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"#11111111M‘11.'1' ‘1""*"‘~" 1:111" 3.1111111": . 31"".‘1 '11“ (.1: W ‘«Imammmnmmmwnmnnmm‘ 3 1293 00679 0996 This is to certify that the thesis entitled Mmmmmmm MLQMW19WASIEIMEDTOTTHES .mmmwmm presented by Linda W Wright has been accepted towards fulfillment of the requirements for WQFJARPS degree in Clothing and 'IExtiles [M 6 4104461111 Major professor Date / / j 0-7639 MS U is an Affirmative Action/Equal Opportunity Intention L: flicfiiigm 32:2, Univewi ty "mat; KNEW“ PLACE IN RETURN BOX to remove this checkout from your record. TO AVOID FINES return on or before date due. DATE DUE DATE DUE DATE DUE W2 '92 no Va .0 DC! I 52003 ‘ . ,- 041-; “N 5‘1993 mm 0 2 20'03 9L1? a -O £53057: JUN 1 1 1525 MSU Is An Affirmative Action/Equal Opportunity Institution cmma CHANGE IN BLACK AMERICAN HAIRSTYLES FROM 1964 THROUGH 1977 AS RELATED TO THEMES IN FEATURE ARTICLES AND ADVERTISEMENTS By Linda Roemere Wright 'A THESIS Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of MASTER OF ARTS Department of Human Environment and Design 1982 ABSTRACT CHANGE IN BLACK AMERICAN HAIRSTYLES FROM 1964 THROUGH 1977 AS RELATED TO THEMES IN FEATURE ARTICLES AND ADVERTISEMENTS By Linda Roemere Wright The purpose of this study was to document the change in black hairstyles from 1964 through 1977, to examine the meaning associated with the change in form, and to examine aspects of the pattern of adoption. Data collection involved a frequency count of people pictured in feature articles and hair product advertisements from.selected issues of Ebony magazine, and a content analysis of feature articles and hair product advertisement copy. Hypotheses were analyzed and tested by the inspection of graphs, spearman rank order correlation coefficient and Chi square statistical test. The .05 level of significance was used to rejeCt the hypotheses. The following conclusions were reached on the basis of the analysis of data. 1. The Afro was introduced during the black power movement. 2. There was a significant cor- relation.between the Afro and the theme racial pride and identity. 3. More men wore the Afro than women. 4. Intro- duction of the Afro in advertising hair care products lagged behind the wearing of the Afro by persons pictured in feature articles. 5. The Afro became a fashion option. TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF TABLES . LIST OF FIGURES Chapter I. II. III. IV. INTRODUCTION . Dress as a Symbol of Socio-cultural Change . . Background of Black Movement . Statement of the Problem . Research Questions and Hypothesis. Definition of Terms Assumptions REVIEW OF THEORETICAL CONSTRUCTS AND LITERATURE . Theoretical Framework. Review of Literature . METHODOLOGY Selection of Time Period . Selection of Publication . Selection of Content . Development of Measures. Data Collection Data Analysis FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION. . . . . . Descriptive Analysis of Trends . Page vi. vii \‘DO‘U‘IU'ILJJIH| 10 10 14 18 18 19 19 20 21 21 23 23 First Research Question. Hypothesis One . Hypothesis Two- Meaning Associated with Styles Second Research Question . Hypothesis Three . Hypothesis Four Hypothesis Five Third Research Question. Hypothesis Six . Hypothesis Seven . Hypothesis Eight . V. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION . Statement of the Problem . Methodology. Conclusion . Recommendations for Further Study APPENDICES A. List of Events During Civil Rights and Black Power Movement . . . . . . . . B. Civil Rights and Black Power Leaders . C. Sample of Data Collection Instruments for Advertisements . . . . . . . D. Sample of Data Collection Instruments for Feature Articles E. Table of Themes in Feature Articles. BIBLIOGRAPHY . Page 23 23 27 28 28 28 33 34 38 38 39 39 AA 44 44 44 49 51 56 57 58 59 60 LIST OF FIGURES Figure Page 1. Men Hairstyles as Percent of Total Styles Observed in Feature Articles, 1964-1977. . . . 24 2. Women Hairstyles as Percent of Total Styles Observed in Feature Articles, 1964-1977. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25 3. Men and Women with Afros and Theme of Racial Pride and Identity as Percent Observed in Feature Articles, 1964-1977 . . . . . . . . . 31 4. Black Power and Civil Rights Leaders with Afros as Percent Observed in Feature Articles, 1968-1972 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40 5. Afros in Advertisement and Feature Articles as Percent Observed, 1964-1977 . . . . . . . . 43 Table LIST OF TABLES Number and Percent of Men Hairstyles Observed in Pictures Accompanying Feature Articles, 1964-1977. . . . . . . Number and Percent of Women Hairstyles Observed in Pictures Accompanying Feature Articles, 1964-1977. . . . . Positive Statements Regarding Women with Afros and Straight Hairstyles in Advertisements of Hair Care Products, 1964- 1977 . Positive Statements Regarding Men with Afro and Straight Hairstyles in Advertisements of Hair Care Products, 1964-1977 . . . Number and Percent of Men Hairstyles Observed in Advertisements, 1964-1977. Number and Percent of Women Hairstyles Observed in Advertisements, 1964-1977 Number and Percent of Themes Observed for Feature Articles, 1964-1977 Page 29 30 35 37 41 42 59 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I give praise, honor and glory to God for giving my life guidance and direction, for without Him.the completion of this master's thesis would have been ime possible. I wish to express my gratitude to Dr. Ann C. Slocum, Academic Program Advisor, and thesis director, for her guidance, patience, thoughtfulness, and the many hours spent in planning, direction and review. Sincere thanks are due to the members of my guidance committee, Ms. Isabel A. Jones and Dr. Jean Schlater for their guidance. I am grateful to my mother, Mrs. Queen Esther Wright, my sisters, Beneta and Jacquelin, and my nephew, Ryan for their love and continual encouragement. For their prayers during the most needed times, I am grateful.to all my brothers and sisters in Christ. Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION Dress and adornment play an important part in every- one's life because they reflect one's social role, self concept, values and lifestyles. The dress of an individual communicates information and is usually a basis on which impressions are first formed. Dress as a Symbol of Socio-Cultural Change It is possible to study societal changes by studying dress. Bush and London (1965, p. 67) hypothesized "that changes in fundamental or enduring modes of dress in a society are in- dicative of changes in the social roles and self concepts of members of that society." The dress of a minority or subset of society may reflect either changes in social roles and concepts that society has,assigned them and/or the self concepts that the individuals of the subset have about themselves. Changes in roles may evolve in response to changing mores or technology or may be percipitated by planned reform, rebellion or revolution.1 In the latter instances dress is often used as a symbol of change as illustrated by the follow- ing examples. The Manchus used dress as a symbol when they came to power in China. They dressed so as to "identify the new governing class and to symbolize their special position. 1HED 434, "Culture, Society and Dress," Class notes, Fall term, 1979. 2 from the rest of society" (Scott, 1965, p. 128). In 1949, when the Communist came to power in China, almost overnight the nation was garbed in sexless clothing that reflected the new national spirit of Marxism.and the role of the individual in serving the state (Scott, 1965, p. 128). In the early years of the Russian revolution, women used clothing to de-emphasize their femininity and to prove their equality with men. Their garb consisted of a "loose, straight skirt, severe jackets with wide shoulders, coats resembling army greatcoats, high boots and kerchiefs" (Topping, 1965, p. 135). Their aim.was to not appear physically attractive. In the United States, the Women's Liberation Movement protested the sexual aspects of women's dress, especially the way certain clothing emphasized the erogenous zones of the body. Although it was not their intention to focus mainly on brassieres, the discarding and burning of the bra became a symbolic element for protest in the women's movement (Morrison, 1972, p. 19). It is the investigator's impression that in these instances the symbolic aspects of dress are initially of great importance and there may be social controls to encourage compliance. Later the meaning of the dress symbol may be less important, and individuals may change their manner of dress or they may continue the old symbol as a fashion. This study will focus on black American hairstyles during the later sixties and early seventies, an era of 3 great social change in the United States. Academic research on black dress is needed for very little objective informa- tion exists while popular theories based on sterotypes abound. For example, Schwartz (1963, pp. 224-232) attempts to explain the "loud and flashy" dress of black men as com- pensatory consumption. His data are based on observation not testing. There is a need for objectivity and to en- lighten the majority concerning the needs of all groups in society. A study that provides information on changing roles and associated values and