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THESE?» /I/

LIBRARY
Michigan State
University

 

 

v‘

This is to certify that the

dissertation entitled

DECENTRALIZATION OF SEOUL:
THE NEW TOWN MOVEMENT IN THE METROPOLITAN REGION

presented by

Jin Hwem Lee

has been accepted towards fulfillment
of the requirements for

Ph . D . degree in Geography

 

 

g%/%K:1VZ/geg/
/

 

Major professor
A, ‘ ,/ Jack Williams
Date 5/4/f5
MS U is an Affirmative Action/Equal Opportunity Institution 042771

 

MSU RETURNING MATERIALS:
Place in book drop to
LIBRARJES remove this checkout from
up. your record. FINES will

be charged if book is
returned after the date
stamped below.

/ “what 96
’M’Vb#_ '10 17, 93
l i-"flfiwwi DE? 193%“;

 

 

 

 

 

"\

l

   

Jar

.‘j'

‘NBYzlolginm

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5896
(if

APR (2 30 3065

 

 

 

DECENTRALIZATION OF SEOUL:
THE NEW TOWN MOVEMENT IN THE METROPOLITAN REGION

BY

Jin Hwan Lee

A DISSERTATION

Submitted to
Michigan State University
in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY

Department of Geography

1985

 

 

 

Haing Ryo

To My Wife,

 

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The preparation of this dissertation was supported by
many persons. I first wish to express my sincere
appreciation to Dr. Jack F. Williams, committee chairperson,
for his guidance, kindness, and encouragement through my
graduate studies. His patience and support contributed to
this study is gratefully acknowledged. My deepest
appreciation. and gratitude are extended to my doctoral
committee members, Dr. Ian M. Matley, Dr. Joe T. Darden, and
Dr. Bruce Wm. Pigozzi, who have provided encouragement and
Support, and given me constructive and scholarly criticisms
in the preparation of this study.

A special thanks goes to Dr. Gary Manson, chairman of
Geography, for his consideration during my stay at Michigan
State University. I also wish to thank my friends and
COlleagues, particularly Stephanie Sambrook, Chris
Sutherland, Dr. Mohammad Kamiar, Marty Stepper and Fatemeh
Behforooz for their encouragement and help in this
dissertation.

During my survey in Korea in 1983, all the faculty in

the Department of Geography, Seoul National UniversitYr and

iii

others encouraged me and provided me with materials for this
research. In this regard, I am deeply grateful to
professors Ji-Ho Lee, Chan Lee, Sang-Ho Kim, Jae-Ki Hwang,
Ki—Suk Lee, Man Ik Hwang, and Sam Ock Park at Seoul National
University. My indebtness is extended to professor Won Kim
at Seoul City Industrial College, Dr. Won—Yong Kwon in the
Korea Research Institute for Human Settlements, Yun—Kil Jo
in the Office of Banweol Township, and Won—Je Yu in the
Banweol Branch Office of the Industrial Sites and Water
Resources Development Corporation for their help in data
collection.

Finally, for my wife, Haing Ryo, and two sons, John and
James, enough can not be said of their moral support,
sacrifice, and love during the last several years. Also, I
am deeply grateful to my parents, my mother-in—law, and
sister-in—law, Haing Ja, for providing me with their love

and support throughout my studY-

iv

 

 

 

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Ixist of Tables......................................vii
Irist of Figures......................................ix

CHAPTER ONE.......................................... 1

INTRODUCTION.................................... 1
Statement of the Problem........................ 2
Types and Functions of New Towns................ 3
Application of the New Town Concept............. 8
Study Area...................................... 9
Objectives of the Study.........................12
Methodology..................................
Significance of the Study....................
Organization of the Study....................
Chapter Notes...................................25

o o o
a o o
a o -
NM 0—4
wwm

CHAPTER TWO..........................................29

DEVELOPMENT POLICIES FOR NEW TOWNS IN KOREA.....29
The New Town Movement in Korea..................30
New Town Development in the Seoul Metropolitan
Region..........................................45
Policies of New Town Development in Sungnam

and Banweol...................... ..... ..........47
Summary.................. ..... ... ...... .........67
Chapter Notes...................................69

 

CHAPTER THREE.................... ........ ............73

l URBAN LAND USE PATTERNS IN SUNGNAM AND BANWEOL..73
Urban Land Use Patterns in Sungnam..............77
Urban Land Use Patterns in Banweol..............87
Summary.........................................99
Chapter Notes....................... ..... ......103

 

 

 

CHAPTER FOUR... ..... ......................... .....

DIFFERENT CHARACTERISTICS OF INTERACTIONS
BETWEEN SUNGNAM AND BANWEOL..................
Analysis of Interactions between Sungnam

and Other Urban Centers......................
Analysis of Interactions between Banweol

and Other Urban Centers......................
Summary............. ......... ................
Chapter Notes................................

CHIAPTER FIVE......................................

MEASUREMENTS OF GOAL ACHIEVEMENT IN SUNGNAM

AND BANWEOL: INDUSTRIAL DIVERSIFICATION AND
ECONOMIC BASES...............................
Some Aspects of Industrial Diversification in
the New Towns................................
Urban Economic Bases in the New Towns........
Summary................... ...... ...... .......
Chapter Notes. ........ .......................

CHAPTER SIX.......................................

MEASUREMENTS OF GOAL ACHIEVEMENT IN SUNGNAM
AND BANWEOL: JOB OPPORTUNITIES AND URBAN
SERVICES.....................................
The Balance Between Job Opportunities and Job

Seekers........... ..... ...... ....... .........
Comparison of Urban Services and Facilities
between the New Towns and Seoul ....... .......

Summary.....................................
Chapter Notes................................

CHAPTER SEVEN.....................................

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS......................
Summary......................................
Conclusions..................................
Chapter Notes................................

BIBLIOGRAPHY......................................

vi

 

.132
.132
.148
.157
.160

.162

.162
.162
.168
.179
.182
.183
.183
.183
.192
.201

.202

 

 

 

 

_—_’———

LIST OF TABLES

Table Page
2.]. Development of New Towns in Korea, by Popula-
tion and Function ................................ 34
2..2 Population of Cities in the SMR (1981) ..... . ..... 49
2.23 Population Growth in the SMR .............. .......50
2.4 Concentration of Headquarters of Enterprises in
Seoul and the SMR ................................ 52
2.5 Land Price of Residential Area by Township in
Gyonggi Province (Sungnam, 1968) ................. 57
2.6 Land Price of Residential Area by Township in
Gyonggi Province (Banweol, 1978) ................. 58
2.7 Housing Shortages in Seoul... .................... 62
3.1 Distribution of Functional Land Use in Sungnam
and Banweol ...................................... 89
3.2 Areas of Functional Districts per 1,000 Persons
(1982). ............. ... ......................... 100
2
4.1 R , Beta Weight, and F—Value for Sungnam to
Explain Variation, Standardized Regression
Coefficient, and Significance, Respectively ..... 110
4.2 Fifty-one Places Corresponding with Sungnam.....115
2
4.3 R , Beta Weight, and F-Value for Banweol
to Explain Variation, Standardized Regression
Coefficient, and Significance, Respectively ..... 122
4.4 Places Corresponding with Banweol ............... 125
5.1 Industrial Categories in Sungnam ................ 138-9

Ti

5-2 Gini Indexes in Sungnam ......................... 140
5. Industrial Categories in Banweol ................ 143-4
5.-4 Gini Index in Banweol ........................... 146
5..5 Location Quotients (LO) in the New Towns ........ 152

.6 Basic and Non-Basic Activities in the New Towns.154

5-'7 Numbers of Industrial Categories in the New

 

 

Towns Based on Values of Location Quotients ..... 156

6.1. Daily Commuters Crossing to and from Sungnam,

1982........ ................... . ................ 165
6.22 Daily Commuters Crossing to and from Banweol,

1982 ....... ..... ............ . ............. . ..... 167
6.3 Comparison of Educational Facilities and

Matriculating Ratios (1982) ..................... 169
6.4 Comparison of Health and Recreational

Facilities ...................................... 173
6.5 Comparison of Transportation Facilities ......... 176
6.6 Comparison of Housing (1981) .................... 176

\
viii

 

LIST OF FIGURES

o

 

Page

.10
.35
.80

.85

.91

.92

..141

..141

..141

Figure
1.1. Location of Banweol and Sungnam, and Ten
Cities in the Seoul Metropolitan Region.......
2.]. New Towns in Korea............................
3.1. Distribution of Land Use in Sungnam...........
3.2 Patterns of Street Distribution in Sungnam....
3.3 Distribution of Land Use and Street Patterns
in Banweol....................................
3.4 Distribution of Neighborhood Units in
Residential Districts of Banweol..............
4.1 Location of Places Based on Residuals (Sungnam).114
4.2 Location of Places Based on Residuals (Banweol).124
5.1 Lorenz Curve....................................134
5.2 Lorenz Curves Showing Industrial
Diversification in Sungnam....................
5.3 Lorenz Curves Showing Industrial
Diversification in Banweol....................
5.4 Comparison of Industrial Diversification
between Sungnam and Banweol...................
6.1 Comparison of Number of Households with

Number of Houses Constructed in Seoul, Sungnam

I

and Banweol, 1977-1981 ............. .............178

ix

 

 

 

 

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

Urban growth has produced many social and environmental

prxoblems in urban areas. Complex urban problems continue to

agnglomerate until a city's growth is impaired, when growth

nc> longer flows toward the city center, but out to suburban

ernzirons. The direction of metropolitan growth, in general,

goes through the following four stages: (1) central city
in-migration, hinterland out-migration; (2) central city
out—migration, suburban growth dominance, and rural
hinterland out-migration; (3) central city and older

suburban out-migration, far suburban and exurban in—

migration; (4) metropolitan out-migration, exurban and rural

in-migration.
South Korea has experienced central city in-migration,

accelerated by industrialization, since the 1960s. The

country's five-year economic plans have emphasized

industrialization and the expansion of foreign trade, over

the last two decades, that has resulted in a concentration

of industrial facilities in urban areas and fostered rural

to urban migration. The strong pull effect of urban areas

served to accelerate their polarized development.

 

 

 

 

As a

result of the influx of population to the large
C:it:ies, urban problems have been intensified. For example,

“more: than one-fifth of Korea's population is concentrated in

tile <:apital city of Seoul. Seoul's increase in population

SiJice the 19605 has resulted in urban problems such as

trnaffic jams, inadequate housing, inappropriate distribution

of" industrial and commercial facilities and pollution, as
vnall as military vulnerability from attack by North Korea.
Truese situations have led authorities to try the
(establishment of "new towns" as a means of resolving these
Iarban problems. Thus, Seoul city authorities and central
government

officials chose Sungnam and Banweol as new town

sites in 1968 and in 1977, respectively.

Statement of the Problem

Although several new towns have been built in Korea,

there are very few studies in Korean and virtually nothing
in Western languages on the relationship between
decentralization and the development of new towns around

Seoul. Moreover, there are few, if any, studies comparing

new towns with each other and examining the success or

failure of their development, particularly in Third World

nations. In this regard, it has not been determined whether

the goals of new town development have been achieved.

Therefore, the problem of this research is to determine

whether new town development has achieved the goal of

 

 

 

 

est:al31ishing independent new towns in the Seoul Metropolitan

Region.

Types and Functions of New Towns

The functions of new towns vary according to their
tyqoes. Previous researchers have classified new towns into
several types .

Gliege described three kinds of new towns as

iruiependent new towns, satellite new towns, and new towns
2

irr—town. Alonso divided new towns into only two
categories: satellite and independent new towns.3 He
indicated that new towns were "independent" if they could
employ their own residents, or were "satellite" if there

were a substantial amount of commuting to other centers. He

does not include growth centers in the new town category.

W.T. Watterson and R.S. Watterson divide new towns into four
groupings: satellite, add—on (additions to existing small

towns and cities capable of conversion to growth centers),

new towns in—town, and free-standing new towns. Pressman
mentions independent new towns, satellite new towns, and
expanded new towns.5

Synthesizing the studies cited above, new towns can be
categorized as (1) independent new towns, (2) satellite new

towns, or (3) new towns in-town. A new town's type varies,

depending on its functions.

 

 

 

 

I nd ependent New Towns

Independent new tOWns are geographicallly separated

frrnn metropolitan regions. As the term indicates, they are

iruiependent from the metropolis in employment opportunities
6

arui other socioeconomic activities. The original intent of

iruiependent new towns was to absorb surplus metropolitan
7

pcnpulation and provide for self—sufficiency. Self—

SLrEficiency and balanced development remain the most

ianortant functions in establishing independent new towns.

Self—sufficiency implies independence along three main lines

of development.

First, efforts are made to provide job opportunities

for residents in the independent new towns, in order to

minimize the number of people who must commute daily to a

more distant workplace. In other words, the aim is to

reduce the distance residents journey to work and assure

economic viability by providing jobs within the independent
9

new towns equal to the number of potential job seekers. If

the new town has an oversupply of job seekers without

sufficient job opportunities or vice versa, there will be

cross movement,
10
employment.

with workers traveling to the outside for

To create a balance between job opportunities

and job seekers, the strategy for developing independent

new towns emphasizes the establishment of
11

industrial

facilities to provide job opportunities.

 

 

 

 

  

 

Second, efforts are undertaken to diversify industry in

tile new town, so that its employment structure will not be
dLDHuinated by a single firm or type of employment. The
reaarson for this is to prevent a catastrophe in employment if
a <iominant firm or industry experiences a slump or economic
dcnnnturn. In such an instance, large-scale unemployment
ccnald produce lower wages and at the same time, residents
wtn: lost their jobs in the town would move to areas of
Irigher employment and wages. A single dominant firm has a
strnong influence on socioeconomic environment that implies a
class structure dominated by the social class represented by
the workers in that firm.12 Therefore, an emphasis on
diversified industrial development is important for the
establishment of new towns.

Finally, there are efforts to provide the urban
facilities such as recreation and leisure centers, health
and medical centers, schools, shopping centers, and housing
necessary for self—sufficiency. These urban facilities
enhance the quality of life in the new towns and promote the

health and welfare of the residents.

New Towns In-Town

New towns in-town are a concept based on the
application of some new town principles to large already-
14

existing metropolises. The primary rationale for

 

 

 

 

 

the new towns in—town is an urgent need for an effective
15
solution to the urban problems of large cities.

The functions of new towns in-town are defined within
two interrelated categories. The first is to enhance
opportunities for disadvantaged people within the target
area to live better lives. The term "disadvantaged people"
encompasses individuals and families with incomes below the
poverty level.1 More and better jobs, improved public and
private services, and improved housing and environment are
needed to raise the living standards of disadvantaged people
and such concerns point out the need for establishing new
towns in—town.

The second category is related to a desire to induce or
strengthen the processes of central city modernization and
revitalization. Such a modernization and revitalization
objective is essential for bringing the inherent vitality of
a new town to the inner city. The inner city needs a
powerful approach if it is to reverse the outflow of capital
and create development linked to both resources and
Opportunity throughout the metropolitan region to support
the development of a new town in-town. By these means the
development of a new town in-town can prevent the flight of
capital to the outside and encourage investment for inner

City improvement.

 

 

r.

:1

ll

 

 

Satellite New Towns

 

Satellite new towns are located near a metropolis, and
have some degree of self-sufficiency although they depend
partly on the metropolis for job opportunities, economic
activities and some of the amenities of urban life.18
Satellite new towns have two dominant functions. One is
development of housing, the other is development of mass
transportation. To avoid urban congestion, particularly
inadequate housing, urban development policy has been
concerned with the development of the satellite new towns,
mnphasizing the availability of employment opportunities and
services in such towns. In practice, however, the satellite
nevv town usually functions as a bedroom or dormitory
conununity, populated by particular social groups, with a
predominantly middle-class population, a larger population
at night than during the day, and young married or middle-
aged workers.

The development strategy for a satellite new town
emphasizes mass transportation facilities such as railroads,
buses and subway systems to and from an adjacent metropolis.
The commuting pattern is simple and regular. The majority
of commuters move toward the major central city on weekday
mornings and move toward the satellite town in the evenings.
Thus, the satellite new town is defined as a new urban

Settlement which is built within commuting distance of a

 

 

 

 

metropolitan orbit to provide housing for the growing
20

population of the metropolis.

Application of the New Town Concept

 

The modern new town movement originated in England in

1898 with the publication of Garden Cities of Tomorrow by

 

E. Howard. At the beginning of this century, Howard built

two new English towns, Letchworth and Welwyn, as examples of
21

his "garden cities." As the new town movement spread to
other countries, such as France, Sweden, the United States,
Canada, Australia, Japan, and Israel, new towns were
constructed for regional development, decentralization, or
other goals. These included the development of eight new
townie around London;22 five new towns in the Paris region;23
satellite new towns around Stockholm;24 the new town of
Columbia located between Washington and Baltimore72:
2

Reston, also located on the outskirts of Washington, D.C.;

and more than twenty new towns around Tokyo and Osaka.27
These new towns have tried to absorb the "spillover"
population and to provide adequate housing and economic base
for residents moving from the metropolises to new towns.
Their situation is similar to the Korean experience of

trying to decentralize congested urban areas into detached

new towns .

 

 

 

Study Area

The study area selected for this research is the new
towns of Banweol and Sungnam in Korea (Figure 1.1). The
city of Sungnam is located in the Seoul Metropolitan Region,
20 kilometers (12.5 miles) southeast of the center of Seoul.

The Seoul Metropolitan Region includes the boundaries of

Seoul and Kyonggi province. This area had a population of
13.3 million, which represented one—third of Korea's
population in 1980, within an area of 11,677 square
kilometers. This area is the country's most important

core region based on its agglomeration of political, social,
economic, educational, and cultural functions.

The city of Sungnam has had several different names.

In ancient times, it was called "Hansanju," which was
changed to "Gwangju" in 918. The name, Gwangju, was used
until 1973. Sungnam received special attention after its

township office was established in 1946 and was considered
to have developmental potential because, based on its
location, it could accommodate a substantial population.
When urban development began in 1968, Sungnam was a small
village with a population of 6,000. Considering its
location, the Seoul city government decided to construct a
new town there. Since the urban development plan was

initiated, the population of Sungnam has increased to more

than 380,000. It is the eighth largest urban center in
29
Korea.

 

 

...—.....w

10

 

 
  
   
  
  
  

 

   

   
      

O

I

o

o

o

' O

O

. Dongduchon

it) Uijongbu
Seoul Munucmal /\ f“
Bounoar j ' .

   

 

 

 

\. W o o
v' L—J
i o Kilometers
Buchon .
, ,r-

  

3': O Inchon \ /

 

O'\ . -/"\ -"
Gwangmyong '/ \'/ 'V'/ .
O SUNGNAM
Anyang
Seoul Metropolitan Region
BANWEOL
. Kyonggi Pr0vunce
Q
Suwon
0 1O 20
;_1__l_l_l
kilometers 3'"
I
r: ,/
Songtan .A I
f.’ 'V‘
,/
.a
X
----. ./
\, .2”
\'_ .
.\ (

 

 

 

Figure 1.1 Location of Banweol. Sungnam. and Ten Clues
In the Seoul Metropolitan Region

 

 

 

ll

Banweol is located in the southwestern part of the

Seoul Metropolitan Region, approximately 35 kilometers (22
miles) from the center of Seoul. Banweol was a typical
rural viallage and relatively isolated before urban

development began in 1977. Historically, it had belonged to
the city of Suwon since 1018. Suwon, the capital of
Kyonggi province, is located 16 kilometers southeast of
Banweol. In 1914, Hwasung township controlled Banweol, a
situation that continued until plans were drawn up for urban
development in 1977.

These new towns, Sungnan and Banweol, are appropriate
sites for this research for several reasons. First, both
are located in the Seoul Metropolitan Region and the
development projects have emphasized the establishment of
'both Sungnam and Banweol as independent new towns. Other
than these two, the only other new towns are two new towns
in-town and a small satellite new town inside the Seoul
metropolitan boundaries. This situation provides a good
opportunity to study the roles of new towns in the Seoul
Metropolitan Region. At the same time, the establishment of
Sungnam and Banweol as new towns provides an opportunity to
observe the relationships between new town development and
urban decongestion.

Second, Sungnam and Banweol have different urban
Characteristics. Sungnam was the first trial new town near

Seoul, while Banweol is one of the most recent new towns.

 

 

12

This situation provides an opportunity to compare urban
development between an older new town and a more recent new
town. It was expected that both similarities and
differences in urban development policies, urban growth
patterns, and economic bases would be found to exist between

them.

Objectives of the Study

 

Part One

The first objective was to determine similar and
dissimilar characteristics of the new towns of Sungnam and
Banweol, as reflected by such factors as development policy,
land use patterns, and inter—city linkages.

The establishment of a policy for community
development is essential to provide a basis for decision-
Inaking for new town development, which is an important task.
In Korea, this development policy is primarily influenced
by political rather than private sector processes. In
creating new town development plans, differing social
situations over time have produced varying urban development
policies. Thus, Sungnam and Banweol have different social
and physical conditions, partially from being developed at
different times. This investigator examined the differences
in policy that have helped to shape the two towns.

Urban land use refers to the spatial distribution of

City functions, including residential, industrial, and

 

 

 

13

commercial districts. Land use specialization, that is,
land input for specified residential, commercial,
industrial, greenbelt, and public uses, creates what are
termed functional districts. The patterns of these
functional districts, their characteristics, and densities
were surveyed for each city. Differences in the use of land
for residential, industrial, commercial, and public purposes
over time and from city to city were anticipated because, as
urban population increases, changes in land use in each city
should occur. By reviewing urban land use and comparing
land use in the older new town with that in the more recent
riew town, the internal structures of the two new towns and
the changes of urban land uses were examined.

Linkages between new towns and other urban places are
related to interactions between them. Therefore, these
interactions are considered to be one reflection of the
spatial structure between each new town and other cities.
These interactions consist of telephone calls, newspaper
circulation, retail trade contacts, passenger traffic,

commuter flows, capital flows and other commerce back and

forth between places. Movement of every sort creates
spatial structure and, once established, such spatial
arrangements influence subsequent movement. In order to

gain a clear picture of the present spatial structures of
the two new towns, it was necessary to explore and compare

existing patterns of interactions between each town and

 

 

 

 

 

14

other urban places. This spatial structure was explored in

an effort to predict the future of such relationships.

Part Two

The second objective of this research was to measure to
what degree Sungnam and Banweol have achieved the goals of
independent new towns. The most important goal of an
independent new town is to create an economically and
socially "self—sufficient and balanced community." 2 Self-
sufficiency and balanced development are essential criteria
of independence in new towns. The concept of balanced
community sums up the basic requirement that new towns be
composed of a variety of housing styles, land uses,
employment bases, and socioeconomic classes.

This researcher examined four components of self-
sufficiency and balance in the new towns. The first concern
in balanced development is to ensure that the structure of
employment is not dominated by a single firm. The

rationale is to prevent large—scale unemployment resulting

from shifts in the market position of the industry. A
reasonably wide industrial distribution, therefore, is
33

desirable in the development of independent new towns.

The second component of self-sufficiency is an economic
base that includes both "basic" and "nonbasic" activities.
The "basic" elements in a city's economy include those firms

Producing for an external market, whereas the "nonbasic”

 

 

 

 

15

sector is primarily concerned with the needs of a city's own
inhabitants, and includes production for the local market.
Nonbasic activity is usually assumed to depend on basic
activity.34 In the context of economic base, then, the
foundation of support for a city mainly comes from export
activities.

The third concern is that new towns should achieve a
reasonable balance between job opportunities and job
seekers. This concept of balance in a new town provides
that the level of population should be supported by a
roughly equivalent level of potential employment. Relative
balance between population and employment is a necessary
condition for self-sufficiency. An imbalance means that a
certain proportion of the working population must commute
in-and-out of a town.

The final component of self-sufficiency for new towns
is the provision of necessary urban services. An
educational system, health care and recreational facilities,
and open space are often mentioned as critical services for
new town develOpment.35 Such facilities are major factors
in residents' decisions to move to and remain in the new
towns and they should be extensive enough to successfully

compete with nearby urban centers in attracting and

maintaining residents.

 

 

16

Methodology

 

Determining Different Characteristics
of Urban Development

 

 

To meet the first objective of determining the similar
and dissimilar characteristics of Sungnam and Banweol,
three aspects of the new towns are investigated:
development policies, land use patterns, and inter-city
linkages.

Development Policies. In order to determine

 

differences and similarities in the urban development
policies which shaped Sungnam and Banweol, fifteen concerns
of new town development were differentiated and examined.
These components, for which data were available, were
divided into three categories based on characteristics to
explain various policy provisions: (1) political
developmental issues-—balanced development in the Seoul

Metropolitan Region, establishment of independent new towns,

the role of growth poles, and public versus private
development of new towns; (2) site factors--availability of
underdeveloped land, low land prices, good present
transportation access, potential for transportation
expansion, physical environment for new towns, and
opportunity to preserve historical resources; and (3)

socioeconomic aspects--relocation of residents from Seoul,

relocation of industrial facilities from Seoul, solution of

 

 

l7

squatter settlement problems in Seoul, housing development
plans, and residents' participation in new town development.
Each of the fifteen components was found to be
applicable to the development policies for Sungnam and/or
Banweol.
To examine the development policies, data were

collected from Report of Land Prices published by the Korea

 

Appraisal Board (1968, 1977), Korea Statistical Yearbook

 

(1968, 1977) Development Plan(s) in Sungnam (1976, 1980,

 

1983), Development Plan(s) in Banweol (1977, 1978), "Policy

 

for Effective Development of Banweol (1980)" published by
the Office of the Prime Minister, "Policy for Residents'
Settlement and Investment in Banweol" (1982) published by

the Office of Banweol Township, and History of Sungnam

 

(1982).

Land Use Pattern. To determine the internal structures

 

of the new towns, the distribution and density of
residential, commercial, industrial, greenbelt, and open
space districts were examined and compared for Sungnam and
Banweol. Comparisons were drawn by calculating the
percentage of total land area in each city devoted to the
various land uses and the density of residential,
commercial, industrial, greenbelt, and open space districts

in each new town. Data were collected from Development Plan

 

in Banweol (1978), History of Sungnam (1982), Banweol

 

 

 

 

18

Statistical Yearbook (1982), Development Plan in Sungnam

 

 

(1983), and maps of land use.

Inter—City Linkages. To identify any differences in

 

Sungnam's interactions with other urban centers and
Banweol's interactions with other urban centers, the gravity
model was used. The gravity model explains that
interactions between two places are positively related to
the masses of the two places and negatively related to the
distance between them.36 In this study, telephone call
interactions were used to show whether or not Sungnam's
interactions were more sensitive to population size and
distance than those of Banweol.

Data were collected from the records of the Anyang
Telephone Company and the Sungnam Telephone Company for

1983.

Measuring the Goal-Achievement
of Sungnam and Banweol

 

 

The second objective of this research was to measure
to what level Sungnam and Banweol have achieved the goals
of self—sufficient and balanced development as independent
new towns. The examination of self—sufficiency and balance
considers four factors.

Lack of Dominance by a Single Firm or Type of Industry.

