ABSTRACT A STUDY IN TEACHER AIDE EXPECTATIONS, SATISFACTION, EFFECTIVENESS AND TASKS PERFORMED By Zeno Bernel Katterle, Jr. There is a need for research which attempts to describe and relate the position of teacher aide to vari- ous crucial variables. Several constructs and postulates from role theory and the discipline of complex organiza- tions were used as a basis for formulating this study. Problem The study was primarily designed to examine the degree of role consensus between the teacher and aide in the classroom setting and to determine if that consensus was related to tasks performed by the aide, rated effec— tiveness of the aide, and rated Job satisfaction by the aide. Secondly, the considerations of Job description and supervision, recruitment and selection, training, rewards and incentives, and evaluation were described to ascertain whether or not these might be related to vari- ations in the patterns of response. Zeno Bernel Katterle, Jr. Hypotheses Tested 1. An aide whose task expectations are in agree- ment with the task expectations held for her by the teacher will express higher Job satisfaction than an aide who is not in agreement with the teacher. 2. An aide whose task expectations are in agree- ment with the task expectations held for her by the ' teacher will be rated as more effective than an aide who is not in agreement with the teacher. 3. In a significant percentage of cases, a task will or will not be performed in accordance with the agreement between the task expectation held by the aide and the task expectation held for her by the teacher. Sample Three Michigan school districts were selected for the study. The three samples included all the aides and teachers working with the aides in the school surveyed. Principals were also surveyed in order to compare their response patterns with those of the aides and teachers. Instrumentation A questionnaire was used to measure task expecta- tions, Job satisfaction, rated effectiveness, and tasks performed. A 50 item task checklist with five intensity responses was the means for measuring eXpectations. Two six point rating scales were constructed to measure sat- isfaction and effectiveness. A checklist was provided for indicating tasks performed. An interview schedule was developed for collecting data to describe the aide programs. VZeno Bernel Katterle, Jr. Analysis of Data Simple correlations at the five per cent level of confidence served as the statistical test for measuring the relationship between task agreement and satisfaction and task agreement and effectiveness. Simple percentage scores were used for measuring the relationship between task agreement and tasks performed. Mean and standard deviation scores were used to analyze task response pat- terns. Conclusions The analysis of data for the three districts re- vealed no significant relationship between level of task agreement and satisfaction or effectiveness. There was a significant positive relationship in all three cases between task agreement and tasks performed. The average effectiveness rating scores for the three districts were H.3A, 4.56 and A.79. The average satisfaction rating scores were 5.08, 5.18 and 5.39. When the 50 tasks performed were keyed to five major categories, the three samples showed essentially the same ranking. In the order of most to least per- formed, the categories were supervisory, clerical, instructional, housekeeping and technological. Evidence of administrative provisions seemed to be related to overall effectiveness, satisfaction and nature of the response patterns. A STUDY IN TEACHER AIDE EXPECTATIONS, SATISFACTION, EFFECTIVENESS AND By Zeno Bernel Katterle, Jr. A THESIS Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Department of Administration and Higher Education 1970 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The writer of this dissertation is indebted to and very appreciative of the several hundred participants who made this study possible. Cooperation was enlisted from teacher aides, teachers, principals, central office administrators, secretaries, and college faculty members. Five individuals are due particular mention. Clarence Lacny, Coordinator, Teacher Aide Program, Jackson; Kath- erine Cashen, Coordinator of Headstart, Early Childhood Education and Teacher Aide Programs, Grand Rapids; and Steve Bakita, Administrative Assistant, St. Johns, were all instrumental in coordinating the survey in their particular Michigan school Districts. Dr. Fred Vesco- lani deserves a special thank you for his consultation and advice. Finally, Mrs. Shannon Lee Katterle warrants mention for the countless ways in which she assisted in the completion of this project. 11 TABLE OF CONTENTS Page ACKNOWLEDGMENTS. . . . . . . . . . . . ii LIST OF TABLES . . . . . . . . . . . . v LIST OF APPENDICES. . . . . . . . . . . vii Chapter I. THE PROBLEM . . . . . . . . . . 1 Need . . . . . . . . . . 1 Purpose . . . . . . . 5 Scope and Limitations 5 Hypotheses . . . . . . . . . . 9 Definitions. . . . . . . . . . 10 Theory 12 Overview. 15 II. THE REVIEW OF LITERATURE . . . . . . 18 Role Theory. . . . 18 Brief History and Current Status . . 19 Role Theory as an Analytic Framework. 29 Frameworks and Conclusions . . . . “3 Role Theory and Education . . . . 51 Means for Achieving Organizational Role Compliance. . . . . . . . 69 Introductory Considerations. . . . 69 A Basis for Organizational Compar- isons . . . . . . . . 72 Means for Achieving Compliance. . . 76 Teacher Aides . . . . . . . . 87 Background Statement . . . . . 88 Rationale for Use of Teacher Aides . 89 Teacher Aides and Staffing Patterns . 93 Significant Projects and Related StUdieSo u o o o o o o 98 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . 113 iii Chapter III. DESIGN OF THE STUDY. Sample Measurements Design . . Hypotheses . . Analysis. Summary IV. ANALYSIS OF DATA. Level of Support for Hypotheses Patterns of Response. Comments by Aides. District A District B District C Means Used for Achieving Compliance. District A . . . . . . District B . . . District C . Summary . V. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS Summary . . . . . . Conclusions. Implications for Future Research. Discussion LIST OF REFERENCES. APPENDICES iv Page 1.1 b 115 12” 131 136 1A0 IA3 145 1A5 152 192 193 194 195 196 197 199 201 205 208 208 217 219 220 227 237 Table UT 10. ll. 12. District A: LIST OF TABLES Task Agreement, Satisfaction and Effectiveness Scores for Teacher- Aide Pairs District B: Task Agreement, Satisfaction and Effectiveness Scores for Teacher- Aide Pairs District C: Task Agreement, Satisfaction and Effectiveness Scores for Teacher- Aide Pairs District A: Task Agreement and Corres- ponding Have Performed Scores for Teacher—Aide Pairs. District B: Task Agreement and Corres— ponding Have Performed Scores for Teacher-Aide Pairs. District C: Task Agreement and Corres— ponding Have Performed Scores for Teacher-Aide Pairs. . . . . District Scores District Scores District Scores District Scores District Scores District Scores A: for B: for C: for A: for B: for C: for Total Job Effectiveness Each Rating Scale Category Total Job Effectiveness Each Rating Scale Category Total Job Effectiveness Each Rating Scale Category Total Job Satisfaction Each Rating Scale Category Total Job Satisfaction Each Rating Scale Category Total Job Satisfaction Each Rating Scale Category Page 153 15A 156 157 158 160 162 162 162 163 163 163 Table 1.;- 1A. 15. 16. 17. 18. District A: Totals of 'J'asks Checked as Have Performed by Aides . . District B: Totals of Tasks Checked as Have Performed by Aides . . . . District C: Totals of Tasks Checked as Have Performed by Aides . . . District A: Distribution, Mean, and Standard Deviation Scores for Task Items . . . . . . . . District B: Distribution, Mean, and Standard Deviation Scores for Task Items . . . . . . . . . District C: Distribution, Mean, and Standard Deviation Scores for Task Items . . . . . . . . . . vi Page 167 168 169 17“ 181 188 LIST OF APPENDICES Page Explanatory Letter to Principals . . . . . . 238 Cover Letter to Questionnaire (Districts A and B) 239 Cover Letter to Questionnaire (District C). . . 240 Questionnaire . . . . . . . . . . . . 241 Instructions. . . . . . . . . . . 2A1 Task Items . . . . . . . . . . . 2A2 Task Performed Checklist. . . . . . . 2A5 Satisfaction Rating Scale . . . . . . 2A8 Effectiveness Rating Scale . . . . . . 2A9 Interview Schedule. . . . . . . . . . . 250 vii CHAPTER I THE PROBLEM The use of teacher aides is a rapidly expanding phenomenon. The current number has been estimated to be as high as 200,000 with up to one and a half million eXpected by 1977.1 A recent National Education Associa- tion Research Division survey revealed that almost one in four public school teachers has assistance from an aide.2 Twenty-nine per cent of the schools questioned in a survey by the magazine Nation's Schools reported 3 the use of aides. Dr. Don Davies, Associate Commissioner for Education, U.S. Office of Education, stated at a Conference on the Use and Role of Teacher Aides in February, 1969, "I can‘t think of another develOpment in American education in the last fifty years that has taken lF. Riessman and A. Gartner, "New Careers and Pupil Learning," CTA Journal, Vol. 65 (March, 1969), 6-9. 2"Teacher Aides in the Public Schools," NEA Research Bulletin (Washington, D.C.: Research Division of National Education Association, March, 1970), p. 11. 5"27 Innovations No. 20 Aides-Paraprofessionals," Nation's Schools, Vol. 79 (April, 1967), 73. l 0.) hold so quickly and so pervasively."ll learly the use of aides in the classrooms of America is a significant development worthy of extensive study and research. Several convergent forces are primarily responsible for the current rise in the use of teacher aides: l. The critical gap between the need for and availability of trained professionals 2. The development of more complex educational concepts and technology 3. A new awareness of the special learning needs of young children A. The "new career" concept for job entry into certain human service occupations by under- educated adults 5. The newly available sources of aid provided by various pieces of federal legislation.5 In addition to the catalyst of convergent forces, a rather widely acknowledged rationale for the use of aides in schools has been developed. The rationale is primarily predicated on the need for individualized instruction for the student, but is also seen as a direct ”Don Davies, Measuring Educational Progress, Proceed— ings of the Conference on the Use and Role of Teacher Aides, Albuquerque, New Mexico, February 10-11, 1969, Prepared by the Southwestern Cooperative Educational Laboratory (Albuquerque: June, 1969), p. 1 5Garda w. Bowman and Gordon J. Klopf, New Careers and Roles in the American School (New York: Bank Street College of Education, 1968), p. 6. benefit to teachers, other professionals, the aides, administrators, family life, and the community at large. The use of aides as an aspect of differentiated staffing in schools has been vociferously proclaimed as a means for bringing about a substantial change in the structure and manner of operating the school establish- ment. If fully implemented, it will require a new way of thinking about teaching, learning, and the school.7 Many noted educators do not view the new education as a probability, but definitely as the way of the future. Roy A. Edelfelt, Executive Secretary for NCTEPS has written: Educators in the future will perform a variety of tasks, some of which exist in schools today and many which will be newly defined as teachers roles are differentiated. Roles will be identified and classified in terms of degrees of difficulty, responsibility, and needed artistry, and in terms of background of the people who assume specific kinds of tasks.8 To realize its full potential, the introduction of large numbers of aides into school systems will affect organizational structure and processes and the inter- personal relationships among all employees. Mechanisms 6Ibid., p. 9. 7Roy A. Edelfelt, "Preface," The Teacher and His Staff: Differentiating Teacher Roles (Washington, D.C.: National Commission on Teacher Education and Professional Standards, NBA, 1969), p. v. 81bid., p. 118. of m vntro‘l , rogu lat ions , policies, work processes , evaluation, training, recruitment and reward systems as we currently know them will all change in form and 9 function. The factors of authority, status and power relationships must be considered or more problems will be created than-solved.lo The use of teacher aides as an integral part of the school systems of the nation and its probable and potential effect on those systems has been stated. The need for investigation and research into the topic has been shown. Research is needed which relates the use of teacher aides to sound social science theory and evidence. A review of the current literature reveals very little research on teacher aides which meets these criteria. An article in the Review of Educational Research succinctly states: Funds made available by recent federal legis- lation have enabled many school districts to employ such personnel (teacher aides and other nonprofessionals) for the first time. There has appeared simultaneously a plethora of descriptive and hortatory articles suggesting ways of using nonprofessionals, but few studies have been done on the subject.11 9Peter Blau and W. Richard Scott, Formal Organiza- tions (San Francisco: Chandler Publishing Co., 19627, p. 185. . 10Robert E. Ohm, "Toward a Rationale for Team Teach- ing," Administrator's Notebook, Vol. 9 (March, 1961), p. 1. llRaphael C. Nystrand and Frederick Bertolaet, "Strategies for Allocating Human and Material Resources," Review of Educational Research, Vol. 37 (October, 1967), p. 956} It appears that a fundamental point of departure is to -study some aspect of the role of the teacher aide, par- ticularly as the role is viewed by the teacher and the aide. In addition, to have further significance, those vieWpoints are related to actual performance, job satisfaction, and rated effectiveness. The vieWpoints are measured in terms of role eXpectations. If it is demonstrated that a convergence of role expectations has a relationship to performance, satisfaction and effective— ness, this would facilitate an understanding of the effect of aides on the school system and contribute toward utilizing their full potential. Purpose The primary purpose of this study is to examine the degree of role consensus between the teacher and aide in the classroom setting, and to determine if that consensus is related to actual performance, rated effectiveness, and job satisfaction. Secondly, there is an attempt to ascertain whether or not the answer to the primary purpose of the investigation might be affected by certain organizational characteristics. Scope and Limitations This study is designed around five basic dimensions which are appropriately applied to the use of role ’) theory.l‘ These include the level of the object to be discussed, the object who exhibits the behavior, characteristics studied, type of cognition, and the context. The approach is at the level of first order cogni- tions. These are cognitions or mental mapping structures maintained by the observer about a real world event. The cognitions may be judged as accurate or inaccurate. In this case, the cognitions studied are the expectations held by the teacher and aide of the tasks to be performed by the aide. A ' The object of discussion is the teacher aide. The subjects, those persons holding the expectations, are the teachers, aides, and principals. In this case, the aides are both a subject and object, because aides may hold eXpectations for themselves as aides. The study includes only those aides assigned to assist directly in the classroom setting. The cognitions studied for accepting or rejecting the basic hypotheses are limited to teachers and aides, because these two positions appear to be of primary importance in the total universe of possible respondents. The principals are included to determine if, as a group, their expectations for aides 12Bruce J. Biddle, "Bibliographies on Role Terms, Role Conflict, and the Role of the Teacher," Studies in the Role of the Public School Teacher (Series 1, Vol. B; Columbia: University ST'Missouri,Fl96l), Chapter 1. are similar to the expectations of the teachers and aides sampled. The characteristic under study is behavioral in nature; that is, events bound in time consisting of mean- ingful action taken by the aide. This is in contrast to studying a feature such as a physical characteristic or trait the object may possess. There is a limitation in the sense that actual behavior is not studied. Rather, the study measures expectations, which are cognitive, of the tasks to be performed by the individual assigned the position of teacher aide. When the aide is asked to designate tasks actually performed, this measure relies upon the ability of the aide to recollect accurately past behavior. The other dependent variables of effectiveness and satisfaction are also measured by asking for mental impressions recorded on arbitrary point scales. Tasks are the dimension of performance related to expectations. This is in contrast to another dimension such as behavioral processes. Tasks represent a funda- mental and explicit level of analysis. The study does not include every possible task, but a selected number for each major category of tasks which might be performed. The object is to discern if there is a pattern of con- sensus and is not to find an inclusive list of agreed upon task eXpectations. The context is limited to the eXpectations for task performance in the elementary school classroom. This is construed as being any location in which the teacher is directing and responsible for the activities of a regularly assigned group of students within the hours normally established for classroom instruction. Limit- ing the setting to the classroom is based on the assump- tion that patterns of behavior tend to have less variance within settings than they do between settings. The elementary school is the level of inquiry because the probability is greater that a wider range of task expectations exists at the lower grades than at any other level in the school system. Also, it would be difficult to select and state tasks which could be used to measure both elementary and secondary levels within the same instrument. The testing instrument is a close-ended type of questionnaire. This is the choice because a sufficient number of studies exist which provide a sufficient list- ing of probable tasks to be performed by classroom aides. In addition, the responses are more readily comparable. The source of categories and tasks for the questionnaire are all derived from a review of literature. The samples of teachers and aides are limited to three school districts. This means that findings must be used cautiously when generalizing to the total population of teachers and aides. The use of three districts, as opposed to studying one district, should give a better indication of what might exist in the general pepulation. The relatively recent advent of large numbers of aides being hired by school systems will undoubtedly result in a change in role definitions over the next few years. The permanent value of this study is not so much the particular items of consensus, but the usefulness of role analysis for the study of teacher aides and its implications for realizing the full potential of employing aides. .The study should also give some indication of the possible effects of certain administrative considerations on the nature of the aide program. Hypotheses Three basic hypotheses are investigated. The description of population tested, questionnaire of task expectations, design, and analysis of results are all discussed in Chapter III of this study. The hypotheses are also restated in test form. The basic hypotheses are as follows: I. An aide whose task expectations are in agreement with the task expectations held for her by the teacher will express higher Job satisfaction than an aide who is not in agreement with the teacher. 2. An aide whose task expectations are in agreement with the task eXpectations held for her by the teacher will be rated as more effective than an aide who is not in agreement. .1 -’ I r 10 3. In a significant percentage of cases, a task will or will not be performed in accordance with the agreement between the task expectation held by the aide and the task expectation held for her by the teacher. Definitions The following list of definitions is derived pri- t; marily from the writings of Biddle,l3 Gross,lu Stogdill,l’ and Jacobson.l6 When necessary, the term is particularized to suit the reguirements of this thesis. Teacher aide--auxiliary staff personnel who operates as an assistant in a team with the elementary classroom teacher. For the purpose of this study, the aide must have been hired and paid for the services pro- vided. Elementary school classroom--any location in which the elementary teacher is directing and responsible for the activities of a regularly assigned group of students l3Ibid. ll‘Neal Gross, Ward S. Mason and Alexander W. McEachern, Explorations in Role Analysis: Studies of the School Superintendency Role (New York: John Wiley and Sens, Inc., 19587} 15Ra1ph M. Stogdill, Leadership: A Study of Role Expectations and Performance, Studies in Naval Leadership (Columbus, Ohio: The Ohio State UnIVersity Research Foundation, 1953). 16Eugene W. Jacobson, W. W. Charters, Jr. and Seymour Lieberman, "The Use of the Role Concept in the Study of Complex Organizations," Journal of Social Issues, Vol. 7 (July, 1951), 3. 11 within the hours normally designated for classroom instruction. Position-~the location of an actor or classifica— tion of actors within a social structure which is asso- ciated with a set of expectations. Expectations--an evaluative standard applied to an incumbent of a position. All expectations for a particu- lar incumbent of a position are known as a set of expectations. For this particular study, the standard for expectations is the tasks associated with the position in question. Ta§k§--the particular activities to be performed by a role incumbent which contribute to the overall achieve- ment of organizational goals. Task accomplishment--the correspondence between a list of tasks to be completed and those actually completed. Roleg-the behavioral model defined by the set of expectations applied to the incumbent of a particular position within an organization. Role performance—-a pattern of behavior exhibited by an individual as the occupant of a position. Formal organization—~an organization which has been formally established for the explicit purpose of achieving certain goals. Effectivenessf-the rated success of a subject's per- formance of a set of tasks associated with a particular position. 12 Satisfaction——the sense of rated contentment a subject feels about his performance of a set of tasks associated with a particular position. Theory Role theory is moving toward a position of greater importance in the social sciences. It can be viewed as one of the common concepts or links among many different social science disciplines.17 The major difficulty with the present status of role theory is one of agreement upon a set of common definitions. An initial task in understanding any particular writing is to first ascertain the meanings of the various terms related to role theory which are used by the author. The confusion is alle- viated in some measure because the various authors are talking about the same phenomena. The discussion is about the patterns of behavior which are common to a set of social actors and the cognitive phenomena which underlies these patterns. To understand behavior you must understand the interaction among people in any social system. Expeditions interaction is reliant upon some common agreement as to what behavior should be associated with any position in the system. This allows one actor to anticipate action from any other person holding a particular position. The l7Bidd1e, op. cit. 13 prescribed performance of any person in a given position is what is meant by role. Role is regarded as the unit element in human relations. The relationship between units is inferred by the actions of two or more role incumbents.18 ’People form together in social collectives known as organizations. -These collectives have a structure of social relationships and a system of shared beliefs and orientations. The relationships are differentially dis- tributed into a status structure. The beliefs associated with each position make up a set of expectations for any individual holding that position. Social organizations emerge wherever men live together. For certain collective efforts to achieve specific goals, a formal organization 19 is purposely constituted. The public school system is such an organization. For an organization to function effectively, in the sense of achieving its goals, there must be a minimum of compliance with the expectations for the various positions. Though the expectations are not the sole determinant of individual actions in the organizational setting, they do provide for a gross understanding and prediction of behavior. Individual variation will be noted for each 1 ‘8Everett K. Wilson, Sociology: Rules, Roles and Relationships (Homewood, Illinois: The Dorsey Press, 1966), p. 35. ‘ l9Blau, op. cit., p. 2. 1“ individual case because of variation in personalities and needs.20 Before expectations can result in a measure of prediction of behavior, there must be a considerable degree of consensus among the people affected by the organization as to what the expectations are for the various positions. For it is the synthesis or fusion of these various eXpectations which helps determine any one individual's behavior.21 In addition to consensus being related to actual performance, most theorists feel there is also a relationship between Job satisfaction and rated effectiveness.22 These various interrelationships make the concept of role a very important analytic sub- unit. The introduction of aides into the classroom lends itself to understanding and analysis through the use of role theory. If the full potential of using aides is to be realized, there must be a high degree of consensus as to the role expectations for any individual holding the position of aide in a school classroom. Lack of con- sensus will most likely result in confusion, low 20Jacob W. Getzels. "Administration as a Social Process," in Administrative Theory in Education, ed. by Andrew Halpin (Chicago: University of Chicago, Adminis- trative Center, 1958), p. 153. 21E. Wright Bakke, "Concept of the Social Organi- zation," in Modern Organization Theory, ed. by Mason Haire (New York: Chapman Hall, Ltd., 1959), p. 45. 22 Biddle, op. cit., Vol. D, p. 88. 15 effectiveness, and low Job satisfaction. The teacher and the aide are the two most important positions where a clear and mutual understanidng of the aide's role must exist. The teacher is the primary reference for the aide to understand what eXpectations are in effect. The purpose of this study is to examine the degree of role consensus between teacher and aide in the class- room setting, and to determine if that consensus is related to actual performance, rated effectiveness and Job satisfaction. Performance tasks are used as the dimension for measuring the degree of role consensus. The support of the basic position of this study has direct implications for the recruitment, selection, training, and reward of the classroom teacher aides. Overview The pertinent writings relative to this thesis are divided into the categories of role analysis, formal organizations, and the teacher‘aide, all of which are reviewed in Chapter II. Under the tepic of role is ineluded a review of the development of supportive theory, the problem of definitions, several major contributors, and the specific application of role analysis to educa- tion. The review of formal organizations is to give insight into a particular kind of setting for the use of role analysis. The organizational considerations of com- pliance, constraints, task definition, recruitment, 16 training, reward, and evaluation are all briefly treated. The discussion of teacher aides includes the areas of recent developments, rationale for using, and major related studies and projects. After the literature is reviewed, the next con- sideration is the development of the instrument for measuring task expectations and an interview schedule for describing the organizational considerations given the aide program. The primary sources for the question- naire are a number of related studies and proposed job descriptions for teacher aides. The instrument is in the form of a close-ended questionnaire which is divided into five categories of selected tasks. One open-ended question is included to ascertain if there are major factors present which the use of the interview schedule does not reveal. Questionnaires given the aides request not only the tasks the aides expect to perform, but a separate check list of the tasks actually performed. The aides are also asked to indicate a level of job satisfaction by checking a scale of satisfaction. The teachers are requested to rate the aides' success in actual performance by checking a scale of job effectiveness. After the questionnaire has been developed, the interview schedule is constructed to gather information about the organizational variables of recruitment, hiring, 17 training, policy, regulations, and rewards for each of the three districts sampled. A number of sources from the sociological field of complex organizations are used to provide background for constructing the interview schedule. I The next step is one of administering the question- naire and completing the description of organizational variables. The data gathered are then analyzed in rela- tion to the basic hypotheses and the general patterns of responses for the various groups of aides and teachers in the three samples studied. Comparisons are done within and among the three districts. A detailed description of the instrument, sample measured, organizational variables, measurable hypotheses, and the analysis of data comprise the content of Chapter III. Chapter I included a description of the need, purpose, hypotheses, definition of terms, theory, scope and limitations, and overview. The next chapter includes the review of literature. CHAPTER II REVIEW OF LITERATURE The review of literature is divided into three major categories: role theory; complex organizations; and teacher aides. Role theory was used to establish a framework for developing hypotheses and analyzing the position of the teacher aide. The study of complex organizations was included because the position of teacher aide is found in a complex organizational setting. The review of literature devoted to the topic of teacher aides gives the development and the current status of this dissertation's primary subject. The three major categories include both theoretical and empirical studies. Selection was made to give a balanced representation and also for particular emphasis to the hypotheses prOposed in this diesertation. Some studies are included in more than one category. Role Theory The review of role theory is subdivided into a brief history and current considerations of role theory, role as an analytic framework for complex organizations, general 18 VVV f r‘-.~ l9 conclusions and frameworks, and the use of role theory to study educational systems. Brief History and Current Status Neiman and Hughes provided an often cited and systematic survey of the literature from 1900 to 1950 related to the concept of role. Shortly before 1900, social psychologists began to emphasize the concept of self as the basic element in the development of the per- sonality in a process of symbolic interaction and to stress the importance of the individual's attitude toward himself as it is determined by the attitudes and expecta- tions of others toward him. The philOSOpher, William James, is credited as being one of the first to develop a concept of the social self. The social self was depicted as one of the four constituent elements of personality. The self was seen as growing by virtue of a dialogue with others. The social self varies depending upon the particu- lar reference group. We may have as many selves as we have membership groups. John Dewey extended James' notion of social self with a particular stress on the importance of language as the basic means for social interaction. George Herbert Mead in his book, Mind, Self and Society, combined James' idea of the social self as the product of the mental images of a person conceived by other members of his group; Mark Baldwin's idea of the circular response or the 2O "dialogue of self and others"; and Dewey's emphasis on language as the basic element in the process of social interaction. Mead added a fourth idea of his own, "tak- ing the role of the other" to complete the fundamental theoretical framework within which all subsequent studies of social roles have developed.23 Another early formulation of role theory is the "Looking Glass Self" concept proposed by Charles H. Cooley. The concept was used to describe a process of personality formation. The process consists of three stages: (1) imagination of how we appear to others; (2) imagination of how we are evaluated by others; and (3) a feeling of pride or mortification.2u This process implies that the self is a reflection of social opinion. Both Mead and Cooley were concerned with how the self arises as a prod— uct of social interaction. Mead's description is the more explicit. The anthropologist, Ralph Linton, to whom many sub— sequent authors acknowledge their indebtedneSs, composed several frequently quoted statements of role definition: 23L. J. Neiman and J. W. Hughes, "Problems of the Concept of Role--A Re-Survey of the Literature," Social Forces, Vol. 30 (December, 1951), pp. lAl-lu2. 2“Charles H. Cooley, Human Nature and the Social Order (New York: Charles Scribners Sons, 1902), pp. 81-90. 21 A role represents the dynamic aspect of a status. The individual is socially assigned to a status and occupies it with relation to other statuses. When he puts the rights and duties which constitute the status into effect, he is performing a role. Role and status are quite inseparable, and the distinc- tion between them is of only academic interest.2 In a later book, The Cultural Background of Person- ality, Linton further amplified the concept of role. "It thus includes the attitudes, values, and behavior ascribed by the society to any and all persons occupying this status."26 The role becomes the dynamic aspect of a sta- tus, dynamic in the sense of a behavioral expectation and not actual performance. This is a normative view of the social system and is a logical means by which an anthro- pologist could describe various cultures. The status concept of role is utilized by Robert K. Merton to explain behavior in a bureaucratic structure. ”In such an organization, there is integrated a series of offices, of hierarchized statuses, in which inhere a num- ber of obligations and privileges closely defined by the "27 At a later date, Merton limited and specific rules. developed the concept of "role set." Role set is pre- dicated on the idea that any social position is made up of a cluster or set of interrelated roles. 25Ralph Linton, The Study of Man (New York: Appleton- Century, 1936), p. 11“. 26Ralph Linton, The Cultural Background of Personal- ity (New York: Appleton-Century, 19A5), p. 77. 27Robert K. Merton, "Bureaucratic Structure and Per- sonality," Social Forces, Vol. 18 (May, 19AO), pp. 560-568. 1)!) L. c- The development of role concepts by sociologists puts the emphasis upon interaction situations. The con- cern is not only with how a person ought to behave, but how in fact he does behave. The sociologist, Davis, defined role as, "how an individual actually performs in a given position, as distinct from how he is supposed to perform, we call his role."28 Parsons defines role in a similar manner: A role . . . is a sector of the total orientation system of an individual actor which is organized about expectations in relation to a particular interaction context, that is integrated with a particular set of value-standards which govern interaction with one or more alters in the appro- priate complementary roles. Leonard S. Cottrell stressed the dynamics of person- ality development and defined role as a basic factor in the socialization process: Role: an internally consistent series of condi- tioned responses by one member of a social situation which represents the stimulus pattern for a similarly internally consistent series of conditioned responses of the other(s) in that situation.30 28Kingsley Davis, Human Society_(New York: The Mac- Millan Company, 19u9), p. 90. 29Talcott Parsons, The Social System (Glencoe: The Free Press, 1951), pp. 38-39. 3OLeonard S. Cottrell, "The Adjustment of the Indi- vidual to His Age and Sex Roles," American Sociological Review, Vol. 7 (October, 19A2), 617—620. 23 Sargent, also a psychologist, stresses individual perceptions and says, "a person's role is a pattern or type of social behavior which seems situationally appro- priate to him in terms of the demands and expectations of those in his group."31 Newcomb32 and Hiller33 as social psychologists rec- ognized the importance of focusing on the individual and his behavior in a socio-cultural matrix. Hiller proposed that social and personality structures are essentially concurrent and equivalent. Performance in those organ- izations which require high allegiance and devotion such as the family and occupation is more likely to affect the self-concept and the total self-image than performance in organizations which are normally less important. For New- comb, role is a central concept which links the disciplines of psychology and sociology for consideration of problems which demand both frames of reference. Newcomb recognized the distinction between the concepts of prescribed role and role behavior, expected and actual performance. 31Stansfeld Sargent, "Concepts of Role and Ego in Contemporary Psychology," Social Psychology at the Cross- roads, ed. by John H. Rohrer and Muzafer Sherif (New York: Harper and Brothers, 1951), p. 360. 32Theodore M. Newcomb, Social Psychology (New York: The Dryden Press, 1951), p. 280. 33E. T. Hiller, "The Social Structure in Relation to the Person," Social Forces, Vol. 16 (October, 1937), pp. 3u-uu. 2“ The foregoing discussion has provided a brief over— view of the early development of role concepts and how these initial efforts have been reshaped and translated into the unique perspectives of several social science disciplines. Until the last 10 to 15 years the concept of role has been defined in a holistic manner. More recent investigation suggests that the ideas to which role refers might better be treated as a family of rela— 3A ted concepts. The next series of studies reviewed gives an idea of the current status of inquiry into role theory. Bates in his consideration of role expressed a con- corn with the limitations of concepts as defined which do not allow for analysis of structural change and dynamics. Social position should be seen as made up of a number of roles associated with certain sets of norms. As an exam- ple, the position of father includes the roles of teacher, spouse, provider and disciplinarian. The conception allowed Bates to formulate propositions about the internal dynamics of a social position. In any culture there exists a limited number of roles which are combined in various ways to compose a limited number of positions. Within any position there tends to be a strain toward consistency or adjustment between the various roles composing a position. 3“Neal Gross, Ward S. Mason, and Alexander W. McEachern, op. cit., p. 32“. 