A STUDY OF POUCE RECRUIT TRAINING PROGRAMS , ‘ - ‘ ~ ANDTHE DEVELOPMENT OF THEIR CURRICULA A , Dissertation for the Degree. of "Ph. D. . . MICHIGAN-STATE UNIVERSITY ‘ f ~w{LLIAM'G, HORN * ~ ‘ 1975 ' ...... . ‘4'30‘3. 1 ‘ill? n.‘.¥‘.“-‘ . ,, my‘ , ".3 ., ..‘ .» :..,'.'.' w t V . . v ’ . ‘. ‘ .- , . ‘. ..-' .A.-l- . 1. ... . . fl‘ . ‘P‘ H, Flu ‘41.. . r .' J.. . NH H . ‘ .. . . ' H‘ ”flaw“ . A 4 V ‘ ' .7v- ..-...T.,..‘ .‘ . ..... . . ~ . . ,. ,. . . A , w . ~ '3'" , - . . . ‘ . 11M 11111111 11 111111” ,_ ""1?“ " e 3 1293 00677 , , , . MIC-Usiili; Jtate University '\ This is to certify that the thesis entitled A STUDY OF POLICE RECRUIT TRAINING PROGRAMS AND THE DEVELOPMENT OF THEIR CURRICULA presented by William G. Horn has been accepted towards fulfillment of the requirements for Ph u D 0 degree in Educat ion Department of Secondary Education and Curriculum (DéflleéZAQZEQQLnggz Major professor Date 7] 317$, 0-7639 . W __ __._._._ ———._.—~_._ ———«——__._ ~ __ _- ‘Vh ‘ "ww \ .. I “ ' A, ’ ’ u 3‘ "" hw ABSTRACT A STUDY OF POLICE RECRUIT TRAINING PROGRAMS AND THE DEVELOPMENT OF THEIR CURRICULA By William G. Horn The purpose of this study was to describe and explore a number of police training programs that are attempting to prepare the recruit for the realities of his work. Through a personal examina- tion of selected police training programs, it was possible to focus on the development of their curricula. To identify the police training programs that are widely recognized as innovative, relevant programs, fourteen authorities were chosen as sources from whom the necessary information could be obtained. These authorities provided a list of thirty-three differ- ent programs throughout the country. From this list, nine programs representative of the original thirty-three were selected for study. Personal visits were made to each of these training centers, where the present curriculum was examined. Special emphasis was placed on those elements that dealt directly with training the police for their service function, as well as the procedures used in the develop- ment of the curriculum. The findings from the visits to the training programs were presented by treating each program individually according to the William G. Horn following descriptive format: (l) the major characteristics of the program; (2) the subject matter in the curriculum, with particular attention to those subjects that prepare the recruit for his service role; and (3) a discussion of recent changes in the curriculum, including the procedures used in bringing about the change. The major uniquenesses of the programs studied were identi- fied as (l) integration of classroom and field experiences throughout the training period found in two programs; (2) use of self-paced, multi-media instructional methods at three programs studied; (3) inclu- sion of interpersonal awareness and human relations training in the majority of the programs studied; (4) emphasis on longer control over the officer by the training program as found in two programs studied; and (5) continuation of training throughout the officer's career as found particularly in one of the programs studied. In addition to the uniquenesses of the programs studied, these programs also differed in the development of their curricula. These changes took place any time from four years before the study up to the present time. The reasons for the changes in the curriculum ranged from directives from the chief departmental administrator, through assorted motivations, to the personal conviction of the training director. The methods used by the various training programs in plan- ning, developing, and implementing the curriculum changes varied from one program to another, with very little duplication. The results from the changes identified in the development of the curriculum included one or more of the following: (l) lengthening the training period; (2) lengthening the training period and incorporating William G. Horn more training for the officer's service role; (3) lengthening the training and integrating field training experience throughout the training period; (4) lengthening the period of direct control of the training program over the new police employee; (5) shortening the training by using self-paced, individualized instruction; (6)5horten- ing the hours spent each day in the classroom by integrating the classroom activities with related field experiences; (7) shortening the training and coordinating the program with an ongoing, continuous in-service training program; and (8) maintaining the overall training program time allotment while attempting to achieve a more appropriate balance of the subject matter in relation to the realities of the police function. Based upon these findings, the following conclusions to this study were generated: l. No single training program studied, nor any single training curriculum anywhere, would be adequate for all communities. 2. The police officer's role is deeply involved in social work. 3. Limited attempts have been undertaken to make recruits aware of the complexities of the social situations they will be entering. However, some of the programs studied were attempting to provide these training needs. 4. The need for change was widely recognized by the training staffs, as evidenced by the number of those programs studied that have undertaken their own curriculum development without any real outside impetus. 5. Police recruit training programs are either lengthening or shortening training as a result of recent curriculum changes. If a program is lengthened, it normally incorporates more subject matter and/or greater depth of treatment into the curriculum. If a program is shortening its total training, it normally is incorporating self- paced, individualized instructional methods into the program. William G. Horn 6. In conjunction with those programs that consist of self- paced, multi-media instructional approaches, the systems analysis/ operational research techniques have been applied in the deVelopment of curricula. 7. Recent changes indicate there has been an increased use of field training experiences both during and/or after the recruit training period. 8. In a number of the programs studied, there has been an increase in the use of self-awareness training. A variety of self- development approaches are used in many of the programs studied. As a result of this study, a number of recommendations were formulated to assist in the development and improvement of police recruit training programs, as well as to give incentive and direction to further studies to be conducted in this area. 0f major signifi- cance in formulating these recommendations was the fact that a police training program cannot be properly developed solely from the cur- ricula studied. Ample consideration must also be given to the change process and procedures utilized by the programs in curriculum devel- opment. A STUDY OF POLICE RECRUIT TRAINING PROGRAMS AND THE DEVELOPMENT OF THEIR CURRICULA By . f/ A“ {v William G? Horn A DISSERTATION Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Department of Secondary Education and Curriculum 1975 Cepyright by WILLIAM G. HORN 1975 The material in this project was prepared under Grant Number 74-N199-1002 from the Office of Education and Manpower Assistance, Law Enforcement Assistance Administration, U.S. Depart- ment of Justice. Researchers undertaking such projects under Gov- ernment sponsorship are encouraged to express freely their profes- sional judgement. Therefore, points of view or opinions stated in this document do not necessarily represent the official position or policy of the U.S. Department of Justice. This study is dedicated to my parents, Mary and Herman, and to my wife, Maureen. ii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The writer wishes to express appreciation to a number of people who aided in this endeavor. Special appreciation is extended to Dr. Walter W. Scott, whose continual encouragement and support as co-chairman of my guidance committee and director of this dissertation have been a constant source of inspiration. An expression of sincere gratitude is extended to Dr. Charles A. Blackman, co-chairman of my guidance committee, for the valuable advice and insights given me throughout my doctoral program. Also my appre- ciation goes to Dr. William E. Sweetland and Dr. Robert C. Trojanowicz for their guidance and encouragement during this study. The data for this dissertation were generously supplied by numerous people related to the field of law enforcement throughout the country. This project would not have been possible without their unselfish cooperation and assistance. Many thanks to Cheryl Angelich for her efforts in typing the original draft of this study, and to Susan Cooley for her editorial assistance and preparation of this final draft. Deepest appreciation is expressed to my dear bride, Maureen, who made by far the greatest sacrifices in assisting me in my entire doctoral program. TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF TABLES ........................ LIST OF FIGURES ....................... Chapter I. THE PROBLEM . . ................... Need for the Study ................. Purpose of the Study ................ Significance of the Study ............. Scope and Limitations of the Study ......... Definition of Terms ................ Organization of the Study ............. II. REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE ............... . History of Police Recruit.Training Programs Concerns With Police Training--Past and Present . . Police Role Conflict ................ Innovations in Police Training . . ' ......... Development of the Curriculum ........... Summary ...................... III. PROCEDURES AND METHODS EMPLOYED IN THE STUDY ..... The Population and Participants .......... i The Research Design ................ 3 Sources of Data ............... -. . . 1 Study Procedures .................. 1 Visits to the Training Programs .......... 1 Presentation of the Data .............. ; Summary ...................... i IV. PRESENTATION OF THE FINDINGS ............. The Boston Police Academy Recruit Curriculum . . . . The Chicago Police Academy Recruit Curriculum The Cincinnati Training Section Recruit Curriculum .................... The Los Angeles Police Academy Recruit Curriculum .................... iv Page vi vii 100 Chapter Page The Los Angeles County Sheriff's Academy Recruit Curriculum ................ l06 The Oakland Police Academy Recruit Curriculum . . . ll2 The Seattle Police Academy Recruit Curriculum . . . ' l20 The Washington, D.C., Metropolitan Police Academy Recruit Curriculum ............ l26 The Dayton/Montgomery County Recruit Training Curriculum .................... l33 Summary ...................... 140 V. SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOHMENDATIONS ....... l44 Summary ...................... l44 Conclusions .................... 150 Recommendations .................. l55 APPENDICES .......................... l64 A. FOURTEEN AUTHORITIES CONTACTED TO ASSIST IN SELECTING POLICE TRAINING PROGRAMS FOR THE STUDY . 165 8. EXAMPLE OF LETTER SENT TO FOURTEEN AUTHORITIES REQUESTING THEIR ASSISTANCE IN SELECTING POLICE TRAINING PROGRAMS FOR THE STUDY .......... 167 C. LOCATION OF POLICE TRAINING PROGRAMS CITED BY SELECTED AUTHORITIES IN THE POLICE FIELD ..... l7O D. POLICE TRAINING PROGRAMS SELECTED FOR STUDY ..... 172 E. SEVEN CRITERIA DEVELOPED AS MAJOR CHANGE AGENT STRATEGIES FOR EFFECTING PLANNED CHANGE; AND MODIFICATIONS USED FOR THIS STUDY ......... 174 F. PERSONS WHO PROVIDED RELEVANT INFORMATION FOR THE STUDY ................ '. . . 177 G. LOS ANGELES COUNTY SHERIFF'S ACADEMY '75 PROJECT IMPLEMENTATION ACTIVITIES (KEYED T0 P.E.R.T. CHART) ...................... 180 H. DESCRIPTION OF THREE POLICING STYLES ........ 183 I. MID-MICHIGAN POLICE ACADEMY INTERPERSONAL COMMUNICATION AND AWARENESS ............ 189 BIBLIOGRAPHY ......................... 194 LIST OF TABLES Table Page 2.l Citizen Complaints Radioed to Patrol Vehicles, Syracuse Police Department, June 3-9, l966 ...... 32 4.1 Characteristics of the Nine Programs Studied ...... l42 vi LIST OF FIGURES Figure Page l.l Crime and Population, l968-l973 ............. 3 2.l Comparison of Time Spent on Law Enforcement and Other (Information Gathering, Services, and Order Main- tenance) Activities on the Street Compared to Time Spent in Training ................... 35 2.2 A Training Curriculum Development System ........ 68 vii CHAPTER I THE PROBLEM Recently, numerous individuals and organizations repre- senting various areas of public responsibility have been demanding the upgrading and improvement of the police in this country. The mounting concern with the quality of police work has been intensi- fied today by society's problems, including riots and disturbances and the increasing crime rate. In response to this problem, presidential commissions have been organized to deal with the matter. Millions of dollars have been poured into the numerous efforts resulting from the recommen- dations of these commissions for the improvement of the police func- tion. One of these projects that has received considerable atten- tion is that of training the police for their work. This study describes the attempts being made through training to alleviate the problem by preparing the officer for the realities of his work. Need for the Study In spite of questions of the accuracy of crime statistics, it is evident that crime has steadily been increasing in this country for a number of years. The Federal Bureau of Investigation, which maintains this country's crime records, disclosed in their most recent report that the crime rate has risen 24 percent in the past 1 five years (Figure l.l). Violent crimes also increased in 1973 over l972, murder by 5 percent, aggravated assault by 7 percent, and forcible rape by lO percent.1 As the crime rate has risen, so has the economic burden of crime. In 1967, the cost of crime was estimated at $2l billion. In l973, it was estimated crime cost $5l billion a year, more than 5 percent of the gross national product.2 It is important, however, to look beyond the rough statis- tics illustrating the crime rate and its costs to gain a fuller understanding of its impact. In l967, the President's Commission on Law Enforcement and the Administration of Justice mentioned addi- tional effects of crime: The existence of crime, the talk about crime, the reports of crime, and the fear of crime, have eroded the basic quality of life of many Americans. A Commission study conducted in high- crime areas of two large cities found that: 43% of the respon- dents say they stay off the streets at night because of their fear of crime; 35% say they do not speak to strangers anymore because of their fear of crime.3 In l968, a national opinion poll ranked crime as the number one domestic problem in the United States. Crime was ranked ahead of national issues such as civil rights, cost of living and poverty, and ahead of local issues like education, transportation and taxes. 1Federal Bureau of Investigation, Uniform Crime Reports of the United States: l973 (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1974). PP. 6-ll. 2"Crime Expense," U.S. News and World Report. October 26. 1970, p. 30. 3The President's Commission on Law Enforcement and Admin- istration of Justice, The Challenge of Crime in a Free Society (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, l967), p. 5. .maa_-wom_ .eo.pa.=aoa use m5.eu--..._ aezm.a . .m .a .Aenm...au.eeo mcwuc_ea pemscem>ow ..u.o .copmewgmazv MNmP mmumum twuwc: m5“ .._.0 mukoqmm meLU Eon—.PCD acowvmmmumm>CH .._.O :mmsam ~wLm—uwn— «3— NB— 2.2 2.2 amm— mem— sn 5 22:55.. flea .5 $5. 555 8°» .5 5:8 . coo-c 0 0.0.0.0... .000 coo-000.00.00.00. taco-cocoons... O ...+. ON... On+ 00+ Om... 00+ Whisksflitls °O°6§n CHE ”WWIWKKO KO tufl:§>‘ .N Wk (Q histb hWM‘HKKG.XWQ2~w3=QU“Nw3=k0 $2 3>o 3256 533.. mno_-woo_ ZO_._.<._DA_OA_ DZ< mEEU ”moczom A replication of the 1968 survey indicated that one out of every five persons in the nation had been victimized by crime in the pre- ceding year, and that the number of individuals fearful of walking in their own neighborhoods at night had risen from 35 percent in l968 to 42 percent by l973.4 In response to the above-mentioned concerns and realities, a wide consensus has developed, calling for improvement of the crimi- nal justice system, of which law enforcement is an important com- ponent. During the period from 1965 to l968, the United States Congress passed two acts that provided unprecedented support for improvement of the police: the Law Enforcement Assistance Act of l965 and the Omnibus Crime Control and Safe Streets Act of l968. Millions of dollars have been and are still being directed into the improvement of the law enforcement function.5 Currently such expen- ditures amount to nearly one billion dollars. These facts are significant when one considers that in l97l the total federal, state, and local expenditures for law enforce- 6 An estimated 80 to 90 percent of present-day police costs is delegated to human resources.7 ment services reached $6.2 billion. 4"Special Report on Crime in the United States," The GallUp Index, January 1973, PP. 3-l7. 5Donald G. Alexander, "New Resources for Crime Control: Experience Under the Omnibus Crime Control and Safe Streets Acts of l968," American Criminal Law Review lO (July 1971): 205. 6National Commission on Productivity, Report of the Advisory Group on Productivity in Law Enforcement on Opportunities for Immving Productivity in Police Service (Washington, D.C.: Govern- ment Printing Office, l973), p. l. 71bid., p. 47. Obviously, individuals, rather than equipment or machines, must achieve the principal law enforcement goals--the control and reduc- tion of crime. During the past decade, three presidential commissions have concluded that the upgrading of American law enforcement personnel is one of several actions necessary to alleviate the increasing 8 crime problem. In addition, several public and private agencies have provided both verbal and financial support to law enforcement.9 These organizations and agencies have unanimously cited inadequate or ineffective police response as contributing significantly to the prob- lem of crime in this country. However, these sources differ greatly in respect to how the improvement of law enforcement is to be achieved. Some argue that the police are unable to deal with today's law enforcement problems because they lack sufficient personnel. Others point out the need to improve police operations per se. Also, some sources see the need to improve the quality of police personnel through higher edu- cational standards. 8The Challenge of Crime in a Free Society: A Report on Law Enforcement and Administration of Justice (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, l967), pp. l09-lll; Report of the National Advisory Commission on Civil Disorders (New York: Bantam BOoks, 1968, Chapter II; To Establish Justice, to Insure Tranquility: Final Report on the Causes and Prevention of Violence (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, l969), Chapter 3 and Appendix l. 9Office of Law Enforcement Assistance, Office of Economic Opportunity, Ford Foundation, Incorporated, Mott Foundation of Flint, Michigan, and the U.S. Office of Education. These purported solutions rest upon the assumption that there is nothing basically wrong with the contemporary approach to the police function that "more of the same" would not solve. How- ever, these solutions have proved ineffective in the past and are likely to be ineffective in the future because they ignore the fact that the police officer is not currently being trained to deal with the everyday problems he meets on the street. There is a definite need to reappraise the entire approach to police training and to reevaluate the functions of the patrol officer. Since it is the police officer who initially meets the sensitive problems, he determines to some extent whether they will remain family squabbles and street gatherings or grow into homicides and full-blown riots. Police training curricula normally list the flashy and exciting subjects, such as procedures for handling robberies and bombs. Yet, they omit or deemphasize the routine subjects, such as procedures for dealing with noisy groups and landlord-tenant fights. Curricula must be developed that will train the officer for more of the critical problems he will meet on the street. In effect, the simple, mechanical aspects of law enforcement must be deemphasized in favor of intensive training in handling routine calls such as domestic disturbances and street gatherings. Given the circumstances that have been described, it is not surprising that many communities are demanding better and different 10 services; what is surprising is the communities' reaction to the lack 10Frank J. Vandall, "Training to Meet the Police Function," Wisconsin Law Review, l97l, No. 2, p. 556. of police responsiveness. Until recently public law enforcement has monopolized the service of providing security of persons and property. That monopoly is now being broken by volunteer citizens' groups and private police, who are attempting to provide service on a neighborhood basis. The police are finding themselves in a situa- tion in which they must compete for citizen support. Police depart- ments must change from the traditional crisis orientation to one of responsiveness to community needs, and must rid themselves of char- acteristics that stifle the needed change. Purpose of the Study At present there is no systematic body of knowledge that describes the current efforts being made to provide relevant police training. Therefore, the primary purpose of this study is to des- cribe and explore a number of police training programs attempting to prepare the police recruit for the realities of his work. The pro- cedures and experiences used in developing the curricula of these programs are also discussed. Significance of the Study Many authorities in and out of the law enforcement field believe recruit training is the key to a safe and satiSfied community. 0. W. Wilson stated that the police service is unlikely to be of a 11 high quality unless policemen have special training. In addition 1]0. W. Wilson, Police Administration (New York: McGraw- Hill, l963), P. l6l. to the emphasis on recruit training for police work, it is just as important to realize that all social institutions are recruiting a different type of person than they did a decade ago. For the most part, they are more educated, sophisticated and skeptical than their counterparts of the previous decades. In general, they expect meaningful work, enhanced human relations, and quality in life experiences.12 Most of the police training programs in this country have evolved with little concern for individual needs or organizational objectives. They have generally been characterized by a lack of imagination and have dealt primarily with the more technical aspects of law enforcement. As a result, the behavioral aspects of police training have been neglected in favor of the technical approach.13 Law enforcement has undergone many transitions and refine- ments since the nineteenth century. Yet, some departments still cling to the antiquated procedure of issuing a police recruit a gun and badge and assigning him to an "experienced" officer for training. Law enforcement, as well as society, can no longer allow or support this method of training.14 12Theodore Roszak, The Making of a Counter Culture (Garden City, New Jersey: Doubleday and Company, l969), p. 33. 13Peter B. Block and David Specht, Neighborhood Team Policing (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, l973):’p. 142. ‘4Kenneth Edward Joseph, "Study of the Federal Bureau of Investigation's Contribution to Law Enforcement Training and Educa- tion in the United States" (Ph.D. dissertation, Michigan State University, l970), p. l. In addressing the importance of police recruit training, it is well to consider the ultimate purpose of such training, as des- cribed by James O. Wilson in his reflections on the future of policing: A training program should develop . . . [the officer's] abilities by means of instruction in situations that simulate as far as possible real-world conditions. The object should be to develop an inner sense of competence and self-assurance so that, under conditions of stress, conflict, and uncertainty, the officer is capable of responding flexibly and in a rela- tively dispassionate manner rather than rigidly, emotionally, or defensively. The training conditions must be designed to place officers in situations of stress and conflict in which they will manage their own behavior and that of others in a manner consistent with (but rarely determined by) legal standards.15 Despite the long history of proposals to mandate training requirements for police personnel, little public action occurred until the last few years. With the advent of urban riots and increased fear of crime, the previously local issue of law enforce- ment became an item on the national policy agenda. Police recruit training in general is starting to reflect a newly adopted service orientation in partial response to this fact. This study is being conducted to identify some of the police recruit training programs throughout this country that are attempting to deal with the issues discussed above. Through an examination of some of these police training centers, it is possible to focus on their curricula and their development, in terms of the process of change. As a result of analyzing training programs that are responding to the current demand for training recruits in the 15James O. Wilson, "The Future Policeman," in Project STAR's future Roles of Criminal Justice Personnel: Position Papers (Marina Del Rey, California: American Justice Institute, 1972), pp. 25-26. 10 realities of their work, this study may contribute to the goal of upgrading the police. Simply, this project is seen as a response to those who are calling for studies of police training innovations to be under- taken. The dissemination of the findings of this project by its sponsor (the Law Enforcement Assistance Administration) is seen as a means to respond to this call for research. Underlying the research is the premise that improvements in law enforcement can be attained more easily and supported more enthusiastically if the police themselves see the need for change and how it is to be achieved. Perhaps the most necessary precondi- tion for improvement in the quality of police services is the acqui- sition of new insights by the police about the nature of their role and its relationship to other people. chpe and Limitations of the Study The study is limited to an examination of nine police recruit training programs that were cited as superior programs by various authorities associated with the field of law enforcement.16 It is further limited by the interpretation of superior training programs as those that are reportedly attempting to provide better training than others in preparing the new employee for his work. Since the identification of these programs is partially dictated by popular conception based on the size of the agencies, 16These individuals are referred to in Chapter III and iden- tified in Appendix A. 11 published reports, and/or other means of information diffusion regarding the agencies, this study is limited to a population that automatically excludes agencies that are unknown to the selecting authorities.) Further, it does not attempt to evaluate either the rationale by which the programs were selected (other than their being considered superior programs) or the value, effectiveness, or effi- ciency of the programs. The study consists of a description of the recruit carrie- ulum of the programs that were visited, and the means by which any major change in the training was brought about. The rationale behind the impetus for change is also examined. Each of the pro- grams was studied independently of the others; no comparisons were made between programs or to any standard. The study is further limited to an examination of large police training programs, since the majority of law enforcement officers are employed by large departments, and these departments more naturally possess (or can more easily obtain) the means for self-improvement. This in turn provides a larger market for possible benefit from the findings of the study. Definition of Terms In an effort to minimize misunderstanding of terms used within this report, several pertinent definitions are set forth. Criminal Justice: The entire process or system to which an individual could be exposed from the point of committing a crime to rehabilitation. This includes such elements as police. prosecution. 12 courts, corrections, probation, and parole--together referred to as the criminal justice system. Education and Training: The orientation to philosophy, theories, and concepts of a role through intellectualization is usually called education, while skills development and indoctrina- tion to the routine activities of the occupation are usually assigned the label training. For purposes of this report, the terms are used interchangeably in dealing with the preparation and proce- dure of developing a person's knowledge, sense of inquiry, and search for truth, as well as developing vocational and/or technical skills whereby he might better perform his assigned responsibilities. Law Enforcement: Those agencies of federal, state, and local governments that are invested with the power to enforce laws by arrest. Police Discretion: The unregulated means by Which the police officer resolves conflict situations in police-citizen encounters. Police Officer: A regularly constituted member of a police force or other organization of any level of government who is respon- sible for the detection and prevention of crime and the enforcement of laws. Police Training Program: Any formalized effort to provide training and educational opportunities to police officers, which is found at any level of government. In terms of this report, such a program must minimally consist of a training staff, a training loca- tion, and a formalized course of study for the trainees. 13 Relevance of Police Training: The logical relation and/or pertinence of the training to the realities of the work of the police officer. In effect, a relevant training program implies an approp- riateness to the actual functions of the police in carrying out routine assignments. Role Conflict: A situation in which a person finds his enactment of one role results in his falling below expectations in another; no matter what the individual does, he develops guilt feel- ings from failure to meet expectations.17 Organization of the Study This study is organized into five chapters. Chapter I, THE PROBLEM, included the need for the study, purpose of the study, significance of the study, scope and limita- tions of the study, definition of terms, and the organization of the study. Chapter II, REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE, contains a review of the history of police training programs, past and present concerns with police training, the role of the police officer, attempts being made to achieve relevance in innovative police training programs, and curriculum development and change as they relate to police train- ing programs. 17William J. Goode, "A Theory of Role Strain," American Sociolggical Review 25 (1960): 483-486; Theodore M. Newcomb et al., Social Psychology (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Inc., 1965), pp. 417-428. 14 The methods used in identifying the programs studied, the nature of the data gathered, and the methodology used are described in Chapter III, DESIGN OF THE STUDY. Chapter IV, PRESENTATION OF THE FINDINGS, is a presentation of the information gathered in this study; included is a description of the present curricula of the programs studied, as well as the procedures of changing these curricula from their previous programs. Chapter V, SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS, con- tains a synopsis of the major findings of the study, commentary on the nature of the conclusions drawn, and a discussion of recommenda- tions related to the study. CHAPTER II REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE An extensive search was made of the literature related to police training. It was found that an abundance of literature deals with various elements of police work. However, few research studies have been conducted in the area of police training, and the few that were done do not directly examine the development of the present recruit training curricula. The purpose of this chapter is not to review the entire field of police training, but rather to examine several areas directly related to this subject that appear significant to this research. The majority of the literature related to this study is not research based, but rather is in the form of reports, speeches, opinions, and recommendations. Chapter II is divided into five main sections: (1) History of Police Recruit Training Programs, (2) Concerns with Police Train- ing--Past and Present, (3) Police Role Conflict, (4) Innovations in Police Training, and (5) Development of the Curriculum. Following the presentation of this information is a summary of the major ele- ments of each of the five main sections. 15 16 Historygof Police Recruit TrainingPrograms Many people today feel a police officer's basic training should be intensified, made universal, and generally be upgraded in quality and quantity. The idea that it is necessary to have a well-trained professional police officer is by no means a new one. A brief review of the development of police training in the United States may be helpful in understanding the present emphasis on police training. Origins of Police Training Classroom training for recruits is a relatively new concept in American policing. Before formal preliminary training was consid- ered necessary, police officers were felt to be sufficiently equipped to perform their duties if they were armed with a revolver 1 During the early years and a club and wdre a regulation uniform. of this century, on-the-job experience was the most prevalent method for learning police skills. Exactly when the first formal recruit training program in the United States was implemented is open to debate. The year 1853 is marked by some as the origin of police training, since there is evidence that some type of formal training was given to the police officers in New York City that year.2 As early as 1906, a training school was established by the Pennsylvania State Police; in 1911 the Detroit Police Department established its training 1August Vollmer, "The School for Police as Planned at Berkeley,“ Journal of the American Institute of Criminal Law and Criminology 7 (May 1916): 877. 2George P. McManus et al., Police Training andggerformance Study (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1970). p. 7. 17 school for recruits, followed a few years laterby the New York State Police training school for troopers. At about this time the New Jersey State Police established a three-month training school, which was made available to New Jersey peace officers as well as state police.3 However, during the first part of this century, only a handful of police agencies provided formal recruit training pro- 4 grams. Fosdick's work, entitled European Police Systems, was responsible for directing attention to the differences between the efficiency of the European police and the obsolete methods of Ameri- can police forces..5 As a result of this work, significant progress was made in establishing police training schools.6 By 1930, the Berkeley Police School had emerged as one of the finest police training programs in the country. Recruits received 312 hours of work within the police school, in a curriculum that included, in addition to technical police subjects, police psychiatry and police administration and organization.7 A150. in the same year, 3George H. Brereton, "The Importance of Training and Education in the Professionalism of Law Enforcement," Journal of Criminal Law, Criminology, and Police Science 52 (May-June 1961): 112-113. 4Bruce Smith, Police Systems in the United States (New York: Harper and Brothers, 1940), p. 165. 