should be considered in the deveIOpmental process. The development process inevitably means utilizing the resources of the biOSphere for human welfare, through activities in agriculture, indus— try, forestry, etc. But history has shown that these activities aimed to— ward the improvement of human conditions were undertaken without conside- ration of the long—term consequences upon the environment. The increasing demands in developing countries to utilize the natural resources and to apply technology to its fullest extent make imperative an educational pro— cess that would enable the citizens of developing countries to maximize the benefits of development and minimize the deleterious effects, as illus- trated in developed nations. Environmental Education for Developing Countries The education of a society for development goals must focus on the following aspects: (l) the devel0pment of the individual capacities to- wards making him an effective person and responsible member contributing to the development of the country; (2) the development of ecological understandings, attitudes and skills that relate to the conservation and management of natural resources; and (3) cooperative school and community .JJ’ involvemen If . people who try in a r tional sys cation tod neous to e tural reso industrial cant issue dents‘ kno the qualit- Thu Dered by a lance betw birth of a brightS th ing the ,0 ment, The by Stateme product of l . l0l involvement in the alleviation of poverty, disease and malnutrition. If education is to play a vital role in the development of young people who can participate effectively as citizens of a developing coun- try in a rapidly changing world, the goals and practices of the educa— tional system must be viewed in the light of challenges placed upon edu- cation today: population explosion, changing social patterns simulta- neous to economic growth, technology applied to the exploitation of na- tural resources and the widening gap between standards of living in the industrialized areas and rural communities. These are the more signifi- cant issues that education must consider if we are to increase the stuF dents' knowledge of the world in which they live, help them to improve the quality of life and to stimulate their thinking. Thus, technological advance and man-made changes need to be tem— pered by an ”environmental conscience” that would help achieve the ba- lance between the desires of man and the limitations of nature. The birth of an environmental conscience rests upon an education which re- orients the people to more realistic values, to the morality of uplift— ing the poor and to the ecological ethic of stewardship over the environ- ment. The goals of environmental education may best be properly defined by statements about the characteristics of the individual who is the end- product of an ecologically—oriented curriculum: I. An individual who understands how he personally fits into the biosphere; 2. A human being and a citizen who is able to solve problems, or The education. ing in a c relatednes Problem SC ness of er use and me and (Lil ti 0n isSues Em VanCement tal 90als the Envi n educatiOn Envi Whine Ed l02 participate in their solution by reflective thinking and scientific inquiry; 3. A citizen who continually carries the message of environmen— tal management and responsibility toward the environment; 4. A productive member of society whose actions, either indivi— dually or collectively, work toward quality of the environment, wise resource use and improvement of human welfare in his com— munity. The development of such an individual is the goal of environmental education. Environmental education is defined as the process of develop- ing in a citizenry: (l) knowledge of his total environment and the inter- relatedness among man, his culture and bio-physical world; (2) skills in problem solving, critical thinking and social change strategies; (3)aware- ness of environmental problems, attitudes and values necessary for the wise use and management of natural resources and protection of the environment; and (h) the decision-making skills and code of behavior for positive action on issues concerning the environment. Environmental education meets the challenges of technological ad- vancement and social change as the country moves toward its developmen— tal goals. Understandably, development will help provide solutions to the environmental problems of a developing country, but environmental education will help avoid the environmental consequences of development. Environmental Education and Goals of Development Education for development is a dynamic process of modifying values, attitudes and motivations to stimulate and sustain continuous progress, enriching tl personal li fillment.I part, on th ral science tal educati change thro so that he assume that cal climate idea of dev modify thOS The 1Opulent mot tum contri and With tf bUte to the de‘relopmem e"érrientsfl 103 enriching the social and cultural life of the nation, and raising the personal life of the citizens to an increasingly higher level of ful- . l . . . fillment. Goals of national development, as a motive force, rest In part, on the concepts of progress derived from the disciplines of natu— ral science, social sciences and humanities which are integral to the to- tal education of the people. If education is a process of qualitative change through the development of the innate capacities of an individual, so that he may live a fuller, better, more productive life, then we may assume that environmental education helps create a favorable psychologi- cal climate - - “a climate in which people bestir themselves with the idea of development as both desirable and possible, and are willing to modify those attitudes which are inconsistent with development efforts“.2 The input-output model on Figure I shows how goals of national deve— lopment motivate environmental education, how environmental education in turn contributes to the development of potentially productive citizens, and with ther environmental understandings, attitudes and skills contri- bute to the development of human and material resources toward national development. It is based on the ”black box” model which contains the elements:3 IMuhammad Shamsul Huq, Education and Development Strategy in South and Southeast Asia (Honolulu, Hawaii: East-West Center Press, 1965 , Pp. 98-99. 2lbid. 3C. Victor Bunderson and David P. Butts, ”Designing an Instruc- tional Program — A Model,“ Designs for Progress in Science Education, edited by David P. Butts (Washington, D.C.; National Science Teachers Association, l969), p. 59- The . cial herita behaviors i l“ a synthe manpower e5 gress. The harméssing tor Gene ral 0f the bene better life the ”105i For productive dUaI'S potl \ Lilla 9- 9. lb bile l04 - Input i-——-)- Process _—_,.- Output The ipppt includes the learner, his inner capacity and his so- cial heritage, the process that will transform input abilities to output behaviors is the curriculum, its aims, concepts and attitudes and values in a synthesis of learning experiences, and the output is the educated manpower essential not only for economic growth but also for social pro— gress. The process of accelerated growth is facilitated by exploring and harnessing the country's human and material resources. Rene Maheu,4 Direc— tor General of UNESCO states that development can only succeed in the eyes of the beneficiaries if the objectives for growth hold the promise of a better life. He asserts that:5 What development should properly be is a transformation of the human condition that improves the Quality of living. Of all the means for bringing about this transformation, the most decisive is probably education. For developing countries, education has a dual role: it increases ProductiVe capacity and it contributes to the fulfillment of the indivi- dual‘s potential and satisfies his need to know and explain.6 According AMalcolm S. Adiseshiah, It is Time To Begin (Paris: UNESCO, l972), lbid. 6Malassis, Programming of Rural Education, p. 20. — USU LO WELOU C_ uEUEQ0_0>®D QWLUCOU or.“ —NUCUEC0L_>CU L0 C0_u3 HEQEDO_W>1T _NEO_UNZ k0 w~m00 Du .DDOX 0ofiLUh3... ~qCCh£nC u( L_((L OHUWUJVN AJQUJOIUJQC~ 0U L C< m‘ o>_uo:voLo >_~m_ucouoon ucoEcoL_>co ocu o>0caE_ Cu woum>_uoe : ucoEcoc_>co ogu to» voCLoocoo i oumcou__ >__mucoEcoL_>co I L®3O CMZ UvHMUDUm >u_c:EEoo ocu c_ mc_>_0mqu_noLm mo_u___omm >u_c:EEoo ucm monpm> eco m_mom _mucoEcoc_>co oocmzco cu mo_moumcum mc_comoh >omcou__ _mucoEcoL_>co LOw moo:u_uum eco mommoooLa .muaoocoo co_umo3co _mu:oEcoL_>co Ou monomOLQQm vcm mo>_uoohno .m—moo mouLJOmoc _MucoEcoLm>co *0 mm: moosu_uum _mocoEcoL_>co ommu_co£ _m_o0m msumum o_E0coooio_o0m mo_u_omomo _oucoE wumocouc_ vcm meow: Locho4 hsmhso mmmuomm Hamz_ .o_:uo .mucoEcoL_>co .>Lconumo o>_uo3U0co vcm mc_onu__o3 .m:n_>_vc_ .mmc_ucmumcocc: fimu_mo_ooo ”co_umoscm .mucoE:oc_>cm mo mo>_uoofiao » .u_ . cu Lm__:ooa mco_u_vcoo o_E0cooo new _m_o0m ecu mo mEcou :_ ucoeao_o>on ._mcsu_3o .mco_umc mo m_m00 ucoan_o>on _mco_umz mo m_moo cu co_umo:om ~mucoEcoL_>cu wo co_u:n_cucoo ozu oumcum:___ Ou .opoz u:Qu:0:u:Q:. c< _ .m_u lOS to Malassi not only r lex acc tic If talproble exPerienti of good ec tional prc envirOnmer taking int actions. Environmer of the StL W Lac envirUnmer Ember Edu . Ma United Sta 106 to Malassis,7 an education that promotes and propagates new ideas begets not only new things, but new men. He explained that:8 It changes men's attitudes and relationships, raises the level of their aspirations and makes it easier for them to accept and assist in the change which is an essential condi- tion to economic growth. Part I. Approaches to Environmental Education and Guidelipgs for its Implementation If environmental education is to meet the challenge of environmen- tal problems that beset developing societies, it must be ecological and experiential. Gustafson9 submits that it must have the three dimensions of good education -- content, concepts and conscience. All the educa- tional programs have a role to improve the student's perception of the environment and help him participate in various kinds of societal action, taking into consideration the total environment in all his ”developing'I actions. Figure 2 illustrates the broad range of approaches possible for environmental education, putting man and his every action at the center of the study. Science Education “v Lacking basic research and resources to develop a curriculum for environmental education, BrennanIO suggests that the best way to get 7|bid. 8lbid. 9John A. Gustafson, ”Content, Concepts and Conscience,“ Interpret— ing Environmental Issues, edited by Clay Schoenfield. (Madison, Wisconsin; Dembar Educational Research Services, lnc., l972), pp. 84-86. Conservation Education in the 1972) pp. 474-75. 10Matthew J. Brennan, ”Environmental United States of America,‘l Prospects, ll (Winter, Fig. MUL I07 Fig. 2 A ”Total“ Education Approach to Environmental Education Showing the Contribution and Interrelations of Each Scheme Toward a Social, Political, Economic and Scientific Outlook Of Man Towards His Environment. VALUE EDUCATION RURAL AND AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION SCIENCE EDUCATION I DEVELOPER MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATION COMMUNITY EDUCATION 1 CONSERVATION EDUCATION environmer science wi environmer I all fields i tally lite | riculum tc or out of Bel have to re ronment is ing Proces Sor Should per 1. earth, 5p, land we w. 2. 3. me W "elm-a] SL \ ii, 108 environmental education in the curriculum is through the textbooks in science which use conservation concepts as their basic themes. Although environmental education is multidisciplinary and draws its content from all fields, an understanding of the sciences is basic in the environmen- tally literate individual. This means utilizing the present science cur— riculum to bring relevant environmental experiences to the child in school or out of school. Before the environmental ethic attitudes can be developed, it will have to rest on considerable understanding about the environment. The envi- ronment is the supporting medium for the learning process and the learn- ing process in turn, aims at producing specific effects in the environment.H Some themes that are inherent in environmental education and which should permeate conceptual goals in science are: I. The earth-life complex is a closed systgm. In our spaceship earth, Space and resources are limited and we have all the air, water and land we will ever have. 2. Life is tied up with relationships existing between the earth and the sun. The sun is the ultimate source of energy on earth, be it fos- ‘— sil fuels, electrical energy or the very energy we need for human operations. 3. All living organisms including man are dependent on the environ- ment and with one another. Each community has its own influence on the natural surroundings and their interactions create a situation called dy- namic balance of nature. Biotic communities differ because their physical IIAdiseshiah, It is Time to Begin, p. 96. surroundir ll. and being the only l of the sy: the power 5. land 0r w, ing Capac or destro. 6. depletion in residu. PEOpIe im: tation an 7. the w “& Ci Where ”at to Condit life and | 8. 109 surroundings and environmental factors vary. 4. Man is an integral part of the envirqpmgpt, inflpggging it and being affected by it. As an inseparable part of the system, man is the only rational species that has the ability to alter the relationships of the system - - enhance it or destroy it. With his wisdom, man also has the power to manipulate his environment for optimum environmental quality. 5. All livin or anisms lants or animals have ran es of tole- Lgpge for certain enviropmgptal factors. Each environmental factor: air, land or water -- is a strand in the web of life and is subject to carry- ‘ ing capacity. Pressures upon the capacity of limiting factors may weaken 1 or destroy the systems depending upon them. 6. Increasing populations and rising levels of living impggg greater demands on the natural rescurces and prpmpte envirogmental dete- rioration. Too many peoples with rising levels of consumption cause rapid depletion of resources. Increased industrial production inevitably result in residuals which contaminate the environment. Impoverished masses of people impinge upon the facilities of human settlements, i.e. housing, sani- tation and water facilities, transportation, education, etc. 7. Man's economic, social and political welfare is dependent upon the manner and extent to which he utilizes and manages the natural resour— gggp Civilizations have perished through misuse of the environment -- where nature was dominated and exploited. Resource use must contribute to conditions in which men can facilitate their biological and social life and maintain a partnership with nature. 8. A profound and deep-seated reépect for the earth and all living things should be established in the conscience of all people. An environment. hances a ha i and reSpons that ethic. be consider Conservatic In 5 environment other. Con '“9 about t herican As the chalien peep I than than thei In a instilled i the Student “W- If w Zen:then e mat Can C0 servatio”. oisoiy nut Seied SPEC] llO ethic reflects a commitment to act in a manner that en- environmental Trusteeship toward land hances a harmonious relationship with nature. and responsibility for the welfare of future generations are part of that ethic. The esthetic and spiritual value of natural resources should be considered along with their economic values. Conservation Education In spite of the tendency to interchange conservation education with environmental education, they must be considered as complimentary to each Conservation education has two goals -- development of understand- other. The ing about the environment and deveIOpment of responsible concern. American Association of School Administrators made a statement that poses the challenge to education concerning conservationzl2 resources of the country are in the hands of the The natural people. The manner in which they will be used will be no better than their understandings and beliefs. They can do no better Their purposes will be no higher than than they know how to do. their innermost convictions. In a developing country, there must be conservation consciousness instilled in the students as future decision makers. From such a concern, the students can also derive their motivations to improve their environ- ment. If we are to regard conservation as a reSponsibility of every citi— zen, then every school must provide simple, clear and direct activities that can convey meanings, values, and insights into the practices of con- servation. The areas for concern in developing countries are: depletion loss of wilderness areas, endan- Of soil nutrients and forest resources, gered species and water resources. IZAmerican Association of School Administrators, In the Hands, p. 37 Effe natural res for one's 5 developing toward life servation c standing ti the balance The from that r a host of - rural Chill there must IUEIS, mai Underlying l. 2. W In tion ShOUl \ l3L A III Effective conservation requires an attitude of appreciation toward natural resources -- toward their value and the value of their wise use for one's self, for our fellow men and for future generations. Part of developing conservation consciousness is the development of new attitudes toward life and the bounties of nature.I3 The concepts important to con- servation consciousness and practices must also contribute to the under- standing that a reckless disregard for other plants and animals and for the balance of nature around us may threaten man's own survival. The conservation approach for the urban school must be different from that pursued in the rural school. Crop rotation, contour plowing and a host of techniques which may easily be appreciated and understood by the rural child have little meaning in the city science class. In the city, there must be more emphasis on trash and garbage disposal, conservation of fuels, maintainance of water resources and the quality of the environment. Underlying themes to these activities are: The wealth of any nation is represented by its natural resources. I. resources re5ult into 2. Wasteful and inefficient use of the natural such calamities as flash floods and landslides, destruction of wildlife and pollution of the environment. Conservation measures must be simultaneous to development of natural resources. Rural and Agricultural Education In developing countries with large rural population, particular atten— tion should be given to rural and agricultural education. It cannot be l3Lee and Sale, Environmental Education, pp. IOA-lOS. treated as goals are c and social forms 0 tion, the 6 Its aims ar 0i Positive community ; Rura education 1 “'9 lives v the flight hension of‘ Where a sut ”ell-being sUbSlStencg and hOUSes: In , rural envi must be Ce‘ \ lLlM‘ 15L l6l Il2 treated as separate entities, but as a harmonious whole, so that their goals are coordinated effectively. In a national program for economic and social development, rural development involves education as one of forms of action which conduce to the growth of agricultural produc- 14 tion, the enhancement of well-being and upgrading of the individual.I Its aims are material (increased production), educational (substitution of positive for traditionalist status quo), and social (development of community and team spirit).]5 Rural education at the primary level is not only to provide basic education for those who will cultivate the land, but also those whose work- ing lives will lie outside of agriculture. Its task is also to slow down the flight from the countryside, and to lay the foundations for the compre- hension of, and receptivity to agricultural progress. For countries where a subsistence economy dominates, its object is to increase physical well-being in particular as regards nourishment and health by modernizing Subsistence agriculture (food crops), to improve living conditions (villages l7 and houses), and to raise craft standards. In the primary level, existing courses need to be oriented to the rural environment and the problems facing the community. The teaching must be centered on the ”knowledge of the environment“, and the teaching ILIMalassis, Programming of Rural Education, p. 23. I5Ibid., p. 2b.. l6lbid., p. 29. I7Ibid., pp. 42_u3. of the so-c powers of c the linguis tical cours in agricult for general The domestic ec tional and asPects of ment as the school gen and PiaCti( Rure goals of or and Second. agricUlturr The COmmun ”Clo-econ. Val Cello“. T lite] deCi \\ l8 Ed P Uta ‘ w, A ll3 of the so-called observational sciences, which are calculated to develop powers of concentration and memory, and provide material for progress on the linguistic side and in arithmetic.l8 In the secondary level, prac- tical courses in agricultural education are needed to propagate advances in agricultural practice for improved productivity and also as background for general education. The concerns of rural and agricultural education would cover health, domestic economy, population balance, agricultural extension work, voca- tional and practical arts, conservation information and praCtices, and other aspects of environmental problems. Rural schools can use the rural environ- ment as their teaching material and can even utilize as specific aids their school gardenS, tenant or family farms, small livestock breeding, handicrafts and practical dietetics. Rural education designed for human betterment contributes to the goals of environmental education by providing the students in the elementary and secondary levels with understandings and skills for the management of agriculture and land resources and attitudes of concern for the environment. The community approach involves rural citizens in cooperative action in the socio—economic transformation of their community. Value Education Valuing is a process that needs to be fostered in environmental edu— cation. Through value education, the student is prepared to engage in CF" tical decision makings, is motivated toward efforts of community development, k 8Pierre Catala, ”Education and Rural Development,” Prospects in My | (Spring, 1969). pp. 8-l2- and to act decisions 0‘ an individui attitudes a not to revi Valu act with va pie clarify making proc health, Civ Othersm su SCience -- will be tau °I that W facts level inst'UCtior The lien, Hawl ilh and to act in congruence with one's values.I9 Making scund environmental decisions often imply making choices among competing values. Only when an individual understands all the implications of holding certain beliefs, attitudes and values is he in a position to decide rationally whether or not to revise them. Values change as new information or new and modified concepts inter- aCt with valuing process skills. Eider20 points out that helping young peo- ple Clarify values and giving them a better understanding of the decision- making process are within the tasks of subject areas such as social studies, health, civics, human relations, sociology and humanities. Harmin and otherSZI suggest that value issues must become a part of the teaching of science —- so much a part of it, that almost no topic in any science class will be taught without some opportunity to consider the values implication Of that content. It means that subjects may be taught on three levels: the facts level, the concept level and the values level. The values level of instruction places emphasis on students' opinions and judgements. The concept of an environmental ethic is entirely a value orienta- tion. HaWkins22 identifies an environmental ethic as a very deep moral a I9Stapp,”Development of Environmental Education Programs,”p. l2. 