25 Bates also pointed out that no role exists without a paired reciprocal role which is a part of a different position. Two positions tend at any given moment to be tangential to each other at one and only one point. Only one role is active at a given moment and others are latent. Bates postulated that factors which determine which roles are active at any given moment are (1) the personalities of persons occupying the positions, (2) the characteris— tics of the situation in terms of physical setting, tem- poral context with respect to previous situations, social setting, etc., and (3) the entire structure of the group in which the action is taking place.35 Role theory has at times been combined with other bodies of theoretical consideration to give an even more potent tool for interpreting social behavior. Such an attempt has been made by Cain in synthesizing role and reference group therapy. She distinguished between effec- tive, those who have the ability to persuade or encourage the focal person to accept their definitions or sets of expectations, and ineffective role definers. The self is also seen as playing a part as effective or ineffective role definer for incumbent. Reference groups vary between positive and negative and the amount of power available to each. Cain suggested the following classification of 35Frederick L. Bates, "Position, Role and Status: A Reformulation of Concepts," Social Forces, Vol. 3A (May, 1956), pp. 313-321. 26 reference groups in a descending order or potency as regards their effect on ego: identification groups; nor— mative reference groups; and audience groups. These can be placed into the categories of either interactive or comparative groups. There is a hierarchy within each classification which varies in actual situations with the variables of centrality, visibility, legitimacy, likeli- hood of sanctions, personality of focal position incum— bents and group cohesiveness. These considerations help to solve the critical problem for theory of what deter- mines relative potency of groups. The problem of what determines the person's identification with a group was dealt with by suggesting the factor of ego's perception of the dependence of the group on him and the dependence of ego on the group. As stated by Cain: the power of counter positions within the reference group categories is largely a function of the degree of interdependence between the counter-position and himself perceived by ego, and that this holds true both as regards the long term hierarchy of power and also in particula§6sit— uations where there may be a temporary shift. Goode, writing in The American Journal of Sociol- ggy, pointed out that recent social analysis of role has widely supplanted the term "status" even among writers who assert a formal distinction. In commenting on this shift in definitions he stated, "Consensus with respect 36Maureen E. Cain, "Suggested Developments for Role and Reference Group Analysis," The British Journal of Sociology, Vol. 19 (June, 1968), 191-205. 27 to a concept grows from the social processes in a commu— nity of scientists who work on similar problems" and "as research continues, almost all the various definitions of role and status used in past generations will be dis- carded."37 Goode also pointed out that conformity to a set of norms is not a Simple function of norm commitment. It is a relationship of general direction. The individ- ual's emotional commitment to an adequate discharge of his role duties, and thus his behavioral consistency, derives ultimately from his experiences of censure and reward in his role relationships.38 Williams observed that there is an imposing set of empirical and theoretical evidence as to the fruitfulness of conceptualizing leadership as associated with differ- entiation of roles based on functional problems. To test this notion, Williams studied a small rural agricultural community in the Southwestern part of the United States. Activities were divided into instrumental roles and expressive roles. It was found that different leadership types tended to associate with either instrumental or expressive subsystems. Interestingly enough, the results indicated that decisions were made about problems relative 37William J. Godde, "Norm Commitment and Conformity to Role-Status Obligations," The American Journal of Sociology, Vol. 66 (November, 1960), p. 2A7. 381bid., p. 253. 28 to each subsystem without emergence of authoritarian leadership. A collegial structure existed which made decisions marked by a high degree of consensus and toler- ance. Goals were attained without administrative special— ists. The results tended to support those who maintain that power mobilization is a technical requirement depend- ing upon the administrative arrangement of a social organ- ization rather than a functional requisite.39 As more attempts are made to formulate and test hypotheses based on role theory, a need arises to develop appropriate research methodologies. An initial attempt to spell out operational requirements on role research has been proposed by Rushing. He made the observation that, "Despite the abundant literature on the subject of role, the operational procedures required of empirical analysis have yet to be given explicit and detailed considera- tion."uO Role is based on the assumption of the existence of a counter role. This is a complementary consideration. One of the methological implications is the need to sam- ple not only the position incumbents, but "others" for 39Virgil Williams, "Leadership Types, Role Differ- entiation, and System Problems," Social Forces, Vol. A3 (March, 1965), pp. 380-389. uoWilliam A. Rushing, "The Role Concept: Assump— tions and Their Methodological Implications," Sociology and Social Research, Vol. U9 (October, 196“), p. A7. 29 their expectations of the position. The sampling Should ‘ include position members who actually interact. A fur- ther requirement is the necessity of describing the con- \ text for the expectations described. Social norms and uniform behavior which are related as independent and dependent variables, necessitate independent observations of each. Finally, the researcher must remember that con- sensus or conflict cannot be assumed from the study of “1 only one role incombent. ‘1 Role Theory as an Analytic Framework The next subsection of the review of role theory deals with the use of role concepts as a framework for the analysis of complex organizations. Role has been used as a means for interpreting both structural and behavioral aspects of formal organizations. A later section of the review is devoted to organizational means available for achieving a greater degree of role compli- ance. As a rationale for using role theory to study organ- izations, Jacobson, Charters and Lieberman gave the follow- ing explanation: The search for insights into the functioning of complex organizations have led to the development of a variety of systematic frameworks within which organizations may be described and measured. One of the approaches used stems from the common ulIbid., pp. “8-57. 30 observation that people in organizations tend to have relatively uniform expectations about the behavior of persons in various positions and that the behavior of these persons is interpreted in terms of such eXpectationS. These observations suggest the usefulness of some of the confiepts developed in connection with role theory. 2 E. Wright Bakke attempted to develop an all inclu— sive framework for the analysis of complex organizations in which he gave a position of primary importance to sets of expectances. As stated by Bakke: The behavior which is the substance of the organization may accord with several sets of eXpectancies: (a) The expectancies which, as can be inferred from formulated and announced specifications and rules, the managers of the organization should hold with respect to their subordinates (b) The expectancies which arg held by the superordinates to whom the actor is subordinate (c) The expectancies held by others with whom the actor is directly associated in tasks performed for the organization (d) The expectancies held by those belonging to a circle of participants with which the actor feels himself identified (e) Thfi expectancies which the actor has for himself. 3 The behavior of any individual in the organization is seen as a response to a fusion the actor has made of all five types of expectancies. Bakke saw organizations as a complex of interrela- ted elements. The various activities are associated with essential processes which in turn constitutes one of the u2Eugene Jacobson, W. W. Charters, Jr., and Seymour Lieberman, op. cit., p. 18. u3E. Wright Bakke, op. cit., p. 45. 31 elementary organization substances along with the organ- izational charter and basic resources. All these elements are seen as in a state of interdependence. Bakke admitted this was a highly theoretical and complicated conceptual- ization, but went on to say " . . . the findings of all types of organizational research will have to be inte- grated with the system of variables which actually exists in a living organization with all of its complexity."uu Levinson viewed organizations from a sociopsycholo- gical point of view and determined that role theory pro— vided an important link between the individual and the collective matrix. Levinson pointed out that the major emphasis in organizational research has been on the structural component with the virtual exclusion of the human personality factor. He further stated there is a reciprocal influence in both directions between person- ality and structure. Role is seen as composed of struc- turally given demands, the actor's orientation or concep- tion of role, and actions of the individual actor. These three aspects should be given independent and empirical status. Even though it is reasonable to assume a measure of congruence among all three elements, they nevertheless do vary from each other. Using three categories of role as a general framework, it is then possible to incorporate qubid., pp. 72-73. the dimensions of dynamics and change into this approach of organizational research.”5 In summary, Levinson sug- gested: . . that a primary distinction be made between the structurally given role-demands and the forms of an organization. Personal role definition then becomes a linking concept between personality and social structure, And as a final observation: . . we should keep in mind that both personal- ity structure and social struggure inevitably have their internal contradiction. Getzels developed a conceptual model of social behavior predicated on a perspective very Similar to that used by Levinson. The model proposed by Getzels was pro- posed as having particular relevance for administration. Administration is conceived of as structurally in a hier- archal relationship with a functional responsibility for allocating and integrating roles and facilities in order to achieve the goals of the social system.“7 The proposed model has two conceptually independent dimensions which are phenomenally interactive. The nomothetic side which is composed of the elements of institution, role and expec- tation and the idiographic side composed of individual, personality and need disposition constitute the two usDaniel J. Levinson, "Role, Personality and Social Structure in the Organizational Setting," Journal of Abnor- mal and Social Psychology, Vol. 58 (1959), pp. 170—180. u6Ibido’ p0 1790 “7Jacob W. Getzels, op. cit., p. 151. ex.) LU dimensions. The behavior of any specific role—incumbent in an institution is a product of both the nomothetic and idiographic dimensions. The degree to which each dimen- sion determines an action varies with the specific act, the specific role and the specific personality involved. Getzels went on to suggest that the usefulness of the model depends upon resulting derivations and relevent research studies. AS an example of relevant research, the following basic hypothesis was cited: when the perceptions of the expectations of participants in an administrative interaction overlap, the participants feel satisfied with the work accomplished no matter what the actual be- havior or accomplishment; when the perception of the expectations does noE overlap, the partici- pants feel dissatisfied. 8 This particular hypothesis is very similar to one of the hypothesis tested in this research investigation. Cross, in a paper dealing with possible social science contributions for educational administration, suggested six sociological perspectives that he had found helpful in efforts to deal with concrete and complex prob- lems of educational organizations.“9 The fourth perspec- tive listed was "Dissension on role definitions among uglbid., p. 160. ugNeal Gross, "Sociology and the Study of Adminis- tration," The Social Sciences and Educational Administra- tion, ed. by Laurence W. Downey and Frederick Enns (The University of Alberta, Canada: The Division of Educa— tional Administration, 1963), p. 32. 3U organizational members constitutes a potential source of conflict and strain that may influence organizational functioning."50 This perspective focuses attention on the role eXpectations the incumbents of positions hold for each other's behavior. Dissension in role definition may be accounted for by varying socialization experiences, different reference groups, and differences in values. Gross commented that "the fascinating thing I have observed in a number of organizations is the extent to which indi— viduals who work in close contact with each other can mis- perceive the role expectations others hold for their role performance."51 Palumbo has pointed out that a common thread in the organizational context exists among the concepts of power, role, status and conditioned response. He postulated a relationship between the amount of power available to an actor and the degree of role specificity for the actor's position. Role specificity might be ascertained by mea- suring structural variables such as centralization, for- malization, and span of control. The question to be answered is whether these variables might also be used as a measure of power. Palumbo used the above theoretical position to study the relationship of power and role spe- cificity for the positions of nurse and sanitarian in 14 50Ibid., p. 35. 51lbid., p. 36. 35 local public health departments. He found that the higher up the organization hierarchy, the more power an individual has because he will have wider role discretion. He defined power as ” . . . the opportunity of the person holding the position to alter the rules which define what behavioral norms he will follow and what norms some other "52 He also found members of the organization will follow that any one person was limited in the opportunity he had to alter norms for any other position in the organization. Two particularly important factors that related to the degree of role specificity were the task environment and degree of professionalism. In terms of professionalism, the relationship with morale varies according to the type of position. For example, using the position of sanitar- ian, increased centralization is positively related to decreased professionalization, but decreased professional- ization is positively related to higher morale. As a con- cluding remark, Palumbo pointed out that organizational behavior cannot be reduced to a single variable, but it did appear that defining power in terms of role specifi- city may be a profitable research strategy.53 Another important consideration in role definition is the relationship between the degree to which the roles 52Dennis J. Palumbo, "Power and Role Specificity in Organization Theory," Public Administration Review, Vol. 29, (May-June, 1969), 2AA. 53Ibid., pp. 237-2u6. 36 are defined and adaptability to social change. Frank suggested the following three types of ideal administra- tive organizations distinguished as to the degree of definition of administrative roles and sets of roles: Type 1 - under-defined; Type 2 — well-defined; and Type 3 — over-defined. He saw a relationship in the amount to which an organization member is active and the amount of possible change. The under—defined roles permit indi- viduals actively to take the determination of their own and others' destinies into their own hands if they so wish. It allows adaptation of role definition and response to changing environments. Type 2 with well— defined, coherent role definitions tends to prohibit individual initiative and makes ritual role performance easy. This would impede adaptation to environmental change. Type 3 which is characterized by excessive or conflicting role eXpectations results in adaptive or deviant role behavior. The behavior may be to stimulate role performance, creation of alternative role responses or gradually changing the expectations of one's own role. Frank noted that each of the various types might be bet- ter suited for different tasks. For example, Type 1 organizations either could be suited for research 37 institutions or within an organization they could be associated with heads of the organization.5u As a final conclusion, Frank states: In brief, the well-defined roles of Type 2 organization permit only very limited flexibility and require sufficient external pressure for change to result in revolutionary change of an institution which relies on it. The under— and over—defined roles of Type 1 and Type 3 organ— izations on the other hand provide for internally generatpg initiative and externally induced adap- tation. Julian has taken the position that the amount of role consensus reflects the degree of collective integra- tion within an organization, and consequently decided to investigate some of the possible determinates of consen- sus. Most studies have assumed a measure of consensus and treated it as an independent rather than dependent variable. Julian obtained data to test hypotheses con- cerned with the relations between dissensus and the fac- tors of socialization and preparation. Role prescriptions of physicians, registered nurses, and patients in a tuber- culosis hospital were the subjects studied.56 In 5“Andrew Gunder frank, "Administrative Role Defini- tions and Social Change,"Human Organization, Vol. 22, (Winter, 1963—64), 238-2A2. 55Ibid., p. 2A2. 56Joseph Julian, "Some Determinants of Dissensus on Role Prescriptions Within and Between Four Organizational Positions," The Sociological Quarterly, Vol. 10 (Spring, 1969), 177-189. 38 summarizing his findings, he concluded that: Socialization and preparations are inversely related to dissensus on respective role prescrip- tions as well as on the role prescriptions of other positions. Role specificity was also found to be inversely related to dissensus on respective role prescriptions. However, the relationship between role specificity and dissensus on role prescription of other positions was rather weak. Some support was found indicating a direct rela- tionship between social distance and dissensus.57 Julian's basic contention and findings are directly rela- ted to the aspect of this investigation which described the various preparation and socialization measures util- ized by the various school districts to achieve role com- pliance. In another study also using hospital work groups as subjects, Hass studied the relationship between role con- sensus and intra group harmony. The basic theoretical position for the study was based on the premise that to the extent disharmony and friction occur within a group, the productivity of the group is retarded, thus being viewed as a problem for the administrator. In general, the findings lent support to the basic theoretical posi- _tion. The specific hypotheses tested and the general level of support are as follows: Hypothesis 1: For any dyad within a group which persists overtime, low consensus in role conception is directly related to low role performance rating. The findings lent some support, r )7Ibid., p. 189. Hypothesis 2: Hypothesis 3: Hypothesis A: Hypothesis 5: 39 but not strong support. An important related factor may have been the fre- quency of interaction. For any dyad within a group which persists overtime, low consensus in role conception is directly related to low sociometric preference. The hypothesis was supported. For members of a group which exists over- time, level of role performance rating is directly related to degree of sociometric preference. The data clearly supported the hypothesis. For any group which persists overtime, level of role consensus among members is inversely related to the incidence of friction. The data gave general support to the hypothesis. Level of role consensus among professional employees is directly related to Similarity of educational background. Insofar as the data permitted a test of this hypothesis, the relationship was supported. The study seemed to indicate that low role consensus in permanent groups is directly related to disharmony and annoyance. The administrative objective Should be to achieve high consensus on norms which optimize effective- neSS . Two studies using air force personnel provide addi— tional insight into the use of role theory to understand organizational behavior. The first study conducted by Davis was designed to test the position that conceptions of official leader roles influence leader-follower inter- action and adjustment. The major hypothesis of the study 58 Eugene J. Hass, Role Conception and Group Consen- sus (Columbus, Ohio: Bureau of Business Research, College of Commerce and Administration, Ohio State University, 1964), pp. 84-102. MO was that agreement between the official leader and his followers is associated with morale and other indices of follower adjustment. Only limited support for the hypthe- sis was achieved and most of the evidence called for a rejection of the congruence hypothesis. Davis speculated that a more important congruence measure than the one used might have given greater support to the basic contention of the study.59 Hall also using air force personnel to study role theory began from the premise that conver- gence of attitudes and behavior so often observed in face- to—face groups is a consequence of the need to validate attitudes by consensus, together with the motivation for acceptance in the group. B-29 bomber crews were studied with the emphasis placed on the position of aircraft com- mander. Dimensions of the aircraft commander's behavior were selected and measured by questionnaire responses of crew members and validated against ratings by observers. Using the same behavioral dimensions, attitude scales were given the crew members to measure attitudes toward the commander's behavior. Results were generally as hypothe— sized for the dimension of intimacy, but results for the 59F. James Davis, "Conceptions of Official Leader Roles in the Air Force," Social Forces, Vol. 32 (March, 195“), pp. 253—258. U1 dimensions of nurturance and militariness were equivocal, which suggested norms for these two items had not devel— oped.60 Nye, in a doctoral study of officials in a local governmental agency in Iowa studied performance in a sit- uation of conflicting role definitions. He found some support for a positive relationship between role perform— ance and role definition and the agreement between role definitions, the amount of agreement between role defini— tions and task accomplishment, and the amount of agree— ment between role performance and role definition and task accomplishment. Hye found no support for the hypothesis that a position incumbent defines his own role in such a way that there is a greater role convergence between his definition of the role and the official role definition than between another role definers definition of the same role and the official role definition.61 Willis, in a doctoral study of personnel involved in a county mental health program in the state of Geor— gia, investigated the relationship between organizational goals and role consensus. She found little relationship 60Robert L. Hall, "Social Influence on the Aircraft Commander's Role," American Sociological Review, Vol. 20 (June, 1955), pp. 292-299. 6J'John Robert Nye, "Role Performance in Situations of Conflicting Role Definitions" (Unpublished Doctor's dissertation, Iowa State University, 1968). A2 between the actual or ideal conceptions of goal systems and role conceptions. Instead, group members' concep— tion of actual role behavior seemed to be crucial in Shaping their role conceptions.62 Jacobson, Charters and Lieberman used role concepts to study relationships between the supervisory positions of foreman and steward and workers in an automobile fac- tory. Previous studies of the position of supervisor have produced evidence that the perceptions and expectations with respect to the supervisor's behavior are systemati- cally related to productivity, to the facility for change in the behavior of supervisors, and to the attitudes of those who work with the supervisors. The investigation of the automobile factory positions was designed to lead to a better understanding of the functioning of complex hierarchically structured organizations and of the deter- minants of effectiveness and satisfaction of the individ- ual members. The researchers pointed out the importance of considering the factors of degree of structure and relevant reference groups in using role concepts to study organizations. The research findings revealed that modal foremen tend to get along more easily with workers than deviant foremen. Deviant and modal were defined in terms of majority expectations. The data also revealed a strong 62Lynn Magdovitz Willis, "A Study of Relationships Between Organizational Goals and Role Consensus" (unpub- lished Doctor's dissertation, Emory University, 1967). “3 relationship between a steward's expectations of his own role and the expectations which he attributed to workers. Based on their findings, the investigators hypothesized that discrepancy or congruity between social role and role behavior can be accounted for in terms of accuracy of perceptions and the extent of motivation toward per— forming the behavior. They further suggest that effec- tiveness in terms of role concepts might be determined by the ability of the incumbent to be motivated to meet role expectations of relevant peers, supervisors and 63 subordinates. Frameworks and Conclusions The next four studies reviewed are included because they provide general frameworks or summary conclusions of role theory based on extensive reviews of the literature. The four studies were chosen because they were particularly useful for designing this dissertation and they are fre— quently referred to by various authors. The resurvey of literature by Neiman and Hughes was referred to in the first part of this review of role theory. The survey ranged over material from the years 1900 to 1950. Many of their conclusions are very pertin- ent today as a commentary about role theory. After sur- veying some eighty different sources which used the con— cept "role" the authors came to the following conclusions: 63Jacobsen, Charters and Lieberman, op. cit., pp. 18- P7. 44 1. Historically the greatest emphasis has been in the last decade as far as the use of the concept is concerned. Prior to about 1940 the concept was more of an abstract generalization than a research tool. After 1940 more research involving the con- cept is in evidence. 2. In the early historical development, in the area of theoretical assumptions and implications, the frame of reference was almost exclusively that of symbolic interactionism. This trend has continued to the present day as exemplified by those who use the concept as a basic factor in the process of socialization. 3. The concept role is at present still rather vague, nebulous, and non—definitive. Frequently in the literature, the concept is used without any attempt on the part of the writer to define or delimit the concept, the assumption being that both writer and reader will achieve an immediate compatible consensus. Concomitantly, the concept is found frequently in popular usuage which adds further confusion. 4. In the literature of empirical research, by far the greatest amount of research has been in sociometery, but isolated studies have appeared elsewhere. 5. In spite of the confusion and lack of consen- sus, the concept role is at present an integral part of sociological vocabulary. The evidence here is that the concept is appearing in every introductory text in the field. 6. In the psychological literature, although the word, role, may not itself be used, the implica- tion is found in such concepts as "self"; "self— perception"' and "self—awareness." 7. There is little research, but theorizing on the process of the development of roles. "Specu- lation runs high, while investigation goes beg- ging." 8. There is an increasing trend toward associat- ing the concept role with that of status. Here perhaps is the most definitive use of the concept, and the one about which there is most consensus. 45 9. Hypotheses involving the concept role are extremely rare in the literature. This raises the question of the utility of the concept. If a concept is useful in the field, is it not logi- cal to assume that one would find varying hypthe- ses in the research literature putting the concept to the test of empirical research? This is not true of the concept role. 10. There are few, if any, predictive studies of human behavior involving the concept role. If predictive ability is one measure of a scientific construct,6phis is a telling criticism of the construct. Subsequent to Neiman and Hughes remarks there has been progress in developing more generally accepted and speci- fic role definitions, development of testable hypotheses and empirical research. Many of the studies included in this review of literature provide testimony to this obser- vation. Biddle, in a multi—volumed report of a research investigation into the role of the teacher by a team from the Social Psychological Laboratory, University of Mis- souri, included a five major dimensional framework for analysis of role statements and a review of its applica- tion to role theory literature. Biddle initially makes the observation that, "There is, perhaps, no field in all social science today with as little consensus among inves— tigators as to what its terms are, what they mean, or in— deed, with what phenomena the theory is concerned."65 He 6”Neiman and Hughes, op. cit., p. 149. bSBruce J. Biddle, op. cit., Series 1, Vol. B, p. l. 46 also observed that despite the wide variety of definitions, there are only a few primitive concepts involved. Biddle begins from the position that, "role theory deals with patterns of certain characteristics which are common to a person or to groups of persons (called positions) and with a variety of cognitions held about those patterns by social observers. Five major dimensions which together provide a com— prehensive frame for analysis of role statements was devised by Biddle and his research team. The first dimen- sion is concerned with the level of the object to be dis- lcussed. Three levels of discussion were included. The first or real world level includes the actual person, characteristics or behavior. The second level is labeled first order cognitions and is defined as cognitions main— tained by social observers about real world events. Cog— nitions are mental mapping structures. They may be judged as accurate or inaccurate. Expectations and norms are first order cognitions and they serve to structure the behavior of individuals. The third level is identi— fied as second level cognitions and is defined as cogni- tions maintained by the social observer about cognitions of others. The second dimension of analysis is the per— sons discussed, either as object or subject. The object— actor is a person who exhibits the behavior. The subject 66lbid., p. 3. I; 7 is a person who is presumed to hold cognitions relating to a social situation, and more specifically, to an object and his characteristics. When the cognitions are held for the self, then the person may be subject and also object. There should be a distinction made between the individual standing alone and one who is seen as a member of a position. A third dimension to consider is characteristics. These are either behavior which is performed and bound by time and place or features which are like a mask and persist beyond a Specific context. Types of cognition are the fourth major dimension. Cog- nitions are either expectations or norms. Expectations are termed as subjective probability maps maintained by a subject, while norms are prescriptive maps. Neither expectation nor norm need bear any relationship to actual behavior of the object. A set of expectations make up a role. The final dimension is the background or setting. Patterns of behavior tend to have less variance within settings than they do between settings. Also, it is pos— sible to have more than one pattern of behavior within one setting. Settings are both physical and social. The positions present, time, institutional structure, history and shared culture are all aspects of background.67 In the second chapter of Volume 1, Series B, Biddle presented a coding system based on the five major 6ZIbid., Chapter 1. 48 dimensions of role analysis. The code was then applied to role terms and concepts used in various theoretical articles. In Chapter 5 of Volume 1, Series B, Biddle summarized empirical role studies of the public school teacher. The studies included were those which related to cognitions held about teachers and not actual behav- ior. As a summary, Biddle states that: In general, most previous studies: (1) Have been concerned with first-order cognitions. (2) Have dealt with norms rather than expectations. (3) Have dealt with but one type of cognition. (4) Have been non-systematic in choice of subjects. (5) Have studied the cognitions of but one position (although a variety of positions have been used as sub- jects). (6) Have studied "teachers in general" or the com- plete teacher position. (7) Have utilized "the community" most often as a sentient object in the minority of second—order cognition studies, despite the presence of well-defined secondary positions in interaction with teachers. (8) Have focused primarily upon behaviors and pseudo-features. (9) Have almost completely ignored the backgrounds of teacher role. (10) Have made use of arbitrarily chosen, close- ended frameworks for the expression of behavioral alter- natives. (11) Have studied cogpétions for the teacher alone or as dependent variables. Gross, Mason and McEachern were concerned with an extensive examination of role concepts in their analysis of the position of school superintendent. The study was an aspect of the School Executive Studies, a research pro- gram initiated by Harvard University in 1952. The basic b8Ibid., pp. 124—125. £19 assumption of the research was that the extent of consen- sus on role definition may directly affect the function- ing of a social system. In their review of literature, the investigators gave considerable attention to the postulate of role consensus. In one of the final para- graphs of the review, Gross, et al., concluded: In attempting to place the problem of role con— sensus in its social science setting, we observed that the postulate of consensus is still enmeshed in the analyses of many students of social behav- ior. Since their analyses assume consensus on role definitions among members of a group or "society," they have ignored its possible signifi- cance as a variable for social science inquiry. We also observed, however, that during the past decade, there has been an increasing tendency to consider role consensus an important variable for the study of individual social behavior, the func- tioning of social systems, and cultural organiza- tions. 9 The consideration of role consensus is particularly pertinent for this research. Consensus was not assumed, but rather the degree to which it did or did not exist was considered as a determinant of other crucial variables for the school organization. Another result of Gross's, et al., review of liter- ature was a classification of role definitions into the following three basic categories: (1) equated with or defined to include normative cultural patterns, (2) as an individual's definition of his Situation with reference 69Neal Gross, Ward S. Mason and Alexander W. McEarchen, 0p. cit., p. 42. 50 to his and others' social positions, and (3) as the be— havior of actors occupying social positions. The 1955 annual meeting of the National Council of College Teachers of Education was devoted to an assessment of research on the social roles of teachers. As a result of the meeting, Brookover developed a conceptual schema to deal with the various studies and concepts using role theory to study and analyze teacher and administrator behavior. Use was made of the basic assumption that role concepts are meaningful only in a social interaction situation. A paradigm was used to show the various aspects of role behavior and role conflict. The paradigm includes two sides or dimensions, one the individual actor and the other the expectations held for the actor by others. Each dimension is divided into differing levels of specificity. On the expectational Side are levels of general expectations held for any actor in a broadly defined position, expectations of any actor in a particular situation, and expectations for a particular actor in a particular situation. On the side of the actor the initial level represents the actor as he enters the situation with his different needs, experiences and perceptions of the situation. The second level involves the actor's self-image as he projects himself into the situation. The final level is the actor's definition of what he thinks others expect of him in the role. The 51 center or core of the paradigm represents behavior of the actor which results from the mixing of the two dimensions. Both dimensions operate on more than one level depending on such factors as the particular group and actor involved. Any one situation may have several rele- vant persons or groups. Each level discussed proceeds from a general to more specific level. The more general level for each dimension, in part, determines the bound— aries of the next more Specific level. The various levels and resulting behavior exist in a dynamic relationship which is in a state of constant redefinition. A further comment about the schema is that the actor may see incompatible expectations as compatible. The important factor is how the actor perceives the sit— uation. The actor often finds ways of mediating conflict— ing expectations. Brookover observed that many studies using role concepts to study expectations for teachers and administrators make little or no differentiation between types or levels of specificity.70 Role Theory and Education This final section of the role theory review is a consideration of studies exclusively in the field of 70W. B. Brookover, "Research on Teacher and Admin- istrator Roles," The Journal of Educational Sociology, Vol. 29 (September, 1955), pp. 2-13. See also, Wilbur B. Brookover and David Gottlieb, A Sociology of Education (New York: American Book Company, 1964), pp. 324-325. education. There are countless education research activ— ities which rely to some measure on the concepts of role theory. The selection criteria for this review was to include both a representative sample and those several major studies which have particular significance for this dissertation. A comprehensive review of role theory, as applied to the education profession up to 1960, can be found in Chapter 2 of a doctoral dissertation by Cowan.71 The review indicates a similarity between the development of role theory in general and its use in particular to inves— tigate the profession of education. For example, Waller, in the early 1930's, used a generalized role concept in a descriptive study of the teaching profession. In an observation designed to help develop understanding of the school as a social system, he stated, " . . . to play a role is to regulate one's behavior by the imagined judg- ments of others.72 One of the most significant and frequently cited research projects is the Study of the school superinten- dency by Gross, Mason and McEachern which was previously 71Alton W. Cowan, "The Building Director: A Criti- cal Study of Expectations Held for the Position by Princi- pals, Adult Education Coordinators, Teachers and Building Directors" (unpublished Doctor's dissertation, Michigan State University, 1960). 72Willard Waller, The Sociology of Teaching (New York: John Wiley and Sons, 1932), p. 149. 