attitudes can aid inter- group understanding. Background of Black Movement For more than three hundred years black Americans , have been subjected to racial prejudice. They have never agreed with these conditions and have continuously protested them. Although, in certain incidents, some groups and some individuals resorted to violence, the total movement was always one of peaceful and lawful protest (Wynn, 1974, p. 189). i This nonviolent movement, better known as the Civil Rights Movement began to draw-national attention in 1957 with the Montgomery bus boycott (Appendix A for a list of events). This nonviolent movement was led by Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr., president of the Southern Christian Leadership Conference. The conference was composed of several southern black leaders, the majority of whom were ministers. The purpose of the organization was to achieve 4 full citizenship rights for black Americans and the inte- gration of black Americans in all aspects of American life (Wynn, 1974, p. 106). The civil rights movement brought a new sense of dignity and respect to blacks. It helped to improve the self image of the masses of blacks. However, before the death of Dr. King in 1968, black attitudes appeared to be moving away from nonviolent resistance as a strategy for winning civil goals. This was due to the power structure of white America. Because of this in 1968, many black protest leaders reacted to their frustrations by be- coming militant (Poussaint, 1969, p. 64), this was the beginning of the black power movement. The "black power" slogan represented a turnabout in the mood of black Americans. The term represented consciousness. It was a call for black Americans to unite, to recognize their heritage and to build a sense of community. It was a call to rejectt the racist institutions and values of American society (Carmidhael, 1967, p. 43). The black power ideology was a reaction to the dis- appointment, frustration and fears experienced by the more militant black protest leaders. The reaction was charact- erized by "black is beautiful" slogans, the insistence upon black schools and black studies programs, active attempts to stress black identity such as the wearing of natural hairstyles and African dashikas, an emphasis of soul music 5 and soul food and the demand for black movies (wynn, 1974, p. 176). It is the investigators belief that the Afro hair- style was adopted by blacks as an expreSsioriof racial pride and identity, but later use of the hairstyle was more for fashion than for symbolic meaning. Statement of the Problem The purpose of this study is to document the change in black hairstyles from.1964 through 1977, to examine the meaning associated with the change in form, and to examine aspects of the pattern of adoption. Research Questions and Hypotheses The following research questions and hypotheses served as a guide for this investigation. 1. When in the sequence of events was the Afro intro- duced and when did modifications in its form occur? Ho 1 The Afro was introduced during the period of social change led by black power advocates. Ho 2 Over time the proportion of Afro increased, then decreased as the proportion of persons with straight hair and persons with variations of the Afro increased. 2. What meaning was associated with black hairstyles? Ho 3 From 1964 through 1970, there will be a positive relationship between the proportion of people wearing Afros in pictures and the proportion of themes dealing with racial pride and identity in feature articles. 6 Ho 4 From 1971 through 1977, there will be a negative relationship between the proportion of persons wearing a variation of the Afro and the frequency of racial pride and identity themes in feature articles. Ho'5 Over time the proportion of positive statements about straight hair in advertising copy will decrease and the proportion of positive statements about the Afro will increase and finally the proportion of neutral statements will increase. 3. Is there a discernable pattern of acdeptance of the Afro? Ho 6 A greater proportion of men than women will wear the Afro in each time period. Ho 7 A greater proportion of black power than civil rights leaders will wear the Afro in the earlier time period. Ho 8 There will be a lag between the time people are pictured wearing the Afro and the appearance of the Afro in advertisements. Definition of Teams Hairstyles identified in this study are: a) Afro hairstyle or natural is the normal state of most black American's hair. The hair is allowed to curl tightly and form a smooth round shape around the face and head. i b) Variations of the Afro. (l) Puff is a variation of the Afro. A portion of the hair is gathered and held together at the root of the hair to form a ball-like shape. All of the hair can be pulled to the top of the head or either side or parted down the middle with a puff on each side of the head. 7 (2) ghag is a variation of the Afro in which the hair is trimmed everywhere except at the nape. The hair at the nape is longer and lies flat on the neck. (3) Braids or cornrows are strands of hair plaited together to form a continuous braid on the head. Corn- rowing has no set pattern. The pattern is left up to the discretion of the person doing the cornrowing. c) Close cut is the normal state of black American's hair except it is cut close on the top of the head and extremely close on sides. This style uses the same principles as the crew cut and is worn by men only. d) Straight hairstyles in this thesis refers to any variety of styles in which the hair has been straightened by some process. (l) 92 k.is a process used on men's hair in ; which the hair is chemically processed to obtain a straight effect. The processing was usually done with chemicals. (2) Permanent is a chemical process used on hair ‘ to obtain a straight effect. (3) Pressed is a process of achieving straight hair by using.a heated metal comb. This does not last as long as a perm or conk but was very popular for years. It was used by women more than men. Themes in feature articles a) Racial pride and identity refer to the common interests, objectives and standards among the black race. 8 It is the state of being proud. Words and phrases such as self-esteem, sureness, "black and proud" and "black is beautiful" are expressions of black pride. b) Achievement refers to recognition or success in any area of life such as education, politics, and entertainment. c) The category "Other" includes themes not deemed relevant to this study such as fashion news, family life styles and religion. Symbolic style is a form of dress and/or adornment introduced by a particular group to show changes in social roles and self concepts or it may be a new meaning imparted to existing styles. Hairstyles may have symbolic meaning or they may be fashionable with little intended message other than "avant-guard" or "being in fashion." In this study the Afro is considered a symbolic style. Black leader is one who had an influential effect among the black population. This will include a) civil rights activist such as Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr., and Ralph Abernathy, and b) black power activist such as H. "Rap" Brown and Stokely Carmichael (Appendix B). Assumptions In conducting this study the following assumptions are necessary for the formation and testing of the hypotheses. 1. Changes in black American hairstyles ,can be observed in black interest publications. 9 2. Pictures and advertisements in black interest publications will to some extent accurately reflect the real world acceptance of hairstyles by black Americans. Chapter II REVIEW OF THEORETICAL CONSTRUCTS AND LITERATURE ,Theoretical Framework Stone proposes a theory to explain how others' response to one's appearance influences the self. He uses the term pro- gram to mean how a person presents himself, and review to re- present how others respond. If one's program is reviewed as ex- pected or wanted the person is satisfied and the self is vali- dated. However, if the review is not favorable the self is challenged and the person would probably re-evaluate his/her program (Stone, 1965, pp. 221-111). Stone (1965) conceives of one's program as including the dimensions of identity, value, ‘mood and attitudes. The self is established and maintained through these dimensions. Historically, blacks were placed lower in the stratifica- tion system because they were perceived by the system as being socially unequal. Stratification can be defined as a ranking system in which people are assigned to unequal positions within the social structure (Mckee, 1969, p. 241). One aspect of social stratification discussed by Tumin (1967,pp. 24-31) is evaluation, e.g. , making judgments such as "better to worse" and "favorable to unfavorable." Thisresearcher believes thatthe evaluation process relates to Stone's "review." Historically, black Americans received negative reviews about their hair from white Americans. The majority had straight hair and it was seen as attractive. 