 

The Gini Index allows an assessment of how many

industries are represented in a town and how equal their

 

 

19

representation is. As such, it provided a useful
measurement for the level of equality between two variables,
numbers of industrial categories and employment in the
industries in the new towns.

In this study, each Gini Index for Sungnam and
Banweol was separately produced. The Gini Index of
Sungnam, produced by using two variables such as the number
of industrial categories (X) and cumulative share of
employment (Y)37 was compared with the corresponding index
for Banweol over three periods between 1979 and 1983 because
data for the three periods were available. The data were

gathered from Sungnam Statistical Yearbook (1980, 1981),

 

Industrial Status (1981, 1982, 1983), and Korea Industrial

 

Directory (1982).

Economic Base. In order to investigate components of
the economic base, the location quotient technique was used
because it was quick and required little data.38
The location quotient technique measures the concentration
of an industry in a local area in comparison with national

39
norms.

In this research, the twelve industrial categories for
which data were available were used to produce the location
quotient, and comparisons were made between Sungnam and
Banweol in food, textile and leather, lumber and furniture,
printing and publishing, chemical and petroleum, nonmetallic

mineral products, metallic mineral products, machinery,

 

 

20

‘ medical care, public service, retail and wholesale, and

‘ services. These data were collected from Korea Economic

 

‘ Yearbook (1981), Banweol Statistical Yearbook (1982),

Development Plan in Sungnam (1983), and Korea Statistical

 

 

Yearbook (1983). On the basis of these data, the location
quotient for each industry in Sungnam and Banweol compared
and explained either export, import, or self—sufficient
function.

Balance Between Job Opportunities and Job Seekers. The

 

balance between job opportunities and job seekers, which
indicates relative self—sufficiency, was investigated by
comparing the number of local commuters who commuted within
the new towns, with the number of crossing commuters who
commuted in—and-out of the new towns. Commuters are people
who travel daily from their homes to their work places. The
ratio of local to crossing commuters is identified as an
"index of commuting independence."4O It is a measure of the
extent to which a tOWn is self-sufficient and balanced with
regard to journey—to-work. The higher the value of the
index the more self—sufficient and balanced the town.

Data on employment in Banweol was gathered from

Industrial Status (1982) and data on crossing commuters was

 

collected from the three bus companies serving the town and
the Office of Banweol township. Only those going to and
from work were included as crossing commuters. Employment

data for Sungnam was obtained from Development Plan

 

,0__...~ ~

21

in Sungnam (1983), and data on crossing commuters going to
and from work was gathered from the records of the Sungnam
city government.

Level of Urban Services. Development plans emphasized

 

the dispersion of population from Seoul to the new towns.
Thus, in accordance with the plans, comparing each new town
with Seoul was appropriate for this study. In comparing
the level of urban services between each new town and Seoul,
the educational system, health and recreational facilities,
transportation facilities, and housing availability were
examined. If the new town had sufficient urban services and
facilities, there was that possibility of movement of
population from Seoul to the new towns.

The data on the educational system was classified by
elementary, middle, and high schools. The ratio of
classrooms to the number of classes was compared for
Banweol, Sungnam, and Seoul. In Korea, each classroom of
students is held constant at 70 chairs. Therefore, a
school may have more classes than classrooms, and the ratio
shows any shortage of educational facilities in new towns.
Another ratio, that of the number of students that
matriculate to the next school level to the number of
students who graduate from the lower school level, was used
to explain educational opportunity. Education at the

elementary school level is compulsory, but education in

22

middle and high school, and college is not compulsory. In
fact, opportunities to attend are limited.

Health and recreational facilities were compared for
the new towns and Seoul. A number of people per
recreational and medical facility were used. Recreational
facilities include theaters, stadiums, billiard halls, and
swimming pools. Medical facilities include hospitals,
doctor's offices, dentists offices, and drugstores.

Transportation facilities were also surveyed in the new

towns and in Seoul. In this research, only public
transportation facilities such as buses and taxis were
considered. Numbers of residents in the three places per

bus and taxi were calculated and compared for Banweol,
Sungnam, and Seoul.

Finally, housing availability was compared in the new
towns and Seoul. Housing availability over a period of time
was used to indicate self-sufficiency in residential
facilities for the new towns. The ratio of the number of
housing units to the number of households, increases in
housing construction, and increases in population were
compared to explain self-sufficiency in residential
facilities.

The data on urban services was gathered from Seoul

Statistical Yearbook (1979, 1982), records of the Office of

 

Banweol township and the Sungnam city government, Banweol

Statistical Yearbook (1980, 1981, 1982), Sungnam Statistical

 

23

Yearbook (1980, 1981, 1982), and Development Plan in

 

Sungnam (1983).

Significance of the Study

 

This research was designed to determine variability in
urban development between Sungnam and Banweol, and examine
the goal-achievement for independent new towns in the
Seoul Metropolitan Region. This is a first attempt to
examine their goal-achievement using components such as lack
of a single dominant industry, equivalence between job
opportunities and job seekers, economic base for self-
sufficiency, and the provision of sufficient urban services.
This research can help urban planners and authorities in the
establishment of further new towns in Korea. At the same
time, it can provide a basis for further investigation of

the success or failure of new town development.

Organization of the Study

 

This study consists of seven chapters. Chapter One
provides an introduction to the research. It includes a
simple review of literature about types and functions of new
towns, and applications of the new town concept in several
countries. Chapters Two, Three, and Four deal with
determining different characteristics of urban development

of the new towns. Chapter Two is about policies for new

24

town development of Sungnam and Banweol. To provide an
overall perspective on these new towns, six other new towns
were discussed. Then, fifteen policy provisions for
development of Sungnam and Banweol were examined. Chapter
Three deals with urban land use explaining internal
structures of the two new towns, including distribution of
land use, patterns of streets, and densities of land use.
Chapter Four includes an examination of interactions between
each new town and other urban centers. The examination of
interactions shows the external spatial structure of the new
towns.

In Chapters Five and Six, goal achievements of the new
town develOpment were measured. In Chapter Five, the level
of diversified combination of industries, and the level of
self-sufficient economic bases in the new towns were
examined. Chapter Six provides measurements of the level
of self-sufficiency and balanced development between job
supply and job demand, and urban services and facilities.
The concluding chapter includes a summary and implications

for future research.

 

25

CHAPTER NOTES

1
Richard L. Morrill, "The Spread of Change in
Metropolitan and Unmetropolitan Growth in the United States,
1940-1976," Urban Geography 1 (April—June l980):ll8-29.

 

 

 

2

J.G. Gliege, New Towns: Policy Problems in Regulating
Development (Tempe, Arizona: Arizona State University,
1970), pp. 27-27.

3

W. Alonso, "What Are New Towns For?" in System of

 

Cities, ed. L.B. Bourne and J.W. Simmons (New York: Oxford
University Press, 1978), pp. 536-37.

4

W.T Watterson and R.S. Watterson, The Politics of New
Communities: A Case Study of San Antonio Ranch (New York:
Praeger Publishers, 1975), p. 5.

 

 

 

 

5
N.E. Pressman, "Canadian New Town Policy," in
International Urban Growth Policies, ed. G. Golany (New
York: John Wiley & Sons, 1978), pp. 301-309.
6
Chris Gratton, "Industrial Diversification in New
Towns," Urban Studies 16 (June 1979):157.
7

L.C. Langord and G. Bell, "Federally Sponsored New
Towns of the Seventies," Growth And Change 6 (October 1975):
24.

 

8

R. Thomas, "Britain's New Town Demonstration Project,"
in International Urban Growth Policies, ed. G. Golany (New
York: John Wiley & Sons, 1978), pp. 28-30. J.F. Williams,
S.D. Brunn, and J.T. Darden, "World Urban DevelOpment," in
Cities of the World: World Regional Urban Development, ed.

 

 

S.D. Brunn and J.F. Williams (New York: Harper & Row
Publishers, 1983), p. 8.

9

E.Y. Galantay, "New Towns in National Development

Goals, Policies, and Strategies," EKISTICS 46 (July/August
1979):200-205.
10
A.A. Ogilvy, "The Self-Contained New Town,"
Town Planning Review 39 (April 1968):44—47.

 

 

l

 

26

11
R. Brooks, "Social Planning in Columbia," Journal of
the American Institute of Planners (JAIP) 37 (November

 

 

l971):376. T. Ohiba, "Planning Residential Area,"

The Planner 61 (January l975):47. T. Inouye, "Japanese

Planning Background," The Planner 61 (Jan.l975):45. Merdyl
Aldridge, The British New Town (London: Routledge & Kegan
Paul, 1979), p. 12.

12

 

P.Cresswell and R. Thomas, "Employment and Population
Balance," in New Towns: The British Experience, ed. H.
Evance (New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1972), p. 68. H.S.
Perloff and N.C. Sandberg, New Towns: Why and for Whom? (New
York: Praeger Publishers, 1973), p. 12. Chris Gratton,
op. cit., p. 158.

13

 

 

M. Hoppenfeld, "A Sketch of the Planning-Building
Process for Columbia, Maryland," JAIP (Nov. 1967): 405-406.

 

 

F. Price, "Shops and Shopping," in New Towns: The British
Experience, ed. H. Evans (New York: John Wiley & Sons,
1972), pp. 117-20. R.J. Burby and S.F. Weiss, New

 

Communities in U.S.A. (Lexington, Mass. D.C. Heath and Co.,
1976), pp. 243-47, and 297-305.
14

 

J.A. Silverman, "New Towns in—Town, Again?" Urban
Design 9 (Spring l978):2l.
15

 

 

G. Golany, New Town Planning: Principles and
Practice (New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1976), p. 51.
16
H.S. Perloff and N.C. Sandberg, op. cit., p. 161.
17
B. Jack, "New Town in Town," Housing (April 1972):
126-27. P. Lawless, Britain's Inner Cities: Problems and
Policies (London: Harper & Row Publishers, 1981), p. 211.
18

E.Y. Golantay, New Towns: Antiquity to the Present
(New York: George Braziller, 1975), pp. 62—66.

 

 

19
G. Golany, 1976, op. cit. p. 49.
20
S. Iemura, "Tema Denen New Town," The Planner 61
(Jan. l975):48. S. Iemura, "A Proposal for Transportation
System in a Residential New Town," in International Urban
Growth Policies, ed. G. Golany (New York: John Wiley &
Sons, 1978), pp. 217-20.
21
Frank Schaffer, "The New Town Movement in Britain,"
in International Urban Growth Policies, ed. G. Golany (New

 

York: John Wiley & Sons, 1978), p. 13.

 

27

22
W.P. Roderick, "The London New Towns," Town Planning
Review 42 (Oct. l971):333—42.
23
J. Tuppen, "New Towns in the Paris Region,"

 

 

Town Planning Review 50 (Jan. l979):55-70.
24

D. Pass. "Swedish Urbanization Policy: Contribution
of New City Districts," in International Urban Growth
Policies, ed. G. Golany (New York: John Wiley & Sons,

 

1978), pp. 115-20.

25
R. Brooks and S. Gottschalk, "Social Planning for New
Town," in New Community Development, ed. S.F. Weiss, E.J.
Kaiser, and R.J. Burby, III (Chapel Hill: University of
North Carolina, 1971), pp. 277-88.
26
C.C. Campbell, New Towns: Another Way to Live
(Reston, VA: A Prentice—Hall Co., 1976), pp. 29-86.
27
K. Kurokuwa, "The Concept and Method of New Town
Development in Japan," in International Urban Growth
Policies ed. G. Golany (New York: John Wiley & Sons,
1978), pp. 191—215. N. Takahashi, "A New Concept in
Building: Tsukuba Academic New Town," EKISTICS 48
(July/August l981):302—306.
28

 

 

 

The Economic Planning Board, Korea Statistical
Yearbook (Seoul: Jungang Publishing Co., 1981), p. 19.
29
The Sungnam City Government, Development Plan in
Sungnam (Sungnam: Sungnam City Government, 1983), p. 23. (in
Korean)
30
Sang-Bok Han, Effects of the Industrialization of
Banweol on Its Natural and Social Environment (Seoul: The
Korea Branch Office of UNESCO, 1979), p. 19. (In Korean).
31

 

 

 

 

Yung-Hee No, The Theory of Development of New Town
(Seoul: Bak Yeng Sa, 1979), p. 190. (In Korean).
32
R. Thomas, op. cit., pp. 28-30. J.F. Williams, S.D.
Brunn, and J.T. Darden, op. cit., p.

 

P. Cresswell and R. Thomas, op. cit., p. 68.

34
A.M. Isserman, "The Location Quotient Approach to
Estimating Regional Economic Impacts," JAIP 43 (Jan.
l977):33.
35

R.J. Burby and S.F. Weiss, op. cit., pp. 243 and 271.

28

36
R. Abler, J.S. Adams, and P. Gould, Spatial
Organization (London: Prentice Hall, 1972), p. 221.
37
Chris Gratton, op. cit., p. 159.
38
Andrew M. Isserman, "The Location Quotient Approach
to Estimating Regional Economic Impacts," Journal of
American Institute of Planners 43 (January l977):33. Lay J.
Gibson and M.A. Worden, "Estimating the Economic Base
Multiplier: A Test of Alternative Procedures," Economic
Geography 57 (April l981):156.
39
G.B. Norcliffe, "Using Location Quotients to Estimate
the Economic Base and Trade Flows," Regional Studies 17
(June l983):l63-64.
40

 

 

 

 

 

 

R. Thomas, London's New Towns: A Study of Self-
Contained and Balanced Communities (London: George Berridge
& Co., 1969), p. 393.

 

 

 

 

CHAPTER TWO

DEVELOPMENT POLICIES FOR NEW TOWNS IN KOREA

Many larage cities in Korea have seen quantitative
expansion of their population and urban functions since the
19603, through industrialization of urban areas. Rapid
growth of population and urban functions have presented
urban problems similar to those Western countries have
experienced. Since the 19608, the development of Korean new
towns has been undertaken for purposes of balancing
development and alleviating, to some extent, the congestion
of large cities. One of the chief advantages of new town
development has been to produce improved urban environments

through the accommodation of more dispersed population and

industry.1

In this chapter, the development of new towns
nationwide was surveyed. Then, the development policies
for the new towns of Sungnam and Banweol were examined.

Because of the location of Banweol and Sungnam in the Seoul
Metropolitan Region (SMR), their development policies have
been closely connected with the socioeconomic situation of

the SMR, particularly the city of Seoul itself.

29

 

30

The New Town Movmewnt in Korea

 

The new town movement in Korea has been based primarily
on the country's five-year economic development plans which
emphasize, at the same time, industrialization and urban
decentralization. Major targets of the plans have been:
(1) construction of heavy industry and chemical production
facilities that further improve the nation's economic
structure; (2) balanced development of such basic social
facilities as electricity, transportation, storage, cargo
handling, and communications; and (3) regional development
through effective development of big river basins and the
creation of industrial estates.2

The purposes of the Korean new towns can be divided into

five categories: (1) decentralizing the urban functions of

large cities; (2) establishing industrial parks as an aspect

of economic development; (3) supplying needed housing for
urban populations; (4) establishing growth poles for
regional development; and (5) developing new towns for

special purposes such as mining, administration, and trade.
Accordingly, the development of industrial new towns has
aimed at creating industrial parks and improving the
nation's industrial base for the independence of employment.
Emulating foreign countries' experiences in develOping new
towns, the policies of new town development in Korea have

emphasized providing jobs and resettling urban residents in

 

 

31

new industrial environments. These new towns in Korea have
important implications for export activity.

Ten new towns have been built in Korea since the 19605
(Table 2.1 and Figure 2.1). Most of these new towns, with
the exception of Daedok and Gwachon, are industrial new
towns or serve functions directly related to nearby industry
(i.e., bedroom communities). Although Daedok is not
discussed extensively here because it lacks an industrial
focus, its development has some interesting implications.
Development plans for the Daedok new town were formulated in
1973, with the purpose of building an academic community.
Daedok has research and educational functions, but also has
great potential for further development, based on its
location. Situated in the middle of South Korea, Daeadok
has advantages of being efficiently connected with other
places and its close location to a water source, the Kum
River. The middle reaches of the Kum river which runs
through Daedok water relatively large plains areas scattered
around the new town. For these reasons, if the Korean
government moves the capital of Seoul, Daedok must be
considered one of the prime candidates for a new national
capital. The other non-industrial new town, Gwachon, will
be discussed later.

The majority of the new towns in Korea, however, are
consistent with the focus of this research on new towns. To

provide an overall perspective on these new towns, the

 

32

development of Ulsan, Pohang, Gumi, Chanweon, Yeochon, and
Donghae are discussed as background for the primary topic
of this research, the development of Banweol as a major
industrial new town and Sungnam as a primarily residential
new town. That is, the development of Sungnam and Banweol
must be viewed within the context of the new town movement
of Korea as a whole. The experiences of other new towns in
Korea provide a perspective from which to view Sungnam and

Banweol.

Ulsan

Ulsan, which is located in Korea's southeastern coastal
area, has been under development since 1962 as an industrial
new town, in a development period that was anticipated to
extend to 1981. Ulsan has a good location for port
facilities near Busan, the largest port in Korea, and enjoys
proximity to Japan for foreign trade. Ulsan existed as a
township before its new industrial development started. In
1962, a development committee for Ulsan, made up of six
government ministers and professional committee members,
began an effective execution of its development plan.

Ulsan has become the largest industrial center in
Korea, especially for large—scale heavy industries. Large
oil refinery facilities were built in Ulsan during the First
Five—Year Economic Development Plan (1962-1966). Besides

oil refining, a fertilizer plant, a thermal power plant, and

33

an integrated iron and steel mill were built, in addition to
harbor facilities to accommodate huge oil tankers. At the
same time, plans for the industrial new city of Ulsan were
made. Ulsan has a large proportion, 22 percent of its
439.3 square kilometer area, devoted to industry: another
30.5 percent is occupied by residential districts, 4.0
percent by commercial districts, and 43.5 percent is devoted
to open space.4

The city of Ulsan had rapid growth in population, from
8,500 when the development plan started to 418,000 in 1980
when it became the seventh largest city in Korea.5 The rate
of increase in population since the start of the development
plan was 25 percent between 1960 and 1966, 8.9 percent from
1966 to 1970, 13.0 percent from 1972 to 1976, and 11.6
percent between 1976 and 1980.6 These growth rates were
very significant in comparison with the rates for other
cities in Korea, which averaged 5.8 percent between 1960 and
1966 and 7.2 percent between 1966 and 1970.

The rapid growth of population in Ulsan has had some
distinct characteristics. First, population growth has
depended on migration to Ulsan because of its manufacturing
growth, rather than on natural population increase.
Migration to Ulsan, as the result of manufacturing growth,
has reflected the dominance of the secondary sector in

Ulsan's economic base. The composition of the city's

economy in 1980, in terms of labor force, showed 11 percent

TABLE 2.1

34

: Development of New Towns in Korea, by Population

and Function

 

 

 

 

Popula-
New Planned tion
Town Starting Ending Population (1980) Function
Ulsan 1962 1981 500,000 418,415 Refining
Combinate
Pohang 1968 1987 300,000 206,346 Steel
Sungnam 1968 1986 250,000 388,202 Residen-
tial
Gumi 1969 1986 450,000 114,110 Elec-
tronic
Daedok 1973 1983 50,000 6,100 Acadaemic
Changweon 1974 1986 300,000 128,095 Defence
indus.
Yeochon 1974 1986 100,000 18,000 Refining
(1979) Chemical
Banweol 1977 1986 200,000 31,551 Indus-
trial
Gwachon 1979 1983 50,000 54,901 Admin.
(1983) resid.
Donghae 1980 1991 250,000 100,051 Growth
pole
SOURCE: Data derived from the Economic Planning Board,

The Korea Statistical Yearbook,

 

and Development Plan in Pohang,

1981, p.23;

Banweol,

and

 

Gwachon,

A Study of Development Policies of

 

New Towns:

Analysis of Investment.

 

Research Institute for Human Settlement

1980,

37-61.

Korea
(KRIHS),

 

 

  

 

35
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Chungbuk
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I
Chungnam Chmmw

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Figure 2.1 New Towns in Korea

 

 

 

 

36

in the primary sector, 49 percent in the secondary sector,
and 40 percent in the tertiary sector. In the secondary
sector, employment in machinery manufacturing accounted for
the largest proportion of 68 percent; employment in the
chemical industry was the next largest with 18 percent.7

This composition arose from changes in the industrial
structure from domination by oil refining and chemical
production (1970—1976), to a preponderance of automobile
manufacturing, construction, and shipbuilding (1976—1980).
The first four years of development (1962—1965) saw a
remarkable increase in the population of public service
personnel and laborers, while construction workers were a
major source of population expansion between 1970 and 1972.
Shipbuilding and housing construction have stimulated
population increases since 1976.

The development of Ulsan is considered successful. The
city now has a complete industrial complex with the largest
refinery, shipbuilding, fertilizer, and automobile
facilities in Korea. By 1981 its progressive industrial
activity comprised a total of 330 industries in Ulsan, 262
industries that were in operation and 68 industries that
were under construction.9 At that time, there were no

industries closed down for lack of work.

Pohang

In 1968, an industrial addition was built to the old

port city of Pohang on the southeastern coastal stretch of

37

the Korean Peninsula. Pohang, which achieved city status in
1949, is considered in a good position to connect the inland
area with the ocean. The city of Pohang was reorganized
with an emphasis on industrial iron and steel facilities
such as factories, inland creeks for providing water and
raw materials, railroads, and related factories. The
largest integrated iron and steel mill in Korea was built in
Pohang with the support of the provisions made in the Second
Five-Year Economic Development Plan. The Ministry of
Construction planned for a population of 300,000, three
times larger than that of 1968.10

The economic base of Pohang has been formed from its
secondary sector. The development plan emphasized this
sector, by allocating 10 percent of resources and efforts to
the primary, 50 percent to the secondary, and 40 percent to
the tertiary sector.11 In addition to the integrated iron
and steel mill, two industrial districts were constructed:
the first Allied Industrial District was built in 1980 and
the second was established in 1983. There are 43,275
employees in these industrial districts and the steel mill,
nearly all of whom are residents of Pohang. Only 0.9
percent of the employees commute from outside.12 Thus,
Pohang has self-sufficient functions in employment and
residential facilities. The development of Pohang was along

the lines of the growth pole strategy rather than the new

town strategy. According to Alonso, the growth pole concept

38

refers to the expansion of an existing center to bring it to
sufficient size to afford the economies of scale and

13
externalities needed for self-sustaining growth.

Gumi

The city of Gumi has been in the process of development
since 1969. Another industrial new town, Gumi is located
inland, in the western part of Gyongsang Bukdo province. An
intent of its development plan was decentralization of
population and industries from big cities such as Seoul,
Busan, and Daegu.14

One of the reasons why Gumi was chosen as an industrial
new town site was its location on the vital railroad and
expressway that connect the capital city, Seoul, with the
ocean, through Busan, for foreign trade with Japan and the
United States. In addition, water is convenient to the Gumi
industrial district from the Nakdong River. Finally, low
land prices in Gumi facilitated development of an industrial

district. When the development plan started in 1969, the

price of land per pyong (36 square feet) was only 300won

15
($1.39).
Before development began, in 1968, the population of
Gumi was 21,359. By 1977 the population had risen to
72,037, more than a three—fold increase. In 1981, the

population of 114,110 represented an average annual increase
16
of 12 percent from 1977 to 1981. The major source of this

39

increase was in-migration from other places, rather than
natural population growth.17

The industrial structure of Gumi has also changed since
1968. Employment in 1968 was 69.3 percent in the primary
sector, 3.6 percent in the secondary sector, and 27.1
percent in the tertiary sector.18 By 1977, employment
percentages were 7.7 percent in the primary sector, 73.3
percent in the secondary, and 19.0 percent in the
tertiary.19 The secondary sector has significantly
increased over time because the development policy has
emphasized electronic industries, and Gumi is now the
largest center for electronic industries in Korea. Based on
its population increase, Gumi achieved city status (over
50,000 population) in 1978.

The increase of population shows potential for further
urban growth in the new town. Gumi also has the potential
to become an independent new town based on its location. It
is a unique industrial new town, located inland and situated
far from large cities such as Seoul, Busan, and Daegu.
There are no cities on which Gumi depends for urban

services. Another advantage is a strong economic base

provided by the largest electronic industry in Korea.

Changwon

The development of Changwon started in 1974, to promote

the growth of heavy industry and chemical production

40

specified in the Third Five—Year Economic Development Plan
(1972-1976).20 Changwon is located near the mid-point of
the southern coast in Gyongsang Namdo province. It has a
good location in an easily defensible basin surrounded by
mountains. Changwon has been developed from scratch as a
complete industrial new town with a strong military focus.

The basic directions for developing Changwon were

derived from several strategies for reasonable land use and

a comfortable city environment. First, the construction of
urban facilities was emphasized. That is, the development
plan required effective land use and convenient

transportation networks within the city and between the city
and other places. Second, a comfortable living environment
was established, including a greenbelt, parks, and
recreational centers, an adequate sewage system, and a
housing supply sufficient for a comfortable living
environment. Third, a plan for balanced urban land use was
laid out, establishing a central business district (CBD) to
support the demand for urban facilities by residents in the
new town. The plan also emphasized a light industrial
district and a convenient communications system. It also
sought to improve social welfare; medical facilities were
built and strategies were derived for protecting the living
environment from pollution, fire, flood, and other natural
disasters. Finally, educational facilities were built to

21
satisfy the demands of residents in the new town.

 

 

41

The development of the Changwon new town was to extend
twelve years, from 1974 to 1986, in three stages: the
planning stage (1974—1976), the construction stage (1977—
1979), and the maturity stage (1980—1986). During the
planning stage, the Industrial Sites and Water Resources
Development Corporation, which is a public development
agency, prepared 1,258 thousand pyong for industrial and
residential sites in 1974, and 1,861 thousand pygng in 1976.

Industrial land use is dominant in the city, with 28.7
percent for residential use, 3.8 percent for commercial use,
47.7 percent for industrial use, and 20.1 percent of 184.1
square kilometers devoted to greenbelt.22 Expansion of the
new town has been considerable. Fifty-eight industries had
entered the new town by 1976, when its population reached
44,000. Although some newspapers and other communication
facilities, financial agencies, and educational services
were established, urban services could not completely meet
the demand of residents in the new town. During the planning
stage, many urban functions were furnished by the nearby
cities of Masan and Jinhae. Until 1976, Changwon could not
be considered an independent new town.

Under the provisions of the plan, during the
construction stage (1977-1979), the central government tried
to build the center of the new town, housing for residents,
and urban service facilities such as banking, public health

centers, transportation networks, recreation centers, and

 

 

42

educational facilities. Authorities invested 541 billion
wen (69 million dollars) in the development of the new town.
During this stage, the population of the new town increased
from 55,000 in 1977 to 120,000 in 1979, a two-fold increase
in just two years. This increase was generated by
population movement from other places.

Finally, during the maturity stage (1980-1986), the

urban development plan has continued. Authorities
anticipate a total investment of 505 billion won (641
million dollars) in urban development in the Changwon new
town during this stage.24 Based on the rapid growth of its

population, Changwon achieved city status in 1980, when the
25
population was 128,000. It is anticipated that the
26

population will exceed 200,000 by 1986.