53 referred to in this review of role theory. The study eXplored the problems of role consensus, conformity to expectations, and resolution of role conflict. The postulate of role consensus has either been implied or explicit in many studies of various social systems. In addition, the effect of different degrees of consensus on role performance has not been acknowledged. After a thorough review of role theory, Gross and company devel- oped a methodology that tested many theoretical hypothesis which made use of role consensus as a variable. A popu— lation of 105 superintendents and 508 school board mem- bers in the state of Massachusetts were used as the sam- ple. The hypotheses were tested for the total population, categorized under the title of mascroscopic consensus and for each separate school system, which was categorized as microscopic consensus. The research findings gave no sup- port to the hypothesis that the length of interaction and the extent of homogeneity were related to role consensus between school board members and school superintendents.73 The findings did indicate that homogeneity and interaction were related to role consensus within the school board member group.7u Gross and his colleagues further hypothe- sized that role consensus determined the satisfaction of group members and also influenced the manner in which 731bid., p. 180. 7“lbid., p. 191. 54 they evaluate one another. Satisfaction was found to be related to consensus within the school board member group, but was not found to be related to role consensus between school board members and school superintendents. The superintendents' ratings of the school boards were found to be related to consensus, but the school boards' rat— ings of the superintendents were not related to consen- sus.75 The researchers concluded their investigation with a theory of role conflict resolution in which they dealt with the conceptual elements of legitimacy of expectations and probable sanctions. As one of their concluding observations, Gross, Mason and McEachern stated: Our research experience suggests that when a more differentiated set of concepts are developed to devote subsidiary notions involved in the gen— eral conception of role, these microscopic terms may be fruitfully used in theoretical propositions. That is, the ideas to which role refers, if treated as a family of concepts instead of in a holistic manner, may be made available for theoretical hypotheses.76 Another investigation which focused on administra— tive positions was a doctoral study by Craig of factors affecting congruency of role perception for the position of elementary principal. All elementary principals and central office personnel were surveyed in eight suburban school districts in King County, Washington. Craig, 75Ibid., pp. 212—221. 76Ibid., p. 324. 55 after measuring the various personnel with an administra- tive function responsibility scale, concluded that: (1) There were significant differences between elementary principals and central office personnel in their percep- tions of the degree of responsibility of elementary prin— cipals for the administrative tasks; (2) Increased fre- quency of staff meetings was significantly related to higher levels of consensus among the principals, and (3) There was a significant relationship between an increase in school district size and a decrease in consensus among principals.77 In a doctoral study based on a series of case inci- dents about administrative succession, Beall analyzed the process through which a superintendent of schools acquires and maintains his role, when his expectations for perform- ance of his role differ to a considerable extent from that of his predecessor. He concluded that awareness of timing actions by the new incumbent is critical. Also, he must realize board members still maintain role eXpec- tations associated with the behavior of the predecessor. Consequently, adjustments would have to be made by both parties before consensus would be obtained. Finally, conflict was felt inevitable, but should be contained so 77Lloyd Gene Craig, "A Study of Factors Relating to Achievement of Congruency of Perception of the Role of the Elementary School Principal" (unpublished Doctor's dissertation, University of Washington, 1967). 56 that efforts could be directed to the resolution of as few items of controversy as possible at any given time.78 A study by hidwell, which is also directed to admin— istration, related teacher job satisfaction to their role expectations of administrators and the degree to which the administrators fulfilled the expectations. Based on a 53 per cent return of questionnaires sent to 358 teachers in five school districts regarding their expectations and perceptions of the principal and superintendent, Bidwell concluded that: (1) Convergence of teachers' role-expectations toward the administrator and their perceptions of his behavior will be accompanied by an expression by these teachers of satisfaction with the teach- ing situation. (2) Divergence of teachers' role-expectations toward the administrator and their perceptions of his behavior will be accompanied by an expression by these teachers of dissatisfaction with the teaching situation. Follow up interviews with a sample of the respondents lent further substantiation to the findings, and seems to indi- cate that the conclusions were upheld, independent of the nature of the expectations. The degree of disagreement on the teacher's role between teacher and principal, and its effect upon teacher 78Harold Addison Beall, "Administrative Succession: A Study of Role Acquisition and Maintenance" (unpublished Doctor's dissertation, University of Oregon, 1962). 79Charles E. Bidwell, "The Administrative Role and Satisfaction in Teaching," Journal of Educational Sociol- ogy, Vol. 29, p. 47. DY satisfaction and effectiveness was the question studied in a doctoral dissertation by Campbell. The investiga- tion was conducted in eight elementary and seven secon- dary schools located in southern Wisconsin and northern Illinois. Fifteen principals and 28“ teachers partici— pated in the study. Each principal was given a form consisting of sixty statements and was asked to indicate what he expected his teachers to do. Each teacher was given the same form, but was instructed to indicate what he most wanted in his teaching situation. In addition, each principal rated the effectiveness of his teachers and each teacher rated his own effectiveness, satisfac- tion, and confidence in the leadership of the principal. The three hypotheses tested and their level of support was as follows: (1) Those teachers whose wants and needs were in agreement with their principal's expectations would express significantly higher Job satisfaction than would those teachers whose wants were in conflict with the principal's definition of the teacher's role. This hypothesis was substantiated by the study. (2) Those teachers whose wants and needs were similar to the expectations their principals held for them would be rated as more effective in the teaching situation. When the teachers rated their own effectiveness, the hypothesis was not supported. When the principals were the raters, the hypothesis was supported. (3) Those teachers whose wants and needs were in agreement with what the principal expected would express more confidence in leadership than would teachers whose wants were in conflict with the principal'g expectations. This hypothesis was supported. Campbell's study is particularly related to this disser— tation and was one of the research investigations which lent support for the feasibility of the hypotheses tested for the position of teacher aide. A large number of studies using role theory have fo— cused on the role of the classroom teacher. One of the most comprehensive and sophisticated was the study by Bid— dle referred to previously in the review. Biddle and his assistants used their multi—dimensional factors of level, object, characteristics, cognitions, and context to measure the role of the teacher as viewed by various groups. The respondents included teachers, parents, pupils, school board members, and school administrators. The data were collected in three separate field studies: a pilot study; background study; and role study. Data and conclusions were tabulated for stereotypic responses for all groups, for differences in cognitions respondents held for teach— ers and for those they attribute to others. Significant differences were found among groups and cognitions held by respondents and those attributed to others. More impor— tantly, there was an obvious, striking, and apparently well—entrenched stereotype as defined by all respondents OMerton V. Campbell, "Teacher—Principal Agreement on the Teacher Role," Administrator's Notebook, Vol. 7 (February, 1959), pp. l—U. 59 groups. Stereotypes as related to role were defined by Biddle as commonly held components of role for behavior, traits, and other characteristics which the average respondent feels are norms or expectations for role incumbents. The findings revealed a sharp consistency between positive norms and expectations and a tendency toward over-conformity in the behaviors reported by teachers. The same conclusion was drawn for negative norms with the exception that they were found to be more extreme. Biddle and his staff concluded with the obser— vations that community respondents focused upon teacher— pupil relationships and classroom control, and made a conscious effort to avoid the primary teacher task- instruction. The data provided a generally optimistic picture. For example, teachers were portrayed as stres- sing creativity, organization, excitement and impartial— ity in the classroom. There was general agreement on what constitutes a good teacher and the expectations teachers will behave that way.81 Getzels and Cuba used role theory in an analysis of the relationship of role expectations, role conflict, and individual characteristics in the teaching situation. After extensiVe interviews, a role conflict instrument was developed which permitted the simultaneous measurement of 81Biddle, op. cit., Vol. 2, pp. 135-152. 60 both the situational and the personalistic aspects of con— flict. The instrument covered three aspects of the teacher role: socio-economic, citizens, and professional. The following conclusions based on a “8 per cent return from 3M” teachers in 18 schools were deemed appropriate by the researchers: (1) The teacher is defined both by core expecta- tions common to the teaching situation in general and by significantly varying expectations that are a function of local school and community conditions. (2) Many of the expectations attached to the teacher role are inconsistent with expectations attached to other roles the teacher typically occupies. That is, the teaching situation is in many critical elements characterized by role con- flict. (3) The nature of the role conflicts is systemat- ically related to certain differences among schools and among communities. (A) The existence of role conflicts may be taken as evidence that the teacher role is imperfectly integrated with other roles. The consequence of role conflict may be frustration for the individual teacher and ineffectiveness for the educational institution. (5) There are differential reactions among teachers in the extent of their liability to (or being troubled by) role conflict in the teaching situation. These differential reactions are system- atically and meaningfully related to cggtain per- sonal characteristics of the teachers. Terrein selected the teaching profession to test the general hypothesis that an occupation could act to channel the behavior of its adherents into a recognizable system both on and off the job, and correlatively, could deter- mine an occupational type among those adherents. The data 82J. W. Getzels and E. G. Cuba, "The Structure of Roles and Role Conflict in a Teaching Situation," Journal of Educational Sociology, Vol. 29 (September, 1955 , pp. 3o—uo. 61 were collected from a 10 per cent random sample of 1,000 teachers from an eastern city. The hypothesis was gen— erally substantiated. Terrein stated: . . . while the role of teachers is fairly well established-—tied in, as it is, with their impor- tant function-~it is painfully clear that their status, or 'position with relatégn to the total of society' remains unresolved. As a concluding observation, he further states: The general impression which arises from the replies to the extensive survey here reported in part is that teachers conceive of themselves as loyal, non-aggressive, somewhat martyred pub- lic servants. They appear to differ from the average American in that they lack a really positive concept of self. Their future, they believe, depends upon theBBublic conscience, and on their own actions. Brown, in research for a doctoral dissertation, found no correlation between the factors of teacher role perceptions and pupil perceptions of teacher behavior characteristics. The data were collected using the Teacher Practices Questionnaire (TPQ) and a pupil obser— vation questionnaire (POSR), which measures five dimen— sions of behavior characteristics. One hundred seventy— eight Georgia secondary school teachers made up the sam- ple population. The research data did indicate a relation- ship between role expectations and the teacher's age, sex, 83Frederic W. Terrein, "The Occupational Roles of Teachers," Journal of Educational Sociology, Vol. 29 (September, 1955), p. 20. 8”Ibid. 62 and teaching field. There was also a relationship between pupil ratings and the teacher's age, sex, and teaching field.85 In another study of secondary teachers, Snyder found that the expectations which collectively constitute the role of male secondary public school teachers appeared to be a highly stable set of stipulations. Respondents held the same expectations for the teacher living next door to them as they did for teachers in general. There was a difference between categories of expectations which Snyder labeled as primary, peripherical, and secondary. When expectations concerned teaching activities and allied situations closely related to the teaching role, respon- dents showed a relatively low consensus, or high disagree- ment, as to what they expected. When expectations were concerned with teachers acting independently of, or exter— nal to the school, respondents tended to show greater con- sensus as to what they expected of those teachers. The data was collected from 163 teachers designated as neigh- bors of A7 male Junior high school and senior high school 85Iva Dirckins Brown, "Role Perceptions of Secondary Teachers as Related to Pupils' Perceptions of Teacher Behavioral Characteristics" (unpublished Doctor's disser— tation, University of Georgia, 1965). 63 teachers. The instrument consisted of 166 closed response expectation items for the teaching role.86 Klein found very little relationship between atti- tudes, expectations and the amount and level of teaching experience. The population included 367 teachers and 322 teacher trainees. Attitudes were measured by responses to Kerlinger's Education Scale VII (ESVII). Teacher role expectations were obtained from responses to the research- ers' revision of Sorenson's Teachers' Practices Question- naire. As a conclusion, Klein stated, " . . . the com— bination of level and amount of teaching experience account for very little variance in either educational attitudes or dimensions of teacher role eXpectations."87 Tomich, for a doctoral dissertation, conducted a study which attempted to establish relationships between role cognitions held by teachers and their associated role behavior. The data was collected from 27 teachers, plus parents, school officials, and students. The actual behavior was rated by teachers, students, and administra— tors. Teachers were classified as congruent, based on 86Clinton A. Snyder, "Variations in Expectations for the Teacher Role: As Related to General and Specific Roles, Expectation Categories, and Social Distance" (un- puglished Doctor's dissertation, Michigan State University, 19 3). 87Alice Enid Klein, "Educational Attitudes, Level and Amount of Teaching Experience, and Three Dimensions of Teachers' Subjective Role Expectations" (unpublished Doc- tor's dissertation, University of Missouri, 1963). 6A similarity between teacher anticipations and student rat- ings, and non—congruent. Generally, the highest correlations between cogni— tions and ratings of behavior were found for comparisons related to behaviors in public contexts and character- ized by public norms. This was particularly the case for congruent teachers. For non-congruent teachers, there were disparities between held cognitions and teachers' behavior ratings for both public and private contexts. Congruent teachers appeared to be norm bound in their behavior for the majority of items. Non-congruent teachers appear to be oriented to the demands of the situation for many behavioral items.88 The final study reviewed concerning the role of teachers was by Sales and was designed to find out if teacher expectations for a school staff were significantly related to the particular type of internal organization used in the school. The term "internal organization" referred to the pattern of the formal work structure which resulted from the grouping of teachers and pupils into their classrooms. The Valenti-Nelson Survey of Teaching Practices instrument was used to measure role expectations. The data revealed that teacher role expectations were 88Edward Tomich, "Teacher Cognitions and Behavioral Conformity" (unpublished Doctor's dissertation, Univer- sity of Missouri, 1963). 65 predictable to some degree from the policies and internal organization of the school. Greater kinds of internal organizations might have demonstrated a greater relation— ship in the factors tested.89 Two studies mentioned by Getzels in a chapter entitled "Administration as a Social Process" are particu— larly worthy of mention in this review. Both studies can be related to Getzels' Nomothetic-Idiographic model of social behavior. Both studies also related directly to the rationale for this particular dissertation. Fernea studied the interaction of consultants and administrators in a school setting. A problem-situation instrument was constructed in which varying expectations for the consul— tant role could be expressed. The instrument was given to 180 administrators who were known to have had consul— tant service and to A6 consultants who were known to have provided this service. Each administrator and each con- sultant was also asked to evaluate the outcome of the con- sultation. The results revealed that when an administra- tor and a consultant agreed on the expectations, they tended to rate the actual consultation favorably; when they disagreed, unfavorably. Moyer, in a second study cited by Getzels, investigated the relationship between the expectations of teachers and administrators for 89Stanley Sales, "Teacher Role Expectations and the internal Organization of Secondary Schools," The Journal of Educational Research, Vol. 57 (January, 196H), pp. 227- 235. 66 leadership in the educational setting and the effect of congruency or discrepancy in this relationship upon teacher satisfaction. The results indicated the greater the agreement between teacher and principal on the expec- tations for leadership, the more favorable the attitudes toward the work situation.90 The next four studies are included only for the purpose of completing the original intent of this review section to give a representative sample of educational studies using role theory. Each study is only briefly mentioned. A study of the position of Curriculum Dir- ector by De Helms revealed all respondent groups per- ceived the director as having administrative authority, but differed as to the perceived amount.91 The per- ceived functions of the school psychologist were measured by Valachovic. He used elementary principals, elementary teachers, and schools psychologists as reference groups. The data revealed significant differences among the groups in their perceptions of the appropriate role and 90Getzels, op. cit., 160-161. 91Raymond David De Helms, "A Study of the Degree of Authority of the K-12 Curriculum Director as Perceived by Specific Role Groups in Selected Districts" (unpublished Doctor's dissertation, University of Kansas, 1968). 67 92 Role expectations function of the school psychologist. for the elementary school counselor were measured by Far— rell. The survey included a sample of respondents from 33 New York State elementary schools. An examination of the results indicated that counselors and principals are more agreed than teachers on expected behavior of coun- 0, “3 Martin found evidence to support the propo- selors. sition that as the correlation increases between the role of the college teacher as perceived by the professor and the student, rated teacher effectiveness increases.9u As a summation, it can be observed that the con- cept of role has been used frequently and continues to be used with even more frequency. With increased usage, the concept and related theory has become more complex and differentiated. The result seems to be a trend to produce more Operational hypotheses which in fact are being put to the empirical test. This is as true for 92Robert John Valachovic, "The Role and Function of School Psychologists: Perceptions of Selected Pro— fessional Groups" (unpublished Doctor's dissertation, State University of New York at Albany, 1968). 93James Allen Farrell, "An Analysis of the Elemen— tary School Counselor Position: The Role Expectations of Counselors, Principals and Teachers" (unpublished Doctor's dissertation, University of Rochester, 1968). 9”Mary Ethel Williams Martin, "Role Expectations and Teacher Effectiveness of the College Teacher of Edu- cation" (unpublished Doctor's dissertation, University of Tennessee, 1967). 68 studies which investigate roles in education as well as other social systems. The increase in actual research using role theory seems to indicate that it is very possible to measure expectation, degree of congruency about expectations among groups, and the relationship of eXpectations to other factors. It is also true that many more studies are needed which measure consensus, or the lack of it, in relation to other variables. Con- sensus needs to be treated as both a dependent and independent variable. As a final conclusion to this part of the review of literature, it is appropriate to repeat the observa- tion of Gross, Mason and McEachern, that in most of the conceptualizations they considered, three basic ideas appeared: that individuals in social locations; behave; 95 with reference to expectations. This concludes the review of role theory. The next subject for review is the means for achieving expecta— tional compliance available to formal organizations. 95Gross, Mason and McEachern, op. cit., p. 17. 69 Means For Achieving Organigational Role Compliance9O If the concept of role congruence is related to the factors of effectiveness, satisfaction, and task per- formance, then the means of achieving role definitions and a measure of compliance with the definition becomes an important administrative consideration. The problem in large measure is one of predicting and controlling behavior. Introductory Considerations Landis discussed the concept of social control as it applies to society in general. He stated, "The prob- lem for control in a secular society is to develop regu— lative procedures, all recognized to be of man's own making, which will be adequate to maintain balance between freedom and regulation in human affairs."97 The means of control which a society employs are dependent in large measure on the society's conception of human nature, as well as its conceptions of conformity desired. Landis pointed out several classifications which have been used 96Compliance is used in its broadest sense and as a central element of organizational structure. It refers both to a relation in which an employee behaves in accor— dance with measures taken by the organization, and to the orientation of the employee to the measures. 97Paul H. Landis, Social Control-(New York: J. B. Lippincott Company, 1956), p. 21. 70 to categorize the various means for achieving social con— trol. Examples of the control classifications cited include: physical force and human symbolism; formal and informal; reward and punishment; socialization and sanc- tions; and persuasion and constraint.98 Landis used a classification scheme based on devices used to establish order and those used to maintain it. The formal organization as a type of social system incorporates a number of obvious means for achieving con- trol. This review is written primarily from the view of management. There is an assumption that management has the power to use various means to influence employees in such a way that organizational demands are fulfilled. There is also the assumption that part of management's role is to achieve role compliance from the various employees of the organization. A basic position which seems common to a substantial number of organizational theorists is an inherent incon- gruence between the desires of the individual employee and the demands of the formal organization.’ This is exempli- fied by such concepts as the idiosyncratic—nomethetic model used by Getzels to explain conflict in social systems. The understanding of reasons for the incongruence will go far toward providing means to achieving compliance between role definition and actual performance. A fairly 98Ib1d., pp. 297—301. 71 extensive body of writing has been directed to explaining the reasons for the incongruence. Chris Argyris's premise that the individual and the organization are two different components each with separate properties is an example of this reasoning. This review will be primarily concerned with the resulting means derived for achieving compliance. The means discussed will be primarily between the formal organization and the individual, and only secondarily between the organization and informally organized groups of individuals. The main component of this review section is devoted to the formal means management has at its disposal for achieving role compliance. The material reviewed served as a background for developing an interview schedule used to describe the administrative considerations employed to manage the various teacher aide programs studied for this dissertation. The review is not extensive because the schedule was used for general descriptive purposes and not to provide support for specific testable hypothe- ses. The administrative description was undertaken in order to provide a possible explanation for the differ— ences or similarities in results from the task item questionnaire. 72 Aluufi:;IMr Organize— t i onal Comparisons before reviewing means for achieving compliance, it is necessary to point out several probably determin— ates which have a direct bearing on the effect of the various means. These determinates might be character- ized as basic or essential elements which various authori- ties see as common to all organizations and the primary basis for comparing organizations. Any approach used by management in dealing with employees is determined in large measure by management's concept of human nature. How the employee is perceived, whether people are viewed as rational or irrational, stable or unstable, understood or not understood, makes a considerable difference in the behavior expected from any employee. Consequently, it makes a difference in the selection and anticipated effect of means chosen to elicit certain desired behavior. Argyris placed particular emphasis upon his concept of the individual and his need for self-actualization. There is a fundamental requirement to eXpress mature needs. The opportunity on the Job for such expression will sup— posedly result in greater Job satisfaction and performance. if the opportunity is not provided, the result is a lack of identification with the organization. The problem as expressed by Argyris is one of basic incongruity between the needs of a mature personality and the requirements 73 of formal organization. Management's task is to decrease the basic incongruity. According to Argyris, the basic approach is to change formal structures so that employees experience more activity than passivity, greater relative independence that dependence, use of more fundamental abilities, and a longer rather than shorter time perspec- 99 A different view of human nature would have tive. lead to different conclusions about organizational man- agement. The concept of compliance as developed by Etzioni is another possible basis for comparing organizations. Compliance in this case refers both to a relation in which an actor behaves in accordance with a directive supported by another actor's power, and to the orienta- tion of the subordinated actor to the power applied.100 The concept of compliance is used by Etzioni to develop an analytic basis for classifications of organizations. A major dimension considered is the use of power. Power was classified according to the means employed. On this basis, there is coercive power which relies on physical 99Chris Argyris, Personality and Organization: The Conflict Between System and the Individual (New York: Harper and Row, 1957), p. 177. 100Amitai Etzioni, "A Basis for Comparative Analysis of Complex Organizations," A Sociological Reader on Com- plex Organizations, ed. by Amitai Etzioni (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Inc., 1969), p. 59. 7U sanctions, remunerative power based on material resources and rewards, and normative power which relies more on persuasive or suggestive means. Most organizations rely on all three types, but use one more than the others. Another major dimension of Etzioni's scheme is the involvement by a participant with the organization. If the orientation of the individual is positive, the involvement is termed commitment, and if negative, alien- ation. A typology of compliance relations based on kinds of power and kinds of involvement was proposed for classi- fication purposes. Power is from the perspective of the organization and involvement from the perspective of the participant. Certain kinds of power-involvement relation— ships are termed congruent and others are non-congruent. The level of congruence is hypothesized to relate to the organization's level of effectiveness. The important consideration for this review of literature is Etzioni's contention that "Characteristics of organizations such as their specificity, size, complexity, and effectiveness each enhance the need for compliance. And in turn, com- pliance is systematically related to many central organ- izational variables."101 A third and last author will serve to complete the consideration of this subsection of the review. This is lOlIbid. the relatively recent‘proposal by Perrow that technology is the best basis on which to make comparison among organ- izations. Technology is seen as the independent variable and the structure--the arrangement among people for get- ting things done~~as the dependent variable. Technology deals with the process of changing material. Structure is the interaction of people involved in applying tech— nology. The number of exceptional cases and the nature of the search process are the two crucial aspects of a technology. The state of the act of analyzing the rele— vant characteristics of the material used is the deter- minate of what kind of technology is to be employed. Perrow discussed the relationship of technology to task and social structure. The task structure of an organization consists of the two dimensions, control and discretion. Power involves choices regarding basic goals and strategies and discretion relates to choices among means and judgments of the critical interdependent nature of tasks. As the technology becomes more complex, there is a tendency toward greater centralization of power and a change in discretion which follows a curvilinear rela- tionship. High discretion exists in relationship to low and high technology and low discretion is associated with medium levels of technological development. The structure and goals of the organization must also adjust to 76 technological change or a severe strain will result.102 As in the case of the conception of human nature and com- pliance, the level of technology is related to the task, structure, goals and nature of the raw material which composes any organization. Means For Achieving Compliance Definition of tasks to begperformed.—-To achieve compliance, the first consideration must be with the actual tasks to be performed. The clarity of the task is crucial. As Getzels states, "The expectations define for the actor, whoever he may be, what he should or should not do as long as he is the incumbent of the par— "103 ticular role. Applying this same point to organiza- tions, Miller and Rice point out, "Without adequate task definition, disorganization must occur."lcu There appears to be a need for task specification. The questions to consider are how specific, in what num- ber, and the degree of constraints. Miller and Rice make 102Charles Perrow, "A Framework for the Comparative Analysis of Organizations," American Sociological Review, Vol. 32 (April, 1967), l9u-208. 103Andrew W. Halpin, Administrative Theory in Educa- tion (Chicago: University of Chicago, Midwest Adminis- trative Center, 1958), p. 153. lOAE. J. Miller and A. K. Rice, Systems of Organiza- tiog (London: Tavistock Publications, 1967), p. 28. 77 the following observations. To begin with, it should be realized that no task will be performed perfectly. The human and material resources are limited. In addition, other tasks place constraints on any particular task. So multiplying tasks will result in increasing constraints. The very nature of the task has the potential for satis— factory or unsatisfactory performance. The nature of the task and the activities involved in its performance can provide individuals with either overt satisfaction, reward, prestige, accomplishment, or with overt depriva- tion, low reward, disrepute, and boredom.105 Carl Drey- fus agrees with this contention and emphasizes the import- ance of the task being socially reputable. A task with high social reputation will often result in high commit- ment and performance. When the individual seeks to sat- isfy his personal needs through the job, and the job per— mits such satisfaction, then strong identification results.106 Chris Argyris addressed himself to the relationship between the nature of the task and the individual's per- formance. He pointed out that greater and greater task specialization does not necessarily increase the quantity 105Ibid., p. 31. 106Carl Dreyfus, "Prestige Grading: A Mechanism of Control," Reader in Bureaucracy, ed. by Robert K. Merton (New York: The Free Press, 1952), pp. 258-26“. 78 and quality of production. The over-specialization of tasks may call for little skill which provides no Chal— lenge and a low level of self-actualization.107 The desirable objective is to provide tasks which allow a sufficient amount of activity, independence, fundamen— tal abilities, and a longer time perspective. The degree to which these characteristics are present would depend upon the expectations of the individual employee. Also, the nature of the task must not only suit the individual, but must be in keeping with the goals of the organization. March and Simon called attention to the observation that greater specialization also results in greater task interdependence. This calls for increased means of assuring stability and predictability. Management will devise means for greater coordination such as more detailed scheduling and standardization.108 March and Simon also discussed the complexity of tasks and the relationship to supervision. The greater the detailed supervision, the greater will be the number of alternatives evoked of a non—organizational character. At the same time, if the instructions given to an employee are so general, relative to the complexity of the task and the computational ability of the individual that the 107Chris Argyris, op. cit., p. 59. 108James G. March and Herbert A. Simon, Organiza- tions (New York: John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1963), p. 159. 79 means of achieving them are vague, serious misdirection can result. Consequently, the effect of the closeness of supervision desired will depend in part on the complexity of the task.109 Specialization has drawbacks as well as virtues. Litwak and Meyer have indicated conditions under which generalized task designations are advantageous. They pointed out that " . . . where the task is constantly changing or not well standardized, specialization may be dysfunctional, because the specialist may become obsolete as the state of knowledge about the task changes."llO Specialization may become a vested interest. Litwak and Meyer concluded the discussion of specialization versus generalization by saying, "In general, as the tasks become less uniform, Specialization becomes less useful and gen- eralization more desirable."111 The nature of the task has significant implications for the type and degree of supervision and employee iden— tification and satisfaction with his particular job assign— ment. 109Ibid., p. 55. 110Eugene Litwak and Henry J. Meyer, "Administrative Style and Community Linkage," Schools in a Changing Soci- ppyj ed. by Albert J. Reiss, Jr. (New York: The Free Press, 1965), p. 6A. 111Ibid., p. 65. 80 Recruitment and trainipg.-—The problem of recruit— ment and trainirw: is one of primarily trying to fit a particular person to a particular organizational role. The individual possesses certain needs and abilities which are more or less suited to the needs of the organ- ization. As Barnard stated the problem, in order for the organization to effect necessary individual contri- butions, the person must believe the role demands to be compatible with his personal interests and be able to mentally and physically comply. Barnard developed the' concept of a zone of indifference. This is a general predispostion by the individual within which he will accept the authority of the organization. The firm, in recruiting, should make clear what is expected so as to preclude a subsequent denial of authority. The organ— ization, through preliminary training, persuasive efforts and high inducements, can affect the individual zone of indifference or what he in a general way will tolerate in terms of organizational demands. It can be assumed that each individual will have some range of adaptability which will allow him a degree of accomodation.112 Argyris felt that certain types of control mechan- isms are operative in the general society which tend to 112Chester I. Barnard, "A Definition of Authority," Reader in Bureaucracy, ed. by Robert K. Merton, et al. (New York: The Free Press, 1952), Ch. 1. 81 send particular people to particular organizations.113 The firm can assume that a certain selectivity has already taken place prior to hiring. The future employee has some concept of the organizational demands he will face. Argyris went on to observe that a measure of indi- vidual participation in making his own job assignment will affect his acceptance of the job. It, in all like— lihood, will reduce possible conflict between the job and his self-concept. Greater commitment is often the result. March and Simon have pointed out the dichotomy in performing a job that requires a high level of training and identification with the interests of the total organ- ization. As the level of training required increases, so does the need to delegate responsibility. This results in greater departmentalization with a bifurcation of interest between the sub-unit and the total organization.llu Another training problem is related to the rapid change in the information needed to successfully fill an organizational role. This is the problem of human obso— 1escence. As more training or retraining is required, then the organization must make a greater investment in that individual. On the other hand, to hire someone 113Argyris, op. cit., p. 86. 11“March and Simon, op. cit., p. 96. 82 already suited for the task might be much less costly. In either case, the employee generally feels the organ— ization has incurred a responsibility to continue his employment. Release from the firm for lack of train- ing might make others more hesitant to accept employment because of the reputed job insecurity. Recruitment is a process to select or attract the best suited individual for a particular job, while at the same time assuring a commitment to a high level of per- formance and identification with the organization's goals. Training takes place both prior to and during employment, and is necessary to produce the needed level of technical competence. Rewards and incentives.