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thesis entitled

HUMAN INFORMATION PROCESSING, LOCUS OF PERCEIVED
CONTROL, AND INTRINSIC-EXTRINSIC MOTIVATION
AS RELATED TO SUCCESS AND ATTITUDE IN A

PROGRAMMED COURSE OF INSTRUCTION

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presented by

Thomas E. Harries

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ABSTRACT

HUMAN INFORMATION PROCESSING, LOCUS OF PERCEIVED
CONTROL, AND INTRINSIC-EXTRINSIC MOTIVATION
AS RELATED TO SUCCESS AND ATTITUDE IN A
PROGRAMMED COURSE OF INSTRUCTION

BY

Thomas E. Harries

The research question asked in this study concerns
whether or not the effect of student entry behaviors (inde-
pendent variables)--level of information processing, locus

of perceived control, and intrinsic-extrinsic motivation--

 

 

will be related to student interaction with a programmed
cognitive structure as measurable on the following dependent

variables--final exam grade on a criterion test, student

 

 

attitudes toward the programmed course compared with student
attitudes toward college level instruction in general, and
Egg.

A preliminary study verified that student performance
after using the program was significantly (p<0.01) improved
over conventional instruction, even after the effects of
student abilities were removed. The high level of performance
attributable to the programmed structure was found to be con—
sistent and stable over several quarters, and thus could be

assumed to be a stable base for the main study.

Thomas E. Harries

The main study was conducted with a random sample of

50 students (98 per cent female) in HED 171, Basic Consumer

Textiles, for which the programmed text had been designed.

The principal findings were:

Student attitudes significantly increased in favor of
the programmed course over college-level instruction
(p<0.001).

Locus of control was significantly correlated with
attitude toward college-level instruction (p<0.01),
with externals having more negative attitudes com-
pared with students who were internally controlled.
There was no correlation between any of the experi-
mental variables with performance in the course, nor
with attitude toward HED 171. For the locus of per-
ceived control variable, the effect was attributed
to the effect of the programmed cognitive structure.
Findings relative to the motivation variable were
indeterminant due to methodological inadequacies
attributable to the measuring instrument.

Failure of the information-processing variable to
correlate with the variable of general attitude was
attributed to information processing being a multi—
dimensional variable correlated with a unidimensional
attitude measuring instrument.

Given the effect of the programmed cognitive struc-

ture in significantly increasing performance, in generating

consistent positive affect, and in overcoming the negative

Thomas E. Harries

effect on externally controlled students, some heuristics
for designing instructional prototypes followed by the HED
171 programmed instruction format are suggested.

Based upon the experience in applying the experi-
mental variables of information processing and locus of
perceived control motivation to the programmed cognitive
structure, recommendations for future research are suggested
since these variables are thought to have promise of increas-
ing knowledge of individual differences in student learning
environments.

The principal emphasis for future research is based
upon dissatisfaction with traditional use of group means to
attempt to generalize on multidimensional variables. The
suggestion is made that future research using such multi-
dimensional variables use Q-methodology or related approaches,
which investigate individual differences, rather than the
traditional treatment forms, which yield results based solely

upon group means.

HUMAN INFORMATION PROCESSING, LOCUS OF PERCEIVED
CONTROL, AND INTRINSIC-EXTRINSIC MOTIVATION
AS RELATED TO SUCCESS AND ATTITUDE IN A

PROGRAMMED COURSE OF INSTRUCTION

BY

”MD
Thomas EH Harries

A THESIS

Submitted to
Michigan State University
in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY
College of Education
Area of Instructional DevelOpment and Technology

1972

DEDICATED TO

THE STUDENTS OF HED 171

Who contributed in full
measure, in fact to many
varied measures, such that
this study became possible.

May their contribution not

be lost on students of the
future.

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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Nancy Garrison Harries; seatmate and fellow traveler

on the Good Ship Earth....

who made substantive professional contributions to my
professional and intellectual development....

who showed patient understanding of factors relating to
stress and strain well beyond the call of duty (i.e.,
who picked me off the wall on innumerable occasions)....
and who, in spite of meticulous attention to her own
professional career and doctoral program, still managed
regularly to serve gourmet meals in time for Walter
Cronkite!

Lester and Stella Garrison, whose personal involvement
in me and my interests removed many barriers and helped
make possible the frame of mind essential to this type
of achievement.

Charles Schuller (Chairman), Lawrence Alexander, Erling
Jorgensen, and Verling Troldahl, who agreed to serve and
provided scholarly guidance as the members of my com-
mittee.

Marlene Wamhoff and her assistants, Sara Butler and
Elizabeth Dolan, who worked arduously to collect the

essential data from which the study was made. Without

iii

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their involvement, the writer would not have been able
to pursue this research.

Jo Lynn Cunningham and Verda Scheifley, of the Institute
for Family and Child Studies, who provided patient and
useful tours of various statistical labyrinths (i.e.,
they kept me honestl).

My professional colleagues at the Instructional Media
Center, who aided and abetted my progress by alleviating
my work load at certain crucial times.