Yeochon

Yeochon has been under development as an industrial
center since 1974. The purpose for this new town is to
develop the country's heavy industry and chemical
production potential, based on refining, petrochemicals,
and a thermal power plant. Yeochon is situated at the mid—
point of the southern coastal area along the Korean
Peninsula, where it connects the inland with the ocean. The
population in 1981 was 44,952 an increase of 5.2 percent
from 1974. This increase was relatively small in comparison

with the population of other industrial new towns, i.e.,

 

 

43

Ulsan (11.3 percent), Changwon (26.6 percent), and Gumi
(13.5 percent).27

Land use is predominantly industrial, with 56.6 percent
of the land for industrial uses, 21.7 percent for
residential, 1.3 percent for commercial, and 20.4 percent
for open space. Area per house is at least 150 pygng, which
is large in comparison with Seoul, which has about 30 pyong
per house. This large housing area will be the foundation
of a comfortable environment in the industrial new town.
Private investment is more than half of total investment,
primarily in electrical and heating equipment, private
schools, and residential facilities.28

Yeochon currently has problems in its urban
development, however, because urban services and facilities
are insufficient for the residents. Development of urban
services and facilities has lagged behind the industrial
sector and engineers and managerial staff moving in from
large cities have suffered from a lack of urban services and
facilities. This has been the main reason for out—migration
from Yeochon, which exceeded in—migration at the end of the

19705.

Donghae

Donghae is located in the coastal area of Kangwon
province and has the best mineral resources in Korea.

Although the province includes 19 percent of the nation's

44

total land area, its population is only 7 percent of the
total national population. Recently, residents of this
province have moved out at a rate of 50,000 per year,
because of the province's isolation and lack of urban
services and facilities. Because the province has lagged in
development, the Korean government designated the city of
Donghae as a growth pole for the 19805. Donghae is a new
town combining Mukho township with Bukpyong township. Its
development program accents two strategies. One is to
develop an industrial district based on the mineral
resources; the other is to equip port facilities serving its
coastal location.30

The land parcels are predominantly used for residential
and industrial purposes, with eight percent of land used for
commercial purposes, 55 percent for industrial and
residential purposes, and 37 percent reserved for open
space. A population of 250,000 is planned by 1991, from a
base of 100,051 in 1981.31 Investment by the private sector
is 117.2 billion ($150 million), or 61 percent of total

investment.

The development of Donghae is significant for several

reasons. First, it will contribute to the balanced
development of land nationally. Because industrial and
urban services have been concentrated in the Seoul

MetrOpolitan Region and the southeastern coastal area,

45

Kangwon province has been neglected. Development of Donghae
will help to remedy this situation.

Second, Donghae's location allows expanded fishing
activities in the Sea of Japan, which is the largest fishing
ground for Korea. Development of the port facilities can
help to stimulate the fishing industry. The establishment
of Donghae will also be helpful in the exploitation of other
natural resources such as coal,» iron ore, limestone, and
hydraulic power.

Finally, establishment of Donghae has slowed the exodus
of population and capital. In other words, it has the
essentials for regional development as a growth pole in a

long-term strategy.

New Town Development in the Seoul
Metropolitan Region

 

 

The new town movement takes on special importance in

the Seoul Metropolitan Region (SMR), where new town
development is an effort to overcome severe urban
congestion. The solution to this urban congestion is a
major issue in Korea today. Combined with several

associated issues, it has generated new town development as
a way of overcoming several problems.

First, many people have concentrated in Seoul. In an
area of 627 square kilometers, 0.6 percent of the total area

of South Korea, lives a population of more than 8,367,000 or

 

i
l
i

 

46

22.3 percent of the nation's total population. Population
density was 13,836 by 1981. Seoul is over crowded with
people moving in from other places.

A second problem is related to the imbalances in
regional development of Korea. The rapidly growing primary
city of Seoul causes disadvantages to other places. Seoul
is a classic example of a primate city, in that its rapid
growth is an obstacle for medium and smaller size cities
that must grow to provide service functions to surrounding
rural areas. Problems are caused for medium and smaller
size cities when people leave them for the primate city,
thus creating unbalanced growth and regional inequality.
This is exactly the situation in South Korea.

Third, population movement from rural to urban areas
causes similar capital movement. This capital is essential
for developing rural communities and its outflow causes
their decline, preventing rural areas from modernizing.

Finally, a special problem peculiar just to Seoul is
the location of the capital city very close to the
Demilitarized Zone (DMA) which divides Korea in South Korea
and North Korea. Seoul is situated only 20 miles away from
the DMZ. The concentration of population and central
government agencies in Seoul makes the city extremely
vulnerable to military attack by North Korea and presents

substantial threat to national security.

 

 

 

47

These problems have motivated authorities to develop
new towns in Korea since the 19605. The establishment of
such new towns is one method of reducing these problems in

the Seoul Metropolitan Region.

Policies of New Town Development in
Sungnam and Banweol

 

 

The new towns that have been built so far in the SMR
are Sungnam, Banweol, and Gwachon. Gwachon is a typical
bedroom community, as well as an administrative new town
that has been developed outside the border of Seoul since
1979. Gwachon belongs administratively to Gyonggi province
and its development has been based on the strategy of
dispersing Seoul's population by moving the secondary
government buildings and Seoul's large recreation park away
from Seoul.33 For that reason, the secondary government
buildings were built to accommodate several ministries, such
as the Ministries of Government Administration, Agriculture
and Fisheries, and Construction. The structure of land use

of the new town shows the dominance of residential uses.

The land parcels are 73 percent residential, 6 percent

commercial and office, and 21 percent open space. The
34

planned population was 50,000. The population of Gwachon

was 54,901 in 1983 because adequate apartment space was
provided. Thus, since it is considered a satellite new town

for the purpose of providing only adequate residential

 

 

 

48

facilities, Gwachon was not an appropriate case for this
study.

Development policies for the new towns of Sungnam and

Banweol can be discussed in three major categories:
political development issues, site factors, and
socioeconomic aspects. In the discussion below, Banweol

policies are compared with those of Sungnam.

Political Development Issues

 

In this section the basic and large scale strategies
for new town construction were surveyed in relation to
political development issues. Several issues, such as
balanced development in the SMR, establishment of
independent new towns, the role of growth poles, and public
versus private sector roles in development were analyzed.

Balanced Development in the SMR. There are ten cities

 

in the SMR: Seoul, Inchon, Suwon, Sungnam, Ujongbu, Anyang,
Buchon, Gwangmyong, Songtan, and Dongduchon (Figure 1.1).
These cities are fairly large as shown in Table 2.2. Seoul
and Inchon have more than eight million and one million
population, respectively.

The growth of city populations in the SMR has been
greater than in the rural areas of the SMR, as shown in
Table 2.3. City proportions have increasingly expanded over
time. For example, the population of Seoul in 1980 was 3.5
times its 1960 population. The population of other cities in

1980 was 4.8 times that of 1960. Urban population in the SMR

49

 

 

 

 

 

 

TABLE 2.2: Population of Cities in the SMR (1981)
City Population
Seoul 8,676,000
Inchon 1,142,000
Suwon 324,000
Sungnam 388,000
Ujongbu 135,000
Anyang 259,000
Buchon 246,000
Gwangmyong 154,000
Songtan 63,000
Dongduchon 60,000
Total 11,447,000

SOURCE: The Ministry of Home Affairs, Municipal Yearbook

of Korea,

1982,

p.194.

 

 

50

TABLE 2.3: Population Growth in the SMR

 

 

 

 

Other Rural % of Popula.

Year Seoul Cities Areas SMR in Cities
1960 2,445 492 2,257 5,194 56.6

1966 3,803 731 2,371 6,905 65.7

1970 5,525 908 2,450 8,883 72.4

1975 6,889 1,649 2,391 10,929 78.1

1980 8,518 2,380 2,444 13,342 81.7
SOURCE: Korea Statistical Yearbook, 1967, 1971, 1976, and

 

1981.

51

increased from 56.6 percent of the total to 81.7 percent by
1980. However, the population of rural areas in 1980 was
only 1.1 times that in 1960. These data show that there has
been severely unbalanced development between city and rural
areas in the metropolitan region.

In addition, the concentration of headquarters of
enterprises, revealed in Table 2.4, shows that Seoul had
more than two-thirds of Korea's business headquarters in
1980. This unbalanced concentration of population and
industries could be one of the major reasons of unequal
development between cities and rural areas in the SMR. Kown

35
explains intra—regional inequality in the SMR as follows:

The capital region shows a share distribution
between Seoul and countryside. Most of the
counties in Gyonggi province, except the ones
near Seoul, have in fact lost population. The
functional dominance of Seoul must be diminished
by creating a more complex polycentric
metropolitan region.

The intra—regional inequality in terms of the
unbalanced spatial structure in the SMR is a significant
problem in regional development and the reason that
development policy began to emphasize building new towns for
more balanced development in the SMR.36 In this regard, the
establishment of Sungnam and Banweol new towns in rural

areas has been one method of balancing development in the

SMR.

52

TABLE 2.4: Concentration of Headquarters of Enterprises
in Seoul and the SMR

(Investment Unit: million won)

 

 

 

 

Invest- 10- 100— 1,000 More than
ment 100 1,000 10,000 10,000
Place # Ratio # Ratio # Ratio # Ratio
Nation 1,564 100 1,169 100 441 100 45 100
SMR 1,216 78 927 79 363 82 39 87
Seoul 1,042 67 772 66 325 74 36 80

 

Source: The Rearrangement Plan in the SMR (1982—1991),
1981, p.17.

 

Establishment of Independent New Towns. One of the

 

purposes of establishing new towns is to make new towns
independent in terms of employment, living facilities, and
urban services. The independent new town should be self-
sufficient. In Banweol and Sungnam, development policies
have clearly emphasized self—sufficiency,37 in Banweol based
on the industrial sector, and for Sungnam to achieve self-

sufficiency in the long run.

Role of Growth Poles. The strategy of growth poles

 

comes from studies by Perroux (1955), Myrdal (1957),
Hirschman (1958), and others. The concept is related to
regional development. If private or public sectors invest

in an existing small town or city which has lagged behind

 

53

its region in development, that town or city will become the
growth pole. "Backwash" or "polarization" and "spread"

effects or "trickle-down" effects are basic concepts of the

38
growth pole strategy. "Backwash" refers to the
population, money, and raw materials that flow from
surrounding areas to the growth pole, whereas "spread"

explains the subsequent movement of modern technology,
investment, information and population from the growth pole
to surrounding areas.

The development strategy for Banweol is to build it
into a growth pole for the development of the southwestern
part of the SMR.39 The development strategy for Sungnam,

however, does not adopt the growth pole strategy partly

because Sungnam is located too near Seoul to be an
independent growth pole. At a distance of only 20
kilometers, the socioeconomic and cultural influences from

Seoul on Sungnam are significant.

Public versus Private Sector Development. Development

 

planning for new towns in Korea has been carried out by the
public sector.40 In the case of Banweol, the public sector
has completely dominated planning for the basic structures
of the new town. Agencies such as the Ministries of
Construction, Treasury, Home Affairs, Education, and
Communication, the government of Gyonggi province, the

Office of Korean National Railroads, the Korean Electric

Company, and the Industrial Sites and Water Resources

54

Development Corporation have taken direct roles in the new
town development. Other ministries and governmental
agencies such as the Economic Planning Board, the Ministry
of Commerce, and the Korean Housing Corporation have also
supported the development plan.41

In the case of Sungnam, the Seoul city government and
the government of Gyonggi province were the main public
sector planners. The Seoul city government was responsible
for setting land prices and the boundaries of the new town
area, controlling the sale and subdivision of land, cutting
the forest, controlling housing construction, distributing

housing sites to residents who wanted to live in the new

town, taking care of security problems, and establishing

42
public facilities. The Gyonggi province has dealt with
administrative affairs because Sungnam is in its
43
jurisdiction. Thus, the development of the new towns was

based on different levels of governments, local governments

for Sungnam and the central government for Banweol.

Site Factors

 

Among the site factors favoring the existing locations
of Sungnam and Banweol were the availability of considerable
undeveloped land, low land prices, good physical
environment, good access to present transportation,
potential for transportation expansion, and opportunity to

preserve historical resources.

 

 

55

Availability of Undeveloped Land. The site for an

 

independent new town needs undeveloped or redeveloped land.
For a completely new town, from the bottom up, a large site
is necessary.

When the development of Sungnam started in 1968,
Sungnam was a small village. The population was only 6,000
but has now expanded to more than 380,000 which is 64 times
that of 1968.44 In 1968, the economic base of Sungnam was
dominated by the primary sector which provided 89 percent
of total employment compared with the secondary sector
employment of 0.6 percent and tertiary sector employment of
10.4 percent. These proportions show that Sungnam was a
typical rural village with little industrial and service
activities.

In contrast, the population of Banweol in 1977 when its
development started was 16,500. Now, its population is more
than 50,000 which is three times the 1977 figure. Banweol
was then a typical village without urban services. The
economic base of Banweol in 1976 consisted of primary sector
employment of 72.7 percent of total employment, secondary
sector employment of 5.1 percent, and tertiary sector
employment of 22.2 percent.45 Thus, Banweol was also an
undeveloped area dominated by primary sector employment
before its development began.

Low Land Prices. The price of land is a major factor

in new town establishment. The low land price can be

56

advantageous to all kinds of new towns such as independent
new towns, new towns in—town, and satellite new towns. When
the development plan of Sungnam started in 1968, land prices
in Gyonggi province were as shown in Table 2.5. Residential
land prices are used in this study because those land price
data were available in contrast to some other land prices.
Usually, the land prices of residential areas in Korea are
divided into three categories, high, middle, and low. In
this study, high and low land prices were used for
convenient comparison among townships and cities. In 1968,
the high price of land per pyeng (36 square feet) in Sungnam
was 1,000 wen. The highest land price per pyeng, 14,474,
was in Anyang township, while the lowest land price per
pyeng, 153 wen, was in Janghowon township. Thus, average
land price was 3,440 wen which was 3.4 times Sungnam's land
price. The lowest land price in Sungnam in 1968 was 700 wen
per pyeng which was lower than the average land price of all
townships, 951 wen. Low land price in Sungnam was one of
the major factors for selecting it as a new town site.

In the case of Banweol, its residential land prices
were compared with other townships in Gyonggi province in
1978 (Table 2.6). The figure for Banweol is for 1977.

In Table 2.6, the land prices in Banweol were among the
lowest ones. The average land prices were 50,428 wen (high)
and 18,874 wen (low). The land price in Banweol was

significantly lower, in comparison with the average land

57

TABLE 2.5: Land Price of Residential Area by Township in
Gyonggi Province (Sungnam, 1968)

Unit: won

 

 

Residential Area

 

 

 

Place High (price per Low (price per
gm EEO—“9
Inchon 9,175 3,075
Suwon 5,743 1,575
Ujongbu 7,136 573
Dongduchon 587 75
Yoju 717 137
Ichon 782 115
Janghowon 153 79
Ansung 1,046 657
Pyongtak 2,620 290
Songtan 708 190
Osan 580 302
Anyang 14,474 4,605
SUNGNAM 1,000 700
Average 3,440.0 951.0
NOTE: (1) One dollar corresponded to 400 wen in 1968

and 780 wen in 1983.

(2) The land price per pyong in Sungnam was 1,000
wen in 1968. One pyong equals 36 square
feet. The land price per square foot in Sungnam
was $0.07 in 1968.

SOURCE: Korea Appraisal Board, Land Price Report, 1968.

 

58

 

 

 

 

TABLE 2.6: Land Price of Residential Area by Township in
Gyonggi Province (Banweol, 1978)
Residential Area
High (price per Low (price per
Place pyong) pyong)
Inchon 94,667 58,462
Buchon 63,000 23,333
Anyang 120,000 55,833
Suwon 88,478 47,567
Sungnam 91,250 23,750
Ujongbu 39,250 11,938
Osan 14,850 6,525
Songtan 22,833 3,917
Pyongtak 49,400 13,700
Ansung 44,846 15,615
Osung 40,000 11,000
Dongduchon 9,000 4,091
Peangsung 35,000 8,500
Unhyon 5,000 1,500
Gwangtan 4,000 2,000
Munsan 32,500 3,000
Gumchon 30,000 7,000
Junae 7,000 2,500
Sindo 23,333 6,333
Guri 150,000 66,667
Syhung 140,000 40,000
BANWEOL 5,000 2,000
Average 50,428 18,874
Source: The Citizen National Bank, Land Price Report,

 

1978.

59

price. Therefore, low land prices may be considered
important factors for selecting Banweol as a new town site.

Physical Environment of New Towns. The physical

 

environment is also an important element to consider in new
town development. Sungnam is located on a small plain with
Gumdan Mt. (542 m) located to the east, and Chonggae Mt.
(618 m) to the west.46 A small river called the Tan river
runs between the two mountains. The plain supplies sites
for urban facilities and farm land, so that the small plain
and adjacent low hilly areas represent a relatively good
site for constructing a new town.

Banweol is located on a fairly large plain in the
southwestern coastal area of Gyonggi province. There are
small mountains scattered throughout the'plain, at the end
of Gwangju Mountain Range that stretches from east to west.
The average height of land in Banweol is less than 100
meters above sea level. The proportions of land according
to height are as follows: less than 10 meters (33.3
percent); 10—50 meters (56.3 percent), 50-100 meters (9
percent); 100-150 meters (1.2 percent), and more than
150 meters (0.2 percent).47 The proportion of land between
10 and 50 meters is more than half the total area of
Banweol. The relatively low flat plain can be regarded as a

good physical site for new town construction.

Good Present and Potential Transportation Access.

 

Distribution of transportation networks should be considered

 

 

60
a factor in developing new towns. Good location and
relatively low transportation costs are essential in

building new towns.

Sungnam has road transportation by bus, taxi, and other
automobiles. Main roads connect Sungnam with Seoul, Suwon,
Gwangju, and the southern part of the Korean peninsula. The
Gyongbu Freeway runs through the western part of Sungnam's
area. These roads contribute to transportation for
Sungnam's residents. There were 2,314 bus trips carrying
146,000 residents between Sungnam and Seoul per day in 1983.
According to the construction plan, by 1986, there will be a
subway line between Seoul and Sungnam.48 When this subway
is constructed, residents of Sungnam will have even more
convenient mass transportation facilities between Seoul and
Sungnam. Thus, Sungnam is fairly well located for land
transportation.

Banweol has two kinds of transportation systems, road
and railway. Main roads connect Banweol with Suwon, Inchon,
and Anyang. There are no roads which directly connect Seoul
with Banweol, but they are connected through Anyang by road.
By bus, there were 547 round trips carrying 13,600
passengers per day between Banweol and other places in
1983.49 The railroad called Suin Line runs through Banweol

between Suwon and Inchon. There were four trains per day

from Banweol to Suwon and Inchon in 1983, transporting about

61

250 passengers per day. Thus, Banweol is also in a
relatively good location for transportation.

Products for foreign trade are carried from Banweol to
Inchon which is the second largest port in Korea. Banweol
does not presently have port facilities but facilities can
be built in its coastal location. As a result, Banweol has
the potential to establish sea-going transportation.

Opportunity to Preserve Historical Resources. In

 

contrast to Sungnam, the development policy for Banweol has
emphasized preservation of historical remains in the new
town area. That is, the development plans have been
designed to preserve the graveyards of the late scholars,
Yik Lee and Young-Shin Choi. Historical parks are to be
located at these sites.50 This policy for preserving
historical resources will contribute to formation of a
better recreational and cultural environment. No plans have

been made for similar preservation of historic resources in

Sungnam.

Socioeconomic Aspects

 

Socioeconomic factors are closely related to
development of new towns. These factors have influenced
authorities to consider new town construction in Sungnam and
Banweol. Housing shortage, squatter settlements, urban

crowding and indusrial pollution are serious urban problems

62

that are expected to be alleviated in Seoul, to some extent,
by the outward movement of people and industry to new towns.

Relocation of Residents from Seoul and Housing

 

Development. The increase of population in the 1960s and

the 19705 caused housing shortages in Seoul. Table 2.7
shows the rate of housing shortage in Seoul in 1966 reached
its highest point and then decreased. The rate slightly

decreased again in 1978.

TABLE 2.7: Housing Shortages in Seoul

 

 

 

Existing
Year Households Dwellings Shortage % Shortage
1966 724,043 361,948 ------- 50.0
1970 1,097,432 600,367 497,065 45.3
1978 1,609,121 892,084 717,037 44.6

 

SOURCE: Seoul Statistical Yearbook, 1980 and 1982.
Rearrangement Plan of Population in SMR
(1982-1991), Korea Research Institute for
Human Settlements, 1981, p. 42.

 

 

These housing shortages stimulated dispersion of
population from Seoul. Therefore, the development policies
for Sungnam and Banweol have emphasized attracting residents
from Seenl to the new towns through the provision of

housing. An adequate supply of housing in the new towns

is a major goal in achieving self—sufficiency.

 

 

 

 

63

Solution of Squatter Settlements in Seoul. By the

 

19603 the squatter problem in Seoul had reached great
proportions because of the lack of housing. Solution of the
problem became a political issue in the election of both the
president and the national congress in 1967.52 The
locations of the squatter settlements in Seoul were
influenced by cheap public transportation determining the
distribution of the settlements. Dominant squatter
settlements in Seoul were widely distributed over hilly
areas, public open spaces near railroads and the small
Chonggaechon river.

In 1967, the Seoul city government prepared a
comprehensive plan for clearing the squatter housing that
advocated developing a new town to relocate the squatters.
At that time, 233,535 of Seoul's 649,290 total housholds
lived in 136,650 dwellings in the squatter areas, the
pOpulation was 1,270,000 of Seoul's 3,800,000 total
population. The comprehensive plan emphasized overcoming
the problems of 76,650 squatter houses by establishing a new
town, removal of 14,000 of the squatter houses by building
multi-storied apartments on the land where the squatter
houses were located, and rehabilitating 46,000 squatter
homes by repairing them.53 The Seoul city government
decided on the new town site in Sungnam for relocating Seoul

squatters in 1968 and the movement of squatters lasted for

three years from 1969 to 1971. During these three years,

64

54
41,596 squatters moved from Seoul to Sungnam. Thus,
Sungnam was part of the solution to the squatter
resettlement problem, but Banweol was not. This was

probably because squatter resettlement was not a serious
problem later, since squatter settlements in Seoul had been
almost cleared out by the end of the 19705. Therefore, the
plan for the Banweol new town did not need to include
squatter resettlement.

Relocation of Industrial Facilities from Seoul. Just

 

as population became concentrated in Seoul, industrial
facilities were agglomerated in the same place. Seoul
accounted for 33.9 percent of the country's manufacturing in
1970, 30.5 percent in 1975, and 25.7 percent in 1978.55
With more than one—fourth of the country's manufacturing
carried on in Seoul, the headquarters of industries were
concentrated heavily in that area as shown in Table 2.4. As
mentioned previously, the Seoul area is 0.6 percent of the
nation and the Seoul population in 1980 was 22.3 percent of
the national total. In comparison with the area, the
proportion of industrial headquarters, more than two-thirds,
is even more disproportionate. The industrial concentration
caused a pollution problem in Seoul. To help overcome this,
the development policy for Banweol emphasized the relocation
of industries which produced severe pollution, and the
industries which were inappropriately located, such as those

56
in residential and commercial areas in Seoul. Accordingly,

 

 

65

210 or 79.4 percent of the 265 industries in Banweol by 1982
had moved to the new town from Seoul.57 In this regard,
the policy to move polluting and inappropriately located
industries from Seoul to Banweol can be regarded as
successful. On the other hand, the development policy for
Sungnam did not emphasize relocation of industries from

Seoul.

Residents' Participation in New Town Development. The

 

development of the Sungnam new town presented serious
problems in that residents of the new town opposed the plans
of the development authorities. When the relocation of
residents from Seoul to Sungnam in the late 19608 was
announced, an incident later called the August Tenth Riot
broke out among the residents in 1970. There were several
reasons for it. First, speculation in real estate caused
land prices to rise in the first stage of the development.
Since the Seoul city government advertised the Sungnam new
town development extensively, realtors and other sales
agents immediately gathered in Sungnam. Realtors sold the
same 20 pyong residential sites which the authorities
assigned to new households moving in from Seoul, several
times over. Fluctuations in land prices were erratic with
realtors and sales agents controlling land prices. Whenever
they sold or resold a site, the land price went up at a
premium so that the price of each parcel of land became

several times its original price. At the premium prices,

66

more than half the squatters moving in from Seoul sold their
residential sites to realtors or sales agents at a profit
and then left Sungnam for other places. Some who sold their
assigned sites could not return to Seoul because they were
unable to buy expensive Seoul land with the profits they
made from selling the Sungnam sites. They were wandering
around Sungnam and other residents who wanted to live in
Sungnam had to pay higher land prices later. This situation
resulted in the demonstration that preceded the August Tenth
Riot in 1970. The Seoul city government executed a measure,
prohibiting the reselling of residential sites in 1970.58

Another reason for the riot was that the Seoul city
government ordered residents of the new town to immediately
pay a lump-sum price for assigned residential sites. Few
residents were able to pay this quickly because a majority
of them were squatters. Administration of this policy
stimulated some residents to riot and others were angered by
insufficient urban services and facilities for residents in
the new town. The dissatisfaction with prices, facilities
and management accumulated until the residents finally
rioted against the authorities.59

In contrast, the development processes in Banweol have
proceeded with cooperation between development authorities
and residents in the new town. According to Yun-Kil Jo,

Chief of the Planning Department in the Office of Banweol

township, there have never been any serious difficulties

67

in obtaining residential and industrial sites from native
60
residents.

Summary

The development policies for Sungnam and Banweol were
divided into three categories of political development
issues, site factors, and socioeconomic aspects, based on
characteristics of each to explain various policy
provisions. Each category had several detailed
subsections.

The first category of political development issues,
which included four subsections, was more applicable to the
development policies for Banweol than those for Sungnam.
All four subsections, balanced development in the SMR,
establishment of independent new towns, role of growth
poles, and public sectors for development, were applicable
to the development policies of Banweol, while three of them,
balanced development in the SMR, establishment of
independent new towns, and public sectors for development,
were adopted for the development policies in Sungnam.

The second category related to site factors for
developing new towns, included six subsections: availability
of undeveloped land, low land prices, physical environment
of new towns, good present transportation access, potential
for transportation expansion, and opportunity to preserve

historical resources. All these six subsections were

68

employed in the develOpment policies of Banweol, whereas
only one subsection, the opportunity to preserve historical
resources, had some marginal applicability to the
development policies of Sungnam.

The third category dealt with socioeconomic aspects and
consisted of five subsections concerning relationships
between socioeconomic problems in Seoul and the need for new
towns. These five subsections were: relocation of
residents from Seoul, housing development plans, solution of
squatter settlements in Seoul, relocation of industrial
facilities from Seoul, and residents' participation. Of

these, one subsection, the solution of squatter settlements

in Seoul, was marginally relevant to the development
policies of Banweol, while two subsections, the relocation
of industrial facilities from Seoul and residents'

participation, were somewhat related to the development
policies of Sungnam.