10 ll Mckee notes that race provides a criterion for status. It allows members of society to judge people as inferior because of biological differences (Mckee, 1969, p. 242). Biologically, most black hair is tightly curled or kinky. When these types of judgments are passed one could ignore them, reject society totally, try to conform to the standard, or attempt to change society (Tumin, 1967, p. 39). For a period of time, blacks spent vast amounts of money on hair straighteners, trying to elicit a favorable valida- tion of self from others. By straightening their hair, blacks adorned themselves to be acceptable to the majority and this style endured for a number of years. Bush and London (1965) hypothesize that changes in enduring modes of dress are indicative of changes in social roles and self concept of members of the society. During the mid-sixties, self-concepts and role expecta- tions of blacks changed. At this time black protest over lack of access.to jobs and housing, and lack of improvement in political and educational gains were overt. Blacks began to abandon age old attitudes of docility toward whites and began to claim their rights as American citizens (Brisbane, 1974, p. 127). Blacks no longer needed or desired a validation of self from.white America. Black leaders pushed for blacks to develop separate values from.white America. Phillips (1969, p. 407) states that "leaders are an important source 12 of social change and in exchange they can exact compliance with their own wishes." Leaders demanded equality for blacks in all aspects of life, and they also called for blacks to reject the values of white America. The basic principle of black power was race consciousness which included the concepts of racial pride and identity. This eclectic review provides a background for examin- ing the data but not a comprehensive theory that integrates the relevant ideas. The investigator is reminded of Stinch- combe's observation (1968, p. 3) that ”a sociologist is ordinarily confronted with phenomena for which there are no theories." He further suggests that ". . . the only way to get theories of many important phenomena is to make them up oneself" (p. 13). Bush and London's hypothesis that "changes in enduring modes of dress are indicative of changes in social roles and self concepts" provides a point of departure for this study. Straightened hair had been an enduring mode of dress deriving from the minority position of blacks in the society. A change from.that enduring mode to the Afro was indicative of changes in social roles and self concepts. However, Bush and London and other writers whose works were reviewed do not address the function of appearance in the process of change. It seems to the writer that: (1) Dress is often a symbol of a reform movement thnzembodies the ideas or aims of the group. 13 (2) Initially the meanings associated with the dress symbol are of utmost importance. (3) People may adopt the dress symbol spontane- ously or because of social regulation and control. (4) Continuation of the dress symbol depends on a variety of factors such as how widely the symbol is adopted, the response it receives from.others, the success of the movement, the means of control, if any, that are in- volved. ' (5) Over time symbols or fhe meanings associated with them may change. The general ideas seem to apply to the specific instance of black hairstyles from 1964 through 1977. It is the writer's belief that blacks used the Afro as a symbol of identity, to express a value, and to call attention to the change in attitudes. It was a means of expressing new views and identifying with the movement. The wearing of the Afro became understood to be a means of showing cohesiveness among the black race and a stability in their beliefs. After the meaning of the symbol had been established, the need for everyone to exhibit the symbol became less intensified. The Afro, therefore, became a fashion option. Review of the Literature This section will present selected studies on black self concept as it was reflected through appearance. 1Ideas developed in conference with adviser, Dr. Ann C. Slocum. 14 In 1939 and 1947, K.B. Clark and M.K. Clark used the "Dolls Test" to evaluate the racial preference of 253 black children. The majority of the children chose white dolls as being favorable. These studies conclude, that the children had a negative view of their physical features. In 1942 and 1958, other researchers used the same test with ten and eleven year old children, and there were similar findings (Roth, 1970) indicating an acceptance of the white mode of physical appearance. As an increasing number.of blacks acquired an education and as the civil rights movement progressed, new attitudes and beliefs were demonstrated. Children were taught to be proud of their blackness. Slogans about black.pride such as "black is beautiful" and "black and proud" abound. Ward and Braun repeated the "Dolls Test" ingthe early 1970's to determine the racial pride of black children. The sample consisted of sixty black children that were seven and eight years of age. They found that 70 percent chose the black doll as being "nice," 82 percent chose the black doll for having the "best color," and 70 percent said the white doll "looked bad" (Rodgers, 1973). This study reflected the positive self concept these elementary children had about themselves and the devaluing they had for whites. A study done in 1950 was compared to a study in 1970 to examine the degree of change in black perception of physical appearance over a twenty year period. A small 15 black community in St. Louis County, Missouri was used. The populationixrthe county had remained relatively the same over the twenty years. The same school and grade levels were used. Students in grades nine through twelve were used in the sample. The first study in 1950 consisted of 177 participants and the group in 1970 consisted of 218 male and female participants. The students responded to several statements concerning perception of personal appear- ance. The only results the researcher will report concerns the hair. In 1950, 17.5 percent said they'had straight, wavy, or curly hair, 82 percent had pressed hair and no one had an Afro. In 1970, 9.6 percent said they had straight, wavy, or curly hair, 25 percent had pressed hair and 65.4 had their hair natural. The students were also asked what type of hair they preferred for thier spouse, a close friend, an associate in a club and a friend. In 1950, combined male and female responses were 66.8 percent preferred for their spouse, straight, wavy, or curly hairstyle, 28 percent pre- ferred pressed hair and 6.2 percent had no response. In 1970, 8.6 percent preferred straight, wavy,cnrcurly hair, 9.2 preferred pressed hair and 79.2 percent preferred the Afro for their spouse. There was little difference in the type of hair preferred for spouse, friends and associates. A higher percent of males, 90.1 percent preferred their spouse to have Afro's, as compared to 40.8 females (Goering, 1972). 16 Goering concludes there was a change in perception of personal appearance among blacks in the twenty years covered in this study. He says the sample was too small to determine whether this was the feeling of the entire black population. He states there may have been a change in the standards of the entire American population since the Afro was being accepted by whites and blacks at that period in time. He felt although the Afro was used during the black protest, it could also have been used for fashion rather than a symbol of black pride. However, he did state that the change in black perception of beauty does reflect the statement "black is beautiful" (Goering, 1972). In 1968, a study of fifth grade students was done to determine what concepts they had about black pride. The subjects used in the study were from.integrated and segre- gated schools. The sample consisted of four integrated classes and three segregated classes. The schools were located in Wayne and Oakland counties, Michigan. The students were asked seven questions concerning black pride. One questions asked the students what type of hair they liked. The majority of students, 86 percent out of 94 percent chose black and curly hair, 6 percent had no response. There was no difference between the students in integrated and segre- gated schools. It was concluded from the seven questions that those students had a positive concept of black pride (Roth, 1970). 17 These studies do reflect a change in values of appearance over time. However, neither study tested the meaning associated with the changes in self perception. These studies only reported and hypothesized what is believed to be true about the reason for the change in black American hair styles. This short review of literature supports the researcher's contention of the lack of scholarly research in the area of black people's dress and adornment. Chapter III METHODOLOGY In this chapter the reader will find a discussion of the methodology used to document the change in black hairstyles from 1964 through 1977 and to examine the meaning associated with the change in form. The following sections are included: (1) selection of time period, (2) selection of publication, (3)se1ec- tion of content, (4) data collection and, (5)method of analysis. Selection of Time Period To study the symbolic meaning of the change in black American's hairsytles, a period of time which brought about much social change for blacks was chosen. The years 1964 through 1977 were chosen because they include the decline of the civil rights move- ment and the start of the black power movement. The social and economic gains of blacks had improved because of the civil rights movement; however, when compared to the gains of white Americans, the gap was as wide as ever. The black power movement developed in 1966 because of the frustrations of the civil rights move- ment. Blacks desired more social, economic and political change (Wynn, 1974, p. 206). 