20Carl A. Elder, Making Value Judgments: Decisions for Today. TeacherS‘ Manual (Columbus, Ohio: Charles Merrill Publishing Co., 1972), pp. l—3. 2IM. Harmin, H. Kirschenbaum and L. Howe, I“Teaching Science with a Focus on ValueS,“ The Scien:e Teacher, XXXVII (January, l970), pp. 16—20, 22Mary Hawkins, ”Developing an Environmental Ethic,” The Science Teacher, XXXVII (September, i970), P- l8- commitment i I to the phys ‘ » of his own pends upon behavior he The indivir ecological interrelati ting an en' The lowing val l. 2. "i llS commitment involving man's relationship with other living organisms and to the physical environment, and involving man's relationship to others of his own species and the behavior of the Species as a whole. This de- pends upon the values an individual may have and may have expressed in the behavior he undertakes in relation to the components of his environment. The individual who takes a conservationist's point of view, encompassing ecological problems and makes his decisions based on a concern for the interrelatedness of the ecosystems in the bio-physical world is demonstra— ting an environmental ethic. The development of an environmental ethic is embodied in the fol- lowing valuing: l. Value the earth-life complex as a closed system. 2. Value the interdependence of man and nature. the environment as source of man's fundamental needs. 3. Value A. Value living things. 5. Value natural beauty and wildlife. 6. Value the diversity in life. 7. Value the impact of the environment upon one's own physical and psychological well—being. 8. Value that man alone is aware ofhis effect on the environment and can estimate the consequence. 9. Value the natural resources for today and for future genera— tions. l0. Value any action that tends to alleviate the problems facing the environment. Youth Orge the such as Bc Extension groups or significai munity eni grams the logical t. and solve In nition of the conse training nization, t0 C0n5er and Caril— 5Clence c CiPies of SUccesg c act'VitiE \ 2. 2i Elli/i mm” (2 ll6 Youth Organizations Whether student groups organize in school-related organizations, such as Boy or Girl Scouts, h—H Clubs, Conservation Clubs or Agricultural Extension Workers' Corps,or participate in out—of—school environmental groups or civic action assemblies, their impact upon a community can be significant, when their activities are oriented toward involvement in com— munity environmental problems. These organizations could be part of ”pro- grams that will provide young people not only an understanding of the eco- logical facts of life, but will move them to action in helping to prevent 23 and solve environmental problems”. In Iran, the objectives of environmental education, i.e., the recog- nition of human environment, the proper utilization of its amenities and the conservation of abundant and rich natural resources -— are part of the training of boys and girls from eight to adolescence in the scouting orga— nization.24 Some activities aimed to motivate youth to observe nature and to conserve its beneficial resources involve tree planting in public areas and caring for them; food production; homecraft; health and hygiene; and science out-of—doors. The training program concur with international prin- ciples of scouting but are adapted to the rural surroundings. To ascertain success of the program, a national rural scouting commissioner coordinates activities of scouts throughout the villages. 23Ira Winn, ”The Education in Environmental Education,” The JOurna] Of Environmental Education, I (Summer, l970), pp. IAO-hl. 24”Report of Iran on Environmental Problems“, National Re orts on Environmental Problems. U.N. Conference on the Human Environment. Ann Arbor, Michigan: Xerox—University Microfilms, I973. An for SUTVII of Michigz sity, loce ded mixed- groups any the other activitie public co In and organ the study the Inter I” I956 a same purp to Create 'hel part servatiol. lions anc the Prote OI: natUI"( \ 25 Pocket Be 2i (Par'81i Il7 An action group in Ann Arbor, called ENACT (Environmental Action for Survival Committee) composed of student activists at the University of Michigan in I970 conducted Teach-in on the Environment in the univer- sity, local schools and general regional community.25 The program inclu— ded mixed-media presentations, environmentally—oriented entertainment groups and two addresses: one by a leader among environmental politicians, the other a leading policy-oriented ecologist. The philosophy behind the activities was to contribute to the building of informed and action-oriented public concern for the human environment. In many countries in Europe, there have been for decades youth groups and organizations, whose principal function has been the encouragement of the study and protection of nature. These organizations were united into the International Youth Federation for the Study and Conservation of Nature, in I956 at Salzburg, Austria.26 Member organizations have in essence the same purpose; to bring young people in contact and sympathy with nature and to create understanding of the complex ecological equilibrium of nature. They participate in exchange of information among member organizations; ob- servations of migratory birds; international census of waterfowl; competi- tions and essay contests; design of posters to be used in campaigns for the protection of nature; evaluation of nature observations; development of nature trails, etc. 2 . . 5John G. Mitchell and Constance L. Stalllngs, Ecotactics (New York: Pocket Books, Simon and Schuster lnc., l970), pp. l6l-68. _ 26R.A. Stevens, Out—of School Science Activities for Young People (Paris: uwesco, 1969), pp. 99—104. In the Protec and for ye of the Mir or week-er ment under expected I tunities ' Sor through 0 Clubs, as SChool ne tions Can COHServat t0 encoUr mental St 5Ch00l as and t0 er and SCIlOo 27 28 Teach]n Printers ll8 In Israel, there is a very popular and well organized Society for the Protection of Nature, which has a variety of programs for both adults and for young people.27 It works in collaboration with the Youth Division of the Ministry of Education. Young people spend their free time, holidays or week-ends in field study centers for conservation, studying the environ- ment under the guidance of trained instructors. The young people would be expected to participate in the work of the centers as well as use the oppor- tunities to observe the nature phenomena in the region. Some techniques to extend environmental concerns utilized by teachers through organized effort are typified in conservation, science and biology clubs, assembly programs, exhibits, conservation field days and fairs, school newspapers and celebration of conservation week.28 Youth organiza- tions can do much to further the cause of conservation through “learning conservation by doing;” to deveIOp recreational interest in the out-odeoors; to encourage research and environmental investigations; to develop environ- mental study areas and landscape of school grounds; to involve students in school assemblies on the topic of conservation or environmental problems; and to arouse conservation interest through exhibits, fairs, posters, movies and school publications. 27Ibid., p. 107. 28The National Association of Biology Teachers, Handbook for Teaching of Conservation and Resource Use (Dansville, Ill., Interstate Printers and Publishers, lnc., I958), pp. 249-89. Environme Th instructi environme facilitie '- In_ts j11_£t Er science 1 Standing environme Envirohm, the same Ings. Al Hurd29 h general affairs In tune IL mental p \ 2 TeachErs p- '8. ll9 Guidelines for Development and Implementation of Environmental Education The guidelines are developed to provide new insights concerning instruction for environmental goals. Attention was given to the aims of environmental education, points of view about instruction, materials and facilities, and concepts of curriculum development. I. Integrate ecology conggpts at all elementary and secondary levels in the science curriculum to make it enviroqmgntally oriented. Environmental concepts serve as ideal integrating elements for science teaching and education, generally. They are relevant to an under- standing of man's place in the biosphere, his interrelatedness with his environment and of the conditions under which he adjusts and survives. Environmental concepts enhance the objectives of scientific literacy. By the same token, environmental literacy is enhanced by ecological understand- ings. An environmentally oriented curriculum in science would be what Hurd29 has described integrated science to be: ”a science program for general education for the masses of peOpIe for understanding contemporary affairs and conditions in science. a powerful curriculum and one more in tune with the times than traditional approaches.” II. Involve the students in acguiring process skills essential to reflective and critical thinking, inquiry and problem—solving. Sensitivity to environment, awareness and identification of environ- mental problems, analyzing them critically and participation in environmental 29Mary E. Hawkins, I'International Conference on the Education of Teachers for Integrated Science,“ The Science Teacher, XL (May, I973), 3 p. managemen They are l mea5uring communica instructi cal conte SIVity, d 0i aCtive inquiry, He learns III. Des Se 0' “Mela "' Contep every lar Student c iled 16m bums tc reach 9UP and Intel \ 3E Itambildi 3 1 IZO management decisions are all aspects of the environmental education goals. They are particularly dependent on the scientific processes of observing, measuring, estimating, predicting, comparing, classifying, experimenting, communicating, inferring, analyzing and drawing out inductions. They are instructional characteristics which must be used with the proper ecologi- cal content. For the student, this means relinquishment of habits of pas- sivity, docile learning, and dependence on teacher and textbook, in favor of active learning in which lecture and textbook are challenged.30 Through inquiry, the student discovers for himself, he experiences, he reflects. He learns by doing and by thinking, not by being told.3I III. Design and sequence learning activities that accomodate diverse needsz abilities, background, environments and developmental stage of the learner. Sequencing with emphasis on related concepts and processes instead of unrelated facts of subject matter in the curriculum will ensure growth in conceptual learnings. A concept when combined with other concepts into every larger patterns grows into a more comprehensive understanding of the student of his environment. Alternative modes of instruction and diversi- fied learning materials would increase the learning effectiveness of all pupils toward their maximum potential. A differentiated approach will reach pupils of several levels of reading ability, communication skills and intellectual maturity. Content can be shaped according to the 30Joseph J. Schwab and Paul F. Brandwein, The Teachin of S ience (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, I962), p. 66. 3IBSCS Special Publication No. 7., Life Science, p. 52. geographi signed to multisens IV. EEBE Ti of the hi tudes an< values wt and the i ethic re must be . T thing in The seco differen be consi ral and E be Part fied if SOlVing l- L 10c \ \ lZl geographical region or ecology of the community. They should be de- signed to facilitate the child's perception of his environment through multisensory experiences. IV. Emphasize the development of attitudes and values. The application of scientific and technical knowledge to problems of the human environment is dependent upon the structure of social atti- 32 tudes and values. It is important to identify those attitudes and values which are necessary to the perpetuation of environmental quality and the development of ”environmental conscience”. The environmental ethic regarding preservation of life on earth and stewardship toward land must be exemplified. Two basic attitudes that must be overcome is the notion that every- thing in this planet was placed here primarily for our benefit and use. The second unhealthy attitude is the belief that man is a unique being, different and set apart from all other living things. Other barriers to be considered are Man's individual freedom in relation to his use of natu- ral and man made resources and traditional values regarding family size. Experiences that influence attitudes about the environment should be part of the learning situation. Attitudes and values need to be clari- fied if students are to participate actively in environmental problem— solving. V. Focus on the real and immediate topics, problems and issues in the h local environment which the students experience and can resolve. 32Swan, “Formation of Environmental Values”, pp. 44-45. Ni lems, his yond the nity is 1 preachin pe0ple lum is e and mate Vi. gEi 32h T in the e and envi both rur ces, en; conclusi E hUman f, the env teach 5! Cience“ CUIar ti \ in EduC ”0 130 l22 When the student is presented with imminent and tangible prob— lems, his learnings are directed toward an end. By being involved be- yond the classroom, the student's experience is enriched and the commu- nity is serviced. The community-action approach cannot be attained by preaching at people, having them memorize textbooks, and having other people take the initiative. Under the community school, the curricu— lum is enriched and vitalized by giving greater utilization of the human and material resources of the community.33 Vl. Utilize to the maximum out-of-class resources starting in the school site and extending into the community. The most efficient laboratory for experiences in search of meaning in the environment 13 the environment. Concepts of ecology, conservation and environmental issues are best taught out—of-doors. Field studies in both rural and urban situations provide students with first—hand experien- ces, enable them to make their OWn investigations and to draw their own conclusions. Elements of interrelation and interaction, and the influence of the human factor in a particular site are best illustrated when learned from the environment. The school site as outdoor laboratory can be used to teach about the environment. The development of an ”environmental cons- cience” is achieved when teaching for the environment with methods parti- cular to outdoor education.3h 33Pedro Orata, ”Community School in the Philippines,” Prospects in Education, 1 (Winter, 1969), p. 52. Cerovsky, “Environmental Education as Integrating Concept,” PP. l30-l3l. the socia vant to 1 sciences ment as and phys academic life and the reso A social r UPON cor factors. Perseti lity. l UHdEFSt. environ VIH. aChTeVe learnin Concept -~““ 3 (Harris beck CC l23 VII. Apply the multidisciplinary gpproach in related subiect areas. The contents of an ecologically—oriented science curriculum and the social studies program should be linked with regard to elements rele— vant to goals of environmental education. In addition to the natural sciences and social studies, awareness and sensitivity to the environ- ment as well as problem—solving, should be involved in mathematics, health and physical education, language arts, music and drama. In virtually all academic disciplines, opportunity exists to drive home the fact that man's life and the quality of his civilization depend upon the rational use of the resources in his physical environment.35 A multidisciplinary approach will develop open-minded attitudes of social responsibility which motivate individuals to make decisions based upon considerations of all economic, political, bio-physical and social factors. Rural and agricultural education need to be emphasized in pro- per setting in so far as they contribute to environmental and social qua— lity. A correlation of the various subject areas would help students to understand the interrelations between the natural, social and man-made environments. Vlll. Evaluation should be an integral and continual process, providing data necessary for the improvement of the program. The concern of the classroom teacher is to measure the extent of achievement by the learners of the outcomes of environmental education learning experiences. The knowledge outcomes refer to the ecological concepts and the affective outcomes refer to feelings and attitudes. 35Eleanor H. Bennett, Guidelines for Environmental Sensitivity (Harrisburg, Penn.: Pennsylvania Department of Education,l972), inner back cover. A i the forma after the class act and (3) t knowledge As tiveness rials. ( lX. ELSE Al poses; (2) to i their ap COmpeten tools; enVironn and inst l at all , 0f envi: tent to mental \ l” Envi Yd rmOUt 12# A description of the behavioral objectives serves as guide to (l) the formal testing of the skills, concepts or feelings, both before and after the learning experience; (2) the processes or involvement in class activities which indicate the extent of the student's progress; and (3) the presence of certain feelings that are observed without the knowledge of the student in unobtrusive evaluation.36 Assessment tools need to be developed also to measure the effec— tiveness of the environmental education program, its facilities and mate— rials. Criteria must be laid out prior to making judgments. lX. Provide for extensive in—service teacher education program. An in-service training for teachers must have the following pur- poses: (l) to orient teachers of the goals of environmental education; (2) to introduce them to current environmental issues, basic concepts and their application and related teaching strategies; (3) to update their competency in using both man—made and natural environments as learning tools; (A) to focus on the role of the teacher as change-facilitator in environmental education and (5) to assist them in preparing teaching plans and instructional materials in particular grade levels. An in-service teacher education program should involve teachers at all grade levels and subject areas. It should also provide for a pool of environmental education specialists and resource leaders who are compe- tent to train other teachers and assist in the implementation of environ- mental education in the classrooms. 36Dean B. Bennett, ”Guidelines for Evaluating Student Outcomes in Environmental Education”, Maine Environmental Education Project, Yarmouth, Maine, l973, pp. lh—lS. ings re those d curricc Of the framewc attainn tion. and 5e( areas. ing tm SUCceg. t0 the Under 0i the Each ] congep ing Ca Cepts exDand ing in ‘7' l25 Part II. Concepts and Processes for Environmental Education ______.