——More recent studies seem to define rewards and incentives in broad terms which include not only monetary remuneration, but group rela- tions, interaction patterns and symbols. The reward can be viewed as accruing to the employee both inside and outside the organization. A very helpful way of viewing the use of rewards is to use Barnards's concept of net inducement. The demands of the organization should not present such a heavy burden as to destroy the advantage of being con- nected with the organization. The inducements- contribution balance has two major components: the per- ceived desirability of leaving the organization and the 83 utility of alternatives foregone in order to stay in the organization. The desirability of movement is in terms of individual satisfaction with the present job and the perception of alternatives that do not involve leaving the organization. There is also the factor or extra- organizational alternatives perceived.115 In one type of model, management is seen as a regulator of the incentive system. Argyris stated that the trade union movement can be viewed in part as an effort to reduce management's ability to control the incentive system. The employee is less dependent upon management for the determination of rewards. There is also a tendency to reduce the emphasis on intrinsic gratification of less interesting jobs and stressing the material rewards. The material rewards have tended to increase in order to reinforce job commitment. Pensions, medical plans, staff parties are all efforts in this 116 direction. In their book, Organizations, March and Simon indi- cated that it appears the larger the rewards offered by the organization, the less the conflict between the demands of the job and the individual. The organizations attempts to find the point of minimum rewards necessary for maximum anticipated production. The means for 115lbid., p. 111. 116Argyris, op. cit., p. 120. 8A providing the rewards are also significant. For instance, a promotional scheme that essentially rewards seniority will be less productive than one that relates promotion to some index of production. The greater the degree of subjectivity of the criteria used for promotion, the greater the effect on perceived consequences of action.117 The nature of the contract has some interesting results. If the employee sees the contract as unchange- able, then dissatisfaction and withdrawal from the firm may result. If it is seen as changeable, then an alter- native to the unsatisfactory condition is perceived. Contracts are often viewed as controlling the type of activity, but not the rate.118 Blau and Scott also dealt with the type of task as related to the form of reward. The more professional the task, the less desirable the piece-rate system. The rewards are not effective in this case if they are focused on the immediate situation. Also, the piece-rate system does not take into account the mental work and 119 For judgment required of a more professional task. rewards to be effective in a more professionalized job, they must be based on a more long range view and in terms of a promotion system. 117March and Simon, op. cit., pp. 56, 61, 62, 96. 118ibid., p. 111. 119Blau and Scott, op. cit., p. 2A9. CD U7 Monitoring and evaluation.-—Eva1uation is done pri- marily to check if the specification of tasks and the expected compliance with the demands of the task have been successful in terms of realizing the organization's goals. The evaluation process allows the organization to make necessary adjustments. It assists in precluding dysfunctional developments from proceeding too far. Miller and Rice presented several interesting obser- vations about evaluation and monitoring. These included the notion that evaluation is probably the most difficult means of control to exercise. Its success is so directly dependent upon the nature of the tasks to be performed. As the task becomes more complex, it is far more difficult to assess. In addition, the individual performer seems to inherently resist evaluation. There is a tendency to shift checking from the process employed to the end prod- uct. Often it is not possible to immediately evaluate a product since its quality is only measurable over an extended period of time. Evaluation tends to concentrate at two points. One is the actual process employed in production. The other is the quantity and quality of the product. Process evaluation tends to take the form of regulatory measures. Regulatory activities are either in terms of monitoring— stopping and checking or specifying a boundary of activity. 86 Regulation preserves the boundaries of a system and makes activities more than just an aggregate.120 impersonal mechanisms which act as monitors are discussed by Blau and Scott. They indicated that the actual process may serve as a monitoring device. The assembly line is a good example. Constraints are present in terms of what job is done next, pace, materials, and tools used. This is a form of management through non- human mechanisms of control. Automation presents another interesting case; If the operator is trained to provide maintenance, he in effect has become the monitoring agent. If the worker does not possess such training, then the system requires close supervision and checking. Performance records are another means of evaluation. They may record errors and successes as well as the num- ber of cases. The records lessen need for immediate supervision and allow for an increase in the amount of worker discretion.121 In conclusion, the measures or means of achieving role compliance discussed in this review present manage- ment with a partial dilemma. As previously stated, there is a need for organizations to specify and expect a rational and coordinated system of behavior, but an over emphasis in an organization on conformity with 121Blau and Scott, op. cit., pp. 176-183. 87 operating procedures discourages the exercise of initia— tive and willingness to assume responsibility. This is particularly true as the task requires more professional expertise. What seems to happen in this case is a move toward emphasizing results and de-emphasizing performance procedure.122 Management must effect some kind of bal— ance between the amount of regulated and prescribed per— formance necessary and the individual discretion required. This in large measure seems to rest upon the nature of the task and the skills required for its performance. Teacher Aides The amount of material devoted to teacher aide pro- grams is almost without end. This is particularly true of the last few years. A perusal of the literature reveals a considerable repetition of ideas. A limited number of sources seem to be the most significant in the sense of being a basis for many other writers' comments, and also for their completeness of thought and content. An attempt is made to include the most significant sources, plus giving a balanced representation of the material reviewed. An annotated bibliography prepared by the Bank Street College of Education, published in 1969, served as one of the key sources for selecting material for this 122lbid., p. 185. 88 -9. review.l“3 The review is divided into a brief back- ground, rationale for using aides, relationship to staf— fing patterns, and significant projects and studies. Background Statement The use and training of auziliary personnel to perform semi-skilled or paraprofessional tasks in public service is not an entirely new practice. During the depression of the 1930's, the Works Pro- jects Administration and the National Youth Administra- tion used the concept of training and utilizing relatively unskilled low income workers. The N.Y.A. in an almost completely federally financed and managed educational program, trained actual and potential school dropouts and placed them as non-professionals in the human ser- vices. This concept did not end with the demise of the N.Y.A., but continued as a practice in the fields of corrections and health. In the early 1950's, the Ford Foundation made funds available for the first major attempt by a school district to use teacher aides. The five year Bay City experiment which was designed to study better utilization of teacher competencies is covered in some detail later in this review. The Ford Foundation also supplied funds for 123An Annotated Bibliography on Auxiliary Personnel in Education, prepared by Bank Street College of Educa. tion for the U. S. Office of Education, (January, 1969). 89 similar studies known as the Yale-Fairfield Study and the Rutgers Plan. The studies were prompted in large part as a solution to a shortage of trained teachers and the increased cost of education. These efforts produced a negative reaction from many teachers, particularly the emphasis on the use of aides as a budget saving device. The next major impetus for the use of teacher aides came from the outlay of federal monies into pro- grams which emphasized the educationally deprived, ma— terial resources, and innovative programs. Funds on a heretofore unprecedented level were distributed through the Office of Economic Opportunity, the Office of Edu- cation, and the Labor Department. The Bank Street College of Education studies exemplify the new trend in using teacher aides. The result of increased funding has been a dramatic increase in the number of aides with present predictions indicating an even more substantial number in the near future.l2u Rationale for Use of Teacher Aides There has been an attempt to develop a rationale for using teacher aides by the educational community which is an integral aspect of long range planning and goals. The introduction of more adults into the clasSroom, the 1224Garda W. Bowman and Gordon J. Klopf, New Careers and Roles in the American School (New York: Bank Street College of Education, 1968), pp. 6-8. 90 possible differentiation of education to meet individual needs, a more flexible structuring of the classroom, and the possibility for more innovations have all been pro- nounced as sound reasons for the use of aides. The Bank Street Studies report indicated the multiple benefits which were perceived as possible in all school situations, regardless of the composition of the school population or the socio—economic background of the auxiliaries, were: (1) For the pupil, by providing more individual attention by concerned adults, more mobility in the classroom, and more opportunity for innovation; (2) For the teacher, by rendering his role more productive in terms of pupil outcome, and more manageable in terms of teaching conditions; (3) For the other professionals, by increasing the scope and effectiveness of their activities; (A) For the auxiliary, by providing meaningful employment which contributes to his own develop- ment and to the needs of society; (5) For the school administrator, by providing some solution-—not necessarily Egg solution—-to his dilemma of increasing needs for school services, coupled with shortage of professionals to meet these needs; (6) For family life, by giving auxiliaries, many of whom are or may someday be parents, the oppor— tunity to learn child development principles in a real situation; (7) For the community at large, by providing a means through which unemployed and educationally disadvantaged persons may enter the mainstream of productivity. In addition to these considerations, there are some specific benefits which may flow from the utilization of indigenous personnel as auxiliarisg in schools serving disadvantaged neighborhoods.1 Another rationale is predicated on the notion that the present demands on education simply cannot be met by l251oid., p. 9. 91 the traditional self-contained classroom concept. The following quote from a National Education Association publication exemplifies this point of view: The overwhelming load of traditional and new tasks for classroom teachers has led educators to say that one teacher in one room is no longer a justifiable way to organize and administer a school. Professionals and lay citizens alike question the use of highly educatid teachers for much of what they now have to do. 26 Subprofessionals are proposed as a partial solution to the problem. In a companion publication also issued by the NBA, the following position on the use of aux- iliary personnel in schools is stated: The needs of society require significant changes in our present school organization. The teacher is a skillei professional and as such must be per- mitted to do a professional level of work. He must be a diagnostician and a guider of learning experi- ences. He should not waste his time on trivia. The utilization of auxiliary personnel can provide the opportunity for teachers to teach.12 The next list is yet another example of a rationale, in this case, given for the idea of a supportive staff for the classroom teacher. Paraprofessionals assume assume a key role in the notion of a supportive staff for the classroom teacher. All of the following items are supposedly enhanced by a supportive staff: learning experiences of children; teacher effectiveness; 126Teacher Aides At Work, (Washington, D.C.: National Commission on Teacher Education and Professional Standards, National Education Association, 1967), p. 11. 127Auxiliary School Personnel, (Washington, D.C.: NCTEPS, National Education Association, 1967), p. 18. 92 services of administrative and supervisory personnel; professional prestige of the classroom teacher; teacher retention and recruitment and the public image of the school.128 Finally, in a statement supporting the career lad- der concept for teacher aides, Riesman proposed the fol- lowing rationale: A career advancement system has many benefits. it establishes the view that development and learn- ing does not stop with college graduation, but that the school is a place where teachers as well as students are involved in growth and learning. It offers opportunities for challenging professional activity, allows teachers to advance without leav- ing the classroom. Higher motivation of staff will go far in promoting better service for stu- dents.13 In addition to various rationales, a number of authors have proposed what they feel should be the func— tion of teacher aides. These proposals range from cler- ical and routine tasks to performance as an instructional assistant. Some writers have taken the position that the teacher's primary responsibility is to analyze the pupils' instructional needs and prescribe the necessary elements for the learning environment. In essence, the teacher arranges the formal learning environment. The aide with proper training and supervision should be able to perform 128The Classroom Teacher Speaks On His Supportive Staff (Washington, D.C.: Department of Classroom Teachers, “—NEA, 1967), p. 18. 129Riesman and Gartner, op. cit., p. 9. 93 130 all the other necessary tasks. Another position envisions the role of the aide as more restricted. Tasks would be on a lower level with less training required. Examples would include maintaining attendance records, correcting objective tests, running duplicating equipment and setting up AV equipment.131 The questionnaire used by the writer of this disser- tation to collect the data was constructed to include the widest possible range of task categories. The sources used for selecting the tasks are referred to in the dis- cussion of operational measures in Chapter III. The next subsection of the review deals with the relationship of teacher aides to changes in staffing arrangements for schools. Teacher Aides and StaffinggPatterns The use of aides is related to a number of other possible changes in the basic structure of the teaching enterprise. One of the most significant relationships is to staffing patterns. Ohm put his finger on one of the underlying issues involved in organizing the school teaching staff. He 130Thornwald Esbensen, "Should Teacher Aides Be More Than Clerks?" Phi Delta Kappan, Vol. A7 (January, 1966), p. 237. 131William J. Rioux, "1A Ways to Use Non Teaching Personnel," Nation's Schools, Vol. 76 (December, 1965), p. A2. 9A stated the issue as being, "whether the present concept of the unity of the teaching function, as practiced in the single teacher—class unit of organization, is more or less productive than the specialization and subdivi— "132 To illustrate the sion of an instructional team. .problem, he pointed out that as job specialization' increases, so does the tendency to pull the organization apart and split the central unity of the teaching pro- cess. This consideration must be taken into account whenever there is a plan to further differentiate the assignment of teaching responsibilities. As evidence of the relationship between employment of aides and other important staffing considerations, Shaplin has indicated that further specialization, improvement of supervisory arrangements, expanded use of mechanical aids and utilization of nonprofessional aides are all directions taken as a result of team teaching.133 Another related trend is the National Education Association Instruction Project which incorporates a proposal for 15 hours in class and 25 hours in planning, conferencing, studying and counseling each week for each professional teacher. It has been suggested that to implement this proposal will require extensive use of 132Ohm, op. cit., p. 2. 133Judson T. Shaplin, "Team Teaching," Saturday Review, Vol. AA (May, 1961), pp. 5A—55. 95 paraprofessionals and teacher technologists. The teach— ing role should be studied to indicate those tasks which require professional training, those which require tech— 13“ The results of a nical or professional training. dissertation by Moon indicated that it might be possible to develop a continuum of teaching tasks from the most professional to those which require the less unique and specific training. As a result of surveying a sampling of building principals, teachers, teacher aides, college instructors and nationally recognized experts, Moon was able to group items into task clusters based on level of agreement among the reference groups.135 Frank Riesman indicated that although the use of paraprofessional could well serve as a lever for insti- tutional change, to date, basic changes had not taken place. He attributed this to professional-non professional cleavage, difficulty in providing career development, piecemeal training, limited use of paraprofessionals, and a lack of restructuring the basic job to include the para— professional.136 13uEarl H. Hanson, "Viewpoint-Time For Educational Technology," Education, Vol. 87 (October, 1966), p. 127. 135Arden Moon, "An Analysis of Teacher Tasks to Enable Identification of the Potential Use of Auxiliary Personnel in the Instructional Process" (unpublished Doc— tor's dissertation, Michigan State University, 1969). 136Frank Riesman, "The New Careers Concept," Ameri— can Child, Vol. A9 (Winter, 1967), pp. 2-8. 96 Lewis proposed three guidelines for staff utiliza— tion: staff utilization should provide individualized instruction for each child; staff services should help the teacher to be more effective in working with his pupils; and staff structure should recognize the profes- sional stature of the teacher. As the first step in developing this structure, it should be decided what is needed to provide the teacher with the necessary help.137 Presumably, the advent of teacher aides provides a pos— sible means for meeting the proposed guidelines. The National Commission on Teacher Education and Professional Standards has been particularly concerned with the notion of new staffing patterns. A publication by NCTEPS entitled, The Teacher and His Staff, contains a series of ten papers presented at a 1968 TEPS confer- ence. Several of the papers directly incorporate the idea of using teacher aides as an integral part of the instructional staff. Haskew, in a paper entitled, "Peopling Education," points out the problem of role differentiation in building an effective instructional team. He writes that . . the Education Profession Development Act offers to support programs or projects to train teacher aides and other nonprofessional personnel and a far—flung inventory of teachers. How can we 137Arthur J. Lewis, "Staff Utilization to Improve Learning," Educational Leadership, Vol. 17 (April, 1960), pp. AlO-A15. 97 train any of these without some delineation of their respective roles, of the competencies and cognitive background necessary for each role, of the interrelationships existent g3 they compose an effective instructional unit? 8 In another paper it is stated that the year of the Non-Conference suggests that a productive teacher—pupil- materials relationship can best be supported in three ways: (a) through providing teachers with the assistance of a variety of different kinds of auxiliary personnel; (b) through providing teachers with the support of many different kinds of professional specialists; and (c) through enabling teachers to better the unique talents of one another.139 Ryan believes that In 1993, many of the present roles performed by teachers, such as information dispenser, drill- master, disciplinarian, money changer, record . keeper, and grader will have vanished or will have been taken over completely by paraprofessionals.l O In the future, he sees the teacher as the director of an instructional system. Laurance D. Haskew, "Peopling Education," The Teac— cher and His Staff: Differentiating Teaching Roles (Washington, D.C.: National Commission on Teacher Educa— tion and Professional Standards, NEA, 1969), p. 37. 139 Eugene R. Howard, "Staff Support for Innovative Teaching," The Teacher and His Staff: Differentiaping Teaching Roles (washlhgton, D.C.: NCTEPS, NEA, 19697, P- “9. luoKevin A. Ryan, "Where Are We Going and How Can We Get There?" The Teacher and His Staff: Differentia- ting Teaching Roles (Washington, D.C.: NCTEPS, NBA, 1969). 98 The other authors in the NCTEPS publication also made comments which bear directly on the consideration of using teacher aides as a part of the school staff. The next section reviews some of the significant teacher aide projects and related studies. Significant Projects and Related Studies The Bay City Experiment has become known as one of the first major and, to date, one of the most important teacher aide programs. The study covered a period of five years and involved 25 public elementary schools in the Bay City, Michigan, area. The experiment was for- mally entitled, "A Cooperative Study for the Better Utilization of Teacher Competencies." The first step taken was to do an analysis and time study of the class- room teacher's job. As a result of the time observations, the activities were grouped into categories such as counseling, writing on the board, recitation, and pupil control. This list was supplemented with a record for school related activities outside the regular school day. It was discovered that the average work week was Al hours and 52 minutes. Recitation constituted the largest time consuming activity, nonprofessional tasks took from 21 per cent to as high as 69 per cent of the total school day and twice as much time was spent on V pupil control is the afternoon as in the morning. As a 99 result of the initial job analysis, the Bay City Teacher Aide Plan was developed. Aides were interviewed at home and school. Certain criteria such as a high school di- ploma, pleasing appearance, and expressed interest in students emerged as guideposts for hiring. A pre-job orientation and weekly seminars were used for training aides. As a consequence of using aides, it was estimated the teacher's job changed on the average of 89 per cent less time correcting papers, 36 per cent less discipline, 76 per cent less taking roll, 25 per cent less on all reports, 61 per cent less on supervision of pupil tran- sition, and 83 per cent less monitoring lessons. Areas which increased in time spent were lesson preparation, 105 per cent; recitation, 57 per cent; making assignments, 20 per cent; desk to desk help, 27 per cent; and super- vision, Al per cent. Also, AA per cent less time was spent on school related out of school tasks.lul The Bay City Experiment was observed and studied while in progress by a number of people from various positions in the educational world. The following excerpts are taken from written commentaries by two of those peo- ple. The evaluation by the Curriculum Specialist McCuskey tended to be very critical of the studies design. She pointed out that it was impossible to separate the effects 1“Charles B. Park, "The Bay City EXperiment As Seen by the Director," Journal of Teacher Education, Vol. 7 (June, 1956), 101—110. 100 of increased class size; the statement of the problem was too broad for the research design; the grouping of tasks into professional and nonprofessional is not as significant as how the activity is performed; and the lack of an adequate control situation to make compari- sons.N2 A child psychologist offered the opinion that the classes he observed were traditional and routinized. The emphasis was on wanting children to read and to con- form. He suggested a more diverse set of approaches to education needed to be tried.1143 Crim acted as a participant-observer for 12 months in the Bay City aide project. Her findings which are found in a doctoral dissertation case study indicated evidence of unanticipated systematic stress found in the hostility and misunderstanding over behavioral standards, an increase rather than the expected decrease of social distance between teacher.and aide, teachers' defensive and inconsistent responses to questionnaires, ll‘2Dorothy McCuskey, "The Bay City Experiment--As Seen by a Curriculum Specialist," Journal of Teacher Edu— gation, Vol. 7 (June, 1956), 111-118. 1“James L. Hymes, Jr., "The Bay City EXperiment-- As Seen by a Child Psychologist," Journal of Teacher Edu- cation, Vol. 7 (June, 1956), 126-131. 101 and in the inadequacy and inefficiency of the organiza- tional framework of the project.lull The foregoing observations were made while the project was in progress. The Department of Special Studies, Central Michigan University, published a final report in 1960 about the project. The final conclusions of the report were: (a) Teachers with aides spent more time on instructional activities: (b) It was sometimes impossible to distinguish clearly between teaching and non—teaching duties; (c) There were no noticeable changes in teaching methods; (d) There was little objective evi— dence bearing on the quality of instruction in classrooms with teacher aides as opposed to those without; (e) teacher aides facilitate better deployment of teachers and experimentation with staffing; (f) teacher aide prac— tices had little effect on overall costs of instruction; and (g) Many teacher aides were potential recruits for teaching.1145 The most significant and comprehensive teacher aide study of the 1960's was the Auxiliary Personnel Project conducted by the Bank Street College of Education for the l“Adena Joy D. Crim, "System and Role Conflict Inherent in the 'New Careers' Concept" (unpublished Doc- tor's dissertation, University of California, Berkeley, 1958). luSRichard D. Wynn and Richard W. De Reiner, "Staff Utilization, Development and Evaluation," Review of Educa- tional Research, Vol. 31 (October, 1961), p. 39A. 102 Office of Economic Opportunity. It was an exploratory, developmental study of role definition and development, training, and institutionalization of auxiliary personnel in American education. The study was divided into two phases. Phase One was concerned with role development and training, while Phase Two focused upon institution— alization. Phase One involved 15 demonstration programs and the analysis was based on the programs plus consul— tations with representatives of professional organiza— tions and school systems. As a summary of findings from Phase One, the final report stated: Auxiliary school personnel in the 15 training programs demonstrated the capacity to make a positive contribution to the learning-teaching process, under the following conditions: (1) Role definition providing a floor and a ceiling to auxiliary functions, thus preventing underutilization or overutilization of aides. (2) Within these limits, role development is stressed in terms of the specific needs of each learning situation, the capability of each auxiliary, and the school structure within which each professional-nonprofessional team operates. (3) Intensive and continuing training of teachers and auxiliaries together is provided, including both preservice and inservice training. (A) Auxiliary personnel is incorporated into the entire school structure as a new career model, and not as a temporary, fragmented, expedient adjunct to the school. (5) Every staff member is perceived as capable of making a meaningful contribution to learning.lu6 Four of the fifteen demonstration programs plus one new project were selected for the second phase of the 1146Bowman and Klopf, op. cit., pp. 12-20. 103 study. These projects were given more intensive study with emphasis on institutionalization. As a result of Phase Two, an extensive list of recommendations was for- mulated. The recommendations are based on five essential A7 premises.1 An example of the recommendations is a five stage career development ladder for auxiliaries. Another significant program was the Teacher Aide Program (TAP) of the Model School Division of the Dis- trict of Columbia Public School System. The project came into being in February, 1966, as a direct beneficiary of Title I of the Elementary and Secondary Education Act of 1965. 3 pointed out in the TAP proposal: Teachers who are overburdened with the extra— ordinary range of tasks demanded of them are not in a position to meet the many instructional and developmental needs of large classes of deprived children. It is therefore essential to offer these teachers some help, so as to free the to use the talents and insights they possess.1 The aides performed a wide variety of jobs in the classroom, ranging from simple clerical and housekeeping tasks to semi—instructional activities. Each teacher used her aide according to her own individual needs, her interpretation of the role of teacher aides, and her 1A7 1uBThe Teacher Aide Program, Conducted by the Wash- ington School of Psychiatry, (Washington, D.C.: Model School Division of the Public Schools of the District of Columbia, 1967), p. 9. Ibid., pp. 215—217. 10A judgment of the aide's ability. A11 aides received the ' I same training.“9 In a concluding paragraph of the project report, it is stated: There is a demonstrated place in the schools for trained paraprofessional assistants. Teacher aides who are carefully selected for their per- sonal qualifications and fortified with an appropriate program of training can directly enhance a child's self-image and his general attitude toward school. Further, the assistance rendered directly to the teacher can signifi- cantly reduce the workload of the classroom teacher, thus enabling him to spend more time in his professional role.1 A final program worthy of particular mention is the North Carolina Comprehensive School Improvement Project. The project begun in 1963 was aimed at improving instruc- tion at the primary level, with special emphasis on lan- guage arts and arithmetic. The use of teacher aides was one of the features of the program. The funding was pro- vided by the State Board of Education and the Ford Foun— dation. There were approximately 600 teachers and 200 teacher aides who participated from some 200 schools throughout the state of North Carolina. One of the basic assumptions of the project was that, "The utilization of nonprofessional personnel (specifically teacher aides) will free the teachers of much of the nonprofessional and routine duties, thus permitting them to concern 1ugCrim, op. cit., p. 12. 150loid., p. 87. l05 themselves more intensely with rendering professional . . . . lVl serJce in instructing youth." J Four major conclusions seemed warranted by the evidence collected in studying the project: (1) CSIP participants, including teachers, principals, school system supervisors and super- intendents, as well as college consultants, sup- port the practice of employing a teacher aide as an associate member of an instructional team. (2) CSIP participants feel that due to the efforts of a teacher aide, time is increasingly redirected toward the central goal of instruc- tional improvement in that (a) more time is spent in giving pupils individual and small group atten- tion, (b) more time is devoted to cooperative plan- ning of learning experiences for pupils, and (c) more attention is given to the pupils' personal— social needs. (3) The duties of the teacher aide change with the passage of time and the development of har- monious team working relationships. (A) The success of a teacher aide depends in large measure upon a mutually cooperative rela- tionship between the aide and the teachers. (5) The use of the teacher aide encourages extended use of audio-visual media and instruc- tional materials.152 The National Education Association's Research Divi~ sion has conducted several surveys about teacher aides. A study in 1967 revealed almost one in five public school teachers had the assistance from an aide. Twice as many elementary as secondary teachers received assistance. The largest percentage reported they received help with 151Frank C. Emmerling and Kanawha Z. Chavis, The Teacher Aide (North Carolina: State Department of Public Instruction, 1966), p. A. 152 Bowman and Klopf, oo. cit., p. 25. 106 clerical duties. A significant finding was that 8A per cent of the teachers felt they would be more effective with smaller classes and no aides rather than with lar— ger classes and an aide. Also, preference should be given to funding improved salary schedules over the 153 development of aide programs. An earlier survey of 217 school systems enrolling 12,000 pupils indicated that three-fourths of the districts used only paid aides. Fifty-one and nine-tenths per cent of the aides worked more than 20 hours per week. The total hours worked by all aides amounted to over 500,000 hours per week. The trend is to increase the use of aides.lSu A Report of the Ball State Office of Economic Opportunity project in Gary and Indianapolis, Indiana, during the 1966-67 school year revealed that an extensive study and redefinition of the teacher's role was needed to increase adult—student professional contact. The report further stated that, "The most important element in the success of such educational endeavors (meaning use of auxiliary personnel) resides with the perceptions and actions of the professionals."155 C lJ3"How the Professional Feels About Teacher Aides," NEA Journal, Vol. 56 (November, 1967), p. 16. 154"Teacher Aides in Public Schools," NEA Research Bulletin, Vol. A5 (May, 1967), pp. 37-39. 155William H. Johnson, "Utilizing Teacher Aides," The Clearing House, Vol. A2 (December, 1967), p. 232. 107 In two 1966 studies involving Community Action Pro— grams which sampled about ten per cent of CAP non profes- sionals employed in 1A cities, it was found the vast majority had opportunity for only one job level, and the primary duties of those working as teacher aides were housekeeping and physical child care. It was also noted that often a conscious "creaming" of the top of potential employees took place. Most training was provided on the 156 job and by the immediate supervisor. An article in the Nation's Schools pointed out in 1968 nearly half of the teacher aide programs then oper- ating in large public schools were less than three years old. This provides another indication of the recent increase in teacher aide programs. The article went on to further indicate that unless there were particular statutory provisions, the non- certificated aide did not have legal authority to perform instructional duties or to teach. Also, unless provided, the aide does not have the authority to regulate pupil conduct. In instances of negligence, the teacher aide would be subject to liability.157 156Edith F. Lynton, "The Nonprofessional Scene," American Child, Vol. A9 (Winter, 1967), pp. 9—13. 157Alexander S. Kern, "What Teacher Aides Can—and Cannot-Do," Nation's Schools, Vol. 82 (August, 1968), pp. 23-25. 108 For those authorities who see the aide programs as a possible means for institutional change, there are some potential dangers or misgivings. Two of the danger warnings were stated by Riesmann. One is the danger that paraprofessionals may be absorbed into the tradi- tional establishment as it remains intact and unchanged. This could happen if the present teaching tasks were simply redistributed without creating new forms of instruction. Another danger is that the new careers movement may not become linked with other developing movements of the time, such as decentralization.158 The increase in doctoral dissertations about teacher aide programs, especially since 1965, provides further evidence of this rapidly expanding phenomena. Several representative studies are briefly discussed as the final segment of the review of literature. A study by Schmitthausler comparing four elementary school programs resulted in the finding that policies which leave much discretion to teachers on how to utilize aides are accompanied by higher satisfaction than were more restrictive policies. Another contributing factor to higher job satisfaction was the involvement of the teacher in the selection process. The study also showed 158 Riesmann and Gartner, loc. cit. 109 a high degree of agreement among teachers as to which tasks they should retain.159 A study of aides used in classrooms for the men- tally retarded revealed a significant difference in the way aides and teachers perceived the aides' duties. The data indicated the following tasks as being performed regularly or occasionally by 85 per cent of the aides: supervision of entire class alone; attend to immediate needs of the child; take children for walks or on the playground; supervise individual children in classroom; and prepare or assist in art activities. The possible explanation of the results lies in the fact that 50 per cent of the aides had received no job orientation or inservice training. The study was based on a sample of 58 persons in public and private schools in Pennsyl- vania.160 Bazeli did a study of aides used in two inner city junior high schools in Detroit. His study produced several interesting conclusions: (1) Teachers spend as much time with as without aides during classroom periods on class routines and discipline; they spend more time on clerical and preparation activities when aides are present. 159Carl Marvin Schmitthausler, "Analysis of Programs Using Nonprofessional Teacher Helpers in Public Elementary School Classrooms," (unpublished Doctor's dissertation, University of California, Berkeley, 1966). 160Miriam Rost Silner, "Characteristics and Functions of Teacher-Aides in Classes for Trainable Mentally Retarded Children," (unpublished Doctor's dissertation, University of Pittsburg, 1965). 110 (2) Teacher morale improved significantly due to the presence of aides, but it had not lowered staff turnover. (3) Aides made it possible for increased adminis- trative and counselor services. (A) There was little evidence to support the belief that the project had made any real differ- ence in general community attitudes toward the school. (5) There had been no change in student attend— ance patterns. (6) Aides proved to be very useful in clerical and routine tasks. Less satisfactory results were achieved in areas of teacher assistance. (7) The evidence indicated that the paraprofes- sional s aff had become institutionalized into the system. A study in Florida indicated that teachers involVed aides in non-teaching activities more than teaching activ- ities. Also, it was found that teachers with aides appear to be more conservative in their view of aide responsibilities than are teachers without aides. The instrument used for measuring results was a 100 item questionnaire consisting of 50 pupil contact activities and 50 non-contact.activities. The investigator recom- .mended that teacher education take a serious look at the role and function of teacher aides in order to better prepare their graduates in the specific professional 161Frank Paul Bazeli, "An In-Depth Evaluation of the School Service Assistants Project in Two Inner-City Junior High Schools," (unpublished Doctor's dissertation, Wayne State University, 1967). ill aspects of teaching as well as skills in staff manage- ment procedures.162 Haynes surveyed teacher aide practices in 102 Missouri school districts. Among his several findings, two are particularly important for this study. He dis— covered that twice as many districts indicated they did not have a formal pre—assignment training program as responded they did have such a program. Also, an over- whelming majority of responding districts conducted no in—service training for aides. Clerical, playground duty, test grading, and record keeping were the most common duties performed.163 Interviews of administrators, teachers, and teacher aides by Moody in 20 Pennsylvania districts reported the following major obstacles to teacher aide programs: a lack of planning by teachers to effectively use the aides; inadequate equipment and instructional materials; poor communication between teachers and aides; and insuf- ficient funds.l6u 162John Newman Shadgett, "An Analysis of Certain Teacher Aide Functions in Selected Elementary Schools in Florida," (unpublished Doctor's dissertation, Florida State University, 1967). 