In their entirety, the detailed subsections were more
applicable to the development policies for Banweol, which is
a more recent new town, than those of Sungnam, an older new
town. In other words, Sungnam developed in a relatively
more spontaneous or unplanned way than did Bandwol.
However, a necessarily qualitative examination of
development policies is obviously subject to varying

interpretations by different observers.

69

CHAPTER NOTES

1
Frederick J. Osborn and Arnold Whittick, The New

Towns: The Answer to Megalopolis London. (London: Leonard
Hill, 1969), p. 7.

 

 

2
The Ministry of Construction, The Second Program for
National Land Development (Seoul: The Government Printing
Office, 1982), p. 69. (In Korean).
3

The Korea Research Institute for Human Settlements, A
Study of Development Policies of New Towns: An Analysis of

 

 

 

Investment (Seoul: Korea Research Institute for Human
Settlements, 1980), p. 48. (in Korean)

4

Ibid., pp. 49-51.

5

The Economic Planning Board, Korea Statistical
Yearbook (Seoul: Korean Government Printing Office, 1981),
p. 23.

6

Ki-Suk Lee and Hak-Dong Lee, "The Growth Process of
Ulsan Industrial City and Its Agglomeration of Manufacturing

 

 

 

 

Industries," The Journal of Korean Planners Association 17
(July 1982): 51. (In Korean)
7
Ibid., p. 61.
8
Ibid., p. 67.
9
The Ministry of Construction, Report on the Location
of Industries. (Seoul: Industrial Development Co., 1981),
p. 81. (In Korean).
10
The Economic Planning Board, Korea Statistical
Yearbook (Seoul: Korean Government Printing Office, 1981),
p. 58.
11

The Korea Research Institute for Human Settlements,
Op. Cite] pp. 51.-52.

 

 

12
The Pohang City Government, Data on the Urban
Development Plan of Pohang (Pohang: Dongyang Technical
Development Co., 1980), p. 144. (In Korean).
13
W. Alonso, "What Are New Towns For?" in System of

 

Cities, ed. L.B. Bourne and J.W. Simmons (New York: Oxford
University Press, 1978), p. 537.

7O

14
Korea Research Institute for Human Settlements,
0p. cit., p. 33.
15
Jong-Hee Yun, "A Study of Gumi Industrial New Town,"
(M.A. Thesis, Korea University, 1979), p. 12. (in Korean).
16
The Korea Research Institute for Human Settlements, A
Study of Strategies for New Town Development (Seoul: Korea

 

Research Institute for Human Settlements, 1982), p. 78 (In
Korean).
17
Jong-Hee Yun, op.cit., p. 22.
18
The Korea Research Institute for Human Settlements,
1982, op. cit., p. 67.
19
Ibid., p. 73.
20
Ibid., p. 15.
21
Ibid., pp. 16-17.
22
Korea Research Institute for Human Settlements,
Analysis of Investment, 1980, op. cit., p. 56.
23
Korea Research Institute for Human Settlements, 1982,
op. cit., p. 24.
24
Ibid., p. 29.
25
The Economic Planning Board, 1981, op. cit., p. 23.
26
The Korea Research Institute for Human Settlements,
1982, op. cit., pp. 30-31.

 

 

 

 

27
Sun-Chol Jo, "A Study of the Movement of Employee's
Families in Local Industrial Cities," The Municipal Affairs
17 (April l982):46. (In Korean).
28
The Korea Research Institute for Human
Settlements, Analysis of Investment, 1980, op. cit., p. 57.
29
Sun-Chol Jo, 1982, op. cit., p. 46.
30
The Korea Research Institute for Human
Settlements, Analysis of Investment, 1980, op. cit., p. 55.
31

The Ministry of Home Affairs, Municipal Yearbook
of Korea (Seoul: Dongyang Printing Co., 1982), p. 194.
32
The Seoul Metropolitan Government, Seoul Statistical
Yearbook (Seoul: Jungkun Industrial Co., 1982), p. 22.

 

 

71

 

33
The Ministry of Construction and the Korea Housing
Corporation, The Development Plan in Gwachon (Seoul:
Korean Government Printing Office, 1979), p. 37. (In Korean).
34
Ibid., p. 52.
35

Won-Yong Kwon, "A Study of the Economic Impact of
Industrial Relocation: The Case of Seoul," Urban Studies 18
(February 1981), p. 77.

36

The Ministry of Construction and the Industrial Sites
and Water Resources Development Corporation, Development
Plan in Banweol (Seoul: Korean Government Printing Office,
1977), p. 6. (In Korean).

37

The Minisry of Construction and the Industrial Sites
and Water Resources Development Corporation, Banweol
New Town (Seoul: Korean Government Printing Office, 1977),
p. 5. The Sungnam City Government, History of Sungnam
(Seoul: Jungkwang Industrial Co., 1982), pp. 316-17, and
352. (In Korean).

38

Gunner Myrdal, Rich Lands and Poor (New York: Harper

and Row Publishers, 1957), pp. 30-31. John Friedmann and

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Clyde Weaver, Territory and Function: The Evaluation of
Regional Planning (Berkely and Los Angeles: University of
California Press, 1980), pp. 114—15.

39

The Ministry of Construction and the Industrial Sites
and Water Resources Development Corporation, Banweol New
Town, 1977, op. cit., p. 5.

40

The Ministry of Construction and the Industrial Sites
and Water Resources Development Corporation, Development
Plan for Banweol 1977, op. cit., p. 4. Yung—Hee No, The

 

 

 

 

Theory of Development of New Towns (Seoul: Bak Yeng Sa,
1979), p. 226. (In Korean).
41

The Ministry of Construction and the Industrial Sites
and Water Resources Development Corporation, Development

 

 

 

Plan for Banweol Industrial New Town (Seoul: Korean
Government Printing Office, 1978), p. 1-10. (In Korean).
42
The Sungnam City Government, op. cit., p. 66. Yung-
Hee No, op. cit., p. 169.
43
The Sungnam City Government, op. cit., pp. 66-67.
44
The Sungnam City Government, Development Plan in
Sungnam (Sungnam: Sungnam City Government, 1983), p. 33.

(In Korean).

72
45
The Ministry of Construction and the Industrial Sites
and Water Resources Development Corporation, 1978, op. cit.,
p. II-7.
46
The Sungnam City Government, 1982, op. cit., p. 101.
47
The Ministry of Construction and the Industrial Sites
and Water Resources Development Corporation, 1978, op. cit.,

 

 

p. II-3.
48
The Sungnam City Government, 1982, op. cit., p. 51.
49
The Office of Banweol Industrial District, Guidelines
for Movement of Industries (Banweol: The Office of Banweol
Industrial District, 1982), p. 5.
50

The Ministry of Construction and the Industrial Sites
and Water Resources Development Corporation, Development
Plan in Banweol, 1977, op. cit., p. 17.

51

Ibid., p. 5. The Sungnam City Government, 1982, op.

cit., pp. 237-39.

 

 

52

The Sungnam City Government, 1982, op. cit., p. 43.
53

Yung-Hee No, op. cit., p. 186.
54

The Sungnam City Government, 1982, op. cit., p. 73.
55

The Korea Research Institute for Human Settlements,
The Rearrangement Plan in the Seoul Metropolitan Region
(1982-1991) (Seoul: The Korea Research Institute for Human
Settlements, 1981), p. 44. (In Korean).
56
The Ministry of Construction, The Second Plan
for the Development of National Land (1982-1991) (Seoul:
Korean Government Printing Office, 1982), p. 91.
57
The Office of Banweol Industrial District, Industrial
Status (Banweol: The Office of Banweol Industrial District,
1982), pp. 8-51. (In Korean).
58
The Sungnam City Government, 1982, op. cit., pp. 278-

 

 

 

81.
59
Ibid., pp. 290-96.
60
Interview with Yun-Kil Jo, the Office of Banweol
Township, Banweol, 21 July 1983.

CHAPTER THREE

URBAN LAND USE PATTERNS IN SUNGNAM AND BANWEOL

A city is a mosaic of parcels of land which reflect its
internal structure, based on the apportionment and
distribution of land. There are regularities in the
patterns and spatial distributions of land uses in the city.
Based on functions of utilization, the land can be
classified into several categories that are important in
understanding the city's spatial structure. The
classification of land use should bear some relationship to
land development and should be applicable and adaptable to
any city. A general land use classification system involves
identifying the dominant functions at the particular

location. Thus, functional categories such as residential,

commercial, industrial and open space help to standardize
and make comparable such classifications. In this study,
functional land uses are categoried as residential,

commercial, industrial, greenbelt and open space.

Land available for use in cities is derived from two

sources. The first source is the existing developed urban
land. In this situation, previous urban development has
determined the major land use patterns, and management

73

74

options are limited. The urban land is used intensively for
various purposes, especially in central areas of the city
with many people per unit area. The second source is to
develop new urban land in the rural fringe or beyond. There,
new urban development sets the major land use pattern based
on physical and social environmental features. Management
options are relatively flexible within the development
strategy.2 Land use in independent new towns are
consistent with the second case rather than the first case
because independent new towns require extensive continuous
land parcels for newly developed communities.

The distribution of land parcels shows patterns of land
use characteristics in a city. Thus, land use patterns in
rural areas have been changed to those of urban areas. Farm
land has been transformed into urban parcels with
industrial, commercial, and residential facilities.
Residential land uses incorporate all housing activities,
including individual household units, group living
accommodations, and mobile home parks. The proportion of
land use for residential purposes averages 32 percent of the
total city area in American cities, and 27 percent of the
total city area in Seoul.3 Commercial and industrial land
uses normally occupy small proportions of the city area.
Commercial uses tend to dominate the pattern of spatial
organization in a city. Commercial districts are, in

general, concentrated in the center of a city for the

 

75

convenience of businesses and sometimes appear as clusters
of high-rise buildings. Meanwhile, industrial districts
with manufacturing activities are often located either in
residential districts in naturally grown cities, or some
distance from residential districts in planned cities
because of the threat of air and water pollution from
factories.

One important aspect of urban land use is the
proportion of land devoted to residential, commercial,
industrial, open space and greenbelt purposes. The
respective percentages of the total city used for these
purposes represent characteristics of distribution of urban
land use.

There are several types of urban street patterns. The
basic patterns are a grid or rectangular system, a radial
system, and an irregular system. The grid pattern is the
most common pattern, in old cities as well as newly
developed cities. The radial pattern has the appearance of
a spider web with a radial distribution of main streets and
a concentric arrangement around a central nucleus. The
irregular pattern is a street arrangement without any
regular order in terms of directions and street width. Many
cities have irregular street patterns in some part of the
city or a mix of two or more patterns.

Land use density in a city concerns the degree to which

land is occupied by the users. Different densities exist

76

for functional land uses such as residential, commercial,
and industrial that vary chronologically and spatially.
Often a city incorporates more area to accommodate increased
population, which results in increased or decreased
densities. Sometimes, an area of the city is used more
intensively for each use, resulting in increased land use
densities. When an area of a city is expanded, available
stocks of vacant land within the city are converted to
functional uses.4 Residential and commercial areas in a
city contain higher densities of occupants per unit area
than industrial areas. Thus, functional land use tends to
differentiate densities.

There are several ways to calculate land use density.
First, the total population of a functional district can be
divided by the area of the functional district.5 For
example, when the population of residential districts in a
city is divided by the area of the residential districts,
numbers of residents who live in the district per unit area
can be derived.

Second, respective areas of functional land use can be
divided by the total population of the city.6 In this case,
amount of land per capita is considered and residential,
commercial, or industrial area per capita can be calculated.

The amount of land used for any urban purpose is related to

the number of people in the city.

77

Third, the number of employees of a chosen type can be
divided by the land area devoted to this type of
employment.7 Residential densities are based on the
population of a city and amount of land available for
residential use. Industrial and commercial densities are
based on respective amounts of employment and the land use
for these purposes. For example, the number of employees in
manufacturing factories is divided by the land area used by
manufacturing facilities.

Finally, the functional area of a chosen type is
divided by the unit population to derive functional area per
unit population. For example, if 1,000 residents are
regarded as a unit population, the functional area per 1,000
population can be calculated to estimate the density of each
of them. This study adopted the last method for comparing
densities of functional land uses between Sungnam and
Banweol, because data for this method were available and
areas of the functional districts per unit population could

be expected to be moderate, not too large or small.

Urban Land Use Patterns in Sungnam

 

For characterizing patterns of urban land use in
Sungnam, distribution of functional land use, patterns of
street distribution, and land use densities are considered

in this section.

78

Distribution of Land Use in Sungnam

 

The management of urban development affairs for Sungnam
was transferred from the Seoul city government to the
government of Gyonggi province in 1971 because Sungnam
belongs to Gyonggi province. Prior to 1971, the Seoul city
government was responsible for managing development in
Sungnam while Gyonggi province officials dealt only with
administrative affairs for Sungnam residents. Through the
transfer of responsibility for urban development, a two-
chamber system was changed into a single-chamber system
under the jurisdiction of Gyonggi province. Since 1971,
Gyonggi province officials have dealt with both
administrative affairs and urban development programs for

Sungnam. As soon as Gyonggi province took jurisdiction over

development, the authorities prepared a Three-Year

Investment Plan extending from September of 1971 to
9

September of 1973. This short-term plan emphasized

investment in sewage systems, roads, and public sanitary
facilities.
Another plan for land use in 1972 was a part of the

first comprehensive plan for urban development promulgated

by Gyonggi province. This comprehensive plan was a large-
scale urban development program with several goals: (1) to
induce middle—class residents to move into Sungnam; (2) to
provide sufficient job opportunities; (3) to build

industrial facilities for a self—sufficient new town; and

79

(4) to encourage self-help efforts. In addition, the plan
divided urban land into the four functional districts of
residential, commercial, industrial, and open space. The
proportions of each district are shown in Table 3.1 and
Figure 3.1. The proportion allocated for residential
district, 20 percent of the total city area, was very large
compared with proportions allocated in the plans for 1976
and 1978. The large allocation for residential district was
determined by the authority based on the initial dominant
residential function intended for the city as well as the
governments over zealous plans for urban development. Urban
facilities were planned in Sungnam for 500,000 population.
This overambitious plan later had to be downsized because of
urban problems such as inadequate distribution of
residential facilities, traffic jams, and the lack of job
opportunities. For example, prior to 1975 squatter
settlements totaling 3,000 houses were scatterd in
unauthorized sites throughout the city.10

The Sungnam city government thus reconsidered its urban
development plan after Sungnam achieved city status in 1973.
It then issued a comprehensive revised plan for urban
develOpment of the city in 1976, which is still in use to
guide present urban development. The rearrangement plan set
the following goals: (1) to build urban facilities for
250,000 population; (2) to prevent farm land within the city

from urbanization; (3) to adjust functional land uses; (4)

30

     
 
 
 

Residential
i Commencal

0 1 2 3 Industrial
E Greenbelt
kilometers :1 Open Space
E Park

Figure 8.1 Distribution of Land Use in Sungnam.

81

to prevent expansion of present built-up area; (5) to expand
industrial districts for job opportunities for its
residents; (6) to restrict in-migration; (7) to clear

squatter settlements and to build apartments and tenament
houses for squatters; and (8) to expand streets and to
adjust transportation systems. One characteristic of land
use in Sungnam is a larger proportion of greenbelt and open
space. Farm land is included in the greenbelt and open
space area (Figure 3.1). This situation has continued from
the beginning of the new town development, based on the
emphasis of the development policy on providing a large
proportion of open space, which is an important factor in
adopting the idea of a garden city. In adjusting the
functional land use, which is one of the goals of the
revised plan, land use development in the city was intended

11
to fulfill the following objectives:

(1) to develop urban land according to
transportation networks.

(2) to preserve a greenbelt area.

(3) to protect the city environment from
pollution through preserving sufficient open
space.

(4) to develOp land use in accordance with the

industrial structures of the city.

(5) to achieve a harmonious land use
distribution.

The plan divided Sungnam's urban land into residential

districts, commercial districts, industrial districts, a

82

greenbelt, and open space. There is a difference in meaning
between greenbelt and open space in this study. A greenbelt
is a restricted area to prevent expansion of the built-up
area. By contrast, open space refers to land within the
urban area that is not developed to usual types of urban
development.12 Public land uses are normally dominated by
parks, airports, cemetaries, and deliberately vacant tracts
of land. The proportion of open space area increases with
distance from the center of a city.

The land use plan in the city was slightly changed in
1978 because the area of Sungnam was expanded from 132.588
square kilometers to 145.798 square kilometers. The revised
plan of 1976 was not substantially changed, only the
proportions of functional land uses were changed. The
portion of built-up area which consists of residential,
commercial, and industrial districts was not different from
that of 1976, but the portions of a greenbelt and open space
were altered as shown in Table 3.1.

Thus, the land use plans in Sungnam were set in 1972,
and revised in 1976 and 1978 based on urban development
plans. Proportions of functional land use changed slightly
during those years, but open space had a remarkably large
proportion under each plan. More than half of the total
city area is devoted to Open space and greenbelt also has a
large proportion. Proportions of residential, commercial,

and industrial districts are relatively. small: only 6.4

83

percent of the total city area for residential, 0.7 percent
for commercial, and 1.2 percent for industrial purposes.
The area for residential districts in 1978 was exactly the
same as in 1976, but the proportion of residential districts
slightly decreased over time. Percentages of commercial and
industrial districts, and open space also decreased but the
prOportion of greenbelt increased. This was in accord with
the policy to prevent the expansion of the present developed
area within the city. As shown in the revised plan for
1976, the Sungnam city government overemphasized limiting
the present built-up area to 250,000 residents (in 1981 the
population of Sungnam was over 380,000, 130,000 more people
than planned). The dominant reason for limiting the
developed area was that Sungnam did not have a strong
enough economic base to provide job opportunities for all
its residents although three industrial districts provide
job opportunities to some of the residents.13 The jobs
which the three industrial districts provided for about
31,000 employees in 1981 were not sufficient for the 125,000
potential workers in the city.14

According to the land development plan, the proportions
of functional land uses have changed. In Table 3.1, the
area of the built-up districts has maintained the same
proportion of land since 1976. These residential,

commercial, and industrial districts have been inflexible,

whereas those of greenbelt and open space have been

84

flexible over time. This was also due to the policy

limiting urban expansion.

Patterns of Streets in Sungnam

 

The built-up area of Sungnam is situated in its
northeastern region of small hilly areas and plains.
The area of a plain connected with the bottom of a mountain
has been considered as a good site for settlement in Korea,
because of adequate elevation to prevent flooding, and
living variety with the plain and the mountain. The built-

up area of Sungnam is also located in that area (Figure

3.1). Topographical conditions are an important factor in
determining the street patterns. The streets are densely
laid out in a predominant grid system (Figure 3.2). The

grid systems are aligned along major streets within the
urban developed area, with the grid patterns divided into
several sections located between small hills. These grids
include residential, commercial, and industrial districts,
with the residential districts having a more compact grid
pattern than the other functional districts. The commercial
district grids have wide streets. The long streets stretch
from west to east, while short streets run from north to

south consistent with topographical conditions.

1

U1

Second
industrial
District

Third
Industrial
District

05

A;

kilometers

 

Figure 32 Patterns of Street Distribution in Sungnam.

86

Densities of Land Use in Sungnam

 

The city of Sungnam was planned for 250,000 peOple.
With a population in 1981 of more than 380,000, the
distribution of population was far denser than expected.
Planned population density in Sungnam was 1,886 people per
square kilometer, while actual population densities (using
total land area) were 200 persons per square kilometer in
1968, 2,019 in 1975, and 2,739 in 1981.15 Thus, the
population density in 1981 was 24 times that of 1968. These
figures are misleading, however, because 92.5 percent of the
land area of Sungnam consists of greenbelt and open space.
Taking only the urban developed area which consists of
residential, commercial, and industrial districts within the
city, produced a high population density of 35,407 persons
per square kilometer for 1981. The development policy for
Sungnam, which is aimed at maintaining only the present
developed area and prohibiting further population growth,
results in the very high population density. Population
growth in the city has resulted from in-migration. Sungnam
has served as an intermediate stop for people who move from
the southern rural areas of the Korean peninsula with plans
to eventually live in Seoul.16 If there are job
opportunities in Seoul for these people, there will be a
general tendency for these people to move on to Seoul. More
than 63 percent of Sungnam's residents came from these

17
areas.

87

In accordance with the proportions of the functional
land uses in Sungnam, open space had the largest area per

1,000 population, and the greenbelt area had the second

largest (Table 3.2). Industrial districts have the
smallest area. There was a significant difference between
functional areas per 1,000 population. Open space area per

1,000 population was 89 times larger than the commercial
area. These differences were based on the policy limiting

urban expansion.

Urban Land Use Patterns in Banweol

 

This section deals with the distribution of functional
land uses, patterns of streets, and densities of land use in

Banweol in characterizing patterns of urban land use.

Distribution of Land Use in Banweol

 

The land use plan for Banweol was first proposed in
1977, and modified in 1979 and 1982. The development plan
included a large land area set aside for industrial
activities. The plan is as follows:18

(1) to develop urban services and facilities to

accommodate a population of 200,000 by 1986.
(2) to set up three nuclei residential districts, an

industrial district, and a central business

district (CBD).

88

(3) to develop the industrial district, taking into
consideration pollution and land reclamation
along the coast line.

(4) to build streets in hexagonal patterns.

(5) to provide residential facilities based on three
nuclei districts.

(6) to divide the development period into three
stages: the first stage (1977-80) to
accommodate 140,000 people; the second stage
(1981—83), 182,000 people; and the third stage
(1984—86), 200,000 people.

(7) to construct a two-part transportation network,

one part for passengers and the other for goods.

The areas of residential, commercial, industrial and
open space retained almost the same proportions over time
(Table 3.1). The last modification, in 1982, was the

addition of a greenbelt area that expanded the area of the

new town from 57.8 square kilometers to 72.6 square
kilometers. In comparison with Sungnam, Banweol's
residential, commercial, and industrial districts have

larger proportions. Banweol is an industrial new town based
on the dominance of manufacturing, so a large proportion of
land in Banweol (11.4 percent: 8.2 ka) was set aside for
industrial uses compared with the proportion of industrial
areas in Sungnam (1.1 percent: 1.6 km2). Among the built-up

area (residential, commercial, and industrial), the

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prOportion occupied by the industrial district in Banweol
(32.1 percent) was more than twice that in Sungnam (14.6
percent).

The industrial district was planned in consideration of
seasonal wind directions and topographical conditions in
order to minimize air and water pollution. Prevailing winds
come from the southeast in the summer and from the northwest
in the winter. As a result of the location of the
residential districts as well as CBD, exposure to wind borne
pollution in these areas has been minimized. On the other
hand, topographical conditions have influenced the sites for
manufacturing. The industrial district is situated along
the coast line. This coastal location has advantages for
getting rid of water pollution produced by factories through
treatment plants for dirty and poisoned water that were

built in the coastal area.

Besides the industrial district, three nuclei are also
part of urban development in Banweol (Figure 3.3). The
nuclei are considered second-order centers, following the

first-order center, the CBD, within the new town. A nucleus
is one community unit which has several zones (neighborhood
units) which are the smallest units in urban development in
Banweol (Figure 3.4). These small zones are regarded as
third order units in terms of function. There are 17 small
zones which are in accord with the lowest administrative

unit in Banweol, the dong. The pOpulation of dongs depend

91

 
  

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m industrial
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Figure 3.3 Distribution of Land Use and Street Patterns

in Banweol.

'31

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8
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m Industrial

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kilometers

   

Oifice oi Banweol Township

*

Figure 3.3 Distribution of Land Use and Street Patterns

in Banweol.

93

upon city size. Large cities have more populous dongs than
small cities. For example, the population of a gene in
Seoul was 21,240, whereas one in the city of Gumi was 4,924
in 1979.19 Compared with the American census tract, the
gene generally has more residents and less area. In Banweol
there are 18 dongs, 17 dongs in the three nuclei districts
and one gene in the industrial district. According to the
development plan, each small zone is based on the
distribution of one elementary school. Each small zone has
an elementary school which is the focal point of the zone.
The average population of the zones is 12,188 and their
average area is 1.02 square kilometers. Population
density is 11.949 per square kilometer. The proportion of
the small zone area, 34.2 percent, is used for public
purposes. However, these zones do not have a
socioeconomically self-sufficient function. They lack
sufficient urban facilities such as shops, offices,
recreational centers, and health centers. They have
dominant residential and educational facilities.20

The develOpment plan differentiates population
densities among the three nuclei. First, the Gunja district
which is the northwestern nucleus, was designated as a high
population density district, 13,287 persons per square
kilometer. The location of the Gunja district near the

industrial district was designed for a high population

density district. The Gunja district has some advantages

94

for residents who are related to industrial activities,
because the development plan aimed at providing living

facilities in the Gunja district for workers of the

industrial district. The area of the Gunja district is 5.7
square kilometers which consists of residential area (3.2
square kilometers), educational, commercial, and
recreational area (0.5 square kilometers), and public land

use area (2.0 square kilometers). Thus, more than a half of
the Gunja area has been used for residential purpose. The
proportion of land for public use in the Gunja district,
35.4 percent, is the largest among the three nuclei
districts. The land for public use includes streets, parks,
and green tracts of land. The area per capita is 0.075
square kilometers, which is the smallest figure among the
three nuclei districts. The planned population in the Gunja
district is 75,600. According to the development plan, each
nucleus district is self-sufficient in urban services and
facilities: religious, educational, health and
recreational, administrative, public welfare, and commercial
facilities.21 The Gunja district is the most active in
urban develOpment because of its location near the
industrial district. Employees in the industrial sector
live mostly in the Gunja residential districts. The Gunja

district has six small zones scattered around the central

part of the nucleus.

95

The Suam district, which is the northeastern nucleus,
was designated a medium population density area, with 11,196
persons per square kilometer. The Suam district is located
nearest the CBD and fairly close to the industrial district.
Therefore, the development plan designated the Suam district
as a residential area for employees in the CBD. This
district has the highest hills in Banweol and a fairly large

plain. These topographical conditions have caused the medium

population density of the Suam district. The area of the
Suam district, 5.2 square kilometers, consists of
residential area, 2.8 square kilometers, commercial,
recreational, and educational area, 0.6 square kilometer,

and public land use area, 1.8 square kilometers. More than
a half of the Suam district is used for residential
purposes. The portion of the public land is about one-third
of the area of the Suam district. The area per capita is
0.09 square kilometers, the largest proportion among the
three nuclei districts. Planned population of the district
is 58,400. The Suam district has five small zones but the
district has not yet been actively developed.