5Rayond B. Fosdick, European Police Systems (New York: The Century Company, 1915). 6V. A. Leonard, Police Organization and Management (Brooklyn: The Foundation Press, 1951), pp. 136-137. 7Gene Edward Carte, "August Vollmer and the Origins of Police Professionalism," Journal of Police Science and Administration 1 (September 1973): 278. 18 the first advisory board was established to guide the educational policies and training techniques for the police academy of New 8 York City. The following year, a governmental study was conducted, which revealed that approximately 20 percent of the 383 cities sur- veyed had some form of school training for their police.9 Post-World War II The Second World War had little effect on the development of police academies, but it did focus the public's attention on training and its inherent value. Although there was a reduction in the number of trainees because of manpower shortages, the total num- 10 At this time, however, ber of academies did not appear to decline. some states were still without a single training unit worthy of the name, and others with police schools existed on a casual basis for brief, uncertain periods.11 The post-war period was characterized by greater activity in police training. By 1947 most of the major cities and state police agencies had developed a recruit training program of some type. 8 9National Commission on Law Observance and Enforcement (Wickersham Commission), Report on Police (Washington, D.C.: Govern- ment Printing Office, 193T), p. 71. McManus, op. cit., p. 8. 10President's Commission on Law Enforcement and Administration of Justice, Task Force Report: The Police (Washington, D.C.: Govern- ment Printing Office, 1967), p. 137. 115mm, op. cit., p. 296. 19 This period was characterized by'a gradual increase in quantity and quality of poliCe training programs.12 By 1959 a survey of municipal in-service police training revealed that all cities with populations over 250,000 had some type of recruit training program. Yet, only 42 percent of the cities with populations between 10,000 and 25,000 had any training programs, and the assumption was made that those cities with less than 10,000 population did not maintain any recruit training of their own.13 In 1959 the first two state law enforcement training com- missions were organized--in California and New York. These agencies heralded the beginning of a new effort to upgrade the quality of police training programs. The two commissions represented differ- ing philosophies for statewide training standards. The New York law emphasized mandatory training, whereas the California law was aimed at setting selection and training standards.14 These two phil- osophies of training implementation still exist in the various state training agencies throughout the nation. Current Attention in Police Training_ In 1970, the National Association of State Directors of Law Enforcement Training (NASDLET) was founded; its membership consists 12President's Commission, Task Force Report: The Police, op. cit., p. 138. 13International City Manager's Association, The Municipal Yearbook (Chicago: International City Manager's Assoc., 1959), p. 402. 14Michigan Law Enforcement Officers Training Council,!5o! goforcement Trainingpin the UniteoiStates--A Survey of State Law Enforcement Training,Commissions (East Lansing, Mich.: Michigan Law Enforcement Officers Training Council, 1972), p. 3. 20 of those persons who administer, supervise, direct, and certify the state law enforcement training programs. One of the major objec- tives of NASDLET is to encourage uniform standards and curricula, with a view to permitting interstate transfer of training credits.15 In late 1974 a similar organization, consisting of directors of local law enforcement training programs, was conceived. This organization, the American Association of Law Enforcement Training Directors, while in its initial formative stages, had primarily the same purpose as NASDLET--the mutual exchange of information related to the develop- ment of police training.16 As of 1974, forty-five states had implemented law enforcement standards and training programs. Nearly all of these states have a ‘7 In addition to local required minimum level of basic training. law enforcement training programs, many other institutions and agencies also carry on law enforcement education and training. These include community colleges, four-year educational institutions, state training agencies, state police, federal law enforcement agencies, and private law enforcement training organizations. After many years of development, police training has now emerged as a means of increasing the competence of police officers 15cnaries R. Wall and Leo A. Culloo, "State Standards for Law Enforcement Selection and Training," Journal of Police Science and fkyninistration 1 (December 1973): 431. 16Interview with Captain Thomas W. Dixon, Director of Training, Cincinnati Police Division, January 29, 1975. 17Brooks W. Wilson, "Education and Training, An Assessment 9372mm We Are and Where We Are Going," The Police Chief, August , p. 24. 21 and the effectiveness of police organizations. Unfortunately, police training does not guarantee these results. Too often training pro- grams are instituted with great expectations, only to fail in their objectives.‘ It is time to look more critically at such programs, because their failures threaten the hopes and expectations of advanc- ing and professionalizing police work.18 To summarize this discussion of the history of police train- ing in the United States, the literature suggests that a general upgrading of basic police training has occurred in the United States. This upgrading is evidenced by creating basic police training pro- grams where none had existed, and lengthening established training programs. In effect, "in a relatively short period Of time, we have moved in this country from a situation in which there was a consider- able ambivalence as to the need for any training of police personnel to a situation in which the need is now widely recognized."19 Concerns With Police Traininge-Past and Present. Few aspects of law enforcement receive more attention from the general public and greater emphasis from the police themselves 20 than that of training. ' Part of this concern is shown through 18Jay M. Finkelman and Walter Reichman, "Police Training Strategies: A Contingency Model," Journal of Police Science and Admin- istration 2 (December 1974): 423. 19American Bar Association, Standards Relating to_the Urban Police Function (New York: American Bar Association, 1972), p. 202. 20James W. Sterling, Changes in Role Concepts of Police Officers (Gaithersburg, Maryland: International Association of Chiefs of Police, 1972), p. x. 22 financial support for training improvement efforts. A recent example is a grant from the Law Enforcement Assistance Administration to the National Planning Association, for over three million dollars. This national survey is presently being conducted to determine, among other things, the kinds of specialized training required for such key positions in the criminal justice system as patrolman and detec- tive.2] The entire situation of training or personnel development is of major national significance. It is an essential tool for inducing organizational and systemic change. When a community experiences a crisis in law enforcement, the need for trained police is suddenly apparent to everyone. Although there is general agreement that training for police work should begin as soon as posSible, little consensus is evident about the nature and extent of the training required or the form it should take. Criticisms of Police Training As early as 1931, the National Commission on Law Observance and Enforcement concluded on the basis of a national police training survey of nearly 1000 cities that the training offered, except in a 22 very small number of cities, was negligible. This Commission, more commonly known as the Wickersham Commission, stated that there was 21Law Enforcement Assistance Administration, "LEAA Awards $3 M Grant to Study Training," LEAA Newsletter 4 (October 1974): 4. 22National Commission on Law Observance and Enforcement. Report on Police, op. cit., p. 139. 23 absolutely nothing done which by any stretch of the imagination could be considered as police training.23 Almost four decades later the President's Commission on Law Enforcement and Administration of Criminal Justice addressed the inadequacy of basic police training in 1967, concluding: Many courses are unsophisticated and incomplete. Instruction is often limited to "how to do" and there is far too little discus- sion of fundamental principles. The legal limitations on street policing and the proper use of discretion are rarely discussed. . . . Only a small percentage of departments combine classroom work with formal field training that would acquaint recruits with everyday street problems. Nsw education techniques are seldom used in police academies.2 In another document produced by the President's Commission, it was stated that the vocational training needs of recruits are inade- quately met in most departments, and even more extensive programs provide inadequate training in basic elements of police work. This report stated that current training programs, for the most part, prepare an officer to perform police work mechanically, but do not prepare him to understand his community, the police role, or the imperfections of the criminal justice system.25 The American Bar Association, in discussing police training, added its discontent by emphasizing that most police training programs' do not prepare police officers for the realities of police work, and 23Ibid.. pp. 70-71. . 24President's Commission, The Challenge of Crime in a Free §EEfl££xp 0p. cit., p. 112. 25President's Commission, Task Force Report: The Police, op. cit., p. 138. 24 that much of what is offered in recruit training is irrelevant and unrealistic.26 The Education and Training Task Force Report of the Police Foundation concurred, stating that "the so-called police academies, associated with major police departments, are pathetic efforts to teach policemen a few tricks of the trade and to keep them posted about certain developments in criminal law and procedures and changes in department bureaucratic procedures.27 An additional criticism is that the content and instruc- tional methods utilized by most police agencies are seriously defective.28 According to Wilson, the training is generally not sufficiently grounded in the realities of daily operations; it has largely to do with the penal code, how to make out reports, and how to be an effective investigator of serious crimes--which occupy a 29 Niederhoffer very small fraction of the total police workload. and Blumberg and Franklin Ashburn agreed that recruit training in police agencies is frequently inadequate because the instruction 26American Bar Association, Standards Relatingpto the Urban Police Function, op. cit., pp. 202-203. 27A draft of the Education and Training Task Force Report to the Board of Directors of the Police Foundation, Washington, D.C., March 1972, p. 22. 28Charles B. Saunders, Upgrading the American Police (Washing- ton, D.C.: Brookings Institution, 1970), pp. 119-120. 29James 0. Wilson, Testimony Before the National Advisory Commission on Civil Disorders, September 22, 1967 (p. 1762 of transcript). 25 bears little relationship to the realistic situations that will confront the officer in the field.30 One chief of police pointed out that no real training pro- gram exists that teaches policemen to understand and appreciate the social, economic, ethnic, and cultural differences among people and be able to exercise discretion in dealing with those differences.31 The National Advisory Commission on Criminal Justice Stan- dards and Goals concluded, as a result of their survey of police training, that much of the curriculum has been dictated by reactions to crises. Whenever a police problem or public incident arises it becomes a training problem, requiring a change in the curriculum. When a new subject is added or an existing subject expanded, the course is seldom lengthened; instead some other subjects must be shortened or eliminated entirely. Often the police chief executive decides what needs attention, and the training director decides what to cut. The eagerness of the police chief executive and the training staff to be responsive has resulted in frequently changed, haphazard curricula.32 3OArthur Niederhoffer and Abraham 5. Blumberg, The Ambivalent Force: Perspectives on the Police (Waltham, Mass: Xerox College Publishing, 1970), p. 91; Franklin G. Ashburn, "Changing the Rhetoric of'ProfessionaliSm,'"Criminal Justice Monograph: Innovation in Law Enforcement (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1973), p. 4. 31Fred Ferguson, "The Number One Problem: What Is the Number One Problem in Police Education and Training As You See It?" llgijggtyge Chief, August 1970, p. 16. 32National Advisory Commission on Criminal Justice Standards and Goals, Report on Police (Washington, D.C.: 'Government Printing Office, 1973), p. 388. 26 Saunders determined that few departments consciously select their training strategy. Instead, the choose the traditional emphasis--development of personnel who are readily subject to organi- 33 zational control. Curricula tend to reinforce what already exists, trainers tend to emphasize management desires, and programs tend to ensure the survival of the organization.34 McNamara supported the contention that training is organi- zationally supportive, and commented that police training programs make marked attempts to avoid matters of unCertainty during recruit training. Training programs are aimed at comprehensive attempts to ensure organizational security by producing graduates who can be considered well exposed to a standard program of training. This standardization is ultimately justified not so much by the objectively grounded validity of its content but by its consistency with legal prescriptions and organizational rules and regulations.35 One of the main purposes of the police academy, as Harris described it, is to develop uniform behavior within the department in order to lessen the need to depend on one's own judgment. Training tends to narrow the officer's range of options, rather than expand it. Some of the techniques used to obtain uniform behavior are external 33 34Alvin W. Cohn, "Training in the Criminal Justice System," Federal Probation, June 1974, p. 36. Saunders, op. cit., p. 131. 35John H. McNamara, "Role Learning for Police Recruits: Some Problems in the Process of Preparation for the Uncertainties of Police Work" (Ph.D. dissertation, University of California, 1967), p. 280. 27 discipline, written rules and procedures, a reporting system, and an internal inspection section.36 Length of Trainipg_ The number of hours of training is obviously not an adequate measure of a program's value. -However, along with an assessment of other elements of the curriculum, it provides a rough indication of the amount of resources invested in training and the importance an organization attaches to the need for training.. In this respect, the contrast between police training in the United States and in certain European countries is quite signifi- cant. In Denmark a new police officer spends five years in a combi- nation of work experience and class preparation before he is con- sidered fully trained. In Sweden, a minimum of one year of training is required. In Germany, three to four years of instruction and training are provided before a recruit receives official recognition as a police officer.37 These figures sharply contrast with the hours of training required by or recommended for the typical American police department training program. The President's Commission, in 1967, recommended that an absolute minimum of 400 classroom hours be established for 38 basic police training. The same year, a study conducted by the 36Richard N. Harris, The Police Academy: An Inside View (New York: John Wiley and Sons, 1973)} p. 160. 37George E. Berkley, The Democratic Policeman (Boston: The Beacon Press, 1969), pp. 77-83. 38President's Commission, The Challenge of Crime in a Free Society, 0p. cit., p. 112. 28 International Association of Chiefs of Police found that the average policeman received less than 200 hours of formal training. This study compared that figure to other professions and found physicians received more than 11,000 hours, lawyers more than 9,000 hours, teachers more than 7,000 hours, embalmers more than 5,000 hours, and barbers more than 4,000.39 According to Bonsignore et al., the vast majority of police- men begin their work with less than five weeks' training of any kind. They argued that if society wants police to behave like psychiatrists, it must be willing to treat and train them like psychiatrists, rather than as semi-skilled laborers requiring only a few weeks of train- ing.40 Opposing this opinion was Harris, who stated that, given the present state of police training, if the training period were doubled or even tripled its effects on the recruits would probably be the same.41 Smith and Ostrom reached the same conclusion in their study of the effects of length of police training programs on various aspects of police proficiency. They found that an officer's total length of training as a recruit had little impact on his feelings 39National Advisory Commission, Report on Police, op. cit., p. 380. 40John J. Bonsignore, Ethan Katsh, Peter d'Errico, Ronald M. Pipkin, and Stephen Arons, Before the Law: An Introduction to the Legal Process (Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co., 1974), p. 106. 41Harris, op. cit., pp. 162-163. 29 of preparedness or attitudes, nor did he receive higher evaluations from the citizens he served.42 In a survey directed by McManus, it was found that in most cities a comparatively high percentage of the training program was spent on patrol and traffic training, criminal law, evidence, and investigation, while a comparatively low percentage of the training program was spent in community relations and human behavior. It was concluded that the averages determined did not necessarily indi- cate an "ideal" program since the curricula studied might not have been based on anything more than tradition, trial and error, or other uncritical criteria.43 The National Advisory Commission identified several broad subject areas to be included in a 400-hour police recruit training program, along with recomnended percentages of distributing the instruction. This recommended curriculum is as follows: Introduction to Criminal Justice Systems 8 percent Law , 10 percent Human Values and Problems 22 percent Patrol and Investigation Procedures 33 percent Police Proficiency 18 percent Administration 9 percent It was suggested that as a program increases in length, and more effi- cient teaching methods are used, additional academic subjects can be ___ 42Dennis C. Smith and Eleanor Ostrom, "The Effects of Training and Education on Police Attitudes and Performance: A Preliminary Analysis" (unpublished paper submitted to the Center for Studies of Mgtropolitan Problems of the National Institute of Mental Health, 4 , p. 38. 43McManus et al., Police Training and Performance Study, OP. cit., pp. 173-184. 30 introduced. The vocational subjects must not be reduced, but comple- mentary subjects should be added to these basic skills.44 Police Work vs. Police Training For an effective police recruit training curriculum to be developed, as much information as possible relating to the police officer's work activities must be obtained. When it is known what a police officer does during his tour of duty, it should become a much easier matter to make decisions about what the officer should be trained to do--in effect, the skills and knowledge the officer needs to do the job most effectively. From this information the rela- tive importance and emphasis of each element of the curriculum can be determined, as well as the amount of time to be devoted to each element. In recent years, a considerable amount of research has been conducted on the relative proportion of time a police officer spends on various patrol activities. The popular conception of police activity is that it primarily involves chasing criminals and fighting crime. The results of several studies of police work, however, have indicated that police activity is taken up with other matters. In a survey of the Syracuse Police Department, 68 percent of the radio calls handled by the police over a six-day period were 'found to be concerned with order maintenance and community service, whereas only 10 percent involved law enforcement. The remaining —_ 44National Advisory Commission, Report on Police, op. cit., Pp. 393-394. 31 calls were related to information gathering, making reports, and so on.45 (See Table 2.1.) The Syracuse findings were similar to those obtained in studies of the police in seven other major cities. Generally, these studies have found that about 20 percent of the police offi- cer's time is spent handling calls related to criminal activities, while the remaining 80 percent of the time is spent performing a wide variety of order maintenance and community service activities.46 Morton Bard, in his analysis of the study by Cumming et al., revealed that about one-half of the calls for assistance received by the department studied involved complaints of a personal or inter- personal nature.47 Within the area of police work involving com- plaints of an interpersonal nature, it is necessary to focus attention on reports of physical harm to the police involved. An examination of the activities of law enforcement officers at the time of the 45James O. Wilson, Varieties of Police Behavior (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1968), p. 18. 46Thomas E. Bercal, "Calls for Police Assistance: Consumer Demands for Governmental Service," Police in Urban Society, ed. Harlan Hahn (Beverly Hills: Sage Publications, 1970. pp. 267-277; Egon Bittner, "The Police on Skid-Row: A Study of.Peace-Keeping," American Sociologj; cal Review 32 (October 1967): 699-715; Elaine Cumming, Ian Cumming, and Laura Edell, "Policeman as Philosopher, Guide and Friend," Social Problems 12 (Winter 1965): 276-286; Frank L. Manella, "Humanism in Police Training," The Police Chief, February 1971, pp. 26-28; Michael (O'Neill and Carlton Bloom, "The Field Officer: Is He Really Fighting (:rime?" The Police Chief, February 1972. PP. 30-32; R. L. Parnas, "Police Response to the Domestic Disturbance," Wisconsin Law Review, l=all 1967, p. 914; John Webster, "Police Task and Time Study,“ Journal c>f Criminal Law, Criminology, and Police Science 61 (1970): 94-100. 47Morton Bard, TrainjpgzPolice as Specialists in Family Crisis _Iptervention (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1971), p. 1. 32 Table 2.1.--Citizen complaints radioed to patrol vehicles, Syracuse Police Department, June 3-9, 1966 (based on a one-fifth sample of a week's calls). c3115 Number in Full Count Sample (Sample x 5) Percent Information gathering_ 69 345 22.1 Book and check 2 Get a report 67 Service 117 585 37.5 Accidents, illnesses, ambulance calls 42 Animals 8 Assist a person 1 Drunk person 8 Escort vehicle 3 Fire, power line or tree down 26 Lost or found person or property 23 Property damage 6 Order maintenance 94 470 30.1 Gang disturbance 50 Family trouble Assault, fight Investigation Neighbor trouble Law enforcement Burglary in progress Check a car Open door, window Prowler Make an arrest 32 160 10.3 N «DOSCDU'ISD boomed Totals 312 1.560 100.0 Source: James O. Wilson, Varieties of Police Behavior (New York: Atheneum Publishers, 1973)} p. 18. 33 incident, compiled by the Federal Bureau of Investigation, dis- closed that the most assaults on police (26 percent) occur when they are responding to disturbance calls. Such calls are also one of the leading causes of police fatalities in the line of duty; they accounted for approximately one-fourth of the police killed in 1973.48 In addition, it is estimated that 40 percent of the time an officer loses to disabilities results from injuries received when 49 This information is most PEIGVant» answering these types of calls. considering there is little evidence to show that techniques for managing crises are included in existing recruit training programs. In contrast to the previously cited findings, numerous sources indicate that a comparatively high percentage of the police training curriculum (90 percent) is devoted to patrol, traffic training, criminal law, evidence, and investigation. The remainder of the time (10 percent) is reported to deal with community and human relations.50 In all cities and towns, no matter what their size, 48Federal Bureau of Investigation, Crime in the United States, Uniform Crime Reports, 1973 (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1974), pp. 37-47. 49Bard, op. cit., p. iii. 50American Bar Association, Standards Relating to the Urban _Eolice Function, op. cit., p. 207; Richard V. Badalamente et al., "Training Police for Their Social Role," Journal of Police Science fend Administration 1 (December 1973): 440-453; "Get the Ball Rolling: 1A Guide to PCR Programs" (New Orleans: National Association of Police Conmunity Relations Officers, 1971), p. 8, cited by Robert C: 'Irojanowicz and Samuel L. Dixon, Criminal Justice and the Community (Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1974), p. 266; [Donald W. McEvoy, "Training for the New Centurions," in The Police yd the Behavioral Science, ed. J. Leonard Steinberg and Donald W. lchvoy (Springfield, 111.: Charles C. Thomas Publishers, 1974), p. 10; McManus et al., Police Training and Performance Study, op. cit., 34 location, or metropolitan status, the emphasis in training, as wit- nessed above, is overwhelmingly on such topics as law or traffic rather than the reality of the work (see Figure 2.1). It should be kept in mind that the amount of time an officer spends doing a job cannot be directly correlated with the training time needed for that job without accounting, subjectively perhaps, for the importance of the job. For example, the amount of time an officer spends in firearms training in recruit school to acquaint himself with the use of weapons must be weighed in relation to the fact that the officer in the field spends only a minute fraction of his time using firearms. At the same time, the vital significance of the possible safety resulting from the use of the firearm must also be considered. The fact of the matter is that, according to the President's Commission, peace-keeping and service activities, which consume the majority of police time, receive too little consideration in police recruit training. What a policeman does, or should do, instead of making an arrest, or in a situation in which he may not make an arrest, is rarely covered in training.51 In fact, the American Bar Association emphasized that the heart of policing consists in working p. 184; National Commission on Productivity, ImprovingpPolice Prodoo- tivity (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1973), p. 7; Saunders, op. cit., p. 124; C. E. TeasleyIII and Leonard Wright, '"The Effects of Training on Police Recruit Attitudes," Journal of [Zolice Science and Administration 1 (June 1973): 246-247; Wall and (Zulloo, "State Standards for Law Enforcement Selection and Training, can. cit., p. 431. 5IPresident's Commission, The Challenge of Crime in a Free §2£1§Ly. op. cit., p. 92. Other Activity (information gathering, ser- vices, order maintenance) 80% Other Activity (information gathering, ser- vices, order maintenance) 35 POLICE WORK Law Enforcement Activity 20% ' 11111111 POLICE TRAINING Law Enforcement Activity 90% Figure 2.l.--Comparison of time spent on law enforcement and other (information gathering, services, order maintenance) activities on the street compared to time spent in training. 36 with difficult human problems--often at a point of crisis. A police officer must handle a steady stream of the most serious, the most unusual, the most deviant, and the most bizarre human conduct that reflects personal and interpersonal problems of the most aggravated form.52 Viewed in this manner, it seems preposterous that those who are called upon to handle the most difficult human problems should receive such a small amount of training in this area. Police Role Conflict Many authors have divided police work into three functional parts. The first function is designated "law enforcement," which involves those actions directly related to handling law violations and apprehending criminals. The second involves an "order mainte- nance" or "peace-keeping“ function, and the third involves the pro- vision of “services." The peace-keeping function includes many activities of the police that are not necessarily connected with criminal behavior, such as handling family or racial disputes and routine patrolling. Under the law enforcement function police are often viewed, and in fact view themselves, as a paramilitary organiza- tion in a virtual war on criminals.53 Other writers have even expanded these functions or roles of the police officer to include the various and sometimes conflicting 52American Bar Association, op. cit., p. 207. 53Albert J. Reiss, Jr., "Professionalism of the Police," in Police and Community Relations, ed. A. F. Brandstatter and Louis A. Eggelet (Beverly Hills, Calif.: The Glencoe Press, 1969), pp. 215- 37 roles of peacekeeper, community service agent, crime fighter, individual on the streets, organization man, and the quasi-judicial role.54 Recognizing how the police actually spend their time on the job, compared to what they are primarily trained for, emphasizes what many writers have said--that the police suffer from role con- flict. If police work is seen as strict law enforcement and criminal work, there is no real role conflict with traditional recruit train- ing, since the majority of the training is in this area. However, if police work is seen as a service-oriented, peace-keeping activity that requires extensive knowledge of people and the frequent exercise of discretion, there exists a definite conflict of roles between training and reality.55 The former role and mandate of the law enforcement officer was simple and direct: to prevent crime and preserve the peace. The social climate of our modern urban center has considerably broadened this earlier concept. The police officer now finds himself playing the role of the arbitrator between rival social factions; he finds himself involved in the delicate field of human relations; he finds 54Daniel Cruise and Jesse Rubin, Criminal Justice Monogreph: Determinants of Police Behavior--A Summary (washington, D.C.: Govern- ment Printing Office, 1973), p. 13. 55Sterling, Changes in Role Concepts of Police Officers, 0p. cit.. Pp. 282-283. 38 himself attempting to understand and respond to the changing mores and social structure of American urban society.56 The discussion of the police role in society is of relatively recent origin, having received recognition as the result of a study in the mid-1950's by the American Bar Association. In that study, it was documented that the police perform a variety of tasks, which although related to the criminal justice process, are a result of the decision not to invoke the criminal justice process, and are not criminal in nature.57 Many police officials and some scholars have utilized this debate to attempt to encourage the police to withdraw from activity that, in their opinion, detracts from the performance of the real police role--the prevention and control of serious crime. Bruce Smith, for example, argued that the imposition of duties and demands that are not related to crime control dilutes the effectiveness of the police, and that the growing trend in this direction should be curtailed and even reversed.58 On the other side, the President's Commission, with the support of a very few police officials, urged the 56William Mooney, "Foundation for Law Enforcement, The Distinction Between 'Training and Education,'" speech given to the 1970 National Conference on Law Enforcement Education, February 1-3, 1970, Jacksonville, Florida. 57Wayne R. LaFave, Arrest: The Decision to Take a Suepect %nto Custody (Boston: Little, Brown and Company, 1965), pp. 61- 53. 58Smith, Police System in the United States, op. cit., 39 police not only to continue to perform in this area, but to seek more and better alternatives for decriminalizing their work.59 A number of scholars have also defended police involvement in nonenforcement activities, which Wilson described as order main- tenance.60 Police scholars have encouraged such efforts because they believe positive contacts between the community and the police cannot but improve their relations and provide the police with the opportunity to prevent crime. The requests for nonenforcement services that the police presently receive from the public are typical of those that were of major importance during the early history of law enforcement in this nation.61 The President's Commission Stated that it is easy to understand why the police traditionally have performed such services: These are services that somebody must perform and policemen being the only representative of local government readily accessible 24 hours a day, make the police logical candidates. Moreover, it is natural to interpret the police role of "pro- tection" as meaning protection not only against crime but . against hazards, accidents, or even discomforts of life. 2 59The President's Commission. Task Force Report: The Police. 0p. cit., pp. 13-38. 60Ibid.; Egon Bittner, The Functions of the Police in Modern Society (Rockville, Md.: National Institute of Mental Health, 1972), pp. 1-122; James O. Wilson, Varieties of Police Behavior, op. cit., pp. 17-34. ' 6lFor a more complete discussion, see Carte, "August Vollmer and the Origins of Police Professionalism," op. cit., pp. 274-281; Raymond B. Fosdick, American Police Systems (New York: The Century Company, 1920), pp. 370-376; Roger Lane, Policing the City, Boston: 1822-1885, referred to.by Jack E. Whitehouse, “Historical PerspeCtiVes ion the Police Community Service Function," Journal of Police Science and Administration 1 (March 1973): 87-92. 52President's Commission, The Challenge of Crime in a Free Society, op. cit., pp. 97-98. 40 That someone should provide these services is not to be denied. Yet, as a result of society's needs, the police have allowed themselves to be put in the awkward position of using resources to perform functions not normally recognized by the public. Presently, the police are being judged on but one-fifth of their activity; that is, the activity that is crime related. Consequently, approximately four-fifths of police function has been lost from the policy and decision-making processes of the departments. This in turn not only causes a role conflict for the individual officer by giving only certain police activities official recognition and emphasis, but also the efficient administration and organization of the department suffer. The predicament of the police in America today can scarcely be overstated, caught as they are between two contradictory develop- ments. Their job is becoming more difficult, and at the same time their resources are deteriorating. As Skolnick noted, "no recent observer doubts that the police are under increasing strain largely because they are increasingly being given tasks well beyond their resources."63 The stressful situations arising from the role conflict of the police must be resolved-~both for the well-being of society and for the physical and mental health of the police officer. The former director of training for the Chicago Police Department wrote: 63Jerome H. Skolnick, The Politics of Protest: Violent A_Spects of Protest and Confrontation (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1969), p. 189. 