163Solon Earl Hynes, "A Study of Teacher Aide Employ— ment for the School Year 1966-67 in Selected School Dis- tricts of Missouri," (unpublished Doctor's dissertation, University of Kansas, 1968). 162JFerman Bernard Moody, "Teacher Aide: A Descrip- tion and Analysis of a New Staff Position in Selected Pen- nsylvania Public Schools," (unpublished Doctor's disserta— tion, The Pennsylvania State University, 1967). 112 Rankin did a study to seek additional information concerning the interpersonal relationship of teachers and teacher aides. She divided teachers into direct and indirect on the basis of the Flanders Interaction Analysis Instrument. Thirty—two teachers were studied while teach— ing social studies lessons. Tasks performed by aides were recorded by direct observation. The tasks were grouped into routine and non—routine. The study's con— clusions were as follows: aides assigned to indirect teachers perform a higher proportion of non-routine tasks than aides assigned to direct teachers; there was no statistically significant difference in satisfaction with the aide program of indirect teachers and direct teachers; aides assigned to indirect teachers were more satisfied with their roles than aides assigned to direct teachers; and aides with some education beyond high school performed a higher proportion of non-routine tasks than aides with only a high school education.165 The review of teacher aide programs and related studies substantiates the fact of considerable increase in the use of teacher aides. Rationales for the use of aides have been formulated which range from a requirement to redistribute tasks to the need for major institutional 165Marguerite Ruth Shirer Rankin, "Teacher Influence and Related Factors in a Teacher Aide Program," (unpub- lished Doctor's dissertation, University of Maryland, 1968). 113 change. The teacher aide movement is closely linked with recent proposals to change the staffing patterns used in schools. A few programs seem to stand above the majority as exemplary efforts. The majority of programs appear to lack the proper administrative considerations and are somewhat restrictive in their overall structure. Summary Role as a social science concept has its beginning in the late nineteenth century. Since that time, the concept has continued to evolve and now has a number of dimensions and uses. It is a useful tool for under- standing human interaction and individual behavior; con- sequently, it appears in some form in all the various social sciences. Role theory has been developed from both a process and structural consideration. The under- standing of the concept role is facilitated when placed in relationship to other concepts such as social position, reference groups, and norms. Despite the extensive theoretical development of role theory, there is a par— ticular need to formulate verifiable hypotheses which should be tested. Role has proved particularly useful as an analytic base in the study of formal organizations. The formal and informal expectations within the organizational set- ting have a profound effect upon the individual's behav— ior. How the individual performs directly affects the 11A firm's goal achievement. Formal organizations employ explicit means for achieving an acceptable level of role compliance. The means include such considerations as job description, training and monitoring. Role theory has been a useful means for the study of educational systems. Its use and development in education tends to parallel its general evolvement. A majority of studies attempt to measure expectations for various positions. The last ten to 15 years have seen attempts being made to relate expectations to other variables. The use of teacher aides by schools is a rapidly increasing trend. Many descriptive studies of aides have been done, but very few investigations relate the various definitions of the new position to significant variables such as job effectiveness. The concept of role is suited to the study of teacher aides. The measure of congruence of role expectations between teachers and aides and its relationship to other variables appears to be a fruitful way of investigating this new position. CHAPTER III DESIGN OF THE STUDY The primary objective of the dissertation is to investigate the possibility of an interrelationship between performance eXpectations held for teacher aides and their level of job satisfaction, rated effectiveness and tasks performed. Secondly, there is an attempt to ascertain whether or not the answer to the primary objective of the investigation might be affected by certain organizational characteristics. A survey approach which is based on role theory and several recognized role studies was used to collect the needed data. The chapter is divided into the following cate— goriesz. sample; measures; design; testable hypotheses; analysis; and summary. Sample Under the topic of sample, the general character- istics of the community settings, school districts, aide programs, and aides are discussed. In addition, the sampling procedure and its Justification are included. 115 116 Three Michigan communities provide the settings for the study. Michigan has an active history of teacher aide programs beginning with the Bay City Experiment in the early 1950s. Since that time, the adeption of aide programs has increased rapidly, especially in the last five years. Two of the three school districts selected for this study are located in the two medium-sized industrial cities, while the third district is centered in the smaller, more rural, community. All three communities are situated within sixty miles of each other in the southern half of Michigan's lower peninsula. For the purpose of this study, the three communities and their corresponding districts will be identified by the letters A, B, and C. The figures cited are sometimes approxima- tions, but are accurate enough to give a basis for com- parison or replication of this study. Community A is a town of some 6,500 population with another 8,000 rural citizens served by the school district. The town is located at the intersection of a major state and U.S. highway. The community is some twenty miles north of a sizeable urban center. Community A is the county seat and serves many of the business and educational needs for a large portion of the county. Three medium— sized manufacturing industries employing some 900 people are located there. The industries produce such items as 117 hearings, pistons, and compressors. There are also several other smaller manufacturing industries. The hospital and school district are the other sizeable employing agencies. Many of the town residents work in other communities and commute to their jobs. There are numerous large and small farms surrounding the town. These include dairy, beef and crop farming. The school district has some 0,000 students and 183 full—time professional staff members, giving a staff ratio of approximately 21.8 to l. Geographically, the district includes some 200 square miles making it one of the largest in the state. The buildings include a new four million dollar high school, a Junior high school and nine elementary schools. The elementaries range in size from 100 to over U00 students. Four of the elementaries have been completed since 1969. There is about 12,300 dollars of assessed valuation per child and an actual expenditure of approximately 630 dollars per child. The aide program was initiated in 1965. It now involves every school in the district. Some twenty-seven classroom sides are currently working with seventy teachers in the elementary schools. All of the classroom aides are women, of whom over 90% are married. About 15% had worked in schools before their current employment as aides. The number of aides per school ranges from one to seven with an aide to teacher ratio which varies from one 118 to five. In some cases, one teacher receives assistance from more than one aide. About 60,000 dollars is spent for the program, of which the local district provides 95% of the total. All twenty-seven of the elementary classroom aides and the seventy teachers with whom they work were_included in the sample. Twenty—seven of the teachers were paired with the twenty—seven aides. All six elementary principals were also surveyed. Community B is a medium-sized industrial city of some 51,000 people with another 90,000 living within close proximity. The city lies next to a major inter- state highway and in addition is served by air and rail transportation. There are over thirty manufacturing companies in the area. These firms make a variety of products such as metals, machinery, transportation equip- ment, and food stuffs. Of the 53,000 member labor force, over one half are in the manufacturing industries. The number of employees per industry range from fifty to 2,600. There are also 6,200 people employed by various governmental units. Community B has the usual goods and services found in a community of its size. The downtown area has undergone a major renovation and the construction of a central mall. The school district has two high schools, four junior high schools and twenty elementary schools. Some 1H,000 119 youngsters are enrolled in the public schools. Another h,000 students attend parochial schools. With about 700 full-time professional staff members, there is an approximate 20 to l student-staff ratio. The operating budget is just over thirteen million dollars or between 900 to 950 dollars per child. There is nearly 18,000 dollars in assessed valuation behind each student. In 1966, the school district staff decided to institute an aide program with Title I, ESEA fundings. Since that date, the program has continued to grow so that currently sixty-five aides are now assisting in the elementary school classrooms. The number of aides used by each school varies from one to fourteen. A full-time coordinator directs the program. Fifty—four per cent of the funding is local, 10% state and the remaining 36% federal. About 125,000 dollars are from other than local funds. One-hundred-thirty elementary teachers use classroom aides. Many of these have full time service. The aides range in age from 21 to 60 with a mean age of “1.8. Over 98% are women. The average family income is about 10,000 dollars. Over 90% had worked in schools on a volunteer basis prior to being hired by the district. The amount of education for the group is relatively high. A recent district survey revealed six aides with no diploma, twelve with high school diplomas, twenty-two had up to sixty semester hours of college credit, and twenty had over sixty semester hours of credit. 12 The sample surveyed included twenty principals, sixty aides and ninety-six teachers. Five of the aides and a like number of teachers are special education personnel. Sixty teachers were paired with the sixty aides. The sample included all but two elementary schools which were used to field test the questionnaire. Community C, as the center of a metropolitan area of over 300,000, is one of the largest urban areas in the state. The city is connected by interstate, U.S. and state highways as well as by major rail and air trans- portation service. There is an art gallery, symphony orchestra, three university extension centers, and many other community services. The city is not only a service and commercial center, but is also a major manufacturing complex. There are many industries producing such items as machine parts, chemicals, food stuffs and furniture. The school district has an enrollment of 35,000 students. There are also some 17,000 private school stu- dents. The public schools house their pupils in four high schools, seven junior high schools, two middle schools and fifty-five elementary schools. In addition, there are ten Special education schools or centers. Over 1,600 professional staff are employed which gives about a 21 to l student-staff ratio. The aide program was instituted in March of 1966._ With a current number of approximately 375 elementary aides, 121 District C ranks as having the second largest aide program in Michigan. There are half—time and full—time aides. The full—time aides provide direct assistance to the classroom teachers. Some of these are cast in the role of assistant teacher. There are about 200 full-time aides working in twenty—eight elementary schools. Fifteen of these are middle city schools and have the highest percentage of aides to teachers. Aides range in age from 18 to 56 years with 36 as the approximate average. Eighty-five per cent are married. Many of the aides had previous employment, but only a minor percentage have worked in schools either on a paid or volunteer basis. A survey compiled in April, 1969, showed forty—six aides had no diploma, 103 held a high school diploma, thirty had received some college credits, eighteen had equivalent to a junior college degree, and three had completed four years of college. This investigation included twenty-six teachers and thirty—one aides working in three inner city elementary schools. One of the schools is a K—5 with A83 regular and sixty-six kindergarten students. There were fourteen teachers and fourteen aides working in the K—3 grades. The school is one of the largest in the district. The second school is a K-6 with 220 regular and twenty-eight kindergarten students. Seven K-3 grade teachers and the same number of aides were surveyed. The third school is 122 known as the "follow through school," and includes only the kindergarten and first grade levels. There are five teachers and ten aides working with 131 students, which gives a very desirable student-teacher ratio. A high percentage of this school funding is met by other than local sources. Twenty-six of the teachers were paired with twenty-six aides in the survey sample. An organizational profile of the district's aide. program was completed for each of the three districts. The interview instrument for doing this is described in this chapter under the section entitled "Measures," and the results are given in Chapter IV. The remainder of this chapter section is devoted to the sampling procedure and its justification. It was decided to survey only elementary aides and to include only those who provided direct assistance to the class- room teacher in a classroom setting. The use of only elementary aides was founded on the notion that task definitions would have been too broadly stated to include both elementary and secondary levels. The category of aides was restricted to classroom assistants in the belief that they would be more likely to perform a wide range of task classifications. It was decided to use teachers and aides in the survey because the investigator believed they are the most crucial reference groups for determining performance 123 eXpectations for the position being studied. Building principals were also included to see if their expectations are congruent with the results from the aides and teachers. The principals' responses were not used to reject or accept the three hypotheses. What Coleman calls "saturated sampling" was used to collect the task expectations. This kind of sampling was chosen because the use of a questionnaire and manageable numbers made it feasible, plus the fact that the aides work in a formal organizational setting. The importance of this latter point is spelled out by Coleman when he stated: But apart from the kinds of data collected, there are also important sampling considerations. In this kind of research, it is no longer possible to pull each individual out of his social context and interview him as an independent entity. It is necessary to sample parts of that context as well or, to say it differently, to sample 166 eXplicitly with reference to the social structure. As a means of achieving a reference to the social structure, Coleman suggested saturated sampling as one of the techniques for collecting data. This sampling pro- cedure is characterized by the fact that all parties to be studied in the social system are included in the sample. This is only feasible under special conditions. There must & 166James S. Coleman, "Rational Analysis: The Study of Social Organizations with Survey Methods," in A Socio- logical Reader on Complex Organizations, ed. by Amitai Etzioni (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Inc., 1969), p. 520. 12” be a small enough number to be manageable and the measuring instrument has to lend itself to an efficient collection of data.167 Both of these conditions were present for this study. Three districts were selected as separate organiza- tional systems and as sources for providing the three separate samples of teachers and aides. The data from each of the three districts was kept separate and compared to see if similar or dissimilar results were achieved from the three different social systems. The next section of the chapter describes the questionnaire and interview schedule used to collect the data. Measurements Two instruments were developed to collect the data for this dissertation. A questionnaire was used to measure task eXpectations, the level of aide job satisfaction, the level of aide rated effectiveness, and the tasks the aides have performed. The interview schedule was used as a means for collecting the data needed to describe various organizational considerations undertaken by the surveyed districts with respect to their aide programs. The questionnaire is a very commonly used device for doing survey studies. This is particularly true if it l67;§;§., pp. 520-521. 125 is not feasible for the investigator to interview all the people from whom he desires responses or where there is not a compelling reason to see them personally.168 For the purpose of this investigation, those conditions existed. The questionnaire was a practical way to obtain data on role definition for aides. It is also a means for achieving response to a uniform set of questions which provides for an easy comparability of answers. in addition, the conditions of a wide coverage at a minimum expense and the need for a saturated sample could be met by a questionnaire.169 All but one of the questions were close ended. For this investigation, open questions were largely undesirable because the hypotheses posed are rather specifically delineated and require uniform comparability among the respondents. One open question was used on the question— naire given aides to see if any particular aspects of the aide program would emerge which were crucial and unde- tected by the interview schedule. Task performance was selected as the segment of role eXpectation to measure because it is the most central aspect of the teacher aide role. The fifty tasks used 168Carter V. Good, A. S. Burr, and Douglas E. Scates, The Methodology of Education Research (New York: Appleton- Century-Crofts, Inc., 19D13, pp. 32A-325. 169George J. Monly, The Science of Educational Research (New York: American Book Company, 19637, pp. 239-252. 126 were gleaned from seven different teacher aide studies which consisted of or included a description of tasks performed by aides.170 An attempt was made to select tasks which were representative of several categories of performance. It is realized that the selection was not completely representative and was subject to the investigator's bias. The fifty tasks are grouped into five major categories of ten tasks each. The categories are clerical; housekeeping; technological; monitoring and supervision; and instructional support. The cate— gories are not identified in the questionnaire because it was felt the labels might prejudice the respondent before the specific tasks were read and checked. The questions were grouped into like categories to give a greater semblance of order and to enable the respondent to orient himself to the trend of thought.171 170Bowman and Klopf, op. cit., pp. 38-39, 13U-135, 15A, 238-2A3; Department of Classroom Teachers, Th3 Classroom Teacher4§peaks on His Supportive Staff (Washington, D.C.: NEA, 19677} pp. 7—8; The Teacher Aide Program, A Project of the Model School Division of the Public Schools of the District of Columbia, Conducted by the Washington School of Psychiatry, August, 1967; June M. Hornburger, So You Have An Aide (Wilmington, Delaware: Wilmington Public Schools, 1967), pp. 29-33; "Teacher Aides in Public Schools," op. cit., p. 37; Arnold Glovinsky, The ParaprofesSional Study of Wayne County Intermediate School District (Detroit: Inter— mediate School District, Wayne County, 1967), pp. 18—26; and Emmerling and Chavis, op. cit., pp. 15-20. 171 Mouly, op. cit., p. 2&5. 127 Each task has five categories of possible response. These include: AM (Absolutely Must); PS (Preferably Should); MMN (May or May Not); PSN (Preferably Should Not); and AMN (Absolutely Must Not). The categories are the same as those used by Gross, g£_al., for measuring task performance in their role study of the superin- tendent.172 The categories give two directions for response with a mandatory level of intensity and a pre- ferential level of intensity. The middle category indi- cates a lack of expectational preference for that particular performance task. The questionnaire given to the principal included only the fifty item task list of performance expectations. The questionnaire answered by the aides had, in addition to the fifty item task list, a rating of job satisfaction and a check list of actual tasks performed. The tasks performed list is a repeat of the same fifty items used to measure eXpectations. The difference is that the response choice is a category labeled "Have Performed." This was checked if the aide actually per- formed the task during the school year. The job satis— faction scale includes six categories. They are designated: Very Satisfied; Satisfied; Fairly Satisfied; Fairly Dis- satisfied; Dissatisfied; and Very Dissatisfied. The 172Gross, Mason and McEachern, pp. cit., p. 102- 128 choice of a six point rating scale was based on the rationale that a scale should allow for adequate freedom of reSponse, but not be so great that a difference cannot be discerned in the various degrees of intensity. The teacher's questionnaire includes, in addition to the expectation items, a job effectiveness scale for rating the teacher aide with whom she was paired. The scale included six response categories. They are designated: Superior; Excellent; Good; Fair; Poor; and Unacceptable. The rationale for the six categories is the same as that used for the job satisfaction scale. The criteria for stating good questions and the general format of the questionnaire, plus the layout and content of the cover letter were based on material from Rummel and Payne.173 After the questionnaire was constructed, it was reviewed by five different educators representing dif- ferent positions in the profession. As a result, some of the directions were further clarified and the cover letter was refined. The questionnaire was field tested in two elementary schools. An open-ended comment sheet was attached to the questionnaire so that each respondent 173J. Francis Rummel, An Introduction to Research Procedures in Education (2nd ed.; New York: Harper and Row, 1958), pp. 111-162; and Stanley L. Payne, The Art of Asking Questions (Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1951), pp. 75-99. 129 could evaluate the instrument. The cover letter for the field.test included a paragraph explaining the purpose of the test. Returns were received and tabulated from the two principals, four aides and six teachers. As a result of the test, six task items were dropped and new ones substituted. If 75 per cent or more of the responses for an item fell into the May or May Not category, the item was dropped as insufficiently discriminatory. The six items dropped were: 1. Correct Papers 3. File Materials A. Maintain Bulletin Boards 6. Score Tests 2”. Prepare AV Materials U3. Assist with a Music Lesson The new tasks were substituted into the same sequence locations as the dropped items. Also, item 36, "Monitor Class In Teacher's Absence," was changed to read, "Monitor Class For Short Time Period;" item #0, "Discipline Student For Misbehavior," was changed to read, "Discipline Student 0n P1ayground;" Item A2, "Tutor a Student," was changed to read, "Help Student With Assignment;" item “5, "Substitute In Teacher's Absence," was defined to mean one half day or longer. An example of the questionnaire and cover letter is included in the appendix. The second instrument was designed to ascertain general descriptive information about the district, the aide program and the aides as a group. In addition, the interview included five categories of questions related to 130 means available to the school system for achieving greater role compliance. The categories included: job descrip- tion and supervision; recruitment and selection; training, rewards, and incentives; and evaluation. The categories and related questions were based upon the review material in Chapter II entitled "Means For Achieving Organizational Role Compliance." The questions were a mixture of Open and close ended items depending upon the Specificity of the response desired. An interview was deemed desirable to establish a contact and rapport with a key administrator of the aide program, to develop a more complete understanding of the district's aide program, and to collect data as a basis for comparing the three districts surveyed. The data col— lected were not for the purpose of accepting or rejecting the basic hypotheses, but rather as a possible eXplanation for differences in the patterns of reSponses achieved in each of the three districts. The interviews were conducted with the coordinator or administrator most directly responsible in the central office for each district's teacher aide program. The interview schedule was used once and then revised and used in all three districts. The interviews lasted from one and a half to two and a half hours apiece. An example of the interview schedule is included in the appendix. The next section is a presentation of the general design of the study. Hm; igln After visiting several districts in the state of Michigan, and reading a number of educational periodicals, it became apparent to the investigator that teacher aide programs were an important and rapidly expanding phenomenon in the schools. There appeared to be considerable need to evaluate and research this new phenomenon. On this basis, the investigator chose the tOpic of teacher aides. To develop an approach and theoretical basis for the study, a number of books, periodicals, and pamphlets were read about the subjects of teacher aide programs and organizational analysis. The second area was included because it seemed that from an administrative perspective, it was important to consider the organizational system within which the aides worked. Role theory was chosen as the basis for designing the constructs of the study, because of its cross- disciplinary nature and the discovery that several reputable studies in the field of education also used role theory. A survey approach was decided upon as the best method for collecting data. The decision was predicated upon the notions that the best way to study roles was to measure role definitions in a uniform manner as held by several reference groups, the probable need for an efficient means of collecting data, and because the survey provided a way 132 of relating several variables in the natural setting of the school system. The survey as a research approach has come to be valued as more than a means for merely asking questions and reporting answers. This point of view is aptly stated by Trow in the following quote: The great advances in survey research in recent decades have been in the analysis and interpreta- tion of survey data, advances which have taken survey research considerably beyond the primitive stage of merely asking a lot of questions and reporting the answers. The chief gains have been in our ability to study the relationships between and among variables. And since a great part of social theory consists of statements about the relationships among variables under Specified con- ditions, these developments in survey analysis open up the use of survey data for the testin and refinement of complex sociological theories.1 The above quote has particular meaning for the administra- tor who is interested in the effect of organizational_ variables upon employee behavior. Trow, in the same article states: Even more important from a policy perspective, since we can only rarely affect such characteristics of individuals as their social class origins or academic aptitudes, is the capacity of survey research to shed light on organizational character- istics which are susceptible to administration; thus the size of a given school, or the nature of its counseling program, is subject to purposeful control in a way that academic aptitudes are not.175 l7“Martin Trow, "Survey Research in Educational Administration," in Educational Research: A New Perspec- tive, ed. by Jack A. Culbertson and Stephen P. Hencley (Dansville, Illinois: The Interstate Printers and Pub- lishers, Inc., 1963), p. 252. r l7JIbid. 133 Sieber, in a recent article in the Phi Delta Kappan, also made a plea for a more enlightened appreciation and use of the survey approach in education and noted that "probably a major portion of the empirical generalizations of modern sociology are derived from surveys."176 Mouly, in a book on educational research, gives the traditional definition of a survey as an approach to determining the status of a given phenomenon, but then goes on to say that the more s0phisticated surveys bear directly on significant interrelationships among variables.177 The highly respected role study by Gross and associ- ates on the position of the superintendent used a survey 178 Gross' study served as a approach to collect data. model for much of the design used in this dissertation. Once the topic and decision to use a survey approach were decided, the investigator completed the review of literature in the areas of role theory, organizational theory and teacher aides. Over 150 sources including books, periodicals, abstracts, pamphlets and microfilms were reviewed. 176Sam D. Sieber, "The Case of the Misconstrued Technique," Phi Delta Kappan, January, 1968, p. 275. 177 178 Mouly, op. cit., p. 232. Gross, Mason and McEachern, op. cit. A questionnaire and interview schedule were selected as the basic instruments for collecting the data. After the two instruments were constructed, they were reviewed by different educators and then field tested in actual district settings. As a result of the field test, the directions were refined and several questions were either modified or completely changed. Teachers and aides were selected as the primary reference groups to be measured because they logically appeared as the most crucial role definers in terms of task performance eXpectations. Principals were also sur- veyed to simply compare the congruity of their responses with those of teachers and aides. Teachers and aides who worked together were paired, because role definition is predicated upon social interaction and this particular dyad was the most crucial in the system for the questions posed in this dissertation. It was decided to survey three different school systems to see if different patterns of response emerged from the different organizational settings. As previously pointed out, the interview schedule was used to determine possible organizational variables which might affect dif— ferent response patterns. The implication is that the behavior of individuals in organizations are mutually influenced by certain characteristics of the organization. This point is made by Etzioni in an introductory statement to a chapter on methods for studying organizations. 135 Frequently, students of organizational analysis try to explain the behavior of individuals by their membership in a certain organization or organiza- tional unit. Such an approach assumes that the member is somehow affected by the unit. The chan- nels through which the properties of the unit affect the properties of individuals are many (although they are rarely specified). A member may perceive the unit realistically and thus be affected. He may be recruited in ways which will ensure that his properties are in line with those of the unit, or he may be socialized to "fit" the unit after recruitment. Often it is implicitly assumed that he is influenced by other members of the unit. This belief implies that the member interacts with other members and that he is emo- tionally attached to them and/or reSpects their opinions.179 The districts surveyed needed to have a sufficient number of aides to provide an adequate sample. This meant for the most part that urban centers would need to be used. The larger urban districts are the ones which generally qualify for special funding to hire aides, and the majority of aide programs received their impetus from other than local monies. Two of the three districts sur- veyed in this dissertation are located in medium—sized cities. The third district is a smaller rural system and was used to see if this difference in context would affect the nature of the responses. The investigator was for- tunate enough to find such a district which had an adequate number of aides to include in the study. The procedure used in setting up the study was to contact the central office and make an appointment with the 179Etzioni, op. cit., p. “97. 136 administrator directly responsible for the aide program. Once permission was received to conduct the study, the investigator met with the elementary building principals of those buildings to be surveyed and explained the study and its purpose. The next step was to make specific arrangements for distributing and collecting the question~ naires. Separate packets for each respondent with return enveIOpes were prepared and distributed to the individual buildings. The respondents were given one week to com- plete the questionnaires and return them to the building secretary, who forwarded the returns to the district office. Returns were noted and one follow—up letter was sent to those who had not returned their questionnaires. A copy of the follow-up letter is included in the appendix. During the process of dealing with the question— naires, the interview schedule was completed with the reSponsible central office administrator. The hypotheses stated in operational terms and the analysis of data are the subjects of the next two sections of this chapter. Hypotheses The three hypotheses are first restated as they appear in Chapter I, followed by operational definitions of the key terms. 137 Hypothesis 1: An aide whose task expectations are in agreement with the task expectations held for her by the teacher will express higher job satisfaction than an aide who is not in agreement with the teacher. Expectations are designated by using a fifty item list of performance tasks. A checklist of five response categories are provided for each item. These are desig- nated as AM (Absolutely Must), PS (Preferably Should), MMN (May or May Not), PSN (Preferably Should Not), and AMN (Absolutely Must Not). There are three measures of agreement. The first is an agreement of intensity. This is achieved by a paired teacher and aide checking the same response category for a performance task. The item agreements are totalled for each pair to arrive at an intensity agreement score. The second measure of agreement is one of direction. This is indicated by the paired aide and teacher checking any two adjacent response categories for a performance task. For the second measure, the number of adjacent categories checked is added to the number of intensity agreements for each pair to arrive at a total direction agreement score. For the third measure of agreement, the five response categories are assigned consecutively, the numberical quantities of one through five beginning with the AM category. The level of agreement is determined by totalling the absolute different on the fifty response items for each pair. 138 Satisfaction is determined by the aide checking one of six possible categories on a job satisfaction rating scale. The six categories are designated: Very Satisfied; Satisfied; Fairly Satisfied; Fairly Dissatisfied; Dis— satisfied; and Very Dissatisfied. The categories are assigned consecutively the numerical quantities six through one beginning with the Very Satisfied category. The hypothesis is accepted or rejected for each sample surveyed by determining if there is a significant positive correlation at the 5 per cent level of confidence between the level of satisfaction and each of the three measures of agreement. The Pearson Product Moment Corre- lation is used as the statistical test. Hypothesis 2: An aide whose task expectations are in agreement with the task expectations held for her by the teacher will be rated as more effective than an aide who is not in agreement. Expectations and agreement are operationally defined the same as for Hypothesis 1. Effectiveness is determined by the teacher checking one of six possible categories on a job effectiveness rating scale. The six categories are designated: Superior; Excellent; Good; Fair; Poor; and Unacceptable. The cate— gories are assigned consecutively the numerical quantities one through six beginning with the Unacceptable category. The hypothesis is accepted or rejected for each sample surveyed by determining if there is a significant 139 positive correlation at the 5 per cent level of confidence. between the level of satisfaction and each of the three measures of agreement. The Pearson Product Moment Cor- relation is used as the statistical test. Hypothesis 3: In a significant percentage of cases, a task will or will not be performed in accordance with the agreement between the task expectation held by the aide and the task expectation held for her by the teacher. There are four measures of agreement. The first is agreement of mandatory intensity. This measure is achieved by the paired aide and teacher checking either the AM or AMN response categories. The second measure of agreement is achieved by the paired aide and teacher checking adjacent categories of intensity. The third measure of agreement is achieved by the paired aide and teacher checking either AM—MMN categories or AMN-MMN categories. The fourth agreement is measured by the teacher and aide checking either the PS-PSN categories. Tasks performed are determined by using the same fifty item list of performance tasks used to measure expectations. A reSponse category designated "Have Performed" is provided for each task item. The aide designates the task as having been performed by checking the response box, and not having performed the task by not checking the response box. For each measure of agreement, a total is calculated for all aide—teacher pairs for each of the three samples. 