The Banweol district is the southeastern nucleus. The
name of the Banweol district originated from the name of the
Banweol township which existed before the development plan
started. "Banweol" is the name of the new town, whereas
"Banweol district" is the name of a specific residential

nucleus. The Banweol district was originally designated as

96

a low population density area of 10,644 persons per square
kilometer in 1977 because this district is isolated from the
industrial district and the CBD. But the development plan
changed the Banweol district from a low population density
area to a medium population density area in 1978, in
consideration of new academic and research institutes. At
the same time, the development authorities planned to
accommodate middle—class residents in the Banweol district,
which is a suburban residential area. The area of the
Banweol district is 6.5 square kilometers which represents
the largest area among the three nuclei districts. This
district consists of residential area of 3.8 square
kilometers, educational, commercial and recreational area of

0.6 square kilometers and public land use area of 2.1 square

kilometers. Residential districts occupy more than a half
of the Banweol district. The proportion of the residential
area is the largest among the three nuclei districts. The

proportion of land for public use and the area per capita
are similar to the other nuclei districts. The planned
population of the district is 73,200. The Banweol district
has six small zones. However, this district has not yet
been fully developed either. The facilities in this
district so far are academic and research agencies, such as
the Branch School of Hanyang University and the Ocean Study

22
Institute.

97

Pattern of Streets in Banweol

 

Banweol has a relatively balanced pattern of land use
with three nuclei to the northwest, northeast, and
southeast, an industrial district to the west, and the CBD
in the central part of the new town. The urban land use of
Banweol reveals a mixed pattern. Each nucleus has three
concentric hexagonal street patterns, small, medium, and
large (Figure 3.3). These hexagons produce radial—
concentric patterns. The hexagonal patterns are based on
two dominant features. First, the development plan
intended to build three nuclei for complete living units
with self—sufficient functions. The hexagonal pattern can
easily contribute to making up a complete living unit with
urban facilities scattered around a central nucleus.
Moreover, residents who live in the outer part of the
hexagonal pattern can easily reach the focal point of the
pattern.23

Second, topographical conditions were considered in
setting up the hexagonal patterns. Three hexagonal patterns
are located in plains situated between small hills. The
development authorities planned to locate these three
hexagonal patterns in the central part of each of three
districts, Gunja, Suam, and Banweol. Sizes of hexagons
differ according to scales of the plains. For example, the
length of one side of the largest hexagon in the Gunja

district, 0.537 kilometers, is the largest among the three

98

disricts, that in the Suam district, 0.417 kilometers, is
the second largest and that in the Banweol district, 0.364
kilometers, is the smallest.

Besides the radial-concentric system, a grid pattern
has been adopted for the CBD, the industrial district, and
areas surrounding the nuclei. Consistent with topographical
conditions, the grid patterns are scattered between small
hills. The grid patterns in residential districts are much
denser than those of the industrial district because house

sites are smaller than factory sites.

Densities of land Use in Banweol

 

In contrast with Sungnam, Banweol's actual population
is much smaller than planned. According to the development

plan, the population of Banweol was to be 44,100 in 1980,
24
and 137,600 in 1983. However, its actual population in
25
1980 was 31,551 and in 1983 it was only 51,442. As a

result of this smaller population, the amount of land per

1,000 population is much greater than expected. In
addition, respective areas of residential (0.301 kmz),
commercial (0.033 kmz), and industrial district (0.158
km2), per 1,000 population in Banweol are larger than those
of residential (0.022 km2), commercial (0.002 kmz), and
industrial district (0.004 km2) in Sungnam in Table 3.2.
Also, respectige areas of greenbelt (0.285 km2) and open

space (0.623 km ) per 1,000 population in Banweol are larger

99
2
than those of greenbelt (0.141 km ) and open space (0.206
km2) in Sungnam in Table 3.2. These discrepancies between
Banweol and Sungnam and primarily based on population sizes
and development policies. Banweol's population is less than
planned, which means larger than intended amounts of
functional land per unit population in Banweol. In
contrast, Sungnam has a larger population than planned,
which means smaller than intended amounts of functional land

per unit population. At the same time, the development

policy for Sungnam which limits urban expansion reinforces

the limit on functional land per unit population,
particularly in residential, commercial, and industrial
districts.

As in Sungnam, the growth of population in Banweol has
been based on in-migration. The number of population moving
into Banweol in 1982 were 15,585. Of this number, 36.7

percent were from Seoul, 9.8 percent from the three major

cities of Busan, Daegu, and Inchon, 36.5 percent from

Gyonggi province, and 17.0 percent from eight other
26

provinces. Thus, major sources of in-migration are Seoul

and Gyonggi province which are near Banweol.

Summary

Consistent with the previous discussion, several
aspects of urban land use differentiate Banweol and Sunganm,

based on their different physical and social situations and

100

 

 

 

TABLE 3.2: Areas of Functional Districts per 1,000 Persons
(1982)

Area per 1,000 per- Area per 1,000 per-

District sons in Sungnam sons in Banweol
2 2

Residential 0.022 km 0.30lkm
Commercial 0.002 0.033
Industrial 0.004 0.158
Greenbelt 0.141 0.285
Open Space 0.206 0.623

 

SOURCE: Calculated by author

101

development policies. First, their densities of functional
land use are different. All functional areas per unit
population in Sungnam are smaller than Banweol's, partly
because of Sungnam's surplus population.

There are two dominant reasons for Sungnam's surplus
population. One is that Sungnam has had in-migration from
southern Korea of migrants who eventually want to find jobs
in Seoul. Another reason is that the city has had a strong
supported urban development policy to retain and avoid
enlarging the presently developed area within the city.
Significantly small proportions of residential, commercial,
and industrial districts, in comparison with areas of open
space and greenbelt, have contributed to the higher
population density in Sungnam. On the other hand, the
reason for a smaller population in Banweol than planned is
that Banweol has received fewer migrants from Seoul than
expected. Only one—third of Banweol's in-migration comes
from Seoul.

Second, the greenbelt and open space in Sungnam are
given more weight in the urban development plan, whereas
industrial land uses in Banweol are emphasized. That is,
the proportion of the industrial district in Banweol, 11.4
percent of the total new town area, is larger than in
Sungnam (1.1 percent), whereas the proportions of a
greenbelt and open space in Sungnam (92.5 percent) are

larger than in Banweol (64.8 percent).

 

iwfliMEHIHERWi

102

Third, the development policy for Banweol has
emphasized expansion of the developed area within the new
town, whereas that of Sungnam has stressed limiting the
presently developed area within the city. This discrepancy
arises from different social situations, as well as
different development policies between the older new town,
Sungnam, and the more recent new town, Banweol. Sungnam
which has enough population and fairly well developed urban
services and facilities has restricted its urban expansion,
while Banweol is still constructing urban facilities.

Finally, patterns of street distribution are remarkably
different between Banweol and Sungnam. Banweol has a
dominant radial-concentric urban pattern as well as grid
patterns. It also has balanced urban development with three
radial-concentric nuclei, the industrial district, and the
CBD. In contrast, the urban pattern of Sungnam is an
overall grid system and Sungnam would be regarded as a
nucleus city. Their respective urban patterns are basically
consistent with their topographical conditions as well as

the direction of their urban development plans.

«whammy i

103

CHAPTER NOTES

1
Truman A. Hartshorn, Interpreting the City: Urban
Geography (New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1980), pp. 206-208.
2

 

 

Francis W. Nicholas. "Managing the Urban Physical
Environment," in Modern Metropolitan Systems, ed. Charles M.
Christian and Robert A. Harper. (Columbus, Ohio: A Bell &
Howell Co., 1982), p. 343.

3

Truman A. Hartshorn, op. cit., p. 207. The Seoul
Metropolitan Government, Seoul Statistical Yearbook (Seoul:
Junkwang Industrial Co., 1982), p. 13.

4

Ray M. Northam, Urban Geography (New York: John Wiley

& Sons, 1975), p. 192.

 

 

 

 

 

 

5
Ibid., p. 192.
6
Ibid., p. 178.
7
Ibid., p. 192.
8
Ibid., p. 356.
9
The Sungnam City Government, History of Sungnam
(Seoul: Junkwang Industrial Co., 1982), p. 340. (In Korean).
10
Ibid., p. 436.
11
The Sungnam City Government, Rearrangement Plan for
Urban Development in Sungnam (Sungnam: Sungnam City
Government Printing Office, 1976), pp. 65-66. (In Korean).
12
Truman A. Hartshorn, op. cit., p. 208.
13
Interview with In—Gyu Kim, Planning Department,
the Sungnam City Government, Sungnam, 22 July, 1983.
14

The Sungnam City Government, Development Plan in
Sungnam (Sungnam: Sungnam City Government Printing Office,
1983), p. 35. (In Korean).

 

15
Ibid., p. 23.
16
Interview with Professor Won Kim, Seoul City
Industrial College, Seoul, 27 July 1983.
17

The Sungnam City Government, 1983, op. cit., p. 30.

 

104

18
The Ministry of Construction and the Industrial Sites
and Water Resources Development Corporation, Development

 

Plan in Banweol (Seoul: Korean Government Printing Office,
1977), p. 13.
19
The Economic Planning Board, A Survey of National
Population (Seoul: Korean Government Printing Office,
1979), pp. 11—27 and 126. (In Korean).
20

The Ministry of Construction and the Industrial Sites
and Water Resources Development Corporation, Development
Plan for Banweol Industrial New Town (Seoul: Korean
Government Printing Office, 1978), pp. 1—11, V-21. (In
Korean).

 

21
Ibid., pp. V—l9, V-20, V—21.
22
Ibid., p. II-36.
23
Interview with Won-Jae Yu, Chief of Planning

Department, the Branch Office of the Industrial Sites and
Water Resources Development Corporation, Banweol, 24 June
1983.
24
The Ministry of Construction and the Industrial Sites
and Water Resources Development Corporation, 1978, op. cit.,

 

 

p. II-36. .
25
Office of Banweol Township, Banweol Statistical
Yearbook (Suwon: Saechang Munhwa Sa, 1982), p. 33. The
Banweol Branch Office, Data on Population Movement
(Banweol: The Banweol Branch Office, 1983), p. 6. (In
Korean).
26

Unpublished data on the population movement of
Banweol, 1982 and 1983, Office of Banweol Township, Banweol,
Korea. (In Korean).

 

) .
I:
i

CHAPTER FOUR
DIFFERENT CHARACTERISTICS OF INTERACTIONS

BETWEEN SUNGNAM AND BANWEOL
This chapter deals with spatial interactions between
the two new towns, Sungnam and Banweol, and other places in
Korea. Spatial interactions generally include migration,
visits between people, journeys to work and shopping, mail
flow and telephone calls, because all these occur over
distance. That is, people, goods, and information move from
one place to another. The spatial interaction in this study
represents the external structure of the new towns. For
measuring degrees of spatial interaction, the gravity model
is considered a useful empirical technique by using data on
a population variable and a distance variable.l Through
examining spatial interactions between each new town and
other urban centers using the gravity model, the following

questions can be answered in this research.

1. Is the population variable or the distance vari-
ble more effective in spatial interaction?

2. Why does more or less spatial interaction occur
between the new towns and other places than can
be expected.

The concept of the gravity model is simply that

interactions between two places are positively related to

105

106

the masses of the two places and negatively related to the
2

distance between them. That is,
I _ k Mi Mj (4.1)
l] D.. C
13
where, I = interactions between place i and place j

M = population at i
m = population at j
D = distance between i and j

k and c = parameters

In general, population was used as the measure of mass. The
exponents of Mi and Mj in equation 4.1 are unity. However,
for precise estimation of the role of the variables, we can
allow the exponents to take different values. Replacing the
exponents with a symbol representing a number of unknown
size, the gravity model becomes:

1.. =k—l—3—— (4.2)
1] c

In the telephone call problem, one of the masses always
represents the population of the new town. For every
observation, it is a constants which can be included in the

constant, k. Therefore, a simplifed expression of the model

is:

I.. = k ———l————-— (4.3)
ij c

A 1.4.21.4

-.i— I»

'K

EL

107

By taking the logarithm of each side of equation (4.3), a

multiple regression equation is produced as:

Log I1 = Log k + b Log Mj — c Log Di (4.4)

3 j
The parameters, k, b and c, control of the relationships
between variables, I, M and D.

In this research, two multiple regression equations for
Banweol and Sungnam were produced using telephone calls
between Banweol and eighty-seven other places, and between
Sungnam and fifty—one other places. These eighty-seven and
fifty—one places were urban centers for which telephone
call data with Banweol and Sungnam, respectively, in June,
1983, were available for analysis. Parameters, k, b and
c, in the two equations were then compared.

In general, business calls are positively associated

with the market function which is related to population

size, whereas for personal calls distance is a more
important consideration. Banweol is dominated by broad
market functions consistent with its industrial role,

whereas Sungnam is dominated by a residential function which
tends to generate personal interactions. Based on these
situations, the hypothesis can be expressed as:

Interactions with Banweol are more sensitive to
the population sizes of other urban centers than
those with Sungnam, whereas the interactions with
Banweol are less sensitive to the distance
between the new town and other urban centers than
those of Sungnam. In other words, the value of
the parameter (b) for Banweol is larger than that
for Sungnam, whereas the value of the parameter
(c) for Banweol is smaller than that for Sungnam.

13:: “11le- -

108

Analysis of Interactions between
Sungnam and Other Urban Centers

 

 

Estimating Parameters in the Gravity Model for Sungnam

 

Interactions between Sungnam and fifty—one other urban
centers were measured by data on telephone calls in 1983.
The number of places for measuring these interactions was
based on data available from the Sungnam Telephone Company.
The average number of telephone calls per day was used for
the interaction model. Using data on telephone calls,
population, and distance, the resulting multiple regression

equation is expressed as:

Log I = 0.845 + 0.495 Log P. — 0.853 Log D

Si (4.5)
(2.876) (7.627) (—8.533)

Si

Values in parantheses are t-value. The constant of a ,
0.845, is an index of the average propensity of the fifti-
one places to interact with Sungnam by telephone. This
constant has two meaningful characteristics. First, it
includes the value of the variable of Sungnam's population,
P . That is, P is a constant in the model because
Singnam's population is always the same in each comparison
and it is included in the constant, a . Therefore, if
Sungnam has a large population, the conitant has a large
value, whereas if Sungnam has a small population, the value

of the constant is small. Second, the constant, a , makes
S

 

1*. m

109

the overall equation proportional to the rate
characteristics of the phenomena in the model. When both
monthly and daily data are used, the population and the
distance variables remain the same but the magnitude of
interactions will differ according to monthly or daily data.
The constant, a , is used to adjust for differences in
magnitude. S

Interactions between Sungnam and other urban centers
vary directly with the number of people who live in the
other places. As the size of population increases, the
number of interactions also increases. If the interaction
sharply increases in relation to the size of population in
other places the value of b is generally large. In
contrast, if the size of population has only a minor effect
on interaction, the value of b is relatively small. When
every unit of Log P increases,S Log I rises by b , 0.495

i Si 8
in the equation.

The effect of distance is opposite from that of
population. As one unit of Log D . increases, the value of
Log I ‘ decreases by c . If the Silue of c is large, the
numbe:l of interactiois sharply decreasesS with distance
between Sungnam and other urban centers. That is, a larger
distance exponent represents a larger effect of distance
decay. But if the value of c is small, the effect of

S

distance represents a correspondingly small obstacle to

interaction. In equation 4.5, when one unit of Log D
Si

in; “mi

 

i

I
V;

H

110
increases, the value of Log I drops by 0.853. The value
Si
of c in the equation is a relatively small one which is
less than unity. Empirically, estimates of c coefficient

S
have ranged between 1.5 and 2.5 according to White and
4

Woods, between 1.3 and 1.8 according to Hammer and Ikle,
6
and 2 was the estimate of Krueckeberg and Silver, and
7
Rugg. A distance exponent of 2 has generally been used.

The value of the coefficient of determination, R , is

0.653 in Table 4.1. The coefficient of determination
represents the proportion of variation in telephone
interaction explained by population and distance. This

means that the gravity equation accounts for 65.3 percent of
the variation in the telephone call data explained
by population and distance data. This figure indicates a
substantically large explanation of variation based on the

classification of association by Poister.

2
TABLE 4.1: R , Beta Weight, and F-Value for Sungnam to
Explain Variation, Standardized Regression
Coefficient, and Significance, Respectively.

 

 

Beta Weight
R2 Population Distance F-Value

 

0.653 0.728 -0.815 45.237

 

luau-Lit!"

. a!

 

111

In explaining significance of the multiple regression
equation (4.5), the F—test is used, while the t-test is used
for expressing the significance of partial regression
coefficients. In the case of Sungnam, the critical F-Value,

2.80, is much smaller than the 45.237 F-value produced at

the 0.05 significance level. This result rejects the null

hypothesis (H ) that partial regression coefficients are
0

identical (b =c =0), and then accepts the alternative
S S

hypothesis (H ) that partial regression coefficients are not
identical (b #c #0). This means that the equation is
significant 1: miltiple regression.

The t—values of independent variables, population and
distance, are 7.627 and -8.533 respectively in equation 4.5.
The critical t-value, 1.678, is smaller than the t—value of
population, 7.627 and the absolute t—value of the distance,
8.534, at the 0.05 significance level. In this case, the
one-tailed t—test is used because the direction of values
can be determined. The relationship between interaction and
population size is positive, while that between interaction
and distance is negative. The result of the t—test rejects
the null hypothesis that there are no relationships between
population size and telephone call interactions, and
between amount of distance and telephone call interactions.
Instead, the results accepts the alternative hypothesis that
there are relationships between each independent variable

and the dependent variable.

' an mint.-

 

112

It is then necessary to show which partial regression
coefficient has more relative importance in contributing to
the dependent variable: telephone call interactions. The
value of c , 0.853, is larger than that of b , 0.495 in the
equation 455. In this case, it is difficult :0 indicate the
relative importance of each independent variable with only
the value of partial regression coefficients, b and c . To
determine the relative importance, the 8standardized
regression coefficients, beta weight, can be used. In Table
4.1 the absolute values of beta weight for population and
disance are 0.728 and 0.815, respectively. That is, when
the standard deviation of population changes by one unit,
the standard deviation of telephone call interactions
changes by 0.728. Also, when the standard deviation of
distance changes by one unit, the standard deviation of
telephone call interaction changes by 0.815 units.
Therefore, the beta weight of distance affects telephone
call interactions more than population size. This results
means that, in the case of Sungnam, the partial regression
coefficient of D , a distance function, is more sensitive

Si

to Log I than that of Log P , a population size function.
Si i

Interpreting Residuals for Sungnam's Case

 

A residual is defined as the difference between the
value of observed interaction (OI) and that of expected

interation (EI).

Mam-tiling -

»,,1
A

113

In other words, the residual is produced by
subtracting the value of expected Log EI _ from that of
observed Log OI .. So, the residual can hive negative value
or positive vglue. With these positive and negative
residuals, a map of residuals can be drawn to show how the
variation in the transformed data that is not explained by
the gravity model is distributed among fifty—one places. In
the case of Sungnam, the gravity model accounts for 65.3
percent of variation in telephone call data; 34.7 percent of
variation remains unaccounted for (Table 4.1). The map of
residuals explains the 34.7 percent residual variation
(Figure 4.1). The positive residual represents the value of
observed interactions larger than expected, whereas the
negative residual indicates that the value of observed
interactions less than expected. In the case of Sungnam,
the other places are classified into five categories
according to the intervals of residual value shown in Figure

4.1: three positive and two negative residuals.

Positive Residuals. Places with positive residuals are

 

concentrated in three regions in the southwestern part of
the country, the Seoul Metropolitan Region, and the
southeastern region of the country. Only places with many
more or less telephone calls than expected were analyzed.
The southwestern region includes Kwangju, Chonju, and
Taejon as points of much more telephone traffic than

expected. The region consists of Chonnam, Chonbuk, and

114

 

 

O

  
 

____I 0.449 to 0.797
0.225 to 0.448
0.000 to 0.224

_2

Q 0000 to —o.224

O —0.225 to —0.448

* Sungnam
O 100
H—h—L—I—J
kilometers

 

Figure 4.1 Location of Places Based on ReSiduals (Sungnam)

 

 

115

 

 

 

TABLE 4.2: Fifty-One Places Corresponding with Sungnam
Number Place Number Place
1 Chorwon 26 Ansong
2 Sokcho 27 Pyongtaek
3 Kangnung 28 Chungju
4 Chunchon 29 Chongju
5 Dongduchon 30 Chonan
6 Munsan 31 Onyang
7 Uijongbu 32 Sinjang
8 Bundang 33 Hongsong
9 Seoul 34 Andong
10 Kurye 35 Taejon
11 Yangpyeong 36 Gumi
12 Inchon 37 Pohang
13 Anyang 38 Kyongju
l4 Gwangju 39 Taegu
15 Pangyo 40 Ulsan
16 Suwon 41 Chonju
l7 Osan 42 Iri
l8 Yongin 43 Kunsan
l9 Konjiam 44 Kwangju
20 Ichon 45 Mokpo
21 Yoju 46 Sunchon
22 Wonju 47 Yosu
23 Yongwol 48 Chinju
24 Chechon 49 Mason
25 Janghowon 50 Pusan
51 Cheju

 

116

Chungnam provinces. The greater than expected number of
telephone calls from Sungnam to these cities may be based on
personal calls, because this region is the source of a
considerable proportion of the migration into Sungnam, to be
exact, 35.6 percent of Sungnam's residents.10 Kwangju has
much greater telephone frequencies than expected. It is the
site of government in Chonnam province and is situated far
from Sungnam, but its greater than expected telephone
interactions may be based on strong personal relationships
because Chonnam province is the second leading place of
origin of Sungnam's residents, accounting for 14.4 percent,
out of the nine provinces and two municipalities of Seoul
and Pusan. It is widely known that a large portion of
Sungnam residents originate from Chonnam and Chonbuk
provinces.11 Chonju and Taejon are provincial capitals of

Chonbuk province and Chungnam province, respectively, and

have much greater than expected telephone interaction with

Sungnam. Personal telephone calls may explain the larger
than expected frequency of telephone calls. Chonbuk
province is the source of 10.9 percent of Sungnam's

residents and Chungnam province is the source of 10.5
percent of Sungnam's residents, representing the third and
fourth most important provinces of origin.12

The Seoul Metropolitan Region includes four places of

large positive residuals: Bundang, Sinjang, Pangyo and

Ichon. These places are concentrated around Sungnam and

117

their telephone traffic with Sungnam may be closely related
to personal rather than business activities since they have
no particular commercial or industrial base. The greater
than expected frequency of telephone calls may be related to
the fact that the largest portion of Sungnam's residents
originated from Gyonggi province or the close proximity of
these places to Sungnam. The shorter the distance in Korea,
the lower the cost of long distance calls. Close proximity
between Bundang and Sungnam could be one reason for an
extremely large number of telephone calls. Since Bundang
has no dominant business and industrial facilities,
administrative functions, or cultural facilities, strong
personal relationships between residents of the two places
are likely to explain the frequency of calls. Pangyo and
Ichon were also in contact with Sungnam more frequently than
predicted and are also in close proximity so that short
distances may have facilitated low rates and increased
calling from Sungnam. In terms of personal relationships,
the very close proximity between those towns and Sungnam
may generate more interpersonal calls than otherwise
predicted.

Finally, the southeastern region includes Pusan and
Taegu where telephone interaction with Sungnam was greater
than estimated. A larger number of calls between Sungnam
and Pusan than estimated is probably due to business rather

than personal calls. Pusan is the origin of only a small

* >1ii3ui'..:m£-.:;-

118

portion of Sungnam residents, 1.3 percent, but, based on its
proximity to Japan, it has the largest port for foreign
trade in Korea and exports manufactured products from
Sungnam. In 1980, sixty-nine industries in Sungnam exported
textile, chemical, machinery, electronic, and electrical
products worth $212,059,000.l3 Raw materials used in
Sungnam can also be imported through Pusan. These exporting
and importing activities could be a major source of the more
frequent than estimated calls from Sungnam to Pusan. Taegu
is the provincial capital of Gyongbuk province and more
calls than estimated could also be related to business
activities. Taegu is famous for spinning and raw silk
manufacturing in Korea. These textile manufacturing
activities, connected with textile industries in Sungnam,
could be a source of the greater than expected frequency of

calls.

Negative Residuals. Places of negative residuals are

 

scattered in the Seoul Metropolitan Region and Kangwon
province. The Seoul Metropolitan Region contains six places
of much fewer calls than expected: Seoul, Dongduchon, Osan,
Ansong, Onyang, and Hongsong. There are various reasons
that may explain the fewer calls than expected. Seoul's
fewer than expected calls may result from the large number
of Sungnam residents making trips between Sungnam and Seoul.
In 1983, about 46,000 residents of Sungnam a day made round

14
trips between Sungnam and Seoul. These residents are not

119

likely to use long distance telephone from Sungnam to Seoul
because they have the ability to visit Seoul in person and
are likely to make any necessary local calls while they are
in Seoul. For example, daily commuters can use public
phones or telephones at their work place in Seoul to call
Seoul residents. Osan and Dongduchon also have fewer calls
than expected. Osan and Dongduchon are military cities
which have army bases, which could be a reason for fewer
personal calls from Sungnam. In order words, Sungnam's
personal calls are not likely to have large effect on the
military cities. Hongsong, Ansong, and Onyang are located
in rural areas which are relatively isolated. This isolated
location may result in fewer calls from Sungnam to them than
predicted.

Kangwon province which is situated in the central

eastern part of Korea, has many places of negative
residuals. The province is more isolated than others
because of several large mountain ranges. Particularly,

Chechon and Yongwol have many fewer calls from Sungnam than
expected. These places are both relatively isolated and
have military bases which may result in fewer calls than
expected. Another place which is isolated in the southern
coast area, Chinju, also has fewer calls than predicted.
That area is the origin of a very small portion of Sungnam

15
residents. Furthermore, Chinju is a center of a rural area

120

located far from Sungnam which may result in fewer calls

from Sungnam to Chinju than predicted.

Analysis of Interactions between
Banweol and Other Places

 

 

Estimating Parameters in the Gravipy Model for Banweol

 

The data on telephone calls from Banweol to eighty-
seven places were used for the interaction model. These
eighty-seven places are all the places with which Banweol
corresponds every day. Using the average number of calls a
day, the resulting multiple regression equation is expressed
as:

LogIBj = —l.440 + 0.665 Log Pj - 0.539 DBj (4.6)
(—4.600) (12.520) (—6.136)
In the equation 4.6, values in parantheses are t-

values, and the constant a has a negative value of -1.440.

B
The constant, a , includes the value of Banweol's population
B
variable, P . P is a constant in the gravity model because
B B

Banweol‘s population remains the same in each of eighty—
seven comparisons. The negative value of the constant
indicates a very small value based on the small population
of Banweol.

Size of population is directly related to the frequency

of telephone call interactions. If one unit of Log P

increases, the value of Log I increases by b or 0.665
Bj B

units. In comparison with Sungnam's equation (4.5), the

value of b in Banweol's equation (0.665) is larger than
B

121

that of Sungnam (0.495). This indicates that the population
variable in the Banweol equation (4.6) is more sensitive to
the interaction variable of telephone calls than that in the
Sungnam equation (4.5).

According to the estimation of each multiple regression
equation for Banweol and Sungnam, the original hypothesis
that the partial coefficient of Banweol (b ) is larger than
that of Sungnam (b ) was supported. BIn this study,
population sizes ofsother places were more sensitive to
interactions of the industrial base than interactions of the
residential base.