1 Selection of Publication For this investigation, a magazine that was directed to a black audience, had pictures of blacks and was published in a time period under study was needed. Ebony was chosen 18 19 because of the abundance of pictures and because the articles and advertisements present information on the black culture. Ebony was also chosen because it appeals to upper or upper middle class blacks likely to be interested in black rights movement and its symbols. Information on the topics under study was not consistently and systematically addressed by the publication, although it was believed to be the best choice available for the purposes of this study. Selection of Content The changes in black hairstyles were documented from two types of material. Data regarding hairstyles were collect- ed from pictures of adults in feature articles and from.hair product advertisements. Feature articles are those discuss- ing current events, achievements of individuals, biographical sketches of nationally known individuals, etc. Artistic illustrations were not included. Both color and black-and- white pictures were used since color does not affect the hairstyle variables under study. Any picture in which the hairstyle. was not clearly seen was labeled undetermined. Hair products advertisements included but were not limited to the following: shampoo, permanents, hairdressing, Afro picks, combs, and hair vitamins. Wigs were not included. The meaning for the hairstyles was based on advertising copy associated with hair care products. Meaning was also derived from a content analysis of the themes in feature articles. Content analysis can be defined as a "research g 20 technique for the objective, systematic, and quantitative description of the manifest content of communication" (Berelson, 1952, p. 18). Thematic analysis was chosen because it is an effective way of studying public opinion (Berelson, 1952, p. 139). Development of Measures Two data collection instruments were developed to document and record the change in black American hairstyles from 1964 through 1977. A sample of material not included in study was used as a basis of developing coding of thematic material. Advertisements of hair care products were used to trace changes in hairstyles. Separate forms were used to collect information on males and females pictured in the advertisement (Appendix C). If both sexes were pictured in one advertisement, information for each was recorded. Information on changes in hairstyles for people pictured in feature articles was tabulated on different forms. In addition to frequency of hairstyles for men and for women, a separate record of hairstyles for leaders was kept (Appendix D). The frequency count included all identifiable hairstyles of adults. Data Collection To document and record the change in hairstyles a frequency count of people pictured in feature articles and advertisements was made from selected issues of Ebony 21 magazine located in Michigan State University library. For advertisements, the months January, April, July and October were used for each year, 1964 through 1977. Every month, 1968 through 1972, was used for centent analysis of feature articles because this was the height of the black power movement (Pinkney, 1975, p. 283). The months January, April, July, and October were used to analyze feature articles for years before 1968 and after 1972. Separate charts were used to record findings of advertisements and feature articles. Data for men and women were recorded on separate charts. The theme of each article was recorded as was the type of hair style worn and the numbercf times it was shown in the picture (Appendix D). Data Analysis Graphs and charts of frequency of hair styles for men and women pictured in advertisements and in feature articles, and of the theme racial pride and identity were prepared. Based on the distribution, time periods of 1964 through 1970, and 1971 through 1977 were. established. Spearman rank order correlation coefficient was used to test hypotheses three and four. Chi square statistical test was used to test hypotheses six and seven. The .05 level of significance was used for rejecting the hypotheses. The remaining hypotheses were analyzed by inspection of the graphs. Other statistical techniques for analyzing changes over time, such as a path analysis, and time series analysis, 22 were not appropriate for these data because of the limited number of statistical units, e.g., years involved. CHAPTER IV FINDINGS AND DISCUSSIONS The purposes of this study were to document the change in black American hairstyles from.l964 to 1977, to examine the meaning associated with the change in form, and to examine aspects of the pattern of adoption. In the following chapter, the data are presented and discussed in relation to research questions and hypotheses. Descriptive Analysis of Trends The first research question was, when, in.the sequence of events was the Afro introduced and when did modifications in its form occur? Hypothesis 1 The Afro was introduced during the period of social change led by black power advocates. Figures 1 and 2 show that men and women pictured in feature articles first wore the Afro hairsytlein 1965. The number of individuals wearing the Afro hairstyle was pro- portionately small, 5 percent of the men and 2.8 percent of the women. Although the black power movement had not officially started, national attention was focused on racial issues in 1965, When the most serious racial disturbance in American history took place in the "Watts" section of Los Angeles (Appendix A). In 1966, the Black power movement was introduced. Black power leaders pushed for separatism and the number of 23 100 Frequency as Percentage of Total Observed 95 90 85 8O 75 70 65 60 55 50 45 40 35 30 25 20 15 10 24 . ..1.A A.“ 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 Years Figure 1. Men Hairstyles as a Percent of Total Styles Observed in Feature Articles, 1964-1977. Afro Close cut Conk Wavy 4+4.” 00.0000 _ -....- Frequency as Percentage of Total Observed 25 100 .. 95 9o 85 80 _ 75 .1. . 70 '2. 65 ' O 60 . 55 ' . 50 . 45 30 ._ 25 ' O 20 15 10 ,K 5 , x\ o.‘ \ ’O. O _ “a"- \s: :7 \L j v vi v 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76' 77 Years Figure 2. Women Hairstyles as a Percent of Total Styles Observed in Feature Articles, 1964-1977. Afro Perm Braids Puff .HH 0... a---- -— 26 racial disturbances increased until 1972. At this time the Black Panther Party, as well as other black power advocates, announced they would give up the "pick up the gun" approach in favor of community work and voter regis- tration (Appendix A). Figure 1 shows the number of men pictured wearing Afros in feature articles increased dramatically from 37 percent in 1968 to 95 percent in 1969. The largest increase in the percentage of women pictured with an Afro was also between the years of 1968 and 1969. The percent of women pictured wearing Afros increased from 14.8 percent to 57 percent. This increase in the appearance of the Afro occured after the assassination of Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr., in 1968, which brought.about several incidents of militant activities. In examining events over time it should be remembered that awareness of racial issues was probably cummulative. That is, each year is not independent of previous years, but attitudes and events from past years may carry over into the particular year in question. While the hypothesis was not statistically tested the large increase in Afros soon after the beginning of the black power movement lends support to the hypothesis. Hypothesis 2 Over time the proportion of Afros increased, then decreased as the proportion of persons with straight hair and persons with variations of the Afro increased. 