________________ Ecological knowledge is an essential foundation for the understand- ings required of environmental education. The conceptual themes such as those developed in this section can be infused into the existing science curriculum and will necessitate some changes in orientation and emphasis of the materials and activities presently in use. These will serve as framework for the organization of learning experiences to facilitate the attainment of the concepts, processes and values in environmental educa— tion. The organizing elements must be so interwoven to provide continuity and sequence to the students' experiences in science and other related areas. A conceptual scheme has been developed on the basis of the follow- ing theme: The earth has finite resources and all life depends on how successfully man can learn to harmonize his use of the earth's resources with natural communities and ecosystems. Five major concepts contribute to the development of the conceptual scheme. Each fundamental concept under a major concept is presented in learning sequence - — and the order Of the sequence will be in the form of a “spiral development,” in which at each level 0f sophistication, the students proceed from the most basic concepts through the entire sequence as far as their maturity and learn— ing capacity will permit them to go toward understanding the major con— cepts or those fundamental concepts. The major concepts of the scheme are expanded with the identification of fundamental concepts. A correspond— ing infusion into the science curriculum may then be made relating to a multidi standir of the the de\ ings wi activii that cc which< Sions thesei to dis. kind 0 SOivin 126 multidisciplinary approach. In the elementary levels, the emphasis is on developing under- standings which will contribute to their effective behavior as trustees of the natural resources and future decision makers and participants in the development of the country. In the secondary levels, these learn— ings will be considered but there will be more stress on problem-solving activities. All learning experiences should be organized around ideas that contribute to the child's conceptual framework under objectives which consider the cognitive, affective and processes and skills dimen- sions in the curriculum. Concepts for Environmental Education , A conceptual scheme for environmental education should include these major themes: I. Living things are interdependent with one another and with their environment. ll. Organisms (or populations of organisms) are the product of their heredity and environment. III. Organisms and environments are in constant change. IV. When matter changes from one form to another the amount 0f matter remains unchanged. V. The economy of a region depends on the utilization of its resources and technology. With these concepts as tools, the teacher may guide his students to discover what is in his surroundings, to place his discoveries in Some kind of perspective that will activate sensory awareness, creative problem- solving and develop an understanding of man's interrelationshipS and use of his l27 of his environment. Concepts for Elementary Levels I. Living things are interdependent with one another and with their environment. Grade I understandings l. Around the school are many different kinds of plants and animals. 2. Plants provide clothing, shelter and recreation. 3. Animals are important to man because they help to serve many of our needs. 4. Plants remove essential elements from the soil. 5. Living things require water. 6. Plants, animals, soil and water are interrelated. Grade II understanding; I. Food is stored in leaves, stems, roots and seed in plants. 2. Plants are the source of all food: animals use, convert and store this food. 3. Animals are dependent upOn an adequate supply of food, water, cover and space. h. Plants and animals live together and depend on each other for some of their needs. 5. Water is made available to living things by a cycle of evapo- ration and condensation. 6. Most living things depend on oxygen in the air. Grade i W l28 Grade III understandin s _______________________Jl_ l. N m #w Energy sources involved in weather include the sun and the rotating earth. Green plants get matter from the environment for growth. Plants provide the soil with cover and protection. Trees aid in controlling water supply. All living things ultimately depend on green plants for food. Man needs the wilderness and natural areas for recreation as well as their economic and scientific value. Grade IV understandin s _______________________S. l. Plants and animals are dependent on each other and their non— living environment. The interaction of most organisms and their environment are reciprocal. Natural predation is necessary in order to maintain a healthy population or certain species in balance with the environment. Temperature, rainfall and other weather elements are important factors which should help us determine our use of the land. Inorganic soil is formed by weathering of rocks, due to action of water, wind, heat and cold. Grade V understandings l. A balance in nature is maintained through the interrelationship of plants and animals and their non—living environment. Organisms may suffer and die when an imbalance in nature occurs. increasing populations require an increase in food production to prevent ecological decline. 6 Grade VI I we; l29 4. Trees influence soil, water, wildlife and the landscape. 5. Individual interaction with the environment creates attitudes and appreciation for the environment. 6. The living world maintains balance through cycles. Grade VI understandings l. Man's use of streams, lakes and the sea provide him with many of his personal and community needs. 2. Forests have many natural enemies (disease, wild animals, do- mestic animals, man, fire and weather). 3. Plants growing together form communities. Each member of the community influences its neighbor. 4. Life within a group imposes duties and responsibilities as well as entailing rights and privileges. 5. Responsibility for maintaining an environment for life and fulfillment of needs and interests is the result of interaction between national and local units of government. 6. Living things interchange matter and energy with the environment. II. Organisms Ior population of organisms} are themproduct of their heredity and environment. Grade | understandings l. Each kind of plant and animal has certain requirments and these determine where it can live. 2. Animals have a habit of living in a certain area, where they are able to satisfy their needs. 3. Plant growth is determined in part by the amount of radiant energy received from the sun. ‘I KW “‘77 Grade 4. Each kind of tree has its shape, bark, wood, leaves, flowers and fruits different from each species. 5. Animals and plants are adapted to their physical environment. Grade II understandings I. Living things are linked by their food habits. 2. Green plants differ from other organisms in that they make and provide food for the living world. 3. Plants reSpond to light, gravity and water. 4. Plants are adapted to a wide range of environmental factors. 5. Special environments require special adaptive behaviors. Grade III understandings l. Different types of animals vary in their organic needs. 2. Living things are organized in form and function to carry on activities that sustain life. 3. The sun's elements are all found in the earth. 4. Space on earth is limited. All living things occupy space. 5. Competition is the foremost of all relationships between living things. Grade IV understandings l. Animals compete for space, food and shelter. 2. Environment determines the kinds of organisms which live in in the community. 3. Living things reproduce and develop themselves in a given environment. 4. Energy from the sun is stored in many forms. 5, The sun is the major source of energy involved in the weather. \ Grade V I l3l Grade V understandings I. A living thing reproduces itself, develops and interacts in a given environment. 2. Living things capture matter from the environment and return it to the environment. 3. A natural habitat has limited capacity for supporting the organisms that live in it. 4. Wildlife must be conserved and controlled to prevent extinction or overpopulation. 5. Continued population expansion in a limited space creates problems with food, clothing, shelter and recreation. Grade VI understandipgg I. A sense of beauty is essential to the well-being of man. 2. Many adaptations to changes in environment are necessary for one generation to another. 3. Man is the sole organism that can consciously modify his own environment. 4. The participation of citizens in a community ensures the creation of a society in which all individuals can develop fruitfully. 5. Man can alter the environment of organisms in order to des- troy or protect them. Ill. gmggmipmimamd environments are in constant ghamgg. Grade I understandings l The air we breathe is common to the entire surface of the earth. 2. 3. Grade ii, I. 2. w I I32 2. Air contains water. Air receives water through evaporation. 3. Air supports combustion. Grade li_understandings I. Nature and man shape the earth's surface. 2. The weather causes constant changes on the earth. 3. The water of the earth is in constant change. 4. Soil holds water. Grade III understandings l. Chemical and physical changes in the earth's crust change rocks into soil. 2. Soil erosion by water, wind, and gravity are examples of the constant change occurring on the earth's crust. 3. Mountains are formed by folding and faulting in the earth's crust, by volcanic action and by erosion of plateaus. Grade IV understandings I. Some rocks and minerals have a plant or animal source. 2. Minerals are classified according to origin and physical properties. 3. Air exerts pressure in all directions. Air pressure can do useful work. 4. Air contains dust and other pollutants. 5. The topsoil on which life depends is a thin layer of the surface of the earth. 6. An imbalance in non-living things exist because of the changes of the earth. I. 2 Grade VI I I33 Grade V understandings l. 2. 3. 4. Changing environments affect living things. Living things have changed over the ages. The oceans are a source of minerals. Some mining operations threaten other resources and are threatened by depletion. Grade VI understandings l. Soils are a combination of minerals, living organisms, organic matter, water and air. Water is self—replenishing and self-depeleting resource; it is intermittently replenished by precipitation and is steadily depleted by evaporation, percolation and surface and under— ground runoff, which may eventually find its way into the sea. Forests are constantly undergoing change, and as they mature, and are harvested, or die, some species of plants and animals may be replaced by others. Wildlife populations are decreased by many natural and man— made factors. The erosion and misuse of productive topsoil has helped to cause disappearance of some nations. A shift in fertility of surface soil can cause a shift in human populations. IV. When matter changes from one form to another the total amount remains unchanged. Grade I understandings I. Water dissolves many substances. , Grade | i. I i i I Grade I M w l34 2. Water expands when frozen. Warm water rises. 3. Wind is moving air. Grade II understandings l. Water evaporates to become a gas - water vapor; and freezes to become a solid - ice or snow. 2. Physical changes in matter can be both constructive or des- tructive. Grade III understandings l. Properties of a substance affect its reaction with other substances. 2. Through the process of decay or decomposition, organic matter is broken down to form soil humus. 3. In chemical or physical change, the total amount remains constant. 4. The sun's energy striking a surface is absorbed, reflected and/or transmitted. Grade IV understandings i. Weather forecasting is based on the knowledge of the weather elements. 2. Chemical changes in matter produce useful products. 3. Matter exists in small units called molecules and atoms. 4. Atoms have weight. Grade V understandings i. The constant composition of the atmosphere can be upset by the activities of man. truc 3. Knov to I Grade VI under: I. Liv the 2. Liv inc 3. Wea as V. The econom I \ w '- Tre con 2- Fei lo; 3- Cei wai la h- F0 dr 5. 0n ma an I35 Chemical changes in matter can be destructive and cons- tructive. Knowledge of the concepts underlying combustion enables us to prevent losses by fire. Grade VI understandings l. Living microorganisms, fungi and small animals help decompose the organic matter in the soil. Living things depend upon bacteria in the soil to convert inorganic matter into usable nitrates. Weather management is carried out by smudge pots, trees used as windbreaks and cloud seeding. V. The economy of a region depends on the utilizgtion of its resources and technology. Grade IV understandings l. Trees and products from trees are vital to the economy of the community, city, nation and the world. Fertile soil was partly responsible for the patterns of deve- lopment and speed of advancement of civilization. Certain land management practices help to reduce the flood waters and silt that small streams empty into rivers and lakes. Forests are important in helping protect watersheds from droughts and floods. One phase of wildlife management is the proper control and manipulation of habitats by man through (a) fire, cutting, and spraying (b) flooding (c) food and cover planting Id) prac Grade V undersi I. Man 2. III 54 3. A n nat ' i. The i and i 5 Pic Iov mar 6- UI’II ra til Gr em I. Th re 4‘» I36 (d) lakes and stream improvement and (e) soil conservation practices. Grade V understandings l. Man uses the resources of his environment. 2. Wise use of community resources tend to assure availability. 3. A nation's physical foundation is its soil. resource, and the nation's success today depends greatly on how well this soil resource is managed. 4. The oceans provide high quality protein for the diet of man and minerals for its industries. 5. Planting, experimentation, selective and clear cutting, fol- lowed by replanting and fire control are part of the work of managing forests. 6. Unwise practices that often result in the destruction of natu- ral resources include soil erosion, fire, drainage and pollu— tion of water. Grade VI understandings I. There are two types of resources - the renewable and non- renewable resources. 2. We hold title to and can freely use our natural resources as stewards or trustees. 3. The nature and abundance of a community's rescurces change during a lifetime. 4. Various kinds of industries will need to depend on the scien- tific method and scientific practices to solve their problems as polluters of the environment. 5. Peoi and res I. Living thi enVl ronmen 1. Gre mat 2. Pia vit 3 In is 'i- In to 5. Pie Pill 6- In th. 7. Sp po II. % I. Th ge 2‘ Li l37 5. People cause pollution and destruction of natural resources, and people as citizens have a responsibility to conserve resources and preVent environmental degradation. Concepts for Lower Secondary Levels I. Living things are interdependent with one another and with their environment. l. Green plants capture Sun energy and combine it with raw materials from soils, water and air. 2. Plants store food in the forms of starch, sugars, proteins, vitamins and cellulose. 3. In one of nature's important cycles, nitrogen from the air is made available to plants and animals. 4. In the carbon dioxide cycle, oxygen is freed and returned to the atmosphere. 5. Plants keep the supply of oxygen in the air constant through photosynthesis. 6. In a biotic community, species tend to interact with one ano- ther and modify the conditions of life with which each exists. Species and environmental factors interact to keep animal population in balance in the community. II. Organisms (or populations of organisms) are the PFOdUCt 0f their heredity and environment. I. The characteristics of a living thing are laid down in a genetic code. 2 Living things reproduce and develop themselves in a given 3. Sp 4. AI va ' 5. Gr in en ”I m l. Th 2. Fc I 3- LI 1+. Cl 5- Ma me IV. m '- Mi 2- 5( Vi 3- PI U 'L TI El V. M '- M. I38 environment. 3. Special environments require Special adaptive behviors. 4. All organisms have limits of tolerance for environmental variations. Group living requires cooperation within and between groups in order to maintain an optimum physical, social and cultural environment for all. III. Organisms and enviropmgpts are in constant change. I. The planet Earth has many examples of geologic changes. 2. Fossils are evidence of former plant or animal life. 3. Living things have changed through the ages. 4. Changing environments affect living things. Man influences living things by changing the environment to meet his needs. IV. When matter changes from one form to another the total amount remains unchanged. l. Matter can be transformed to produce energy. 2. Some minerals are valuable forms of matter which can be con— verted to usable products of energy. 3. Production of electrical energy is dependent upon other na- tural resources. 4. The use of electricity, ”synthetic“ materials and nuclear energy may reduce the pressure of depletion of scarce resources. V. The economy of a region depends on the utilization of its resources and technology. I. Man has learned to conserve and improve soil with fertilizer t 2. F V 3. A t 4. | t 5. R o 6. I 0 7. G a d! Figurl % Figun Grade W lev: W FiQUri % in the Grade I39 and lime, erosion control, irrigation, and other conserva- tion practices. 2. Forest management practices will sustain watershed and pre- vent wasteful lumbering practices. 3. A continuing and adequate supply of useful water depends on the wise use and development of water resources. 4. Industrial pollutants can be disposed of with minimum damage to the environment. 5. Recycling of wastes could diminish pollution and depletion of resources. 6. Individual concern can lead to the enhancement of the quality of the environment. Growing populations and/or increased demands for agricultural 7. and industrial products may cause pollution problems, or the depletion of resources. Figure 3 illustrates a vertical development of the concept: fl_liyipg thing is the product of its herdity and its environment. Figure 4 suggests a horizontal development of a subconcept in the Living things are interdependent Grade IV level of the major concept: with one another and with their environment. Figure 5 suggests a multidisciplinary approach to the subconcept: Around the school are many kinds of plants and animals, for development in the Grade I level. Fl Fig. 3 Grade Level l40 Fig. 3 Vertical Development of the Concept: A living thing is the product of its heredity and environment. Grade Level Subconcepts l Differences and similarities among some common plants and animals Observable changes in some common plants and animals ll Needs of some common plants and animals Living things are linked by their food habits lll Food-getting in plants and animals Competition lV Growth and environmental factors (diseases and health) Plant communities in different environments V Forest and wildlife needs Aesthetic values in nature Vl Conservation of forests and wildlife Adaptation by structure and function of living things to their environment L‘nf—h‘fsu #fl—QLLG‘LCu QLDUQC C_ 002m_mn .lli .i .11 (Jl(.( 4( ”Lu LmJOLcu DOC_MuC_wE m_ IUCOECOLm>CU Lmofsu. fivcm L0£Uocm ”:0 m Cur—U C_>uJ "LQ—UCJ UQWUEOUDJW m. to < uuQOUCOUDDW I» .IS uCUUEUQUULUUCN U E®~2Q0~ Mv>va .Wu CQN .. L0: niULth 4.\ > ~®>®4 UUQLQ .! l4l ._o>o_ mvmcm Lw__Lmo o u . cm ucoan_o>on ecu >L_Emc >__mo_uuo> voao_o>on moEozu _m:uaoocmo fiw>op ovmcm ecu c_ >__muoum~ mvooooLa oEonu ecu mo ucoan_o>op och ”ouOZ 3:3 -m_Lm> 050m u_n_;xo .uc0EcoL_>co ago >__mcocom Aco_um_ .momcmco 0.3m wo muoommo osu Ou iaaoa uo__mov muoofino .oE_u Lo i>comno cospoLa Ou 03w Lo co_um_:aoa Lm~_E_m we QJOLm m cm Uo_coa mcos m co>o Lo AucoEcoL_>cov mmc_ 0:“ c_ ucmcoccm on Lsooo umcu momcmgu ncm oE_u e0 po_coa uLOLm upcsocczm L_ocu ;u_z >mE >u___nm_cm> och mo_uuoaoLq uo>Lomno one o Lo>o Lauoo momcmcu uomcou:_ mEm_:mmLo .pcoEcou_>co mcw>__i50c cmocu vcm m_mEmcm pcm mucm_a mo ma_£mco_um_ocuouc_ osu cm30c£u vu:_muc_me m_ oczumc c_ moan—ma < ”unaccounsm > _o>04 upmcu .ucoEcoL_>co c_o:u pcm Lozuocm oco cu_3 unaccomovcouc_ mum Mdd4lideN44 ”Lone: uaoucounsm m *0 ucoEQo_o>oo _Muc0N_LOI < J .m_u IF4@_ _ UUMLU .W.m.Em.Lmv DEN WHEM.Q k0 WUENV‘ \ACWE ULQ .nvOIUW nvfiu. UC30L< "UQQUCOUQJW 0:9 .UU CUWOLQQ< \AkmuC..\Q..UW..~U..u~3—< d\ W .QNK l42 fillllllllllllllllllllll .voa c_ mvoom Ucm m_muoa m:_ucsou .vouoo__ou mo>mop vcm mco30_m mo mvc_x oz“ mc_uc:ou .mucm_a ucm m_mE_cm mo moczuo_a mc_m: moEmm mc_uc:ou iiiIIIIIIIiIIIIIIIIIIIJ .m.mE_cm mo mcoumoa mc_xmz .mcozo.m combo new mo>mo_ #0 pm: o>_umoco .ocsumc ucm >__EMm usonm mmcm_oow 30cm cu co_oo Ucm monouoxm .cmo_u muoa mamaoox pcm .mmoc_~cmo_u mo wu_nm: mc_umcpmcoaoo .mmemcm vcm mu:m_a EOLm mmEoo umcu vaOm mc_>m_ucmv_ .mo_._Emm pcm wucmcma usOnm m:_x_mh .m_mE_cm usOnm 0L3“ imuou__ o>_uuoaasm .mEme ucm mcopcmm .muoq .mucm_a usonm >cm_:nmoo> mc_vfi_:m .m_mE_cm :u_3 on 0“ mm; umcu m_aowa mo mco_uma:uoo .mucocma L_ozu Lu_3 coLv__Lo mcoEm mou_cm__E_m cam moococowwwo mo.k<2m:ho_ _ oumcu .m_mE_:m vcm mucm_ mo mvc_x cmE mum _oo:om osu vczoL< ”uaoocoonsm map 0“ comoLmQ< >Lm:__a_om_n_o_:z < m .mwu Process Skill Proces so completely taught withox tion are the ture of these matter with v and content 1 only as an at ture, namely, concepts and to Process tl ledge, to ex; "‘3th” into i A prog rate as many Concepts, Chi so that they and meaSUrinS Sequenced acc \ 7Hilc Rationale,ll .Harris StOr pp' 56-57. l43 Process Skills Process and content objectives for environmental education are so completely interwoven that their integration in science cannot be taught without using both. The acts of discovery in a learning situa- tion are the products of the individual's intellectual effort; the na— ture of these acts, however is dictated by the stucture of the subject matter with which the learner deals. This brings the method of inquiry and content into a transactional relationship.37 Content is seen not only as an array of facts to be absorbed but as something that has struc- ture, namely, a way of organizing detailed facts in the light of some concepts and principles. Thus, the learner needs a strategy of inquiry to process these: to relate these facts before him with his prior know- ledge, to explain and understand new phenomena and transform this infor- mation into his own conceptual schemata.38 A program designed to use with conceptual systems should incorpo— rate as many process activities as possible to be effective. To learn concepts, children should have the opportunity to interact with objects so that they also learn such science processes as observing, predicting, and measuring. Gross and Railton39 illustrate that there is no need for sequenced acquisition of the process skills nor do they have to be taught 37Hilda Taba, “Learning By Discovery: Psychological and Educational Rationale,” Readings on Teaching Children Science, Louis I. Kuslan and A.Harris Stone, editors (Belmont, Calif.: Wadsworth Publishing Co, l969), pp. 56—57. 