Meanwhile, the effect of distance was opposite to that
of population size in the gravity model. With the increase
of distance, interactions decreased. In equation 4.6, the
partial regression coefficient of distance, c , has a value
of 0.539, so that if one unit of Log D . iicreases, the
value of Log I . decreases by 0.539. BThe value of c
(0.539) is less tggn unity and relatively small, which mean:
that the effect of distance is a minor barrier to telephone
call interactions. Moreover, compared with Sungnam, the

value of c in the Banweol equation of 0.539 is smaller than

B
the c of 0.853 in the Sungnam equation. This means that
S
the distance effect of Sungnam is more sensitive in
interactions than that of Banweol. This result supports the

original hypothesis that the value of the partial

coefficient in the Sungnam equation, c , is larger than that
S

. jm.1fl.-...

H" V," '

122

in the Banweol equation, c . As a result, the population
size function of Banweol with its industrial base is more
sensitive to telephone call interactions than that of
Sungnam with its residential base, whereas the distance
function of Sungnam is more sensitive to telephone call
interactions than that of Banweol.

The coefficient of determination, R2, is 0.694 in Table
4.3. This indicates that the gravity model equation (4.6)
accounts for 69.4 percent of the variation in the telphone
call data explained by population and distance data. This
is a substantially large explanation.

2

TABLE 4.3: R , Beta Weight, and F-Value for Banweol to

Explain Variation, Standardized Regression Co-
efficient, and Significance, Respectively.

 

 

Beta Weight
R2 Population Distance F-value

 

0.694 0.755 -O.370 95.427

 

To explain the significance of equation 4.6, the F-test
was used. The F-value, 95.427, was found to be larger than
the critical F-value, 2.71 at the 0.05 significance level.
According to this result, the null hypothesis that partial
coefficients are identical (b =c =0) was rejected. Instead,
the result accepted the alterfiatgve hypothesis that partial
coefficients are not identical (t>#C#0), that the multiple

B B
regression equation (4.6) is significant.

123

One-tailed t-test was used for explaining the
significance of the relationship between each independent
variable and the dependent variable because it allows for
determination of the direction of relationship. Given that
the size of population is positively related to
interactions, while the amount of distance is negatively
related to interactions, the t-value of population, 12.520,
and absolute t—value of distance, 6.136, were found to be
larger than the critical t-value of 1.670 at the 0.05
significance level. This result rejected the null
hypothesis that no relationship exists between population
size and telephone calls, and between distance and telephone
calls. The alternative hypothesis that there are
relationships between each independent variable and the

dependent variable was accepted.

Interpreting Residuals in Banweol's Case

 

A map of residuals can show how variation in the
transformed data, that was not explained by the gravity
model, is distributed among eighty—seven places. The
multiple regression equation 4.6 explained 69.4 percent of
the variation, while 30.6 percent of the variation in the
telephone call data remained unexplained (Table 4.3). The
map of residuals accounts for the unexplained 30.6 percent
of variation. In Figure 4.2, eighty—seven places are

classified into five categories based on intervals of

.9.
.

.; I’ll-iii“? 13f.»

124

 

~m3 . r

_ I 0.396 to 0.790

:1 0.000 to 0.395
o 0.000 to ~0395
o —0.396 to —0,790
o—o.791 to —0.838

 

* Banweol

» 0 '00
hl—hb—L—d
4 kilometers

 

 

 

Figure 4.2 Location of Places Based on ReSiduals (Banweol)

125

 

 

 

TABLE 4.4: Places Corresponding with Banweol
Number Place Number Place
1 Chorwon 45 Chomchon
2 Sokcho 46 Chochiwon
3 Chongok 47 Hongsong
4 Pochon 48 Daechon
5 Dongduchon 49 Chongyang
6 Munsan 50 Gongju
7 Chunchon 51 Nonsan
8 Gapyong 52 Taejon
9 Uijongbu 53 Sangju
10 Wondang 54 Uisong
11 Kimpo 55 Kumsong
12 Ganghwa 56 Gumi
l3 Inchon 57 Kimchon
l4 Seoul 58 Daeya
15 Kurye 59 Yegwan
16 Hongchon 60 Taegu
l7 Kangnung 61 Pohang
l8 Donghae 62 Gyongju
l9 Samchok 63 Kunsan
20 Yangpyeong 64 Iri
21 Gwangju 65 Kimje
22 Sungnam 66 Chonju
23 Anyang 67 Muju
24 Suwon 68 Chongup
25 Osan 69 Namwon
26 Yongin 70 Kwangju
27 Ichon 71 Mokpo
28 Yoju 72 Sunchon
29 Wonju 73 Yosu
3O Yongwol 74 Namhae
31 Chechon 75 Samchonpo
32 Chungju 76 Chinju
33 Ansong 77 Changryong
34 Pyongtaek 78 Haman
35 Dangjin 79 Masan
36 Taean 80 Milyang
37 Sosan 81 Eonyang
38 Yesan 82 Ulsan
39 Sinjang 83 Yangsan
40 Onyang 84 Kimhae
41 Chonan 85 Pusan
42 Chongju 86 Cheju
43 Yongju 87 Sogwipo
44 Andong

 

Alumi-

'jflE:”'

126

residual value: two categories of positive residuals and
three categories of negative residuals.

Positive Residuals. Places of much greater positive

 

residuals are concentrated in the Seoul Metropolitan Region
and the southeastern part of the country. The Seoul
Metropolitan Region includes Osan, Pyongtaek, Yongin, and
Sungnam that experience greater than expected calls from
Banweol. These locations are near Banweol and several
rationale may explain the greater than expected telephone
traffic. Osan and Pyongtaek have army bases, and are
located relatively near Banweol. These military functions
and close location may explain the reason for more calls
than expected. The dominant industrial function of Banweol
produces a large amount of correspondence with military
cities unlike Sungnam whose residential function decreases
such interaction. Yongin is famous for such tourist
attractions as a Natural Farm and a Folk Village, as well
as for spinning industries. These tourist facilities may
require food and manufacturing products from Banweol that
result in frequent telephone interaction. Meanwhile,
although Sungnam has a dominant residential function, it
also has three industrial districts which may require more
calls from Banweol to Sungnam than would otherwise be
expected.

The southeastern part of the country contains Kumsong

and Eonyang as places with high positive residuals

127

indicating greater than expected telephone interactions with
Banweol. Kumsong produces mineral resources such as
graphite and gold and is located on the Jungang railroad
line connecting Seoul and Kyongju. Eonyang produces iron
ore and is located on the Gyongbu freeway connecting Seoul
and Pusan. These mineral resources and convenient
facilities for transporting them may result in more calls
than would otherwise be expected.

Negative Residuals. Three places receiving much fewer

 

calls than predicted were Sangju, Chomchon, and Samchonpo.
Sangju and Chomchon are rural centers located in isolated
basins and have no particular industrial functions. The
lack of industrial base and the physical condition could
result in fewer calls from Banweol than would otherwise be
predicted. Another place, Samchonpo, is situated in the
southern coastal area of the country far from Banweol and
also has no strong industrial base. Although Samchonpo is
one of the most important fishing ports in Korea, fish and
other marine products are seldom sent from Samchonpo to
Banweol because of the long distance. The absence of an
industrial base and the long distance largely explain the

relative lack of calls from Banweol to Samchonpo.

128

Summary

Through examination of the multiple regression
equations for Sungnam and Banweol, several detailed findings
can be summarized.

First, the result of comparisons of the partial
coefficients for population and distance between Sungnam and
Banweol supported the hypothesis that the population size
function of Banweol affects telephone interactions more than
that of Sungnam, while the distance function of Banweol has
contributed less to the interactions than that of Sungnam.
This result can be related to the observation that
business calls based on Banweol's industrial dominance
correspond with market volume which is related to population
size, whereas personal calls based on Sungnam's residential
dominance significantly correspond with distance.

Second, when the data on telephone calls were used in
the gravity model, the distance exponents in both Banweol's
and Sungnam's equations were less than unity. Considering
that many studies of migration, shopping trips, and
intercity travel flows have placed the distance exponent at
about 2, the exponents for Banweol and Sungnam were
relatively small. This result indicates that when data on
telephone calls are used, distance decay may be regarded as

a minor barrier.

129

Third, regional origins of households could be
closely related to personal interactions by telephone. A
dominant example was the frequency of telephone calls
between Sungnam and the Kwangju area, which was the origin
of a large portion of Sungnam's residents.

Fourth, mineral resources and convenient transportation
facilities were shown to be closely related to interactions
with the industrial new town. Examples were the greater
than expected frequency of calls between Banweol and
Kumsong, and between Banweol and Eonyang.

Fifth, military cities were seen to be more closely
related to the industrial new town than the residential new
town. There were many more calls between the industrial new
town and military cities than expected, whereas there were
fewer calls between the residential new town and the
military cities Osan and Pyongtaek.

Finally, interactions by telephone calls were found to
be more closely related to functions of the new towns. That
is, the number of telephone calls were based more on the

industrial or residential function of the new town.

130

CHAPTER NOTES

1
Martin Cadwallader, "Towards a Cognitive Gravity
Model: The Case of Consumer Spatial Behavior," Regional
Studies 15 (l981):275-76.
2

R. Abler, J.S. Adams, and P. Gould, Spatial
Organization (London: Prentice Hall, 1972), p. 221.

3

Kingsley E. Haynes and A. Stewart Fotheringham,
Gravity and Spatial Interaction Model (Beverly Hills: Sage
Publications, Inc., 1984), p. 16.

4

P.E. White and R.I. Woods, "Spatial Patterns of
Migration Flows," in The Geographical Impact of Migration,
ed. Paul White and Robert Woods (London: London Group, Ltd.,
1980), PP. 39-40.

5

Carl Hammer and F.C. Ikle, "Intercity Telephone and
Airline Traffic Related to Distance and the Propensity to
Interact," Sociometry 20 (1957): 314.

6

D.A. Krueckeberg and A.L. Silvers, Urban Planning
Analysis: Methods and Models (New York: John Wiley & Sons,
1974), p. 298.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

7

Dean S. Rugg, Spatial Foundations of Urbanism
(Dubuque, Iowa: Wm. C. Brown, Co., 1979), p. 115.

8

T.H. Poister, Public Programs Analysis: Applied
Research Methods (Baltimore: University Park Press, 1978),
p. 456.

9

R. Abler, J.S. Adams, and P. Gould, op. cit., p. 225.

10

The Sungnam City Government, Develepment Plan in

 

Sungnam (Sungnam: Sungnam City Government, 1983), p. 30. (In
Korean).
11
Interview with professor Won Kim, Seoul City
Industrial College, Seoul, 27 July 1983, and professor Ki-
Suk Lee, Seoul National University, Seoul, 7 August 1983.
12
The Sungnan City Government, op. cit., p. 30.
13
Ibid., p. 102.

131

14
Unpublished data on the survey of daily trips of
Sungnam's residents, 1983, the Sungnam City Government,
Sungnam, Korea. (In Korean).
15
The Sungnam City Government, op. cit., p. 30.

 

CHAPTER FIVE

MEASUREMENTS OF GOAL ACHIEVEMENT IN
SUNGNAM AND BANWEOL: INDUSTRIAL
DIVESIFICATION AND ECONOMIC BASES

This chapter reports some aspects of the goal
achievement of the new towns of Sungnam and Banweol. As
mentioned previously, the most important goal of new towns
is to establish self-sufficient and balanced development in
employment and living conditions. This chapter concentrates
on an examination of self-sufficiency and balanced

development in the economic structure of the two new towns,

Sungnam and Banweol. In examining this goal achievement,
two catgories are considered: (1) industrial
diversification, and (2) basic and non-basic activities of
the new towns. The industrial diversification within the

new towns represents the internal structure of industrial
composition, whereas basic and non—basic activities relate
to the external structure, as well as the internal
structure, of the economic bases of the new towns.

Some Aspects of Industrial Diversification
in the New Towns

 

One goal of new town development is industrial
diversification in terms of categories of industries and

132

 

 

 

133

employment in the industries. Gratton states the goal of
new town development as:

A diversified industrial structure is a major

policy objective of the new town programme...

New towns should be self-contained and balanced

communities for working and living. Such balance

can only be achieved through a diversified

industrial structure.

Only the manufacturing sector is dealt with in
examining the degree of industrial diversification in this
study. The degree of industrial diversification indicates
the degree of inequality of distribution between industrial
categories and employment.

The idea of a diversified industrial structure for
community development has been supported by many studies,
such as those by Rodgers, Conkling, Clemente and Sturgis,
Parr, Conroy, and Taylor.

For explaining the industrial diversification based on
industrial categories and employment, the Gini index is
useful. The Gini index represents the degree of inequality
of distribution between industrial categories and the number
of employees of the industries in the new towns, based on
the. Lorenz curve shown in Figure 5.1.4 The closer the
Lorenz curve comes to the diagonal, the more even the spread
of employment over the industrial categories. The Gini
index measures the area between the diagonal of perfect
equality and the Lorenz Curve. That is, it is defined as
the ratio A/A+B, and ranges from O to 100. Zero means

perfect equality of distribution (Industrial

Cumulative share of
total employment (Y)

134

 

 

09/

(be

 

 

Cumulative share of numbers
of industrial categories (X)

Figure 5.1 Lorenz Curve.

z~—: -' I‘

.—

 

 

135

diversification) and one hundred means perfect indquality
(domination by a single firm).

The Gini index (G) can be calculated by using the

 

5
following equation:
1 1 k (i-l, i
/2"/2 E . . y_
0:100 12;: Xi j=l Y3 + 3’: -__-3._ (5.1)
%
where, Xi = unit of categories of industries in a town
Yi = cumulative share of employment
Yj = length of parallel lines of trapezoids
formed by plotting the adjacent cumulative
Y values as functions of their

corresponding cumulative X values.

Poister suggested general categories of associations

6
between two variables from 0 to 100. The categories of the
criteria are as follows: (a) 0: no association; (b) 1-9:
negligible; (c) 10-29: low; (d) 30-49: moderate; (e) 50-69:

substantial; (f) 70-99: very strong; and (g) 100: perfect
asociation. This researcher adopted Poister's criteria for
explaining the Gini index in this study.

In general, the larger the size of a population in a

city, the more diversified its industry. This is based on

many studies which mentioned the city of the larger
7

population has more industrial diversification. The

population of Sungnam is about eight times that of Banweol.
In accordance with this situation the following hypothesis

regarding industrial diversity states:

——.— _.~.

‘9. ”...—A 6A

 

136

The degree of industrial diversification in
Sungnam is larger than that of Banweol.

In order to examine this hypothesis, degree of
diversification of industries in Sungma and Banweol were

studied using the Gini indexes.

Industrial Diversification in Sungnam

 

Industries in Sungnam were concentrated in three small
industrial districts in the city (Figure 3.2). These
industries were generally light industries. Data on
industrial categories and employees of the industries in
1979, 1980, and 1982 were used for producing the Gini
indexes. These industries were classified into fifty-five
categories (three digit industrial categories) in Table 5.1

according to the U.S. Standard Industrial Classification

 

ASEEL code of 1979.

The Gini indexes in 1979, 1980 and 1982 are shown in
Table 5.2 and the Lorenz curves are shown in Figure 5.2.
These Gini indexes and Lorenz curves were produced by using
the data on employment for each industrial category, which
were ranked from smallest employment to largest employment.8
The percentage data are cumulative. Each industrial
category has the same proportion, whereas employment in each

industrial category has a different proportion based on the

number of employees in each cateogory.

137

The value of the Gini index for 1979 was the largest,
56.834, whereas that of 1982 was the smallest, 54.666.
These values were relatively large in explaining the
inequality of industrial distribution. According to the
criteria for association between two variables from 0 to
100 by Poister,9 degrees of industrial diversification
in Sungnam in 1979, 1980 and 1982 were moderate. This
means that the composition of industries in Sungnam was not
highly diversified. However, the value of the Gini indexes
decreased slightly over the period between 1979 and 1982.
There were few changes in distribution of industrial
categories and employment.

In 1979, 147 firms in Sungnam had a total of 34,116
employees. In comparison with the number of firms and
employees in Banweol, the average number of employees in
each firm in Sungnam, 220, was much larger than that of
Banweol at 68. Based on the two digit industrial
classification, food, textile, primary metals, and electric
and electronic products industries had large numbers of
employees, more than 3,000, respectively. Based on the
three digit industrial classification, bakery, knitting,
footwear, nonferrous rolling, and communication equipment
industries had large numbers of employees, respectively.
This situation indicated that consumer goods, such as
bakery, knitting and footwear products, were dominant among

Sungnam's industries in 1979, based on Sungnam's large

   

 

 

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140

population. Meanwhile, plywood, miscellaneous chemicals,
petroleum, iron foundries, miscellaneous metals, and
household appliance industries, had very small numbers of
employees. Most of these industries generally manufacture
producer goods. Therefore, Sungnam was found to be dominant

in the manufacture of consumer rather than producer goods.

TABLE 5.2: Gini Indexes in Sungnam

 

 

Index 1979 1980 1982

 

Gini 56.834 55.117 54.666

 

. In 1980, 160 firms in Sungnam employed a total of
33,227 persons. Although the number of firms increased in
1980, the number of employees decreased compared to 1979.
The average number of employees of each firm in 1980 was
smaller than in 1979. This was perhaps due to the serious
economic recession at that time. Characteristics of
composition of industries in 1980 were very similar to those
of 1979. Bakery, knitting, footwear, nonferrous rolling,
and communication equipment industries had larger numbers of
employees, whereas miscellaneous chemicals, iron foundries,
miscellaneous metals, metal working, and household
applicance industries had small numbers of employees in

1980.

 

141

Cumulative Percent
oi Employment

100

 

   

60 —
Diagonal

   

40
1 900

20

 

 

L
0 20 40 60 BO 1 00

Cumulative Percent of Indusmal Categories

 

Figure 5.2 Lorenz Curves Showrng Industrial
DiverSiiication in Sungnam

Cumulative Percent
oi Employment

 

 

 

 

100
80 ..
60 l-
0 a l
i gona 19“
40 -
1902
20 P 1931
0 l l 1
0 20 40 60 80 100

Cumulative Percent of industrial Categories

Figure 5.3 Lorenz Curves Showing industrial
DiverSitication in BanweOI

Cumulative Percent
0! Employment

100

 

80

60

40

20

 

 

 

 

Cumulative Percent of Industrial Categories

Figure 5.4 Comparison oi Industrial Diversification
between Sungnam and Banwe0i

 

 

142

In 1982, 165 firms in Sungnam had 36,236 employees.
The number of firms and employees slightly increased in 1982
over 1980 and industrial distribution was the most
diversified in 1982, according to the Gini index. The
larger the size of the population in Sungnam, the more
diversified its industry over time. The respective sizes of
industrial categories, as to employment, were very similar
to those of 1979 and 1980. That is, Sungnam was dominant in
industries producing consumer goods, rather than producer

goods.

Industrial Diversification in Banweol

 

All manufacturing firms in Banweol were concentrated in
one industrial district. That industrial district has
mainly light industries. Data on industrial categories and
employees who worked in the industrial district in Banweol
in 1981, 1982, and 1983, which were available for this
study, were used for producing the Gini indexes. These
industries were classified into sixty categories (three
digit industrial categories) in Table 5.3 based on the SIC
code of 1979.

The Gini indexes for Banweol in 1981, 1982, and 1983
are shown in Table 5.4 and Figure 5.3. Degrees of
industrial diversification in Banweol were substantial based
on the criteria by Poister. Values of the Gini indexes for

Banweol were smaller than those for Sungnam. This means that

1413

 

 

 

 

 

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1434

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

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145

industries in Banweol were more diversified than those of
Sungnam. This result did not support the hypothesis that
the degree of industrial diversification in Sungnam is
greater than that of Banweol. Even though the size of
population in Banweol was one-eighth that of Sungnam, the
composition of industries in Banweol was more diversified
than that of Sungnam. Thus, the tendency for larger cities
to have more diversified industry (manufacturing) was not
supported by the experience of these new towns in the Seoul
Metropolitan Region. Sungnam had larger differences between
the number of employees in respective industrial categories
than Banweol. For example, the five smallest industrial
categories in terms of number of employees in Sungnam in
1982 had 41, 50, 53, 56 and 70 employees each, respectively,
whereas the five largest industrial categories in terms of
number of employees had 3,675, 3,366, 2,939, 2,627, and
2,131 employees each, respectively. In contrast, Banweol
had smaller differences in numbers of employees between
industrial categories than Sungnam. For instance, the five
smallest industrial categories in Banweol in 1982 had 12,
13, 27, 28 and 62 employees each, respectively, while the
five largest industrial categories had 1,668, 1,019, 695,
660, and 508 employees each, respectively. Banweol had a
larger number of firms than Sungnam, but differences in
employment among industrial categories in Banweol were

smaller than those in Sungnam. These characteristics

146

reflected different degrees of industrial diversification

between Sungnam and Banweol. In other words, industries in

TABLE 5.4: Gini Indexes in Banweol

 

 

 

Index 1981 1982 1983
Gini 46.907 43.992 40.870
Banweol were more diversified than those of Sungnam. The

Gini indexes for Banweol decreased over the period from 1981
to 1983 indicating that the degree of industrial
diversification in Banweol gradually increased over that
time.

In 1981, 188 firms in Banweol employed 12,178 workers.
Distribution of employment in Banweol was much different
from that of Sungnam. In contrast to Sungnam's dominance in
manufacturing consumer goods, Banweol was dominant in
manufacturing producer goods such as primary metals,
machinery, electric and electronic products, and
transportation equipment. Each of these industrial
categories had more than one hundred employees. According
to the three digit industrial classification, vehicle
equipment, electrical industrial apparatus, nonferrous
foundries, and basic steel products had the largest number

of employees in comparison with other industrial categories

. ,..4MJ§¢.~MU;.._

 

147

in Banweol. In contrast, the industrial categories ‘of
textiles, soaps and cleaners, pottery, and miscellaneous
clay and glass products had considerably smaller numbers of
employees. Banweol did not have any food and instrument
products industries in 1982.

The number of firms in Banweol increased from 188 in

1981 to 232 in 1982. These 232 firms in Banweol employed

15,979 persons. In 1982, the industrial categories of
chemicals, primary metals, machinery, electric and
electronic products, and transportation equipment had

large numbers of employees in comparison with other
industrial categories in Banweol. The number of employees
in chemical products and transportation equipment increased
especially remarkably over time. According to the three
digit industrial classification, the category of vehicle
equipment was the most dominant in number of employees in
Banweol. This could be due to an emphasis on car-exports by
the government.

In 1983, 258 firms in Banweol had 17,927 employees. In
comparison with Sungnam, the number of firms in Banweol was
much larger but the total number of employees was much
smaller than in Sungnam. Likewise, the average number of
employees of each firm in Banweol was 68, much fewer than
the 220 in Sungnam or a ratio of 3.4. The distribution of
industries in Banweol in 1983 was the most diversified. The

larger the population grew in Banweol, the more diversified

 

148

its industry became over time. In contrast to the slight
increase of industrial diversification in Sungnam, the
increase of industrial diversification in Banweol was rapid
and became larger each year. The rapid industrial
diversification may have been based on the development
policy for Banweol, which emphasized moving small size
industries from Seoul to Banweol. The majority of
industries in Banweol were more evenly distributed with the
average firm size smaller in number of employees than
Sungnam in 1983. As mentioned previously, this situation
causes diversification of industries in Banweol. On the
other hand, the characteristics of the distribution of
industrial categories in 1983 were similar to those in 1981
and 1982. That is, Banweol remained dominant in the
manufacture of producer goods rather than consumer goods in

1983.

Urban Economic Bases in the New Towns

 

The economic base model classifies a region's economic
activity into basic and non-basic activities. "Basic" means
the economic activities for export from an urban center to
other places in response to external demand, whereas the
"non-basic" represents local economic activities in response
to internal demands of the urban center. To measure the
economic activities, the location quotient technique is used

10
because it is quick and requires little data.

 

 

 

149

The location quotient (LQ) is the ratio of an industry's
share of the economic activity of an urban center to that
industry's share of the national economy. That is, the

location quotient can be expressed as:

v-i

IL.
lr
_ ________________ . .2
LQ — E / Eln (5 )
r E
n
where, LQ = location quotient
E, = employment in industry i in town j
111'
E = total employment in town j
r
E, = employment in industry i in the nation
in
E1 = total employment in the nation.

Leigh identifies economic activities based on the value

of the location quotient as:

Activities, with location quotients above unity,
are also basic economic activities, providing
goods and services surplus to local demand,
exporting them to external markets and channelling
income into the local economy... Activities
(with location quotients below one) are assumed
to be satisfying less than the total local
demands for the goods and services they produce
(imports fill the gap).

Norcliffe explains the implications of economic activity in
13
terms of a region's self-sufficiency.

 

150

It is generally assumed that a location quotient

of unity indicates that a region is exactly self—

sufficient. A value below one indicates net

imports, while an amount above unity represents
production surplus to local needs that is
exported.

Thus, the value of the location quotient above unity
represents export activity (basic activity), whereas that
below unity indicates local consumption or import activity
(non-basic activity). A location quotient at unity
indicates self-sufficiency in the town.

In addition, local activity is assumed to depend on

14
export activity and to be proportional to it. For
example, total activity (T) consists of basic activity (B)

and non—basic activity (N). The resulting simple equation
15

can be expressd as:

T = B + N (5.3)
N = a.B (5.4)
T = (l + a) B (5.5)
In equation 5.5, the term, 1+a, is referred to as an

economic base multiplier which measures the total impact of

a unit of export activity. The basic activity (B ) of a
ti
town's employment (E ) in industry (i) can be calculated by
ti 16

using the following equation.

B = 1 - (l/LQ ) E , for LQ >1 (5.6)
t' .

 

 

 

151

Based on equation 5.6, the basic activity can be calculated.
Non—basic activity can then be produced by using equation
5.3. With the basic activity and the non-basic activity,
the multiplier can be derived using equation 5.4 and used to
anticipate future total activity in the town based on the
equation 5.5.

Using the location quotient technique, the economic
bases of the two new towns, Sungnam and Banweol, were

examined in order to determine their self-sufficiency.

Economic Activities in Sungnam
Based on Location Quotients

 

 

For producing values of location quotients for Sungnam,

available data on employment in twelve sectors of the

economy in 1982 were used (Table 5.5). According to the
calculations of location quotients using equation 5.2, ten
out of twelve industrial categories have location

quotients above unity, and two categories have values below
unity. Of these ten categories, only the chemical and
petroleum category has the value, 1.01, which is almost
unity. So, this can be regarded as an industry which has a
self-sufficient function. Nine categories are considered
industries which have location location above unity. Of
these nine categories, seven are manufacturing activities
which have export functions. The consumer goods include

food, textile and leather, lumber and furniture, printing

 

 

 

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153

and publishing: producer goods include nonmetallic mineral
products, metallic mineral products, and machinery. Two are
services, namely retail and wholesale, and restaurant and
lodging. Textiles and leather, and machinery categories
have the largest employment of the export activities.

Meanwhile, medical care and public service categories
have location quotients below unity. This result suggests
that service sectors, such as medical care and public
service, have import functions, whereas manufacturing
sectors, such as food, textiles, nonmetallic and metallic
mineral products, and machinery categories, have export
functions.