27 Figure 1 shows the number of men pictured wearing the Afro in feature articles increased from 5 percent in 1965 to 100 percent in 1970. That number remained at 99.5 to 100 percent from 1970 until the study period ended in 1977. There were no men pictured with the variations in the Afro hairstyle, such as braids and shags, named in this study. However, the writer observed that the size of men's Afro increased at the time that these variations were worn by women. Figure 2 shows the number of wOmen pictured wearing Afros increased from.l4.8 percent in 1968 to 57.1 percent in 1969. During the next two years women pictured wearing Afros increased to 70 percent. Although the number of women wearing Afros continued to increase in 1970, modifications of hairstyles were introduced. The modifications, braids and the puff, were observed from 1970 to 1976 and may be an indication that the symbolic meaning of the Afro was established and individuals were free to follow fashion in hairstyles. However, neither modification was ever more than five percent of the total styles pictured in any particular year. From 1975 to 1976 women pictured wearing the Afro decreased from 59.5 percent to 24.05 percent and the percent of women pictured wearing straight hair increased substantially from 35.5 to 76 percent. Based on visual observation of the graphs, the first part of hypothesis 2, regarding the increase in the frequency 28 of wearing the Afro was supported. The last portion was supported to a limited extent for women but not for men. It is the writer's opinion that it was not generally acceptable f0r men to wear braids, shags or straight hair, therefore, pictures of individuals with these variations were not featured in Ebggy magazine. Had the large Afro that extended further from the head been identified as a variation, some decline in the Afro for men might have been observed in this time period. MeaningyAssociated With Styles The second research question was, what meaning was associated with the Afro hairstyle? Hypothesis 3 From 1964 through 1970, there will be a positive relationship between the proportion of people wearing Afros in pictures and the proportions of themes dealing with racial pride and identity in feature articles. Racial pride and identity accounted for the largest share of thematic information for four of the five years between 1968 and 1970 (Appendix E). The theme seemed to begin in 1965 and cease after 1974. Tables 1 and 2 show the number and percent of times the Afro was worn by men and women respectively in the feature articles between 1964 and 1977. These trends were discussed in the preceeding section. Figure 3 plots the percent of the theme racial pride and identity and the percent of men and women pictured 29 mm o o o o e o o 0 gas an need mm o o e o o o o o eoH Na eeafl Nee o o o o o o e o cos Ned mesa wee o o o o o o a 9 cos moH eemfl mHN e o m. a o e o o n.am NHN meefl mmm o o o o o o o o ecu man «has nee o e o e o o o e ceH nee Heed nee e o o o o o ON. fl am.mm Nee came sen o o o e o o km.n Hm Ne.ea een meme oem «me. n eo.~ HA em.~ ea oe.en can ec.em com mesa an o e Ne.m n um.eH e He.ne em mo.nm em need ea c o He.oH ea ~e.eH ea Ne.ne me en.m~ ms eeea nee o o eH.o ea an.e m Ne.He Nee eH.n e mesa he 0 o oe.o~ we e~.m~ he eo.~e en o o some N z N N N z N z gees Houoa ocmuu ocaahouooca oo>o3 unwaouum usu omoao oum< ououmoh wcamowoaoou< monouowm ow oo>uomoo moahumufioz no: mo ucoouom can nooaoz .nsmuucoma .aoaowuu< .H money 30 .fiQPHQmQO U05 mm»? UH .vommouo can monocoahoo movsHoaH ustouum H omsmoon uuono :H ooosHocH uo: mos mono one an o o mm.nm oo o o o o no.e~ mH nan NMH o o Nm.cn mm o 0 cm. H Nq.Nq on ohaH HNH o o mn.nm me cm.m c mo.H N on.am Nu nan NHH o o co.mm Ho mm. H o o oH.¢o ms qan ooH o o mm mm m m H H no no nnaH mum o o Hq.m~ an o o mm.m HH No.Ho me msmH saw 0 o mm.~N an Nn.~ n m~.< HH mo.om owH HmaH mHm o o n.Hm mm mmo. N o o no.mo mHN oumH new o o m.~¢ mHH o o o o H.5n mmH momH men mm. H m.qm cow 0 o o o m.cH Nn woaH we o o w.qm mm o c o o «.mH m momH as o o n.5m mm o o o o n.NH m oomH qu o 0 mm HoH o o o o m.~ m nomH on o o ooH on o o o o o o comH N z N z N z N z N z umow Honey ocmuo ooHahouooon Huanouum monum «mam ouw¢ .muaHreomH moHoHuu< ousuoom :H mo>uomno mloumuHmm Coaoz mo uooouom too “@9832 .~ money 100 LnO‘O‘ OU‘IOUIOUI 0 'Frequency as Percentage of Total U'I NNUJWb-l-‘U'I U'I I—‘H omouio 31 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 Years Men and Women with Afros and Theme of Racial Pride and Identity as Percent Observed in Feature Articles, 1964-1977. Figure 3. Theme, Racial Pride and Identity Afro, Men Afro, Women «MH+HHHb ‘---- 32 wearing Afros for the 1964 to 1971. Although the trends in Figure 3 appeared to be somewhat similar, a statistical test was needed to test whether there was a significant relationship between the percent of racial pride and identity thematic material and the percent of people wear- ing the Afro hairstyle. The Spearmanxran'k order correlation coefficient was used to test this hypothesis. "Spearman rank order correlation is a measure of association in which two variables are measured on an ordinal scale so that objects or individuals under study may be ranked in two ordered series" (Siegel, 1956, p. 202). Thus, the percent of racial pride thematic material and the percent of people wearing the Afro were rank ordered for the years 1964 through 1970. The years involved were the statistical units. 4 For men a rs coefficient of .89 was computed and was statistically significant at the .01 level. This association is consistent with Barbour's (1970, p. 10) statement that the Afro was an expression of black consciousness, and Pinkney's (1975, p. 197) reference to the Afro as a symbol of racial pride and identity. A rS coefficient of .821 was computed for women and was statistically significant at the .05 level. Thus, hypothesis 3 was supported for both men and women. Even stronger support for this hypothesis would likely have been found had observations ofeindividuals been treated as the statistical unit, and had the source of data been books and articles written by black leaders. 33 Hypothesis 4 From 1971 through 1977, there will be a negative relationship between the proportion of persons wearing a variation of the Afro and the frequency of racial pride and identity themes in feature articles. Figure 3 plots the relative frequency of the thematic material of racial pride and identity. Tables 1 and 2 show the number and percent of times the Afro was worn by men and women, respectively. These data suggest that the symbolic meaning of the hairstyle may have been established quickly and remained important as a symbol for a relatively brief period. It was believed that after the symbolic meaning of the Afro was established hairstyles would again be worn for reasons of fashion. Therefore, variations in styles were expected to occur whenthe general empahsis on racial pride and identity declined. The Spearman rank order correlation co- efficient was used to test the hypothesis. The correlation between the proportion of persons wearing variation of the Afro and the frequency of racial pride and identity themes was rS .228 for men and .5 for women. Thus the hypothesis was not excepted. Although variations in women's hairstyles did occur during this time period as expected the trend was not one of progressive decline. Results for men might have been different had the large Afro been.considered as a variation. In the case of women, had straight hair been considered as a variant style, statistical significance 34 would have resulted. A rS coefficient of -.785 significant at the .05 level was computed for straight hair and the theme racial pride and identity. Hypothesis 5 Over time the proportion of positive statements about straight hair in advertising copy will decrease and the proportion of positive state- ments will increase and finally the proportion of neutral state- ments will increase. Advertising is believed to reflect societal attitudes (Goffman, 1979), p. 27). Therefore, examining statements in advertising copy was considered another way to gain insight into the meaning of the Afro. Table 3 shows that for women in 1964, and from 1968 through 1970, all advertising copy that accompanied straight hair made positive statements about its beauty. In the inter- vening years, 1965 through 1967, advertising copy said less about the style and focused on qualities of the product, such as its usefulness. This type of copy was classified as neutral. Positive statements about straight hair began to decrease in 1971, dropping from 29.7 percent to 2.08 percent in 1973. After 1973, positive statements about straight hair were not recorded. After the Afro was introduced in 1968, all advertising copy that appeared with the style was positive, stressing racial pride and identity as well as beauty. The proportion of positive statements increased from 28.9 percent of the total number in 1968 to 56.3 percent in 1973. There- after, there was a sharp decline in the number of positive 35 coH mm o o o o NNmH cs.em on o o o~.m N onH ooH wH o o o o nNmH Hm.~m «N o o mm.mH e eNoH No.He om mo.~ H mm.om AN man cH.nm mH on.~ H NN.em Hm NumH ~m.e~ o mn.a~ HH mo.me NH HNmH o o n.mm wH m.ne mH oan o o m~.wo mm HN.Hm mH momH o o HH.HN Nn mm.m~ mH womH mm.H H HH.wm mm o o NemH mw.o~ m NH.MN oH o o oomH oH.MH m em.cm mm o o moaH o o ooH mm o o «omH N z N z N z umow Houusoz o>HuHmom ucmHuuum u>HuHmom oum< .Neea-eeafi .eueseoee eueu use: we muCoEomHuuo>v< Eoum monumuHoz uanmuum can ouw< nuHa £0503 wchuowom mucoEoumum o>HuHmom .m oHAwH 36 statements. As the positive statements for straight and Afro hairstyles decreased, neutral statements, indicating that either style was acceptable, increased. The same advertisements for hair care products were directed to persons wearing straight hair as well as persons wearing the Afro and both were frequently pictured in the same advertisement. Table 4 shows that for men, in 1964 through 1966, all advertising copy that accompanied straight hair made positive statements about its beauty. Positive statements about straight hair began to decrease in 1967 dropping from 86.66 percent to zero percent in 1969. At that time no men; were observed wearing straight hair. Positive statements accompa- nied all Afro styles observed from 1968 through 1972. There- after, there was a steady decline in the number of positive statements. As the positive statements about the Afro de- creased, neutral statements about the style increased. Advertisements no longer suggested that the Afro was a sign of masculinity, racial pride and strength, but stressed usefulness of the product. Based on visual observation this hypothesis was support- ed for both men and women. 