38lbid., p 57. 39Gross and Railton, Teaching Science, pp. l7—l8. .l' pig. Conme 40 such as: (hypothi if we d ing), “l ber of that's 1 sizing) tionalli‘ time, h( To teaci that the child municate) etc., materials. The with facts, bui of a COnCept ca ses USed in its are essential t Flgure 6 Concept: W hes the theme . ment and the pm me Cohtent_ Tl em menta] Capa( 40 m. 4i Thinkin Ronald Thro h l U 970 y p. l6. um per 32. Comments and questions are evidences of processes in action, such 35:40 “Hey, look at that! (observing), ”I wonder if. . .” (hypothesizing), I'How can we find out? (testing), ”I'll bet if we did this. . .“ (predicting), ”How many are there?” (count— ing), ”How long is it?” (measuring), ”This one has the same num- ber of legs as those but that one has more,” (classifying), ”If that's so, then I'll bet. . .” (inferring, predicting, hypothe— sizing), ”We can't do it that way because. . .“(defining opera- tionally), “But if we test both light and moisture at the same time, how will we know?” (controlling variables). To teach the children, the processes, therefore, it is necessary that the child actually observe, measure, infer, predict, classify, com- municate, etc., act like a scientist and be more involved with concrete materials. The processes cannot stand alone, they must of necessity deal with facts, built up to an understanding of the concepts. The strength of a concept cannot be determined without an understanding of the proces- 4i ses used in its formulation. Both content and process in varying degrees are essential to the development of the thought processes of children. Figure 6 suggests a tri-dimensional model on the development of a concept: Organisms (or population of organisms) are the product of their heredity and environment, based on a content/process design. It identi— fies the theme under consideration, the concepts relative to its develop— ment and the processes to be practiced by the students as they encounter the content. The grade level suggests considerations of developmental stage and mental capacities and the concept represents the unifying structure lbid. thonaId S. Anderson, Alfred DeVito and others, Developing Children's Thinking Through Science (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.f Prentice-Hall, lnc., l970), p. l6 around which ing experienc confronts the events in the gation to en; developed on Figun tive and pro of appreciat Values must they resPOnd 44 Menesini a ness ment high their Chang eleme age, the p Preta aCtio \ 42PaU (WaShlngtOn’ Ada 44 Men I45 around which the teacher organizes process skills objectives of the learn— ing experiences and develops appropriate teaching strategies. The teacher confronts the students with interesting objects, phenomena or discrepant events in the environment; engage the students in strategies of investi— gation to enable the students to come to a new concept or to a concept . 4 developed on a higher level of understanding. 2 Figure 7 suggests some areas of objectives in the cognitive, affec- tive and process skills dimensions for the conceptual theme: A living thing is the product of its heredity and environment.43 The objectives of appreciation, awareness, knowledge and understanding, attitudes and values must take into account the different age levels and different ways they respond to environmental studies. These goals are described by Menesinihu as follows: For younger students, the goal is APPRECIATION, an aware- ness of what environment means and knowing about the environ- ment can add fun to the childhood. For students of the junior high school age, who are beginning to look into the world of their own, the program offers an insight into environmental changes through technology, a sense of the UTILIZATION of the elements of today's world. For the students of high school age, about to enter the responsibilities of young adulthood, the program offers probing questions leading to policy inter— pretations, and to an ENVIRONMENTAL ETHIC stressing positive action. 1+2Paul F. Brandwein, Building Curricular Structures for Science (Washington, D.C.: National Science Teachers Association, I967), pp, 18-20_ 43 Adapted from LeVon Balzer, “Environmental Education,” p. 245. 44Menesini, Environmental School, p. 5. The sun Stimuli and e Living t given Environm of or the (2 Animals Space Shelt CONCEPT‘ ULW fiWEWowmLO k0 WiliiVUAle\Ut.ivu :39 r\ o mqi:¥m WWWUOMQ. 4m>m4 >~ NQ<¥Q .3 .. xx QUU .UCOECOL_>C0 UCW >uhU®LU£ LMUEH L0 UUDUOL E 0 EmchQ C0.HM—3QOQ Lev WEM~CWWLO ”UQUUCOU UIU L ; -n l46 . _ .comumELOm c:o_o ucm mucocuao L.m . caoLm o u o ocaumu r ImQEO .CJ . 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S e .i s n e m w s _ ._mE_cm ecu mo umu_nmc ecu mco_umuqmpm f w d .m _ _mE_cm Eocw mc_ccowcm mmumc mc_ccoooL Ucm moczumc o t s .i.m ianou ucoco _ o u mc_L:mmuE “mumu_ m o mo_um_L e n m k we.n c . .n L m . . m e .m e e _ iopomLmzo ogu mmEm_cmmLo oLu mc_>wmpcoc_ cam mc_>comno u m t .mw o o e l s r . r .i m . $.n a >n3um o m .w M .m.m r Love: m_mE_cm wo co_>mcon mc_pcoooL .J e r e m.h 0.0 cm m:_> _uco _ Mme. mco_um 0L :_m o oo 8 D. m r W . cl n U . m. U. .L . _ . r— U m M .m m m m m N. m a mCNEsmmm cam mc_>comno mm_mE_:m mo Lo_>m;op .n v. s .i .d s n e.m _ o>_u_uanoo mc_umo_c:EEoo can mc_>Lomno t m g g V .I U 0.0 0 r n n t n mci . s n m m e 3m 0 .r. .I e t n mrw c mt We. m H d 9 m o o e n a e w mica. 389: s u n n .I r.f.h a pin C m a .W 9 .WOt m SS N m u i n n w :3: >_ 355 T. Co I. F. A .uCOEc0c_>cv cam >u_couo; L_o£o mo poacoLm ocu bum NmEmecmmLo mo co.um”: o mEm_cm co "uaoucou ecu LOm cm_moo mmoooLm\ucoucoo < m .m_u th n >u3m0n .mLJumC LO C0_um.._UDLQQ< Fig. 7 Environm COGNITIV CLNUCOU .MUCOECOL..>CU “*0 WLQuumE 0p >u..>..u..WCUW WZD—Wzm—L~Q M>.i—.Um~h~l( AFFECTIVE DIMENSIONS I47 Fig. 7 Grid Suggesting Some Areas of Objectives for Conceptual Theme: A living thing is the product of its heredity and environment. COGNITIVE DIMENSIONS Sensitivity to matters of Environmental needs of living things Environmental influences Heredity C L. 8 Complimentarity of organisms C >~ . o u and envrronment U 3 2'3 m a Life cycles and population J.) 5— (‘U . E L Reproduction C 3 O U L (U . . ._ C DiverSIty > V) .C a“) ”5 8‘ “ C ._ 3 Matter-energy interactions .C O 4—1 Ex u U) o L Conservation I'D C E 4-’ ._ ._ L I; U > (00 . . . o ._ _c L 5 Historical, SOClal, cultural 1— v— j . o. c u o aspects of enVironment Q U) ‘—(U ._. <1: C C 4—1 '— E U . . 3 o 3 E Complimentarity of structure m u o o and function > U HE Ln ('0 CC CC H— -—0 >0 M . l d .2 :.5 8'5 USIC, anguage, an art aspects 4—: -—> Qro m C E" . W E 0 ‘ 8 Effective use of senses a s . > m Observation 0 "U44 > 'E‘ 3 S .2 CIaSSIfying, describing LL] CE 3 k S 3 Measurement OL ._ w“; .# Communication m c o 5 0 o Inferring and predicting U) ‘U 3 Data recording and interpreting 3 Problem and hypothesis < formulation Experimentation Problem—solving PROCESS SKILLS DIMENSIONS , ‘ The U nal process. hEIPlng the s racy. The I); development < and the posi‘ The 9 ”St UPOH thi COmposite of teaCherlS ow and the uncle ing method, and PEI‘Sona] Indiv sion require in their Int is all about in the Class transmitted Where the in \ 45 thepr. '01 line Vol, II EV l48 Part III. Some Suggested Teaching,$trategies for Envirqpmgntal Literacy 33d Ecological Copggience The teacher in any classroom occupies a key role in the educatio- nal process. In environmental education, the teacher is responsible for helping the students attain the goals of functional environmental lite- racy. The basic objective of the teacher is to assist students in the development of ecological understandings of the bio-physical environment and the positive attitudes and values toward the improvement of its quality. Teacher's Changing Role in Environmental Education The effectiveness and success of the environmental education program rest upon the teaching method of the teacher. The teaching method is a #5 The composite of three facets: Personality, Strategy and Philosophy. teacher's own philosophy of education, the philosophy of the curriculum and the underlying philosophy of the school system will all influence teach- ing method. It is clearly impossible to isolate Strategy from Philosophy and Personality. Individualized instruction under the scheme of continuous progres- sion requires a change in the patterns of teachers' behavior, new roles in their interaction with students and a new perception of what instruction is all about. The conventional role of teacher autonomy and authority in the classroom needs to be discarded and to the students instead must be transmitted the reSponsibility of managing his own learning environment. Where the instructional approach involves self-pacing materials and the “Slolo Wyn Williams, “Teaching Methods in Integrated Science at the Primary and Secondary Levels,” Trends in Integrated Science Teaching, Vol. II, p. 71. student oper required: c than demand, situation, a of the chi Id in order to the choice 0 Open inquiry Pilate quest of informati The t tudes and Va teacher who aVOld teachi Students! pr the teacher inward 100k 'YS'S of his "hat he does mental edUCa \ Jam % Ter l49 student operates in an activity-centered environment, a role change is required: counsel more than tell, guide more than lead, encourage more than demand, respond to more than require to."6 In a student—centered situation, another role takes on a new importance: ”that of observer of the children's present experiences, who analyze these observations in order to develop the insight and understanding necessary for making 47 Where there is the choice of relevant future experiences for them”. open inquiry, the teacher provides materials and resources, asks appro— priate questions and provides information or directs students to sources of information.L'8 The task of assisting students in the development of their atti- tudes and values about the environment needs careful consideration. The teacher who is concerned with environmental education cannot legitimately avoid teaching about values if he wants to have a realistic impact on his students' present and future citizenship behavior.49 The first step for the teacher to meet the demands of environmental education is to have an inward look on his OWn knowledge and value systems. It calls for an ana- lysis of his own environmental attitudes, because a teacher cannot give what he does not have. Terry50 commented that teachers offering environ- mental education courses without 5ubjecting their own environmental ueISCS Newsletter, No. IO, September, I972. p. l. 47 A8Williams, ”Teaching Methods in Integrated Science,” p. 78. Karplus andThier, A New Look, pp. 80—8]. 49James P. Shaver, “Environmentalism and Values,” of Environmental Education, II (Fall, l972), p. SI. 5 The Journal OTerry, Teachingyfor Survival, p. l6. attitudes tc students be< ecological i principles 1 tributed to PIanr the attitude is difficuli need to knov class and ii teacher Canr a build-up c Interests, t tin: of an E Deali 50Clety.52 i 'IC issues v examination Cher Should about the er Clari \ 5i ‘ t' Cli 'Onf'lhfi_: 52She l50 attitudes to criticism are educating for hypocrisy. He adds that if students become academic experts on ecology, yet cannot see their own ecological roles and cannot judge their own lives by the ecological principles they have learned, environmental education will not have con— tributed to environmental quality. Planning a quality curriculum without first pre—assessing some of the attitudes and values the student currently holds about the environment Si is difficult and inefficient. Before an activity is planned, teachers need to know about the different types of attitudes represented in the class and instruction is planned accordingly, considering each type. The teacher cannot impose his values, nor can he moralize; he can only provide a build-up of experiences that will help develop a student's attitudes, interests, beliefs, goals, aspirations and feelings that would be indica— tive of an environmental value. Dealing with values, the teacher has to be an agent of a democratic society.52 He has the right, an obligation to guide the discussion of pub— lic issues within the context of basic social values and to encourage the examination of personal values as they relate to public issues. The tea- cher should assist the student in clarifying his attitudes and values abOut the environment. Clarifying attitudes and values as a teaching strategy leads stu- dents to examine his own position, maybe defend his own position to the 5'Clifford E. Knapp, ”Attitudes and Values in Environmental Educa- tion,II The Journal of Envirogmgntal Education, III (Summer, 1972), p, 28, 5 2Shaver,“Environmentalism and Values,” p. SI. class, make the soluti0i that of prei dure, the ti Teachers mu: atmosphere threat of r the student: ing to theii The i the scienCe door activit eWironment, tegrai part ti0n, the te much as Poss maturat30n a the enVli‘Onm Outli “ but \ Ja Teachin ’ e PrentICe.Hal Ibi SSKar‘ l5l class, make decisions about issues and consider appropriate action for the solution of issues.53 The teacher's role in this method is neither that of preacher nor that of passive listener. In a clarification proce- dure, the teacher strives to establish a climate of psychological safety.54 Teachers must refrain from making harsh judgments and instead provide an atmOSphere in which children will feel free to express themselves without threat of ridicule and derision. Teachers must have tremendous respect for the students, to be concerned with the ideas expressed by them, by listen- ing to their ideas and remembering them. The integration of environmental concepts as unifying elements in the science curriculum makes imperative knowledge about the use of out- door activities. The teacher provides opportunities for exploring the environment, and also for the children's discovery of themselves as in— tegral part of the world around them. In an environmental study situa- tion, the teacher emerges as the crucial individual who needs to know as much as possible about the learner and his intellectual capabilities, maturation and experience.55 The increasing emphasis on the study of the environment and its use as a resource, does not involve mere “going out” -- but a great deal of ingenuity in devising practical investigations 53James Raths, '% Strategy for Developing Values,” Studying Teaching, edited by James Raths and others. (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, lnc., l97l), p. 308. lbid. SSKarplus and Thier, A New Look, p. 8i. with minimum environment. teachers for resource lea pretive work door activit While studies, he as follows: i. T ti 2. Ti 3. Ti Ll. Ti 5. Ti 6- T( 7- T< 8- T( 9- Tc 10- Tc of II- Tc WC The vc Perr 152 with minimum of scientific equipment but with maximum use of the child's environment. Planning involves collaboration and cooperation with other teachers for multidisciplinary applications, with parents and community resource leaders for assistance as volunteer field guides for for inter- pretive work and with older students who can contribute to make the out- door activity a rewarding experiences for the children. While the teacher is rarely the dominant figure in environmental studies, he has complicated funcitons. Perry and others56 explain them as follows: 1. To arouse the children's interest in their environment and to raise challenging problems in connection with it, 2. To discuss the approach to problems or topics, To organize the working groups, 4? w —| O arrange visits or expeditions, U'1 ...| 0 provide reference materials for children's use, 6. To provide materials needed for practical work, 7. To arrange for visiting speakers, 8. To discuss and guide the progress of each group, 9. T initiate and develop discussions and debate, O 10. To persuade each group to explain their work to the rest of the class, and ll. To provide facilities for displays or exhibitions of the work carried out. The various roles the teacher must fulfill to be effective are 56 andbook for Environmental Studies, pp. l4-l9, Perry and others, H summarized l rewarder, ai Where to Tea The ; tion toward litarian anc 0i all envir taught, it economic prc The ”c ClassroOm ma tential is c the total en Place to imp 't Provides roan learnin The Ou are;59 Help y r \ 57B pp. 4042?? Jean D. 2i, A rep‘ Befinc l53 summarized by Massialas57 as: planner, introducer, sustainer, manager, rewarder, and value investigator. Etere to ngch -- Places for Environmental Education The places for environmental education have a significant contribu- tion toward its goals. The study of the environment takes on a more uti- litarian and more scientific context, if we are to regard it as the basis of all environmental learnings and as an essential aspect of every subject taught. it arouses the child's interest in it and to play his part in its economic progress. The “out-of-classroom'I situations can be used to relate traditional classroom materials to the outside world. Any site with educational po- tential is one which accelerates the process of studying relationships in the total environment. Educative environments involve the use of 221 place to impart knowledge and understanding of the way the world works.58 It provides an experience for the child to ask questions and apply class— room learnings to actual surroundings. The outcomes to be achieved from outdoor classroom experiences 59 are: Help young people to understand local, national and world resource-use problems. 5 Byron G. Massialas, ”Inquiry” Today's Education, LVIII (Ma , l969 , pp. 40—42, cited by Sale and Lee, Environmental Education, pp. Sl—Sg. ) 58Jean Worth Matthews, ”Parks and Processes,” Trends, July, 197l), p. 2i. A reprint. 59 Bennett, Guidelines for Environmental Sensitivity, p. l3. Supp Pr0\ Help Deve The to grade le Grai Gra< Grac I Y: Env (2) C0mmUI areas; and evaluating teacher to l. 2. 154 Create an awareness and an understanding of the environments and its effects on everyday living. Supply educational experiences which bridge the gap between the classroom and the natural environment. Provide a better understanding of the interrelationships funda- mental to living things. Help to recognize natural resource problems and issues. Develop a high sense of individual responsibility to analyze problems and corrective measures relative to physical and natural environment. The scope and sequence of the use of study environments according to grade levels may be as follows: Grades l - 2 : the school Grades 3 — 4 : the neighborhood Grades 5 - 6 z the community I Year - II Year: may be related not only to school, neighbor- hood, community, province, or country, but extended to the world with regard to problems concerning the environment. Environmental study sites may be classified as: (l) school site; (2) community resource and facilities; (3) natural ecological study areas; and (A) environmental education centers. A set of criteria for evaluating a field study site or community resource which will help the teacher to make the best use of these resources are as follows: l. IS the site suitable for the objective under consideration? 2. Is the site meaningful for age and developmental levels in the class? 3. Will the resource be used within a thirty to forty minute 6. k diately ava Pregram. Tl school Site be used, su. cal feature and bad Cha loped,60 ill including 1, the School S'te seleCt '0 the tota an eCOIOSic. histmy inti Cream)” an The i learn]ng ex] rel Elations \ Fa 60Edi ~ 6lRii “on” Main: ) 155 period, including walking to and from school? 4. Can the experience be linked with other subject areas? 5. Is the site safe from hazard? 6. Is the site practical in terms ofaccessibility and convenience? The School Site. The existing school facility is the most imme- diately available resource for implementing an environmental education program. To realize its full potential as a learning laboratory, the school site and plant must be inventoried to determine how they can best be used, Such as the geographical characteristics of the site, the physi- cal features of the building, environmental problems of the site, its good and bad characteristics and what site areas or nearby areas can be deve— loped.60 When the situation arises, students, teachers and the community including local government assistance, should participate in developing the school grounds as facility for environmental education. With proper site selection, planning and development, the school site can contribute to the total educational process. It can perform these related roles: as an ecological laboratory, an environmental management laboratory, a natural history interpretative area and a multiple-use school and community re- creation area.61 The outdoor classroom on the school site is a place for creative learning experience; it gives depth, meaning and new dimensions to gene— ralizations about and understandings of man's relation to his environment. 60Educational Facilities Laboratories, Environmental Education/ Facility Resources, p. 6'Richard H. MacGown, ” The School Site in Environmental Educa- tion”, Maine Environmental Education Project, Yarmouth, Maine, l972. p.l. Much can be door classr l. 99mm '0'“ EnvirOn iiiiillediate 5 dents, it m rOnmental 1 dent's own accessible 'aciiitieg) partiCular QdUCatIOn. ihe WOI‘kab The Ces QEared \ 62SO 156 Much can be learned from textbooks, lectures and discussions but an out— door classroom in the school site provides the following:62 l. Children can learn directly £52m the natural environment, as well as 2223i it. 2. Its use requires no special permit, no time-consuming arrange— ments for transportation, etc. and involves no shifting of time.schedules. 