41 . . In law enforcement we have an extremely high incidence of mental and physical problems, and. . . the main cause of many of these illnesses is frustration. Possibly the most gzgsgrated group of people in society is the working police- Statistics compiled by the United States Department of Health, Education and Welfare corroborate the foregoing statement. Police officers experience a higher incidence of heart attacks resulting in death and disability than do people in other professions.65 Even more current research has identified psychological stress as an important cause of such health problems as gastro-intestinal mal- function, dermatological problems, severe nervous conditions, neurosis, and a number of other physical and mental disorders.66 In regard to how the police feel about their role, James Wilson implied that "real police work" to a police officer means catching "real" criminals or making the "big case" and preferably 67 while the crime is being committed. Johnson found that when the policeman is engaged in control activities he regards as "real police 64Robert E. McCann, presentation made to the 1970 National Conference on Law Enforcement Education, February 1-3, 1970, Jackson- ville, Florida, p. 15. 65United States Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, Occupational Characteristics of Disabling Workers by Disabling Condi- tions (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1967). 66William H. Kroes, Bruce L. Margolis, and Joseph J. Hurrell, Jr., "Job Stress in Policemen," Journal of Police Science and Adminis- tration 2 (June 1974): 145. 67Wilson, Varieties of Police Behavior, op. cit., p. 68. 42 work," he is most likely to have high morale.68 However, the police officer reportedly becomes frustrated when his desire to do "real police work" is stymied, and he must respond to calls for service or information. Yet, the "real police work" issue is open to debate, based- on the findings of various studies related to the subject. Reiser found that one of the primary motivations of the new recruit in enter- ing the police profession is a desire to help in the community.69 Additionally, as reported in various studies, social and community 70 Numerous service ranked high in police officers' interests. studies have shown that when police officers had been exposed to various noncriminal training matters, such as community and human relations and interpersonal communication, they strongly believed this type of training should be part of every officer's training.7] 68Elmer H. Johnson, "Police: An Analysis of Role Conflict," Eoljoe_l4 (January-February 1970): 47-52. 69Martin Reiser, "Some Organization Stresses on Policemen," Journal of Police Science and Administration 2 (June 1974): 156-159. 70Joseph Matarozoo et al., "Characteristics of Successful Policeman and Fireman Applicants," Journal of Applied Psychology 48 (1964): 123-133; Robert Mills, "Use of Diagnostic Small Groups in Police Recruitment, Selection and Training," Journal of Criminal Law, Criminology, and Police Science 60 (1969): 240. 7IByron L. Boer and Bruce C. Miller, "Human Relations Training: Laboratories and Team Policing," Journal of Police Science and Adminis- tration 1 (June 1973): 162-167; C. Donald Engle, "Police Training in Non-Crime Related Functions," The Police Chief, June 1974. pp. 61-65; Richard C. Huseman, "Interpersonal Communication Training for Police: An Evaluation," Journal of Police Science and Administration 1 (Sept. 1973): 355-361; Joseph A. Kelley and Thomas W. O'Rourke, "Police Officers' View Towards Police/Community Relations," The Police Chief, January 1975. pp. 65-80. 43 In fact, in one of these studies, a high percentage (70 percent) of police officers exposed to training in police/community relations went so far as to suggest that the police should initiate programs designed to help solve social problems in the community.72 In addition, Zacker and Bard found in their evaluation of conflict management training, given in addition to the normal police recruit training, that the performance of policemen so trained improved significantly, as measured by traditional police criteria relating to the law enforcement function.73 Sterling discovered that a primary source of role conflict for the patrolman is the necessity of exercising personal discre- 74 tion. It is in this area of peacekeeping-order maintenance that some observers see the greatest need for attitudinal change and training for discretion.75 In studying the police role in the context of role theory, Preise and Ehrlich found a significant discrepancy between the ideal and the actual in police recruit training. In training, the recruit is given the impression that the law is all important. But in the field he quickly learns that more flexibility in enforcing the law 72 73Joseph Zacker and Morton Bard, "Effects of Conflict Manage- ment Training on Police Performance," Journal of Applied Peychology 58 (1973): 202- 208. 74Sterling, Changes in Role Concepts of Police Officers, 0p. cit., p. 284. . 75Teasley and Wright, "The Effects of Training on Police Recruit Attitudes," op. cit., p. 247; David M. Rafky, “Police Race Attitudes and Labeling,“ Journal of Police Science and Administration 1 (March 1973): 82-86. Kelley and O'Rourke, op. cit., p. 65. 44 76 prevails. Johnson agreed, stressing that the policeman's formal training creates potential for role conflict by emphasizing law enforcement rather than peacekeeping and public service.77 Hoover concluded that the true role of the police officer does not entirely consist in either law enforcement or social work, but rather order maintenance--defined as the management of conflict 78 To clarify this statement, the term "order maintenance" situations. is meant to be synonymous with "service" or "social work“ function of the police. Conceived in this manner, order maintenance becomes the major purpose of the police, whereas law enforcement and social work are the means to achieve this purpose. Further development of this point sees law enforcement and social work as not being separate functions, but rather alternative techniques utilized to resolve conflict situations.79 However, it must be realized that the two techniques used to perform the function of Order maintenance--law enforcement and social work--involve basically conflicting value systems and thereby produce role conflict. 76Jack J. Preise and Howard J. Ehrlich, An Examination of Role Theory: The Case of the State Police (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1966); pp. 20-21. 77Johnson, op. cit., p. 52. 78Larry Thorne Hoover, "Police Recruit Educational Background Analysis" (Ph.D. dissertation, Michigan State University, 1974), p. 58. 79Ibid.. pp. 56-57. 45 Innovations in Police Training Thus far the review of the literature has focused primarily on a criticism of various aspects of the state-of-the-art, in effect, what is wrong with police recruit training. On the other side of this issue, a number of valuable suggestions and recommendations recently have been made and experience gained by academies experi- menting with various training innovations. The literature related to police training is replete with specific recommendations for improving the instruction in training through a variety of methods. A partial list of the more commonly cited and/or discussed means to enhance instruction in police train- ing includes: seminars, compressed speech, correspondence courses, closed-circuit television, coach-pupil methods, role-playing, situa- tion simulation, encounter group, on-the-job training, performance 80 evaluation, team teaching, and individualized instruction. However, 80Harry 0. Coldwell, "The Challenge of Police-Community Rela- tions Training," FBI Law Enforcement Bulletin, Part V (August 1974), pp. 22-24, and Part 11 (September 1974), pp. 22-25; Badalamente et al., "Training Police for Their Social Role," op. cit., pp. 448-452; Howard H. Earle, Police Recruit Trainingg_Stress vs. Non-Stress (Springfield, I11.: Charles C. Thomas Publishers, 1973), pp. 75 and 152-153; Walter E. Buck, "Hands-On Training," The Police Chief, June 1973. pp. 48-50; Edwin Rausch, "Games for Training," Law and Order, February 1970. PD- 40, 94; John Fakler, "TV Role-Playing for Train- ing," Law and Order, February 1970. pp. 32-38; National Advisory Commission on Criminal Justice Standards and Goals, Report on Police, op. cit., pp. 409-412; Martin R. Gardner, Sr., "Some Use of Media in Law Enforcement Training Programs of the Future," Law and Order, February 1971, pp. 28-37; James H. Auten, "Training Within the Small Department," Law and Order, February 1970. pp. 42-45; Harvey Barocas and Myron L. Katz, "Dayton's Pilot Training Program: Crisis Inter- vention," The Police Chief, July 1971, pp. 27-29; McManus et al., Police Training and Performance Study, op. cit., pp. 84-86; George P. Tielsch, "Community Field Training for Police Recruits," The Police Chief, November 1972, pp. 30-32. 46 a review of this literature concerning police use of these techniques reveals little attempt to place their use on a sound theoretical footing. In spite of the above-mentioned specific recommendations for improving police training, the literature repeatedly suggests that the lecture method is the most commonly used instructional method.81 This time-honored procedure has merit in the efficient presentation of organized material to certain groups of individuals. Finkelman and Reichman suggested that the most efficient means of training a sophisticated state or municipal police group in specialized police 82 On the other hand, it subjects is through the lecture method. may be appropriate in certain training situations, such as when dealing with psychologically related subjects, for the learner to participate actively in the training process. In his study at the New York Police Academy, McManus stated that the lecture method is inappropriate as the basic-and almost exclusive teaching method in academy courses. Instead, he recom-‘ mended the use of varied instructional methods..83 Agreeing with McManus, Harris concluded that the lecture method of teaching should be replaced with classes that allow the recruit the flexibility to express his beliefs and emotional reactions to contemporary issues. 8IPresident's Commission, Task Force Report: The Police, op. cit., p. 139; McManus et al., op. cit., p. 84; Finkelman and Reichman, "Police Training Strategies: A Contingency Model," op. cit., p. 426. 82 83 Finkelman and Reichman, op. cit., pp. 425-428. McManus et al., op. cit., p. 84. 47 He criticized the lecture style for not only making learning a passive process but also for failing to teach the "whole man."84 Another area of particular concern to recruit training is the related field training experience. Many of the writers empha- sized that the most critical period in the training and development of a new police officer is the one immediately following his formal in-house training. These sources stressed that the field experience appears to have more influence on the recruit's attitudes than does the formal block of training.85 The National Advisory Commission presented the strongest recommendations regarding the use of field training as a part of the total training of the new officer. The Commission recommended that following the initial formal training period, the new employee should spend a minimum of four months in various field training experiences under the direction of a training coach. This period, along with the recommended minimum formal training of ten weeks (400 hours, as pre- viously discussed) and an additional four weeks of formal training after the field training experience during the new employee's first year, totals thirty weeks. It was further recommended that the 84Harris, The Police Academy: An Inside View, op. cit., pp. 174-178. 85McNamara, "Role Learning for Police Recruits,“ op. cit., pp. 275-283; Arthur Niederhoffer, Behind the Shield (Garden City, New York: Doubleday, 1967), pp. 44-47; James W. Sterling, "The Personal Effects of Performing the Police Function in Modern Society," speech presented to the 79th IACP Annual Conference, Salt Lake City, Utah, October 17, 1972. 48 remaining part of the year be spent under close supervision of quali- fied supervisory personnel.86 .Aside from the previously discussed issues regarding recom- mendations of innovative methods and techniques to improve police recruit training, a recent trend becomes evident after reviewing the related literature. There is a current emphasis on converting train- ing programs from an instructional hour to performance orientation that is visible in the development of a number of major and costly projects (with some running into millions of dollars). Primarily, these projects have involved an analysis of the role of the police officer and/or a system analysis of his functions. Several police training agencies have already converted their basic training programs into the developed performance objective, and some others are con- templating the change or are in the developmental stages.87 A brief discussion of some of these major projects is necessary for a clearer understanding of the current emphasis on improving police training. gonsolidated Federal Law Enforcement TrainingpProject Probably the earliest major project directed at an analysis of the police function through a systems approach was that undertaken 86National Advisory Commission, Report on Police, op. cit., pp. 392-397. 87The Los Angeles Police Department, Metropolitan Washington, D.C., Police Department, and the Police Training Institute of the Uni- versity of Illinois are noteworthy examples, while the California State Commission on Peace Officers Standards and Goals is currently conduct- ing a project which will convert all its training programs to perfor- mance objectives. 49 88 The project developed a train- by the federal government in 1967. ing program through the consolidation of a number of federal law enforcement training agencies. This program development was accomp- lished by two task forces collecting work data. One group collected its data through interviews with supervisory officials and then worked their way down through the organization to the patrolman, thereby obtaining first-hand observational data. The second group prepared initial job data and task descriptions using the agency operations manual and spot-checked them for validity with a small number of field operating agents.89 The results of the two groups' efforts were analyzed and special behavior performance objectives were developed. From this, the final step was the development of a training outline identifying for each unit of instruction the specific terminal performance objec- tive content in terms of interim objectives, instructional methods, instructional media, and the required time for instruction.90 Project MILE In 1968 the Los Angeles Police Department initiated Project MILE, an acronym for Development and Evaluation of Individualized Multi-Media Instruction for Law Enforcement; the program is presently 88Sidney Freeman, "A Systems Approach to Law Enforcement Training," The Police Chief, August 1968, pp. 61-66. 89Ibid.. pp. 64-65. 90Ibid.. pp. 66-69. 50 91 A job analysis of in operation but is not yet fully implemented. the basic police functions was conducted. Eventually, terminal performance objectives were developed for these police functions. A further analysis of each terminal performance objective was made to determine the knowledge, skills, and attitudes required to perform each task. From this a multi-media system of training was selected over the traditional lecture method. This included using slides, workbooks, and tapes with which the student would have individual and 92 In addition, a computer-assisted instruc- self-paced instruction. tion method was developed for Project MILE. The program utilizes a computer-assisted learning system for the purpose of training in the areas of arrest, search, and seizure.93 Basic Officer Training System Desigp_ The Metropolitan Police Department, Washington, D.C., in 1971 initiated the Basic Officer Training System Design with the intention of making the training of police more relevant to the performance required on the street. A task force, assisted by various levels of command in the department and street patrolmen, developed terminal performance objectives from a job analysis. These objectives were 91C1arence Zaitz, "Police Training: Law, Order, and the Media Generation," raining, November 1974, p. 32., 92Ibid.. pp. 32-36. 93Richard W. Brightman, Computer Assisted Instruction Program for Police Training (CALCOP) (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office. 1972), pp. 1-2. . 51 separated into a sequence of performance tasks and subtasks required for mastery of each objective.94 Individual learning modules were designed whereby the student assumes a major role in defining and scheduling courses of instruc- tion according to his needs and abilities, through the recommended sequence of instruction and instructional resources. Emphasis is on response/feedback and media-mix instruction to provide a learning system containing few or no traditional lecture presentations.95 Project STAR Project STAR, an acronym for Systems and Training Analysis of Requirements for Criminal Justice System Participants, is a pro- ject involving four states, the Law Enforcement Assistance Adminis- tration, and numerous local criminal justice agencies in developing model training program packages for the criminal justice system.96 In addition to conducting a job analysis, various roles of Operational criminal justice positions were also identified and des- cribed. This role perception survey and analysis preceded the job task analysis from which performance objectives were formulated. Educational and training modules that address those performance objectives not satisfied by existing training programs were developed, 94Metropolitan Police Department Training Division, Basic Officer Training System Design (Washington, D.C.: Metropolitan Police Department, 1972), pp. 1-3. 95Ibid.. pp. 30-32. {/96American Justice Institute, Project Summary--Project STAR (Marina del Rey, California: American Justice Institute, 1971), p. 1. 52 demonstrated, and evaluated. Implementation plans and procedures for a continuous assessment of knowledge and skill requirements as well as changing job responsibilities for criminal justice personnel were also developed.97 The major difference in the terminal performance objectives developed by the studies briefly discussed above and those developed by Project STAR was explained by Garza and Pierce. "The mechanical aspects of task analysis in the former [projects], contrasted with the initial focus on role perception analysis by Project STAR, resulted in behavior-oriented terminal performance objectives."98 Nature of Change Relevant to Innovation When innovation is undertaken in police training, normally a particular procedure is followed in the curriculum development. This procedure, the change process, is by no means an exclusive concern of a single segment of society. The concern with change in general is felt and expressed in the military, religion, agriculture, business and industry, education, and elsewhere. Changing, the change process, implementation of research findings, dissemination of infor- mation, the diffusion of innovation and adoption of innovations-- 97 98Manuel R. Garza and Kenneth R. Pierce, Jr., "A Comparative Study of the Project STAR Police Terminal Performance Objectives and the Michigan Law Enforcement Officers Training Council Basic {raiying Objectives" (Masters thesis, Michigan State University, 973 . p. 39. Ibid.. pp. 1-13. 53 however one wishes to term this interest, it is present and is ever increasing. In reference to change in general, as related to the police, the President's Commission of a decade ago was seen as a force for enlightened constructive change and as such strongly influenced 99 Yet, the police are private and public attitudes toward reform. not generally looked upon as a progressive, change-oriented segment of our society. Germann insisted that the police services of America exist largely as they have always been, with change being dilatory, minimal, and grudging.100 Nevertheless, if there is to be change, it must start some- where, and it seems that the burden of this impetus is on the police. Harris believed the police themselves must initiate change if they want to prevent external agencies from gaining control over some of 10] Therefore, it is up to police the aspects of law enforcement. trainers to become more involved in planned change rather than simply allowing the system to evolve and react to crises. 99Christopher F. Edley, "Observations of the Change Process in the Police Field: An External View," Criminal Justice Monograph: Innovation in Law Enforcement (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1973), p. 52. 100A. C. Germann, "The Police: A Mission and Role," in Criminal Justice Readings, ed. Thomas F. Adams (Pacific Palisades, Calif.: Goodyear Publishing Company, Inc., 1972), p. 127. 101 p. 182. Harris, The Police Academy: An Inside View, op. cit., 54 Failure and Success in Innovations This brings us to the fact that most innovations in police departments have failed. A study of a number of innovations sup- ported by the Police Foundation revealed a variety of reasons for these failures. It was found that if the original idea was not fully developed, the entire project did not measure up to its potential and no amount of leadership or careful planning could save it. It was also discovered that if the original idea was good, but it was not championed by an effective leader, no amount of publicity or skill-1 ful management at a lower level could institutionalize the project. Further, if the idea was sound, the leadership committed and skill- ful, but the planning weak, then the innovation would always be a qualified success.102 As a result of an examination of the above reasons for potential failure of a particular change, the following criteria were suggested by the Police Foundation study for greater success poten- tial: l. The project undertaken should form an integral part of the department's overall program of improvement. 2. It should be the personal commitment of a core of police leaders within the department, and satisfy some need of the rank and file as well as satisfy a need which is considered to be of concern to the community. 102Catherine H. Milton, "Demonstration Projects as a Strategy for Change," Criminal Justice Monograph: Innovation in Law Enforcement (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1973), pp. 123-125. 55 3. The project should also be structured to ensure serious continuing commitment from a core of departmental leadership, as well as it being fully integrated into the entire department. 4. The evaluation component needs to be integrated into the design of the innovation and must not be considered as an afterthought. 5. Finally, the responsibility for the dissemination of the information regarding the innovation must not be exclusively that of the project director.103 Support for Change Igleburger, Angell, and Pence proposed that the adminis- tration of a police department has available a variety of methods that should be considered in developing strategies to obtain support for change or to neutralize employees' resistance to change.104 One such strategy is rewards and threats. Research has suggested that rewards, particularly psychological ones, are much more effec- tive than threats.105 Another method is rationality and indoctrination. Rational discussion of problems and alternatives by all people in the department is likely to establish an environment conducive to change. This 1°3Ibid.. pp. 125-133. 104Robert M. Igleburger, John E. Angell, and Gary Pence, "Changing Urban Police: Practitioners' View," Criminal Justice Mono- graph: Innovation in Law Enforcement (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1973), pp. 92-98. 105Chris Argyris, Organization and Innovation (Homewood, Illinois: Richard D. Irwin, Inc., 1965), p. 127. 56 approach, however, does not give the appearance of orderly, effi- cient operations because it cannot be carried out without conflict. Rational discussion was seen by Igleburger et a1. as being far superior to the traditional indoctrination approach found in most police training Curricula.106 Still another method for achieving support for Change is cooption and replacement, which can be achieved by replacing key individuals with others from within the department or by bringing in professionals from outside the department. And finally, there are camouflage and diversionary tactics that can be used to effect support for change. This involves bringing about change under dif- ferent auspices than are really intended. As Igleburger et al. pointed out, the preceding methods can be easily abused and the chief administrator should explore all the ethical questions involved, since there can be both effective and ethical approaches to winning support for organizational change.107 It is important to recognize that in our society, no public administrator has the authority, power, or resources to control 108 change completely. Yet, unmanaged change could be counter- productive. The administrator may strive for continuous, productive 106Igleburger, Angell and Pence, op. cit., p. 94. 107 108Daniel Katz and Robert L. Kahn, The Social Psychology of Organizations (New York: John Wiley and Sons, 1966), p. 11. Ibid.. pp. 95-99. 57 change in a number of ways. The first consideration is opening the organization to outsiders; this can unfreeze many of the previously unchallenged notions and procedures, and it will facilitate reestab- lishing the police as a part of their communities.109 . By supporting and tolerating differences among people, and establishing conditions for the spread of such tolerant attitudes, the administrator also establishes the conditions necessary for moving his department toward meaningful changes.no An administrator can facilitate the development of a dynamic organization by establishing new methods and channels for communica- tions. A changing organization needs numerous open channels of communication. In addition, close supervision and autocratic methods stifle change within a police organization. Top-down pressure for change is not sufficient. Steps should be taken to increase the participation in the organizational processes and decision making.”1 Igleburger et al. proposed that the preceding techniques for change can be implemented by modifying the existing classical organi- zational model used by the police. However, they offered a much more drastic approach to implementing change, which decentralizes the police structure through a centralized-decentralized approach. This approach to change calls for organizing the police by centralizing all 109Igleburger et al., op. cit., pp. 100-101. noJohn W. Gardner, Self Renewal: The Individual and the Innovative Society (New York: Harper and Row, 1965), pp. 67-73. 111 Igleburger et al., op. cit., pp. 102-104. 58 the support and staff functions and decentralizing the operational or service delivery activities of the police.”2 The operational units would consist of teams of offiCers assigned to a well-defined geographic area with enough homogenous elements to be considered a community. Each team would have the responsibility and authority to work closely with their community to define its problems and needs and provide the appropriate police services. The teams would be staffed by people with complementary skills to insure that each team would be able to handle the variety of problems they would be expected to encounter. Within well- defined boundaries, the internal management of each team would be left largely with the team. Igleburger et al. saw this approach as the most effective model for change implementation in a police organization, particularly because it involves everyone in planning and implementation, as well as the continuation and upkeep of the change.”3 In another study, Greiner searched the literature on organi- zational change and identified the most commonly used approaches as the decree approach, the replacement approach, the structural approach, the group decision approach, the data discussion approach, the group 114 problem-solving approach, and the T-group approach. Each of these 112Ibid., p. 105. 1‘3It.id.. pp. 105-106. 114L. E. Greiner, "Organizational Change and Development" (Ph.D. dissertation, Harvard Business School, 1965), cited by Louis B. Barnes in The Planning of Change, ed. W. G. Bennis, K. D. Benne, and Robert Chin (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Inc., 1969), pp. 82-84. 59 approaches tends to emphasize the power distribution style. They move in a roughly descending order from unilateral power to mutually shared power. That is, the decree approach represents unilateral initiation to change by formal authority, whereas the T-group approach represents a highly collaborative attempt at shared influ- ence. Barnes indicated that in spite of the fact that the decree approach is more prevalent, there is an increasing emphasis on Greiner's last four approaches and their greater use of shared power. This increase in shared control of change is attributed to the fact that power distribution is more directly confronted in organizations than it once was.115 These brief descriptions have shown that differences in power distribution can affect how the changes will be initiated and imple- mented in a police organization, and more particularly in a police training program. The extremes are that change can be arbitrarily introduced by a single authority source, or the power of change can be more widely shared by the individuals concerned. In contemplating change, we are reminded that administrative action to facilitate the development of a dynamic police organization will create problems, regardless of the approach used. The new direc- tions will not proceed smoothly but will advance by fits and starts 115Louis B. Barnes, "Approaches to Organizational Change," in The Planning of Change, ed. W. G. Bennis, K. D. Benne, and Robert Chin (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Inc., 1969), p. 84. 60 as the program encounters organizational shock, setback, and outright resistance.”6 Development of the Curriculum A modification of the police organization, a change in the definition of the police roles, or numerous other actions eventually result in a change in police training. These changes result in the redevelopment of the curriculum--in other words the curriculum development process. In its broadest sense, the term curriculum has come to represent all methods of teaching and all types of subject matter used to provide opportunity for learning experiences that will culminate in the attainment of established and unestablished goals. Edward King stated that curriculum becomes the instrumentality by which the schools seek to translate hopes into concrete reality.H7 Traditionally, curriculum is described as the formal course- work taken by students; a more elaborate and extensive description would include all the experiences a person has that are associated with school. This includes the social organization of the school, the life continuum of the student, the atmosphere of the classroom, the halls, and so forth--Sometimes known as the hidden curriculum. Leslie Lavis stressed that this hidden curriculum should not be considered as separate from the formal curriculum, since everything 116Stephen Fink, Joel Beak, and Kenneth Taddeo, "Organiza- tional Crisis and Change," Journal of Applied Behavioral Sciences 7 (1971): 15-41. H7Edward King, Curriculum Planning (New York: Harper 3 Brothers, 1957), p. l. 61 118 The that happens in the school can be viewed as the curriculum. present study is concerned with all elements of the curriculum development, the formal and informal, the hidden and unhidden, since all play their part in the formation and development of any curric- ulum. Methods of Development The selection of the subject matter or the development of the curriculum in police training takes place in a number of ways. Often programs are devised or developed by adopting similar programs and course descriptions. Usually few modifications are made to meet any specific needs, in spite of the fact that the "borrowed" program might originally have been designed to meet entirely different ‘19 Some programs are developed through the "arm-chair“ needs. method, by which a program is devised by imagination and guesswork about what should be included in the curriculum. Paul Dressel stressed that most curriculum planning and development is a series of compromises to vested interests and emotional reactions, rather than a comprehensive, rational attempt to achieve certain goals.120 118Leslie Lavis, "Evaluation: A Relationship of Knowledge, Skills, and Values," paper presented at the American Education Research Association Annual Meeting, Minneapolis, Minnesota, March 1970, pp. 5-6. 119Paul L. Dressel and Francis H. DeLisle, Undergraduate Curriculum Trends (Washington, D.C.: American Council on Education, 1969), ppo 78-80. 120Paul L. Dressel, College and University Curriculum (Berkeley: McCutchan Publishing Corporation, 1968), pp. viii, 22. 62 Garza and Pierce identified two of the more common methods used to develop curricula for police training programs--the tradi- 12] The traditional, subjeCt- tional method and the systems approach. oriented approach consists primarily in basing police training pro- grams on other existing police training programs, as discussed above. It is based on the premise that what is currently being taught is what should be taught. Developing a training program through this method calls for the collection of a list of the most important training needs for the organization from a variety of sources. These normally include the supervisor's reports, complaints about and eval- uation of training needs, brainstorming sessions, surveys and ques- tionnaires, and studies of what other training programs are offering. From this list, priorities dealing with time allotments and principal topics are developed and adapted to the current organizational poli- cies and procedures and then put into action. The systems approach to curriculum development in police training programs involves the systematic examination of duties per- formed on the job, and the development of terminal performance objec- tives for each of these tasks. Stated in behavioral terms, the spe- cific knowledge and manipulative skills the student is expected to learn from this program are described in understandable language. The statement includes the conditions under which the student is expected .x1216arza and Pierce, "A Comparative Study," op. cit., p. l. 63 to demonstrate what he has learned, specifically what he must do and how well he is to do it.122 Emphasis is on the student and his per- formance, rather than on the instruction and the subject matter to be taught. The systems approach differs from the traditional approach primarily with regard to the method used to select the subject matter content. The major value of the systems approach in training is the discipline it imposes, and the method of stating terminal perfor- mance objectives. Rigid adherence to behaviorally stated objectives reportedly provides a sound basis for assuring a valid training pro- gram. Preparation of objectives forces an analysis of the job-related tasks, and highlights the tasks for which formal training is needed. The objectives provide a clear statement of what is to be learned, which disciplines the instructor and minimizes guesswork by the stu- dent. Also, the objectives provide a sound basis for evaluating the effectiveness of the training program.123 In addition to the curriculum development procedures des- cribed above, various related and similar methods offer further exploration of the subject. The occupational analysis method is an inventory of skills and knowledge areas required for job proficiency, and is designed as a tool for planning and directing training and education programs. An occupational analysis of skills and knowledge 122Thomas F. Adams, Criminal Justice Organization and Management (Pacific Palisades, California: Goodyear Publishing Company, 1974), p. 147. 123Freeman, "A Systems Approach to Law Enforcement Training," op. cit., pp. 63-64. 