37 eoH e o o o o NNNH OOH NH o o o e eNmH ooH oH e o o o nNNH ne.mm NN o o mm.e H eNNH He.mN m o o NH.eN eH NNNH o o o o ooH He NNmH h H o o no NH HNNH e o o o ooH ON oNaH o o o o ooH HN meeH eN.N H ee.eN N CH HN meeH NN.NH N ee.ee NH o o NeeH o o eoH eH o o eeaH o o ooH NH 0 e nemH o o OOH NH o o eeeH N z N z N z moo» HQHUDQZ 0>wUHm0m ufiwflwhum Obnmuwmom OHH< .NNmHueemH .ouosvoum ouoo uHom mo mucoaomHuuo>o< Boum monumuon uanouum moo ouw< nqu so: onoummom muooaououm o>HuHmom .c oHnms 38 The third research question was, is there a discernable pattern of acceptance of the Afro? Hypothesis 6 A greater proportion of men, than women will wear the Afro in each time period. Tables 1 and 2 present the number and percent of men and women respectively that were pictured wearing the Afro in feature articles for the years 1964 through 1977. This information is also graphed in Figures 1 and 2. Observation of the data indicates that larger proportions of men adopted the Afro than women for each year observed. A Chi square test was used to determine the significance of differences observed between the two independent groups. The calculated x2 value of 43.587 (dfal3) was significant at the .001 level. Thus, the hypothesis was accepted. It is the writer's belief that a greater proportion of men adopted the Afro than women because it was not such a drastic change from the close out style worn earlier. It was only a matter of letting the hair grow longer. Women, however, had to make a complete change from straight hair, which was considered beautiful, to the Afro, which for years had been considered unattractive. This meant that women had to change to a new value system.which may have hindered their acceptance of the Afro. .The greater proportion of variations in hairstyles for women also suggest that women may have been more interest- ed in fashion. As noted firthe discussion of hypothesis four, the decline in wearing the Afro by women is not interpreted 39 as a loss of racial pride but rather a sense of freedom to choose other styles. It should be remembered that men also exhibited variations in the length of the Afro during this time period. Hypothesis 7 A greater proportion of black power than civil rights leaders will wear the Afro from 1968 through 1972. Figure 4 shows that greater percentage of black power leaders wore Afros than did civil rights leaders. A large percent of the civil rights leaders wore their hair in the close cut style which was widely accepted for men during the 1960's. The calculated Chi Square value of 26.418 (df - 5) was significant at the .001 level. Therefore, the hypothesis was accepted. This finding is consistent with the idea that the style had symbolic meaning and was associated with the black power leaders. Hypothesis 8 There will be a lag between the time people are pictured wearing the Afro and the appearance of the Afro in advertisements. Tables 5 and 6, and Figure 5 shows that in 1965 men and women were observed wearing the Afro in feature articles. However, the Afro was not seen in advertisements until 1968. It is the writer's opinion that manufacturers wait to promote controversial or new.styles until they sense public acceptance or feel that there is a demand for products such as those necessary to care for the Afro. Frequency as Percentage of Total Observed 100 95‘ 9o 854 4O 64 65 66 67 68 69 7o 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 Years Figure 4. Black Power and Civil Rights Leaders With Afros as Percent Observed in Feature Articles, 1968—1972. Black Power Leaders Civil Rights Leaders 41 o O O O O O O OOH o NNOH mH O O O O O O OOH nH ONmH OH O O O O O O OOH OH nNOH ON ON.» N O O O O OM.HO HN «OOH HN O O O O O O OOH HN nNOH HO O O O O O O OOH He NNOH ON O O m H O O mO OH HNOH ON O O O O O O OOH ON ONOH HN O O O O O O OOH HN OOOH on mm.MH O mm.mH e mm.n H ON HN OOOH mH N0.0N O OO O mm.mH N O O NOOH OH O: O OO O O O O O OOOH NH No.0H N mm.mw O O O O O nOOH NH OO.N¢ w OO.Nn O O O O O «OOH N z N z N z N z umow HoOOH Oamuu oo>o3 xcoo uao omoHU ouw< .NNOHIQQQH auucwammfluhfl>v¢ a.“ UO>HQQDO 60H~Aumhflmv~ CO: MO UQQUHOAH UCG H0352 .n oHnoH 42 .Oo>uomno uo: moz uH monsoon uuono 6H vounHucH uos mos mono may ON MN.OO OH O O mm.m H N0.0N N NNOH Om mn.OO MN mo.N H O O em.om OH ONOH OH on.nn OH on.n H O O 0.0n N mNOH ON Hn.Nc HH O O O O N.Nn mH ONOH we mn.mm OH nN.O m N.q N nN.on NN ONOH Nm «H.Nm nH HN.n N O O OO.NO NN . NNOH Nm nO.¢n ON O O O O nO.m¢ NH HNOH mm nn.en OH O O O O ne.me mH ONOH He ON.OO ON O O O O ON.Hm mH OOOH me HH.HN Nm O O O O 0.0N mH OOOH mm OOH mm O O O O O O NOOH ON OOH «N O O O O O O OOOH Om OOH an O O O O O O «OOH mm OOH mm O O O O O O «OOH N z N z N z N 2 new» Hooch compo Boom «OHmum wwdm ouw< .NNOHrqOOH .muooaomHuuo>o< :H Oo>nomoo moHNumuHoz coaox mo unmouom mom nunasz .o OHAMH Frequency as Percentage of Total Observed 100 95 90 85 80 75 70 65 60 55 50 45 40 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0 4 ooh---Q--o-. '“go. . ,r—Ho'o-e-h-w 0" . 0 ~ .‘ “ . 0‘. . 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 Years Figure 5. Afros in Advertisements and Feature Articles As Percent Observed, 1964-1977. Afro, Feature Articles Male WOmen Afro, Advertisement Men Women 0 e o o o W CHAPTER V SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION Statement of the Problem The purposes of this study were to document and record the change in black hairstyles from 1964 through 1977, to examine the meaning associated with the change in form and to examine aspects of the pattern of adoption. uThis topic was selected to examine a form of dress and adornment that was introduced by a particular group as a symbol of beliefs and values and that later became fashion. Methodology The source of data for this study was Ebony magazine. Data regarding changes in hairstyles were collected from pictures of adults in feature articles and from hair products advertisement. The meaning associated with hairstyles was based on advertising copy associated with hair care products and on a content analysis of the themes in feature articles. Conclusion In analyzing the data frequency charts and graphs were made and Spearman rank order correlation coefficient and Chi Square statistics were used. The research questions and conclusions relative to the study are presented below. . The first question.was, when in the sequence of events was the Afro introduced and when did modifications in its form occur? 44 . 45 Hypothesis 1 The Afro was introduced during the period of social change led by black p0wer advocates. A visual analysis of the graphs constructed for men and women in feature articles showed that the number wearing Afros in both groups increased during the time of the black power movement. There was a substantial increase in 1969 for both men and women. This was the year after the non- violent leader, Dr. King, was assassinated and many of his followers joined the black power movement that began in 1966 (Pinkney, 1975, p. 205). Hypothesis 2 Over time the proportion of Afros increased, then decreased as the proportion of persons with straight hair and persons with variations of the Afro increased. Two variations of the Afro were identified in this study, the shag and the puff. Braids, a popular style during the period of study, were also considered. Men wore a variety of hairstyles before the acceptance of the Afro. These styles were close cut, conk and waved. After the Afro was accepted by over 90 percent of black men pictured in articles in 1969, it remained the dominate hairstyle with no variations. Wbmen pictured in articles continued to wear their hair straight, but there was a drastic de- crease from 85 percent in 1968 to 43 percent in 1969. The Afro became the dominant hairstyle for women in the articles observed in 1969 and remained so through 1975, when straight hair became dominant once more. Variations in the Afro 46 were observed during the period of 1970 through 1976, but no variations accounted for more than seven percent of the total pictures observed in feature articles in any particular year. The second question was what meaning was associated with black hairstyles? Hypothesis 3 In earlier time periods, there will be a positive relationship between the proportion of people wearing Afros in pictures and the proportion of themes dealing with racial pride and identity in feature articles. The Spearman rank order correlation coefficient was used to test this hypothesis. The percent of racial pride and identity themes and the percent of people wearing the Afro were rank ordered for years 1964 through 1970. A rs coefficient of .89 was computed for men and was statistically significant at .01 level. For women a rS coefficient of .821 was computed and was statistically significant. Hypothesis 4 In later periods, there will be negative relationsip between the proportion of persons wearing a variation of the Afro and the frequency of racial pride and identity themes in feature articles. The Spearman rank order correlation coefficient was used to test this hypothesis. For these data there were no statistically significant relationships between pro- portions of men or women pictured wearing variations of 47 the Afro and the frequency of the theme of racial pride and identity. Hypothesis 5 Over time the proportion of positive statements about straight hair in advertising copy will decrease and the proportion of positive state- ments about the Afro will increase and finally the proportion of neutral state- ments will increase. The Afro was not seen in advertising for either men or women before 1968. The advertising copy was positive for straight hair in all hair products advertisements during that time. Advertising copy was positive for the Afro from the time of its introduction until 1974. After 1974, statements.in advertising copy were positive for both the Afro and straight hair and both were frequently pictured together in advertisements. Advertisements emphasized healthy hair rather than hairstyles.. The third question was, is there a discernable pattern of acceptance of the Afro? Hypothesis 6 A greater proportion of men than women will wear the Afro in each time period. Chi Square was used to test this hypothesis. For these data the calculated x2 value was 43.587 (df = 13) and was statistically significant at the .001 level. Hypothesis 7 A greater proportion of black power than civil rights leaders will wear the Afro 1968 through 1972. 