3. It is immediatelyaccessible to children and teachers. h. It is immediately available for continuous studies, for unex- pected observations, for supervised individual study projects and for capitalizing on the ”teachable moment“. ggmmynity Resources and Facilities. The use of community facilities for environmental education puts students into the real world. While their immediate surroundings and community facilities may be familiar to the stu— dents, it meets the issue of relevancy when viewed and analyzed for envi— ronmental learning. When the school site has limitations, even the stu- dent's own backyard,a vacant lot, a wooded area, a garbage dump, or any accessible community facility can provide first—hand learnings. Health facilities, market places, shantytowns, industry and economic enterprise particular to the community all have roles to play toward environmental education. People, places and things in the community can form part of the workable curriculum. The entire community becomes a facility for learning with experien— ces geared toward improving the local environment. A community survey 62 Soil Conservation Service, Outdoor Classrooms on School Sites, p.2, le provide tures and cl graphy, the environment. the involvel tion that w Comm 0“ a proble its problem POtentially Rega class by pr the 9r0up t eXPéCted of (2) Cloge t things that EEEfl riOUS biotl Vide Unlim‘ COnserVath tems are n from iarge these natu \ 63S 157 will provide a wealth of data concerning the natural environmental fea- tures and characteristics of the community, its economic and social geo- graphy, the human environmental use areas and its characteristics and the environmental problems of the community. This information obtained with the involvement of the students will motivate them to participate in ac— tion that will improve the quality of their life. Community resource persons can also provide needed information on a problem. As leaders and experts, they can assist student groups in its problem—solving efforts. Community agencies and organizations may be potentially helpful for youth environmental organizations. Regardless of the resource utilized, the teacher must prepare the class by pre-planning. Two simple rules to follow are:63 (l) Orient the group before they are taken out. Tell them what to expect and what's expected of them, what to look for, and what the desired outcomes are; (2) Close the field exercise with a short critique — a review of the things that were learned. Ecological Study Areas. Rural areas have natural sites with va— rious biotic communities and diverse geo-physical environments, which pro- vide unlimited opportunities for the study of ecological relationships, conservation concepts and dependence of man upon other organisms. Ecosys- tems are real -- like a pond, a field, a forest, a river, lake or ocean, from large or small, terrestial or aquatic, laboratory or field. Within these natural sites can also be studied the whole range of natural 63 Shomon, Manual for Outdoor Conservation Education, p. 58. phenomena 5 seashore ec source-use a park,a pl opportunity in s tic compone ral and fur be directei tended to . ronment.64 the studen fUture EXp tem to org qUirY syst in a Cumul tic Phi EnvirOnmel inc, 1, 6S 158 phenomena such as earthquakes, volcanism, faults and flooding. Erosion, seashore ecology, waste disposal, logging, shifting agriculture and re- source-use can similarly be studied. For the urban child, any habitat -- a park,a playing field, an old cemetery or churchyard would provide ample opportunity for studying man's influence on these habitats. In spite of the unique combinations of particular abiotic and bio- tic components in any particular area, there are certain general structu- ral and functional attributes that are recognizable to which attention can be directed. Toward this end, the use of ”environmental strands“, are in- tended to facilitate the process of viewing and perceiving the total envi- ronment.6l+ They can be used as a reference point to interrelate the things the student knows, sees and feels in his own life and with all the student's future experiences and education. They might also be considered as a sys- tem to organize one‘s thinking, planning and inquiring. As a simple in— quiry system, it enablesone toprogress from the simple to the complex in a cumulative manner. . 65 The envnronmental strands are: Variety and similarity. The differences and likenesses which occur among all living and non-living things, conditions, and states. Patterns. Systems or perceptions of systems of structure, func- tion, behavior, and design of things, living and non-living, physical and abstract, cognitive and affective. 6L‘U.S. Department of interior, National Park Service, National Environmental Study Area: A Guide (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office. 1972). p. 35. 65|bid., p. 28. -Pi m shi 9H amc m to and In the learne tion; (2) Parts that 60mposed f m 1'ty for e ters, The 't may be nal park C directing, nitieS 6V5 In iOWing SilC 1. \ 66‘J (MTnHEapO1 6 7E pp. 35-38, 159 Interrelation and interdependence. The dynamics of relation- ships and relativity which exists among all things. Continuity and change. The dynamics of form in time which exists among all things. Evolution and adaptation. The process of survival or the failure to survive of all things in terms of time (continuity and change), and interaction and relativity (interrelation and interdependence). In the study of ecosystems, there are three aspects involved in the learner's perception: (l) the first impression or esthetic percep- tion; (2) the scientific point of view of claSSifying and sorting out the parts that make up the whole; and (3) the total impression that emerge composed from the parts that fit together in an area. Environmental Education Centers. A more sophisticate level of faci— lity for environmental education is found in environmental education cen- ters. They have specific environmental education programs, facilities, and resources which are developed, preserved and interpreted by a staff. It may be an outdoor education school with resident facilities, a natio— nal park or preserve, a regional environmental study center with resident or non-resident facilities. The center's services are oriented toward directing, corrdinating and interrelating a multitude of study opportu— nities available throughout its environs. In the development of an environmental education center, the fol— 67 lowing should be considered: 1. The natural environment must serve as a major educational 66Janet Nickelsburg, Field Trips: Ecology for Youth Leaders (Minneapolis, Minn.: Burgess Publishing Co., 1966), p. l. 6 . . . . . 7Educational FaCIlities Laboratories, Envnronmgntal Education, PP. 35-38. The school sys the COUntr funds rais joint vent Vide setti interns fr M3“ The with a mor COnStant u learn mOre not Only a mals, 50H area, but A s I60 facility on any program. 2. Elements of effective teaching and cooperative living are brought together, especially in resident programs, where social, psychological and educational considerations must be fully met. 3. Multi—purpose, convertible facilities for total community use will ensure year-round opportunities. h. Outdoor facilities such as nature trails, laboratory stations, amphitheater, recreational facilities, etc. must be developed with- out disturbing the natural aspects of the site. The environmental education center may be owned and developed by a school system, or the program may be incorporated in the parks system of the country. It can also be operated as a public-private venture with funds raised from endowments, membership fees or special donations. As a joint venture of schools and private or public agencies, it will also pro- vide setting for the training of personnel in environmental education and interns from schools of education, forestry and natural resources. Strategy 1. Explorations in the School Grounds The school grounds as an outdoor laboratory provides the teacher with a more extensive environment to achieve some objectives. Through a constant use of this facility, the teacher has a greater opportunity to learn more about the flora and fauna in the school grounds. It involves not only a qualitative appreciation of the different kinds of plants, ani— mals, soil and terrain that characterize the types of habitat in the local area, but a particular association of plants and animals that live there. I i l A scaled map of the school site should be prepared and areas for J, exploratiou garden plot lawn, wood areas may I studies. The Specific 9 Sign their IOP and to £92 Provides b climate or soil Chemi B. more Fapic water fron fungi and 135 Pic Which in the IN! by the CI. and InVes nity may usEd for 161 exploration should be marked off clearly, such as cultivated site or garden plots, unplowed areas, roadway, denuded playground, fence, grass lawn, wood lot, swamp, etc. The characteristics of these identified areas may be the basis of an on-site discussion, prior to environmental studies. The suggested activities in this section are not directed to a specific grade level, but are presented as exemplars for teachers to de- sign their own activities appropriate to the concepts they wish to deve- lop and to the developmental stage of the students involved. Concept Development. A. Major concepts. The physical environment provides basic essentials for life. Differences in the parent material, climate or vegetation influence the physical characteristics of the soil, soil chemistry and the organic composition of the soil. B. Subconcepts. Certain soils will permit water to infiltrate more rapidly, others, less rapidly. Some soils are good at “lifting up“ water from deeper layers when the surface is dry. Living microorganisms, fungi and small animals help decompose the organic matter in the soil. Topic Web. The 'toplc web' is an attempt to show areas of the to- pic which might be used as starting points in pre-trip discussions. Areas in the ‘web' for detailed coverage will depend upon the emphasis desired by the class and the interest expressed by the students. Explorations and investigations about the given topics in the school grounds or vici— nity may be the primary objectives or some aspects of the topics may be used for supplementary projects of investigation. Soil Textu Struc M I. soil and w 2. ment of th 3. deVEIOP sl< Ll. appreciati & i'e-i the materiai c iOund, Th 162 Temperature Humidity Wind ve10city Soil profile Capillary water SOIL AND WATER RELATIONSHIPS “““'Gravitational Texture water Structure Soil permeability Soil fertility to water Water-holding capacity Fertilizers Ability to supply water Manure/humus and nutrients to Livin com onents plants 9 p Objectives of the outdoor activity I. To help students understand some of the relationships between soil and water; 2. To investigate the role of some living things in the develop- ment of the soil; 3. To sharpen powers of observation, Stimulate curiousity, develop skills in gathering and recording data; and 4. To develop in students Sensitivity, awareness and ethical appreciation of all environments. Area discussions. In studying the soil of a particular site, i.e., the school site, the first step is to determine where the parent material came from and how it was transported to the spot where it is found. The texture of the soil should be carefully examined. Is it coarse like gravel or some sands? Or is it fine like silt or clay? P'" Ilhat could soil mater the vicini clues of t horizons 0 IE cut off bo school gro dy, clay, ground, ma the same d more than record the group may tYPes and B. '0 I " bor with a ple of aSCent of time, of this 3, C. and WatEr \ 68 . A W ~ ": : ' , A 7,- _.z_-—.a4 ear/Vt. 163 What could be the diameters of gravel, sand, clay or silt? Because most soil material is the product of weathering, what clues could be found in the vicinity to indicate its possible source? Would a soil profile show clues of transport and deposition? What would we find in the different horizons of the soil? Area studies.68 A. Select several tin cans of equal size and cut off both tops and bottoms. Choose the pre—identified sites in the school grounds. Determine the particular soil types in the area as san- dy, clay, adobe, loam or humus. Work the cans 1/2 to 3/4 inch to the ground, making sure in each case that the can is forced into the ground the same distance. Care should be taken not to disturb the ground any— Pour a measured amount of water in each can, and (Each more than necessary. record the time it takes for all the water to enter the soil. group may work out their investigations in all designated sites and soil types and record and report on their findings in the class discussion.) B. Pack clay soil into a wide diamter glass tube, say about 1/2 to l ” bore. Pack another tube of same size with sand. Block one end with a piece of fine gauze. Immerse in a bowl of water. Note the speed of ascent in each case and the total ascent of water after a given period of time. Record the observations. (Can the students design a variation of this exercise?) C. Put several live earthworms in a glass jar of subsoil, feed and water them. Some groups could put their jars in different environment, 68Adapted from G.A. Perry and others, Teachers' Guidebook No. l EDXiLQflfléfltal Studies (London: Blandford Press, 1968), pp. 36-37. i.e., wind the elemen desire. M worms for life of th the end of jar, obser The the Parana range of c variety of Shore and can best i that we 9;, tact With The Changes .- rents, and the drying Streams f” tic”s “Eceg 0f tolerant PErIOd of i ability of 161+ i.e., window sill of the classroom, out in the school yard exposed to the elements, in a dark corner of the room or in as many places they desire. Make a daily log of observations and care given to the earth- worms for a period of two weeks. What variables are important to the life of the earthworm? What observations can be made on the soil after the end of the period? (If pupils should pour too much water into the jar, observe the effects of flooding and poor drainage.) Strategy 11. The Seashore Along the Bay The Manila Bay seashore is a rich area to explore, be it along the Paranaque beach or the Malabon-Navotas section. It offers a wide range of conditions, presents many different habitats occupied by a great variety of organisms. The study of ecological communities along the sea— shore and their relationships with the varying factors of the environment can best illustrate that the health of the entire ocean hinge on the care that we give to the waters near the coast and the lands that are in con- tact with it. The seashore community is subject to a wide range of environmental changes -- change in surface temperature of water, tides affecting cur— rents, and number of hours a beach is covered by the waves or exposed to the drying air, and salinity fluctuations when diluted with fresh water streams from Laguna Bay, Marikina River and Malabon River. These varia— tions necessitate adaptations among organisms to give them a wider range of tolerance to varying amounts of salinity in the water, such as longer period of time for fresh water to remain unmixed with sea water and the ability of animal organisms to hold their footing against forces of pounding, biota whic ing the po tice of ma would be i the resour M provides b mals have organisms location, trolling p B Own unique port a div ICCted to distributi M l. habitats e 2. adapt to \ 3. and Identi Ll. 165 pounding, pushing and pulling of breakers. All these factors add to a biota which differs in many ways from that of open beaches. Consider- ing the pollutants that Pasig River dumps into Manila Bay, plus the prac- tice of making sewage of the sea, the consequences on the aquatic life would be impressive, affecting the conomic life of people depending upon the resources of Manila Bay. Concept Development. A. Major Concepts. The physical environment provides basic eseentials for life. All living organisms, plants or ani- mals have ranges of tolerance for certain environmental factors. Living organisms react to all factors of the environment, in their particular location, but there frequently occurs a discrepant event which has con- trolling power through its excess or deficiency. B Subconcepts. Habitats vary in size and quality, each with its own unique conditions. The shallow and upper regions of ocean water sup- port a diverse community of animal life. The seashore community is sub- jected to a wide range of envirOnmental changes. Population density and distribution within a community are dependent upon many factors. Objectives of the Field Trip 1. To identify the variety of organisms that occupy the different habitats along a seashore. 2. To illustrate the different ways by which the types of life adapt to variations in the seashore environment. 3. To observe the means by which pollution has affected the bay, and identify possible kinds of pollution. 4. To develop in students sensitivity, awareness of the marine environment cern for ii an Factors Tide Sal Temi Sed Nut Pollut Ind Sew Sol BIS dents conc ocean? Wh Ini of enViron in the Sec r0ck Zones SOurCe Oi: date of fi be measure diffErEnt 166 environment and its economic significance to man, and to develop a con— cern for its quality. Topic Web. Factors affecting organisms Tidal ebb and flow Salinity in water Adaptations Temperature High and low tide Sediments horizons Nutrients Under-rock zones ECOLOGICAL COMMUNITIES IN THE INLAND SEASHORE Dependence among organisms Pollutants Industrial wastes Sewage Solid waste Diversity of organisms Coastal installations Dredging Drainage Pre-trip discussions. What are some of the concepts of the stu— dents concerning animal life on the seashore and shallow waters of the ocean? What is the importance of the ocean to Filipino life? Initial class work and study should first introduce the wide range of environmental changes that occur in the seashore of Manila Bay. Identify in the section to be explored the high and low-tide horizons and the under- rock zones. The Office of the Coast and Geodetic Survey would be a good source of information of time of high-tides and low-tides on the proposed date of field trip. How would salinity of the water at different points be measured? What are the differences in temperature of the water at different hours of the day and its effects on various organisms? What would be tl' The conditions and comnun LIE note of th factors ir B. as many ty C. an aquari D. tion obse Be I-e-, the the seasl E l tYpes to graph gr 2 to act - the film rap Sha FECOmme 167 would be the effects of waves upon the marine life on the bay? The class discussions must be centered on points to observe and conditions to identify with regard to adaptations, diversity of organisms and communities and the understandings of the concept of pollution. Field Activities A. Group work in collecting specimens, taking note of their habitats, observing and recording adaptations to different factors in the biota. B. Study of algae growth. Collect samples of algae and try to get as many types for classification and mounting. C. A study of the clam. Collect living specimens and put them in an aquarium with brackish water. D. Pollution in the bay. Record the presence and kinds of pollu- tion observable in the area and the possible sources of pollution. Before leaving the seashore, the group discussions may be held, i.e., the state of mutual interdependencein the communities along the the seashore. Post-field trip activities I. To determine growth of algae, transfer samples of different types to a jar of sea water, relatively clear of algae. Record and graph growth. 2. Make periodic observations of a clam, when it moves or begins to act like it is alive. If there is a need to identify and understand the functions of its parts, open the clam's shell. It is necessary to rap sharply on the ventral edge of the shell or slit the hinge in the recommended procedure with the shell remaining intact however opened. Try to ide the varIOi 3. ecologica Ll. shore to]. you obser in the en F shore, th ing them? Ii iihat is t Ii of algae ( erlVironmg S. COiiimunit 6 COnservgi anSWei-ed 168 Try to identify as many parts as can be distinguished. Draw and label the various organs within a clam and make a table of their functions. 3. Group reports on environmental factors that might disrupt ecological communities on the seashore. 4. Class discussion. To what extent can an organism in the sea- shore tolerate changes in the physical nature of its environment? Did you observe in some organims some visible effects produced by the change in the environment? From the collective reports, can you make a diagram of the sea- shore, the types of organisms found and the environmental factors affect- ing them? What are the sources of food of the clam and other bivalves? What is the value of the clam to the habitat? What is the common type of algae found? What are the three types of algae that are sources of food for marine life in the intra-tidal zone? Can you make a diagram of the effects of pollution on an aquatic environment? 5. What other plans can be devised by students to explore marine communities along the seashore? 6. In an effort to actually relate the student to the need for conservation in the Manila Bay area, the following questions may be answered as a result of the field trip: a. Were all those organisms (shown in the diagram) always there? b. Where do you suppose they came from originally? c. How do they live, eat and reproduce? l. ledeies of piles thai 2. of materii 3. the day's the Servi Li. in the Se f°re the 5. disrupt t 6. 