1A0 Each of the measures are compared to the total number of tasks performed which are in accordance with the direction of the agreement. The significance of the performance percentage is measured in relationship to 75 per cent of the performance responses being in accordance with the direction of the task agreement between the paired aides and teachers. Between 50 per cent and 75 per cent is considered fairly significant and above 75 per cent is considered very significant. The next section of the chapter deals with the analysis of data collected in the survey. Analysis The treatment of the data logically fell into two major categories. The first was an analysis to determine whether the hypotheses posed in the study have been sup- ported. The second category was concerned with the analysis to determine the characteristics of the response in terms of patterns. The acceptance or rejection of the first two hypotheses was predicated upon whether the definitions of agreement are significantly correlated in a positive manner with the rated levels of job satisfaction and job effective- ness. The operational definitions for each of these variables are discussed in the preceding section of this chapter. The Pearson Product Moment Correlation test was 1141 used to determine if the variables were significantly related at the 5 per cent level of confidence. Correla- tions are computed between each of the three kinds of agreements, effectiveness, and satisfaction, as well as among the three definitions of agreement and between satisfaction and effectiveness. The data for the third hypothesis was a question of computing simple percentages of the tasks actually per- formed in terms of their correspondence with the direc- tion of agreement of the four types of agreement as operationally defined in the preceding section of this chapter. The number of agreements and the number of corresponding tasks performed were totalled for each of the three samples. The significance of the percentage was determined in relationship to 75 per cent as a point of reference. The computations for the three hypotheses were done separately for each of the three samples. The hypotheses were then either accepted or rejected for each definition of agreement for each of the three samples. The second set of tests was designed to identify possible response characteristics in terms of the aides and teachers as separate groups within each of the samples and among the three samples. Comparisons were made among groups of people and among the various response items. The central question 1u2 with reference to the aides and teachers as distinct groups was what level of consensus existed within and between the groups. The level of consensus was also computed for the principals in each district and their reSponses were compared with the aides and teachers. Measurement of consensus has the two elements of central tendency and variability of distribution to be considered. Mean scores were used as a test of central tendency and standard deviation was the test of variability. A variance score was computed for each task eXpecta- tion item for aides, teachers, and principals as groups within each of the three districts. The lower the variance score, the higher the level of consensus. The number of from moderately high to very high consensus items was totalled for each group. Those items were com- pared on which the aides, teachers, and principals within each district indicated the same or similar consensus. The measure of consensus for moderately high to very high was set at a mean score range of from .00 to .70. The same procedure was used in dealing with central tendency or mean scores. Ranges of 3.51 to “.00 and from 1.00 to 2.A9 were designated as indicating mean scores of significant direction. Items were then identified on which there were both similar mean and standard deviation scores. The next step was to simply see if the aides, teachers, and principals agreed upon similar items in each of the three districts surveyed. 1113 in addition to the foregoing comparisons, the mean levels of job satisfaction and rated effectiveness were computed for each of the three districts sampled. These were compared for degrees of difference. A total percentage score of all the tasks actually performed by all the aides was computed for each of the three districts. These percentages were compared for degrees of difference. Summary The design of the dissertation is constructed to measure the interrelationship between role congruence for the position of teacher aide and rated effectiveness, job satisfaction, and actual task performance. School districts in three Michigan communities pro— vided the survey samples. The three communities, districts, and aide programs have been described. A survey approach was selected as the most feasible means of collecting data. A questionnaire was constructed to measure and compare task eXpectations, job satisfaction, job effective- ness, and tasks performed. An interview schedule was developed for use in collecting data for describing the organizational characteristics of the three districts. Both instruments were field tested. The hypotheses related to satisfaction and effectiveness were accepted or rejected on the basis of whether or not they significantly lull correlated with role agreement between pairs of teachers and aides. The hypothesis related to actual task per- formance was measured for acceptance by using percentage scores related to direction of task agreement between the teacher and aide. The data were analyzed for each district, then a comparison was made among the results for each sample. The analysis of results is the subject of the next chapter. CHAPTER IV ANALYSIS OF DATA Chapter IV is subdivided into a restatement of the hypotheses and their levels of support, patterns of response, additional tasks and comments listed by the aides; means used by the district administration to achieve role compliance; and the chapter summary. Data for all but the means for achieving compliance was obtained by use of a questionnaire. These data are sum- marized in 18 different tables included within this chapter. The information relative to the means for achieving compliance was obtained by using an interview schedule. Three districts were included in the study. The general method of presenting the information will be to first report each district separately and then pro— vide a comparative statement whenever it is appropriate. Level of Support for Hypotheses The three hypotheses studied in this dissertation are first restated and then followed by evidence either supporting or not supporting them. Three kinds of agree- ment are used to measure consensus between the aide and teacher for the first two hypotheses. The first kind of 145 1A6 agreement which is labeled "Intensity" is achieved by the aide and teacher checking the same response category for a task item. The second kind of agreement, labeled "Adjacent," is achieved by the aide and teacher checking adjacent response categories. Adjacent agreement scores were added to intensity scores to arrive at a total for the adjacent agreement score. The third agreement, labeled "Numerical Difference," was achieved by assign- ing the five possible response categories numerical quantities of one through five and then totaling the numerical difference between the responses of the teacher and the aide. Simple correlations were used to measure the relationship between the measures of agreement and the dependent variables of satisfaction and effective- ness. For the third hypotheses, four kinds of agreement were defined. The first agreement is labeled as "Manda— tory" and is achieved by the aide and teacher checking either the Absolutely Must or Absolutely Must Not response categories for a task item. The second kind of agreement, "Adjacent," is achieved by the aide and teacher checking adjacent response categories for a task item. The May or May Not plus Mandatory agreement is derived by the aide and teacher checking a combination of the May or May Not category, plus either the Absolutely Must or Absolutely Must Not category.' The fourth agree- ment, "Preferential," is measured by the aide and teacher lU7 checking either the Preferably Should or Preferably Should Not categories in response to a task item. Sim— ple percentage scores were used to measure the relation- ship between the direction of the agreement scores and the dependent variable designated as Have Performed the task. Direction means a response either toward Should Perform or Should Not Perform. Hypothesis 1: An aide whose task expectations are in agreement with the task expectations held for her by the teacher will express higher job satisfaction than an aide who is not in agreement with the teacher. There was not a sufficient level of support for establishing a significant relationship between any of the three measures of agreement and rated satisfaction. Correlations in all three samples for intensity and adjacent agreements with satisfaction were to be posi— tive and between numerical difference and satisfaction to be negative. In District A, 27 teacher—aide pairs were given questionnaires. Returns were received from enough respondents to record and use 21 or 77.7 per cent of the pairs surveyed. A simple correlation score of .A227 or greater at the five per cent level of confidence was required to establish a significant relationship between the agreement score and the level of satisfaction. The correlation score between intensity and satisfaction was +.062A, between adjacent and satisfaction -.0635, and between numerical difference and satisfaction +.1A7l. l“8 There were significant correlations among the three agreement scores. The correlation between intensity and adjacent was +.5609, between intensity and numerical dif- ference -.83““, and between adjacent and numerical dif— ference —.8199. In District B, 60 teacher-aide pairs were given questionnaires. Returns were received from enough respondents to record and use “5 or 75 percent of the pairs surveyed. A simple correlation score of .291“ or greater at the five per cent level of confidence was required to establish a significant relationship between the agreement score and the level of satisfaction. The correlation score between intensity and satisfaction was -.2323, between adjacent and satisfaction -.2011, and between numerical difference and satisfaction +.2l38. There were significant correlations among the three agreement scores. The correlation between intensity and adjacent was +.“215, between intensity and numerical difference —.8221, and between adjacent and numerical difference —.7ll5. In District 0, 26 teacher-aide pairs were given questionnaires. Returns were received from enough respondents to record and use 2“ or 92.3 per cent of the pairs surveyed. A simple correlation score of .3892 or greater at the five per cent level of confidence was required to establish a significant relationship between l“9 the agreement score and the level of satisfaction. The correlation score between intensity and satisfaction was —.3226, between adjacent and satisfaction —.0156, and between numerical difference and satisfaction +.2617“. There were significant correlations among the three agreement scores. The correlation between intensity and adjacent was +.6063, between intensity and numerical dif- ference -.8682, and between adjacent and numerical dif— ference -.86“2. On the basis of the level of correlations computed for the three samples, the first hypotheses is rejected. Hypothesis 2: An aide whose task expectations are in agreement with the task expectations held for her by the teacher will be rated as more effective than an aide who is not in agreement. There was not a sufficient level of support for establishing a significant relationship between any of the three measures of agreement and rated effectiveness. The correlations among the three agreement scores, and number of pairs surveyed and returns used, are the same as indicated for each of the three samples discussed under the first hypothesis. Correlations in all three samples for intensity and adjacent agreements with effec— tiveness were to be positive and between numerical dif- ference and effectiveness to be negative. A In District A, a simple correlation score of .“227 or greater at the five per cent level of confidence was 150 required to establish a significant relationship between the agreement score and the level of effectiveness. The correlation score between intensity and effectiveness was +.3099, between adjacent and effectiveness +.0821, and between numerical difference and effectiveness -.2603. In District B, a simple correlation score of .291“ or greater at the five per cent level of confidence was required to establish a significant relationship between the agreement score and the level of effectiveness. The correlation score between intensity and effectiveness was —.156“, between adjacent and effectiveness -.2691, and between numerical difference and effectiveness -.201“. In District C, a simple correlation score of .3892 or greater at the five per cent level of confidence was required to establish a significant relationship between the agreement score and the level of effectiveness. The correlation score between intensity and effectiveness was —.l306, between adjacent and effectiveness -.0769, and between numerical difference and effectiveness +.l762. On the basis of the level of correlations computed for the three samples, the second hypothesis is rejected. Hypothesis 3: In a significant percentage of cases, a task will or will not be performed in accordance with the agreement between the task expectation held by the aide and the task expectation held for her by the teacher. There was a generally sufficient level of support for establishing a significant relationship between the 151 four measures of agreement and tasks checked as having been performed. The number of pairs surveyed and returns used for the three samples are the same as those indi- cated for the first and second hypothesis. A simple per- centage score of 75 per cent was used as a point of reference for establishing high or low significance between the direction of agreement scores and the tasks performed. From 50 to 75 per cent was considered lower significance and above 75 per cent was considered higher significance for all three samples. In District A, the relationship between mandatory agreement and tasks performed was at the 100 per cent level, between adjacent agreement and tasks performed 6“ per cent, between May or May Not, plus mandatory agree— ment and tasks performed 75.36 per cent, and between preferential agreement and tasks performed 72.32 per cent. In District B, the relationship between mandatory agreement and tasks performed was at the 90.7 per cent level, between adjacent agreement and tasks performed 69.67 per cent, between May or May Not plus mandatory agreement and tasks performed 70.83 per cent, and between preferential agreement and tasks performed 83.“1 per cent. In District 0, the relationship between mandatory agreement and tasks performed was at the 95.5 per cent level, between.adjacent agreement and tasks performed 72.5“ per cent, between May or May Not plus mandatory agreement and tasks performed 85.83 per cent, and between preferential agreement and tasks performed 80 per cent. Seven of the 12 percentage agreements were 75 per cent or higher. All of the intensity agreements were above 90 per cent. Five of the agreements were below 75 per cent, but none was below 6“ per cent. The scores indicate all agreements were well above chance and the‘ majority were at the highly significant level. The pat— tern demonstrates that the more mandatory the agreement is, the higher the probability the task performance will be in accordance with the direction of agreement. On the basis of the level of percentages computed for three samples, the third hypothesis is accepted. Patterns of Response This subsection includes a description of responses for effectiveness scores, satisfaction scores, tasks per— formed, and frequency distributions on task expectation responses. For the purpose of describing patterns, all teachers and aides are included. In all three samples, more teachers and aides than those paired for the hypothe— ses were given questionnaires. In Districts A and B, principals were also given questionnaires and their responses are included in the area of frequency distri- bution for task expectations. For effectiveness rating, the six possible response categories were assigned numerical quantities of from six 153 Table 1 Task Agreement, Satisfaction and Effectiveness Scores* For Teacher-Aide Pairs: District A Tchr-Aide Task A ree. Scores Satisfaction Effectiveness Pairs Intens. Adj. Abs. & Diff. Int. 1 15 36 38 4 4 2 19 41 39 4 4 3 16 36 50 4 5 4 25 44 , 31 6 4 5 17 21 57 5 6 6 23 43 31 5 6 7 lo 42 44 5 5 B 35 48 17 5 5 9 15 39 44 6 5 10 20 45 31 3 5 11 18 30 55 6 4 12 16 34 56 6 4 l3 17 38 47 5 5 14 32 50 18 5 6 15 16 34 41 4 5 16 13 47 35 5 4 17 22 45 33 6 6 18 20 47 31 5 6 19 16 42 42 6 3 20 13 36 51 6 5 6 5 21 ‘27 39 26 - -9-” w”.— * Intensity Agreement = Aide and teacher checked the same re— sponse category Adjacent Agreement = Aide and teacher checked adjacent re- sponse categories Absolute Difference = Computed by weighing the categories 1 through 5 and subtracting for the numerical difference between the teacher and aide responses satisfaction = Responses scored as: Very Satisfied (6): Satisfied (S): Fairly Satisfied (4): Fairly Dissatisfied (3): Dissatisfied (2): Very Dissatisfied (1) Effectiveness a Responses scored as: Superior (6): Ex- cellent (5): Good (4): Fair (3): Poor (2): Unacceptable (1) 154 Table 2 Task Agreement, Satisfaction and Effectiveness Scores* For Teacher-Aide Pairs: District B Tchr-Aide Task Agree. Scores Satisfaction Effectiveness Pairs Intens. Adj. Abs. & Diff. Int. 1 23 38 38 6 6 2 10 24 38 6 5 3 28 43 35 5 4 35 47 19 5 5 20 41 38 S 6 19 48 35 6 5 7 20 32 47 5 6 8 26 44 25 6 6 9 , 8 49 45 S 4 10 23 46 31 5 4 11 17 4O 44 6 5 12 21 45 27 6 6 13 5 4O 54 6 6 14 4 10 83 6 6 15 22 15 41 5 5 16 20 46 33 4 17 11 34 53 4 2 18 16 38 48 5 19 20 48 32 3- 2 20 27 48 25 6 4 21 11 41 53 6 4 22 29 42 24 6 6 23 21 42 33 6 5 24 7 47 46 S 6 25 29 50 21 4 25 9 21 80 5 5 27 15 4O 46 6 S 28 10 38 53 6 5 29 28 36 39 4 5 3o 12 34 S7 6 6 31 39 45 14 5 6 32 15 37 49 6 5 33 11 48 41 4 6 34 18 42 41 6 4 35 30 43 26 6 4 36 14 33 56 6 6 37 21 45 33 6 5 38 8 33 49 6 5 39 21 33 48 6 3 4o 29 46 25 5 4 155 Table 2 (continued) Tchr-Aide Task A ree.*§§9res Satisfaction ’Effectiveness Pairs Intens. Adj. Abs. & Diff. Int. 41 15 42 44 6 42 28 46 24 4 3 43 14 46 40 5 5 44 16 43 41 6 4 45 11 28 73 6 5 * Intensity Agreement a Aide and teacher checked the same response category Adjacent Agreement = Aide and teacher checked adjacent response categories Absolute Difference = Computed by weighing the categories 1 through 5 and subtracting for the numerical difference between the ' . teacher and aide responses Satisfaction a Kesnonses scored as: Very Satisfied (6): Satisfied (5): Fairly Satisfied (4): Fairly Dissatisfied (3): Dissatisfied (2); Very Dissatisfied (1) . Effectiveness 2 Responses scored as: Superior (6): Ex- cellent (5): Good (4): Fair (3); Poor (2); Unacceptable (1) 156 Table 3 Task Agreement, Satisfaction and Effectiveness Scores* For Teacher-Aide Pairs: District C ‘M-’ -.--..I. e own-‘4 m - u. o“..- Tchr-Aide Task Agree. Scores_‘ Satisfaction Effectiveness Pairs Intens. Adj. Abs.' Diff. Int. 1 20 48 30 6 4 2 22 45 25 6 5 3 26 48 26 5 3 4 15 44 4O 6 5 5 27 45 27 4 4 o 24 43 29 5 6 7 22 36 33 6 4 8 13 24 61 4 4 9 18 43 36 6 10 17 33 45 5 4 11 16 34 47 6 4 32 12 44 46 6 6 13 14 36 52 5 l 14 19 46 35 S 4 15 20 38 36 4 5 16 22 38 41 4 5 17 20 40 37 3 4 18 6 11 81 6 6 19 21 50 29 S 5 20 15 33 50 5 5 21 17 38 32 22 3O 41 23 3 23 17 47 36 6 4 24 17 45 39 6 3 * Intensity Agreement a Aide and teacher checked the same re- . sponse category Adjacent Agreement = Aide and teacher checked adjacent re- sponse categories Absolute Difference a Computed_by weighing the categories 1 through 5 and subtracting for the numerical difference between the teacher and aide responses Satisfaction = Responses scored as: Very Satisfied (6): Satisfied (5): Fairly Satisfied (4): Fairly Dissatisfied (3): Dissatisfied (2): Very Dissatisfied (1) Effectiveness = Responses scored as: Superior (6): Ex- cellent (5): Good (4): Fair (3): Poor (2); Unacceptable (1) 157 Table 4 Task Agreement and CorreSponding Have Performed Scores* For Teacher-Aide Pairs: District A Tchr-Aide Man. Cor. Adj. Cor. MMN, Cor. Pref. Cor. Pairs Agr. Per. Agr. Per. + Per. Agr. Per. Man. Agr. 1 l 1 l7 8 3 3 4 4 2 l 1 17 15 5 5 4 3 3 2 2 20 19 10 7 3 3 4 O O 19 10 0 O 6 4 5 11 7 2 0 13 3 0 0 6 7 0 0 23 21_ 1 1 13 13 9 O 0 24 16 O O 9 8 10 0 O 24 10 2 O 10 4 11 7 7 11 3 15 12 0 O 12 O O 13 9 3 2 0 0 l3 3 3 21 9 9 7 8 5 l4 01 O 17 12 0 0 3 3 15 l 1 28 21 4 4 4 3 16 2 2 29 16 0 0 4 3 17 0 O 22 14 0 0 18 15 18 1 1 25 11 1 1 16 8 19 2 2 27 14 5 3 6 2 20 7 7 24 ll 6 2 1 1 21 1 1 17 11 2 2 3 2 * Mandatory Agreement a Aide and teacher checked AM or AMN response categories Adjacent Agreement a Aide and teacher checked any adjacent response categories Preferential Agreement = Aide and teacher checked PS or PSN respOnse categories Corresponding Performance = Scored if Have Performed was checked in accordance with the direction of the teacher- aide agreement responses 158 Table 5 Task Agreement and Corresponding Have Performed Scores* For Teacher-Aide Pairs: District 8 Tchr-Aide Man. Cor. Adj. Cor. MMN Cor. Pref. Cor. Pairs Agr. Per. Agr. Per.- + Per. Agr. Per. man . Agr . 1 O 0 12 9 4 4 3 2 2 l 1 22 15 3 3 11 3 3 l 1 12- 9 2 1 12 9 4 O O 10 8 2 2 2 2 5 O 0 21 3 4 2 12 11 6 4 4 25 20 3 3 12 12 7 3 3 13 10 10' 6 5 5 8 0 0 19 14 4 3 5 5 9 2 2 38 35 2 2 3 3 10 2 2 21 11 1 l 8 5 ll 10 10 23 19 5 4 2 2 12 l l 17 17 O 0 12 12 13 2 l 35 23 1 l 0 0 l4 1 1 7 6 20 15 0 O 15 15 14 15 9 9 6 0 O l6 l7 3 1 22 17 9 9 4 4 18 19 l l 28 14 2 1 7 5 20 2 2 21 6 3 3 9 9 21 O O 30 27 2 2 6 3 22 6 6 11 10 4 3 2 2 23 7 5 22 13 3 3 10 5 24 O 0 40 24 2 2 2 0 25 1 1 22 13 0 O 5 5 26 4 4 ll 4 15 3 1 l 27 1 ] 23 20 O 0 ‘ 13 12 28 2 2 27 19 10 10 O O 29 3 3 9 6 8 4 24 23 30 9 8 21 20 8 6 l l 31 34 30 O O 3 2 O O 32 O O 22 17 12 10 2 2 33 O 0 35 24 O 0 4 4 34 4 4 23 22 4 4 7 7 35 23 16 13 6 3 1 2 0 36 3 3 18 14 1 1 2 2 37 8 U 22 21 4 3 2 2 38 U 0 15 9 13 10 O U 39 l4 l4 2 10 10 6 O 0 40 2 2 17 15 4 3 1 ‘ 159 Table 5 (continued) Tchr-Aide Man. Cor. Adj. Cor. MMN Cor. Pref. Cor. Pairs Agr. Per. Agr. Per. + Per. Agr. Per. Man. 1 Agr. 41 6 6 25 15 2 1 6 4 42 1 1 18 11 2 1 O 0 43 2 2 32 8 1 U l 1 44 3 3 19 12 2 2 7 3 45 3 3 16 13 6 3 O 0 * Mandatory Agreement a Aide and teacher checked AM or AMN response categories Adjacent Agreement = Aide and teacher checked any adjacent response categories Preferential Agreement = Aide and teacher checked P5 or PSN response categories Corresnonding Performance = Scored if Have Performed was checked in accordance with the direction of the teacher- aide agreement responses 160 wable 6 Task Agreement and Corresponding Have Performed Scores* For Teacher-Aide Pairs: District C Tchr—Aide Man. Cor. Adj. Cor. MMN Cor. Pref. Cor. Pairs Agr. Per. Agr. Per. + Per. Agr. Per. Man. Agr. 1 1 1 27 23 0 0 4 3 2 2 2 20 16 1 0 6 6 3 12 11 21 17 1 0 ll 7 4 0 O 29 21 1 1 3 3 5 10 10 17 11 3 2 12 9 6 5 4 21 18 4' 4 7 7 7 8 8 14 10 5 4 7 6 8 O O 7 4 13 12 2 2 9 3 3 20 17 1 l 13 9 10 0 0 16 12 13 12 7 6 11 12 11 18 13 13 12 0 0 12 1 1 31 18 4 3 6 5 13. 3 3 23 17 O 0 11 8 14 0 O 17 13 2 1 5 5 15 4 4 17 14 6 6 6 4 16 9 9 14 8 4 3 1 1 17 1 O 10 7 4 2 1 1 18 6 6 S 3 31 25 0 0 19 O 0 27 14 O 0 14 12 20 4 4 17 13 6 5 4 2 21 4 4 17 13 3 3 8 8 22 3 2 10 8 1 1 24. 18 23 0 0 27 18 1 1 17 14 24 1 1 23 17 3 3 6 4 * Mandatory Agreement a Aide and teacher checked AM or AMN response categories Adjacent Agreement a Aide and teacher checked any adjacent response categories Preferential Agreement a Aide and teacher checked P8 or PSN response categories Corresponding Performance 2 Scored if Have Performed was checked in accordance with the direction of the teacher- aide agreement responses 161 for Superior to l for Unacceptable. For District A, 51 teachers rated the effectiveness of one of the aides with whom they worked. The ratings ranged from Poor to Super- ior with an overall numerical average of 4.56 or midway between Good and Excellent. For District B, 93 respond- ents gave ratings ranging from Poor to Superior with an overall numerical average of 4.79 or very close to Excel- lent. District C, with 23 responses, had the lowest average rating of 4.3M or Just above Good. The scores ranged from Unacceptable to Superior. There were also six possible response categories for satisfaction ratings which were assigned numerical quantities from 6 for Very Satisfied, to 1 for Very Dissatisfied. Based on 25 responses from District A, the average numerical rating was 5.08 or slightly above Satisfied. The range was from Fairly Satisfied to Very Satisfied. Forty—eight District B Responses had a range from Fairly Dissatisfied to Very Satisfied and an aver— age of 5.39 or almost midway between Satisfied and Very Satisfied. District C, with 28 responses, had an average of 5.18 and a range from Fairly Dissatisfied to Very Sat— isfied. There appears to be no significant correlation between effectiveness and satisfaction when measured within a teacher-aide pair. There may be some relationship when the ratings are considered for the total district. District N 162 Wkfl)le 7 Total Job Effectiveness Scores For Each Rating Scale Category: District A Effectiveness Rating Scale Categories Superior] Excellent Good] Fair ] Poor ]Unacceotable 9 19 16 6 1 O Table 8 total Job Effectiveness Scores For Each Rating Scale Category: District B Effectiveness Rating Scale Categories Superior l Excellent [Good] Fair Poor [Unacceptable 22 38 23 7 2 0 Table 9 Total Job Effectiveness Scores For Each Rating Scale Category: District C Effectiveness Rating Scale Categories ‘7—7 1,.— Sunerior[ Excellent lGood I Fair ] Poor]¥Unacceptable 4 - 65—89310 1 163 Table 10 Total Job Satisfaction Scores For Each Rating Scale Category: District A Satisfaction Rating Scale Categories Very Satis- Fairly Fairly Dissat- Very Satis- fied Satis- Dissat- isifed Dissat— fied fied isfied isfied 9 10 5 l O 0 Table 11 Total Job Satisfaction Scores For Each Rating Scale Category: District 5 Satisfaction Rating Scale Categories ”‘ “7”? Very Satis- Fairly Fairly Dissat- Very Sntis- fied Satis- Dissatp isfied Dissat- fied fied isfied isfied 27 14 6 1 O 0 Table 12 Total Job Satisfaction Scores For Each Rating Scale Category: District C Satisfaction Rating Scale Categories Very Satis- Fairly Fairly Dissat- Very Satis- fied Satis- Dissat- isfied Dissat- fied fied isfied isfied 12 10 5 1 O O 16A 8 has the highest average rating of satisfaction followed by District C and then District A. District B also has the highest average effectiveness rating followed by District A and then District C. The 50 item task list can be divided into five major task categories of ten items apiece. In numerical order, items one to ten are clerical, 11 to 20 are housekeeping, 21 to 30 are technological, 31 to 40 are‘ supervisory, and Al to 50 are instructional. Aides were asked to check those tasks which they had performed while working as a classroom teacher aide during the current school year. For each district, the task cate— gories have been ranked from most to least performed. In addition, the ten to 12 most and least performed tasks have been ranked for each district. Using a 100 per cent figure, which indicates a possible maximum score of all aides checking all tasks, the aides in District A received a percentage score of 51 per cent. Supervisory was the most frequently checked category, followed in order by clerical, instructional, housekeeping, and technological. The following is a list of the ten most frequently checked items. The list is from the most to the least checked item. 32. Supervise During Recess 3. Correct Workbooks 36. Monitor Class For Short Time Period 40. Discipline Student On Playground 8. Prepare Stencils 47. Help Check Seatwork 3A. A2. AA. 38. 165 Help Maintain Classroom Order Help a Student With Assignment Listen to a Student Read Explain School Rules to a Student The following is a list of the 12 least frequently checked items, beginning with the least checked item. 28. 5. 50. 25. 26. 23. 35. 39. 143. A6. A8. “9. Teach Students Use of Teaching Machines Fill Out Requisitions Conduct Small Group Drill Help Students Learn Use of Equipment Arrange For Use of Equipment Operate 16 MM Projector Help Monitor During Field Trip Monitor Students During Assembly Assist With a Science Demonstration Plan Homework Assignment Prepare Test Questions Write Assignment on Board Aides in District B had an overall items checked score of 68 per cent. Categories in the order of the most frequently checked were as follows: supervisory, clerical, instructional, housekeeping, and technological. The following is a list of the 11 most frequently checked items: 32. A2. 3A. 36. A0. A7. 3. 8. 10. 9. A1. Supervise During Recess Help a Student With Assignment Help Maintain Classroom Order Monitor Class for Short Time Period Discipline Student on Playground Help Check Seatwork Correct Workbooks Prepare Stencils Put Away Supplies Type Materials Read Stories to Students The ten least checked items are as follows: 13. A8. 28. A6. Regulate Thermostat Prepare Test Questions Teach Student Use of Teaching Machines Plan Homework Assignments 5. 22. A3. 21. 25. 23. 166 Fill Out Requisitions Make Overhead Transparencies Assist With a Science Demonstration Operate Tape Recorder Help Students Learn Use of Equipment Operate 16 MM Projector Aides in District C had an overall items checked score of 51 per cent. Categories in the order of the most frequently checked were as follows: supervisory, clerical, housekeeping, instructional, and technological. The following is a list of the ten most frequently checked items: Distribute Supplies to Students Clean Off Table Tops Supervise During Recess Help Maintain Classroom Order Escort Student to Nurse Monitor Class for Short Time Period Help a Student With Assignment Help Check Seatwork Read Stories to Students Listen To a Student Read The 11 least checked items are as follows: 28. 23. 21. 13. 22. A8. 25. 2A. 26. 30. “3. For performed, Teach students Use of Teaching Machines Operate 16 MM Projector Operate Tape Recorder Regulate Thermostat Make Overhead Transparencies Prepare Test Questions Help Students Learn Use of Equipment' Set Up AV Equipment Arrange For Use of Equipment Move AV Equipment to Classroom Assist With a Science Demonstration tasks most frequently checked as having been items 32, 36, A7, 3A and A2 are found in the lists of all three samples. Items 3, 8, A0, AA and A1 are found on two of the lists. Only five items were Table 167 13 Totals of Tasks Checked as nave Performed By Aides: District A Task Subdivisions Task Have Task Have Task Have Task Have Task Have ‘“ Item Per- Item Per- Item Per- Item Per- Item Per~ formed formed formed formed formed 1 7 ll 9 21 7 31 11 41 9 2 13 12 13 22 7 32 22 42 18 3 21 13 6 23 S 33 14 43 5 4 15 14 14 24 8 34 19 44 18 5 3 15 8 25 4 35 5 45 7 6 12 16 6 26 4 36 21 46 S 7 13 17 14 27 9 37 7 47 20 8 20 18 7 23 2 38 17 4s 5 9 12 19 ll 29 6 39 5 49 5 10 15 20 8 3O 9 40 21 50 3 A 96 61 142 105 Totall13l Totals of Tasks By Aides: 168 Table 14 Checked as Have Performed District B Task Subdivisions Task Have Task Have Task Have Task Have ‘fiTask Have Item Per- Item Per- Item Per- Item Per- Item Per- formed formed formed formed formed 1 36 11 32 21 12 31 34 41 43 2 31 12 36 22 10 32 50 42 47 3 44 13 3 23 13 33 29 43 ll 4 42 14 41 24 24 34‘ 46 44 41 5 8 15 18 25 12 35 33 45 29 6 21 16 27 26 26 36 46 46 7 7 31 17 31 27 4O 37 33 47 45 8 44 18 27 28 6 38 ‘37 48 s 9 43 19 30 29 19 39 27 49 18 10 44 20 34 30 27 40 46 SO 40 Total 344 279 185 381 285!— O-C- .uc- -. “on“; By Aides: .169 Table 15 Totals of Tasks Checked as Have Performed District C .chnnq Task Subdivisions -—‘_ w Task Have Task Have Task Have Task Have Task Have Item Per- Item Per- Item Per- Item Per- Item Per- formed formed formed formed formed 1 28 11 25 21 3 31 25 '21 29 2 20 12 31 22 4 32 31 42 30 3 22 13 4 23 2 33 30 43 10 4 31 14 23 24 9 34 31 44 29 5 8 15 12 25 8 35 28 45 11 6 13 16 21 26 9 36 3O 46 13 7 13 17 15 27 23 37 27 47 30 U 28 18 22 28 l 38 26 48 4 9 11 19 24 29 13 39 25 49 13 10 28 20 13 30 10 4O 25 50 20 - 7 190 82 h278 189 TotallZOZ 170 included in only one sample list. Items 23, 25, 28, A3 and A8 are on all three sample lists of items least often checked. Those items found on two lists include five, 13, 21, 22, 26 and A6. Only four of the items appear on only one of the samples listed. The order of categories most often checked are almost identical for all three districts. The only exception is the reverse order of categories instructional and housekeeping for District C. The com- parison of items and task categories for the three sam- ples indicates very similar task performance for all three districts. 1 The frequency distribution for the three districts, of responses by aides, teachers and principals to the 50 task items, are reproduced in Tables l6, l7 and 18. In the case of District C, the principals were omitted because of an insufficient number to make an adequate sized sample. Direction and consensus are the two criti- cal dimensions of the response patterns. The level of consensus for the purpose of this dissertation is deter- mined by computing the standard deviation score for each task item. The lower the score, the higher the consensus. Standard deviation scores were computed on each task item for aides, teachers and principals. Very high consensus was established at the .00 to .30 range. High consensus was considered at the .31 to .50 range, and moderately high from .51 to .70. The amount of direction is based 171 upon the mean score for each task. From 3.00 to 5.00 is in the direction of expecting that the task should be performed and from 3.00 to 1.00 that the task should not be performed. The closer the mean score is to 5.00 or 1.00, the more mandatory the expectation. For the pur- pose of this dissertation, mean scores of A.OO or greater and 2.00 or less are termed mandatory expectations. From 3.51 to 3.91 and from 2.01 to 2.A9 are termed preferential expectations. Scores between 2.50 and 3.50 are not con- sidered as defining a clear expectation in either direc- tion. For each district, standard deviation scores are reported on which the aides, teachers and principals agree in terms of being within the same range. Next, scores are reported on which the three groups agree in terms of being in similar but not identical ranges. The same procedure is followed for mean scores. Then task items are listed on which either two or three of the groups have both similar mean and standard deviation scores; in other words, task items on which there is agreement on both direction and consensus. Beginning with District A, similar standard devia- tion scores for aides, teachers and principals are first listed. Teachers and principals agree at the very high consensus level on item 9, Type Materials. The follow- ing agreements occurred at the high consensus range. The task is first listed and then followed by a letter 172 designating whether the agreement included aides, teachers or principals. The letters A, T and P are used as the designations. 1A. Supervise Student Clean Up (A,P) 27. Operate Record Player (A,T) A8. Prepare Test Questions (A,T) 35. Help Monitor During Field Trips (T,P) Moderately high consensus was indicated on the fol- lowing listed task items: 7. Maintain Records (A,P) 28. Teach Students Use of Teaching Machine (A,P) 10. Put Away Supplies (T,P) A9. Write Assignment on Board (T,P) 50. Conduct Small Group Drill (T,P) 25. Help Students Learn Use of Equipment (A,T) 29. Prepare Room For Special Equipment Use (A,T) Scores which were on similar ranges but not the same range are listed by only the task numerical desig- nation. For aides, teachers, and principals, the follow— ing items were all in one of the three possible ranges: 3, A, 9, 25, 28 and 29. Those for aides and principals are as follows: 8, 17, 22, 37, A0 and A1. Items 25, 29, AA, A6, A9 and 50 were similar for teachers and principals. Item 21 was similar for teachers and principals. The next group of figures is for similar mean scores recorded by District A respondents. For the A.OO or greater mandatory range, the following items were recorded: 9. Type Materials (T,P) 32. Supervise During Recess (T,P) A0. Discipline Student on Playground (A,P) The 3.51 to 3.91 preferential range included these items: 173 8. Prepare Stencils (A,T) 53. Escort Student to Nurse (A,T) 35. Help Monitor During Field Trip (A,T) 36. Monitor Class for Short Period of Time (A,T) 10. Put Away Supplies (A,T.P) AA. Listen to Student Read (A,T,P) The 2.01 to 2.A9 range included item 13 Regulate Ther— mostat (A,T,P). At the 00. to 2.00 range, the following items were recorded: A5. Substitute in Teacher's Absence (T,P) A6. Plan Homework Assignment (A,T,P) A8. Prepare Test Questions (A,T,P) For aides, teachers and principals, task item 9 was not on the same range, but in the direction of Should Perform for all three groups. Items 8 and A1 were in the Should Perform direction for aides and principals. Combining mean and standard deviation scores, the following items had similar responses: A0. Discipline Student on Playground (A,P) 35. Help Monitor During Field Trip (T,P) Al. Read Stories to Students (A,P) AA. Listen to Student Read (T,P) A6. Plan Homework Assignments (T,P) 8. Prepare Stencils (A,P) 9. Type Materials (A,T,P) 10. Put Away Supplies (A,T,P) For District B, there were no items at the very high consensus range on which two or more of the groups agreed. The following agreements occurred at.the high consensus range: 1. Take Roll A. Distribute Supplies to Students (T,P) 22. Make Overhead Transparencies (T,P) 23. Operate 16 MM Projector (T,P) 32. Supervise During Recess (T,P) A3. Assist With a Science Demonstration (T,P) 17A Table 16. Distribution, Mean, and Standard Deviation Scores For Task Items: District A Task Aides I Responses* Mean Standard Item Teachers - - - - Scores Deviation Principals—[AMJPSIAMNJPSNJAMN I 1 A l 3 22 3.19 .25 T l 11 34 9 5 2.90 .72 P 2 ' 3 l 3.17 .46 2 A l 2 19 3 3.04 .36 T 5 19 23 3 4 3.33 .99 P 1 4 1 3.00 .33 3 A 2 11 12 l 3.54 .47 T 5 19 26 4 1 3.42 .66 P 3 3 3.50 .25 4 A 1 9 l4 2 3.35 .43 T 2 22 28 3 1 3.37 .55 P 4 2 3.67 .20 5 A 1 4 17 3 l 3.04 .57 T 4 14 17 17 7 2.85 1.23 P 1 4 1 2.17 .80 6 A 5 12 6 l 2.87 .63 T 5 14 23 9 8 2.98 1.29 P 1 1 3 1 3.33 .92 7 A 7 12 5 2 3.00 .64 T 3 ll 17 15 12 2.62 1.32 P 1 S 2.33 .58 8 A 5 13 8 3.88 .52 T 14 29 14 2 3.90 .76 P 2 3 l 4.17 .45 9 A 7 12 8 3.96 .58 T 19 25 15 1 4.07 .29 P 2 4 4.33 .26 10 A 3 14 7 2 3.69 .62 T 7 22 28 2 3.58 .53 P 1 2 3 3.66 .61 11 A 1 9 l4 2 3.35 .43 T 6 10 32 10 l 3.17 .79 P 1 2 3 3.66 .61 175 Table 16 (continued) Task Aides [ Responses* I Mean Standard Item Teachers ‘ - - * Scores Deviation Principals [AMIPSIMMNI PSN] MIN 1 12 f A t 3' 9 8 3 3 - 3.23 i 1.34 T 13 9 30 6 3 3.38 1.14 P 1 4 1 3.83 .84 13 A 1 3 8 8 7 2.37 .91 T 1 2 17 18 19 2.09 .91 P 1 1 3 l 2.33 .90 14 A 1 7 17 1 3.31 .36 T 7 11 33 5 3 3.29 .75 P 2 3 1 3.17 .46 15 A 2 6 13 4 l 3.15 .85 T 3 5 33 8 8 2.77 .96 P l 2 2 1 3.50 .92 16 A l 7 l3 2 3 3.04 .95 T 3 8 35 4 6 2.95 .85 P 3 2 1 3.33 .59 17 A 2 5 18 l 3.31 .45 T 2 2 31 18 6 2.59 .74 P 4 1 1 2.50 .58 18 A l 3 10 7 4 2.60 1.04 T 3 6 32 9 7 2.81 .91 P 1 1 3 1 3.17 1.40 19 A 1 7 11 6 1 3.03 .86 r 5 10 27 10 8 2.90 1.19 P 2 4 3.33 .25 20 A 2 10 11 2 1 3.38 .81 T 6 19 24 7 1 3.38 .84 P 2 3 1 3.17 .13 21 A 7 16 2 3.20 .96 T 2 9 43 5 1 3.10 .56 P 1 5 3.17 .13 22 A 4 2 l7 1 3.37 .69 T 9 15 27 6 2 3.39 .95 P 5 1 2.83 .16 176 Table 16 (continued) Task Aides Responses* Mean Standard Item Teachers , - - , Scores Deviation IAMIPSIMMNIPSNIAMN] Principals 23 ‘ A 2 3 l8 1 3.25 .46 T 7 17 24 5 2 3.40 .89 P 1 1 2 2 3.17 1.13 24 A 1 4 17 1 3.28 .94 T 7 20 29 2 2 3.47 .73 P 1 1 3 1 3.33 .92 25 A 7 11 4 1 3.04 .67 T 3 23 22 11 2 3.28 .69 P .4 2 2.66 .26 26 A 1 5 14 4 3.26 .11 T 6 19 29 4 1 3.42 .72 P 2 1 2 1 3.67 1.20 27 A 3. 6 .15 3.50 .50 T 4 9 39 6 3.19 .49 P 2 4 4.33 .26 28 A 2 10 8 2 2.54 .64 T 2 5 27 16 4 2.77 .20 P 1 2 l l 2.60 .64 29 A 1 8 12 1 1 3.30 .67 T 3 11 39 6 1 3.15 .53 P 2 4 3.33 .25 30 A 2 6 13 2 3.35 .56 1' 4 21 33 1 3.47 .45 P 1 3 1 1 3.67 .87 31 A 5 13 7 3.92 .48 T 2 18 28 7 1 3.23 .62 P 1 3 1 3.80 .96 32 A G 12 6 2 3.84 .70 T 25 24 9 1 1 4.18 .78 P 2 3 1 4.00 1.00 33 A 7 9 11 3.85 .63 T 12 18 26 1 3.70 .78 P 1 3 1 1 3.33 1.92 177 Table 16 (continued) Task Aides A Responses* _ Mean _ Stanaard Item Teachers Scores Deviation Principals—[AMIPS MMZIPSNIAMN] . 34 ' 9 3.69 V .93 T 5 4 16 18 16 2.39 1.42 P 1 3 2 2.83 .49 35 A 4 9 11 2 3.57 .76 T 13 20 23 4 3.70 .44 P 1 4 1 3.00 .33 36 A 6 7 13 3.73 .66 T 10 18 28 4 1 3.52 .84 P 1 2 2 1 3.33 1.59 37 A 2 12 9 2 3.56 .68 T . 