64 areas reportedly leads to determining training needs, course plan- ning, lesson planning, and the development of all types of training and evaluation materials.124 An analysis that breaks down the job into detailed activities makes it possible to determine what skills and knowledge the employee must possess to handle each activity most effectively. A thorough variety of methods available for determining training needs in developing a curriculum, which can be tailored to meet a specific situation, were discpssed by Richard Johnson in the 5 Training_and Development Handbodk.12 . These methods include the following: Analysis of an Activity Informal Talks Analysis of Equipment Interviews Analysis of Problems Observations Analysis of Behavior PrOblem Clinic Analysis of an Organization Research Appraisal of Performance Brainstorming Buzzing Checklist Committee Comparison Conference Consultants Counseling In-Basket Incident Pattern Role Playing Self-Analysis Simulation Skills Inventory Slip Writing Studies Surveys Tests Task Force / Questionnairev/ Workshop The first of these methods, analysis of an activity, which has been discussed abdve, has been utilized in some of the current curriculum 124 Homer C. Rose, The Development of Supervision of Training Programs (Chicago: American Technical Society, 1964), p. 109. 1/125 Richard B. Johnson, “Determining Training Needs," in Trainin and Development Handbook, ed. Robert Craig and Lester Bittel New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1967), pp. 17-27. 65 development in police training. Yet, a review of the entire list v/ reveals that few of the remaining suggested methods have been used. Clues to training needs can also come from a number of written sources. Johnson presented the following list of written materials that can serve as clues to training needs:126 Articles Policies Books Records Case Studies Reports Complaints Requests Crises Rumors Experiences of Others Statements Factual Data Suggestions Grievances Symptoms Plans A review of the preceding list reveals that little attempt is made to use a number of these methods when it comes to curriculum development in police training. /Evaluation An essential element of any curriculum development is the evaluation of its effort. The logical steps of an evaluation are (l) reaction--how well did the trainees like the program? (2) learning --what principles, facts and techniques were learned? (3) behavior-- what changes in job behavior resulted from the program? and finally, (4) results--what were the tangible results of the program in terms 0f reduced COSt: improved quality, improved quantity, and so forth?127 126Ibid.. pp. 27-32. 127Donald L. Kirkpatrick, fiEvaluation of Training," in Training and Development Handbook, ed. Robert Craig and Lester Bittel (New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1967), p. 88. 66 Any curriculum development project is best accomplished through extensive evaluation. As more experience and sophistication in evaluation design and procedure are achieved, more meaningful results can be obtained on which further police training programs can be based. An evaluation method that has been thoroughly tested and recommended for evaluating training programs in police studies is the Training and Educational Evaluational Method (TEEM).128 Not only can various topics and activities be evaluated by this method, but also other elements, such as the teacher, audiovisual aids, and the like, can be included in the evaluation. The evaluator can be as specific as he wishes. A program might be evaluated by listing courses, instructors, guest speakers, field trips, and other activities involved in the total curriculum. A further advantage of this evaluation is that it requires each participant to review his experience in the class before he can make a value judgment. Finkelman and Reichman presented four elements that must be ’ considered in designing an effective police training program: the training recipient, the training subject, the training source, and 129 They defined these as the police group to be the training method. trained (recipient), the nature of the material to be learned (sub- ject), the person or institution responsible for giving the training 128Lyle Knowles, "Evaluating Training and Educational Programs in Criminal Justice," Journal of Police Science and Administration 1 (September 1973): 336-344. 129Finkelman and Reichman, "Police Training Strategies: A Contingency Model," op. cit., pp. 423-428. 67 (source), and the teaching technique (method). All of these elements are vital in developing the police training curriculum, when one con- siders the chief function of training is to effect change. Gardner emphasized that training implies bringing about a change in behavior, and unless such a change occurs there is little point in expending effort in training.130 In concluding this discussion of curriculum development in police training programs, it would be unfair to lead one to believe there is a tested and validated method for designing basic police training curricula. Quite the opposite is true. To quote Gammage, V» "There is a lack of a definite system for selecting and setting up "13] Yet, it is courses in practical police pre-service training. possible to summarize the information dealing with curriculum develop- ment in police recruit training and to formalize this information into a training development system by means of the chart presented in Figure 2.2. Summar The review of the literature involved a survey of descriptive materials relating to the development of police training programs in this country. Five major sections were used in the presentation of this material. The first dealt with the historical development of 130Neely D. Gardner, "Mr. Training Director--His Job," Journal of American Society Training Directors, August 1960, p. 4. 131Allen Z. Gammage, Police Training_in the United States (Springfield, Illinois: Charles C. Thomas, Publisher, 1963), p. 175. 68 r ----------------- 9' Analyze the Job 5 a. :F ------ '- ------ , Specify Training Objectives E E r E 1----9 Describe Training Capabilities E 4 i __________ , Develop Course Outlines, Sequence : Courses, Specify Methods, etc. E Iv 5 Implement the Training Program 5 4 i Evaluate and Revise the Training Program 1 4 r I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I L Source: Richard V. Badalamente, Clay E. George, Paul J. Holterlein, Thomas T. Jackson, Shirley A. Moore, and Raul Rio, "Train- ing Police for Their Social Role," Journal of Police Science and Administration 1 (December 1973): 452. Figure 2.2.--A training curriculum development system. police recruit training programs, presenting an overview of police training from its birth in the nineteenth century, through the twentieth century, to the present emphasis by various organizations and commis- sions on the upgrading of police training. The second major section dealt with criticisms of police train- ing voiced by various scholars, organizational studies and task forces. Specific major criticisms centered on the facts that traditional training programs are organizationally supportive and of minimal length. Other criticisms were directed at the amount of time in police training spent on law enforcement procedures (about 90 percent), 69 while the remainder of the time (10 percent) deals with community and human relations. These criticisms are quite significant, con- sidering the fact that various studies indicated almost 80 percent of police officers' time is spent on everything but handling calls related to criminal activities. One result of the inordinate attention given in police train- ing to the law enforcement as opposed to the service function (along with other departmental reinforcements of this attention) is that police are said to suffer role conflict. This third major section of the literature review examined the police roles of law enforcement, peace-keeping and services. Mental and physical health problems were found to be more common for police than for people in other occupa- tions; this is believed to be caused in part by the role conflict between law enforcement and the service function. Studies have shown that police believe training for the service role is just as important as training for any other role--possibly causing more role conflict. The fourth section illustrated the various innovations that have been recommended and/or undertaken in police training. Specific innovations were discussed, dealing with numerous methods of subject presentation, the value of field-related experiences, and descriptions of four major police training projects undertaken recently. The emphasis of this section was on police training programs that are attempting to provide relevance for the recruit's training. The nature of the change process as it relates to the attempted improvement in the training program was also presented in this section. Various reasons for the success or failure of innovations were discussed, as well 70 as the means by which support for change and continuous change might be obtained in police training programs. The last major section presented a discussion of curriculum. development in police training programs and the various methods used in this development. A model of a curriculum development system for police training concluded the presentation of this subject. CHAPTER III PROCEDURES AND METHODS EMPLOYED IN THE STUDY The purpose of this chapter is to present the research design used in conducting the study. Included in the chapter are a discus- sion of the procedures used in identifying and selecting the popula- tion and participants in the study, the research technique, procedures used to develop and refine the research instrument, procedures used to collect the information, and the technique used to present the findings of the study. The Population and Participants To describe the present status of effective police recruit training programs and how they were developed, a procedure for select- ing the sample population had to be established. It was decided at the inception of the study that data would be sought on a national basis, rather than locally or regionally. This was important because a wider range of training programs that are affected by the greatest number of variables could be examined, and thus provide a broader picture of the status of police training. This, in turn, would provide a larger group who could potentially benefit from the findings of this study. In addition to the national scope of this study, it was also decided that the research would focus on those police training programs 71 72 that serve relatively large metropolitan areas. This was deemed necessary for a number of reasons. First of all, more than one- third of the half-million law enforcement personnel in this country are employed by only fifty-five major cities. The remaining personnel are employed in departments that have either limited training facili- ties and programs or none at all.1 The larger police departments have traditionally set the pace in innovations in police training, since the demands on larger departments are typically greater and the resources more available. The larger departments operate a num- ber of training programs and/or classes throughout the year with a full-time training staff. The smaller departments typically are limited to infrequently operated programs (with limited time for eval- uation and revisions) maintained by a part-time staff who have other major responsibilities. Additionally, since smaller police training programs are normally in operation on a limited basis only, it would be difficult, if not impossible, to obtain research information from most of them. The Research Design Since this study is concerned with conditions or relation- ships that exist, practices that prevail, processes that are going on, effects that are being felt, or trends that are developing, it was decided to use the methods and tools of the descriptive research approach. 1President's Commission on Law Enforcement and the Administra- tion of Justice, The Challenge of Crime in a Free Society (New York: The Hearst Corporation, 1968), p. 240. 73 John Best described descriptive research as a method to be used in solving a problem or charting a course of action. He wrote that descriptive research: . involves the description, recording, analysis and inter- pretation of the present nature, composition, or process of phenomenon. The focus is on the prevailing conditions, or how a person, group or thing behaves or functions in the present.2 The prime purpOSe of descriptive research is to tell "what is" of a specific problem. Borg and Gall stressed the value of such a method of research: Descriptive studies serve many very important functions within the field of education. Under certain conditions it is of tre- mendous value just to merely know what the current state of the activity is. Descriptive research provides us with a starting point and is, therefore, often carried out as a preliminary gtep to be followed by more rigorous research control techniques. Since the study was also exploratory in nature, the descriptive research technique was selected as the most appropriate after a review of the literature revealed the area of concern as a problem that apparently had not been thoroughly investigated. Good and Scates commented: General description is characteristic of the early stages of work in an area where the significant factors have not been isolated, and where perhaps one would not have the means for measuring them if they were identified. It is, therefore, a method of exploration. 2John N. Best, Research in Education (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1959), p. 12. 3Walter R. Borg and Meredith O. Gall, Educational Research (New York: David McKay, Inc., 1967), p. 202. 4Carter V. Good and Douglas E. Scates, Methods of Research (New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, Inc., 1954):Fp. 275. 74 In addition to the value of descriptive research as just dis- cussed, this method also has a number of advantages suited to the need for this study. Descriptive studies often: (1) provide practical and useful information for planning, (2) alert educators and trainers to trends and possible future events, and (3) facilitate an under- standing of what is taking place in areas where processes and prac- tices are continually changing.5 The need for this study has been stated as not Only attempting to fill a void in an area where general understanding is incomplete but also to respond to the immediate con- cerns the police may have about relevant police training. These needs, coupled with the infancy of relevant police training, fit the advantages associated with a descriptive study. For the above-mentioned reasons, a descriptive approach is used in the presentation of the data in this study. A statistical treatment of the findings is not attempted, because of the nature of the data. Sources of Data The data used in this study came from a variety of sources. These sources fall into two classes, human and material. Human resources included the authorities who were closely connected with the functions and/or the operational knowledge of police work. Additionally, the human sources included those people directly associated with each of the police training programs studied. 5Deobold B. Van Dalen, Understanding Educational Research (New York: McGraw-Hill Book Co., Inc., 1962), p. 184. 75 The material resources included all reports, memoranda, cor- respondence, formal publications, and other sources that assisted in gaining an understanding of the police training programs studied. Included was all communication obtained before, during, or after the individual program was studied first-hand. Study Procedures. The first step in conducting the study was to review the literature related to police training programs and curriculum devel- opment as it relates to training. This was done to learn what was known of the problem and to secure suggestions and ideas to supple- ment the writer's general insights gained from a decade of law enforcement experiences, so that the research might be implemented. In view of what was learned from the above procedures, it was decided to identify and study those police recruit training programs throughout the country that were widely recognized as more effectual programs. A study of these innovative programs is neces- sary to gain a thorough understanding of the better police training programs as they presently exist. To identify those police training programs that are recognized as innovative, relevant programs, individuals were selected who could justifiably recommend certain programs over others. Fourteen authorities were identified as individually possessing a sophisticated level of expertise in the police field, and were thereby chosen as reliable sources from which the necessary information could be obtained. Choice of the authori- ties was based upon the extensive review of the literature related to police training, suggestions from various knowledgeable persons 76 in the field of criminal justice, and the writer's personal experi- ence. These fourteen persons are listed in Appendix A. A letter explaining this project was sent to each of the authorities on November 6, 1974. (This letter can be viewed in its entirety in Appendix B.) Each person was requested to identify those basic police training programs throughout the country that, in his opinion, would best fit the needs of this study. Criteria for the selection of those programs cited were not required. Written responses were received from four of the authorities contacted within approximately three weeks, after which time telephone interviews were conducted. Of the original fourteen persons cited as authorities in the police field, nine provided usable information, either through written or oral communication. The telephone research technique was used for several reasons. Van Dalen stated that "many people are more willing to communicate information verbally than in writing and, therefore, will provide data more readily and fully in an interview than on a questionnaire."6 According to Berg and Gall, the interview provides the interviewer with the opportunity to follow up leads and obtain a greater depth of information than is often possible using other techniques. Rapport can also be established and effective communication facilitated in the research interview.7 By using the telephone interviews, the scope 6Ibid., p. 258. 7Borg and Gall, op. cit., p. 224. 77 of the study was expanded to obtain data that otherwise would have been excluded from the investigation. There is some evidence that the information obtained from 8 9 personal and telephone interviews is similar. Peterson and Sartor reported that their results were not significantly affected by using both techniques to collect data. After comparing the two techniques, Sudman concluded: “In none of these experiments was there any indi- cation that the telephone results were any less satisfactory than those obtained from personal interview."10 The nine authorities cited a total of thirty-three different police training programs throughout the country. The range of fre- quency with which the individual programs were cited was from one person citing a particular program to six persons citing the same program. The locations of the thirty-three police training programs mentioned by the authorities are found in Appendix C. From the comprehensive list of thirty-three programs chosen by the authorities, a reasonable sample was selected for personal study. Selection was based on the following criteria: the number of times a program was cited, the differences and similarities of the cited programs (size of department and program, metropolitan 8William 0. Peterson, "A Study of Incidents Having an Impact on the Effectiveness of New and Experienced Presidents of Selected Colleges and Universities in the Midwest" (Ph.D. dissertation, Michigan State University, 1972), p. 83. 9Lawrence C. Sartor, "A Study of Program Planning Practices in Student Personnel Administration" (Ph.D. dissertation, Michigan State University, 1970). p. 70. 10Seymour Sudman, Reducipg the Cost of Surveys (Chicago: David McKay, Inc., 1965), p. 224. 78 circumstances involving populations, governmental and departmental controls, and locations), and willingness to be a research subject for this project. These criteria were examined and, in light of the writer's review of the related literature and personal experience, nine of the cited programs were selected. These programs were made up of diverse populations and police personnel, and were geographically situated throughout the country. Major characteristics of all of the original thirty-three programs were represented in one or more of the programs selected. Representatives of the nine programs were contacted by tele- phone between December 1974 and January 1975. The purpose of this study was discussed, after which agreement to participate was received individually from all people contacted. The nine programs that were selected and took part in the study are listed in Appen- dix D. A comprehensive outline was developed of the information needed to meet the following purpose and objectives of the study: (1) What is the nature of the existing curricula of better police training programs throughout the country? (2) What particular inno- vative subjects and/or techniques are being used in the curricula, particularly as they relate to training for the service function? and (3) What procedures were followed in implementing and developing these programs? Using this outline as a guide, questions were for- mulated to use in gathering the vital data necessary for the study. From the original material, groups of questions were extensively combined or eliminated. 79 As discussed earlier, the interview method of data collection was selected as the most appropriate means of assuring sufficient and valuable information would be obtained. Despite the advantages of the interview and its applicability to this study, the technique also has limitations. According to Borg and Gall: The very adaptability gained by the interpersonal situation leads to subjectivity and possible bias. The interactions between the respondent and the interviewer are subject to bias from many sources. Eagerness of the respondent to please the interviewer, a vague antagonism that sometimes arises between the interviewer and the respondent, and the tendency of the interviewer to seek out answers that support his preconceived notions are but a few of the factors that contribute to possible biasing of data obtained from the interview.11 These disadvantages were taken into consideration in developing the interview guide to be used in visits to the nine police training programs. The interview guide was developed with the following areas of concentration: (1) What is the present training curriculum? (2) What elements of the curriculum deal directly with training the police for their service function? (3) What was the reasoning behind any recent change in the training program? and (4) How was the cur- riculum development effected--what procedures were used in the change effort? To elicit sufficient data relating to the fourth area--the procedures used in changing the curriculum--seven criteria developed by Peggy Miller as major change strategies for effecting planned change were employed. Miller developed these criteria based upon an extensive review of the literature related to change, and used them nBorg and Gall, op. cit., p. 221. 80 as a screening device in her study to examine the activities of insti- tutional change.12 These criteria were modified somewhat so they would be more applicable to the present study; however, the major theme of each one was intentionally preserved. The criteria of change agents' strate- gies for effecting planned change as well as their modifications can be viewed in Appendix E. The interview guide was discussed with one of the fourteen authorities who was originally contacted. That person, the former director of the Chicago Police Department Training Academy, was most helpful in providing particular insights to this study and procedures to assist in gathering the necessary data, and offered specific sug- gestions for seeking additional information related to the study. From this discussion, appropriate changes in and refinements of the interview guide were made. Visits to the Training Programs As stated earlier, the initial contact with the nine indi- vidual police training programs was made by telephone. The purpose of this contact was to introduce the investigator, state the general purposes of the study, and request permission to visit and study the program firsthand. A follow-up letter was sent to each agency, acknowledging this telephone conversation and confirming the agreed- upon time of the visitation. 12Peggy Lynne Miller, "Change Agent Strategies: A Study of the Michigan-Ohio Regional Educational Laboratory" (Ph.D. dissertation, Michigan State University, 1968), p. 64. 81 The visits to the programs studied were conducted from December 9, 1974, through January 31, 1975. A period of two to three days was spent studying each of the programs. At each agency an attempt was made to interview either the director of the training program or an appropriate assistant. In some cases, interviews were held with persons who were no longer assigned to the training func- tion but had knowledge of it because of a previous assignment. The persons interviewed ranged in rank from civilians to patrolmen to the chief of police, and numbered from two persons in some agencies to seven persons at the most. A complete list of the individuals in each of the programs who offered their time and assistance to the study is found in Appendix F. The data gathered from each of the programs visited were col- lected from various documents furnished by each program, as well as interviews with those persons listed in Appendix F. Extensive notes were taken from these documents and interviews, and were subsequently reviewed with various members of each program to insure that accurate descriptions and information had been obtained.' Presentation of the Data The findings of the study were obtained through written cor- respondence, telephone conversations, and study visits to nine police training programs throughout the country. From the data gathered it was possible to formulate descriptions of the present police training curricula. Through an analysis of these programs it was possible to identify and report on the more innovative aspects of the curricula, which attempt to prepare the police officer for the realities of the 82 police function. Further, an analysis of this information revealed the reasons for any major changes in the curriculum and allowed for descriptions of the procedures used in making the changes deemed necessary. The information presented in this descriptive format allows for inferences to be drawn and conclusions to be made about the present status of police training programs and their efforts toward improvement. An attempt was made to indicate areas of commonality among the data gathered and to present the range of ideas expressing different viewpoints. Summar Presented in this chapter was a discussion of the procedures used in identifying and selecting the population and participants in this study, the research techniques, procedures used to develop and refine the research instrument, procedures used to collect the infor- mation, and the technique used to present the findings of the study. Telephone and personal interviews were conducted to collect the infOrmation. The interview guide consisted of questions based on the purposes of the study. A descriptive approach was used to analyze and present the findings related to the nine police training programs studied. The information obtained by using this research design is presented in Chapter IV. CHAPTER IV PRESENTATION OF THE FINDINGS The purpose of this chapter is to present the findings of the study. The chapter has nine major sections, each describing one of the nine police recruit training programs that was explored. Included are the characteristics of each program that were deter- mined to be of major significance to this study. However, this infor- mation is not considered to be all inclusive in describing these pro- grams--only that which is most relevant to the interest of this study. Each of the nine major sections contains (1) the major char- acteristics of the program; (2) the subjects in the curriculum, with particular attention to those that prepare the recruit for his service role; and (3) a discussion of recent changes in the curriculum, including the procedures used in bringing about the change. It should be noted that, as discussed in the previous chapter, this informa- tion was obtained through personal visits to each of the programs where interviews were conducted and from a review of the available literature pertaining to those programs. Therefore, facts relating to these programs are not individually documented in the presentation of the findings. Concluding this chapter is a summary of the major findings. This information is presented in tabular form to facilitate review of 83 84 the material as well as provide a ready reference for the reader. It should be noted that no attempt is made in the analysis to com- pare one training program to another. The Boston Police Academy Recruit Curriculum The Boston Police Department has the distinction of being one of the oldest departments in the country. The Boston Police Academy was established in 1931, and has become an increasingly important part of the department. Presently it serves as the educational and training resource for the 2600-man police force. The present admin- istration of the Boston Police Department has proclaimed its inten- tion to establish its administrative policies and strategies as a service style of policing. Therefore, the academy is required to train its recruits on this basis to provide new police officers with the knowledge and skills a service-oriented department requires. The Boston Police Academy is currently operating what is termed "The Recruit Training Year." Under this concept, the new police officer's first year of employment is spent under the guidance of the staff of the academy. The objective of this period is to provide a series of experiences that will maximize the learning pro- cess for the recruit over a year's experiences. During this time the academy maintains administrative control over the recruits, whether they are assigned to seminars at the academy or involved in practical field experiences. Recruits are immediately immersed in the police and community environments at a district police station, where most of the training 85 occurs. The recruits spend a maximum of 3-1/2 hours a day in class. The remaining time is spent on special projects or in field experi- ence as a district police officer under the supervision of a specially trained field training officer. This training program, extending over this first year of employment, is composed of a tightly knit series of lectures, experiences, and seminars that attempt to expose the recruit to his new environment. The academy staff believe class- room lecture time should be minimized while still retaining effective learning. In addition, they believe that, whenever possible, training should occur on the street, in the police car, and in the heart of the city's many neighborhoods where the recruit will eventually per- form his service. The training program is divided into five major areas, each coordinated by a police instructor who maintains the continuity of materials. These areas designate particular course materials, as follows: Law, Police Procedure, Conflict Management, Environmental Studies, and Administration. The program is also divided into five levels of achievement, each consisting of groups of specific subjects given at periods throughout the training year. The basic subjects included in each level are as follows: LEVEL I: Basic Law for Police Officers Introduction to Patrol Department Policies and Procedures Introduction to Conflict Resolution Orientation to the Police Organization The Composition of the City LEVEL II: The Law of Arrest Constitutional Law Basic Motor Vehicle Law LEVEL III: LEVEL IV: LEVEL V: For the first four weeks of the program, the classroom instruc- tion is concentrated on Level I skills. centrated on Level II skills. ential training ranges from observation in patrol cars, neighborhood visits and agency work experiences to physical training and firearms training. Only during the first twelve weeks is the recruit at a teaching location for a significant period of time. time, the classwork is held at a district station in the middle of the police environment. have classroom work in the morning and the other half of the class 86 Basic Civil Rights Patrol Procedures First Aid Defensive Driving The Concept of Power Introduction to Crisis Intervention City Neighborhood Priorities The Criminal Justice System Referral Resources Emergency Spanish Constitutional Law Motor Vehicle Law Juvenile Law Police Liability and Responsibility Court Procedure Traffic Control Handling of Juveniles Dealing with Violence Crisis Intervention: Families Community Organization Job Stress and the Police Advanced Spanish in Emergencies Law Seminar Criminal Investigations Procedural Case Studies Crisis Intervention: Rape Victims Case Study Seminar has this work in the afternoon. The next six weeks are con- During both of these periods, experi- Even during this To keep class sizes small, half the recruits 87 Each recruit must pass comprehensive "level examinations" as he progresses through his training. Remedial assistance is provided to a recruit who fails a level exam the first time he takes it. A recruit can take most level examinations only twice; failure of a level exam on the second attempt results in termination of employ- ment. There is no fixed number of hours for most subjects, but rather time allotments are determined as the program develops and needs are identified. There is ample flexibility in the program; for example, recruits who pass a Level II examination with a high enough mark are permitted to spend their half-day of experiential training as a field patrol officer after the ninth week. Recruits op§t_pass this Level II examination by-the end of the twelfth week. Starting with the fifteenth week of training, one-half of the class returns to the classroom for Level III instruction. These four-week seminar periods meet for six hours daily. There is no experiential training for the recruits dur- ing this period, since their entire day is filled with seminars and outside readings. Once the first twelve weeks of the training year are completed, no more than half of the recruits are in the classroom at one time. After the twenty-second week, only one-third of the recruits are ever in class, and after the thirtieth week only one-fourth of the recruit class is in seminars. Thus, the usable field strength of the recruit class available to the department for patrol assignments continually increases throughout the training year. The recruit receives his badge and revolver at the completion of twelve weeks of training, but 88 is not off probation until the ninth month of employment and is not out of the academy's control until the end of the first complete year of employment. TrainingoSubjects Related to the Service Function In reviewing the entire curriculum, the following courses related to human problems stand out as providing specific preparation for the police officer's service role: Introduction to Conflict. This course is designed to familiarize the recruit with the various causes and types of conflict. The course explores interpersonal, group, and community conflict, as well as the police role in each. The course provides the recruit with an understanding of the dynamics of conflict and discusses a variety of police responses. Included is an analysis of the many personal conflicts the recruit may encounter throughout his career. Power, Force, and Violence. This course is designed to familiarize the recruit with the concepts of power, force, and violence. An in-depth study of each is presented and discussed. The concept of power is explored in its political, social, and economic contexts, as well as its use and abuse. Included is the use of defensive tactics and/or deadly force. The use of deadly force is analyzed in light of legal, moral, and departmental restrictions. Crisis Intervention. This course is designed to develop intervention skills the recruit can draw upon throughout his career. The course focuses upon specific types of intervention including family dis- putes, rape cases, youth conflicts, and neighborhood arguments. The recruit is trained to recognize and deal with complex human emotions, including his own. Alternative strategies for dealing with conflict are also discussed. Conflict Seminar. A synthesis of the major issues covered in the other subcourses in conflict. Case studies of conflict situations; examinations of the student's ability to respond constructively to various types of conflict as a police officer. Review of the dynamics of community conflict. Orientation to the City_and Its Neighborhoods. This course is designed to expose the recruit to the various communities in which he will work. The course focuses on the problems of urban living and the various governmental and private agencies that provide ser- vices to the city and its citizens. The recruit is exposed to many of the different neighborhoods that make up the city. 89 The Criminal Justice System. This course is designed to provide the recruit with an understanding of crime as a societal problem that has an impact far beyond the police. He is exposed to the various components of the criminal justice system and is provided with information concerning the role and function of various agen- cies. Additionally, the course deals with inter-agency coordination and cooperation.’ Community Resources and Referral. This course is designed to aid the recruit in identifying the various public and private organi- zations that are available to citizens in resolving problems. Atten- tion is focused on the resolution of problems before any serious criminal conduct occurs. The recruit is exposed to the programs, procedures, and policies of the various referral agencies. Job Stress and the Police Function. The course deals with the variety of emotional stresses the recruit will encounter throughout his career. Particular emphasis is directed toward alcoholism, domestic relations, boredom, and the inherent dangers these problems can cause. The course makes use of case studies in an effort to aid the recruit in recognizing and dealing with these stresses. Emergency Spanish. This course is intended to provide the recruit with basic Spanish words and phrases that will be useful to him when dealing with Spanish-speaking persons. The course stresses language skills in emergency situations such as shootings, fires, etc. Additionally, the recruit is exposed to the Spanish culture and the problems it may present for him as a police officer. Environmental Seminar. This course explores and synthesizes a number of issues that are presented within the subcourses. Included in this category are such issues as accountability, corruption, the police labor movement, and community responsiveness. Likewise the seminar explores the changing facets of Boston, her neighborhoods, and her people. Emphasis is placed upon the important role the police can play in keeping the city a vital place in which to live and work. Major Curriculum Change Procedures The present curriculum, the Recruit Training Year, was brought about in 1973. Before that time, recruits received approximately seventeen weeks of basic training. The actual change resulting in the present curriculum was brought about by the current training director, who was the impetus for the change without receiving any 90 outside stimulus or incentive to undertake a curriculum change. The director, based on personal convictions from his past education and experience, sought a relevant change from the previous training program. Throughout the development and implementation of the changed curriculum, the director maintained a low profile by directing the change through the command staff of the academy. The entire staff of the academy was used'fiithe change plan; they were made a major part of the decision process--a sense of democratic consensus prevailed. Regular staff conferences, discussions, and study groups, with equal power distribution, were used. In addition, the actual change was implemented by the staff, under the directorfs supervision. The actual change process became an on-going learning experi- ence for the training staff because of their involvement and input. As a result they participated in the actual change and implementa-‘ tion. Encouraged to continue self-examination and improvement, they provide an on-going reevaluation of the curriculum. The Chicago Police Academy Recruit Curriculum The academy of the Chicago Police Department, in cooperation with the Public Service Institute of Loop College, one of Chicago's city colleges, has the responsibility for training the department's 13,500 personnel. Approximately 500 officers are trained yearly.1 1It should be noted that the department has not been able to hire new police officers for more than a year, because of a lawsuit alleging discrimination in hiring practices. This has suspended the training of new personnel until mid-1975, when recruit training is again scheduled to take place. 91 A number of recruit classes typically overlap one another, since new classes are begun regularly every few weeks. The Chicago Police Academy and the Public Service Institute, having established a cooperative training program in 1968, recently revised the original training program from thirty-one weeks of training to twelve weeks of basic recruit training and twenty-seven weeks of advanced recruit training. The original change in 1968 from a recruit training period of fourteen weeks to one of thirty-one weeks, including sixteen hours of college credit, was heralded as a great advancement in police training. At that time it was cited as the longest recruit training program in the country, and its curriculum included approximately 25 percent higher educational subjects. The present recruit curriculum was shortened to twelve weeks of basic training to provide new officers for street patrol much more quickly than the previous program did. However, the advanced recruit training period of twenty-seven weeks contains the remainder of the original curriculum not covered in the twelve-week school. The twelve-week basic training period is spent primarily in the classroom, with the major exceptions of firearms training and related field training experiences. College credit for this phase of the training amounts to approximately fifteen credits; the same number of credits is granted for the second phase, the advanced recruit training. The college credits are offered by the Public Service Institute, which conducts all its training at the police academy. The second phase of the recruit's training, which extends over a twenty-seven-week period, is comprised of a combination of classroom 92 and field experience. Approximately two days each week are spent in the classroom, while the remaining three days are devoted to superVised field experience. The recruit does not graduate Until he successfully completes the entire thirty-nine weeks of recruit training. The basic training curriculum consists of seven major compon- ent areas. These areas and pertinent subjects, including general time allotments, are as follows: Hours 1. Criminal Law - 66 Constitutional law, federal and state courts, criminal and municipal codes, arrest, search and seizure, rules of evidence, criminal procedures, court complaints, and testifying in court. 2. Physical Training Tactics 52 3. Social Service Unit 19 Semantics, police and minority groups, mentally dis- turbed persons, suicides, narcotics offenses, sex offenses, crowd and mob behavior, patrol and juvenile procedures. 4. Institute on City-Wide Programs 98 California reading and inquiry, applied psychology, law enforcement and behavioral science. 5. Firearms and Drill ' 34 6. Administration and Field Trips to Districts 51 7. Basic Instruction Section 96 Accident investigation, auto theft, citation issuance, ethics, collection of evidence, community relations, organization, first aid, mechanics of arrest and patrol, police hazards, policy and procedures, processing arrested persons, interrogation and interviewing, and traffic law. 93 The advanced recruit training curriculum, extending over the twenty- seven-week period, includes a number of subjects taught in basic training but with different content. These subjects include: A social science unit; semantics, juvenile delinquency, rape, human and public relations, psychological and sociological aspects of police work, police-community relations, self- understanding, police minority groups, firearms, criminal law, and physical education. Training Subjects Related to the Service Function The following courses related to human problems help prepare the police officer specifically for his service role: Behavioral Science Supjects. This course exposes the recruit to a micro-analysis of the sociology of an urban environment. Social conflict and its implications for social order is the underlying theme. Specific topics considered include the upward struggle of various groups in American society, types of approaches in social struggle, and the relevance of these social phenomena and others to the role of law enforcement. The struggle of the black community is considered in terms of the integrative, nonviolent, civil dis- obedience approach as well as the community building, separatist, violent pattern. Topics are selected that will give the recruit a better understanding of the nature and attitudes of groups, classes, and segments of society. Applied Psychology and Counseling Services. This consists of a work- shop in applied psychology and supportive counseling services. The workshop, inspired by the Family Crisis Intervention projects of Dr. Morton-Bard, represents the microanalytical approach to the study of human behavior. The intent is to help the recruit define and evaluate critically his own personal values and assumptions about human behavior. The format consists of lecture and laboratory periods supervised by a psychologist and a team of moderators. The laboratory portions consist of discussions, simulations and role-playing activities. The subject matter for both the basic and the advanced phases of recruit training has a behavioral objective approach. The tradi- tional outline format of the subject matter is being replaced with revised outlines using the behavioral objective approach. 94 Mejor Curriculum Change Procedures In spite of the major curriculum revision that took place at the Chicago Police Academy in 1968 when the training was expanded from fourteen weeks to thirty-one weeks and incorporated a large segment of college courses, the current change in the curriculum format is seen as the more significant. Therefore, the most recent change was explored because its timeliness makes it more relevant. The impetus for the current change was identified as the need for a quick training to put officers out on the street as soon as possible, thereby responding to the needs of the department's administration. To accomplish this task the training staff identi- fied and explored the needs of the department. In undertaking planning for the change, all of the training staff was used as well as various administrative staff members from other parts of the department and in-service police officers. The results of this planning culminated in the current curriculum; an on-going self-evaluation is built into the format through a continuous sampling of Opinions from graduates and in-service officers. Through the initiation and implementation of the curriculum change proce- dures used in the organizational plan for change, a joint effort of mutual determination of goals was achieved. The participation of those whose lives are directly affected created a cooperative and collaborative work atmosphere. 95 The Cincinnati Training_Section Recruit Curriculum~ The Training and Education Section of the Cincinnati Police Division is responsible for developing and implementing training programs for the Division, consisting of over 1100 sworn personnel. The section works with the Community Services College at the Univer- ‘ sity of Cincinnati in the Police Science Associate and Baccalaureate programs. It also serves as the Regional Police Training and Educa- tion Center for the Hamilton County area, which was conceptually developed like the Federal Bureau of Investigation Academy at Quantico, Virginia. O The Training and Education Section is presently in operation at the Cincinnati Technical College, where all classes are taught with the exception of Interpersonal Relations, Firearms, and related field experiences. The Police Interpersonal Relations Training is conducted at Xavier University in Cincinnati for a two-week period. The basic recruit training prOgram consists of 808 hours of training, and extends over a twenty-one-week period. The course- work is divided into five major areas of concentration, which are intermingled throughout the entire training period. The following is a breakdown of these five major areas of concentration, along with a listing of subjects comprising each area and the time allotted for each: 96 Hours 1. 'Staff Services, Organization and Functions Background of Law Enforcement 10 Class Administration - 30 Functions of Cooperating Agencies 30 Firearms Training 44 Field Situation Problem Solving 40 Organization of the Cincinnati Police Division 97 Physical Conditioning 60 Rules and Regulations 20 Testing and Counseling 35 -II. Criminal Procedures and Investigations Criminal Investigation 48 Juvenile Procedures 13 Vice Control Investigations 14 III. Patrol Procedures First Aid 26 Legal Procedures 72 Patrol Tactics' 30 Reporting Procedures 28 Riot and Crowd Control 14 Testifying in Court 24 IV. Police-Community Relations Human and Public Relations 118 Disturbed-Distressed Persons 6 V. Highway Traffic Control Traffic Accident Investigation 25 Traffic Direction 2 Traffic Law Enforcement 22 Upon completing the basic twenty-one-week training program, the recruit serves under the direction of a patrolman-coach in the field. This serves as an extension of the recruit training program. The patrolman-coach is a carefully selected, experienced officer who has received formal instruction in his duties and responsibilities. To assist in the development of the recruit, a Field Training Guide is used, testing basic police responsibilities, tasks, and procedures used by the coach during the field training period. The patrolman-coach 97 concept is an-extension and reinforcement of the basic recruit train- ing program, which lasts for a three-month period. It attempts to provide meaningful on-the-job training and assessment for the new officers. . Presently many of the recruit classes are composed of police cadets. The police cadet project is a program involving work, train- ing, and higher education over a period of three years. During employment as a cadet, an individual is employed by the division on a nonenforcement basis, attends the University of Cincinnati (receiv- ing on Associate of Arts degree in Police Technology), and completes the same basic recruit training program that any other new recruit experiences. It is anticipated that the cadet program will eventually replace the present means of recruitment (personnel from outside the department being brought directly into recruit training). Since the inception of the cadet program in 1955, 418 persons have been employed .as cadets. Of this number, 2 were dismissed, 3 are deceased, 117 resigned, and 296 presently remain in the division (2 captains, 7 lieutenants, 16 sergeants, 20 specialists, 146 patrolmen, and 105 cadets). Training Specifically Related to the Service Function The following courses in the Cincinnati curriculum relate to human concerns and prepare the recruit specifically for his service role: 98 Human and Public Relations. The role of the police officer in the community is stressed from a human and public relations viewpoint in all phases of the training program, and focus is placed on human relations in specialized courses. Special emphasis is directed to the courteous and tactful handling of public inquiries involving police and nonpolice Situations. Problem-solving methods are util- ized in human relations training. In a controlled setting, the trainee is given the opportunity to learn some basic skills in interpersonal dynamics, the impact of his role as a police officer, and the impact of the public on him. The trainee is to learn that individuals often have many alterna- 2 tives to their typical behaviors once those behaviors are explored. Disturbed-Distressed Persons. Psychological factors inherent in the alcoholic and mentally disturbed person, as well as the agencies available for assistance in these cases, are explored by the Divi- sion's psychologist. An in-depth account of the services available and the functions of community social agencies is presented. A substantial part of this training takes place during a two- week period (the sixth and seventh weeks of training) of Police Interpersonal Relations Training at Xavier University. The remaining portions of the subject matter are interspersed throughout the entire curriculum. In addition to the above-described training used to improve the police officer's role in providing services to the commu- nity, the Cincinnati Police Division is also conducting an experi- mental community Sector Team Policing program. The goal of this pro- gram, called the COM-SEC Program, is to have the police officers get more involved in the neighborhoods they serve. 2For further description and examination of this subject the reader is directed to the following sources: vytautas J. Bieliauskas, and David T. Hellkamp, "Four Years of Training Police in Interpersonal Relations," in The Urban Policeman in Transition, ed. John R. Snibbe and Homa M. Snibbe (Springfield, Illinois: Charles C. Thomas Pub- lisher, 1973), pp. 507-521; W. Brendan Reddy, "The Cincinnati Human Relations Training Program," in The Police and the Behavioral Sciences, ed. J. Leonard Steinberg and Donald W. McEvoy (Springfield, Illinois: Charles C. Thomas Publishers, 1974), pp. 96-116. 99 Presently the COM-SEC Program involves one entire district, which is divided into six sectors. Personnel are assigned to each sector on a permanent basis. The officers attend monthly meetings with residents of their sectors, to learn of the problems and to give them a greater understanding and image of the people they serve. Major Curriculum Change Procedures The present recruit training curriculum in the Cincinnati Police Training and Education Section is the result of the personal commitment of the current director of the section. He was identi- fied as the impetus behind a curriculum change of approximately three years ago, at which time the program did not include any empha- sis on interpersonal relations.' The rationale for this change stemmed from the director's personal experience and belief that the police recruit should have more understanding of himself and others. This was deemed necessary so that the police would be adequately equipped to provide the ser- vices they are called upon to furnish. To accomplish the changes in the curriculum, the training staff worked with their higher education counterparts at Xavier University. This relationship resulted in the establishment of a working rapport, which ultimately produced the end product of greater emphasis on the police-community relations segment of the curricu- lum. The excellence of the entire training program is maintained through regular review sessions involving the training staff and key persons at Xavier University. This procedure, in turn, fosters self- renewing behavior in the Training Section. 100 The Los Angeles Police Academy Recruit Curriculum The Los Angeles Police Academy, which is responsible for the training of the department's 7,500 sworn personnel, is located in a large park area near downtown Los Angeles. Of all the programs visited, it has the most extensive facilities, spread over twenty- six acres of land. In~a typical year the academy trains between 500 and 800 persOnnel, with a number of recruit classes operating simul- taneously. The present recruit training curriculum is almost half multimedia, individualized instruction, and slightly more than half routine classroom and physical field training instruction. In 1973 the traditional "lock step method" of recruit training was replaced with Project MILE, an acronym meaning Multimedia Instruction for Law Enforcement. The MILE Project, which is primarily federally funded, has been developing since its inception in 1968, when a police and civilian employee task force identified the knowledge, skills, and attitudes needed by a Los Angeles police officer to function effec- tively in his working environment. The task force developed 205 "terminal performance objectives" that represent the level of pro- ficiency a trainee is expected to achieve by the end of training. A major result has been that recruits who used to take the maximum number of weeks of instruction in the traditional classroom now com- plete their training in less time. In reference to the multimedia, individualized instruction, approximately forty different learning modules are currently being used, with anywhere from one to seventeen components each. In 101 addition, there are sixty-three video-taped lectures on a variety of subjects. Students use video-tape cassettes, audio-tapes, work- books, group discussions, written texts, and field problems in their studies. Each recruit works at his own pace. Instructors are avail- able to give individual counseling and guidance to the recruits who need help. All written tests can be taken individually, but perfor- mance tests are taken in groups. All tests are machine scored and if a recruit fails a test he can restudy and take it a second time. The academy is presently working on an evaluation of the project for its continued improvement. After the recruit successfully completes his basic recruit training, he is assigned to patrol work under the direct supervision of a field training officer. This training officer is usually changed periodically during the remainder of the recruit's first year of employment. During this time the recruit officer remains in a pro- bationary status. Since part of the subject matter in the total curriculum is self-paced, it is not possible to assign a fixed number Of training hours to each subject. In addition, the present format is being altered to some degree with respect to time allotments in particular subject areas. The present recruit training program lasts for approxi- mately twenty weeks. An average day in training consists of approxi- mately two to three hours of self-paced media instruction; approxi- mately two to three hours of lectures, group discussions, and field problems; one hour of firearms training; and approximately two hours of physical training. 102 Following is a presentation of subject matter, including approximate hours for each part of the curriculum: Hours 1. Introduction to Law_Enforcement 17 Background of law enforcement, civil liabilities, criminal justice systems, ethics, organization, and discipline 2. Criminal Law‘ 22 Criminal law and laws of arrest 3. Criminal Evidence ’ ' 16 Rules of evidence, search and seizure 4. Administration of Justice 17 Courtroom procedures, discretion in law enforcement, government, other agencies 5. Criminal Investigation 37 Assault, auto theft, burglary, evidence, crime scenes, , fingerprinting, injury and death, interviews and interrogations, narcotics, preliminary investigation, disturbances, robbery, sex crimes, stakeouts, and theft'cases 6. Community Relations 34 7. Patrol Procedures 75 Basic car plan, bomb threats, crowd control, field reports, disaster training, disorderly and domestic disputes, field problems, intoxification cases, jail, mentally ill cases, missing persons, officer survival, organized crime, patrol and observation, physical searches, radio communication, report writing, crimes . in progress, vehicle stops and vice control ‘ 8. Traffic Control 53 Citations, driver training, drunk driving cases, hit and run investigation, traffic directing and law, and vehicle pullover 9. Juvenile Procedures 8 10. Defense Tactics 170 Arrest control techniques, baton drill, defense tactics, physical conditioning and training 103 Hoor§_ 11. Firearms '64 12. First Aid 9 l3. Examinations ‘ 18 14. Other Subjects 1 57 15. Written and Oral Communication I 31 16. Field Training 40-160 17. Field Trips 45 It is anticipated that the final developmental and imple- mental stages of Project MILE, which is formulating approximately one-half of the recruit curriculum into multimedia/self-paced instruc- tion, will be completed next year. When completed, the MILE project will provide the law enforcement community with a core of multimedia instructional packages that can be duplicated and used by any agency to assist in the training of the recruit officer. TrainingSubjects'Related to the Service Function In reviewing the entire recruit curriculum, the following courses related to human problems provide instruction for the police officer's service role: Communiry Relations. This course deals with three areas of police- community relations: the basic car plan, contacts with the public, and press relations. Labor Relations. This course acquaints the recruits with local labor unions and the need for positive relationships with both unions and management. 104 Mexican and Negro Culture. This course develops an awareness of attitudes related to law enforcement in the Mexican and Negro com- munities, and provides knowledge to assist recruits in formulating positive attitudes. Sociological Problems. A discussion of cultural, ethnic, and social variance among citizens of the city. Community Relations Conferences. This course consists of discussion sessions covering all classes dealing in community relations during recruit training. Interpersonal Relations. This course consists of discussion groups that deal with the diverse cultures that make up the community, and the department's efforts to reduce tensions through understanding the awareness of group differences. CommunitypVisitations. Field trips are made to various communities in the city where recruits talk with community members. Community Panel. This course consists of panel discussions with community representatives from the Black, Mexican-American, and Oriental segments of the city, in an effort to help the recruits toward community enrichment. Also, courses on Anthropology and the Human Factors in Law Enforcgfient are being developed. Major Curriculum Change Procedures The major change in the recruit training curriculum was initiated in 1968 as a result of demands made at that time because. of the general unrest in this country. In addition, it was felt it would be necessary to teach more police officers in the immediate future, and the conventional method of police training was being ques- tioned because of advances in educational technology. Therefore, the task force of 1969 was formulated and ultimately developed the ter- minal performance objectives discussed earlier. This task force, which was the responsibility of the Advance Planning Division of the department (not a part of the academy), 105 formulated the plan of action. This plan, termed the Training Systems Study, provided for hiring a consulting firm to assist in the devel- opment of terminal performance objectives, as well as individualized instruction materials. From this study, in 1972 Project MILE was formulated in three phases to develop and implement the applicable curriculum materials into self-paced, individualized instruction. Additional outside consultants were also used to help formulate this project. However, it should be noted that the revised recruit cur- riculum is primarily the same as it was before the implementation of Project MILE. The significant change is in the method of instruction rather than the subject matter. Through a study of the needs of the police, which was made by experienced in-service officers and civilians who identified the knowledges, skills and attitudes required by the officer to perform his work, an atmosphere of rapport and trust was established between the-task force and the department. The change was therefore viewed as a mutual, collaborative undertaking because of this massive involvement within the department. In addition, the training staff has been learning along with the consultants hired at the various stages of development and imple- mentation of the project. This should allow for a smooth takeover by the department, and in particular the training staff, once the research is complete, for the full capability of maintaining the new program. One major criticism that department members voiced about the above-described change procedures was that a different division of 106 the department had been used in planning and developing the initial Change (the Advanced Planning Division), rather than using the train- ing staff in this capacity. Instead, it was felt that the people who developed the new program should be the same ones who would imple- ment it. The Los Angeles County Sheriff's Academy Recruit Curriculum The Los Angeles County Sheriff's Department Training Academy is responsible for training the 5,000 deputies who serve under the control of the sheriff. In addition, it trains officers from thirty- five other-law enforcement agencies, most of which are located within Los Angeles County. The academy graduates approximately 500 recruits each year. . This academy came to the police trainers' attention in 1971, when it reversed its recruit training policy of providing a stress- ful training atmosphere to that of maintaining a less stressful envi- ronment. This change in procedure was brought about as the result of a study conducted by the then director of the academy, Howard Earle. The study, Earle's doctoral dissertation, involved comparisons of stress and nonstress classes during and after recruit training, and found that a nonstress training program produces a higher caliber of police officers than does a stressful training program. These find- ings ultimately served as the impetus for subsequent changes in stressful atmospheric police training programs. During 1975 the academy is phasing into operation a revision of its previous recruit training program. The previous program was 107 extended over a twenty-four-week period of training experiences. It is anticipated that the new program, by making use of behavioral performance objectives, will reduce the total length of training to about sixteen to twenty weeks of total recruit commitment. This change in the format or presentation of the curriculum is the product of an extensive reorganization of the academy staff, which resulted in placing special emphasis on educational resources formulated into five major subject matter categories. Committees consisting of a number of individuals from the training staff are responsible for these categories. The five committees are the: 1. Criminal Law Committee 2. Patrol Operations Committee 3. Criminal Investigations Committee 4. Correctional Operations Committee 5. Interpersonal Relations Committee Each committee is primarily responsible for the continued development and implementation of the subject matter pertaining to its area of concentration. The preliminary basic recruit training subject matter is divided into the following blocks of instruction (these subjects and time allotments are currently in their formulative stages): Hours Criminal Law/Criminal Justice 84 Departmental organization; history of law enforcement; introduction to criminal law; constitutional law; legal aspects of civil disputes; laws of arrest, search and seizure; rules of evidence; dangerous weapons control laws; disorderly conduct; crimes against the public peace; alcohol laws; juvenile law and procedure; criminal justice system; violent crimes; thefts; explosives; narcotics; and vice laws. 108 Hours Patrol Operations 130 Patrol and observation; approaching and contacting suspects; control, search and handcuffing; transportation of prisoners; pullover and approach; searches of vehicles and buildings; crimes in progress; handling disputes; handling sick, injured ' and mentally ill; radio procedures; sniper and ambush tech- niques; officer shootings; disasters; crowds and riots; and traffic. Criminal Investigation 73 Preliminary investigation; agency organization- investigation; identification, preservation and collection of evidence; interviews and interrogations; and courtroom demeanor and testifying. Correctional Operatione/Custody 22 Classification of prisoners; booking procedures, treatment of prisoners; release procedure: adult and juvenile; legal responsibilities; and contraband. Interpersonal Relations 88 Law enforcement ethics and professionalization; social aspects of police work; role responsibility of peace officers; socialization processes; community crime preven- tion; management of stress in the police environment; report writing; telephone procedures and oral communications. This basic recruit training curriculum also contains sixteen credits of academic work, recognized by the state higher educational system. Upon the successful completion of the program of study at the recruit academy, the new employee is assigned to the county jail, where he serves for approximately two years. The probationary period for the new employee runs for the entire first year of employment. Before a deputy is assigned to patrol duty he is returned to the academy for two weeks of schooling to prepare him for the coming patrol experience. Once on patrol, the deputy serves under the direction and supervision of a field training officer for approxi- mately three to six months. Thus, a deputy will not serve as an 109 officer on patrol without direct supervision from the academy until he has been employed by the department for about three years. TrainingpSubjects Related to the Service Function Since the revised recruit training curriculum was not fully developed at the time of this study, it was not possible to obtain a full description of the courses that would fall into this Cate- gory. However, a review of the previous recruit curriculum and the proposed curriculum, along with discussions with the training staff, provided the following information. The subject matter related to. human problems that provides instruction and preparation specifically for the police officer's service role is: Interpersonal Relations. This series of courses dealing with the basis of interpersonal relations is an attempt to get the recruit officer to understand himself better and thereby better understand others. It deals with perceptions as means of stimuli, languages and effects, attitudes and the attempts for changes, norms, and nonverbal behavior. In addition communication problems are explored, which involves emotions, inference-observation-confusion, indiscrimi- nation, escalating conflict, and many others. In turn, techniques are explained for dealing with interpersonal communications problems, such as paraphrasing, openness and trust, behavior description, and euphemisms. Police-Community Relations. This series of courses is geared at assisting the recruit in obtaining a better awareness and under- standing of those he serves in the community. This is accomplished through presentations dealing with cultural enrichment of the Black and Mexican-American, understanding the deaf and hard of hearing, assistance in dealing with the domestic and civil dispute, dealing with the news media, handling police-minority problems, and develop- ing social perspectives for the police officer. The present recruit curriculum revisions were undertaken because the sheriff's department was convinced police training should 110 more accurately reflect the true nature of police work. It was also felt an arbitrary block of time for learning a specific subject was not responsive to individual needs and the best interest of the. department. Therefore, it was determined that performance testing through a behavioral objective orientation to the recruit curriculum was the answer. Major Curriculum Change Procedures ' In preparing for the recruit curriculum change, the training academy staff contacted the various police academies in California. Interviews were conducted through these academies, with the intention of determining what knowledge and skills were necessary for the police to perform their responsibilities effectively. This information was compared to the existing curriculum to determine what training matter was lacking and what was unnecessary. The behavioral objectives were thus developed to respond to these needs. An ad hoc committee was formed to assist in the evaluation and validation of the training needs and methodologies that were developed. The committee was composed of a number of administrators from the sheriff's department, including the academy staff. The results of this effort were then field tested by having working officers on patrol react and respond to the developed training mate- rials. The academy staff formulated itself as an instructional com- mittee in order that it might serve as the continuous change agent for this project. 