169 d. Do these organisms compete with each other? How? e. Why are these organisms in this particular place and not in some other place? f. What are the environmental factors which affect them? 9. Is this a good place for them? What might happen if any of the ”good” conditions are changed? Will they always remain there? How important are they to other organisms? If these organisms are left undisturbed, what would be the optimum factors for their continued survival? Teacher‘s Role 1. Encourage beachcombing, tidepool searching, peering under the ledges of rocks, digging in the mudflats and exploring the wharves and piles that jut out into the water. 2. Assign groups for identification, observation and collecting of materials (living and non-living specimens). 3. Safety precautions are essential. (If swimming is included in the day‘s activities, parents' written permission should be necessary and the services of a life guard be available.) h. Pictures, charts and drawings of organisms to be encountered in the seashore should be viewed and discussions centered about them be- fore the trip. 5. Evaluation should focus on the environmental factors that might disrupt the ecology of the seashore communities. 6. Group reports may be displayed on bulletin boards especially if accompanied with pictures and drawings or sketches. The collected specimens i 7. be made fo of group p Strategy l La Greater Ma The plant tional pur area suita cePts as u StL 0f the lal lance. It and relate tionS, Tl Sibilitie1 °f the arr fatter in Th trip on a for Seton £9 matter an are Chara is the SO l70 Specimens might also be displayed.. 7. If a camera is available, a pictorial of the activities may be made for a slide presentations as recapitulation or for evaluation of group processes and inquiry techniques. Strategy Ill. Ecosystgm Analysis of La Mesa Dam and Watershed La Mesa Dam at the outskirts of Quezon City is important to the Greater Manila Area. It helps serve the water needs of the residents. tional purposes, i The plant and animal communities, the topography and its use for recrea- 8., picnic grounds, swimming, and fishing make the area suitable for ecological analysis to teach basic environmental con- cepts as well as the factors which comprise the ecosystem. Students in the community must understand the natural processes of the lake environment and be sensitive to its complex and delicate ba— lance. and related natural resources continue unimpaired even for future genera- tions. The student must be informed of its limitations and about the pos- sibilities of action to prevent its deterioration. The ecosystem analysis factor in their environment. The suggested activity may be a long range project or a l-day field trip on an area of interest, or as an extension of a classroom experience, for secondary students. Concept Development. A Maior concepts. Living things interchange matter and energy with the environment and other living things. There are characteristic environments, each with its characteristic life. Man is the sole organism that can consciously modify his own environment. of the area, hopefully, should develop awareness and sensitivity to a vital lt is also important to realize that the use and enjoyment of water B. S changing. sumers and resources 991 l. comprise L 2. quality or 3. and preser h. Ship towal E33 Part of ti SYStem, r and Water Re in the la Wh limiting Ha signs an< that COu‘ l7l B. Subconcepts. Most communities of plants and animals are always changing. Natural ecosystems consist of abiotic materials, producers, con- sumers and decomposers. Man needs the wilderness and natural areas for the resources it offers, recreation and scientific value. Objectives of the Field Trip l° To conduct an on-the-spot analysis of the various factors that comprise La Mesa Dam and Watershed ecosystem. 2. To identify the limiting factors as indices of environmental quality or degradation. 3. To suggest corrective action and practices that will improve and preserve the ecosystem. h. To develop concern over the environment and attitudes of steward— ship toward the area. Pre-field trip discussions. Environmental evaluation is as much a part of the field trip as the development of concepts regarding the eco- system. What would be the questions that students ask about La Mesa Dam and Watershed? Review the vital life processes of photosyntheses and respiration in the lake and land area. When do we say that a community is balanced? What would be the limiting factors toward its stability? Have some students who had been to the site recall their impres— sions and observations. What would be some of the factors in the area that could be the focus of observations, besides those in the checklist? fig to guide t A r Sewage Adn may be hea Act in the fie E l. of the StL 2. and Practi to a news; 3. 0f the Sit additlonal 1+. Problemsl the full \ 1. observatic 2. \ 69x l72 Field trip activity. The ecosystem analysis utilizes score sheets to guide the teams in evaluating the various components of the site. 69 A resource talk from an official of the National Waterworks and Sewage Administration regarding management of the site and its problems may be heard at the site. Activities planned by teachers of other areas may be integrated in the field trip for a multidisciplinary approach. Post-field trip activities. l. A display bulletin of photographs and the summary findings of the student groups may be posted for the information of the whole school 2. The results of group discussions concerning corrective action and practices to improve or preserve the site can be the subject of letters to a newspaper editor to agencies concerned. 3. lf the ecosystem analysis was conducted on ”component” basis of the site, the quality of the site component can be the springboard for additional class discussions. A. Class discussions can also focus on the observed ecological problems, the effects of human activity and means to improve and preserve the full value of the site. The Role of the Teacher l. Students working as a team must be encouraged to discuss their observations before answering the score sheets. 2. Utilize interdisciplinary approach by working with other 69Appendix B illustrates the score sheet for Ecosystem Analysis. teachers 0 even as a 3. sion of tt A. helpful. Strategy l Of‘ as lack 0 subject m rimentati quiry tra room acti him to di dePend or A kinds of Of the p. and suff and test Ships am matiOn a \ 7 W 173 teachers of subject areas to integrate their objectives in the field trip, even as a post—field trip activity. 3. Allow recreational activities during the trip under the supervi- sion of the physical education teacher. 4. The use of photographic records in this trip would be most helpful. Strategy iv. A Lesson in Question and Answer lnguiry Often times a demonstration lesson is necessary for such reasons as lack of equipment for each child to manipulate or where the quantity of subject matter is too small or impractical for individual or on—site expe- rimentation. But a demonstration may also serve as a springboard for in- quiry training. Inquiry training is a means to supplement ordinary class— room activities and to provide a child a plan of operation that will help him to discover causal factors through his initiative and control, and not depend on the explanations of teachers or other knowledgeable adults.70 A question-asking strategy may be used to gather the following kinds of information: (a) identification, verification of the parameters of the problem (b) the identification of the conditions that are necessary and sufficient to produce the eVents of the episode and(c) the formulation and testing of theoretical constructs or rules that express the relation- ships among the variables of the observed physical event.71 These infor- mation about the objects, properties, conditions and events under 70J. Richard Suchman, “inquiry Training in the Elementary School“, Readings on Teaching Childrep Science, pp. 73-79. 7libid. observatic data. Thl trate caus adapted t( during an menon, an i. sively, s 2. and to ma 3. son produ l. given to l74 observation increase the probability of gathering all the significant data. This activity is suitable for Grade IV and upper levels to illus- it may also be conducted trate cause and effect of a henomenon or ”to find out wh ”, but ma be P Y Y adapted to simpler situations for lower levels. during an out-of-door activity upon the confrontation of a natural pheno— menon, animal tracks, bird nests, ant hills, etc. Objectives 1. To familiarize the child with inquiry tactics of probing aggres- sively, systematically and objectively. 2. To help the child to discover meaningful patterns independently and to make inferences himself from the empirical data obtained. 3. To encourage the child to analyze events critically and to rea- son productively with the obtained data. General Procedures Before the demonstration starts, the following pointers are l. given to the class: a. There will be no talking or discussion on the part of the tea- cher or students while the ”silent“ demonstration takes place. b. A panel of 8-l0 students who will participate in the “experi- mentation” will be chosen immediately after the demonstration. c. The rest of the class will serve as non-participant observers, but will have the important task of evaluating the panels ~— their strategy and tactics, and the demonstration itself. All questions will emanate from the panel and must be so phrased so as to be answerable only by a “yes” or ”no“ by the teacher. l. 50”, 56nd 2. rUbber ban 3. l75 Two types of questions are allowed them: the verification question to check their observation, test their hunches, the identity or property of the object, or the conditions of the event; and the experimental question where the child states (The the conditions and hypothesizes on the resulting event. ”that all depends“ or ”tell teacher‘s response may be “yes” Questions that tend to ask of the teacher's under- me more”. standing must not be answered, but the response instead IS, ”What could you do to find out for yourself?”) When there is sufficient data to warrant an appropriate infe- f. rence, any member in the panel can present his inference. g. in a game situation, the panel starts out with l00 points, with a three point deduction for every question asked. Thirty points is added when an inference is made correctly. A member who makes three incorrect inferences is ”benched” and may not ask further questions. h. There will be a chance for all members of the class to partici- A team of two students may also pate in the game by rotation. serve as demonstrators and provide the corresponding answers. Suggested activity for the demonstration 1. Collect different soil types: garden soil, clayish or silty Be sure that 50f], sand and soil mixture or adobe that is pulverized. all samples are equally dry. Get three old—fashioned lamp chimneys, 3 small cloth squares, 2. rubber bands and three one-quart glass jars. Tie the cloth square over the top of each chimney with string 3. or rubber I source typi 1+. the unders observatio 5. the chimne All A l inferenCes class at t Bas as useful Nor Comments. The of IOOking W Va SlZed to; Problem_& It is the for makin Such daci l76 or rubber band. invert them and fill about 2/3 full with soil from each source type. #. Place the chimneys in the glass jars, with the covered top at the underside. The set-up must be ready before the class begin their observations. 5. Three students will simultaneously pour 200 cc. of water into the chimneys, labeled A,B, or C. All questions may begin after the water cease to drip in all jars. Post-activity discussions A listing on the board may be made of the observations and the inferences made by the panel, or by the non-participating members of the class at their seats. Based on the activity, the class discuss soil—water relationships as useful in agriculture, soil and water conservation practices. Non-participating observers may come up with either questions or comments. The class may design their own ”silent“ demonstrations as means of looking for answers on problems that interest them. Strategy V. Value Clarification Valuing as an aspect of environmental education needs to be empha- sized to motivate the students to participate effectively in environmental problem-solving activity. Value judgements involve reflection and reason. It is the task of environmental education to provide the necessary basis for making such value judgements. The students need practice in making such decisions. The teacher should assist the students to identify and examine thi that perpe the enviro society. ”Cl upon situa involved 1 that few 5 mental mal better th. Ac sum total Ch _ Unlegs a \ 7 tion)” 7 Teachinc l77 examine their values about the environment and develop those attitudes that perpetuate the preservation of life on earth, improve the quality of the environment and motivate them to be useful and productive members of society. ”Clarifying“ values and attitudes entails creating and capitalizing upon situations in which students are led to examine one or more conditions involved in valuing.72 The basic assumption underlying this strategy is that few students are given opportunities to make decisions about environ- mental management and the more decision—making experience they have, the better they will be able to clarify their attitudes and values. According to Raths, Harmin and Simon,73 a value results from the sum total of seven conditions, all operating together. These are: Choosing l. Choosing freely. 2. Selecting from alternatives. 3. Giving thoughtful consideration to the consequences of each alternative. Prizing 4. Cherishing, being happy with the choice. 5. Affirming the choice publicly. Acting 6. Doing something with the choice. 7. Doing something repeatedly in some pattern of life. Unless all these conditions are operating in a situation, a value is not 72Clifford E. Knapp, ”Attitudes and Values in Environmental Educa- tion,‘I The Journal of Environmental Education, lll (Summer, 1972), p. 26, 73Louis E. Raths, Merrill Harmin, and Sidney Simon, Values and Teaching (Columbus, Ohio: Charles E. Merrill Publishing Co., l966), pp. 28-29. present. I and activii The Role 01 1. solutions 1 all people. 2. of ridicuh the classri 3. students, - 1+. a variety i Thi: and make v. 1. according OlfiCer, a deaf, 0,. p. 2. his rankin 3. 0f the} l' l‘ \ 74 A “BMW I78 present. Attitudes, interests, beliefs, goals, aspirations, feelings, and activities are indicators of values. The Role of the Teacher l. Students should be made aware thatthere are many alternative solutions to a problem, and that a solution of a problem may not satisfy all people. 2. The students must be free to express themselves without threat of ridicule or derision in a non-judgemental atmosphere or climate in the classroom. 3. The teacher must be concerned with the ideas expressed by his students, to listen to them and to remember their ideas. 4. The teacher must organize the learning experiences to include a variety of techniques in value clarification. Activity # l Rank order technigue This situation requires the students to look deeper into themselves and make value judgements.7£+ l. Give the class three alternatives and for them to make choices according to their preference, e.g. which would you rather be -- a police officer, an agricultural extension worker, or an accountant/ blind man, deaf, or paralyzed on a wheel chair, -- and rank order the choice. 2. A tally may be made of the rankings. The teacher may also give his rankings. 3. Some students may be asked to explain their choice or the order of their rankings. 7“Adapted from Sidney Simon, L. Howe and H. Kirschenbaum, Values Clarification (New York: Hart Publishing Co., lnc., 1972), pp. 58- 0. Activity # This playing thi discussion 1. planning 0 the studer 2. dual free. With plan 3. place the A, briefly 5 Planatio 5 thElrS‘ their a. resOurc \ I79 Activity # 2 Values continuum This is a useful technique to aid students in identifying and dis- playing their values.75 It will also get a good spread of opinion and discussion over an issue. 1. An issue is chosen and presented to the class, e.g., family planning or population control, and discussed. briefly to make certain that the students have the necessary background information. 2. The values continuum is placed on the board to reflect indivi- dual freedom (I.F.) on one end, and government control (G.C.) on the other; with planned parenthood (P.P.) at the midpoint: |.F. . . . . . . P.P. . . . . . . G.C. 3. The students write their initials under the spot they wish to place themselves. 4. The student who wishes to make his position known, discusses briefly the meaning of his position. 5. After the students' participation, the teacher may make an ex- planation regarding his position. Activity # 3 Qgggter Attitudinal Role Playigg76 Students play the roles of people holding attitudes different from theirs. After defending different positions, students sometimes change their attitudes because they have expanded their perception of the i55ue. l. Before the activity, take a vote of the pros and cons to a resource-use problem, e.g., extracting black magnetic sand from the beach 75ibid. 76Knapp, ”Attitudes and Values,” p. 28. h for export 2. the idea, to the bee 3. of the min OPPosed th the issue issue. 4. to Present Panel, th the member 5. decide Whe 6. 5l0n and i PrOtectio C0nsider Ro t0 help 5 tribute t Verbal re a“Xiety o l80 for export. Divide the class into two groups. 2., The mining developers and residents on the beach shall favor the idea, while the environmental activists and other residents adjacent to the beach do not favor the idea. 3. The panel who shall present their side favoring the extraction of the mineral shall be composed of the members of the class who originally opposed the issue; while the panel who shall present their side against the issue shall be composed of students who were originally in favor of the issue. 4. Group discussion shall precede the hearing to enable the students to present their opinions to members of the group. It will also enable the panel, who were previously selected by their group, to hear the views of the members. 5. The issue comes for discussion before the town council who shall decide whether to license the operations or not. 6. After the council hearing, the council may present their deci- sion and recommendations, or the panels can appeal to the Environmental Protection Commission to come up with alternative decisions which would consider all opposing interests. Role playing and other simulation games can be devised by teachers to help students understand the interrelationships of factors which con- tribute to decision making. Other methods for attitude change include: verbal reinforcement, debates, providing new information, introducing anxiety or fear arousing situations, and changing certain social factors. new sci concept prepare environ to many tional sibilit question exPerier be effec Standing envirOnm T by the n administ thn of . implemem “Veil Si It organizin either 0n \ 77 l8] Part IV. Some Guidelines for ln-service Education of Teachers for Environmental Education and Suggested Program of Activities Teacher education in the past did not keep pace with demands of new science courses, and with the integration of environmental education concepts into its curriculum, today's teacher will find herself ill- prepared for the demands of the task. A new educational process like environmental education carries with it content that is quite unfamiliar to many teachers, emphasis on new methologies and new directions for na- tional educational goals. For example, the student's increasing respon- sibility to conceptualize and internalize whatever he is studying, the questioning behavior of the teacher and the ecological orientation of the experiences are new demands upon the teacher. Teachers must be helped to be effective in helping youth increase their intereSt, awareness and under- standing of their environment as well as their responsibility to help solve environmental problems and improve the community.77 The introduction of new and improved curriculum should be preceded by the necessary orientation training of the educational supervisors and administrators under whose guidance it will be implemented. An apprecia- tion of the approaches to environmental education and how it can best be implemented in the school system will enable the administrators to effec- tively steer the teaching program toward its goals. It is the purpose of this section to suggest guidelines for planning, organizing and conducting in-service education activities and programs, either on local, regional or national basis. 