The total numbers of employees for basic activity, the
total numbers of employees for non-basic activity,
basic/non—basic ratios, and economic base multipliers for
the new towns are in Table 5.6. These are calculated by
using equations 5.2 through 5.5. Though Sungnam has more
industrial categories which are basic activities than those
which are non—basic activities, the total number of
employees in basic activity are almost the same as those in
non-basic activity in the city (Table 5.6). Expressed
another way, Sungnam has balanced economic functions between
basic and non-basic activities, as reflected by the

basic/non—basic ratio.

 

154

TABLE 5.6: Basic and Non-Basic Activities in the New Towns

 

 

 

Basic/
New Basic Non-Basic Non—Basic
Town Activity(B) Activity(N) Ratio (B/N) Multiplier
Sungnam 31,778 31,408 100:99 2.012
Banweol 12,841 3,625 100:28 4.542

 

SOURCE: Calculated by the author

Economic Activities in Banweol
Based on Location Quotients

 

 

In producing values of location quotients, available
data on employment in the twelve sectors of the economy of
Banweol in 1982 were used (Table 5.5). The urban economic
bases were examined using the location quotients. Out of
twelve categories, seven had values above unity, whereas
five had values below unity. Thus, seven had predominantly
export functions, five had mainly import functions. The
seven categories which had export functions were: textiles
and leather, lumber and furniture, printing and publishing,
chemical and petroleum, nonmetallic mineral products,
metallic mineral products, and machinery. Among these
seven, though the metallic mineral category had the largest
location quotient, 13.57, the numbers of employees in basic
activity were not so significant because the category had a

relatively small number of employees in the new town.

 

 

155

However, the machinery category had a remarkably large
number of employees for a basic activity. This category had
the largest number of employees, so it had the strongest
export function in the new town.

Meanwhile, five categories with location quotients less
than unity had mainly import function. They were: food,
medical care, public service, retail and wholesale, and
restaurant and lodging services. Of the five, medical care
had an extremely small value, 0.05. That is, the medical
care category had a strong import function because activity
in that category is only weakly develOped in Banweol (See
Chapter Six). The values of location quotient for Banweol
clearly showed that Banweol is a manufacturing new town,
because manufacturing categories have strong export
functions, whereas service categories have strong import
functions.

In comparing Sungnam's location quotients with those of
Banweol, the latter had more industrial categories with
location quotients below unity than Sungnam, whereas Sungnam
has more industrial categories with location quotients above
unity. However, the number of industrial categories is less
meaningful than numbers of employees in dealing with the
economic bases of the new towns, because the number of
employees can be considered as a source of economic
activity, basic or non-basic. In the case of Banweol, the

proportion of basic activity was significantly large in

156

comparison with the proportion of non-basic activity. The
basic/non-basic ratio, 100:28, shows the large proportion of
basic activity (Table 5.6). The value of the multiplier for
Banweol was more than twice that of Sungnam. Thus, Sungnam
had a more balanced economic base than Banweol.
Furthermore, Sungnam had a self-sufficient function in the
chemical and petrolum category, whereas Banweol did not have
a self-sufficient function in any category. This result
supports the finding of many studies that the larger cities

17
are more balanced in economic bases than the smaller ones.

TABLE 5.7: Numbers of Industrial Categories in the New Towns
Based on Values of Location Quotients

 

 

Value of No. of No. of

Location Categories Categories

Quotient for Sungnam for Banweol Function

LQ > 1 9 7 Export

LQ = l l - Self-
sufficient

LQ < 1 2 5 Import

 

On the other hand, food, retail and wholesale, and
restaurant and lodging categories for Sungnam had export
functions, while those of Banweol had import functions,
based on the roles set for the new towns by the government

(i.e., Sungnam is primarily residential and Banweol has a

157

manufacturing function in producer goods). Both Sungnam and
Banweol have import functions in the medical care and public
service categories. In other words, both new towns have

weak medical and public services.

Summary

This chapter examined some aspects of goal achievements
in new town development, which are diversified industrial
composition, and urban economic bases for self-sufficiency.
From the examination of the goal achievements, several major
findings can be summarized.

First, the result of examination of industrial
diversification using the Gini indexes did not support the
hypothesis that the degree of industrial diversification in
Sungnam was larger than that of Banweol. Only the
manufacturing sectors was dealt with in examining the degree
of industrial diversification. This was hypothesized based
on size of population. However, the results of examination
based on the Gini indexes found the degree of industrial
diversification in Banweol to be larger than that in
Sungnam. One reason for a more diversified industrial
composition in Banweol was the more evenly distributed
industrial categories. Another reason was that industrial
diversification had been more influenced by development
policies for the new towns than by population size in new

towns in the Seoul Metropolitan Region. More diversified

 

158

industrial composition in Banweol than in Sungnam was
traceable, in part, to the development policy which
emphasized moving only small-size industries from Seoul to
Banweol. However, if Banweol had some large assembly
plants, such as automobiles, ship building yards, and
fertilizer plants, rather than small factories which produce
only parts of automobiles and ships, the resulting
industrial diversification would be different from the
present situation.

Second, industrial diversification has increased over
time. In both Sungnam and Banweol, values of the Gini
indexes have gradually decreased over time. This means
that industrial diversification in Sungnam and Banweol has
increased over a period of time. But the degrees of
industrial diversification between Sungnam and Banweol are
different. Values of the Gini indexes in Sungnam have
slightly decreased over time, whereas those of Banweol have
greatly decreased over time. The result is that industrial
diversification in Banweol has been more rapid than in
Sungnam over time.

Third, concentrations of employment based on industrial
categories were different between Sungnam and Banweol.
Sungnam was dominant in manufacturing consumer goods such as
food and textile products, whereas Banweol was dominant in

manufacturing producer goods such as machinery and metal.

~3:w..:...

“Lam

159

Fourth, both Sungnam and Banweol were found to have
more export functions than import or self—sufficient
functions. In the case of Sungnam, nine out of twelve
industrial categories had export functions. In Banweol,
seven out of twelve industrial categories had export
functions. This also indicates that cities located around
Seoul have more export functions than import functions.

Fifth, both Sungnam and Banweol had import activities
in service sectors such as medical care and public service.
That is, the service sectors were weak in the new towns.

Finally, considering all twelve categories together, it
could be concluded that overall Sungnam was relatively more
balanced in its economic base than Banweol. This was based
on the values of location quotients and basic/non-basic
ratios. This result represented that the economic base of
Sungnam was more similar to that of the nation than
Banweol's. However, according to industrial categories, the
results of the examination in urban economic bases would be
varied. Also, results would differ between planned cities,

which have particular purposes, and naturally grown cities.

 

160
CHAPTER NOTES

1
Chris Gratton, "Industrial Diversification in New
Towns," Urban Studies 16 (June 1979):157.
2

Allan Rodgers, "Some Aspects of Industrial
Diversification in the United States," Economic Geography 33
(Jan. l957):16. Edgar C. Conkling, "South Wales: A Case
Study in Industrial Diversification," Economic Geography 39
(July 1963):258-59. Frank Clemente and Richard B. Sturgis,
"Population Size and Industrial Diversification,"
Urban Studies 8 (Feb. l971):65-68. John B. Parr,
"Specialization, Diversification and Regional Development."
The Professional Geographer 17 (November l965):22—23.
Michael E. Conroy, "The Concept and Measurement of Regional
Industrial Diversification," Southern Economic Journal
41 (January l975):492. J. Taylor, "A Definition of
Industrial Diversification," Urban Studies 16 (June
1979):105.

3

Joe T. Darden, "The Residential Segregation of Blacks
in Detroit, 1960-1970." International Journal Of
Comparative Sociology 17 (March-June 1976):84.

4

 

 

 

 

 

 

Chris Gratton, op. cit., p. 159.

J.T. Darden, A.S. Tabachneck, and R.J. Raine,
"Algorithm 8: Graphic and Mathematical Descriptions of
Inequality, Dissimilarity, Segregation or Concentration,"
Environment and Planning 12 (l980):230.

6

 

 

 

T.H. Poister, Public Programs Analysis: Applied
Research Methods (Baltimore: University Park Press,
1978):456.

7

Frank Clemente and Richard B. Sturgis, op. cit., p.
65. Ronald W. Crowley, "Reflections and Further Evidence on
Population Size and Industrial Diversification," Urban

 

Studies 10 (Feb. l973):94. John P. Blair, "Population Size
and the Extent of Industrial Diversification: A Comment,"
Urban Studies 13 (Feb. 1976):81.

8

Gini indexes and Lorenz curves were produced by using
a computer program for Gini at the Michigan State University
Computer Center.

9

Theodore H. Poister, op. cit., p. 456.

 

 

 

161

10
Andrew M. Isserman, "The Location Quotient Approach

to Estimating Regional Economic Impacts," Journal of
American Institute of Planners 43 (January l977):33. Lay J.
Gibson and M.A. Worden, "Estimating the Economic Base
Multiplier: A Test of Alternative Procedures," Economic
Geography 57 (April l981):156.

ll

 

 

 

G.B. Norcliffe, "Using Location Quotients to Estimate

 

the Economic Base and Trade Flows," Regional Studies 17
(June l983):l63.
12

Roger Leigh, "The Use of Location Quotients in Urban
Economic Base Studies," Land Economics 46 (May 1970):202.

 

13
C.B. Norcliffe, op. cit., pp. 163-164.
14
Andrew M. Isserman, op. cit., p. 33.
15
Ibid., p. 34.
16
Ibid., p. 34. C.B. Norcliffe, op. cit., p. 164.
17
Dean S. Rugg, Spatial Foundation of Urbanism

 

(Dubuque, Iowa: Wm.C. Brown Company Publishers, 1979),
p. 184. Ray M. Northam, Urban Geography (New York: John
Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1975), p. 154. James H. Johnson, Urban
Geography (Oxford: Pergamon Press, Ltd., 1972), p. 70. John
M. Mattila and W.R. Thompson, "The Measurement of the
Economic Base of the Metropolitan Area," Land Economics 31
(August 1955):226. John W. Alexander, "The Basic-Nonbasic
Concept of Urban Economic Functions," Economic Geography
30 (January 1954):259.

 

 

 

 

CHAPTER SIX

MEASUREMENTS OF GOAL ACHIEVEMENT IN
SUNGNAM AND BANWEOL: JOB OPPORTUNITIES
AND URBAN SERVICES
This chapter also concerns self—sufficient and balanced
development of the new towns, Sungnam and Banweol, in
employment and living conditions. As mentioned previously,
the most important goal of new towns is to explain self—
sufficient and balanced development in employment and living
conditions. This chapter concentrates on an examination of
the following categories: (1) the extent of the new towns'
self-sufficiency in providing job opportunities for their
residents, and (2) the extent of the new towns' self—
sufficiency in providing the urban services and facilities
necessary to attract and retain residents. Specifically,
the issues are the balance between job opportunities and job
seekers in the new towns, and their urban services and

facilities in comparison with Seoul.

The Balance Between Job Opportunities
and Job Seekers

To maintain self—sufficient and balanced development of

the new towns in employment and public services (including

162

.
.. - .imlufit-Ef' -«

 

 

163

facilities), the new towns should provide appropriate job
opportunities for their residents. If a new town supplies
jobs in numbers corresponding to the demand for jobs by the
residents of the new town, the residents can work within
their local community. However, if the new town cannot

supply adequate numbers of appropriate job opportunities for

its residents, workers must commute to other places. In
general, journeys within a new town are called "local
journeys," whereas "crossing journeys" are the sum of (l)

journeys by a town's residents to other places to work and
(2) journeys by outsiders to work in the new town. The

ratio of local to crossing journeys represents an "index of

 

l

commuting independence." It can be simply expressed as:

LC
I _ IC + oc (6.1)
where: I = index of cummuting independence
LC = the number of local commuters
IC = the number of commuters crossing to the
town
CC = the number of commuters crossing from

the town

The higher the value of the index of commuting
independence, the more self-sufficient and balanced the

town. Using the value of the index, therefore, the

164

self-sufficiency of the new towns was examined. As
previously noted, Banweol had a dominant industrial base
that provided job opportunities for its residents, whereas
Sungnam had a dominant residential role for its residents.
Another aspect was that Banweol is located farther from the
mother city of Seoul (35 km) than Sungnam (20 km).
Generally, the longer the distance the smaller the number of
commuters. Based on these functions and locations of the
new towns, the hypothesis regarding the index of commuting
independence was expressed as:

The value of the index of commuting independence
for Banweol is higher than that of Sungnam.

Index of Commuting Independence for Sungnam

 

The numbers of commuters crossing between Sungnam and
other places are shown in Table 6.1. Seoul, Inchon, Suwon,
and Gwangju were the major job destinations of Sungnam's
crossing commuters. Of the four, Seoul was easily the most
dominant, as the destination or origin of 89.1 percent of
total commuters. In 1982, the total number of employed
persons in Sungnam was 109,4912 and the number of crossing
commuters was 53,210. The number of local commuters,
therefore, could be inferred as 56,281, which was calculated

by subtracting the number of crossing commuters from the

total number of employed persons in Sungnam.

165

TABLE 6.1: Daily Commuters Crossing to and from Sungnam,

 

 

 

1982
Gwanju

Seoul Inchon Suwon Township Others Total
From
Sungnam 41,514 1,060 2,254 127 1,625 46,580
To
Sungnam 3,801 110 289 284 2,146 6,630
Combined
Crossing
Journeys 45,315 1,170 2,543 411 3,771 53,210

 

SOURCE: Transportation Department of the Sungnam City
Government, "Unpublished Data on Commuters," 1982.
Development Plan in Sungnam, 1983.

 

The index of commuting independence for Sungnam
produced by the equation 6.1 was thus 1.058. The value of
the index was relatively small because the proportion of
crossing commuters represented almost one—half the total of
employed persons, demonstrating that Sungnam could not
provide sufficient job opportunities for its residents. At
the same time, the ratio of workers commuting from Sungnam
to other places to workers commuting from other places to
Sungnam confirmed the relative lack of job opportunities in
Sungnam. That is, the number of commuters from Sungnam to
other places was 7.0 times larger than the number commuting
to Sungnam from other places. Since the majority of out-

commuters from Sungnam travelled to jobs in Seoul, the new

 

166

town of Sungnam must still be considered dependent on Seoul

for employment.

Index of Commuting Independence for Banweol

The numbers of commuters crossing to and from Banweol
are shown in Table 6.2. The four cities of Seoul, Anyang,
Inchon, and Suwon were major sources of employment for
commuters who crossed from Banweol and provided some workers
who crossed to Sungnam. Seoul was the most dominant source
of jobs for workers from Banweol, as was the case for
Sungnam. The total number of employed persons in Banweol
was 20,390 in 1982.3 Given that the number of crossing
commuters total 7,618 (See Table 6.2), the number of local
commuters (by subtraction) was 12,772.

By using the same equation (6.1), the index of
commuting independence for Banweol was calculated to be
1.677, which indicates the ratio of local commuters to
crossing commuters.

The index of commuting independence for Banweol of
1.677 was greater than that of Sungnam at 1.058, indicating
that Banweol was more self-sufficient in employment lthan
Sungnam. This result supports the hypothesis that the value
of the index of commuting independence in Banweol, with its

industrial functions, would be higher than that of Sungnam.

167

TABLE 6.2: Daily Commuters Crossing to and from Banweol,

 

 

 

1982

Seoul Anyang Inchon Suwon Others Total
To
Banweol 3,790 1,529 681 504 307 6,811
From Banweol 347 188 63 90 119 807
Combined
Crossing
Journeys 4,137 1,717 744 594 426 7,618

 

SOURCE: The Office of Banweol Industrial District,
Industrial Status, 1982, Guideline for
Industries, 1983.

 

 

 

The commuting pattern for Banweol was also different
from that of Sungnam. Banweol had 8.4 times more in-
commuters than out-commuters, that is, a much larger number
of non-local persons coming into Banweol to work than the
number of local persons leaving Banweol to work elsewhere,
whereas Sungnam had just the opposite. Banweol provided
more job opportunities than needed by its residents, whereas
Sungnam provided fewer job opportunities than needed. This
result reflects the observation that Banweol is a
predominantly industrial new town providing sufficient job
opportunities, whereas Sungnam is a predominantly
residential new town providing insufficient job

opportunities.

168

Comparison of Urban Services and Facilities
between the New Towns and Seoul

 

 

As noted earlier, one of the government's primary
objectives in promulgating new towns is to relieve the
industrial and population pressure on Korea's capital of
Seoul that is straining its infrastructure and reducing its
quality of life. In this regard, the quality and quantity
of urban services and facilities provided in the new towns
are important in inducing Seoul's residents and industries
to move into the new towns. Accordingly, comparisons were
made of urban services and facilities between each new town
and Seoul. Components compared were: education, health and
recreation, transportation, and housing, because these are

the essential urban services and facilities.

Educational Facilities

 

One way to measure educational facilities could be to
deal with a ratio of classrooms to a number of classes. In
order to examine the sufficiency of educational facilities
in the new towns, the 1982 ratios of numbers of classrooms
to numbers of classes in elementary, middle and high
schools, were obtained for Seoul, Sungnam and Banweol. The
ratios for the new towns were then compared with those of
Seoul at all three levels (Table 6.3). A ratio value

greater than unity indicated that the new town provided

169

Table 6.3: Comparison of Educational Facilities and

 

 

 

 

 

 

Matriculating Ratios (1982)
School Seoul Sungnam Banweol
Classes 19,001 901 105
Classrooms 15,372 602 92
Facility Ratio 0.809 0.668 0.876
Elementary -------------------------------------------------
Graduates 189,672 7,057 547
Matriculates 188,692 6,756 531
Matriculating
Ratio 0.995 0.957 0.971
Classes 7,832 282 6
Classrooms 7,856 329 16
Facility Ratio 1.003 1.167 2.667
Middle -------------------------------------------------
Graduates 155,804 4,590 -
Matriculates 147,959 4,480 -
Matriculating
Ratio 0.950 0 976 -
Classes 4,279 176 6
Classrooms 5,584 171 9
Facility Ratio 1.305 0.972 1 500
High -------------------------------------------------
Graduates 77,776 2,870 -
Matriculates 42,476 351 —
Matriculating
Ratio 0 546 0.122 -
SOURCE: Seoul Statistical Yearbook, 1982. Development

 

Plan in Sungnam,

 

Yearbook,

1983.

1982 and 1983.

Banweol Statistical

 

 

170

sufficient classrooms, whereas a ratio value less than unity
revealed that the new town had insufficient classrooms.

All ratios for elementary schools in Seoul, Sungnam and
Banweol were less than unity, indicating common shortages of
educational facilities at this level in all three places.
Shortages were most severe in Sungnam which had the lowest
ratio (1:0.668) and least severe in Banweol where a 0.876
ratio prevailed. That is, one elementary class in Banweol
had 0.876 classroom, whereas that of Sungnam had 0.668
classroom. The practical consequences of this is that the
class day has to be split into shifts to accommodate all the
students. The classrooms per class in Banweol was greater
than in Seoul, but the classrooms per class in Sungnam were
smaller than in Seoul.

In contrast, Sungnam, Banweol, and Seoul supplied
sufficient middle school classrooms, with rates of 1.167,
2.667 and 1.003, respectively. The new towns have values
greater than Seoul. Particularly, Banweol has more than
sufficient educational facilities at the middle school
level, perhaps indicating that authorities anticipate rapid
increases in population.

Banweol and Seoul also has ratios above unity for high
schools, whereas Sungnam had a value below unity: 1.500,
1.305, and 0.972, respectively. The ratio for Banweol was
greater than that for Seoul, but the ratio for Sungnam was

smaller than that for Seoul. Thus, Banweol supplies more

171

sufficient educational facilities at all levels compared to
Seoul, but Sungnam provides less sufficient educational
facilities than Seoul. Only at the middle school level was
Sungnam superior to Seoul.

The matriculating ratios for Seoul, Sungnam, and
Banweol, by elementary, middle and high schools, are also
shown in Table 6.3. The matricultating ratio is the ratio
of the number of matriculants to the number of
graduates at elementary, middle and high school levels.
Matriculants are those who go on to the next level of
education. The matriculating ratio of elementary schools
in Seoul was slightly (0.991) greater than those of the two
new towns (0.957 for Sungnam and 0.971 for Banweol).
However, in the case of middle schools, the matriculating
ratio of Sungnam (0.976) was slightly greater than that of
Seoul. The matriculating ratio of middle schools in Banweol
in 1982 could not be calculated because one middle school
was so new it had not provided any graduates until that
year.

The matriculating ratio for high schools in Seoul
(0.546) was much greater than that of Sungnam (0.122). The
high school level showed a big difference in the
matriculating ratios between Seoul and the new town. The
matriculating ratio at the high school level has a more
important meaning than those at elementary and middle school

levels, because the expenses for college education are much

172

greater than those for middle and high schools. In Korea,
compulsory education applies only to elementary schools.

The matriculation ratio for high schools in Banweol
also could not be produced because one high school there did
not have any graduates until 1982. In general, however,
Banweol has supplied more sufficient educational facilities
than Seoul, whereas Sungnam has provided less sufficient
educational facilities than Seoul. But, Seoul generally had
greater values of matriculating ratios than the new towns.
This is not surprising, given the relative youthfulness of
the new towns. As a result, Banweol has come closer to
achieving its goal of providing sufficient educational

facilities, compared with Sungnam.

Health and Recreational Facilities

 

Health and recreational facilities include theaters,
stadiums, billiard halls, hospitals, doctor's offices,
dentist's offices, and drugstores in this study. The number
of facilities and the number of residents per facility in
Seoul, Sungnam and Banweol in 1982 are shown in Table 6.4.
The larger the number of residents per facility, the less
sufficient the urban services and facilities. Banweol did
not have any theaters, stadium, and hospitals until 1982.
Furthermore, Banweol had the greatest number of residents
per health and recreational facility. This means that urban

services and facilities in Banweol were not yet well

173

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

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174

developed. This could be one of the most critical
situations in the further development of Banweol.

Sungnam was equipped with fewer urban services and
facilities in the case of billiard halls, hospitals,
doctor's offices, dentist's offices, and drugstores than
Seoul, whereas it was superior to Seoul in theaters, and
stadiums.

In general, Seoul provided the most sufficient urban
services and facilities among the three places. Sungnam was
next, and Banweol last. This finding is not surprising
either, given relative ages of the three centers.
Obviously, Sungnam and Banweol must greatly improve their
urban services and facilities if they hope to more fully

achieve their goal of attracting residents from Seoul.

Transportation Facilities

 

Buses and taxis are dominant public transportation
facilities in every city in Korea. The number of residents
per bus and the number of residents per taxi in Seoul,
Sungnam and Banweol are shown in Table 6.5. The larger the
number of residents per bus or taxi, the less sufficient
the transportation facilities. Sungnam had the largest
number of residents per vehicle (1,127 per bus and 1,909 per
taxi). Banweol had the next largest number (1,062 per bus)
and Seoul had the smallest (947 per bus and 297 per taxi).

In other words, Seoul had more sufficient transportation

175

facilities than the new towns. Furthermore, Banweol did not
have any taxis until 1983 and used buses and bicycles within
the town. Residents in Banweol did use taxis which came
from other cities such as Anyang, Seoul, and Gwangmyong.
Thus, the conclusion is obvious that Seoul has a much
more highly developed public transportation system than
either Banweol or Sungnam. In addition to buses and taxis,
the subway system in Seoul has an important role but was not
included in this study because only Seoul has one. It seems
clear that the public transportation facilities in the new
towns are not an inducement to get people to move from
Seoul. In other words, insufficient transportation
facilities in the new towns are a significant problem in
achieving the goal of providing good living conditions.

0

Provision of Housing

 

To facilitate comparison of housing between the new
towns and Seoul, ratios of the number of houses to the
number of households in 1981 are shown in Table 6.6.
Banweol (ownership: 79 percent) had more sufficient housing
than Seoul (ownership: 62 percent), whereas Sungnam
(ownership: 47 percent) had less sufficient housing than
Seoul. The more recent new town of Banweol, had much more
sufficient residential facilities than the older new town of

Sungnam.

176

TABLE 6.5: Comparison of Transportation Facilities

 

 

 

 

Seoul Sungnam Banweol
Residents Residents Residents
Facil— per per per
ities Number Vehicle Number Vehicle Number Vehicle
Buses 9,165 947 334 1,127 48 1,062
Taxis 29,250 297 198 1,901 None None

 

SOURCE: Seoul Statistical Yearbook, 1982. Development
Plan in Sungnam, 1983. Banweol Statistical
Yearbook, 1982.

 

 

TABLE 6.6: Comparison of Housing (1981)

 

 

 

Seoul Sungnam Banweol
Houses 1,188,744 40,910 8,947
Households 1,915,104 86,325 11,400
Ratio of
Ownership 62% 47% 79%

 

SOURCES: Seoul Statistical Yearbook, 1982. Development
Plan in Sungnam, 1983. Banweol Statistical
Yearbook, 1982.

 

 

177

Meanwhile, the numbers of houses constructed and number
of households in Seoul, Sungnam and Banweol from 1977 to
1981 are shown in Figure 6.1. The number of houses
constructed in Seoul and Sungnam gradually increased, but
the number of households increased at a faster rate than the
housing construction. This gap between the number of houses
constructed and the number of households got larger and
larger, resulting in increased housing shortages in Seoul
and Sungnam. This situation caused serious urban problems
in those cities. Urban services and facilities,
particularly housing, generally cannot match the rapid
growth of population in Korean cities but Banweol is an
exception to this general observation.

Banweol's experience with housing was markedly
different. The difference between the number of houses
constructed and number of households was very small.
Banweol saw the greatest increases in both housing
construction and households in 1980 and 1981. The gap
between the two was slight, with housing construction
regularly exceeding the number of households. Based on this
trend, Banweol should be able to meet its future housing
needs.

Thus, the newest town, Banweol, had relatively
sufficient residential facilities for its present residents
and the older cities of Seoul and Sungnam did not. The

sufficient residential facilities in Banweol could be one

178

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300.000 -‘

200.000 -‘

100.000 -

 

 

 

 

 

 

1977 1978 1979 1980 1981
30.000 -
(Sungnam)
Househol_d_-__
20.000 - ,x’
l””
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10.000" ',o"
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1977 1978 1979 1980 1981
6.000 W
(Banweol)
4.000 -:
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Pin-2""

l l
1977 1978 1979 1980 1 981

Sources: Seoul Statistical Yearbook. 1982:
Development Plan in Sungnam. 1983:
and Banweol Statistical Yearbook. 1982.

Figure 6.1 Comparison of Number of Households
with Number of Houses Constructed in
Seoul. Sungnam. and Banweol. 1977-1981.

179

factor inducing people to move from Seoul to Banweol,
whereas the insufficient residential facilities in Sungnam
may be a factor discouraging the movement of population from
Seoul to Sungnam. In other words, Banweol has been
relatively more successful in achieving its goal than

Sungnam.

Summary

This chapter examined some aspects of the self-
sufficient and balanced development of Sungnam and Banweol,
based on job opportunities, and urban services and
facilities. From the examination into the balance between
job opportunities and job seekers, and the self-sufficiency
of urban services and facilities, the following findings can
be summarized.