5 11 34 9 2 3.13 .78 P 6 3.00 .00 38 A 6 7 8 4 3.60 1.04 T 2 7 29 14 9 2.65 » .98 P 2 4 2.33 .24 39 A 1 10 10 3 1 3.28 .76 T 5 14 33 5 2 3.25 .76 P 1 5 3.17 .13 40 A 13 8 5 f 4.31 .58 T 15 21 19 1 3 3.74 1.08 P 2 4 4.33 .26 41 A 7 9 9 1 3.92 .64 T 4 16 37 2 2 3.29 .64 P 1 4 1 4.00 .33 42 A 1 8 14 3 3.27 .50 T 6 13 35 4 2 3.28 -77 P = 3 3 3.50 .25 43 A 1 4 16 3 2 2.96 .74 T 2 13 34 6 4 3.05 .73 P 2 4 3.33 .25" 44 A 5 l4 6 l 3.85 .72 T 12 20 26 3.75 .66 P 4 2 3.66 .28 178 Table 16 (continued) Task Aides Responses* Mean Standard Item Teachers 1 - , 7 Scores Deviation Principals AMIPSIMMNJPSNIAHN 4s A 1‘ 4 9‘ s 7 2.50 1.32 T 2 2 7 11 38 1.65 1.06 P 3 3 1.50 .25 ‘46 A 2 6 6 12 1.92 ,1.00 T 1 1 12 45 1.25 .59 P 6 1.00 .00 47 A 7 10 7 2 3.85 .79 T 11 15 28 3 3 3.47 .99 P 1 l 3 1 3.33 .92 48 A 2 4 7 13 1.81 .91 T 1 11 47 1.25 .40 P 6 1.00 .00 49 A 2 13 7 4 2.50 .71 T 3 3 28 13 2.91 .62 P 3 2 1 2.33 .58 50 A 10 15 l 3.31 .43 T 8 19 31 2 3.55 .58 P 2 2 2 4.00 .67 *Responses designated as: AM = Absolutely Must P8 = Preferably Should MMN = May or May Not PSN a Preferably Should Not AMN = Absolutely Must Not 179 Moderately high consensus was indicated on the following listed items: 35. Help Monitor During Field Trip (A,P) U9. Write Assignment on Board (A,P) 3. Correct Workbooks (A,T) 8. Prepare Stencils (A,T) 24. Set Up AV Equipment (A,T) 27. Operate Record Player (A,T) “1. Read Stories to Students (A,T) “2. Help a Student With Assignment (A,T) MU. Listen To a Student Read (A,T) 50. Conduct Small Group Drill (A,T) 2. Collect Money (T,P) 36. Monitor Class for Short Period of Time (T,P) 48. Prepare Test Questions (T,P) 33. Escort Student to Nurse (A,T,P) For the three groups, the following items were all in one of the three possible consensus ranges: l, 3, u, 8, 2H, 27, 35, 41, AU and 50. Those for aides and prin- cipals were items 2 and 43. Item 7 had a similar response from teachers and principals. The next group of figures are for similar mean scores recorded by District B respondents. For the 4.00 or greater mandatory range, the following items were recorded: “0. Discipline Student on Playground (A,T) 8. Prepare Stencils (A,T,P) 9. Type Materials (A,T,P) 10. Put Away Supplies (A,T,P) 32. Supervise During Recess (A,T,P) The 3.51 to 3.91 preferential range included these items: 2. Collect Money (A,P) 16. Clean Paint Brushes (A,P) 21. Operate Tape Recorder (A,P) 29. Prepare Room For Special Equipment Use (A,P) 31. Help Students With Wraps (A,P) 11. Arrange Room For Activities (A,T) 33. Escort Student to Nurse (A,T) u. 35. 36. H2. 12. 1a. 24. 26. 27. 3o. 37. 41. “7. 50. 180 Distribute Supplies to Students Help Monitor During Field Trip Monitor Class for Short Time Period Help a Student With Assignment Clean Off Table Tops Supervise Student Clean Up Set Up AV Equipment Arrange For Use of Equipment Operate Record Player Move AV Equipment to Classroom Escort Class to Next Activity Read Stories to Students Help Check Seatwork Conduct Small Group Drill (T,P) (T,P) (T,P) (T,P) (A,T,P) (A,T,P) (A,T,P) (A,T,P) (A,T,P) (A,T,P) (A,T,P) (A,T,P) (A,T,P) (A,T,P) There were no items of agreement in the 2.01 to 2.49 range. Item “6 Plan Homework Assignments (A,T,P) and item 48 Prepare Test Questions (A,T,P) were in the .00 to 2.00 mandatory range. The following items were not on the same but similar ranges in the direction of Should groups Perform: were agreed upon these items. u, 11, 35, 36, no, 42 and an. All three Combining mean and standard deviation scores, the following items had similar responses: 2. 21. 29. u. 8. 2H. 50: Collect Money Operate Tape Recorder Prepare Room for Special Equipment Use Distribute Supplies to Students Prepare Stencils Set Up AV Equipment Operate Record Player Escort Student to Nurse Help Monitor During Field Trip Escort Class to Next Activity Read Stories to Students Help A Student With Assignments Listen To a Student Read Conduct Small Group Drill (A,P) (A,P) (A,P) (A,T,P) (A,T,P) (A,T,P) (A,T,P) (A,T,P) (A,T,P) (A,T,P) (A,T,P) (A,T,P) (A,T,P) (A,T,P) For District C, there were no items at the very high consensus range on which the two groups agreed. The 181 Table 17 Distribution, Mean, and Standard Deviation Scores For Task Items: District B Task Aides Responses* Mean Standard Item Teachers - — a - Scores Deviation Principals IAMIPSIMMNIPSNIAMN I . 1 A 7 7 17' 27‘ _ 7 3.65 7 .21 T 7 23 66 1 3.37 .40 P l 2 10 3.31 .36 2 A 6 21 21 2 3.58 .84 T 8 34 52 5 12 3.40 .66 P 2 5 6 3.69 .53 3 A 10 17 23 l 3.70 .62 T 8 31 54 3 2 3.41 .58 P 2 10 3.17 .13 4 A 5 24 12 1 4.00 .69 T 5 52 36 3 3.61 .44 P 1 7 5 3.69 .39 5 A 3 7 25 9 6 2.84 1.02 T 4 21 36 27 12 2.78 1.08 P 2 6 3 2 2.61 .88 6 A 5 13 28 5 1 3.31 .69 T 8 28 45 13 7 3.16 1.02 P 1 5 4 2 l 3.23 1.11 7 A 7 10 29 4 2 3.31 .85 T 4 28 36 21 9 3.13 .15 P 1 3 8 1 3.31 .50 8 A 19 22 13 4.11 .59 T 32 49 19 1 4.11 .52 P 4 7 2 4.15 ' .47 9 A 18 22 10 1 1 4.04 .89 T 28 56 16 2 1 4.05 .58 P 4 8 1 4.23 .34 10 A 18 19 14 1 4.02 .78 T 33 47 22 1 4.09 .55 P 5 5 3 4.15 .63 11 A 12 18 22 3.80 .73 T 18 34 45 5 3.64 .67 P 5 3 5 4.00 .77 182 Table 17 (continued) Task Aides Responses* Mean Standard Item Teachers Scores Deviation Principals<[M1PSJMMNJPSNIAMNl 12 i A 9 14 23 3. 52 .93 T 21 32 33 13 2 3. 56 1.05 P 3 4 5 l 3.69 .54 13 A 4 5 16 12 13 2.50 1.45 T 7 47 21 20 2.43 .82 P 2 6 2 3 2.54 1.01 14 A 10 22 18 2 3.77 .64 T 15 35 47 3 2 3.57 .71 P 3 4 6 3.76 .72 15 A 7 13 28 2 3 3.24 1.30 T 13 19 49 12 5 3.23 1.02 P 2 3 6 1 3.23 1.57 16 A 11 16 22 2 l 3.65.87 T 15 29 42 12 4 3.38 1.02 P 3 5 5 3.84.64 17 A 7 10 32 2 1 3.38 .83 T 8 14 67 10 3 3.14 .63 P 1 2 10 3.31 .36 18 A 10 ll 19 9 2 3.35 1.23 T 9 21 46 16 9 3.05 1.08 P 2 3 7 1 3.46 .72 19 A 7 18 20 5 3 3.40 1.01 T 13 24 51 11 4 3.30 .91 P 2 5 5 1 3.61 .74 20 A 8 26 14 2 l 3.74 .74 T 14 38 41 8 1 3.55 .73 P 2 S 6 3.69 .54 21 A 4 21 25 1 3.53 .48 T 3 30 64 4 l 3.29 .43 P 1 7 5 3.69 .38 22 A 6 13 28 3 2 3.35 .78 T 8 36 54 2 1 3.45 .44 P 1 6 6 3.61 .43 183 Table 17 (continued) Task Aides Responses* [ Mean Standard Item Teachers Scores Deviation Principalsl AMI PS] MMN] PSNI AMN] 23 _ A 5 16 27 2 3.41 .73 T 8 39 48 7 1 3.47 .43 P 1 5 7 3.54 .39 24 A 9 19 19 4 1 3.60 .67 T 9 47 44 3 3.57 .67 P 1 8 4 3.76 .41 25 A 7 9 26 6 3 3.21 .48 T 6 24 49 19 5 3.07 .83 P 3 10 3.23 .18 26 A 12 15 19 S 1 3.61 1.05 T 14 32 51 4 1 3.53 .62 P l 7 5 3.69 .38 27 A 13 21 18 3.90 .62 T 13 31 55 2 1 3.52 .60 P l 7 5 3.69 .38 28 A 5 6 27 9 4 2.98 1.00 T 6 25 41 19 7 2.97 1.40 P 3 9 1 3.15 .31 29 A 11 16 21 4 3.65 .83 T 11 34 49 4 2 3.48 .67 P 2 6 5 3.76 .56 30 A 12 15 19 3 3 3.58 1.15 T 16 44 34 2 1 3.74 .65 P 2 7 4 3.84 .49 31 A 16 21 12 3 1 3.90.96 T 19 34 31 6 9 3.48 1. 33 P 2 8 2 1 3.84 .64 32 A 29 12 8 3 4.29 .85 T 53 41 9 4.43 .40 P 8 4 1 4.54 .39 33 A 11 22 17 2 3.81 .63 T 15 39 43 2 1 3.65 .63 P 2 2 9 3.46 .57 18“ Table 17 (continued) V. Task Aides Item Teachers Principals Responses* Mean Standard ~ , - Scores Deviation [1111]sz M19341... l 34 35 36 37 38 39 4O 41 42 43 44 Wit-33‘ ’06:” '01-33’ 'UI-BZ’D' W38? '08? '06:” '08» RID-33‘ '08? we» 15 16 1 20 27 3 20 19 4 9 15 16 3 23 41 5 16 46 3 19 40 5 9 26 3 11 19 44 2 18 l 1 1 9 3.79 3.17 3.31 4.19 3.92 3.84 4.06 3.84 3.70 3.55 3.69 3.53 3.20 3.38 3.48 3.24 3.38 4.25 4.03 3.61 3.78 3.60 3.67 4.02 3.72 3.61 3.27 3.46 3.76 4.27 3.88 3.83 .93 .96 .51 .60 .18 .64 .73 .62 .70 .64 .55 .54 1.04 .71 .41 .69 .84 .73 .77 .74 1.05 .64 .56 .41 .60 .66 1.35 .62 .49 .40 .59 .61 .34 185 Table 17 (continued) Task Aides [ Responses*. I Mean Standard Item Teachers _ _ - _ Scores Deviation Principals [AMTPflMMNIPSMIAMN I 45 A f 3‘ 9' 12' 10' 14 2 2.52 1.59 T 2 7 14 29 51 1.83 1.08 P 1 4 6 2 2.38 1.03 46 A 1 13 13 23 1.79 .72 T 3 14 33 52 1.69 .64 P 1 3 3 6 1.92 1.01 47 A 16 18 15 l l 3.92 .87 T 17 44 40 3.77 .53 P l 7 5 3.69 .38 48 A 4 5 16 28 1.72 .83 T 12 32 55 1.56 .51 P 3 3 7 1.69 .68 49 A 2 9 32 6 2 3.06 .60 T 3 14 62 15 8 2.89 .78 P 1 4 7 1 3.38 .58 50 A 14 22 14 1 3.96 .63 T 20 47 30 1 3.87 .56 P 1 7 5 3.69 .38 *Responses designated as: AM = Absolutely Must P3 = Preferably Should MMN PSN AMN May or May Not Preferably Should Not Absolutely Must Not 186 following agreements occurred at the high consensus range: 1”. 17. 20. 21. 35. Supervise Student Cleanup Open Windows for Ventilation Maintain Supply Closet Operate Tape Recorder Help Monitor During Field Trip Moderately high consensus was indicated on the following listed items: 11. 31. 33. 36. A2. 119. 50. Arrange Room for Activities Help Students With Wraps Escort Student to Nurse Monitor Class For Short Time Period Help A Student With Assignment Write Assignment on Board Conduct Small Group Drill The following items were all in one of the three possible consensus ranges: 8, 10, 12, 15, l6, 19, 21, 27, 32 and 3H. The next group of figures is for similar mean scores recorded by District C respondents. For the H.00 or greater mandatory range, the following items were recorded: The 3. 32. 33. 3A. 35. 36. A2. AU. Supervise During Recess Escort Student to Nurse Help Maintain Classroom Order Help Monitor During Field Trip Monitor Class for Short Time Period Help a Student With Assignment Listen to a Student Read 51 to 3.91 preferential range included these items: A. 10. 11. 14. 19. 27. 37. HO. U1. 113. 147. Distribute Supplies to Students Put Away Supplies Arrange Room for Activities Supervise Student Clean Up Straighten Room After Dismissal Operate Record Player Escort Class to Next Activity Discipline Student on Playground Read Stories to Students Assist With a Science Demonstration Help Check Seat Work 187 Items N5 Substitute in Teacher's Absence, “6 Plan Home— work Assignments, and A8 Prepare Test Questions were in the 2.01 to 2.A9 preferential level. No items fell into the 00. to 2.00 range. Items 31 and 39 were not on the same but similar ranges in the direction of Should Per- form. Combining mean and standard deviation scores, the following items had similar responses: 10. Put Away Supplies 11. Arrange Room for Activities 1“. Supervise Student Clean Up 19. Straighten Room After Dismissal 27. Operate Record Player 32. Supervise During Recess 33. Escort Student to Nurse 3A. Help Maintain Classroom Order 35. Help Monitor During Field Trip 36. Monitor Class for Short Time Period 42. Help a Student With Assignment Comparing all three districts, there was no or almost no agreement among the groups on consensus at the very high level. On the high consensus range, District A had four common agreements, seven for District B and five for District C. At the moderately high range, Districts A and C had seven common agreements and District B had 18. On similar but not the same consensus category, Dis— trict A had 19 agreements followed by District B with 13 and District C with ten. In terms of total item agree- ments, District B had 25 agreements, District A, 2A and District C, 22. 188 . Table 18 Distribution, Mean, and Standard Deviation Scores For Task Items: District C Task Aides Res onses* Mean Standard Item Teachers AM PS MMN PSN AMN Scores Deviation 1 A 4 6 19 l 3.48 .54 T 1 12 11 3.85 .36 2 A 1 4 20 4 1 3.00 .53 T 1 10 11 1 3.48 .41 3 A 2 8 19 1 3.26 .76 T 10 13 l 3.37 .35 4 A 4 15 9 3.82 .44 T 4 15 5 3.96 .36 S A 3 4 11 7 5 2.77 1.36 T 2 3 7 10 1 2.78 1.06 6 A 4 10 12 2 1 3.48 .89 T 3 8 6 3 4 3.12 1.64 7 A 1 5 l4 3 6 2.72 1.19 T 1 5 9 6 3 2.79 1.09 8 A 2 12 13 1 1 3.45 .65 T 2 ll 11 3.62 .44 9 A 8 15 2 3 3.00 .78 T 3 7 14 3.54 .51 10 I 5 14 10 1 3.77 .56 T 3 15 6 3.87 .40 11 A 4 10 16 3.60 .51 T 3 10 10 1 3.62 .61 12 A 5 13 11 3.79 .54 T 2 9 12 1 3.50 .50 13 A 1 4 8 7 9 2.34 1.36 T 1 2 13 3 2 2.86 .78 14 A 2 16 10 3.71 .38 T 2 11 10 ~ 3.65 .42 189 Table 18 (continued) [ Me an Task Aides ,Responses* Standard Item Teachers [AM] PSIMMNIPSNIAMN I Scores Deviation 15 A 12 16 2 3.33 .38 T 1 7 14 1 3.25 .16 16 A 2 12 16 3.53 .41 T l 10 11 l 3.37 .67 17 A 2 11 14 1 3.50 .45 T 2 8 14 3.50 .42 18 A 3 11 16 3.57 .43 T l 9 11 1 3.25 .86 19 A 4 12 14 3.67 .46 ‘P 2 13 8 3.62 .69 20 A 12 15 1 3.39 .33 T 1 9 13 1 3.42 .39 21 A 1 9 17 3 3.27 .44 T 1 6 16 3.35 .30 22 A 1 9 14 4 3.17 .99 T 1 8 14 3.43 .37 23 A 1 8 14 6 3.07 .71 T 10 14 3.42 1.23 24 A 1 9 10 5 3.15 .85 T 12 12 1 3.44 .21 25 A 2 11 9 6 3.24 .95 T 2 11 5 4 3.50 .79 26 A 2 11 10 3 3.25 1.19 T 2 9 ll 2 3.46 .57 27 A 2 17 10 1 3.67 .40 T 4 10 9 3.78 .55 28 A 1 7 13 5 3.00 .86 T l 8 10 2 3.38 .53 29 A 3 12 10 3 3.53 .72 T 1 7 15 1 3.33 .42 190 Table 18 (continued) Task Aides Res onses* Mean Standard Item Teachers AM PS MMN PSN AMN Scores Deviation 30 A 3* a) a 6 2 3.15 1.23 T 2 9 1o 1 3.54 .56 31 A 10 13 6 4.14 .52 T 6 1o 9 3.88 .59 32 A 12 1o 8 4.13 .68 T 11 1o 3 4.33 .so 33 A 10 10 9 4.03 .69 T 6 1o 6 4.08 . .61 34 A 13 s 4 4.47 .49 T 9 9 6 4.09 .58 35 A 19 a 3 4.53 .48 T 14 9 1 4.54 .35 36 A 14 12 4 4.33 .51 T 11 a 5 4.25 .61 37 A 7 a 14 1 3.70 .74 T 7 7 9 1 3.83 .84 38 A 6 a 11 2 3 3.40 1.37 T 6 7 s 3 3.67 .96 39 A 10 9 1o 1 3.93 .83 T 8 9 7 4.04 .64 40 A 11 a a 1 3.96 1.43 T 9 a 5 3 3.75 1.61 41 A 6 14 9 1 3.83 . .64 T 7 7 9 3.91 .72 42 A 12 1o 7 4.17 .64 T 11 e 5 4.25 .61 43 A 7 9 13 1 3.73 .76 T 4 1o 10 3.75 .52 44 A 10 12' 7 1 4.03 .73 T 10 8 6 4.17 .62 191 Table 18 (continued) Task Aides (I ,Responses*_ I Mean Standard Item Teachers [AMIPSIMMNJPSNIAMN l Scores Deviation 45 A 1 4 6 4 10 2.28 1.57 T 2 1 6 4 11 2.12 1.63 46 A 1 3 9 8 6 2.44 1.16 T 1 7 11 5 2.17 .63 47 A 7 12 10 1 3.83 .71 T 7 7 9 3.91 .72 48 A 1 11 9 8 2.17 .78 T 2 1 4 7 10 2.08 1.50 49 A 2 8 15 4 3.27 .65 T 1 7 12 4 3.21 .57 50 A 2 12 13 2 3.48 .54 T 9 9 6 4.12 .65 *Responses designated as: AM a Absolutely Must PS = Preferably Should MMN PSN AMN May or May Not Preferably Should Not Absolutely Must Not 192 A comparison of mean or directional agreement scores shows District A with six items in the mandatory range and nine in the preferential range. In addition, three agreements are in similar ranges, for a total of 16 agreements of direction which are similar or the same. District 8 has seven mandatory agreements, 23 preferen- tial and ten which are in similar ranges for a total of 32 items of agreement. District C has seven mandatory, 14 preferential and two similar agreements for a total of 23. The clear trend in all three districts is for directional agreements to be toward the Should Perform expectation. Items 8, 10, 27, 32, 33, U1, U2 and UN had common mean and standard deviation scores in at least two of the districts, and item 35 was similar in all three districts. Comments By Aides The questionnaire given aides concluded with an open—ended question which asked them to list any task(s) they had frequently performed which was not included in the 50 task item checklist. The question also included a statement to the effect that they could also use the space for any comment which they wished to make about the teacher aide program in their district. The follow— ing information is a paraphrasing of the tasks and com— ments made by aides in the three districts sampled. 193 Approximately “0 per cent of the aides gave some kind of response. District A Number of Tasks and Comments Responses Playground supervision Supervise room Noon and recess duty Supervise cafeteria Office duty Answer phone Apply first aid Weigh and measure children Run office machine Maintenance repairs Filing Prepare bulletin boards Check achievement tests Help with Frostig program Help with art lesson Prepare make-up work Prepare for parent conferences Help slower students with work Assist in library A statement of general satisfaction with program Difficulty in working with more than two teachers If aides did not have recess duty, they would better perform their other tasks Performs only clerical duties Teacher aides should assist with academic l—‘|-’ WWHNHHHHHWHwammi—‘HLWHLQ subjects l Better use could be made of aide: explain work with slow learners 2 Teacher should be primary determiner of aide's Job 1 Seniority in the job should be rewarded 1 Should be Job differentiation and commensurate Day 1 Pleased with the work hours 1 Should be benefits other than just salary 1 There was no predominant pattern or theme in the responses. Additional tasks listed were generally com— mensurate with those in the checklist. The larger number 19” of additional tasks listed indicates a wide range of duties performed by the aides. The comments considered collec— tively did reveal an awareness of the need for considera— tion of job descriptions and commensurate rewards and benefits. District B Number of Tasks and Comments Responses Help with indoor recess Maintain supply room Maintain AV equipment Assist during library time Pin notes on children Filing Correct tests Prepare bulletin boards 1 Maintain room calendar Answer phone and make calls Prepare instructional material Score IQ tests Correct spelling papers Listen to children read Help with arithmetic Assist with art lessons Assist with physical education Develop listening skills Help with penmanship Aides should have the opportunity to evaluate teachers Effort should be made to give aide the feeling of being appreciated The aide's job should be determined primarily by what help the individual teacher needs A statement of general enjoyment of job Aides should work with no more than two teachers Aides should act as substitute to provide con- tinuity A certificated person should be with aides on playground duty There is a need for a more scheduled work plan Teachers should learn how to better use aides The line of authority is not clear The factor of time most determines what tasks are performed [\JF-‘wxl-E'wwl—‘OOWl—‘NHmi—JHHHH HNI—H—J l--' mooox r—I H H 195 There should be a contract between the aide and teacher 1 Some questions did not fit the special education situation 2 The additional tasks listed were marked by the presence of many items which fell into the category of instructional support. Also, preparing bulletin boards seems to be a frequently performed item. Many aides were satisfied with their job. Several felt the teacher should determine the aide's job assignment. District C Number of Tasks and Comments Responses Prepare bulletin boards Make coffee Assist with safety patrol Apply first aid Run dittoes Teach physical education Assist with language development Assist with reading Aides should be given more pay Teachers should treat aide as co-worker The number of aides should be increased Aides should be used in areas where they are most qualified 1 Would like to spend more time directly involved in teaching activities 1 The aide experience has been a motivation to return for more schooling and certification 1 Aide should be able to discipline and reward children Hl—‘Ull—JUJF-‘l—‘NF—‘EON Preparing bulletin boards is a frequently listed item. The felt need for more pay is the most often men— tioned comment. Other than these two observations, there was no dominant theme or pattern to the responses. 196 For all three districts, the responses indicate the wide diversity of tasks performed by aides. When considered in total, there are few items which are per— formed exclusively by the certificated teacher. Aides frequently express the feeling that the teacher should be the primary determiner of what tasks the aide per— forms. Aides as a group demonstrate a concern for task designations, their personal status, adequate compen— sation, and a feeling of enjoyment with their job. Means Used For Achieving Compliance This section of the chapter is devoted to three descriptive statements of the means used by the admin- istration of the three districts to achieve a measure of job definition and compliance with that definition by the classroom aides. The material was secured by completing an interview schedule with the central office administrator most directly responsible for the aide program in each district. Questions related to the areas of job description and supervision, recruitment and selection, training, rewards and incentives, and evalua- tion. An example of the interview schedule can be found in the appendix. The descriptive material might provide some clues for similarities and differences detected in the response patterns from the districts surveyed. 197 District A At the time of the survey, the administration of school district A had developed only to a minimum the various available means for achieving role compliance in the teacher aide program. The amount of available de- scriptive data about the aides is limited to names, sex, marital status, whether or not the aide previously worked for the district, and school work preference. The job description and related information about the aide program is contained on a single dittoed page found in the principal's handbook. Three to five task items are listed under the major headings of Working With Children, Working With Teachers, and General. The tasks range from clerical to instructional. The list is pre- sented as several possible items which might be performed. The majority of aides work a four hour day. The princi— pals are the most directly responsible, in a supervisory sense, for the aides in their buildings. Each principal is given considerable latitude in how the aides are used in his building. An administrative assistant at the cen— tral office devotes a very minor portion of his time to the program on a district—wide basis. There is no list of qualifications for hiring aides. The individual job to be performed is the primary determinate of whatever criteria are established. Potential employees are often asked if they can type and if they have had experience 198 with children, The available positions are advertised by Word of mouth. The selection procedure is by appli- cation, after which an administrative assistant in the central office screens the candidates. The final selec— tion is made by the building principal. Some principals involve the teacher in the selection process. The formal training provided to date has been through the intermediate district. This included the areas of health care and reading instruction. All aides were not included in the reading instruction. There is a two to three hour teacher aide orientation program at the beginning of the year. The rest of the training is provided at the building level and primarily on an infor- mal basis by the teacher to whom the aide is assigned. Classroom aides are encouraged to attend Junior College classes. There is no contractual agreement. A letter of intent to employ is sent to newly hired aides. The hourly rate is $2.00 with a range of $2.05 to $3.00 for aides who work more than six hours per day. There is no salary schedule or career ladder. The over six hour employees receive some sick leave and show up pay. There is no formal evaluation form or procedure. The arrangement is on an informal basis. The principal is directly involved when the performance of the aide is considered unsatisfactory. 199 There is a growing awareness among administrators, teachers, and aides that the aide program needs to be given more explicit management consideration. A repre— sentative committee of aides and administrators is cur- rently meeting in order to discuss job descriptions, wage schedules, and training programs. District B The administration of District B has taken all of the various means for achieving compliance into consid— eration and has made management provisions in each case. The coordinator of the program has done several district- wide evaluations to secure information in an attempt to provide more effective program administration. A compre— hensive handbook has been prepared which gives a back- ground about the use of aides as well as a complete de- scription of the local district effort. Rather detailed descriptive information about the aides has been gathered. Much of this data can be found under Sample Description in Chapter III of this dissertation. A general descriptive job statement as well as a comprehensive task list exists for the aides. There are some A9 tasks grouped into eight major categories such as clerical, instructional assistance, and audio-visual. The specific selection of tasks to be performed is left to the classroom teacher. The half—time aides work for three hours per day and full-time aides work for six hours per 200 day. There is a direct line authority relationship from the teacher to the principal and from the principal to the coordinator of the aide program. Criteria have been established for initial employ— ment screening of aides by the central personnel office. The criteria include concern for children, education level, basic skills, and experience in working with children. Aides were recruited by word of mouth and advertising. The selection process includes an initial interview and screening by the personnel office, further screening by the program coordinator, and referral to buildings for final selection. The teacher is encouraged to participate in the final interview and decision to employ. The potential employee is asked for a building preference, which is honored if possible. The training program includes a one day orientation program and 27 hours of inservice training meetings. The training consists of eight subject areas such as cleri- cal functions, first aid and art projects. The orienta- tion has an explicit agenda. Some aides enroll in the district's continuing education school. Individual teach— ers also provide informal training. In addition to dis- trict training, the local Junior College offers a 21 semester hour teacher aide course of study. Aides are not contracted, but are given a letter of appointment which includes pay rate, school assignment, 201 atul ycxir (if n[wwoirnunolfl,. /\ sul:Lry {HZHCthle llas [Haerl develOped which is based on level of education and years of employment. The rate varies from a minimum of $1.82 per hour to $2.88 per hour. In addition to the salary, aides receive life and health insurance, sick leave, and vacation pay. A career ladder exists in the sense that three levels of teacher aide are provided, plus the fact that aides are encouraged to complete a college degree program. Evaluations for new aides are done after three months and six months of the first year and once a year thereafter. A formal instrument is used which is placed in the aide's personnel folder. The aide is informed of her evaluation by the teacher and/or the principal in a personal conference. The district has begun a three part study of the aide program. The initial part was a survey of princi— pals, teachers, and aides relative to the effectiveness and value of the program. The second aspect concerns an attempt to measure possible achievement improvement in students. The final phase is related to effectiveness and teacher aide educational improvement. District C District C has undertaken one of the largest aide programs in the state of Michigan. The district's admin- istration of the program is partially handicapped by the 202 fact that the coordinator also has responsibility for the pre—school and Head Start programs. Despite this limita- tion, attention has been given a majority of the adminis- trative considerations and those currently without pro— vision are now being studied. At the time of the survey, explicit job descrip— tions did not exist. Aides are used in a wide variety of jobs ranging from playground supervision to assisting in the teaching situation. Some schools have delineated the tasks to be performed. A district committee is now draw- ing up job descriptions for the various categories of aides. There is a direct line of authority from teacher to principal and then to the coordinator. Recruitment and selection is done through the office of the assistant director of personnel for non-teaching employees. There is no formal publicity, but rather recruitment is done by word of mouth. Principals were asked for recommendations the first year of the program. Applicants are asked to fill out a three page application form. Also, confidential letters of inquiry are sent previous employers for the purpose of rating the applicant. The applicants are interviewed by the assistant personnel director or his designee and recommended for placement. The applicant is asked for a school preference which is honored if possible. In some instances, building princi- pals have submitted lists of persons they would like con- sidered for hiring. 203 A one week preservice training program is provided at the beginning of the school year. Aides hired during the year miss the preservice program. Some special in— service programs have been conducted on special subjects, particularly in language arts instruction. The rest of the training is left to the individual building staff. Special training is provided in schools funded by Middle Cities monies. There is no formal contract. The applicant is sent a notice of intent to employ. The terms of employment are now being studied by a district committee. A five step salary schedule is used for determination of pay rates. The range is from $12.88 per day to $15.59 per day. In addition to the regular salary, the aides have a life insurance policy, sick and bereavement leave, and hospitalization coverage. There is a provision for a formal evaluation. A district evaluation form is used. The principal or his designee does the rating. The aides are apprised of the evaluation in a conference and asked to sign the evalua- tion form which is placed in their personnel file. The district did an evaluation of the aide program during the 1967—1968 school year. The findings generally revealed more time spent by teachers in some professional tasks and less in some nonprofessional tasks; the feeling that the program should be expanded; the need for improved 20” job description; training programs and selection—placement policies; and generally high career satisfaction and mor- ale for teachers with aides. The district administration is currently attempting to improve those areas indicated as needing improvement by the survey. In summary, the general history of the programs in the three districts was to hire aides and then provide administrative considerations. The administration of District A implemented considerations in all areas much sooner than did the other two districts. The amount and rate of administrative consideration seems to be related to the assignment of a coordinator who is made directly responsible for the aide program. In turn, the provi- sion for a coordinator is related to whether the aide program is viewed as simply a minor adjunct to the dis— trict or a significant and integral part of the system. All three district staffs are now aware or are becoming aware that the program must be given serious considera- tion. All three districts leave a great many of the decisions about the training provided for aides up to the individual building staff. There is also considerable variation in the use of aides within buildings. Districts B and C have specific criteria for hiring. District A does not. Recruitment and selection is mainly by word of mouth in all three districts. In each case, there are more applicants than vacancies. Training is 205 mainly provided by the teacher to whom the aide is assigned. District C does make considerable training available in several heavily funded Middle Cities schools. District B has the most comprehensive and well worked out district-wide training program. Districts B and C have salary schedules with different levels of compen- sation, plus fringe benefits. District A has essentially a flat rate of pay with no extra benefits. Districts B and C have formal evaluation procedures and instruments. District A has only an informal evaluation procedure. All three district staffs are now evaluating the aide programs by either a committee study or research studies. Generally speaking, Districts B and C have much more sophisticated provisions for their aide programs than does District A. District B has the most explicitly defined program and the only full-time coordinator. Summary Three basic hypotheses were proposed and studied for this dissertation. Data were collected from three separate school districts. The hypotheses related to agreement between teachers and aides on the task expec- tations for aides and the relationship between the level of agreement and job satisfaction, job effectiveness and actual tasks performed. The first hypothesis which posit- ted a relationship between task agreement and satisfaction for the aide was not supported. The second hypothesis 206 positive a relationship between agreement and effective— ness for the aide and was also not supported. The third hypothesis stated that there was a relationship between the direction of task agreement and whether the task was actually performed. The third hypothesis was supported. The various patterns of response were analyzed. The average effectiveness ratings varied from just above a rating of Good to just below Excellent. The total range of responses was from Unacceptable to Superior. Satisfaction ratings tended to run higher than effective- ness and the average among the three districts was more similar. The average was from Satisfied to almost mid— way between Satisfied and Very Satisfied. The responses ranged from Fairly Dissatisfied to Very Satisfied. For tasks actually performed, the three districts showed very similar responses. The tasks can be divided into five major categories. The general ranking of cate- gories from most to least performed was: supervisory, clerical, instructional, housekeeping, and technological. An analysis of response patterns to the task items was done for the characteristics of consensus and direc— tion of the expectation. Consensus and direction were compared among the aides, teachers, and principals within each district. One of the districts had 25 items from moderately high to very high consensus agreement between two or more of the three groups. The second district had 207 similar results for 24 items. The third district had agreement on 22 of the 50 items with high to very high consensus. Definite agreement on direction occurred for 32 items of one district, 23 for the second, and 16 for the third. The predominate direction when indicated was toward the expectation of Should Perform. General comments by aides revealed between eight and 19 tasks performed which were not on the item list. Additional comments revealed no clear patterns except that the teacher should be the primary determiner of the aide's job tasks, and a feeling that aides should be paid more salary. An interview was conducted with a central office administrator in each district who was most directly responsible for the aide program. The inter— view revealed all three districts recognized that specific administrative consideration needed to be given the aide program. The fact of whether this was actually done varied considerably. The extent of administrative pro- vision seemed related to whether the district had a full- time coordinator. If a coordinator exists, then the amount of administrative consideration is greater. CHAPTER V SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS The fifth and final chapter is divided into a sum— mary of the dissertation, conclusions for the study, a discussion of the findings, and implications for future research. Summary The advent of the teacher aide over the last few years has resulted in one of the most rapidly expanding and significant phenomenon in the field of education. There are currently estimated to be over 200,000 aides with up to one and a half million expected by the mid- dle 1970's. The forces behind and rationale for this new position have come about just recently. Its emer- gence is related to such factors as increased educational technology, the trend toward greater specialization, more available federal monies, and an ever growing stu— dent population. The increasing use of aides has resulted in the need for a critical re—examination of the structure and role definitions typically found in American school systems. The use of aides can only be fully appreciated when 208 209 interrelated with other parallel changes such as differ— entiated staffing and modular scheduling. To date, few investigations have been conducted on the subject of teacher aides. Some of the studies which are significant include the Bay City Experiment in Michi— gan, the Bank Street College of Education study of aides for the Office of Economic Opportunity, and the Teacher Aide Program of the District of Columbia Public Schools System. The need now exists for relating the new position of teacher aide to a number of crucial variables. This need is what prompted the subject of this dissertation. Role theory was selected as the basis for devising an approach and formulating the hypotheses for this study. Role theory provided a tool which is cross disciplinary in nature as well as having utility for understanding human interaction. In addition to drawing upon the liter— ature of role theory, the subjects of complex organiza- tions and teacher aides were also reviewed. Role theory dates from the late nineteenth century and has continued to evolve into a set of rather complex concepts. These concepts have proved particularly useful as an analytic base for the study and explanation of organizational behavior. The basic logic of the theory is something like that which follows. Expectations which make up the roles within the formal organizational setting have a definite influence upon the individual position 210 incumbent's behavior. An evaluative standard is devel— oped which can be used to judge and predict the employee's actions. This is important because it directly affects the efficient realization of the system‘s goals. With this in mind, management can make a specific attempt to define and socialize employees to the different organ- izational roles. Explicit means have been developed for delineating role definitions and achieving acceptable levels of com- pliance with those definitions. The various means for compliance can be categorized into the areas of task definition, recruitment and training, rewards and incen- tives, and monitoring and evaluation. Management prac- tices have been developed within each of these categories to achieve greater role compliance. Role theory has applicability to organization in general, and to the organization of the school in particu— lar. As a consequence, it becomes feasible to use role theory as a means for studying the position of teacher aide. The specific purpose of this study was to examine the degree of role consensus between the teacher and aide in the classroom setting, and to determine if that con— sensus was related to tasks actually performed by the aide, rated effectiveness of the aide, and rated job sat- isfaction by the aide. The results of this investigation 211 could have direct implication for recruitment, selection, training, reward and evaluation of the classroom aides. The scope and limitations of the study were designed around five basic dimensions of role theory. The level of cognition was maintained at the first order. These are cognitions held by the observer about real world events, and in this case, tasks performed by the aide. The object of discussion is the classroom teacher aide. The characteristic is behavioral in nature. The context is the elementary school classroom setting. Three Michigan districts were selected for the study. Two of the districts are located in industrial cities and the third is centered in a smaller rural com— munity. It was decided to keep the data from the three districts separate and then to make comparisons where appropriate. The three samples included all the aides and teachers working with aides in the schools surveyed. All the elementary schools were included from the rural school system and one of the city systems. Three inner city elementary schools were selected from the other urban district. For the purpose of accepting or rejecting the hypotheses, the aides and teachers were matched into teacher-aide pairs. The data collected from the remain- ing aides and teachers was included in the study of response patterns. Principals were also surveyed with the exception of the three school sample. 