77Stapp, ”In-service Training in Environmental Education”, pp. 254-56, l3 cerns: tual the of envir research must foc cedures. we m l l H [:r (D (b ( l ('1- :J' m l h qure at tion in Problems researcl edUCatil nlflcan will wo Wl thin \ Educati We... Son B. PP. 113 l82 I. All aspects of curriculum development and implementation should find an important place in the in—service training of all teachers. ln-service programs should cover any or all of the following con- cerns: (l) philosophy and goals of environmental education; (2) concep- tual themes, processes and values of environmental education; (3) methods of environmental education and teaching strategies; and (4) evaluation and research in environmental education. ln-service education, therefore, must focus upon effective instruction and modification of teaching pro- 8 cedures.7 ll. Planning, organizing and implementing tpg activities must involve the active cooperation and participation of teachers of all grade levels and subiect areas and top-status groups among school people -- the administratorsL supervisors and curriculum specialists. Working committees can help determine the important needs that re- quire attention for the effective implementation of environmental educa- tion in the school system. They can deal with specific instructional problems, utilizing all potential resources: group members, consultants, research, facts, experiences and opinions. The success of in-service education activities depends upon people working on problems that are sig- nificant to them. Those involved in the project should plan on how they will work on it. The boundaries of teacher participation and decisions within each school need to be defined so that in-service groups will know 78J. Cecil Parker, ”Guidelines for ln—service Education,” ln—service Education for Teachers, Supervisors and Administrators, The Fifty-sixth Yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Education, Part l, Nel- son B. Henry, editor. (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, I957), pp. ll3-l4. what pr III. E I being fl cedure. the inS‘ group-oi objecti\ are to r lV. ASE E T ledge of and issu and Comm must inc Site res. educatio be empha: T83 what problems they are free to tackle.79 lll. glggfly fotmglated pgrposespmgpt evolve for each procedure and resource. The determination of the needs and identification of the problem being focused in the program are very much related to the choice of pro- cedure. The most appropriate procedures toward those ends consider, first, the instructional problem; second, the human relations and cooperative group—operation skills; and third, the problem-solving methodology.80 The objectives must be clearly defined to the participants. If the activities are to result in changed behavior, means and ends need to be consistent. IV. Activities must have direct relatigpghip to tpgiactivity ingppg teacher's immediate situation. The focus of the program should be on helping teachers to gpg know- ledge of children, knowledge of related disciplines, environmental problems and issues, human and material resources, local “environments” like school and community, curricular design and instructional strategies. The program must include action-oriented materials and methodology which utilize school site resources and community environmental facilities. Concepts of outdoor education, conservation, community development and value education should be emphasized through various programs. V. ln-service educationgprogrgmg should be diversified and developmental. individual differences among teachersshouldbe recognized in setting 79B. Jo Kinnick and others, ”The Teachers and the ln-service Educa- tion Program”, NSSE Fifty-sixth Yearbook, p. lSl. lbid. up in-se the teac among te matter 1 a variet ness wor nars anc tems rel willass prove cc E if the t liar wit use. He Conduct] are CQmF VI. In- as a whc tunity e 9l°Up si Change 'E \ E Sixth YE T84 up in-service education plans. It should provide opportunities to solve the teachers' individual deficiencies. Learning experiences will differ among teachers of different stages of professional growth, various subject- matter fields and grade levels and value orientatiOns. A system must offer a variety of opportunities for in-service education. Sensitivity and aware- ness workshops will provide an overview of the environmental issues. Semi- nars and symposia may be used to clarify objectives, concepts and value sys- tems related to environmental education. Workshops and training institutes willassist in developing materials and identifying resources as well as im- prove competencies for outdoor education and field studies. Environmental education centers are suitable for work with teachers. , if the teachers are to bring children to the facility, they must be fami- liar with the provisions available for study and concepts enhanced by their use. Here the teachers can function and maintain their teaching role, by conducting their own outdoor program in the area of whatever subject they are competent in. VI. ln-service progigm, whenever possible gpguld utilize the values of of informal groups within the structure of formal organization. Small groups working together contribute resources which when taken as a whole, is richer than those of any one ”best” member. Greater oppor— tunity exists for people to relate themselves to each other in informal group situations. Group decisions help individuals achieve behavioral change.8I Assistance must be rendered by a staff member who can provide 8lParker,”Guidelines for ln-service Education”, NSSE, The Fifty— sixth Yearbook, p. l06. expert he assist tl ting stat working c mutual re VII. The E 9i. in concerned Standings nistrator Service er loPment oi the Workir W Thi Chers Who to Promote Seminar_w0 3. b. l85 expert help in individual and group problem-solving processes, and to assist the group through confusion and frustration common to a group get- ting started or moving forward. The activities should be conducted in a working climate which maximize the effectiveness of the groups through mutual respect, support, permissiveness and creativeness. Vll. The success of the in-service gggcation program is determined in part by the environgpntal awareness and attitudes and sensitivity gfipgpgpggginistrator to the strgpgg3L3gEnggkpgggggyflijfl§_3£gfifi. In any environmental education program the administrator must be concerned with helping the school personnel develop the attitudes, under- standings and process skills needed for effective teaching. If the admi- nistrator is to serve as facilitator of change and co-ordinator in in- service education, he must: (a) provide inspiration, (b) encourage deve- lopment of good organization for in—service education, (c) facilitate 82 the workings of groups, and (d) create a climate for growth. Plan # l Seminar-Workshop in Environmental Sensitivity This program is directed to administrators, supervisors and tea— chers who have not had any environmental teach-in. It is an initial step to promote attitude change among the participants. The objectives of the seminar-workshop are the following: a. To define the major objectives of environmental education, b. To list ecological themes as foundation for environmental in different grade levels, 82Arthur Lewis and others, “The Role of the Administrator in in- Service Education,“ NSSE, The Fifty—Sixth Yearbook, p. l57. i an evalL tion car be neede will ena 0f conce T 0f envir l Obligatil is. the 1 mental er VlFOnmenl the total the disci and Prob] to train Part of t dent UPOn 2. gists hav that all 186 c. To identify environmental problems in the community, d. To list some value orientations toward the environment, and e. To gain new awareness and perception of the environment through a value-clarification process. Four teachers with past record of success with group interactions, an evaluation specialist and three resource’persons in environmental educa- tion can adequately staff such a seminar plus other resource speakers as may be needed from the locality. Two staff meetings prior to the scheduled dates will enable the group to share goals, pinpoint problems and discuss topics of concern as well as the techniques for evaluation which will be utilized. The three-day seminar-workshop will be concerned with three aspects of environmental education: l. The nature of enviropmpptal education. Teachers have a deeper obligation than transmission of knowledge, important that may be, and that is, the development of values, habits and problem-solving skills. Environ- mental education spells out the ”tools” we need in order to improve the en- vironment and work towards national development. It has a vital place in the total education of the individual, bringing as it does the fusion of the disciplines toward the confrontation and solution of environmental issues and problems. Basically, the teacher's task in environmental education is to train future citizens who understand clearly that man is an inseparable part of the world system and that his continued survival is totally depen- dent upon the continued functioning of that system. 2. Themes of ecology. Although ecology is a young science, ecolo- gists have developed a few principles which fall under a holistic view —- that all living things are part of a single system in the process of interact themes v a) Ever plexity, Man's ac cies enc function ment in factor w resource Which ha rapidly limited 3 awakened tal degr informed Scientlf comes in‘ mind to l to aSSlsl \ 83 8L cations, T87 83 These interaction with each other and with the inorganic environment. themes will appear or be implied again and again in environmental studies; a) Everything in the environment is related to everything else. b) Com- plexity, is in part, responsible for the stability of most ecosystems. c) Man's activities tend to reduce the complexity of ecosystems. d) No spe- cies encounters in any given habitat the optimum conditions for all its functions. e) Although living beings react to all factors of the environ- ment in their particular location, there frequently occurs a discrepant factor which has controlling power through excess or deficiency. f) Some resources do not renew themselves because they are a result of a process which has ceased to function. 9) Environmental change often occurs more rapidly than organic biological evolution. h) A species is geographically limited to the extremes of the environmental adversities it can withstand. 3. Environmental sensitivity and perception. Teachers must be awakened to a resource—oriented, problem—centered approach to environmen— tal degradation. As part of environmental perception, teachers should be informed about environmental issues, as well as keeping up to date with scientific and social advances. Interest begins with curiousity and be- comes interest when the individual's sense of values leads his conscious mind to explore the stimulus to greater detail and seek for other stimuli . . 4 . to aSSISt in the learning process.8~ The tools for envrronmental perception 83 Foster and Hermanson, Introduction to Environmental Science, pp. 3—7. 8“Albert F. Eiss and Mary Harbeck, Behavioral ObjectiVes in the Affective Domain (Washington, D.C.: National Education Association Publi- cations, l969), p. 32. are: sti gical av standing 1 out” ap; ploring introdui and the be cont sensory relativ thes’ I r0nment mental 188 are: strong general education, understanding of natural resources, ecolo- gical awareness, economic awareness, problem-solving interest and under- standing that man is a part of the human ecosystem. The seminar-workshop will not be conducted on the ”time-is-running- out“ approach. It is aimed at being investigative and innovative in ex- ploring areas of concern in the community. Experiential activities will introduce the teachers to the issue of sensitivity to their environment and the process of valuing. As model for students, the teachers should be continuously questioning, probing and providing students with multi- sensory experiences and emphasizing the development of positive values relative to the environment. Suggested Program of Activities for Three Days A six—hour daily session will be sufficient in identifying objec- tives, understanding concepts, developing new perceptions about the envi- ronment and acquiring new insights on some value orientations for environ- mental studies. Da one a. Introductions, announcements, filling up of data forms and questionnaires and pre-tests. b. Discussion of the rationale and objectives of environmental education as it relates to the country‘s developmental goals. c. Lecture/slide presentation of ecological themes. d. An informational film ao Resource talk on outdoor education and environ— mental encounters Day two b. Environmental activities using adapégtions of Environmental Studies/Action Cards. 85Environmental Studies Cards. American Geological Institute, I970, l of the I Pre~tes Cipants m INVOIVe Used t( 0f the teachh EnVlro of lec help t doors, l89 c. Listing affective objectives for environmental studies in the school site d. Working out suggested activities for either in- school or out-of—school activities e. A value clarification session Day three a. Discussion of the various approaches to envi- ronmental education b. A conceptual field trip in the school vicinity c. A slide presentation on environmental concerns d. A post-test on attitudes and concepts related to environmental education e. Conclusion: General reports Future plans Evaluation of participants and workshop proper The results of the evaluation will be the basis for the modification of the program and the data from the information sheets, questionnaires, pre-tests and post-tests will permit analysis and assessment of the parti- cipants. Plan # 2 An In—service Institute with a One-Week Session and Bi-monthly Meetings called MAST (Monday Afternoons with Science Teachers). A one—week institute prior to the start of the school year would involve teachers who have had the 3—day sensitivity workshop. It can be used to organize learning activities to conform with the sc0pe and sequence of the conceptual structure of the theme under consideration, to construct teaching units, to investigate resources and determine ways of utilizing environmental facility in the community, to provide teachers with a series of lecture—demonstrations by Specialists in environmental research and to help teachers to be proficient in the methods of teaching children out—of- doors. l i will im; ture re: teacher: semina r: reSpons I Iearni ng in thei‘ l90 The training program may be conducted at two levels: those who will implement it in the classroom and those who will participate as fu- ture resource leaders in the preparation of teaching materials. These teachers can provide leadership in the field, actively participate In seminars, workshops and other training activities for teachers who are responsible for environmental education in their schools. Objectives of the institute will be the planning of teaching- learning experiences which integrate concepts of environmental education in their respective subject areas and grade levels. Day one a. Orientation session on the multidisciplinary approach b. Resource talk on curriculum structure c. Lecture—discussion on instructional and beha- vioral objectives d. Group sessions Day two a. Resource talk on ecological concepts b. Resource talk on conservation education c. Activity on value clarification d. Group sessions Day three a. A simulation game b. Group sessions c. A field trip to a community site or sites Day four a. A slide presentation on school site deveIOpment as outdoor laboratory b. Resource talk on government agencies concerned with environmental quality c Group sessions d. A field trip to a natural area parts: availed coming 1 teacher: their p| With the A c0mmunit Which is scout ca the Los would be A related l9l Day five a. A demonstration on the inquiry technique b. Completion of group reports and projects c. Display and exhibit of teaching materials d. Conclusion: General reports Future plans Inspirational The two-hour bi-monthly meetings called MAST shall consist of two parts: exploration of materials and resources that can be utilized or availed of in the classes implementing the program and discussion of forth- coming themes and major concepts and the possible approaches available to teachers. These bi-monthly meetings will enable teachers to talk about their problems, serve as reinforcement to their activities and self-renewal with the opportunity to learn of resources available to them. Plan # 3 A Two-week In-residence Summer Institute A school division can arrange three workshops in one summer at a community site in the region with available residence facilities and which is in the proximity of environmental resources. Provincial boy scout camp sites may be developed for the purpose. 0n the national level, the Los Bafibs College of Agriculture or the Teachers‘ Camp in Baguio City would be excellent institute sites. An institute of this type will consist of four distinct but inter— related phases: l. A series of resource speakers on various aspects of environ- mental education. A series of daily, I and l/Z hour, subject matter discussions on ecological themes and concepts, processes and values that are integral to environmental education. fines tl it can I the bas‘ resourcq is held I mented I l the effi Precesm Stand u ments. is baSll ture up‘ the sin. W % tation I92 3. A daily, 3-hour group session on teaching strategies, such as gaming, value clarification, community survey, outdoor edu- cation and field studies. 4. Out-of-door activities including two whole—day field trips. The in—service program could revolve about a broad theme that de— fines the major thrust of the activities of the participants. For example, it can be concerned on concepts of soil-water relationships developed from the basic to the more complex problem-solving activities, or studying marine is held at a coastal resources and developing activities for seashore studies, if the institute region. All the above mentioned in-service training plans should be imple- mented with the leadership of a qualified coordinator. Summary A society that strives for economic well-being must anticipate the effects of development activities on the natural resources and on the processes of the environment. It is important that the citizenry under- stand the relationships of man with other living things and their environ- ments. Thus ecological knowledge is essential to development, just as it is basic to conservation. The conceptual framework developed in this study provides a struc- ture upon which to build teaching-learning experiences. It is based on the singular theme: The earth has finite resources and all life depends on how successfully man can learn to harmonize his use of the earth's resources with natural communities and ecosystems. The ecological orien— tation in the science curriculum provides the understandings and process skills n the valu ing expe E paths. I ings of politics cipation ment goal Tl Positive tions to PFOgram f l°Pment o and the i l93 skills required of an environmentally literate citizen. An emphasis on the valuing process throughout all subject matter content elevates learn- ing experiences beyond the facts and concepts level. Environmental education can be reached by a variety of different paths. A field-oriented, problem-solving approach, enlarged by understand— ings of interrelationships between ecology, economics, social studies, and politics, and which encourages student involvement as well as civic parti— cipation and action, all relate the vital factors relevant to the develop— ment goals of the country. The teacher has a critical role in assisting the students to develop positive attitudes toward the environment and to facilitate their motiva- tions to improve the quality of the environment. An in-service training program for teachers of environmental education will assist in the deve- lopment of their own competencies, the modification of teaching behavior, and the improvement of instructional quality. ting t tries or lat mental cern i chnw vanCes ing an Fable. 