111 This project attempted to determine the existing conditions and needs of the police so that a resulting curriculum change would reflect those needs. The change effort actively included the various departments involved, as well as the sheriff's department, in the stages of the change, both through the key leaders and through the operational personnel.‘ This evolved into a cooperative and col- laborative project of a mutual determination and achievement of goals. The particular strategy or organizational plan used for the change procedure was the Program Evaluation and Review Technique (PERT). This procedure involves a network analysis technique used in planning, scheduling, and controlling the implementation of the program. It incorporates a pictorial representation of a project that can provide information about the interrelationships of all required events and activities that comprise the project. The net- work is the basic device, whereas events and activities are the basic components. The PERT procedure was used from the point of formulating the instructional committee of the training staff, through correlating its activities with other findings, selecting the instructional methods and their preparation, pretesting the results, modifications, scheduling andbeginning the training, and the post- project evaluation and modification. A more comprehensive descrip- tiOn of this procedure applied to a PERT chart, as formulated and adopted by the training academy of the Los Angeles County Sheriff's Department, can be found in Appendix G. 112 The Oakland Police Academy Recruit Curriculum The Oakland Police Department's Training Section is respon- sible for training the department's 700 sworn personnel. In accomp- lishing this task, the training staff coordinates and conducts a number of recruit training classes throughout the year. An esti- mated lOO recruits graduate each year, with individual class member- ships averaging approximately twenty recruits. The present recruit training program consists of 863 hours, which extend over a twenty-four-week period. A review of past cur- ricula revealed that, with few exceptions, the total number of train- ing hours has been altered with each successive school since the first school with two weeks of training was offered in 1947. Reportedly, each recruit training program is altered in some way from the previoUs programs, in the continuous quest for improvement in the quality of the curriculum. With the present curriculum being the product of continuing analysis and refinement of previous schOols, the specific- ally stated objective is to develop a policeman who is not only tech- nically competent, but humanistically and physically prepared as well. Students who satisfactorily complete the recruit training pro- gram are awarded a total of eighteen semester units of college credit from a local college. The training staff is currently exploring the potential of developing the recruit curriculum along the lines of a behavioral objective orientation. Programmed instruction of particular subjects (such as criminal law), the use of the video-tape recorder, and role 113 playing using closed circuit television have recently added training dimensions useful to both the students and the instructors. The 81st Recruit School (November 18, 1974, to May 2, 1975) contained twenty-two subject categories that are described in the following presentation of categories and courses: Hours Communications 77.5 Communication skills for police officers; digicom training; note-taking and written communications; report writing; and telecommunication Criminal Investigation 48 Crimes against person; crimes against property; investi- gative techniques; and vice-crimes Criminal Justice System 32.5 Complaint-warrant process; court system and demeanor; criminal justice system, the police, courts, and correc- tions; misdemeanor citation policies; moot trial, and role of the defense council Critical Incident Simulations 32 Role playing training in: arrest and control techniques; criminal investigation; domestic, civil, and landlord- tenant disputes; intoxication cases; shoplifting cases (citizen's arrest); traffic collision investigation; walking stops; and vehicle pullover Critigues l4 Custod 18 Arrest and control techniques; and jail procedures Defensive Weapons ‘ 95.5 Defensive tactics; firearms; and special weapons Evidence 8 Rules of evidence Examinations l7 Field Assignments (Field Training)_ 48 114 Hours First Aid 23.5 First aid; and water rescue techniques Graduation Exercise 3.5 - Juvenile Procedures 13.5 Law 101 Alcohol beverage control laws; criminal control laws; criminal law; foundations of criminal law; laws of arrest; municipal code; search and seizure; and stopping and questioning. Patrol Procedures 79.5 Bicycle detail; building searches;civil disputes; crime analysis section; criminal intelligence unit; crowd control; disasters; disorderly conduct and family disturbance cases; bombs; helicopter unit; identification documents; inter- views and field interrogations; intoxication cases; labor disputes; citations; missing persons; patrol; preliminary investigation; problems of the deaf; problems of the epileptic; role of the beat officer; sources of information; special response; team operations; tactics for crimes in progress; vehicle pullovers and walking stops; and warrant service card Physical Fitness 56 Police Community Relation 75 (discussed later) Professional Orientation 41.5 Career development counseling; general orders, safety; ethics and professionalization; internal affairs; federal law enforcement agencies; off-duty conduct; structure of the department; and the city government Study Periods '7 Traffic 42.5 Citations--mechanics and psychology; drunk driving cases; traffic collision investigation and diagramming; traffic directing and laws Uniforms (inspections) 15 _!ehicle Operations 15 Perceptive driving techniques 115 At the conclusion of the recruit school, each recruit officer is assigned to a-Field Training Officer for a period of eighteen weeks. The Field Training Officer is responsible for the training and evaluation of the probationary officer on a one-to-one basis. Training:Subjects Related to the Service Function In reviewing the entire recruit curriculum, a number of courses related to human problems provide particular preparation for the officer's service role. It is interesting to compare the differ- ences in the emphasis of course hours of the present program to that of previous programs. The current portion of the total curriculum for police-community relations subjects is approximately 10 percent. - However, the percentage for this subject area reached its peak in 1971, when it comprised 23 percent of the total curriculum of the eighteen-week school. This contrast in time commitments in specified aspects of recruit training reportedly does not reflect any differ- ences in attention presently awarded this subject matter. In James O. Wilson's writing, Varieties of Police Behavior, he identified the Oakland Police Department as possessing a strong legalistic style of police work. The chief administrator of the department at that time determined that the department would therefore 3 This change its style from a legalistic one to the service style. resulted in a reorientation of the recruit curriculum ultimately to devote almost one-quarter of its total class hours to police-community . 3For a description and brief discussion of these styles of police work, as defined by James O. Wilson, refer to Appendix H. 116 relations subjects. Therefore, the training emphasis was changed from a technical orientation to police work with little concern for services provided the community, to one in which the humanistic treatment of the citizen became paramount. This emphasis developed so much that the department eventually questioned whether the human- istic treatment permeated the department to the point of being a detriment to the officer's personal survival on the street. As a result, special effort has been and is being made by the training staff to strike a balance between these two areas (technical competency and humanistic treatment). This effOrt has resulted in changing the emphasis in the curriculum from specifically police- community relations subject units to incorporating and integrating some of this material into other areas of the curriculum. Examples of some of this integration are found in the following classes taught under units of instruction dealing with Critical Incident Simulations and Patrol Procedures: Domestic, Civil, and Landlord-Tenant Disputes Intoxication Cases Shoplifting Cases (Citizen's Arrest) Missing Persons Problems of the Deaf Problems of the Epileptic The following classes are taught under the Police-Community Relations unit: Aid to Victims of Violent Crimes. This course acquaints the officer with his duties and responsibilities to victims of violent crimes as made obligatory on all police agencies by the state legislature. Civil Protestl_I & II. The first part of this course traces civil protest as an American tradition from before the Revolutionary War to the mid-1960's. Part II continues by exploring the ideology and tactics of contemporary activist groups. 117 Closure. This discussion is used as a review session not only to summarize material just discussed, but also to relate that material to subjects presented earlier in the recruit school. Cultural Overview. This class introduces the topic of Community AWareness. Discretionary Decision-Making, A discussion of the practical aspects relating to citizens under potentially stress-filled situations. Particular attention is given to day-to-day techniques that the officer may employ to accomplish his tasks in a manner that will afford a minimum of resistance and antagonism from persons with whom he deals. Special emphasis is given to discussions concerning the psychological aspects of resistance and verbal abuse. Historyyof Oakland. A history of the ethnic and cultural composition of the city, with particular emphasis on the trend in population from a pre-World War II white majority to a projected black majority by 1985. The course also discusses implications of this population shift for all areas of city government, including the Police Depart- ment. _ Human Resources Referral Agencies. A discussion of the numerous agencies in Alameda County offering services to the public. The referral process is discussed as well as the Directory of the Human Resources of Alameda County, which is purchased by the recruits. This directory lists all of the referral agencies in the county and the types of problems each agency deals with. Minority Cultures. These discussions relate to the various ethnic communities in Oakland. They include a historical analysis as the basis for current postures and the resulting economic, sociological, and psychological factors and their implications for police work. News Media Relations. An exploration of the role of the press in a free society and of the relationship of the police to mass media. Panel Discussion (Experienced Officers). The panel offers the recruit an opportunity for dialogue with veteran officers in an informal setting, with particular emphasis on intuitive skills. The Police Subculture. An examination of the police as a distinct culture. The class explores the causes and implications of this culture, as well as the various subcultures within it. The role dilemma of the black officer, e.g., in relation to the minority and nonminority black communities and the nonminority officers, is also discussed. 118 Sexual Assaults--Nontechnical Aspects. Survey methods for inter- viewing assault victims to obtain information vital to the police task, while minimizing any further ps chological trauma. Presented by Bay Area Women Against Rape (BAWAR). Social Disorganization. Lectures and discussions concerning mental illness, sexual deviation, and alcoholism with emphasis on the emo- tional and behavioral patterns of those persons suffering from such disorders. Star Power. A sociological game that develops simulated social stratifications to stimulate an understanding of human behavior. Tour of the City. The day-long bus tour acquaints the class with the topography and street plan of Oakland, its major buildings and hospitals, crime problem areas and landmarks of historical signifi- cance. Variant Lifestyles. An exploration of the origins and causes of théIfianti-establishment" movements. It deals with the values and aspirations of the counter-culture and its significance in regard to police work. Welfare Dispensers. The supervisor of the Alameda County Welfare Investigator's office will speak to the class about the problem of welfare abuse and misuse. Welfare Recipients. A representative of the Welfare Rights Organi- zation will detail for the class the scope and function of welfare benefits, and describe the welfare system from the recipient's point of view. Major Curriculum Change Procedures The major change in the recruit curriculum was initiated in about 1970 as the result of a decision by the department's chief administrator to change to a service style of policing. Since that time there have been minor changes hithe curriculum through a shift- ing and reemphasis of certain subject matter. The major change of 1970 is of primary concern, since it ultimately resulted in the gradual readjustments of the recruit curricula. 119 The former chief administrator identified the needs of the department as a result of Wilson's findings. Through this study he was made aware of the existing conditions and determined that a change in the style of policing would better meet police and commu- nity needs. The establishment of mutual trust and rapport was not overtly apparent between the chief administrator, who is identified as the change agent, and the majority of the department. Middle management and other levels of the department were not actively involved in the change process to any large extent. Yet, a few department heads were used by the chief administrator in implement- ing several changes. In this respect, the director of training answered directly to the chief without any intermediate supervisor. This policy has since been changed to a traditional organizational model of intermediate supervisors between the chief administrator and the training director. An outside educational research consulting firm was hired to study the recruit curricula in 1970 and 1971. However, this study was seen as only a part of the total change process, rather than being conceived as a plan of action or responsible for the final product of the revised curriculum. The apparent organizational plan for change was effected through informal means of implementation. The evaluation procedure, in seeking self-improvement, was .accomplished through the feedback obtained from the graduates of the revised curriculum. In addition, the reports from supervisors of street personnel, public reaction, and the study conducted by the consulting firm were used to assist in the reevaluation of changes. 120 In the end, the apparent result desired by the change agent was to make the new police officers--the recruits experiencing the new curriculum--the ultimate change agents. The Seattle Police Academy Recruit Curriculum The Training Division of the Seattle Police Department is responsible for training its 1200 officers. This responsibility is carried out at its training center, which is temporarily housed adjacent to its new facility presently under construction. These facilities are located on a spacious parcel of land on the outskirts of the city. In addition_to serving as the training academy for the Seattle Police Department, the training center also serves outside law enforcement agencies through its thirteen-week basic recruit training program developed and operated for these agencies. Ulti- mately, as a regional training center, it will train all components of the criminal justice system. The Seattle Police Department has maintained an active cadet program since 1959. This program is designed for young persons between seventeen and twenty years of age who are interested in making law enforcement their career. It includes a rigorous schedule of on-the- job training, home study, classroom studies, and field experience. Since the program's inception, a substantial portion of the cadets have been sworn in as police officers. In addition to this program the department also has a Community Service Officer program. These non-law enforcement persons, who primarily are used to respond to calls for service, provide another means of recruiting and training potential police officers. 121 The Seattle Police Academy presently operates a twenty-three- week basic recruit training program consisting of 880 hours of instruction for its incoming personnel. Within this program, certain subjects are team-taught and/or scheduled throughout the training period to allOw the recruit ample time to understand the subject matter. In addition, a recruit class is split into small groups, affording individualized instruction and/or the development of skills. The normal recruit class is composed of between twenty and twenty-five students. Recruits are therefore given the oppor- tunity to put skills into practice. This phase of training is accomp- lished primarily through mock scenes and actual field experiences which permit the recruit to learn through performance and practical skill application. These experiences include patrol, detective work, disturbances, traffic stops and investigations, service calls, mental cases, criminal law, and report writing. Each member of the training staff serves as a counselor to approximately four or five members of the class. Additionally, one day a week during the entire training program, students and training staff members have lunch together so that questions, grievances, or pertinent material about the development of the students may be explored. I The basic recruit training curriculum is divided into five Inajor sections, which in turn are broken down into significant parts. 'The following is the basic outline of this training: II. III. 122 Administration Orientation; career development, training director's 'hours; family life seminar for wives; introduction to law enforcement; investigations bureau; oral auto- biography--video-taped and critiqued; patrol indoctrina- tion; personnel division indoctrination; prosecutor and public defender; fire department; supervised manual and training bulletin study; technical services bureau, and U.S. Customs Basic Training Skills Part 1. Communications Skills Computer reporting; field interview reports; listening and note-taking; operations analysis unit; perception and communication; police radio communications; records and traffic violations bureau; report writing; public speaking; research and development division; semantics; and uniform crime reports ‘Part 2. Investigative Techniones Arson investigation; auto theft; bombs and explosives, bunco and fraud; burglary; crime lab; crimes against persons; finger-printing; evidence; informants; inter- rogation and interviewing; narcotics; searching; robbery; shoplifting; sketching the crime scene; sources of information; surveillance; and vice Part 3. Police Patrol Techniques Building searches; equipment; child abuse; crowd and riot control; disaster plans; extremist groups; flash recognition; handling females, hospital policy; industrial relations; internal investigation; introduc- tion to patrol procedures; police dogs; security; arrest methods; official survival; parole and probation; patrol calls; procedures; police brutality; practical police problem; preventive patrol; vehicle searches; foot patrol; use of force; and water and air patrol Part 4. Practical Skills Emergency and defensive driving; firearms; first aid; and physical education and training Part 5. Traffic Law Enforcement and Investigation Accident investigation; chemical testing and drunk driving; and traffic law enforcement Community Relations Part 1. Humanistics for Police Officers Part 2. Psychology for Police Officers Part 3. Attitude Awareness Hours 86 426 48 58 104 180 36 123 Hours IV. Criminal Law Enforcement 96 Arrest, search and seizure; case development and plea bargaining; city charter and ordinances; court visits; criminal law; extremist groups; introduction to law enforcement; juvenile law and procedures; liquor laws, defense attorney; rules of evidence; testifying; and United States Constitution V. Controlled Field Experiences.and Mock Scenes 107 Controlled Field Experience--patrol and detective experiences; and mock scenes enactment Officers who successfully complete the twenty-three-week recrdit training program receive twenty-five to thirty college credit hours, applied toward an Associate of Arts degree. The remain- der of the recruit's first year of employment is spent on probation, after which he returns to the academy for a one-week refresher course. Training Subjects Related to the Service Function In reviewing the entire Seattle curriculum, a number of courses related to human problems stand out as providing instruction for the officer's service role. In addition to the following courses, included under the major section of community relations, it should be noted that a number of subjects found under other areas of the cur- riculum are also appropriate to this discussion. These include cer- tain communications skills, particular patrol techniques (family and landlord-tenant disturbances, and service calls) and various mock scenes (disturbances, mental cases, and service calls). The sub- jects dealt with in the community service section of the curriculum are as follows: 124 Part 1. Humanities for Police Officers Applied Social Sciences. This course involves a two-week assignment to the Human Resources Center at the University of Washington to provide the recruit with a broad exposure to and involvement with some of the community needs. Each recruit spends anywhere from a half day to a full day with approximately six different human service agencies within the community. Black Community Culture.' This course deals with the black person specifically, his culture and how it affects his feelings and conduct toward the police. Community Relations for Police Officers. Importance and need of community relations in the police profession. Community Service Officer Program/Black Community and the Police. Outline of program and discussion of program.aims. Importance of maintaining relationship between the black community and the police. Human Rights Commission. The function of the commission in dealing with minorities and complaints of police misconduct and abuse. Industrial Relations. 'Problems peculiar to industry and labor are explored in this course. Police/Press Relations. Representatives from the news media on police/press relations are discussed in this course. Professional Police Ethics. This course explores the importance of establishing a code of ethnics for police in order to attain pro- fessionalism. Transactional Analysis. This is an attitude development course. Part 2. Psychology for Police Officers Introduction to Psyohology. The science of psychology defined. Crime and Punishment. This course explores punishment and the threat of punishment as having an effect on the perpetrator and solutions and reforms for rehabilitating. Drug Abuse. The effects on the body as a result of misuse of alcohol, drugs, or addictive narcotics are discussed. Dynamics of Prejudice. Examines how prejudices are developed and means of recognizing and overcoming them. ' 125 Human Behavior. Negative or positive traits found in humans, based on the individual's psychological, sociological and biological makeup and background. Mental Disorders. Explores mental disorders in humans and the impor- tance related to the police function. People in Crisis (Lecture and WorkshoptLab). Police officer alerted to recognize persons with emotional problems and ways and means to assist those suffering mental depressions. Perception (Esychological). The importance of recognizing and under- standing what is observed and properly reacting to the observation. Personality Traits of the Criminal. Explores the criminal's mind and psychological development to determine why he acts as he does. Personality Traits of the Police Officer. Psychological examination of the police job and how it can affect the officer either posi- tively or negatively, depending on his values. Part 3. Attitude Awareness The Drug_Scene. Culture and scope of the problem. How to recognize and deal with persons who abuse drugs and narcotics is a part of this discussion. Group Communication iWorkshopi. Techniques and training in effective communication with others. Peer Group and Person-to-Person Communication. How others see and hear you as a result of your attitude and actions. Major Curriculum Change Procedures The major change in the recent training curriculum took place in 1971. The original impetus for the change to the present curric- ulum was identified as the unrest in the country and resulting presi- dential task force reports in 1967. This resulted in the conviction to change training to incorporate more humanistic training for the improvement of police services. The former training director was reportedly influenced by the department's administration, input from 126 a local community college president, and the findings of a consult- ing firm's study of the department's training program. The former training director, identified as the actual change agent, identi- fied the existing needs of the department from the above-mentioned input. In effect these sources served as the means by which the study of the department's needs was undertaken. The training director held daily staff meetings during the change period, through which communication, understanding, and support for the change were developed. This allowed for the curriculum change procedure actively to involve all of the training staff in all stages of the change. Reportedly, the procedure was a cooperative and collaborative endeavor. The evolution of the changed curriculum was built into the total design through feedback from graduates of the revised program. In addition, individual and group conferences between the training staff and students were and still are another means of evaluation. Finally, the training director sought to promote future change by openly encouraging the staff to participate in the curriculum revi- sions, as well as the recruits who provided (and still provide) the critical feedback needed for continuous program evaluation. The Washingtoni_D.C., Metropolitan Police Academy Recruit Curriculum The Washington, D.C., Metropolitan Police Academy is responsible for the training of 4700 sworn personnel at its training center, located on the outskirts of the capital. Approximately 250 students graduate from this academy each year. In 1972 the training academy drastically changed its recruit training program by abandoning the 127 traditional group learning process in favor of individualized pro- grammed learning. From a task analysis of the functions of the metropolitan police officer, training modules were developed to pre- pare the recruit for specific skills. A total of 153 training modules presently is sequenced in a hierarchy of four major levels of knowledge. Programmed instruction booklets are used for each of the modules and are supplemented with multi-media teaching systems such as video-tape cassettes. Audio- visual materials are used in over 90 percent of the training modules throughout the curriculum. The academy has the necessary in-house capabilities to produce all the materials used. A number of training personnel are responsible for revising and updating the training modules and for preparing the appropriate learning technique. Vali- dation of the modular materials and testing items is accomplished on a continuous basis. This is carried out through a regular review of the field performance needs in comparison to the instruction or learning process available. Validation is also carried out through an analysis of student success. The entire training system is self-paced, which allows recruits to be hired and trained individually or in a group. Once a recruit is hired, he is allowed to proceed through the training System at his own pace. Whereas the traditional program lasted six- teen weeks, the individualized training program is designed to take twelve weeks. However, some students are able to finish in less than twelve weeks and thereby are available for field work at an earlier 128 time. Group sizes beginning the training program have varied from one to twenty persons. A student analysis study was conducted in conjunction with the field task analysis of the functions of the police officer. This study determined that police recruits should have achieved a tenth grade reading level before entering the academy program. Periodically, a small group of students with this level of reading ability is used to validate the materials used in the training program. These stu- dents are given both a pre-test and a post-test before and after each training module to determine how much was learned, as well as to identify sequencing problems, faulty testing procedures, and whether the appropriate methodologies and multi-media machines are being used. The training modules are placed in a hierarchy of four levels of knowledge. Within each of the levels a number of subjects are found, which are composed of the individual training modules. The following training subjects are found in the learning hierarchy: Level 1: Self-Defense, Police Manual Community Relations and Interviews Level 2: Vehicle Skills, Water Safety, Arrest Procedures, Communication and First Aid Level 3: Firearms and Police Assistance Level 4: Court Procedures and Patrol Techniques The recruit takes an examination upon completion of each of the 153 modules. A score of 90 percent or better is required to complete and pass a module. This level of achievement was adopted because it was considered the proper standard when dealing with programmed instruction. 129 If a recruit fails to meet this standard, he must retake the partic- ular module. This process can be repeated until the staff decides to terminate the recruit's employment. This procedure serves as a remedial training program for students having difficulty, since each module is designed to function as a continuous remedial loop. Upon the successful completion of all the individual modules that compose a particular subject, the recruit is then evaluated in a skills lab on the material learned. The skills lab also serves as an additional learning experience, in which a small group of recruits (approximately six to eight) can practice what they have learned as well as viewing themselves and others through a video-taping of the experience. If deficiencies are noted in the skills lab exercise, the recruit is directed to redo those elements of the modules in which he is weak. If the student fails the skills lab performance evaluatiOn more than twice, the recruit may be subject to dismissal from the department. Once the recruit successfully completes all of the required subjects in the level of the hierarchy in which he is working, he then moves into the next level of the hierarchy until all four levels are successfully completed, at which time he graduates. Throughout the entire training program the training staff serves as instructional supervisors or managers of learning. The instructors serve as counselors by assisting the recruits academ- ically where needed, and conduct examinations for the recruits. The staff also serve as managers of the skills labs where the material ‘learned through the modular instructional procedure is practiced and evaluated. 130 Since the entire training program is self-paced, individual- ized learning, no fixed numbers of hours are required for each of the various subjects in the curriculum. However, approximate term lengths have been formulated, which gives an indication of the time needed to complete a given subject. The following is a list of these subjects, along with the approximate amount of time needed for their successful completion: Hours Level 1. Self-Defense 58 Physical education, self-defense techniques; prisoner control and disarming techniques; arrest control problems; use of baton; search- ing techniques and handcuffing Police Manual 10 Community Relations 10 Interviews 5 Conduct interviews; identify value of notebook Level 2. Vehicle Skills 25 Car inspection; demonstrate equipment; conditions for pursuit; defensive driving tactics; criteria for in-progress crime calls; pullover procedures and control of hostile subjects; approaching sus- pects; code approach; accident procedures; directions Arrest Procedures 27 Warning of rights; evidence; property handling; search procedures; probable cause; arrest of suspect; juveniles; diplomats; obtain search warrant; stop and frisk Communication 16 Radio codes; radio operation; call box First Aid ' l4 Shock; bleeding; treatment of terminal injuries; cardiac massage; fractures; childbirth; common emergencies; heart ailment; artificial respiration 131 Hours Level 3. Firearms . 15 (plus range) Police Assistance 4O Sick or injured person; assault calls; disorderly calls; armed persons calls; stolen auto; fire; unlawful entry; robbery; property destruction; sex offenses; family argument; homicide; crowds; mentally deranged persons; bombs; animals; accidents Level 4. Court Procedures 8 Patrol Techniques 38 Alcohol testing; moving violations; stolen auto recovery; gambling; narcotics; traffic post and regulations; reciprocity; and patrol Upon graduation from the academy, the recruit works in the field on patrol under the supervision of a field training officer. This field training period lasts for ninety days, after which the recruit remains on probation until he has completed his first year of employment. Training_Subjects Related to the Service Function In reviewing the curriculum, a number of courses related to human problems help prepare the officer for his service role. In addition to the following courses, found in the community relations section of the curriculum, a number of subjects found under other areas of curriculum are also pertinent to this discussion. These include Police Assistance Skills (responding to mentally deranged persons, missing persons, and family arguments) and particular Patrol Techniques (patrol services). The subjects found in the Community Relations block of instruction include: Police Philosophy and 132 Ethical Conduct, Courteous Communication, Recognizing Sources of Negative Attitudes Towards Police, Police/Press Relations, and Com- munity Makeup. Mejor Curriculum Change Procedures As stated earlier, the major change in the recruit training curriculum from the traditional training format to a self-paced, individualized training program was accomplished in 1971. The reported impetus for the change-in the curriculum was to attempt to improve the training of the police officer. This improvement was deemed necessary after examining the findings of a task analysis con- ducted by a consulting firm hired by the department. Reportedly, the previous training program was not adequately meeting the needs of the department and therefore the change in the curriculum was to respond to this self-demand for better preparation for police work. Through the use of a task analysis of the functions of the police officers, the characteristics and needs of the department were identified and plans based upon them. Field police officers were used to gather, respond to, and evaluate the particular elements of the study, which thereby established a relationship of trust and con- fidence among the training staff, consultants, and the entire depart- tnent. In addition, middle management personnel of the department were used to validate the performance objectives developed in the original task analysis study. Thus, an equal power distribution was developed and maintained, which allowed all segments of the project to influence one another. 