212 A survey approach was decided upon as the best method for collecting data. The rationale for selecting the survey approach was based upon its expeditiousness as a means for measuring role definitions in a uniform manner as held by several reference groups. In addition, it was efficient and provided a method for relating vari- ables in a natural setting. A saturated sampling procedure was used. Satur— ated sampling is characterized by the fact that all par- ties to be studied in the social system are included. This makes it possible to characterize explicitly the social structure of the respondents. For the purpose of this dissertation, the organizational setting and its relationship to role definition were important consider- ations. Two instruments were developed to collect the data. A questionnaire was used to measure task expectations, the level of job satisfaction, the level of aide rated effectiveness, and the tasks the aides actually performed. A 50 item task checklist with five intensity responses was the means for measuring expectations. Two six point rating scales were constructed to measure satisfaction and effectiveness. A checklist was also provided for indicating tasks performed. An interview schedule was the instrument for collecting data to describe the vari— ous administrative considerations undertaken by the three 213 districts with respect to their teacher aide programs. The central office administrator most directly responsi- ble for the aide program in each district was interviewed. After the questionnaire and interview schedules were con— structed, they were reviewed by five different educators and then field tested. Some of the instructions were modified and several task items changed. Three hypotheses were proposed and studied. Agree- ments on task definitions between teachers and aides were related to satisfaction, effectiveness and tasks performed. Three operational agreements were defined for the hypothe— ses relating to satisfaction and effectiveness. Four operational definitions were used in the third hypothesis. Satisfaction and effectiveness were measured on separate six point rating scales. Tasks performed were measured by a checklist. Simple correlations at the five per cent level of confidence served as the statistical test for the first two hypotheses. Simple percentage scores were used for the third hypothesis. Twenty-seven pairs were surveyed in the first dis— trict and 21 or 77.7 per cent of the pairs completed and returned the questionnaires. Sixty pairs were included in the second district and A5 or 75 per cent were re- turned. In the third district, 26 pairs were surveyed and there were 2“ or 92.3 per cent returned. The three hypotheses are first stated and then followed by a statement of acceptance or rejection. 2114 Hypothesis 1: An aide whose task expectations are in agreement with the task expectations held for her by the teacher will express higher job satisfaction than an aide who is not in agreement with the teacher. There was not a sufficient level of support in any of the three samples for establishing a significant rela- tionship between any of the three measures of agreement and rated satisfaction. On the basis of the evidence, the hypothesis was rejected. Hypothesis 2: An aide whose task expectations are in agreement with the task expectations held for her by the teacher will be rated as more effective than an aide who is not in agreement. There was not a sufficient level of support in any of the three samples for establishing a significant rela- tionship between any of the three measures of agreement and rated effectiveness. On the basis of the evidence, the hypothesis was rejected. Hypothesis 3: In a significant percentage of cases, a task will or will not be performed in accordance with the agreement between the task expectation held by the aide and the task expectation held for her by the teacher. There was a sufficient level of support in all three samples on all four measures of agreement to establish a significant relationship. On the basis of the evidence, the hypothesis was accepted. For the purpose of analyzing the patterns of response for the aides, teachers, and principals, the total returns from the samples surveyed were included. There were 70 r4 H v“ teachers with 62 returns or 88.5 per cent, and 27 aides with 100 per cent returns from one of the urban districts. One hundred and fifteen teachers with 101 returns or 87.8 per cent and 61 aides with 53 returns or 86.8 per cent were received from the rural district. From the other urban district, there were 26 teachers surveyed with 2M returns or 92.3 per cent and 31 aides with a 100 per cent return. A six point scale was used to rate effectiveness. The six categories included Superior, Excellent, Good, Fair, Poor, and Unacceptable. The average rating in the three districts for effectiveness of aides varied from just above a rating of Good to just below Excellent. The total responses ranged from Unacceptable to Superior. A six point scale was also used to rate satisfac— tion. The categories included Very Satisfied, Satisfied, Fairly Satisfied, Fairly Dissatisfied, Dissatisfied and Very Dissatisfied. The average ratings for the three samples varied from slightly above Satisfied to Very Sat— isfied. The responses ranged from Fairly Dissatisfied to Very Satisfied. In terms of categories of tasks performed, the three samples showed very similar results. The general ranking of task categories from most to least performed was in the order of supervisory, clerical, instructional, house— keeping, and technological. 210 Response patterns to the task items from the aides, teachers and principals were analyzed for consensus and direction. Standard deviation scores of from .00 to .70 were considered as indicating from moderately high to high consensus. Two of the districts had moderately high to high consensus scores among two or three of the groups surveyed for approximately half of the 50 task items. The third district achieved similar results on 22 of the 50 items. Using a five point scale, direction toward Should Perform the task was assigned a mean score range of from 2.51 to 5.00 and Should Not Perform from .00 to 2.A9. Definite agreement on direction among the three groups occurred for a majority of items in one distriCt and for under 50 per cent in the other two districts. When dir- ection was indicated, it was predominately toward Should Perform. General written comments by aides in response to. one open—ended question at the end of the questionnaire revealed for each district a performance of between eight to 19 additional task items not included in the 50 item task list. Other comments indicated a general feeling of satisfaction with the aide program, the importance of the teacher in determining task assignments, and a feel- ing that aides are underpaid. 217 An interview was conducted with the administrator in each district who was most directly responsible for the aide program. The importance of administrative con— siderations for the program was recognized in all three districts. The fact of whether or not this recognition was put into effect varied from almost not at all to a very complete set of administrative provisions. The extent of administration provided the program seemed directly related to whether the district had a full— time program coordinator. The presence of a coordinator resulted in greater administrative provisions. Conclusions The conclusions are based on the analysis of the data relative to the hypotheses, the various patterns of response, and material gathered from using an interview schedule. The terms used in the conclusions are meant to be defined as they have been used and operationalized in this dissertation. l. Congruency between the teacher and aide on task expectations for the position of aide was not related to rated job satisfaction by the aide. 2. Congruency between the teacher and aide on tasks expectations for the position of aide was not related to rated effectiveness of the aide by the teacher. 3. Congruency between the teacher and aide on direction of task expectations for the position of aide was related to whether or not the task was actually performed. \J'l 10. 218 At this point in time, there does not appear to be a generally held definition of task expectations for the position of teacher aide. There simply has not been enough time for a tradition or an accepted job definition to become established. There does appear to be some evidence that a definition of the role is emerging. It seems that the role will include a wide range of tasks. Effectiveness and satisfaction are not neces— sarily related variables when they are associ- ated with a particular position incumbent. The individual may be quite satisfied and receive a low effectiveness rating. The re- verse is also true. The average effectiveness and satisfaction ratings for aides as a group within the sys- tems sampled were all in the upper half of the rating scales. Overall ratings of effectiveness and satis- factions for the total group of aides within any one system may be directly affected by the administrative measures undertaken to manage the aide program. The administrative considerations given an aide program seem to be related to whether or not the district has a full-time adminis- trator directly responsible for the program. There was from moderately high to very high consensus on the majority of task items for the aides, teachers, and principals as groups. When all three groups are considered, approxi- mately half of the items were agreed upon in some combination between at least two of the three groups. The agreement on direction was very similar. In none of the three districts was a majority of items agreed upon for either direction or consensus by all three groups. Aides are currently performing a wide range of tasks. When the tasks are grouped into categories and ranked from most to least per- formed, they fall into essentially the same order for all districts sampled. From the most performed, the categories are supervisory, clerical, instructional, housekeeping, and technological. 219 Implications for Future Research Because this dissertation represented one of the initial attempts to apply role theory to the position of teacher aide, a number of suggestions for future research studies are very apparent. Several of these are listed below. 0.) This dissertation measured first order cogni— tions of task expectations. It may well be that second order cognitions are more crucial. Research might be conducted to determine if the aide accurately understands what the teacher expects, and then relating this find- ing to effectiveness and satisfaction. Expectations can be measured in terms of char- acteristics and processes as well as task per- formance. It might be well to measure role congruence using several expectational dimen- sions. Task definitions were defined rather broadly in this dissertation. A more accurate mea— surement of role expectations could be achieved by confining the study to fewer grade levels and using more detailed and specific task definitions. More accurate assessments of satisfaction and effectiveness could probably be obtained by using scales to rate different aspects or seg— ments of role performance and then calculating a composite score to arrive at a general rating. The factor of time would appear to be particu- larly important in defining the role of the aide, because of the present trial and error state of development. A study could well be done to measure the effect of time on the de- velopment of definite task expectations. After a period of sufficient time, it might then be possible to demonstrate more clearly the rela— tionship between role congruenCe and other fac— tors such as satisfaction. 220 6. Another possible study could pursue the effect of role definition among the incumbents of the same position as opposed to the effect between counter positions. 7. In this dissertation, several organizational variables were defined and described, but not in operationally measurable terms. Organiza- tional variables could be more precisely defined in order to measure and to ascertain their effect upon role definition and compli— ance with that definition by the role incum— bent. With further trial and error in the use of aides, and additional research, a more precise and useful body of knowledge should result. Discussion The discussion is divided into two essential parts. The first part deals primarily with the relationship of the study to role theory. The second part is more ori— ented toward some general observations about teacher aide programs. The two areas of discussion should be viewed as mutually interrelated. Two rather fundamental premises underlie role theory. The first is that human behavior is influenced to a degree by the expectations of others. The second premise is that a person's position in a social system establishes many of the social relationships in which he is involved and the expectations placed upon him. The two premises lead to the position that human behavior is in part a product of the position held and the expectations associ- ated with that position. The results of this dissertation 221 support this contention, but also help to demonstrate that the degree of consensus about the expectations for a position vary considerably. There is also evidence to suspect that the conditions under which consensus exists have an effect upon the relationship between consensus and other variables. Role theory has become a cluster of related and often complex concepts. The problem of operationally defining these concepts and putting them to the empir- ical test is a difficult undertaking. When a new posi— tion is studied, the problem is further complicated. This dissertation represents an initial attempt to apply some of the tenets of role theory to the position of classroom teacher aide. In order to develop a sizeable amount of information about the role of the teacher aide, it will be necessary to conduct many additional studies, develop more sophisticated measuring instruments, and specify more precisely the conditions under which the data is collected. Two important conditions which affect role defini- tion are the process of socialization and who primarily does the defining. The difficulty in studying the teacher aide position is related to the lack of a speci- fic role definition. The process seems to be one of trial and error to establish a workable definition of the role. Despite the difficulty, there is some 222 indication that administrative considerations related to role definition, recruitment, selection, training, reward and evaluation have a positive effect upon the factors of task expectations, effectiveness and satisfaction. The problem at this point is to isolate which considerations have the most effect and what represents the best balance of considerations. The relationship between agreement on tasks, satis— faction and effectiveness is probably dependent upon the relationship that exists between teacher and aide, who primarily determines the role, the number of positions with whom the role incumbent interacts, and the amount of time spent interacting. When the expectations for the teacher aide become more definitive, the criteria for evaluation and satis- faction should also become more explicit. The result will provide a means for more accurate assessments. The evidence seems to support the contention that a more uni- form definition of the teacher aide role is emerging. Finally, to support the argument that role definition results in greater realization of organizational goals, there is a need to measure the educational product and relate this to role consensus. This dissertation did demonstrate that role con- sensus affects behavior. It also demonstrated the need to more explicitly define the conditions under which the 223 consensus exists in order to establish its relationship with effectiveness and satisfaction. The following discussion is a series of observa— tions related directly to teacher aide programs. The key to the use of aides is the teacher. Her imagination and concept of teaching limit or facilitate the development of the teacher aide role. The qualities of an ability to conceptualize, a willingness to experi— ment, the skill of organizing and administering the ser- vices of others, and a large measure of self-assurance all would appear desirable for a teacher working with an aide. These could well be some of the qualities which are needed to successfully teach with or without an aide. The crucial importance of the teacher to the aide seems supported by the repeated comment to that effect by teacher aides. The teacher is seen by the aide as a vital source of recognition and personal image building. Aide programs are still a relatively new develop- ment. The lack of role definitions is partly a result of this newness. This may be the healthiest state of affairs. A premature and overly explicit set of defini- tions could jeopardize the imaginative development and full impact of teacher aide programs. The best approach Inay be to leave task assignment almost exclusively at the operational level. As common definitions begin to emerge, ‘these could be placed into a range of job descriptions. 22A The appropriate socialization and rewards should follow the particular description. The primary consideration is not to overly define and structure the program at this point. To administratively ignore the program is also a mistake. Teacher aides are beginning to be aware of their status. They recognize that a wide range of tasks are being performed in many cases without commensurate organ— izational considerations. In some instances, teacher aides are performing almost the same job as many teachers. In other cases, their work is very routine and unchal— lenging. This situation results in aides demanding greater job differentiation and recognition, particularly salary wise, for different levels of work. The initia— tive for improving teacher aide programs could very well come from the aides. Unless program improvements result from a mutual consideration by aides, teachers, and I administrators, a considerable amount of mistrust and excessive regulation could result. There might be room for caution in overly institutionalizing the roles of all teacher aides. The employee who has not been overly socialized to the system often brings a vital and fresh impetus for change. She many also provide a means of communication and identification with the school for the community which the aide represents. Greater job definition for aides will have the effect of also changing the role of the teacher. This does not mean a simple redivision of tasks currently performed, but the creation of several new tasks. The teacher will become more involved with training, selec— tion, evaluation, and general communications within the system. The ultimate result could be felt throughout the entire staff structure. One of the common develop- ments of greater professional specialization has been the centralization of major strategy and policy decisions with a commensurate increase in discretionary decisions at the operative level. There is some indication that administrators are frequently not aware of the development and impact of aide programs. This may be even within their own dis— tricts. The programs are fast becoming an integral part of the total system. They can no longer be added or dropped at a moment's notice. Programs must be planned for and monitored regularly. The job of the administra— tor is not to simply react, but to foresee possible con- sequences and plan accordingly. The fact that aides are primarily elementary school employees and women may make elementary teaching an even more feminine endeavor. This has implications both for the student and the relationship between elementary and secondary education. 226 In the matter of training, the junior college could well begin to fill a need for preparing aides who perform many higher level tasks. The junior college is convenient to and should be in tune with the local situation. In addition, the teacher training institutions will undoubt- edly need to better prepare teachers to use aides. A final observation would be that the growth of teacher aide programs again demonstrates the impact of federal expenditures for specific purposes. The expen- diture of relatively small sums of money from the fed- eral level can have a significant impact. This method of financing has become an important strategy for effect— ing change. LIST OF REFERENCES 227 LIST OF REFERENCES Books Argyris, Chris. Personality and Organization: The Con- flict Between System and the Individual. New York: Harper and Row, 1957. Biddle, Bruce J. 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Unpublished Works Bazeli, Frank Paul. "An In-Depth Evaluation of the School Service Assistants Project in Two Inner-City Junior High Schools." Unpublished Doctor's dissertation, Wayne State University, 1967. Beall, Harold Addison. "Administrative Succession: A Study of Role Acquisition and Maintenance." Unpub- lished Doctor's dissertation, University of Oregon, 1962. Brown, Iva Dirckins. "Role Perceptions of Secondary Teachers as Related to the Pupils' Perceptions of Teacher Behavioral Characteristics." Unpublished Doctor's dissertation, University of Georgia, 1965. Cowan, Alton W. "The Building Director: A Critical Study of Expectations Held for the Position of Principals, Adult Education Co-ordinators, Teachers, and Building Directors." Unpublished Doctor's dissertation, Michigan State University, 1960. 23“ Craig, Lloyd Gene. "A Study of Factors Relating to Achieve- ment of Congruency of Perception of the Role of the Elementary School Principal." Unpublished Doctor's dissertation, University of Washington, 1967. Crim, Adena Joy D. "System and Role Conflict Inherent in the 'New Careers' Concept." Unpublished Doctor's dissertation, University of California, 1968. DeHelms, Raymond David. "A Study of the Degree of Auth- ority of the K-12 Curriculum Director as Perceived by Specific Role Groups in Selected Districts." Unpublished Doctor's dissertation, University of Kansas, 1968. Farrell, James Allen. "An Analysis of the Elementary School Counselor Position: The Role Expectations of Counselors, Principals and Teachers." Unpublished Doctor's dissertation, University of Rochester, 1968. Haynes, Solon Earl. "A Study of Teacher Aide Employment for the School Year 1966-1967 in Selected School Districts of Missouri Under Title I, Public Law 89- 10." Unpublished Doctor's dissertation, University of Kansas, 1968. Klein, Alice Enid. "Educational Attitudes, Level and Amount of Teaching Experience, and Three Dimensions of Teachers' Subjective Role Expectations." Unpub— lizged Doctor's dissertation, New York University, 19 . Martin, Mary Ethel Williams. "Role Expectations and Teacher Effectiveness of the College Teacher of Education." Unpublished Doctor's dissertation, University of Tennessee, 1967. Moody, Ferman Bernard. "Teacher Aide: A Description and Analysis of a New Staff Position in Selected Pennsyl- vania Public Schools." Unpublished Doctor's disserta- tion, Pennsylvania State University, 1967. Moon, Arden. "An Analysis of Teacher Tasks to Enable Identification of the Potential Use of Auxiliary Per- sonnel in the Instructional Process." Unpublished Dogtor's dissertation, Michigan State University, 19 9. Nye, John Robert. "Role Performance in Situations of Conflicting Role Definitions." Unpublished Doctor's dissertation, Iowa State University, 1968. 235 Rankin, Marguerite Ruth Shirer. "Teacher Influence and Related Factors in a Teacher Aide Program." Unpub- lished Doctor's dissertation, University of Maryland, 1968. Schmitthausler, Carl Marvin. "Analysis of Programs Using Non Professional Teacher Helpers in Public Elementary School Classrooms." Unpublished Doctor's dissertation, University of California, 1966. Shadgett, John Newman. "An Analysis of Certain Teacher Aide Functions in Selected Elementary Schools in Florida." Unpublished Doctor's dissertation, Florida State University, 1967. Silner, Miriam Rost. "Characteristics and Functions of Teacher Aides in Classes for Trainable Mentally Re- tarded Children." Unpublished Doctor's dissertation, University of Pittsburgh, 1965. Snyder, Clinton A. "Variations in Expectations for the Teacher Role: As Related to General and Specific Roles, Expectation Categories, and Social Distance." Unpublished Doctor's dissertation, Michigan State University, 1963. Tomich, Edward. "Teacher Cognitions and Behavioral Con- formity." Unpublished Doctor's dissertation, University of Missouri, 1963. Valachovic, Robert John. "The Role and Function of School Psychologists: Perceptions of Selected Professional Groups." Unpublished Doctor's dissertation, State University of New York at Albany, 1968. Willis, Lynn Magdovitz. "A Study of Relationships Between Organizational Goals and Role Consensus." Unpub- lished Doctor's dissertation, Emory University, 1967. Pamphlets Auxiliary School Personnel. Washington, D. C.: NCTEPS, National Education Association, 1967. The Classroom Teacher Speaks on His Supportive Staff. Washington, D. C.: Department of Classroom Teachers, National Education Association, 1967. Emmerling, Frank C. and Kamawha Z. Chavis. The Tegcher Aide. Raleigh: State Department of Public Instruc- tion, 1966. 236 Glovinsky, Arnold. The Paraprofessional Study of Wayne County Intermediate School District. Detroit: Wayne County Intermediate School District, 1967. Hornburger, June M. So You Have An Aide. Wilmington, Delaware: Wilmington Public Schools, 1967. NEA Research Bulletin. Washington, D. C.: Research Division of the National Education Association, March, 1970. The Teacher Aide Program. Washington, D. 0.: Model School Division of the Public Schools of the District of Columbia, Conducted by the Washington School of Psychiatry, 1967. Teacher Aides at Work. Washington, D. C.: NCTEPS, National Education Association, 1967. Other Sources An Annotated Bibliography on Auxiliary Personnel in Educa- tion. Prepared by Bank Street College of Education for U. 8. Office of Education, 1969. Davies, Don. Measuring Educational Proggess, Proceedings of the Conference on the Use and Role of Teacher Aides. Albuquerque: June, 1969. APPENDICES 237 February 16, 1970 TO: Elementary Building Principal FROM: Zeno B. Katterle, Jr. , RE: A Study in Role Analysis of Teacher Aides The enclosed questionnaires and related materials are part of a research project to study the teacher aide program in the St. Johns Elementary Schools. The pro- ject is sponsored in cooperation with the district administrative staff and specifically in conjunction with Mr. Steve Bakita. The results of the study will contribute to a better understanding of aide programs in general and specifically to the evaluation of the St. Johns program. The research is designed to measure relationships between‘ role expectations for aides and important organizational and personal variables. Administrators, teachers utiliz- ing aides, and aides are asked to complete the enclosed questionnaires. A high level of returns is needed to make the study a success because the data is used to describe the district program as it relates to the total group of participants. The various respondents are assured anonymity. Their responses will in no way be used by the district to mea- sure performance for individual evaluation. The questionnaires with the necessary instructions are enclosed in an envelope for each person being surveyed. It is essential that each person complete the question- naire individually and not in cooperation with anyone else. All of the material is coded in order to identify the category of the respondent who completed the ques- tionnaire. Once the questionnaire is completed, it should be returned to the school secretary. Question- naires are to be distributed the week of February 16, 1970, and should be turned into the secretary no later than February 20. Will the secretary please forward the completed questionnaires to Mr. Steve Bakita, District Central Office? The results will be tabulated and re- turned to the district by March, 1970. Zeno B. Katterle, Jr. Graduate Assistant Michigan State University 238 239 Jackson, Michigan February 2, 1970 To Although there are many demands on your time, will you take approximately 15 to 20 minutes for a task which may have significance for the improvement of teacher aide programs? As a practitioner working either with or as an aide, you realize the importance of teacher aide programs and their future development. The use of aides by schools is rapidly increasing. The writer is conducting "A Study in Role Analysis of Teacher Aides," designed to measure the expectations for aides in relation to im- portant organizational and personal variables. This study is sponsored in cooperation With the district coordinator of the teacher aide program. The results should provide valuable information for admin- istering aide programs in general. It should also prove valuable for this specific district. Please complete the enclosed questionnaire and re- turn it to your building secretary by the end of the week. The secretary will in turn mail it to the district central office. An envelope is included for enclosing the completed questionnaire. Your returned questionnaire will be treated anony- mously. A summary of the research findings will be made available to your school district early in March of this year. Zeno B. Katterle, Jr. Graduate Assistant Michigan State University This research study should provide valuable informa- tion about the Jackson teacher aide program. I urge your cooperation in completing the questionnaire. Mr. Clarence Lacny Teacher Aide Coordinator 2“0 February. 1970 To: Teachers. Teacher Aides. and Principals Involved In A Study of Role Expectations of Teachers and Teacher Aides FROM: Zeno B. Katterle, Jr. The basis of the study involves a questionnaire about the tasks teachers and teacher aides feel the aide should perform. Statements are based on several_studies of what aides actually have done in the classroom. The procedures follow: (1) The investigator will contact the principal and deliver the questionnaires t th a designated time for their use. Teachers and teacher a des will be involved in bom- pleting the questionnaire. (2) A.t1me element of approximately 10-20 minutes is needed to complete the questionnaire. (3) An envelope will be provided for each teacher and teacher aide to use to return her questionnaire to the principal who will turn them over to the investigator. The questionnaires will be coded. but the responses will be treated anonymously. The purposes of the study are varied. Some possible out- comes are: (1) Provide information to the teacher about the agree- ment among teachers as a group concerning the tasks they feel aides should perform: the level of general agreement among teacher aides; and the level of agreement between both groups ~ (2) Contribute to understandings of job satisfaction among the aides (3) Provide more knowledge of those tasks aides actually perform (Teachers and aides in Jackson. Michigan have also participated in this study.) (4) Provide data about the training needed for aides based on the teachers' feelings about the Job of teacher aide Any comments on the operation of this study will be ap- preciated. Thank you for your time and cooperation. 2N1 A STUDY IN ROLE ANALYSIS OF TEACHER AIDES This is a study of expectations for the role of the elementary classroom teacher aide. There are no right or wrong answers to the questions. We want to know how you feel about the tasks a teacher aide should be ex- pected to perform in this school district. Your re- sponses will be treated anonymously. It is very impor- tant that you complete the questionnaire individually and.gg£ in cOOperation with anyone else. DEFINITION OF TERMS. Clasgrocm teacher aide is an elementary school employee who works with and directly assists the classroom teacher. Expectations are the tasks which a person feels shoul or s ould not be per- formed by an individual employed as a classroom teacher aide in this school district. DIRECTIONS. There are 50 task items to be completed. There are five possible responses for each task. The reaponse scale is designed to read as follows: AM indicates absolutely must PS indicates preferably should MMN indicates may_ or ma not PSN indicates preferab_y should not Afifi indicates absolutely must not By designating a task as one that aides should perform, it is neither implied that they are necessarily the only ones to perform the task, nor that they would have to perform the task under all conceivable circumstances. Answer the questionnaire from the perspective of the grade(s) in which you work. AN EXAMPLE. Using the following task, if you felt the expectation for the elementary classroom aide should be absolutely must not, you would indicate your choice as illustrated: iItem Task AM 98 mm psn AMN 6 Introduce a science lesson \/’_ -...-‘4L__. .‘ . .. .. ALE» «-JL. ......... After you have completed checking the following task items, continue to the next section. Please begin. 2H2 Item Task PSN .AMN 1 Take Roll v 2 Collect Money 3 Correct Workbooks 4 Distribute Supplies To Students 5 Fill Out Requisitions 6. Record Test Scores 7 Maintain Records 8 Prepare Stencils 9 Type Materials 10 Put.Away Supplies 11 Arrange Room For Activities 12 Clean Off Table Tops 13 Regulate Thermostat ll} Supervise Student Cleanup 15 Hater Plants 16 Clean Paint Brushes 17 Open windows For Ventilation 18 Clean Blackboards 2h3 Item Task PS PSN .AMN 19 Straighten Room After Dismissal 20 Maintain Supply Closet 21 Operate Tape Recorder 22 Make Overhead Transparencies 23 Operate 16MM Projector 2“ Set Up AV Equipment 25 Help Students Learn Use of Equipment 26 Arrange For Use of Equipment 27 Operate Record Player 28 Teach Students Use of Teaching Machine 29 Prepare Room For Special Equipment Use 30 Move AV Equipment to Classroom 31 Help Students with Wraps 32 Supervise During Recess 33 Escort Student to Nurse 3a Help Maintain Classroom Order 35 Help Monitor During Field Trip 36 Monitor Class For Short Time Period ' 24H Item #4! Task PS MMN PSN AMN 37 Escort Class toFNext‘Activity_t My-A 38 Explain School Rules to a Student 39 Monitor Students During Assembly #0 Discipline Student On Playground #1 Read Stories to Students #2 Help A Student With Assignment #3 Assist With A Science Demonstration #4 Listen To A Student Read ‘#5‘H *Substitute Ianeacher s Absence _h* "’__5. ..u . .' . . #6 Plan Homework Assignments.. ‘ . 1.7 Help Check seatwprk H #8 Prepare Test Questions ' .hé * write Assignment On Board{. 50’ >Conduct Small CroupDrill. ' *Substitute For i Day or Longer 2'45 DIRECTIONS. This section is to be completedo n1 b teacher aides. ,The following items are a repeat of the same tas list you have (zom- pleted. Using the repeat list, check only those tasks which you have actually performed while working as a classroom teacher aide during the 1969-1970 school year as an employee of this school district. AN EXAMPLE. Using the following task, if you actually performed this task while employed as a classroom teacher aide, you would indicate this as illustrated: Item Task Have Performed 27 Setting Up AV Equipment " \/’ After you have completed checking the following task items, continue the next section. Please begin. f Item Task , Have Performed 1 Take Roll 2 Collect Money 3 Correct Workbooks 4 Distribute Supplies To Students 5 Fill Out Requisitions 6 Record Test Scores 7 Maintain Records 8 Prepare Stencils 9 Type Materials 10 Put Away Supplies 11 Arrange Room For Activities 19 J 010311 OFF 'T‘ah'lo 'I‘nnc 2116 Item Task Have Performed 13 Regulate Thermostat _4 14 Supervise Student Cleanup 15 Water Plants 16 Clean Paint Brushes 17 Open Windows For Ventilation 18 Clean Blackboards 19 Straighten Room After Dismissal 20 Maintain Supply Closet 21 Operate Tape Recorder 22 Make Overhead Transparencies 23 Operate 16MM Projector 24 Set Up AV Equipment 25 Help Students Learn Use of Equipment 26 Arrange For Use of Equipment 27 Operate Record Player 28 Teach Students Use of Teaching Machine 29 Prepare Room For Special Equipment Use 30 Move AV Equipment To Classroom 31 Help Students With Wraps 247 Item Task Have Performed 32 Supervise During Recess 33 Escort Student To Nurse 34 ‘ Help Maintain Classroom Order 35 Help Monitor During Field Trip 36 Monitor Class For Short Time Period 37 Escort Class To Next Activity 38 Explain School Rules To A Student 4 39 Monitor Students During Assembly 40 Discipline Student On Playground J 41 Read Stories To Students ___q 42 Help A Student with Assignment ‘ . 1 43 Assist With A Science Demonstration i 44 Listen To A Student Read 45 Substitute In Teacher's Absence 46 Plan Homework Assignments 47 Help Check Seatwork 48 Prepare Test Questions 49 Write Assignment On Board DIRECTIONS . side 0 248 This section is to be completed only by teacher aides. The following rating scale is to be used for indicating your general level of satisfaction with your present Job as a claSSroom teacher YOur response will remain anonymous. Check the box immediately below the level which best indicates your level of satisfaction or ,dissatisfaction with your present Job as an aide. EXAMPLE. you would indicate this as illustrated: Using the following example, if you are fairly dissatisfied. very Satisfied Satisfied Fairly Satisfied Fairly Dissatisfied Dissatisfied Very DissatiSd fied \/ Using the scale below, please indicate your general level of Job satis- faction or dissatisfaction. Very Satisfied Satisfied A Fairly Satisfied Fairly Dissatisfied Dissatisfied very Dissatis+ fied v k Please list any task(s) you have frequently performed which is not included in the 50 task item checklist. for any comment which you wish to make about the teacher aide program. You may also use this space 2139 DIRECTIONS. This section is to be completedo nly _y classroom teach- ers. The following scale is to be used for indicating your rating of the general level of effectiveness of the classroom teaching aide who is currently assisting you with your teaching assignment. Your re- sponse will remain anonymous and individual ratings will not be re- vealed to aides or used for evaluations. Do not indicate the name of the aide.‘ Check the box immediately below the level which best in- dicates your rating of effectiveness for the aide. AN Em“.MPLE. Using the following e: :ample, if your rating of the class- room aide currently assisting you is Good, you would indicate this as illustrated: Superior Excellent Good Fair Poor Unacceptable t/ Using the scale below, please indicate your rating of the aide's general level of effectiveness. f”: Superior xcellent Good Fair Poor Unacceptable Name of District INTERVIEW SCHEDULE Interview conducted with person(s) who has the responsibility for the aide program at the central office level. If the district has a coordinator of the program, he is the preferable person to be interviewed. District Descriptive Profile I. General Descriptive Information A. District 1. No. of students in district by grade level 2. No. of schools in district by level 3. 4. S. Student-professional staff ratio Amount spent/child Assessed valuation/child B. Aide Program 1. 2. Does program have coordinator? (time assigned) No. of schools using aides (list by levels) 3. 4. 5. 6. 8. 9. (Answer remaining questions for elementary, including kindergarten) No. of aides per school (give range) No. of teachers using aides No. of aides working directly with teachers Type of funding:. (give percentages) federal state local Amount of funding Length of time aide program in district State purposes of aide program 250 -2- 10. District policy statements C. Aides 1. Age: , ; specified maximum (range) (average) and minimum 2. Sex: (No. of males) (No. of females) 3. Marital Status (married) (single) 4. Economic Status (average family income) (income average) 5. Record of previous school experiences 6. Educational status: (no. diplomas) (H.S. diploma) (college credits) —(college degree) (Jr. C.) (4 year) (graduate work)fi 7. Other research or descriptive studies (Describe) -3- MEANS OF ACHIEVING ROLE COMPLIANCE II. Job Description and Supervision 1. List of tasks to be performed Yes__ No__ Degree Specificity 2. Hours of work specified Yes___ No 3. Authority relationships (describe) III. Recruitment and Selection 1. List of qualifications or criteria Yes No Describe: 2. Means used to recruit (describe) 3. Selection procedure (describe) 4. Employee determination of assignment Yes___No__.Describe: 5. Teacher determination of placement Yes__ No Describe: IV. .Training 1. Type of training (field trip, institute, class, on job) 2. Goals of training program (list) -4- Functions or skills included (list) 4. Does program include aide, teacher and administrator? Yes__ No— 5. Pre and post service training (length of time for each)'__ 6. Training agencies 7. Setting (describe) 8. Involvement in planning (school system, higher education, community) V. Rewards and Incentives 1. Type of contract (describe) Means for deciding terms of employment (describe) Rate of pay 4. Other recognition S. 6. Use of career ladder Welfare benefits (insurance, hospital, leave, etc.) VI. Evaluation 1. Who is responsible? Who does rating? 2. Type of instrument used 3. Means of conveying evaluation to aide VII. Other 2. 3.