48 In the years 1965 through 1968 only civil rights leaders were observed. All of these male civil rights leaders were pictured wearing the close cut hair style. Militant leaders were not observed until 1968 and the majority of them had Afros. The Chi Square was used to test this hypothesis. The calculated X2 value was 26.418 (df = 5) and was significant at the .001 level. After 1969, all leaders, militant and nonviolent were observed wearing Afros. Hypothesis 8 There will be a lag between ' the time people are pictured wearing the Afro and the appearance of the Afro in advertisements. The Afro was first observed in feature articles in 1965 for both men and women. The Afro was first observed in advertisements in 1968 for both men and women. A lag was lobserved between the introduction of the Afro in feature articles and in advertisements. The increase of the per- centage of Afros in advertisements seemed to parallel the increase of persons pictured wearing the Afro in feature articles and the theme racial pride and identity. As statedixithe theory, Stone (1965) used the term program to mean how a person presents himself to obtain a favorable review from others. Straight hair was once the program used by some blacks to obtain a favorable review from white America. However, in the 60's changes in that enduring mode or style indicated changes in social roles 49 and self concepts (Bush and Lendon). Blacks no longer required a favorable review of self from.white America. The data in this study support the idea that the Afro was a symbol of racial pride and identity in that the two trends are statistically associated in time. After its introduction in 1965, the Afro was widely accepted by 1969. The frequency of themes regarding racial pride and identity also increased in this period. The data shows that as time progressed, there was a decrease in the theme of racial pride and identity appearing in feature articles and an increase in the variety of hairstyles worn. One may con- clude that the emphasis on the symbolic meaning of the Afro changed and the style was accepted as fashion. Recommendations for Further Study If the symbolic meaning of the Afro was important, as this study and other writers suggest, then it was probably enforced by sanctions. A study of sanctions would shed light on the importance of the symbolic meaning. Newspaper accounts of reactions of employers and general public records of cases brought by blacks about personal appearance and school, military, employer dress codes could be used to further study the meaning of the Afro over time and geographic area. This study shows that there was a difference between men and women in wearing the Afro. Further research is needed to pin point why men had less change in the Afro. In 50 addition, why women wore more variations in hairstyles and why straight hair became the dominate hairstyle again could be addressed. A study can be done to analyze what meaning the Afro have to people who are still wearing it and to find out, what their feelings are about others who no longer wear the hairstyle. This study can be repeated with another group plotting the introduction of a symbolic style used by that group, its meaning and duration. An exhaustive study of books and articles written by leaders could be compared with the introduction and duration of the Afro to test its meaning. A study of other styles of dress used during the black power movement and its meaning could be compared to the acceptance and duration of the Afro. APPENDICES APPENDIX A List of Events During_the Civil Rights and Black Power Movements1 1955 Rosa Parks, a black seasmstress in Montgomery, Alabama, refused to surrender her seat when ordered by a local bus driver. Her arrest, for violating jim crow ordinances led to a citydwide bus boycott by blacks. The Interstate Commerce Commission (ICC) prohibited segregation in public vehicles operating in inter- state travel. The order also extended to waiting rooms. 1956 The Supreme Court upheld the decision of a lower court outlawing segregation on buses in Montgomery, Alabama which ended the Montgomery bus boycott. The home of a black minister and civil rights activist F.L. Shuttlesworth was bombed in Birmingham, Alabama. The city's Negroes responded with a massive defiance of bus segregation regulations, at least two score were jailed. 1957 The Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC) was organized at New Orleans. Atlanta was chosen as the site of the national headquarters. Martin Luther King, Jr. was elected president. More than 15,000 Americans, mostly blacks, gathered at the Lincoln Monument in Washington to demonstrate support for a voting rights act. Martin Luther King, Jr. led the speakers crying: "Give us the Ballot!" It was the first large-scale black protest in Washington since the Second World War. The Congress passed the Voting Rights Act of 1957, the first major civil rights legislation since 1875. 1958 Members of the NAACP Youth Council began a new series of sit-ins at segregated restaurants. Oklahoma City lunch counters were the current targets. 1959 "Raisin in the Sun" was the first black play to appear on Broadway in more than fifty years. 1Alton Hornsby, The Black Almanac. Barron's Educational Series, Inc. 1975. 51 1960 1961 1962 1963 1964 1965 52 A wave of sit-ins at segregated lunch counters, led principally by black college students, started in Greensboro, North Carolina. The success of the sit- in technique encourage blacks to use the method of non-violent direct action in other areas where dis- crimination persisted. Martin Luther King, Jr., assumed leadership of the widened movement. Martin Luther King, Jr. and some fifty other blacks, were arrested for sitting-in at an Atlanta department store restaurant. Robert K. Kennedy and John F. Kennedy assisted the King family in obtaining his release. An anti-Negro riot resulted in the suspension of two recently admitted black students at the University of Georgia. The duo were reinstated under court order. Martin Luther King, Jr. and his forces launched an all-out attack against segregation and discrimination in Albany, Georgia. The effort was frustrated by mass arrests and political maneuverings. Racial discrimination in federally-financed housing was prohibited by President Kennedy. The order applied principally to housing projects and apartments. Civil rights demonstrations, protests, and boycotts occurred in almost every major urban area in the country. The largest single protest demonstration in United States history occurred at the Lincoln Monument in Washington; 250,000 blacks and whites gathered to lobby for passage of sweeping civil rights measures by Congress. The 24th Amendment to the Constitution, prohibiting the denial or abridgement of the right to vote by "reason of failure to pay any poll tax or other tax" was adopted. Congress passed a sweeping civil rights act, including provisions prohibiting discrimination in public accome modations and discrimination in employment. Federal Judge authorized the Selma-Montgomery march in Alabama. Voter rights bill was passed by Congress. 1966 1967 1968 53 The most serious racial disturbance in American history took place in the "Watts" section of Los Angeles, California. President Lyndon B. Johnson issued Executive Order creating a cabinet-level Council on Equal Opportunity. Stokely Carmichael was made head of the Student non- violent Coordinating Committee (SNCC). The organiza- tion pushed for separatism. James Meredith, the first black student to break the color barrier at the University of Mississippi was shot but not seriously injured. Robert C. Weaver appointed by President L.B. Johnson as Secretary of Housing and Urban Development. He was the first black to serve in a President's -Cabinet. Dr. King addressed a largely black crowd of 45,000 in Chicago and launched a drive to rid the nation's third largest city of discrimination. The Black Panther Party was founded in Oakland, California. They pushed for full employment, educa- tion relevant to black needs, and black political and economic power. The worst summer of racial disturbances in American history occurred. More than forty riots were re- corded and at least 100 other incidents. United States Senate confirmed the appointment of Thurgood Marshall as the first Black Associate Justice of the United States Supreme Court. Edward W. Brooke was elected to the United States Senate. He was the first Black Senator since Recon- struction. United States Supreme Court upheld contempt of court conviction of Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr., and seven other ministers for violating an order against leading desegregation protests in Birmingham, Alabama. Lucuis D. Anderson took over as sheriff of Macon County, Alabama. He was the first black sheriff in the South since Reconstruction. 