133 Continuous self-improvement was achieved during the imple- mentation and development of the curriculum change through develop- ment of the training staff and evaluations of recruit performance. This served as an evaluation of the project itself and helped to foster self-improvement. The consultant firm that developed the cur- riculum program helped the training staff to understand and accept change, as well as to develop more favorable basic attitudes toward new ideas. In this regard, the training staff is considered as much of a change agent as the consultants, since the staff was responsible for implementing the curriculum changes as well as maintaining the procedures of changing the curriculum, which has been done continuously ever since. The Dayton/Montgomery County Recruit Training Curriculum The Dayton/Montgomery County Criminal Justice Training Center, located on the outskirts of Dayton, Ohio, provides the training for all elements of the criminal justice system for the surrounding area. The Criminaleustice Center serves five counties, in which approximately 100 criminal justice agencies employ over 2000 employees. The Dayton Police Department represents the largest of these agencies, with its sworn personnel numbering 450 officers. The mission of the Center is to ensure that effective personnel development programs are available to the correctional, police and public legal agencies in the five-county area. To accomplish this, three objectives have been identified: (1) define job responsibili- ties and career systems for which training and education are needed; 134 (2) identify and coordinate the existing educational resources that can be used to train criminal justice personnel; and (3) provide pro- grams and materials for training that supplement training already being provided by other area criminal justice agencies. These objec- tives were based on the fact that there is a similarity of informa- tion among agencies that employees throughout the system must under- _stand, and therefore there is a need for improved communication among agencies. In addition, the number of employees in most local crimi- nal justice agencies is too small to justify limiting training to their own type of agency.. Finally, cooperation among agencies helps eliminate system-wide problems and facilitates training. The Criminal Justice Center is staffed with a variety of people from various disciplines, including criminal justice, police science, education, communication arts, psychology, sociology, cor- rections, law management, and political science. The Center has worked with numerous agencies in areas of management training, organi- zational design, records systems, career paths, manpower studies, new training techniques, crime prevention programs, and the design and implementation of several evaluative tools. The basic recruit training program consists of sixteen weeks of training covering all phases of police work. The program is pri- marily oriented toward recruits in the Dayton Police Department, since the majority of the classes are composed of Dayton officers. Class sizes are approximately twenty-five to thirty students each; and several classes are conducted throughout the training year. Recruits who successfully complete the training program receive nine college 135 credits for three college courses included in the program. The basic training program consists of 640 hours of training, which are divided into nine modules of similar subject matter. II. III. IV. VI. Orientation Module Procedural Module This involves classes dealing with various procedures used in the accomplishment of the goals of the system, as well as technical police operations procedures such as: arrest, bombs, notetaking; communication; courtroom testimony; computer reports; crisis inter- vention; discretion; discussion of field duty; disor- derly groups and gangs; first aid; court; observation ‘techniques; juveniles; patrol tactics; management of property; radar; report writing; alarms; information sources; warrants. Law Module This includes classes dealing with legal rules, and state, local and federal laws, such as: civil rights and the police; juvenile justice system; arrest; pro- cedural laws; codes; and warrants. Investigative Module This encompasses all areas of investigation, which includes: arson; auto theft; burglary; weapons; child abuse and neglect; dead bodies; forgery; gambling; techniques; homicide; informants; interrogation and interviewing; larceny; liquor violations; missing persons; narcotics; organized crime; polygraph; pros- titution; prowlers; robbery; sex offenses; and surveillance. Technical Skills Module This includes improvement of particular motor skills such as shooting, defensive driving, pursuit driving, physical fitness, and defensive tactics. General Information Module This includes classes which impart general information about social service agencies, police agencies, court agencies, and correctional agencies. These include: Hours 20 166-1/2 4O 61 141 11 136 Hours VII. College Module 110 This includes three college courses directed at the beginning law enforcement student or alternative classes if these courses were already completed. These include: 'constitutional law, criminal evidence and procedure, and police typing. VIII. Traffic Module 33 This includes a variety of classes dealing with traffic enforcement and traffic accident investigation. IX. Testing and Evaluation Module 29-1/2 Training Subjects Related to the Service Function In reviewing the whole recruit curriculum, several courses related to human problems stand out as providing preparation for the officer's service role. In addition to these courses, it should be noted that the Center has attempted to integrate police-community relations training into every aspect of the curriculum rather than treating it separately. The following courses are most appropriate to this discussion: Crisis Intervention. This unit of instruction deals with philos- ophies and techniques that have proven valuable when intervening in a crime situation. Discretion. This course is designed to help the recruit understand police discretion and the manner in which it should be used. Disorderly Groupspand Gangs. This unit of instruction familiarizes the recruit with the different compositions of gangs in the Dayton area and successful methods of dealing with them. _§ocial Service Agencies. This course is designed to emphasize the importance of social service agencies in the community and their relationship with the police department. jyictimization Centers. This unit emphasizes the importance of the Victimization Center and its operations. 137 When they have successfully completed the training program, the recruits serve with their individual departments in a probationary status for anywhere from six to twelve months. In addition, the Dayton Police Department, like many other departments, requires its officers to be retrained for a minimum of forty-eight hours each year of their employment after the first year. This requirement for in-service _ retraining results in a continuation of the training begun in the recruit training program. In an attempt to meet some of the training needs of the criminal justice system, the Center has developed modu- lar programs for in-service personnel. This in-service training responsibility has therefore received the majority of the Center's attention. Basically, each modular program consists of five to seven one-day courses concerned with a particular topic. These courses are taught within a one—week period, and the entire week's courses are repeated for four to six weeks to reduce the possibility of a student missing a session because of his work schedule. Thus, an individual ean take the courses he is interested in sometime during the four- to six-week period, even if he has a very busy schedule. The following is a list of some of the modules offered, along with their respective COUY'SESI Criminal Justice Administration. Includes nature of organization, communication, first line supervision, management by objectives, and management systems. Procedures in Counseling. Includes advanced non-verbal communica- tion, rational-emotive theraPY. and reality therapy. Crime Prevention. Includes overview of crime prevention; locking devices and alarms, security surveys, prevention methods, and beat crime prevention. Crisis Intervention. Includes crisis intervention, principles and methods, physiological reactions to stress, family crisis inter- vention, maturation and situational crisis, and special problems in crisis intervention. Beat Management. Includes preventive patrol and beat management, procedures for beat management; contract writing. Current Lego] Issues. Includes rights of the individual, codes, search and seizure, juvenile justice system. Blacks in Criminal Justice. Includes definitions and causes of crime inFEhe Black community, the black experience, minority counseling, and blacks as change agents. In addition to the preceding programs, the Criminal Justice Center offers numerous specialized training programs. are an in-depth treatment of specific and limited tOpics. These courses Special- ized training courses vary in length from one to five days and are offered only once. to date include the following: Precision Driving Legal Subject for Police Interpersonal Relations for Criminal Justice Executives and Managers Police/Teacher Workshop Workshop for Non-Judicial Court.Personnel Basic Police Photography Public Defender's Investigation Program New Ohio Code Training Firearms Refresher Program Defensive Tactics Refresher Program Narcotics Investigation for Police Traffic Accident Investigation Advanced Police Photography Job Pressures and the Police Advanced Jail Methodology Workshop Run Away Youth Workshop Armed Defense and Weaponry Training The specialized courses offered one or more times Narcotics-Corrections Vice Workshop The Criminal Justice System for Support Personnel The Volunteer in a Correctional Setting Dispatcher Manpower Development Seminar Policy-Making Jail Methodology Seminar Homicide Investigation Gathering and Preservation of Evidence Preparation and Handling of Nutritional Food in a Correctional Institution Setting Test Interpretation and Application Community-Based Treatment Centers Arrest Procedures Advanced Auto Theft Fraud and Bunco 139 Major Curriculum Change Procedures The initial change in the recruit training curriculum occurred in l97l, when the Criminal Justice Center went into operation first, at the Dayton Police Academy and finally at its present location. The Center was originated in response to a study conducted by the Regional Law Enforcement Planning Committee of criminal justice agencies in a five-county area of southern Ohio. Analysis of the agencies pointed out that training programs were either nonexistent or ineffective because of a lack of organization, a crisis orientation, or senseless duplication and fragmentation. Since the origin of the Criminal Justice Center, the constant updating and revision of the curriculum is viewed as the major change that took place; such revision is still occurring. A number of procedures were followed in changing the curric- ulum, from the previous format of training offered by various agencies within the five-county region, to having it be offered by the Center. In the fall of l972, the Curriculum Specialist of the Center's staff designed the l973 curriculum, based upon student evaluations of the various programs from the initial year of operation. In addition to the use of the evaluations in developing the curriculum, feedback was also obtained through interviews with employees of agencies regarding their own experiences and needs. Input was also obtained from a task analysis study of roles, functions and relationships of criminal jus- tice personnel, which was previously conducted as part of a Career Ladder Study by the Center. Conclusions were drawn in developing the curriculum based upon this information and the personal expertise of 140 the training staff. Through this method of studying the local condi- tions, the characteristics and needs of the personnel to be trained were identified. This also served as the means of establishing mutual trust and rapport between the Center and the criminal justice agen- cies. The present curriculum is constantly reexamined using the above methods, which have been expanded to include interviews with experi- enced criminal justice personnel as well as the various individuals involved in training at a number of the agencies served. This helps to actively involve the various departments in the operations of the Center and creates a stronger sense of belonging. This, in turn, develops a democratic environment through which the training staff and the agencies' personnel can equally influence one another. The Criminal Justice Center is seeking continuous self- improvement in performing its role in curriculum development, as exhibited by its present organizational/administrative structure. The organizational structure is the collegial model, which allows the staff a wide range of interdependence in performing its tasks. The formal chain of command was viewed as ineffective in attempting to develop an atmosphere for continuous change. Summar The purpose of this chapter was to present the findings that were obtained by studying the nine police recruit training programs. This presentation included (l) the major characteristics of these programs; (2) the subject matter in the curriculum, with particular l4] attention to those subjects that prepare the recruit for his service role; and (3) the recent changes in the curricula, including the pro- cedures used to bring about these changes. A number of characteristics and experiences of the nine pro- grams lend themselves to presentation in a summary table format. 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D. a D. O 0 0 l. U. 0 0 UK 35 D. in n S S U l. S U .4 1. . U. 1 I. U 3 3 11 12.0 0 l. 1. P. 1. V V l. D. O ah 0 U U .l U rA U U U 6 U m / 6 a p 6 6 U 0 a .1. a a D. J O l l .4 K u a a I? C S S 1 i 1 i H .umncwu20011._.v m_neh CHAPTER V SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS The purposes of this chapter are: (l) to summarize the study, (2) to present and discuss the findings and conclusions resulting from the study, (3) to recommend particular methods and strategies for the overall improvement of police recruit training, and (4) to suggest areas requiring future study. Summar Recently there has been an increasing demand for the upgrading of the police in this country. The improvement of the training of the police in preparation for their work was perceived as a major solution. The literature related to training as well as to police operations was reviewed to determine how an improvement in training would ultimately upgrade the police. This literature was divided into sections to facilitate its presentation. The historical development of police recruit training programs was the first issue presented, so that a proper perspective of police training could be achieved. A second section dealt with criticisms of police training voiced by various scholars, researchers, and task forces. These criticisms focused on the minimum amount of training and the proportions of time spent on various training subjects in contrast to what the officer actually does in routine patrol work. 144 145 Another section developed the above issues through an explor- ‘ation of the role conflict a police officer experiences in his work. Conflict resolution--or the maintenance of social order in society-- involves concurrent use of both social work and law enforcement tech- niques. The diverse philosophical orientations of the two fields result in role conflict for the officers. Various innovations that have been recommended and/or under- taken in police recruit training were illustrated in another section of the review. The emphasis was on police training programs that are attempting to provide relevant recruit training. As part of this A presentation, the nature of the change process as it relates to the attempted improvement in the training program was also explored. The remaining section of the literature review applied the pertinent preceding material in the discussion of curriculum develop- ment in police recruit training.programs and the various methods used in this development. The chapter was concluded with a model of a curriculum development system for police training. As a result of the research, this study was undertaken to describe and explore a number of police training programs that are attempting to prepare the recruit for the realities of his work. Through a personal examination of selected police training programs, it was also possible to focus on the development of their curricula. To identify the police recruit training programs that are widely recognized as innovative, relevant programs, fourteen authori- ties were chosen as sources from whom the necessary information could be obtained. These authorities provided a list of thirty-three different 146 programs throughout the country. From this list, nine programs rep- resentative of the original thirty-three were selected fbr study. Personal visits were made to each of these training centers, where the present curriculum was examined. Special emphasis was placed on those .elements that dealt directly with training the police for their ser- vice function, as well as the procedures used in the development of the curriculum. The findings from the visits to the training programs were presented by treating each program individually according to the fol- lowing descriptive format: (l) the major characteristics of the pro- gram: (2) the subject matter in the curriculum, with particular atten- tion to those subjects that prepare the recruit for his service role; and (3) a discussion of recent changes in the curriculum, including the procedures used in bringing about the change. This information was then summarized and formulated into a tabular presentation that highlighted the major elements of each program as related to the purposes of the study. Summary and DisCussion of Major Findings A review of the information gleaned from the study facili- tated the following summary of the findings. The length of the nine basic police recruit training programs studied extends from a minimum of approximately twelve weeks in the Washington, D.C., program to a maximum of fifty-two weeks in Boston's program, with the most common length averaging twenty weeks. The training was found to take place in a variety of locations, in contrast to the typical notion that it 147 is held only at a police academy. In lieu of training being conducted at the academy, as it was.in Chicago, Los Angeles city and county, and Washington, D.C., training-was also conducted at police headquar- ters (Oakland), police districts (Boston), regional training centers (Seattle and Dayton/Montgomery County), and colleges (Cincinnati). Just as the range of training length was evident among programs, there was a range of college-accredited courses included in the pro- grams. This range extended from no credit granted for any training subjects at Boston and Washington, D.C., to a maximum of thirty col- lege credits for a number of training subjects at Chicago and Seattle, with no apparent relationship to the length of program or any other discernible variable. Just as the lengths of training programs and resulting college credit granted for completion varied, so did the number of recruits in a particular class. At one extreme an individual went through recruit training by himself in the Washington, D.C., program, and at the other extreme, in Cincinnati, a class of sixty persons went through the training program together. The majority of the classes, though, contained approximately twenty-five to thirty members. There were varying approaches to presenting the subject matter to prepare the police officer for his service role. This sub- ject matter ranged from 5 to 25 percent of the program's total cur- riculum. In addition, this material was incorporated into the curric- ulum in a variety of ways--by segregating it from the remainder of the subject matter or incorporating elements of these issues into the entire program. The latter approach, of course, made it difficult, if 148 not impossible, to obtain an accurate picture of the total percentage of time devoted to this type of training. The period during which the training staff maintained direct control and responsibility over the new employee ranged from approxi- mately twelve weeks at one extreme (Washington, D.C.) to fifty-two weeks at the other (Boston). In most programs, this period of respon- sibility was greatly affected by the field training experience, which ranged from a minimum of twelve-weeks (Cincinnati) to fifty-two weeks (Boston), depending upon whether it was a part of the initial training procedure or added to it at the conclusion of classroom training. Major distinctions.--The major uniquenesses of the programs studied were identified as (1) integration of classroom and field experiences throughout the training period; (2) use of self-paced, multi-media instructional methods; (3) inclusion of interpersonal awareness and human relations training; (4) emphasis on longer control over the officer by the training program; and (5) continuation of training throughout the officer's career. In addition to the uniquenesses of the programs studied, these programs also differed in the actual development of their cur- ricula. These changes took place any time from four years before the study up to the present time. The reasons for the changes in the cur- riculum ranged from directives from the chief departmental adminis- trator, as in Oakland, through assorted motivations (community pres- sures, departmental changes, etc.), to the personal conviction of the training director, as in Boston. This, in turn, allowed for identi- fication of the persons primarily responsible for the change? CitEd 149 were the chief of the department (Oakland), the director of training (Cincinnati), and the training staff (Los Angeles County). The methods used by the various training programs in planning, developing and implementing the curriculum changes varied from one program to another, with very little duplication. A number of programs, such as Los Angeles city and county and Washington, D.C., used a task analysis of the functions of the police officer to assist in the curriculum change, but a variety of methods were used, such as interviewing officers of various ranks or observing their activities. These analyses were conducted by outside consultant agencies, or by the training staff or other segments of the departments. Other pro- grams, such as Chicago's and Cincinnati's, coordinated their change efforts with college programs.to integrate their functions. Still others, like Boston's and Oakland's, accomplished the change proce- dure entirely within the training program itself, without using any outside input or assistance. Change results.--The results from the changes identified in the development of the curriculum included one or more of the follow- ing: (l) lengthening the training; (2) lengthening the training and incorporating more training for the officer's service role; (3) length- ening the training and integrating field training experience throughout the training period; (4) lengthening the period of direct control of the training program over the new police employee; (5) shortening the training by using self-paced, individualized instruction; (6) shor- tening the hours spent each day in the classroom by integrating the 150 the classroom activities with related field experiences; (7) shorten- ing the training and coordinating the program with an ongoing, con- tinuous in-service training program; and (8) maintaining the overall training program time allotment while attempting to achieve a more appropriate balance of the subject matter in relation to the reali- ' 2' mam ties of the police function. Based upon these findings, a number of conclusions to this ; study have been generated. Conclusions A number of conclusions have been drawn from the findings of this research. However, it should be noted that the programs studied, being at various stages of curriculum development, are merely cited as examples to facilitate the discussion and presentation of these con- clusions. There was no effort and/or intention to compare or evaluate these programs to each other or to any other police training programs. The exclusion of any programs from the discussion does not necessarily infer deficiencies in those programs. The following are the conclusions derived from the findings of this study: 1. Developing a curriculum for recruit training is relatively simple; authorities generally agree on the broad subject areas that should be included, although they may differ on the length of time and amount of attention to be devoted to each. It is no wonder, then, that current training efforts vary so widely in subject matter, time allotment, organization, methods of instruction, and personnel. No Single training program studied, and for that matter, no single training 1,” 151 r// / curriculum anywhere would be adequate for all communities.' The content and conduct of instruction necessarily vary according to local condi- tions and the strengths and weaknesses of the recruits, the instruc- tional staff, and the facilities. In addition, the training of young persons to become effective police officers depends on how the role of the police is defined, for without a workable role definition, training will miss the mark set by both the trainers and the chief executives. 2. Except for administration, the police officer's role isv/3; deeply involved in social work.. This is true not only in the direct social service dispatches but also in law enforcement cases. When an officer responds toia crime against the person, such as murder, rape, robbery, or assault, he most often arrives on the scene after the offender has left or has become submissive. Police procedure calls for protection of the crime scene and assistance in the investigation. Yet the officer can and effectively does comfort the victim and restore calm to the scene. If police accepted the major role that social service plays in their work and were given social service training, they could perform their duties more competently. A 3. Limited attempts have been made to make recruits aware of the cgmplexities of the social situations they will be entering. Minimal effort has been made to unearth their underlying prejudices and capabilities, or to teach them different ways of handling poten- tially violent situations. Limited opportunities have been provided for the recruits to discuss what it means to be a police officer or to 152 speculate about what they would do in certain hypothetical situa- tions. However, a number of the programs studied were attempting to provide these training needs. Some of the more outstanding examples include the conflict management courses taught in the Boston program, and the applied psychology and counseling workshops of the Chicago program. The human and public relations workshop in the Cincinnati program and the interpersonal relations block of instruction of Los Angeles County's program are further examples of the training offered in these areas. In addition, many of Oakland's community relations/ community awareness courses are pertinent to this discussion, as are the courses on humanistics for the police, psychology for the police, and attitude awareness, in the Seattle program. The Dayton/Montgomery County program also provides a number of courses attempting to pro- vide instruction in these areas. 4. The need for changeiwas widely recognized by the training_ staffs, as evidenced by the number of those programs studied that have undertaken their own curriculum development. Some of the sample studied initiated and conducted their own change procedure, all within the training unit; these include Boston, Cincinnati, Los Angeles County, and Seattle. In a number of the remaining programs studied, where the chief administrator of the department served as the original impetus for the curriculum change, the amount of influence the train- ing staff had on the decision to alter the program was undeterminable. However, the training staffs in Chicago, Oakland, Washington, D.C., and Dayton/Montgomery County influenced such change. 153 5. Police recruit training programs are either lengthening or shortening trainingjas a result of recent curriculum changes. If a program is lengthened, it normally incorporates more subject matter and/or greater depth of treatment into the curriculum. Usually the additional length results from adding more courses dealing with the serVice function of the police. If a program is shortening its total training, it normally is incorporating self-paced, individualized instructional methods into the program. A Boston has extended its program to one year, and Chicago has incorporated an advanced recruit training period after basic training, which lengthens the program to nine months. In addition, the Cincin- nati and Seattle programs have slightly increased the total length of their training periods. Much of the subject matter added to the Boston program involves the study of conflict management; the behavioral science subjects and applied psychology workshops in Chicago are a substantial part of their increased curriculum. The large proportion of humanities, psychology and attitude awareness courses lengthened Seattle's program, and Oakland's attempt to integrate its community relations/community awareness material into the total curriculum served to lengthen its training period. Programs that have shortened their training periods include Los Angeles, Los Angeles County, Washington, D.C., and Dayton/ Montgomery County. With the exception of the latter program, all of these have instituted individualized, self-paced programmed instruc- tion, which results in the earlier release of the recruit from training. In the case of Dayton/Montgomery County, the resulting reduction in 154 the total basic training period reflects its attempt to coordinate basic training with advanced yearly in-service training. 6. In conjunction with those programs that consist of self- paced,_multi-media instructional approaches,_the systems analysis/ operational research techniques have been applied in the development of curricula. Much of the research related to systems analysis tech- nology and programmed learning is based on conventional assumptions about the police, rather than on observations about real police work. Much of the material used for analysis, such as in Los Angeles, involved listening to police talk about their work rather than looking 'at what they actually do. By exposing the police officer to a totally mechanistic course of training, in which every conceivable problem is met by a pre- programmed solution, an officer could complete training with a belief that if there is no solution, there is no problem. It has the poten- tial of suppressing every inclination toward responsible individual action. These training endeavors appear to be particularly unsuited to a job that requires sensitivity, discretion, and judgment. 7. Recent changes indicate there has been an increased use of field training experiences. Field training has expanded the total period of commitment that the new employee has to the training staff; it is used as a means of preparing him for the realities of his future work. Boston and Chicago make extensive use of field training by integrating it with class work throughout their entire training periods, whereas Cincinnati, Los Angeles, Los Angeles County, Oakland, and Washington, D.C., use field training at the conclusion of the _. ‘urn-o .‘-A-_-J.-,. - c; mnfl-fl‘fi‘rd '37; *7 ' ~'. - 155 recruit training program. These periods of supervised field training range from a minimum of three months in Washington, D.C., to the maximum of eight months in Los Angeles. 8. In a number of the programs studied, there has been an increase in the use of self-awareness training. A variety of self- development approaches are used in many of the programs studied. In the Boston program, the major area of conflict management contains various subjects such as introduction to conflict, crisis interven— tion and job stress, which attempt to provide training in the area. The applied psychology course in Chicago's program is intended to help the recruit define and evaluate his own values and assumptions; the human and public relations workshop of Cincinnati also has this purpose. Los Angeles County's interpersonal relations courses afford the recruit an ability to develop his self-awareness, as do many courses in the community relations/community awareness area of the Oakland program. Also, self-awareness approaches to training are found in the humanities, psychology, and attitude awareness courses offered by Seattle. Recommendations A number of recommendations have been formulated to assist in the development and improvement of police recruit training programs, and to give incentive and direction to further studies to be conducted in this area. 1. Training_programs should provide experiences that assist the recruit in aggreater understandingpof the self. Almost all recom- mendations for the inclusion in training programs of additional material 156 dealing with the behavioral sciences point to the need to understand the behavior of other individuals and groups. What is sometimes overlooked is the need for a greater knowledge of the most fundamental element in human nature-—the self. A knowledge of the self is requi- site to understanding and dealing with others. A number of training programs are currently developing experiences that assist in self- discovery;1 however, this movement should be greatly accelerated and expanded. Some of the programs studied are dealing with this area of self-awareness training. The more prominent examples are the applied psychology and counseling workshops of Chicago, the human and public relations workshops of Cincinnati, the interpersonal relations courses of Los Angeles and Los Angeles County, various community relations courses of Oakland, and the psychology and attitude awareness courses of Seattle. 2. A study should be undertaken to identify and state assump- tions about the purppses of police work. There is ample evidence that the role the police officer plays in society is currently being examined and questioned. Both the police and the public are question- ing the role of the police. Some are asking how much the police can really do to control crime, whether the military organization is 1A recent example of a police training program develOped solely with emphasis on personal awareness is the Mid-Michigan Police Academy's Interpersonal Communication and Awareness Program, located in Lansing, Michigan. A summary and overview of this course and its content is found in Appendix I. It should be noted that this concept of providing training in interpersonal communication was strongly recommended by the National Advisory Commission on Criminal Justice Standards and Goals in their Report on Police (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1973), p. 401. 157 suited to the demands of the job, and other basic questions about their functions. 