0f ton for th Some h be bEt act50r leader serVat than M ment. CHAPTER V SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS Introduction In its desire for economic growth, the Philippines is accelera- ting the exploitation of rich resources, clearing forests for its indus- tries and giving up agricultural lands for urban settlements. Sooner or later, after a period of growth, limiting factors and their environ- mental consequences will take effect. Growth without environmental con- cern is a costly mistake that developing countries can ill-afford. The changes in society and the intensive applications of technological ad- vances require that part of an educated person's knowledge is understand— ing and preventing environmental detrioration before it becomes intole- rable. The Filipino youth in schools today will be the decision—makers of tommorrow. They must realize that immediate needs cannot be bartered for the long—term effects of economic development upon the environment. Some will become the environmental specialists of 2000 A.D. who need to be better equipped to discourage the environmental degradation of today‘s actions and monitor the quality of the environment. Others will provide leadership for rural development through improved agricultural and con- servation practices, Many will be teachers, who need to know much more than what we know about ecology, resource-use and quality of the environ- ment. Their education must begin now. l9h for env within the imp the fol develop enviror curricu and imp transle and act in a Cl relate( in proi (3) aw; fol" thi the em for p0 facets at var indivp °Pport improv pOSe o I95 Summary The purpose of this study was to develop a conceptual framework for environmental education for Philippine schools, that considers goals within the context of the nation's aspirations for economic growth and the improvement of the Filipino society. As a descriptive study, it used the following procedures: (a) examining the foundations for curriculum development in environmental education; (b) describing the Philippine environment and educational setting; (c) determining the approach toward curriculum structure; (d) adapting guidelines for curriculum devel0pment and implementation and for the in—service education of teachers; and (e) translating the conceptual structure into suggested teaching strategies and activities for the training of teachers in service. Environmental education is defined as the process of developing in a citizenry: (I) knowledge of his total environment and the inter- relatedness among man, his culture and bio-physical world; (2) skills in problem-solving, critical thinking and social change strategies; (3) awareness of environmental problems, attitudes and values necessary for the wise use and management of natural resources and protection of the environment; and (A) decision—making skills and code of behavior for positive action on issues concerning the environment. It has many facets to its multiple functions: developing ecological understandings at various levels, fostering the development of the personality of the individual and of an environmental ethic, opening various vocational opportunities concerning the environment, and motivating action for the improvement of the community and the quality of life. it is more pur- pose oriented, enhanced by the specifications related to the environment and the the stL ticipat the tot perspec which a rious s tions t M tion of Process cepts a about t lities some Ch Present educati troduCe environ I96 and the needs of the community. All the educational programs have contributions to make towards the student's perception of the environment and his motivations to par- ticipate in various kinds of societal action, taking into consideration the total environment in all his ”developing” actions. An ecological perspective in science instruction serves as an operative framework in which all teachers in other disciplines can work. A correlation of va- rious subject areas would enable students to understand the interrela— tions between the natural, social and man-made environments. This study has developed a conceptual scheme under the theme: Ipeiearth has finite resources and all life depends on how successfully man can learn to harmonize his use of the earth's resources with natural communities and ecosystems. It can serve as framework for the organiza- tion of learning experiences to facilitate the attainment of the concepts, processes and values in environmental education. These environmental con- cepts as unifying elements in the science curriculum require knowledge about the use of outdoor activities in the school site, community faci— lities and resources and natural ecological areas. It will necessitate some changes in orientation and emphasis of the materials and activities presently in use toward attitude development and community action. To enable teachers to teach effectively for goals of environmental education, an in—service training program is imperative. It should in- troduce teachers, supervisors and administrators to the philosophy of environmental education, its basic concepts and their applications, and assist grade must b in pro proble deplet pollut ment 0 citize have e thr0ug depth, tions basis Phasis linkir tion c dary ] and cc Value Vitles I97 assist teachers in preparing instructional materials in particular grade levels. As change-facilitators in the community, the teachers must be aware of current environmental issues and develop competencies in problem-solving, inquiry teaching and social-change strategies. If education is to meet the role of helping the nation solve the problems of rapidly expanding population, inadequate food production, depleted forest and soil resources as well as threats of environmental pollution, the educational system must be reformed toward the develop- ment of environmental literacy and ecological conscience among its citizenry. Curriculum materials and designs for environmental education have emphasized the selection and organization of ecological concepts through various subject-matter approaches. They vary in scope and depth, but they reveal discernible characteristics which had implica- tions for this study. These are: (l) their emphasis upon science as basis of learning experiences for environmental studies; (2) the em— phasis upon methods of inquiry and problem-solving activities; (3) linking the subject disciplines in concept development; (4) integra- tion of environmental education concepts into the elementary and secon- dary levels (K-lZ); (5) attention to outdoor learnings in school sites and community resources for first—hand experiences; (6) emphasis on value education; and (5) the use of multi-media in the learning acti- vities. ecologl rived l nity a: mental in env object evalua educat the go the st guidel follov towar Prove both mat rel I98 The conceptual framework developed in this study integrates the ecological elements of the subject matter, the learning processes de- rived from interaction with the environment and problems of the commu— nity and the affective processes as motivating force for an environ- mental ethic. It can serve as a master plan for curriculum development in environmental education. Within this framework, can be formulated objectives, learning experiences and criteria for student and program evaluation. As curricular structure, it will guide the in—service education of teachers in developing instructional materials related to the goals of environmental education. The program designs suggested in the study were developed from descriptive information and from the major guidelines obtained from related literature of this study. Within the context of the thesis developed in this study, the following conclusions are made: i. Environmental education for development goals is directed toward community development, growth of environmental ethic and the im- provement of the environment, focusing upon contemporary problems of both rural and urban environments. 2. Science teaching can provide the core element in the exist- ing curriculum wherein ecological concepts can be integrated at both the elementary and secondary levels. 3. The multidisciplinary approach that cuts across subject matter divisions allows for learning experiences concerning inter— relationships between man and nature within the educational schemes of ru educa exper quiry develc ronmer conce; ness, lopmen 0f the 0f the Vironm dents, tives, prObier mental enable rOillllent D9 of rural and agricultural education, conservation education, value education and community education. 4. The strategies that are found in program designs emphasize experiences outside the classroom, the use of community resources, in- quiry processes, mutidisciplinary activities and value clarification. 5. ”Awareness-oriented” teaching must progress toward ”attitude“ devel0pment and ”action-oriented“ strategies from a broad base of envi- ronmental issues pertinent to the community. 6. Teachers need extensive in-service education in environmental concepts, processes and values to increase their understanding and aware- ness, improve their teaching skills and be involved in curriculum deve- lopment. 7. The needs of the community, the psychological characteristics of the learners and the socio-economic conditions and bio-physical aspects of the community are important foundations for curricular programs in en- vironmental education. 8. Cooperative efforts and close working relationship among stu- dents, teachers, parents, businessmen, community leaders and representa— tives of governmental agencies in the confrontation of environmental problems will enhance the goals of environmental education. 9. There is no single curriculum and no easy answer to environ- mental education; instead this study provides curricular options to enable teachers to operate within some descriptive umbrella of envi— ronmental education. Reconm SEVEN the H to ph frame to ap of re stage grams is re in th tried nitie and/o envir is re cOnCe guage rienc 200 Implications and Recommendations Recommendations for Further Research The imperatives developed in this study implies research in several areas in environmental education, in so far as it relates to the Philippine environment. l. Considering the importance of information and data relevant to planning effective curriculum experiences implied by the conceptual framework of this study, it is recommended that research be conducted to appraise existing students' interests and specific needs, the state of readiness of the learners at different levels, the developmental stages of the learners and the social climate for learning. 2. Recognizing the limitations of environmental education pro- grams, unless they are subjected to experimentation and evaluation, it is recommended that the guidelines, concepts and processes described in this study be initially implemented on a pilot—basis. It should be tried out in different types of schools in the urban and rural communi— nities, utilizing various approaches and resources, so that revisions and/or suggestions be made prior to its implementation in the country. 3. Inasmuch as the focus of this study is on the integration of environmental education concepts in the existing science curriculum, it is recommended that additional research be conducted on how ecological concepts can fit into already existing programs in social studies, lan- guage arts and other curricular areas, correlating the learning expe— riences toward a lateral development of concepts. 4. Aware that attitude change is basic to positive environmental eXper be ma SOUI‘Ci labon fecomn for t5 grams role 0 c0untr loplllen edUCat ZOl concern, it is recommended that attitude surveys, measurement and rela- ted studies be made of students, parents, teachers and other sectors of the community regarding their attitudes toward the environment and their perception of environmental issues. 5. Recognizing that maximum use of teaching resources is needed for successful implementation of any educational program, it is recom- mended that research be directed to the development and use of teaching techniques such as: team-teaching, student-tutoring, multi-media use, flexible scheduling, programmed instruction, etc. that would facilitate objectives of environmental education. 6. Considering the value of community resources and on-site experiences for environmental education, it is recommended that studies be made on the local level to identify, describe and evaluate the re— source potential of a community as basis for the development of outdoor laboratories or environmental education centers. 7. 0n the basis of the guidelines presented in this study, it is recommended that studies be initiated to develop evaluative instruments for teachers and students to measure the effectiveness of teaching pro- grams in environmental education. 8. Aware that this study is an initial effort at clarifying the role of environmental education in the development goals of a developing country, it is recommended that more research be undertaken on the deve- lopment of principles and concepts for curricular plans for environmental education on a broad curriculum approach. Reconm goals proce trat0| tal ei menta‘ throus t09etl train colleg depem ecolo tioni methm in sd tiona instn for h SilOuli and m for 1 teach. 202 Recommendations for the Implementation of the Study The Department of Education and Culture should circularize the goals and philosophy of environmental education as well as its concepts, processes and values; provide for the in-service training of adminis- trators, supervisors and teachers on the various aspects of environmen- tal education at all levels and subject areas; and establish an Environ- mental Education Division to implement environmental education programs throughout the country, research and develop instructional materials together with teachers' guides and provide assistance for in-service training programs in the school divisions. Further, it should require colleges and universities to develop courses related to man and inter- dependence with his environment, problems of human settlements, human ecology and environmental health, resource-use and conservation, popula- tion dynamics, etc. and for teacher training institutions to include a methods course for environmental studies. it is recommended that curriculum study comnittees be organized in school divisions to integrate ecological concepts into the instruc- tional materials at the elementary and secondary levels and to develop instructional objectives and assessment techniques. Ongoing activities for in-service workshops, institutes, conferences and follow-up meetings should be conducted to renew and support teacher goals. Regional environmental education centers should be planned for and developed on a site with unique ecological features, with facilities for laboratories, audio—visual and resource library. It will serve as training center to provide a variety of study opportunities for students, teachers and citizens besides serving as tourist facility for the area. aspect Culture cies p< of the and CO! newly-i Rizal. outdoo area a and sc it is the or mental ment, 203 The employment of mass-media for non-formal education is another aspect of environmental education which the Department of Education and Culture could undertake. It is recommended that other governmental agen— cies pool their resources into the educational and informational programs of the department which are designed to develop environmental awareness and concern among the adult population. This study also implies several actions to be considered by the newly—established Environmental Center of the Philippines at Bicutan, Rizal. 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Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, Incg, I968. Romulo, Carlos P. “The Philippines at the Turning Point.“ Popula— tion, A Challenge to Environment. Washington, D.C.: Planned ‘ Parenthood—World Population, I970. Rosengren, John H. Outdoor Science for the Elementary Grades. West Nyack, N.J.: Parker Publishing Co., lnc., l972. Roth, Charles. ”A Massachusetts Audubon Society Program.“ Processgp for Quality Environment. Edited by Robert 5. Cook and George T. O'Hearn. Green Bay, Wis.: University of Wisconsin-Green Bay, l97l. Roth, Robert E. “Fundamental Concepts for Environmental Management Education (K-I6).'I Environmental Education, I (Spring, I970), 65. , and Hegelson, Stanley L. A Review of Research Related to Environmental Education. Columbus, Ohio: The Ohio State University, I972. Rowe, Mary Budd and Hurd, Paul DeHart. “The Use of In-Service Pro- grams to Diagnose Sources of Resistance to Innovation.“ Journal of Research in Science Teaching, IV ( No. l, I966), pp. 3-l3. 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Minneapolis, Minn.: Burgess Publishing Compnay, I973. ; Carlson, Reynold,E.; Donaldson, George, W.; and Masters, Hugh. Outdoor Education. Englewood Cliffs, N. J.: Prentice—Hall, lnc., I963. Spears, Harold. Curriculum Planning Through In—Service Training Programs. Englewood Cliffs, N.J. Prentice-Hall, lnc., I957. Special Area Group for Science Education. “Science Education in the Philippines.” A report submitted to the Presidential Com- mission to Survey Philippine Education. Manila, I970. (Mimeographed.) 2I9 Stapp, William B. ”Community Profile and Life-Style Survey.” A paper in a Seminar-Workshop on Problems of Human Settlements, at Higgins Lake, Michigan, July I5-I9, I973. (Mimeographed.) “Development, Implementation and Evaluation of Envi- ronmental Education Program K-I2.'l University of Michigan, April, I973. (Mimeographed.) . “Environmental Education: Approaches to Curriculum Development (K-IZ). Processes for Quality Environment. Edited by Robert S. Cook and George T. O'Hearn. 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Government Printing Office, 1970. Environmental Education, Education That Cannot Wait. Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1971. The Case for Environmental Education. Washington, D.C.: I970. U.S. Department of Interior, Bureau of Land Management. All Around You: An Environmental Study Guide. Washington, D.C. Government Printing Office, l97l. U.S. Department of State. Republic of the Philippines. Background Notes. Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1972. Victor, Edward and Lerner, Marjorie S. eds. Readings in Science Education for the Elementary School. New York: The MacMiIIan Company, I967. Visher, Halene H. ” A Determination of Conservation Principles and Concepts Desirable for Use in the Secondary Schools.“ University Microfilms, Ann Arbor, Michigan, 1960. Ward, Barbara and Dubos, Rene. Only One Earth. New York: W.W. Nor— ton and Company, lnc., 1972. D F.; Couchman, J.K. MacBean,John C., and Stecher, Adam. Wentworth, . . 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New York: Harper and Row, Publishers, 1967. APPENDICES APPENDIX A List of Sources Used for the Development of Fundamental Concepts for Environmental Conservation Education American Association of School Administrators, Conservation Education in American Schools. Twenty—ninth Yearbook. Washington, D.C.: American Association of School Adminis- trators, I951. Byron Asbaugh and Muriel Beuschlein, Things to Do in Science and Conservation. Dansville, III.: The Interstate Prin— ters and Publishers, lnc., I960. Effie G. Bathurst, editor. Conservation Education in Rural Schools. Washington, D.C: National Education Association, 1943. Matthew J. Brennan, editor. People and Their Environment. Teachers' Curriculum Guides. 8 Volumes. Chicago: J.G. Ferguson Publishing Company, I969. Robert E. Brown and G. W. Mouser. Technigues for Teaching Conservation Education. Minneapolis, Minn.: Burgess Publishing Company, I964. Raymond F. Dassman, Environmental Conservation. 3rd ed. New York: John Wiley and Sons, lnc., I972. Phyllis Gross and Esther P. Railton, Teaching Science in an Outdoor Environment. Berkeley, Calif.: University of California Press, 1972. 'Fundamental Concepts for Environmental Manage— Robert E. Roth,’ ment Education (K—16), Environmental Education, I (Spring, l970), 55-74. Larry L. Sale and Ernest W. Lee, Environmental Education in the Elementary School. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Wins- ton, Inc., 1972. Joseph J. Shomon, Mgpual for Outdoor Conservation Education. New York: National Audubon Society, I96 . 224 II. William B. Stapp, lpteqrating Conservation and Outdoor Education into the Curriculpmi(K-12). Minneapolis, Minn.: Burgess Publishing Company, I965. 12. Cornelius J. Troost and Harold Altman, editors. Environ- mental Education: A Sourcebook. New York: Wiley and Sons, lnc., I965. 13. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Soil Conservation Service, An Outline for Teaching Consgrvation in Elementary Schools. Washington, D. C.: Government Printing Office, 1971. and APPENDIX B Score Sheet For Ecosystem AnalysisI I. Site Overview. It is important to identify the character of the site, the present use and function of the area and signs of environmental quality. A. Character of the Site Urban area ______Rural area Location Affect by population Yes ______No Stability Stable ______Unstable Complexity Simple Complex Productivity Low High Heavy Light Land use demand 8. Present Land Use Function of the site (agricultural, natural resources, recreational, residential, industrial, commercial) C. Signs of Environmgntal Quality 1. Soil erosion not evident evident 2. Plant life vigorous, sickly, dense sparse 3. Animal Life present absent (birdlife) 4. Air pollution not noticeable noticeable 5. Water pollution not visible visible ]Adapted from 4—H Bulletin 3303, Ecosystem Analysis. Cooperative Extension Service, Michigan State University, I973. 225 air, the ment 226 6. Storm sewers, _____adequate overloaded ditches —____— 7. Swamp areas. _____maintained ______filled-in 8. Solid waste litter _____clean problem 9. People pressure ____Iight_____medium______heavy IO. “Color of site” ____green brown-black II. Site Components Each site -ecosystem -- has a number of basic component parts: water, air, soil and biota (plants and animals). The results will help identify the limiting factors and corrective action needed for maintaining environ- mental quality. A. Water Component of the Site I. Type of surface water standing water flowing water 2. Temperature of the water surface bottom 3. Dissolved oxygen level: surface parts per million bottom ppm 4. Turbidity of water low ______medium _____high 5. Chemical nutrients in water (optional) Nitrogen test ppm Phosphates test ppm B. Air Component of the Site I. Visibility clear haze fog smog Time of day: 2. Particulate matter solid liquid Very low low moderate high Particulate type Noticeable effects on plants 227 C. Soil Component of the Site I. I. 2. Position Slope Texture Topsoil Subsoil Color Topsoil Subsoil Erosion Permeability Floodplain Upland nearly sloping steep fine medium dark brown dull —_._ ——.——__ (inches per hour) D. .Biota Component of the Site Soil organisms Aquatic organisms soil moderately sloping llll ash pollen none moderate Terrace other slight severe gently sIOping coarse brown ~ mottled moderate moderate strongly sIOping organic light brown bright severe rapid 3. 4. III. Limiting Factors to Quality Environment 228 Dominant plants Dominant animals A. Use Suitability excellent good fair unsuitable B. Limiting Factors I. 2. IV. Suggested Practices and Corrective Actions 1. 2. Site location 7. Site suitability 8. Solid-waste litter 9. Water quality 10. Stream sedimentation 11. Air quality 12. Monitor for pollution Stabilize stream banks Treat waste water Control Weeds for pollen control Control litter in the vicinity Control erosion Install windbreaks Improve wildlife habitat Plant shrubs, trees to improve quality Flooding Steep slopes Soil serosion Permeability Animal wastes Toxic materials lllllllll ”ICHIGQN ‘ Teflsfic as... f... 9 02 llllll l S E I R a R B I L Vl II N U E T An T S llllllllllll l I ll \Ah. Mt » .m. ends in... in Ntwm ,. .m. .s H . . on _ .hwdwmwwfis . .. ... .3131.“ “win. ...\§. . ._ ..