First, based on the results of the indexes of commuting
independence in Sungnam and Banweol, the hypothesis stating
that the index of commuting independence of Banweol is
higher than that of Sungnam was supported. The result of
the examination showed that the value of the index in
Banweol, 1.677, was greater than that of Sungnam, 1.058,
because of the functions and locations of the new towns.

Second, commuting patterns were different between
Sungnam and Banweol. In the case of Sungnam, out-commuters
were the majority due to insufficient job opportunities in

the city. In contrast to Sungnam, Banweol had a majority

180

of in-commuters because of sufficient job opportunities in
the new town.

Third, the provision of housing in Banweol was
excellent for a newly-built town. Though Banweol had the
greatest self-sufficiency in housing supply among the three
places, there was still some lack of housing affordable by
all residents in Banweol. Moreover, in View of its
migration rate, Banweol needs to maintain a high rate of
housing construction. The fact that the numbers of houses
constructed have consistently exceeded the numbers of
households in Banweol over the past few years, suggests an
ability to continue providing housing in the future. This
has important implications for self-sufficient and balanced
development of the new towns.

Finally, urban services and facilities such as health
and recreational facilities, transportation facilities, and

matriculating ratios for Seoul were more sufficient than for

the new towns. Seoul had relatively better urban services
and facilities. This situation shows the difficulty in
inducing people to move from Seoul to the new towns. Even

though Banweol was more adequate in housing and classrooms
than Seoul, it was much less adequate in health and
recreational facilities, and transportation facilities than
Seoul. Sungnam was the least sufficient in overall urban
services and facilities among the three places. In sum,

total urban services and facilities in the new towns are

181

less sufficient than those in Seoul. This could be one of
the critical problems in new town development in Korea.
Therefore, the new towns should generate increased urban
services and facilities in order to attract people to move

into them from Seoul.

182

CHAPTER NOTES

1
Ray Thomas, London's New Towns (London: George
Berridge & Co., Ltd., 1969), p. 393.
2

 

The Sungnam City Government, Development Plan in
Sungnam (Sungnam: The Sungnam City Government, 1983), p. 35.
"Data on Commuters," 1982, Transportation Department of the
Sungnam City Government, Sungnam. (In Korean).

3

 

The Office of Banweol Industrial District, Industrial
Status (Banweol: The Office of Banweol Industrial District,
1982), p. 4. "Status of Employment in Banweol," 1982, the
Office of Banweol Township. (In Korean).

 

CHAPTER SEVEN

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

This study dealt with a wide number of aspects of urban
development as they relate to the new town movement. It
examined the development of Sungnam and Banweol in two ways.
One objective was to determine different characteristics of
urban development between the two new towns, the other
was to measure the level of goal achievement in Sungnam and
Banweol. Determining the urban development of the new towns
was dealt with in Chapters Two, Three and Four,and measuring
the level of goal achievement in self-sufficient and
balanced new town development, was dealt with in Chapters

Five and Six.

Summary

Several categories used for measuring different
characteristics of urban development in Sungnam and Banweol
were development policies, urban land uses that explained
the internal structure of the new towns, and spatial
interactions related to the external structures of the new
towns. To measure goal achievement in Sungnam and Banweol,

this study used the degree of diversification of the

183

V—_

184

industrial structure, functions of economic bases, the
provision of job opportunities, and the level of urban

services and facilities in the new towns.

Different Characteristics of Urban
Development between Sungnam and Banweol

 

 

For determining different characteristics of urban
development in the new towns, development policies were
first surveyed using references such as development plans
and related documents, books and statistical data.
Development policies covered fifteen policy provisions which
were grouped into three categories: political development
issues, site factors, and socioeconomic aspects. The reason
for dividing the development policies into fifteen specific
policy provisions was to examine which and how many policy
provisions were applicable in the development of Sungnam and
Banweol. Political development issues, for example,
included four specific policy provisions: balanced
development in the Seoul Metropolitan Region, establishing
independent new towns, role of growth poles, and public
sectors for development. Three of them were found to be
applicable to the development of Sungnam, and all of them

Were applicable to the development of Banweol.

Another category, site factors, consisted of six
specific policy provisions: availability of undeveloped
land, low land price, physical environment of new towns,

(—

185

good present transportation access, potential for
transportation expansion, and opportunity to preserve
historical resources. Five of these were applicable to the

development of Sungnam, and all of them were related to the
development of Banweol. These results indicated that both
political development and site factors were more applicable
to the development of the newly built town than the older
town.

The final category, which was socioeconomic aspects,
contained five specific policy provisions, including
relocation of residents from Seoul, housing development
plans, solution of squatter settlements in Seoul, relocation
of industrial facilities from Seoul, and residents'
participation. Three items were applicable to the
development of Sungnam, and four of them to the development
of Banweol.

Considering all categories together, the recent new
town had greater association with development policies than
the older town.

Meanwhile, patterns of urban land use were remarkably
different between Sungnam and Banweol. In characterizing
patterns of urban land use, three categories, patterns of
streets, distribution of functional land use, and densities
of land use in the new towns, were examined. Although

topographical conditions influenced the patterns of streets,

 

. ‘Mu-N.M‘ VO— h‘t—‘--»Wn ~- -

186

Sungnam had a predominantly grid pattern of streets, whereas
Banweol had a radial—concentric patterns as well as a grid
pattern. Banweol had three hexagonal nuclei with dominant
radial-concentric patterns called Gunja, Suam, and Banweol
districts which were planned to contain self-sufficient
functions in urban services and facilities. However, these
three nuclei had not actually been developed and self-
sufficiency in urban services and facilities had not been
achieved. As these three nuclei gradually develop urban
facilities they will contribute to balanced distribution of
subcenters within the new town. In contrast, Sungnam would
be regarded as a single nucleus city.

Functional land use was divided into residential,
commercial, industrial, greenbelt, and open space.
Proportions of these functional land uses were remarkably
different between Sungnam and Banweol. The proportion of
the industrial district in Banweol, (14.4 percent) was much
larger than that in Sungnam (1.1 percent). In contrast,
proportions of greenbelt and Open space in Sungnam (92.5
percent) were larger than those in Banweol (64.8 percent).
Different development policies basically explain these
situations.

Densities of functional land use were also much
different between Sungnam and Banweol in terms of functional
area per unit population, which was 1,000. Sungnam had a
much denser population in its functional districts than

Banweol. In other words, areas of residential, commercial,

 

187

and industrial districts in Sungnam per unit population size
resulted in a situation in which Sungnam had much more
population (380,000 in 1980) than expected according to the
original plan (250,000). The source of this large
population was in-migration from the southern part of Korea,
Sungnam has been an intermediate stop for people moving from
the southern part with plans to finally settle in Seoul.
The reason for selecting Sungnam as an intermediate stop
could be its close location to Seoul, low housing rent, and
relationships between some of the residents who had already
moved into Sungnam and some potential residents who wanted
to move from the southern part of Korea. In addition,
develOpment strategy emphasized restricting the enlargement
of the present built-up area within the city. In contrast,
Banweol had less pOpulation (41,600) than planned (137,600)
in 1981. The reason for the small population was fewer
migrants from Seoul than expected because of insufficient
urban facilities in the new town. About one—third of in-
migrants came from Seoul as of 1982. The smaller population
as well as development policy have influenced densities of
urban land use.

To determine the different characteristics of
interactions between the new towns and other urban centers
in Korea, the gravity model was used. Estimating parameters
using the gravity model supported the hypothesis that

interactions with Banweol are more sensitive to the

 

188

population sizes of other urban centers, but less sensitive
to the distance between the new town and other urban centers
than those of Sungnam. That is, business calls based on
Banweol's industrial dominance closely corresponded with
market volume, which was related to population size in
other urban centers, whereas personal calls based on
Sungnam's residential dominance closely corresponded with
distance. When data on telephone calls were used for the
gravity relationships, distance decay was a minor barrier to
interactions between the new towns and other urban centers,
considering the distance exponent which was generally at
about 2, and the distance exponents of Sungnam and Banweol
which were less than unity.

Another important result from using the gravity model
showed that interactions by telephones were more closely
related to functions of the new towns. More specifically,
numbers of telephone calls were more closely related to the

industrial or residential function of the new town.

Examination of Self-Sufficient
and Balanced Development

 

 

To determine the level of self—sufficient and balanced
development in employment and living conditions in the new
towns, four measures, the degree of industrial

diversification, functions of economic bases, job

189

opportunities, and the level of urban services and
facilities in the new towns, were considered.

The Gini index was employed to examine degrees of
industrial diversification and to compare them between
Sungnam and Banweol. The Gini index, based on the Lorenz
curve, represented the degree of inequality between two
variables such as the number of employees and the number of
industrial categories in the new towns in this study. More
than 147 manufacturing firms and more than 33,000 employees
in Sungnam in 1979, 1980, and 1983 were classified into
fifty-five industrial categories (three digits) according to

the U.S. Standard Industrial Classification code of 1979.

 

More than 188 manufacturing firms and more than 12,000
employees in Banweol in 1981, 1982, and 1983 were classified
into sixty industrial categories. The Gini indexes for
Sungnam were higher than those for Banweol, indicating that
Sungnam had a less diversified industrial base than Banweol.
This result could not support the hypothesis that the degree
of industrial diversification in Sungnam is greater than
that in Banweol.

Industrial diversification had gradually increased over
a period of time from 1979 to 1983 in Sungnam, whereas in
Banweol, industrial diversification had greatly increased
over time.

To examine functions of economic bases in the new

towns, the location quotient technique was used based on

 

190

twelve industrial categories in 1982. According to the
results of the location quotients produced, basic activities
rather than non-basic activities were dominant in both
Sungnam and Banweol. Manufacturing sectors such as textiles
and leather, lumber and furniture, nonmetallic minerals,
metallic minerals, and machinery, were predominantly basic
activities, whereas service industries such as medical care
and public service categories were non-basic activities.
Considering all twelve industrial categories together, it
was concluded that Sungnam was more balanced than Banweol.
That is, the general assumption that the larger city is the
more balanced in its economic base can be accepted from this
study.

Another category considered in determining the level
of self-sufficiency in employment was the provision of job
opportunities in the new towns. To measure sufficiency of
job opportunities, the index of commuting independence
technique was used. The index is the ratio of the number of
local commuters to the sum of crossing commuters. The
greater the value of the index, the more sufficient the job
opportunities. Considering the indexes of commuting
independnece, Banweol had more sufficient job opportunities
than Sungnam, which supported the hypothesis that the index
of commuting independence in Banweol is greater than that

in Sungnam.

 

191

The commuting patterns of crossing commuters in the new
towns were much different. The majority of Sungnam's
crossing commuters journyed to work to the outside, whereas
a majority of Banweol's crossing commuters journeyed to work
from the outside. Sufficient or insufficient job
opportunities in the new towns explain these commuting
patterns. Meanwhile, the major sources of crossing
commuters were Inchon, Suwon, Anyang, and particularly
Seoul. The majority of out—commuters from Sungnam journeyed
to work to Seoul, whereas the majority of in-commuters to
Banweol came from Seoul. In this respect, Sungnam depended
on the mother city, Seoul, whereas Banweol was much less
dependent on Seoul for job opportunities.

Finally, to examine the sufficiency of urban services
and facilities, education, health and recreation,
transportation, and residential facilities of the new towns
and Seoul were compared. The reason for comparing the new
towns and Seoul was that establishment of the new towns was
for the purpose of decentralizing Seoul and if the new
towns have sufficient urban services and facilities, they
will attract people to move from Seoul. However, based on
the results of the comparisons, both Sungnam and Banweol
gradually provided less sufficient urban services and
facilities. In this regard, it is difficult for Sungnam and

Banweol to attract people to move there from Seoul. The new

192

towns need more sufficient and convenient urban services and

facilities than presently exist.

Conclusions

 

Based on this study, it is clear that the new town
movement in South Korea faces a number of serious problems.
One of these problems has to do with the nature of the new
towns built so far in South Korea.

There are essentially two kinds of strategies of new
town development in accordiance with social and economic
situations of the nation or metropolitan areas. One
strategy is to develop industrial new towns for producing
various goods for foreign trade. These new towns are
predominantly located in the southern and southeastern
coastal areas of Korea because those areas have locational
advantages for linkages with major trading countries such as
Japan and America.

On the other hand, the purposes of new town development
in the Seoul Metropolitan Region are different from those in
coastal areas. The development strategy in the metropolitan
region is to build new towns to facilitate the
decentralization of Seoul. In order to disperse people and
industries from Seoul, new towns have been established
around the capital city in a manner similar to the
experiences of many countries of Western Europe. For

example, strategies of new town development around London

__._ 7.... .... .-—,.__ ...-___._-‘.. .____.-_-. n-— . .- —..q _

___.__. .__.__-t . -.. --_._-.~.—.~—~.-._.._._.

193

have emphasized the dispersion of population, industries,
and offices from London to the new towns. Around Paris, the
development strategy for new towns has also stressed moving,
particularly industrial facilities, from Paris to the new
towns. The case of Sweden has also shown the
decentralization of population and industries from Stockholm
to new towns scattered around the city. As in many
countries of Western Europe, the urban problems of Seoul
have necessitated the establishment of new towns as a means
of decentralizing Seoul.

Location near Seoul, however, presents a difficult
situation for the self-sufficient development of new towns.
For example, Sungnam has insufficient urban services and

facilities and must depend on Seoul for employment and

education. Although Banweol has sufficient job
opportunities, it lacks sufficient urban services and
facilities. By contrast, in Western Europe, the goal has

generally been to achieve 80 percent self-sufficiency in
employment in new towns.1 In Sungnam and Banweol, there is
little chance of achieving such a high degree of self-
sufficiency in the foreseeable future. As indicated in
Chapter Six, the indexes of commuting independence for
Sungnam and Banweol are 1.058 and 1.677, respectively, much
below an 80 percent level. In order to achieve a goal of 80

percent self-sufficiency in employment, the indexes of

commuting independence for Sungnam and Banweol should be

194

more than 4.0. Another index, in Chapter Five, which was
used to measure the degree of industrial diversification of
Sungnam and Banweol, produced figures of 53 and 43,
respectively, which also fall far short of the 80 percent
level. The larger the value of this index, the less
diversified the industrial composition in the city. Thus,
the values of the indexes for Sungnam and Banweol should be
less than 20 in order to approach the goal of 80 percent
sufficiency in industrial diversification. Thus, the new
towns in the Seoul Metropolitan Region have not, on the
whole, provided self-sufficient and balanced employment.
Development policies are very important in establishing
new towns and substantially influence the degree of
industrial diversification, land use density and
interactions with other urban centers. The source of these
policies is mainly the central and local governments of
Korea, which are influential in establishing new towns. In
this respect, the top-down development strategy, rather than
a bottom-up strategy, has been dominant in developing new
towns in Korea. This situation is similar to new town
development experiences in Western European countries where
the development of new towns has been based on the support
of the public sector. This support, and long-term
development plans in Western European countries, have been
regarded as the reason for the relatively successful

provision of residential facilities and public amenities for

195

low and middle-income people. The provision of housing and
an adequate living environment for low income people has
been a basis of public sector new town development in
Western Europe, whereas the private sector is dominant in
developing new towns in the U.S. This private sector is
likely to provide urban facilities for high or middle-income
people, in order to profit from an investment in developing
new towns. This profit relationship tends to divert new
town deve10pment away from idealistic principles.

In the cases of Sungnam and Banweol in Korea, even
though the public sector has supported their development, it
is difficult to regard them as successful cases, because of
financial and unexpected socioeconomic problems, including
an influx of population from the southern part of Korea
rather than from Seoul. The target year for completing
urban development in both Sungnam and Banweol is 1986, but
the present situation demonstrates that it will be difficult
to provide self-sufficient employment and urban facilities
in the new towns by 1986. Banweol is in the first stage in
constructing urban facilities and recreation and health
facilities are significantly insufficient. In the case of
Sungnam, urban facilitites are also insufficient and slum
settlements are scattered throughout districts peripheral to
the built-up area. Traffic jams in Sungnam in the morning
and evening are very serious and Sungnam has many of the

same urban problems as large cities in Korea.

 

H__q.- ‘_ —

196

The potential for urban growth is different between
Sungnam and Banweol. Only Sungnam has a balanced economic
base when compared with the national economy, whereas
Banweol is dominated by basic activities related to export
functions. In general, large cities tend to have more
balanced economic bases and to be more influential in the
nation's economy than small cities. The balanced economic
base in Sungnam is due in part to its large population. In
contrast, the dominant basic function in Banweol shows a
good potential for urban growth because the foundation of
support for an urban center comes primarily from export
activities. In other words, Banweol's export activities are
channeling income into Banweol's economy. Compared with
Sungnam, the increased rate of population growth in Banweol
has been large, and its industrial diversification has been
relatively rapid over time. Moreover, job opportunities for
residents in Banweol are much larger than in Sungnam. This
suggests that economic activities in Banweol are dynamic,
which is consistent with the development policy emphasizing
rapid urban growth. As a result, the economic structure of
Banweol is sounder than that of Sungnam, based on
diversified industrial composition, relatively sufficient
job opportunities, and export activities.

Several other problems related to new town development
have appeared in this study. First, investment in

developing new towns has been shown to be an important

 

197

factor. In the case of Banweol, urban development has
lagged because of budget problems. According to the
development plan, the population of Banweol in 1981 was to
be 137,600, but the actual population was 41,664. This
actual population was much less than the planned population.
According to the chief of the Banweol branch office of the
Industrial Sites and Water Resources Development
Corporation, Won-Jae Yu, the original plan has been delayed
because of budget shortages in developing the new town, due
to recent domestic and foreign unstable economic situations
as well as changes in the political leadership in Korea.2
The budget problems, reflected in the lack of urban services
and facilities, are a direct cause of the smaller than
planned population in Banweol. The population planned for
Banweol in 1986 is 200,000, but at the present development
pace, Banweol's 1986 population will be much less than
planned. Insufficient urban services and facilities cannot
stimulate the prosperous development of the new towns.
Strong and continuous public investment could induce private
investment in the new town. That is, the multiplier effect
of the public sector investment could accelerate the private
sector investment. In the case of Sungnam, investment has
not been sufficient from the start of the urban development.
For example, when squatters were first removed from Seoul,
these squatters could not have stable living conditions in

the new town because of significantly insufficient urban

198

facilities. Sungnam could be regarded as essentially a
bedroom suburb of Seoul.

Second, it is not necessarily axiomatic that a high
degree of industrial diversification is ideal in developing
new towns. The result of this study showed that Banweol
was more diversified in its industrial base than Sungnam.
Also, Banweol was more self-sufficient in employment
than Sungnam. Development policies produced this result
because only small and improperly located industries were
induced to move from Seoul to Banweol. However, if large—
scale key industries were built in the new town, Banweol
would be more self—sufficient in employment and urban
facilities because these key industries would provide
working opportunities and living facilities for their
employees. Furthermore, an agglomerative effect of various
industries in the new town could be expected.

Third, Sungnam needs other reasonable strategies to
control the growth of its population. The strategy of
restricting enlargement of the present built—up area within
the city is not the only means to control population growth.
Since the strategy has restricted enlarging the built-up
area, the growth of population in Sungnam has led to an
increase in the population density. Because the authorities
have restricted building new houses, residents who live in
rented houses have increased in Sungnam. Relatively low

rents for houses could induce people to move into Sungnam,

199

particularly from the southern part of Korea. The
population density in the built—up area in 1981 was 35,407
persons per square kilometer. Urban congestion is directly
related to the very high population density. Therefore,
Sungnam should have more specific and varied strategies,
such as heavy tax policies, for controlling its population.

Fourth, Sungnam should provide greater job
opportunities in the city. Because of the lack of jobs in
Sungnam, about 40 percent of its total workers journeyed to
work on the outside, particularly in Seoul. In order to
provide more self-sufficiency in employment, Sungnam should
create a stronger industrial base to provide job
opportunities for its residents.

Finally, two or three new towns have not been enough to
disperse the population from Seoul. For example, Banweol and
Sungnam were built with the purpose of dispersing Seoul's
population into the new towns. Banweol now has about 50,000
residents, one-third of whom originated from Seoul. This
figure does not significantly disperse Seoul's population.
The population of Seoul is about 9,000,000. Out of these
9,000,000, one-third of Banweol's population, 17,000, is a

relatively small portion. The same situation applies to the

case of Sungnam. That is, one-fourth of Sungnam's
population, 110,000, came from Seoul. Thus, the
establishment of the new towns has not contributed

significantly to the dispersing of Seoul's population. For

 

200

dispersing Seoul's population significantly, large-scale
development of many new towns may be needed.

In conclusion, this study concerned only a small

segment of the new town development in Korea. Strategies
for public investment, establishing key industries,
controlling population, providing sufficient job
opportunities, and planning continuous and large-scale

development of new towns should be examined more
specifically in the wider context of national socioeconomic
needs. This study helps our understanding of the new town
development in Korea and contributes to the literature
of the new town movement, particularly examination of goal

achievement in new town development.

201

CHAPTER NOTES

1

John Tuppen, "New Towns in the Paris Region: An
Appraisal," Town Planning Review 50 (January 1979):58.
2

Interview with Won-Jae Yu, Chief of Planning
Department, the Banweol Branch Office of the Industrial
Sites and Water Resources Development Corporation, Banweol,
24 June 1983.

 

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Willemain, Thomas R. Statistical Methods for Planners.
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Williams, Jack F.; Brunn, Stanely, D.; and Darden, Joe T.
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Yun, Jong—Hee. "A Study of Gumi Industrial New Town." M.A.
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Goverment and Development
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Anyang, Korea. The Anyang Telephone Company. "Data on
Telephone Calls in Banweol," 1983.

Banweol. The Branch Office of the Korea Housing
Corporation. "Status of Apartment Construction in
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Banweol. The Office of Banweol Township. "Status of
Employment in Banweol," 1982.

216

Banweol. The Office of Banweol Township. "Data on
Population Movement of Banweol," 1982 and 1983.

Bureau of the Census, U.S. Department of Commerce. The
Methods and Materials of Demography. Washington,
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Map of Administration in Banweol, Seoul: The National
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Map of the Construction Plan for Banweol. Banweol:
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Map of the Development Plan for Banweol. Seoul: Jungang

 

Jido Munhwa Sa, 1983.

Map of the Development Plan for Sungnam, Seoul: Jungang
Jideo Munhwa Sa, 1980.

 

Sungnam. The Sungnam City Government. "The Survey of Daily
Trips of Sungnam's Residence," 1983.

Sungnam. The Sungmam Telephone Company. "Data on Telephone
Calls in Sungnam." 1983.

Sungnam. Transportation Department, The Sungnam City
Government. "Data on Commuters," 1982.

The Bank of Korea. Korea: Economy Yearbook, 1981.

 

The Control Office of Korea Industrial Estates. Korea

_—

Industrial Directory. Seoul: The Control Office of
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The Economic Planning Board, Republic of Korea. Korea
Statistical Yearbook, 1968, 1970, 1975, 1977, 1981, and
1983.

- A
Survey of National POpulation. Seoul: Korean

 

Government Printing Office, 1979.

The Korea Appraisal Board. Report of Land Price. Seoul:
Korea Appraisal Board, 1982.

 

The Korea Research Institute for Human Settlements. A Study
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217

The Korea Research Institute for Human Settlements. The

Rearrangement Plan in the Seoul Metropolitan Region

 

(1982-1991). Seoul: Korean Government Printing

 

Office, 1982.

 

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of Strategies for New Town Development. Seoul: Korea

 

Resarch Institute for Human Settlement, 1982.

The Ministry of Construction, Republic of Korea. The Second

 

Program for National Land Development. Seoul: Korean

 

Government Printing Office, 1982.

Report on

 

the Location of Industries. Seoul: Industrial
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, and the
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Government Printing Office, 1977.

 

 

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New Town. Seoul: Korean Government Printing Office,

1978.

 

The

 

. Development Plan for Banweol. Seoul:

 

 

Korean Government Printing Office, 1978.

Ministry of Construction, Republic of Korea, and the
Korea Housing Corporation. The Development Plan in
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1979.

The Ministry of Home Affairs, Republic of Korea. Municipal

The

 

Yearbook of Korea. Seoul: Dongyang Printing Co.,

 

1982.

Office of Banweol Industrial District. Industrial

 

Status. 1981, 1982 and 1983.

Guidelines

 

The

 

for Movement of Industries. Banweol: The Office of
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Office of Banweol Township. Policy for Resident
Settlement and Investment in Banweol. Banweol: The
Office of Banweol Township, 1982.

 

 

The

The

The

The

The

The

The

218

Office of Banweol Township. Banweol Statistical

 

Yearbook, 1980, 1981, 1982 and 1983.

Office of Geography, Department of Interior, U.S.
Government. South Korea: Official Standard Names
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Gazetteer No. 95. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government
Printing Office, 1965.

Office of Prime Minister, Republic of Korea. Policy
for Effective Development of Banweol. Seoul: The

 

Office of Prime Minister, 1980.

Office of the First Unofficial Secretary, Republic of
Korea. An Analysis of the Effects of Population
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Korean Government Printing Office, 1980.

Pohang City Government. Data on the Urban Development

 

Plan of Pohang. Pohang, Korea: Donghang Technical

 

Development Co., 1980.

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Yearbook, 1980 and 1982.

Sungnam City Government. Rearrangement Plan for Urban
Development in Sungnam. Sungnam: Sungnam City

 

 

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Development Plan for Year 2001. Seoul: Hongik

 

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Sungnam Statistical Yearbook.

 

 

1980, 1981, and 1982.

History of Sungnam. Seoul:

 

 

Junkwang Industrial Co., 1982.

Development Plan in Sungnam.

 

 

Sungnam: Sungnam City Government Printing Office, 1983.

Interview

 

Hwang, Je-kie. Professor at Seoul National University,

Im,

Seoul. Interview, 24 June 1983.

Jun-Sik. General Affair Department, the Office of
Banweol Township, Banweol. Interview, 6 July 1983.

 

219

Jo, Yun—Kil. Chief of Planning Department, the Office of
Banweol Township, Banweol. Interview 21 July 1983.

Kim, In-Gyu. Planning Department, the Sungnam City
Government, Sungnam. Interview, 22 July 1983.

Kim, Won. Professor at Seoul City Industrial College,
Seoul. Interview, 27 July 1983.

Kwon, Jin-Boong. Chief of Department of Rearrangement Plan
for the Seoul Metropolitan Region, the Ministry of
Construction, Republic of Korea, Seoul. Interview 19
July 1983.

Kwon, Won—Yong. Chief of Management, the Korea Research
Institute for Human Settlements, Seoul. Interview, 12
July 1983.

Lee, Chan. Professor at Seoul National University, Seoul.
Interview, 4 July 1983.

Lee, Ji-Ho. Professor at Seoul National University. Seoul.
Interview, 4 July 1983.

Lee, Kum—Yong. Urban Policy Department, the Ministry of
Construction, Republic of Korea, Seoul. Interview 21
June 1983.

Lee, Ki—Suk. Professor at Seoul National University, Seoul.
Interview, 7 August 1983.

Yu, Won-Jae. Chief of Planning Department, the Banweol
Branch Office of the Industrial Sites and Water
Resources Development Corporation, Banweol. Interview,

24 June 1983.

. RQRIES

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