1969 1970 54 Black separatists met in Detroit for a National Black Conference sponsored by the Malcolm X Scoiety to "set up an independent Black government:" in five Southern states and to write a "Black Declaration of’ Independence." Dr. King was assassinated in Memphis, Tennessee, while preparing a march on behalf of striking sanitation workers. Forty-six persons had been killed in the rioting that followed the assassination of Dr. King. The result of the 1967 riots was the strengthening of militant black self-defense groups. Eighty more blacks were elected to political office in the south. The Department of Justice filed its first discrimina- tion suit against a major Southern textile company, Cannon Mills. Yale University announced that it would offer a B.A. degree in Afro-American studies. The Supreme“Court ruled that cities - like states - cannot enace ordinances or charter provisions which have the effect of establishing discrimination in housing. Black civil rights leader Charles Evers defeated a white incumbent to become mayor of Fayette, Mississippi. Police killed Fred Hampton, the Illinois chairman of the Black Panther Party. Four Southern governors vowed to defy the federal government's plan to implement student busing arrange- ments in their home states to achieve desegrated school systems. States included Georgia, Louisiana, Alabama, and Florida. Allison Davis was appointed as John Dewey Distinguished Professor of Education at the University of Chicago. He was the first black man to hold a major endowed chair in this or any of the great universities in the United States. Violent clashes between blacks and policemen continued in the Northern ghettoes. 1971 1972 1973 1974 1975 55 Six black men died as a result of racial rioting in Augusta, Georgia. A record number of blacks were elected to the U.S. House of Representatives. U.S. black congressmen boycotted President Richard Nixon's State of the Union Message because of his refusal to listen and respond to the needs and concerns of blacks. A federal court judge in Detroit, Michigan found the Detroit public school system guilty of planned segregation. Huey Newton, cofounder of the Black Panther Party, announced that the party had given up the "pick up the gun" approach in favor of community work and voter registration. Angela Davis was acquitted of murder, kidnapping and conspiracy by an all white jury. Benjamin Hooks, black attorney and minister, was first black to be appointed to-the Federal Com- municat ions Commission . The National Black Assembly met in Detroit to set up the first practical program aimed at the group's objective to greater black political power. A federal judge in San Francisco ruled that IQ tests must not be given to black children in California if the tests did not reflect the children's cultural background. James B. Parsons was named as the first black Chief Judge of a Federal Court. Civil Rights Movement HI—‘HHI—‘H UI-l-‘UDNI—‘O \OCDNO‘UI-I-‘UONH Leaders Ralph Abernathy Julian Bond Edward Brooke Charles Evers Jesse Jackson Maynard Jackson Vernon Jordan Martin Luther King, Jr. James Meredith Carl Rowan Fred Shuttlesworth Robert Weaver Roy Wilkins AndreW’Young Whitney Young APPENDIX B Black Power Movement I—‘t-‘D-‘I—‘I—l bUNI—‘O \OCDNO‘UIbUDNI-J Leaders H. "Rap" Brown Stokely Carmichael Mark Clark Elridge Cleaver Angela Davis Fred Hampton Bobby Hutton George Jackson LeRoi Jones Floyd McKissick Lonnie McLucas Huey Newton Bobby Seale Malcom X o>HuHmoo o>HUHmom usu uanmuum Hmuusmzr oum< OoaHauouoOCD Oo>m3 xcoo omOHo oum< owmmmoz auHNumuHm: nw\oz mucoaomwmuo>u< SH so: mo monumuHoz o>HuHmom o>HuHmom ustouum Hmuusoz. oum< wocHEuouoOoa Oommoum Baum meoum mwzm «mam oumd omommoz moHNumuHm: u>\oz mucoaomHuuo>O< cH coaoz mo monumuHmm mucoaouumcH :0HuooHHoo sumo oHoaom U xHazmmm< 58 Bo wHHoulmo BOHsmomuNo oHNumuwHH NHHBouIHo wonuo no muuoomuo< uBoBBHmuuoucoun< uBoBNoHoBouq< BHmsonnm< :oHuooauonN< moHuHHoouH< uBoBo>oHso¢ n< NuHucoOH van oOHHa HmHomm um moBoLH you opoo Nox .e .m .N .H uso use omoHo ouw< omoHu oum< uao uBoH0H>ucoz Boson xoon uocHBuuuoocm oo>m3 xoou omoHo oum< muooooH Hnuoa uoBonH oHNumuHo: coco: Honasz moHoHuu< ououoom BH so: no oonumuHo: you» .c .m .N .H uanouum ouw< uanouum ouw< ucoHoH>rcoz umSom xomHm OoBHBuouuoca wonm wwsm avHoum Baum ouw< muooooq Houoa moBone oHNumuHox euooz Honadz moHoHuu< uuoumom BH B0803 we moHNumuHm: you» mucoasuumcH BOHuooHHoo sumo oHoBmm a xHazmmm< 59 ON O O O0.0N O OO.NH O O0.0H O ON.O N ON.HN n O0.0 H O O ON.O N O O NNOH ON O0.0 N N0.0H O OH.O H O0.0 N O0.0 N N0.0H O O O ON O m.NH O O O ONOH OO O0.0H O N0.0H n N0.0H O OH O O0.0H O OH O O O O0.0H O N0.0 N O O ONOH ON O0.0 H ON.NH m O0.0H O O0.0H O ON.NH O O0.0 N O O ON.OH O O0.0 N ON.OH O ONOH ON O O ON.NH n O0.0 H O0.0N O O0.0 N ON.NH n O O ON.OH O O0.0H O O0.0H O ONOH NO OO.N N O0.0H NH ON.O O NO.N O ON.O O O0.0H O O0.0 O ON.O O H0.0H HH H.NH OH NNOH HO ON.H H NO0.0 N O0.0 O NO.N N OO.NH OH O0.0H OH NO.N N O0.0 O H0.0H NH NN.NN OH HNOH OO ON.O O OH O OH NH n q ON.HH O ON.OH HH ON.H H OH O ON.O O ON.ON HN ONOH NO O0.0 N OH.O O OH.H H ON.O O OO.NN ON ON.OH NH OH.H H OH.OH O OO0.0 N ON.NN NN OOOH HOH NO.N O H0.0 O NO.N O O0.0 N O0.0H ON ON.ON HN O O OO. H O0.0 n ON.HN NN OOOH NN O O H0.0H O HH.HH O HO.N N H0.0H O H0.0H O O O HH.HH O H0.0H O HH.HH O NOOH ON O0.0 H OO.HH O OO.N N OO.N N N0.0N N NN.OO O O O O O OO.HH O OOJN N OOOH OO NN.N H HH.HH O O0.0H O HH.HH O HH.HH O O0.0H O NN.N H mn.n N HH.HH O O0.0H n OOOH NN O O Nn.OH n N0.0H n HO.N N HH.HH O NN.NN O O O ON.O H N0.0H n O O OOOH N z N z N z N z N z N z N z N z N z N 2 poor oHNuO ucoB oOHH auuoam IoHauuoucu acoBNoHoaO OcHwaom ooHumosvm moHuHHom ovHum Hmuoe :oHOHHoO conmmm NHHBmm ucoso>oHno< ucoao>oHso< ucoBo>oHso< acoao>oHno< ucoao>oHno< uooso>owso< HwHomm .NNOHrOOOH .moHoHuu< ouauwom new Oo>uoueo ooBunH Oo ucoouom vow Nonaaz .N oHOwH m xHszmm< BIBLIOGRAPHY BIBLIOGRAPHY Books Berelson, Bernard. Content Analysis of Communication Research. Glencoe, Illinois: *Free Press, 1952. Brisbane, Robert. Black Activism: Racial Revolution In the United States 1954-1970. Valley Forge: Judson Press, 1974. Bush, G. and London, P. "On the Disappearance of Knickers." In Dress Adornment and the Social Order. Edited by Mary Ellen Roach and Joanne BdblOz EiCher. New York: John Wiley 8 Sons., 1965. Barbour, Floyd. The Black Seventies. Boston, Massachusettes: Porter Sargent Publisher, 1970. Carmichael, Stokely. Stokely Speaks. New York: Random House, 1971. Chambers, Bradford. Chronicles of Negro Protest. New York: Parents'Magazine Press, 1968. Goffman, Erving. Gender Advertisements. New York: Harper Calophon Books, 1979. Hornsby, Alton Jr. The Black Almanac. New York: Barron's Educational Series, Inc.,71975. Mckee, James. Introduction to Sociology. New York: Holt Rinehart andTWinston, Inc., 1969. Phillips, Bernard. ~Sociolo : Social Structure and Change. Toronto: The Macmillan Company, 1969, Chapter 17. Pinkney, Alphonso. Black Americans. New Jersey: Prentice- Hall, Inc., 1975} Scott, A.C. "The New China." Dress Adornment and the Social Order, Edited by Mary Ellen Roach and Joanne BuEIoz EIcEer. New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1965. Siegel, Sidney. Non arametric Statistics: For the Behavioral Science. New York: McGraw-HIII Book Company, 1956. 60 61 Sloan, Irving. The Blacks in America: 1492-1977. New York: Oceana Publication, 1977. Stinchcombe, Arthur L. Constructing Social Theories. New York: Harcourt Brace and WOrld, 1968. Stone, Gregory P. "Appearance and the Self." Dress Adornment and the Social Order. Edited by Mary Ellen Roach and Joanne Bubloz Eicher. New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1965. -Topping, Audrey R. "First in Space - But Not in Femininity." Dress Adornment and the Social Order. Edited by Mary Ellen Roach and Joanne Bubloz Eicher. New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1965. Tumin, Melvin. Social Stratification. New Jersey: Prentice Hall Inc., 1967. Periodicals Goering, John M. "Changing Perceptions and Evaluation of Physical Characteristics Among Blacks: 1950-1970." Phylon. 33(3): 231-241, Fall, 1972. Morrison, Denton and Holden, Carlin. "Why WOmen are Burning Their Bras." Sexual Behavior. 19-25, February, 1972. Rodgers, Harrell R. Jr. "Racial Pride and Black Children." Integrated Education. 11(4-5): 62-63, July, 1973. Roth, Rodney. "How Negro Fifth Grade Students View Black Pride Concepts." Integrated Education. 8(3): 24:27, May-June, 1970. Schwartz, Jack. "Men's Clothing and the Negro." Phylon. 24, 224-233, 1963. "Iiilli'flllililll‘lllfll