3.. The coverege of subjectspertainintho the police officer's c/” social role should be broadened.A These courses should include law enforcement orientation to the behavioral and social sciences, human behavior and civil rights, minority cultural patterns, needs, values, family structure, religious philosophies, individual and group atti- tudes, and concepts of mental health, alcoholism and drug abuse. At least one-fourth of the total recruit training curriculum should be devoted to these topics. Some of the programs that provided more training in these subjects than did others were those of Boston, Chicago, Cincinnati, Los Angeles County, Oakland, and Seattle. 4. Police training programs should integrate human relations, interpersonal awareness and community relations trainjpg_wjth tradi- tional training. It is not necessary to replace training for police work with training for social work, to separate order-maintenance and law-enforcement responsibilities, nor to substitute human relations skills for the ability to make an arrest or take charge of a situa- tion. But a total commitment to integrating the training for the police officer's social role with all elements of the training is essential. A prime example of a department that is attempting to integrate this subject matter throughout the entire recruit training curriculum is the one in Oakland. The training staff is making a . special effort to strike a balance in training emphasis between the areas of technical competency and humanistic treatment. 158 5. Teaching solely by_lectures should be replaced with classes and experiences that allow the recruit to express his beliefs and emotional reactions to contemporary social, legal, and procedural i§§££§: Authorities have concluded that lasting behavioral change as a result of classroom methods is quite unlikely, and that inter- personal skills cannot be taught successfully by the typical intel- lectual and cognitive methods employed in the classroom.2 It has been proven that the affective-experimental training method is superior to the cognitive training method.3 A wide variety of training techniques should be used to improve present methods; these include T-group/sensitivity training, role playing, dramatization, self-disclosing behavior, and programmed and computer-assisted instruction. Debates, panels, in-depth discussions, and group therapy sessions should also be instituted. Training should include opportunities for experimentation in decision making and provide meaningful exposure to those of other cultures by involving trainees in creative encounters. _In addition, the recruit should be familiarized with the community's human resource centers and rehabilitative services. Programs that provide these 2Badalamente et al., "Training Police for Their Social Role," Journal of Police Science and Administration l (December 1973): 488; Bard, Training Police as Specialists in Family Crisis Intervention (Washington, D.C.: Law Enforcement Assistance Administration, 1970), p. 34. 3Joseph Zacker and Morton Bard, "Effects of Conflict Manage- ment Training on Police Performance," Journal of Applied Psychology_ 58 (l973): 202-208. 159 experiences are Boston, Chicago, Los Angeles, Oakland, and Dayton/ Montgomery County. 6. Great caution should be exhibited in developing and imple- mentingrpolice trainingpprograms that use only self:paced, individual- ized, programmed learning_techniques. Much further research and eval- uation are needed before this technique should be used in police training programs. Implementation should be postponed until the role of the police is clarified and the knowledge, skill, and resources required to prepare the recruit for this role are defined. 7. Training designs of the future should fuse the academy and the street. The recruit should alternate between the academy and the street in a series of cycles. A training program should develop the desired abilities of the police officer by instructing him in situations that simulate real-world conditions. Supervised field training is needed to complement the classroom instruction. The classroom sessions should be devoted to problem-solving situations that closely parallel actual street problems. Through such a proce- dure the police officer's training can be made continuous rather than sharply segmented into "academy" phase and "street" phase. This can reduce, if not eliminate, the station-house socialization process that normally occurs after the recruit leaves the academy and dis- covers that his formal training may be discredited or ignored. Two of the programs studied stand out as attempting to provide this fusion of classroom and street training. These are the Boston and Chicago programs, where the recruit alternates from classroom to related field experiences throughout his entire training period. 160 8. Regional training centers should be established for the various types of training_that are needed, since many departments cannot afford to put together effective police recruit training pro- grams on their own. A prime example of one of these centers is the Dayton/Montgomery County Criminal Justice Training Center in Dayton, Ohio, which provides training for all components of the criminal justice system on a regional basis. More such centers should be V, established to meet the training needs of the police. p This concept was strongly endorsed by the National Advisory Commission on Criminal Justice Standards and Goals.4~ A recent survey conducted by the Regional Criminal Justice Training Center at Modesto, California, revealed that at present ten states have developed crimi- nal justice training programs on a regional basis, providing a con- solidated system of training for law enforcement officers, correc- tional personnel, and the judiciary. In addition, it was also deter- mined that seventeen states have police and/or correctional-type academy training programs that serve a Specified region. 9. Training should be a perpetualrprocess that continues throughout an officer's entire career. If police work is to become a profession in reality and not just in name, its practitioners must continue to learn, grow, seek, strive, and adapt to new truths and changing needs. Beyond comprehensive and integrated training with a 4National Advisory Commission on Criminal Justice Standards and Goals, Report on Police, op. cit., p. 383. 5Gary J. Miller, "National Survey on Criminal Justice Train- ing and Education" (unpublished paper from the regional Criminal Justice Training Center, Modesto, California, l974), pp. 12-l3. 161 strong mix of classroom and street exposures, every officer should be continuously retrained throughout his career. Each year officers should be relieved of routine work assignments and exposed to a period of retraining, such as in Dayton/Montgomery County, Ohio. This period would greatly enhance the performance and efficiency of law enforcement personnel. In addition, the process of training and retraining has the capability of building a systematic plan for periodic reevalua- tion of objectives and techniques. 10. The police themselves should initiate change if they want to prevent external agencies from gainipgrcontrol over their functions and if they are to_provide the quality of;police work that the nation deeperately needs. Appropriate change within police organizations will not come through piecemeal efforts designed strictly to improve operational efficiency. It will come through organizational tech- niques that provide for continuous monitoring of the total police function and a total commitment of the entire department. ll. In order that the above recommendations be meee possiple. it is necessary to have more support from individual police depart- ments. This support includes making available more resources, includ- ing_timegemoney, and personnel. If there is going to be any real shift in police training through a redefinition of the police role (particularly to a service orientation), a greater commitment of the entire department is needed. This commitment was most evident in the Boston and Oakland departments. If a full-service orientation is 162 sought in a particular department's policing style,6 total commitment of the department is necessary. Complete restructuring of the depart- ment is required, rather than simply a reorganization or refocusing of the training section. Most training programs tend to focus on individual attitudes in creating change. The full-service model focuses on the organization, structuring it in such a way as to change behavior. This model calls for the decentralization of authority and participative management. The result is the improvement of community/ police cooperation, which facilitates crime prevention, deterrence, and apprehension, thereby facilitating the performance of the primary function of the police--law enforcement. 12. In summary, the end product to be developed by each department should be a training program redirected to a process of personal, individual development to foster the following qualities, recommended by the American Bar Association: 6The full-service orientation to policing is currently taking place in the New York City Police Department. For a complete dis- cussion of this matter see: A Full-Service Model for the New York Police Department, cited in Ellen Mintz and Georgette B. Sandler's article, "Instituting a Full-Service Orientation to Policing," Ihe_ Police Chief, May 1974. pp. 44-50. In a full-service model the police chief has (1) a professional orientation--characterized by indepen- dence in decision making, which is guided by a code of ethics and the systematic application of a body of knowledge; (2) a human relations orientation--an awareness of interpersonal dynamics expressed by the use of verbal, emotional, and social interaction skills; (3) a commu- nity relations orientation--a collaborative approach to law enforce- ment that recognizes the role of community cooperation in effective police service; and (4) a law enforcement orientation--characterized by a recognition that the power and authority vested in the police officer are to be exercised in the best interests of individual citizens and society. 163 c—J 0 Better understanding of the police role, 2. Development of skills that will better equip the officers to carry out their responsibilities, and 3. Development of the ability to make important decisions in the applicatipn of standards and guidelines to real life situations. Then, police recruit training programs possibly can be moved out of their infancy, as former Chief of Police James Ahern recently described police training,8 and toward an effective and efficient preparation, if this nation is to have the quality of police service it desperately needs. A word of caution is necessary, however, regarding the attempt to achieve the above-described training program. Such a program can- not be achieved merely by adopting various elements or even an entire curriculum as described in this study without giving equal considera- tion to the actual change procedures experienced in developing the curriculum. In any police training curriculum development project, the plans, strategies, and actions used in the change process are just as important as the actual curriculum developed; one is truly dependent upon the others. In effect, the change process demands as careful an examination and exploration as do the curricula developed to meet the need for the change. 7American Bar Association, Standards Relatingto the Urban Police Function (New York: American Bar Association, 1972), pp. 205- 209. 8James F. Ahern, Police in Trouble (New York: Hawthorne Books, 1972), p. 201. APPENDICES 164 . wag-nuru vgqr : '. L' a . . APPENDIX A FOURTEEN AUTHORITIES CONTACTED TO ASSIST IN SELECTING POLICE TRAINING PROGRAMS FOR THE STUDY 165 APPENDIX A FOURTEEN AUTHORITIES CONTACTED TO ASSIST IN SELECTING POLICE TRAINING PROGRAMS FOR THE STUDY John 0. Coleman, Executive Assistant to the Director, Federal Bureau of Investigation (former director of the Regional Training Center at Independence, Missouri) Leo A. Culloo, Executive Secretary, New Jersey Police Training Commis- sion (1973 Executive Secretary of National Association of State Directors of Law Enforcement Training) Preston L. Horstmen, Executive Secretary, National Association of State Directors of Law Enforcement Training Vernon L. Hoy, Deputy Chief, Los Angeles Police Department (Executive Director of REPORT ON POLICE by the National Commission on Criminal Justice Standards and Goals) Dr. Kenneth E. Joseph, Federal Bureau of Investigation National Train- ing Academy, Chief of Instructional Research and Development Dr. John Klotter, Director, Southern Police Institute, University of Louisville Robert E. McCann, Former Director, Chicago Police Academy Gene 5. Muehleisen, Executive Director, Commission on Police Officers Standards and Training Patrick V. Murphy, President, Police Foundation (response from Dr. Richard Staufenberger) Charles B. Saunders, Deputy Assistant Secretary for Legislation, Department of Health, Education, and Welfare (author of Upgrading the American Police: Education and Training_for Better Law Enforcement) James M. Slavin, Director, Northwestern University Traffic Institute, Northwestern University Dr. Charles P. Smith, Director, Project STAR (Systems and Training Analysis of Requirements for Criminal Justice Participants) James W. Sterling, Professional Standards Division, International Association of Chiefs of Police (author of Changes in Role Coneepts of Police Officers) Charles R. Wall, Chief of Police, Rockville, Maryland (former con- sultant to the IACP) 166 APPENDIX B EXAMPLE OF LETTER SENT TO FOURTEEN AUTHORITIES REQUESTING THEIR ASSISTANCE IN SELECTING POLICE TRAINING PROGRAMS FOR THE STUDY 167 APPENDIX B November 6, l974 Dr. Charles P. Smith Director Project STAR American Justice Institute 4818 Lincoln Boulevard, Suite 101 Marina Del Rey, CA 90291 Dear Dr. Smith: As you know, within the past number of years there has been a con- siderable amount of research conducted on the proportions of time a police officer deals with various activities. Generally the findings of these studies tell us that approximately 20% of the police officer's time is spent on criminal actions, while the remaining 80% is spent on community service activities. Additional research findings inform us that the average basic police training program devotes less than l0% of its curriculum to the matter of community service activities. Recently this inconsistency of minimal attention given in training to the majority of the duties performed by the officer has been attacked by various individuals and organizations. The general theme of these criticisms has been that police training does not adequately prepare the police officer for the realities of the job. Partially in response to the demands for more relevance in police training some basic police training programs have undergone dramatic changes in attempting to make their training more relevant to the needs of the police as well as the community. These programs are directing a greater thrust of their curricula towards dealing with human values and problems in a variety of manners as compared to the traditional training approaches. The experiences had by those police departments in undergoing the changes from the traditional training program to a more relevant human service oriented program must certainly be of value to others. The procedures through which these "innovative" training programs planned, implemented, and developed their curricula demands appropriate examina- tion and description to assist other programs in achieving the desired relevance. Therefore, I have undertaken a study of training programs that have implemented the necessary changes to bring about a more relevant curriculum to our present police role concept. This will be incorporated into my doctoral dissertation, sponsored by the Law Enforcement Assistance Administration. 168 169 As a result of my reviewing the literature related to police training, I have noted fourteen authorities, including yourself, that possess an expertise in this subject matter. Your assistance is therefore being requested in identifying those basic police training programs throughout the country that in your opinion have recently undergone the process of changing their curricula to a more relevant humanistic cur- riculum. The training programs you and the thirteen others cite will be considered in selecting a reasonable sample for me to personally visit, analyze, and describe in my study. In identifying those programs you personally believe fulfill the char- acteristics sought for this study, feel free to elaborate on your rationale for each choice, if you so desire. In addition, please rank the programs you cite according to what you believe the best program first, and so on. A self-addressed, stamped envelope is enclosed for your convenience in returning the list of programs you cite. I request that you attempt to furnish me the desired list and optional rationales as soon as possible. The results of this study will be forwarded to you upon request. I deeply appreciate your attention to this matter and wish to express my sincere gratitude to you for your valuable assistance. Sincerely, William G. Horn LEAA Research Fellow Enclosure T'n.¥-fi"rta—27'." 3' 7""13'7‘... . x D"- APPENDIX C LOCATION OF POLICE TRAINING PROGRAMS CITED BY SELECTED AUTHORITIES IN THE POLICE FIELD 170 ' .-._-e..a -.'-_.4_no_v . n -3 . ".l ' APPENDIX C LOCATION OF POLICE TRAINING PROGRAMS CITED BY SELECTED AUTHORITIES IN THE POLICE FIELD Austin, Texas Baltimore, Maryland Boston, Massachusetts Chicago, Illinois Cincinnati,'0hio Columbus, Ohio Dallas, Texas Dayton, Ohio Detroit, Michigan Denver, Colorado Durham, North Carolina Duval County, Florida Greensboro, North Carolina Illinois State Police Indiana State Police Independence, Missouri Lexington, Kentucky 171 Los Angeles, California Los Angeles County, California Missouri State Police Modesto, California Nashville, Tennessee New York, New York Oakland, California Riverside, California Sacramento, California San Jose, California San Diego, California Seattle, Washington Springfield, Ohio St. Louis, Missouri Toms River, New Jersey Washington, D.C. APPENDIX D POLICE TRAINING PROGRAMS SELECTED FOR STUDY 172 APPENDIX D POLICE TRAINING PROGRAMS SELECTED FOR STUDY Boston Police Academy Chicago Police Academy Cincinnati Police Training and Education Section Los Angeles Police Training Division Los Angeles County Sheriffs Academy Oakland Police Academy Seattle Police Training Center Washington, D.C., Metropolitan Police Training Division Dayton Police/Montgomery County Criminal Justice Training Center 173 ..‘..:')i I.“ APPENDIX E SEVEN CRITERIA DEVELOPED AS MAJOR CHANGE AGENT STRATEGIES FOR EFFECTING PLANNED CHANGE; AND MODIFICATIONS USED FOR THIS STUDY 174 APPENDIX E SEVEN CRITERIA DEVELOPED AS MAJOR CHANGE AGENT STRATEGIES FOR EFFECTING PLANNED CHANGE; AND MODIFICATIONS USED FOR THIS STUDY* 1. The change agent should identify the characteristics and needs of the client system and base plans upon them. How were the characteristics and needs of the police department identified and plans based upon them?‘ - know existing conditions - a study of local needs, identification of needs - change should reflect clients' needs 2. The change agent should seek, and play a major role in, the establishment of rapport and the building of mutual trust and respect between the client system and itself. How was rapport, mutual trust and respect established and built between the training academy and the department during_ the change? gain confidence of department communication and understanding must remain open confidence and support must be gained mutual relationship of trust must be built empathy and rapport are necessary 3. The change agent should view the change process as a mutual, collaborative, reciprocal undertaking between the client system and itself. How was the change viewed as a mutual, collaborative, recip- rocal undertakingebetween the academy and the department? - actively involve the department in all stages - a joint effort of mutual determination of goals - an equal power distribution to influence one another *As adapted from Peggy Lynne Miller, "Change Agent Strategies: A Study of the Michigan-Ohio Regional Educational Laboratory" (Ph.D. dissertation, Michigan State University, l968). 175 176 - cooperative and collaborative work - participation of those whose daily lives are affected - involvement and a strong sense of belonging The change agent should identify key leaders, formal and informal, in the client system, and work through them. How were the key leaders, formal and informalg_jdentified in the department; and how were they included in the change procedure? - involve as many elements of the leadership system - concentrate on opinion leaders and work through them .‘ The change agent should understand the communication-diffusion of innovation process and utilize a strategy in working with the client system. How was the communication-diffusion of innovation process understood and a strategy utilized in working with the department? - an organizational plan for innovative change - a strategy or plan is necessary to bring about change - planning for implementing change is also necessary The change agent should seek continual self-improvement in performing its role. How was self-improvement continuously sought byrthe academy in performing its role as change agent? - an evaluation of itself - study and overcome own resistance to change. The change agent should teach the clients to be their own change agents, to understand the process of change, to develop self- renewing behavior. How did the academy_(change agent) teach the departmentp(or the academy) to be their own change agents, to understand the pro- cess of change, and to develop,self-renewing_behavior? make the aspects of the process of change visible improve clients' competence in evaluating new ideas seek favorable basic attitudes towards new ideas increase ability to evaluate innovations APPENDIX F PERSONS WHO PROVIDED RELEVANT INFORMATION FOR THE STUDY 177 APPENDIX F PERSONS WHO PROVIDED RELEVANT INFORMATION FOR THE STUDY Boston Police Department: Robert Wasserman, Director of Training and Education Captain William Hogan, Commanding Officer/Police Academy Patrick Ryan, Assistant to the Recruit Commander Deborah V. Griffin, Assistant to the Director Chicago Police Department: Lt. Michael E. Logan, Assistant Director of Training Lt. Robert E. McCann, Commanding Officer/Vice Detection Cincinnati Police Division: Captain Thomas W. Dixon, Director of Training and Education Sergeant Paul Allen, Police Academy Los Angeles Police Department: Deputy Chief Vernon L. Hoy, Headquarters Lt. Jack Smith, Personnel and Training Lt. Leonard Bivens, Police Academy Sergeant Paul Lenocher, Police Academy Sergeant Thomas Gould, Police Academy Sergeant Diane Harper, Central Division Katherine Kurtz, Police Academy Los Angeles County_Sheriff's Department: Captain Richard Foreman, Commander/Police Academy Lt. William Baker, Police Academy Lt. Michael Graham, Police Academy Sgt. Patrick Connolly, Police Academy Deputy IV Bryan Vila, Police Academy 178 179 Oakland Police Department: Chief George T. Hart, Headquarters Lt. Ray Birge, Jr., Director of Training Sgt. LeRoy Sargent, Police Academy Sgt. Marvin W. Holliday, Patrol Division Seattle Police Department: Captain A. W. Terry, Headquarters Lt. Robert B. Dempsey, Commander/Police Academy Washington, D.C., Metropolitan Police Department: Lt. Frank A. Sedei, Assistant to the Director of Training Sgt. William Stoneman, Police Academy Dayton PoliceLMontgomery_County Criminal Justice Training Center: John W. Gilson, Director of Training and Education Roger F. Crosby, Management Specialist Susan M. Ramby, Evaluation Specialist John P. Hagedorn, Curriculum Supervisor Sgt. James E. Newby, Police Training Specialist Det. Heulet T. Arnold, Police Instructor APPENDIX G LOS ANGELES COUNTY SHERIFF'S ACADEMY '75 PROJECT IMPLEMENTATION ACTIVITIES (KEYED TO P.E.R.T. CHART) 180 Activity 0-10: Activity 10-20: Activity 20-30: Activity 30-40: Activity 40-50: Activity 30-60: Activity 60-70: Activity 30-80: Activity 80-90: Activity 90-100: Activities 50-11 Activity lOO-llO: Activity 110-120: Activity 120-130: Activity 130-140: Activity 140-150: Activity 140-160: Activities 150 & Activity 170-180: Activity 180-190: Activity 190-200: APPENDIX G LOS ANGELES COUNTY SHERIFF'S ACADEMY '75 PROJECT IMPLEMENTATION ACTIVITIES (KEYED TO P.E.R.T. CHART) Planning Forming Instructional Committees Correlating Academy and P.O.S.T. Curriculums Review of Compatible Curriculum Blocks Correlating Compatible Blocks ' Review of New Required Blocks Matching New Data With Behavioral Objectives Review of Non-Required Academy Curriculum Combining Similar Behavioral Objectives Preparing Behavioral Objectives for Curriculum Conmi ttee O & 70-110: Finalizing Instructional Groups Finalizing Instructional Groups Writing Utilitarian Behavioral Objectives Final Data Gathering Selection of Instructional Methods Writing Instructional Materials Designing Testing Tools 160-170: Presenting InStructional Data and Materials Writing Lesson and Testing Plans Evaluating Difficulty of Proposed Materials Evaluating Cadet Critiques 181 :- aw- .59...me Activity ZOO-210: Activity 180-220: Activity 220-230: Activity 230-240: Activities 210 & Activity 250-260: Activity 260-270: Activity 270-280: Activity 260-290: Activities 280 & Activity 300-310: Activity 310-320: Activity 320-330: Activity 330-000: 182 Evaluating Cadet Review Forming Ad Hoc Committee Conducting Ad Hoc Committee Review Evaluating Ad Hoc Review 240-250: Modifying Lesson and Testing Plans Finishing Lesson and Testing Plans Writing Instructional Formats Submitting Instructional Formats Submitting Training Materials 290-300: Formation of Scheduling Committee Writing Training Schedule Scheduling Classes Beginning Training Post-Project Evaluation and Modification APPENDIX H DESCRIPTION OF THREE POLICING STYLES 183 APPENDIX H DESCRIPTION OF THREE POLICING STYLES* The Watchman Style In some communities, the police in dealing with situations that do not involve "serious" crime act as if order maintenance rather than law enforcement were their principal function. What is the defining characteristic of the patrolman's role thus becomes the style or strategy of the department as a whole because it is reinforced by the attitudes and policies of the police administrator. This is termed the "watchman" style. In every city, of course, all patrolmen display a watchman style--that is, a concern for the order maintenance aSpect of their function-~some of the time, but in a few places this style becomes the Operating code of the department. To the extent the adminis- trator can influence the discretion of his men, he does so by allow- ing them to ignore many common minor violations, especially traffic and juvenile offenses, to tolerate, though gradually less so, a cer- tain amount of vice and gambling, to view the law more as a means of maintaining order than of regulating conduct, and to judge the requirements of order differently depending on the character of the group in which the infraction occurs. Juveniles are "expected" to misbehave, and thus infractions among this group--unless they are serious or committed by a "wise guy"--are best ignored or treated *James O. Wilson, Varieties of Police Behavior (New York: WI— Antheneum Publishers, 1973), pp. 104-141, 172, and 200-201. 184 v IthH—‘JW-‘g 185 informally. Negroes are thought to want, and to deserve, less law enforcement because to the police their conduct suggests a low level of public and private morality, an unwillingness to cooperate with the police or offer information, and widespread criminality. Serious crimes, of course, should be dealt with seriously; further, when Negroes offend whites, who, in the eyes of the police, have a differ- ent standard of public order, then an arrest must be made. Motorists, unless a departmental administrator wants to "make a record" by giv- ing a few men the job of writing tickets, will often be left alone if their driving does not endanger or annoy others and if they do not resist or insult police authority. Vice and gambling are crimes only because the law says they are; they become problems only when the currently accepted standards of public order are violated (how accurately the political process measures those standards is another question). Private disputes--assau1ts among friends or family--are treated informally or ignored, unless the circumstances (a serious infraction, a violent person, a flouting of police authority) require an arrest. And disputes that are a normal business risk, such as get- ting a bad check, should be handled by civil procedures if possible. The Legalistic Style In some departments, the police administrator uses such con- trol as he has over the patrolmen's behavior to induce them to handle commonplace situations as if they were matters of law enforcement rather than order maintenance. He realizes, of course, that the officer cannot always act as if his duty were merely to compare 186 observed behavior with a legal standard and make an arrest if that standard has been violated--the law itself, especially that govern- ing misdemeanor arrests, does not always permit the application of its sanctions. But whenever he acts on his own initiative or to the extent he can influence the outcome of disorderly situations in which he acts on the initiative of the citizen, the patrolman is expected to take a law enforcement view of his role. Such a police style is called "legalistic." A legalistic department will issue traffic tickets at a high rate, detain and arrest a high proportion of juvenile offenders, act vigorously against illicit enterprises, and make a large number of misdemeanor arrests even when, as with petty larceny, the public order has not been breached. The police will act, on the whole, as if there were a single standard of community conduct--that which the law prescribes--rather than different standards for juveniles, Negroes, drunks, and the like. Indeed, because such persons are more likely than certain others to commit crimes, the law will fall heavily on them and be experienced as "harrassment." The Service Style In some communities, the police take seriously all requests for either law enforcement or order maintenance (unlike police with a watchman style) but are less likely to respond by making an arrest or otherwise imposing formal sanctions (unlike police with a legal- istic style). The police intervene frequently but not formally. This style is often found in homogeneous, middle-class communities in 187 which there is a high level of apparent agreement among citizens on the need for the definition of public order but in which there is no administrative demand for a legalistic style. In these places, the police see their chief responsibility as protecting a common definition of public order against the minor and occasional threats posed by unruly teenagers and "outsiders" (tramps, derelicts, visit- ing college boys). Though there will be family quarrels, they will be few in number, private in nature, and constrained by general understandings requiring seemly conduct. The middle-class character of such communities makes the suppression of illegal enterprises 4 both easy (they are more visible) and necessary (public opinion will not tolerate them) and reduces the rate of serious crime cOmmitted by residents; thus, the police will be freer to concentrate on managing traffic, regulating juveniles, and providing services. Such a police policy is called the "service" style. In com- munities that are not deeply divided along class or racial lines, the police can act as if their task were to estimate the "market" for pOlice services and to produce a "product" that meets the demand. For patrolmen especially, the pace of police work is more leisurely (there are fewer radio messages per tour of duty than in a community with a substantial lower class) and the community is normally peace- ful, thus apparent threats to order are more easily detected. Further- more, the citizenry expects its police officers to display the same qualities as its department store salesmen, local merchants, and public officials--courtesy, a neat appearance, and a deferential _ .w,‘ 11.. wen-um 188 manner. Serious matters--burglaries, robberies, assaults--are of course taken seriously and thus "suspicious" persons are carefully watched or questioned. But with regard to minor infractions of the law, arrests are avoided when possible (the rates at which traffic tickets are issued and juveniles referred to Family Court will be much lower than in legalistic departments) but there will be frequent use of informal, nonarrest sanctions (warnings issued to motorists, juveniles taken to headquarters or visited in their homes for lectures). it 'l'h‘llu-v-- '.~ ' .p APPENDIX I MID-MICHIGAN POLICE ACADEMY INTERPERSONAL COMMUNICATION AND AWARENESS 189 APPENDIX I MID-MICHIGAN POLICE ACADEMY INTERPERSONAL COMMUNICATION AND AWARENESS Program Overview The Interpersonal Communication and Awareness program is a grant project which has been jointly funded by the State of Michigan, Lansing Community College, and the Law Enforcement Assistance Admin- istration. The grant period, extending from April 1, 1974, to June 30, 1975, includes program development, training, and evaluation phases, with a goal of reaching four hundred Mid-Michigan police officers. The program content focuses on interpersonal communication and coping with stress, with an emphasis on personal awareness as the key to effectiveness in each of those areas. It is a thirty hour program, completed over a four day period, with fifteen to twenty participants per class, and is specially designed to meet the needs of patrol officers. In developing program materials, the project personnel sur- veyed police officers regarding their training needs, reviewed available literature, and consulted with the staff of parallel pro- grams. There was, however, a clear bias toward the viewpoint that feelings and emotions are an essential, though often ignored, com- ponent of the police officer's experience, both interpersonally and intrapersonally. Interpersonally, the individual officer must respond appropriately to a wide variety of unpredictable emotional stimuli, ranging from hostile criminal behavior to the emotional trauma of a victim of violent crime. Intrapersonally, the need to control and suppress emotions, particularly those that are angry and hostile, is a major source of the stress experienced by police per- sonnel. For these reasons a significant portion of the program time is spent examining feelings, their physiological components, the constructive use of feelings, and appropriate ways of responding to feelings in others. The portion of the program dealing with interpersonal commu- nication includes specialized training in empathy and paraphrasing skills, while the section focusing on stress and coping is designed to identify the various sources of stress, the potential impacts of stress, and effective methods of coping with stress. 190 191 A wide variety of training techniques is utilized including stimulus vignettes, video tapes, surveys, tests, simulation exer- cises, lectures, and class discussion. Classroom materials are presented by co-instructors, one representing a socio-psychological background, the other a law enforcement background. In addition, the classroom participation of each trainee is encouraged in an effort to promote individual catharsis, learning from peers, and adequate personal application of program content. 192 INTERPERSONAL COMMUNICATION AND AWARENESS Program Content I. Feelings & Emotions A. Labels 8. Physiological Components C. Expression II. Stressors A. The Judicial System B. Police Relationships 1. Peers 2. Management Family Relationships Social Relationships Community Future Shock 'I'II'HUO III. Values & Attitudes A. Survey B. Comparison Groups IV. Interpersonal Communication Barriers to Effective Communication Nonverbal Communication Freeing & Binding Responses Empathy Training 1. Rape Victims 2. Death & Grief Resolution 3. Drug "Bad Trips" E. Reward & Punishment DOW> V. Impact of Stress A. Emotional 8. Physical C. Interpersonal D. Behavioral VI. Coping With Stress A. Caping Models 8. Coping Methods C. 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