Joyce Mennitt, who kindly typed preliminary drafts of
early chapters at her own inconvenience to enable me to
meet deadlines, and to Susan (Rumpelstiltskin) Cooley,
who edited and types the thesis, also under constraints

of time--she spun straw into gold!

iv

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page
LIST OF TABLES. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Vii
LIST OF FIGURES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ix
LIST OF APPENDICES. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . X
Chapter
I. THE STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM. . . . . . . . . . 1
Statement of Research Question. . . . . . . . 1
Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
General Criticism of Content Emphasis
in Education. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Criticism of Current Research on
Programmed Instruction. . . . . . . . . . . 5
Definition of Terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Theoretical Assumptions Followed
in the Thesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Structure: Programmed Instruction
Compared with Conventional Texts. . . . . . 17
Structure: Instructor—Determined Order of
Presentation in Programmed Instruction. . . 23
Structure: Student-Controlled Order
of Presentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
Overview. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
II. REVIEW OF LITERATURE
Classical Drive Theories of Motivation. . . . 33
Critique of the Drive Hypothesis. . . . . . . 37
Human Sensory Processing of External
Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
Intrinsic Motivation and Human
Information Processing. . . . . . . . . . . 42
The Assessment of Cognitive Complexity. . . . 51
The Locus of Perceived Control. . . . . . . . 55
Summary: The Relationship Among Motivation
Control, and Information Processing . . . . 62
Statement of the Hypotheses . . . . . . . . . 65

III. METHODOLOGY . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

The Sample. . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The Preliminary Study: De ign of th
Programmed Cognitive Structure. . .
The Main Study: Analysis of the
Measuring Instruments . . . . . . .
The Main Study: Procedure . . . . . .
Main Study: Statistical Analysis. . .
Secondary Study . . . . . . . . . . .
Assumptions of the Study. . . . . . .
Limitations . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

IV. ANALYSIS OF RESULTS . . . . . . . . . .

Findings of the Preliminary Study . .
The Findings of the Main Study. . . .
Secondary Study . . . . . . . . . . .
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

V. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS. . . . . . .

Implications of the Preliminary Study
Implications of the Intercorrelation
Matrix and Tests of the Hypotheses.
A Complementary Study by
Nancy Harries (1972). . . . . . . .
Summary of Implications . . . . . . .

Application of the Findings and Implica-

tions to Instructional DevelOpment.
Implications for Future Research. .

BIBLIOGRAPHY. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

APPENDICES I O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 0

vi

Page
73
73
74
78
86
87
9O
90
91
91
93
93
98

108
110
112
112
113

121
122

123
131

138

160

10.

11.

12.

LIST OF TABLES

Timetable for Collection of Data . . . . . . . .

Distribution of Final Examination Grades by
Number of Students and Per Cent of Class . . .

Analysis of Covariance Comparing Student
Performance on the Final Exam with GPA
as the Covariate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Group Measures of Central Tendency for
Variables Used in the Study. . . . . . . . . .

Correlation Matrix for Variables Used
in the Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Attitude TOward College-Level Courses in
General Compared to Attitude Toward HED 171. .

Attitude Toward HED 171 Compared with
Intrinsic—Extrinsic Motivation with
Final Exam Grade as Covariate. . . . . . . . .

Attitude Toward HED 171 Compared with Locus
of Control with Final Exam Grade as Covariate.

Attitude Toward HED 171 Compared with Level
of Information Processing with Final Exam
Grade as Covariate . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Test for Curvilinear Relationship Between
Information Processing and Polarized
Attitudes Toward College-Level Instruction
in General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Information Processing in Relationship to the
Difference in Attitude Between College-Level
Instruction in General and HED 171 . . . . . .

Locus of Control in Relationship to
Cumulative Grade-Point Average . . . . . . . .

vii

Page

86

95

97

99

100

101

102

102

103

104

104

105

Table

13.

14.

15.

16.

17.

Intrinsic-Extrinsic Motivation in Relation-

ship to Cumulative Grade-Point Average

Locus of Control in Relationship to
Final Exam Grade . . . . . . . . . . .

Motivation in Relationship to Final
Exam Grade . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Relationship of Control, Motivation, and
Information Processing with Each Other

Summary of Factor Analyses . . . . . . .

viii

Page

106

106

107

107

109

Figure

l.

2.

LIST OF FIGURES

A Simple Structure . . . . . . . . . . . .
A Complex Structure. . . . . . . . . . . .
Affect Compared to Amount of Discrepancy .

Level of "Cue Function" Compared with
Level of Arousal . . . . . . . . . . . .

Arousal as a Function of Incongruity . . .

Processing Level Compared to Environmental
Factors. 0 I O I O O O O O O O I O O O 0

Dimensions of Potential Research . . . . .

ix

Page

11

43

44

44

54

134

LIST OF APPENDICES

Appendix Page

A. STATEMENT OF OBJECTIVES FOR THE PROGRAM . . . . 161

B. SAMPLE TEST QUESTIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
C. ADMINISTRATION OF THE SCHRODER TEST . . . . . . 180
D. ROTTER QUESTIONNAIRE. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
E. MOTIVATION QUESTIONNAIRE. . . . . . . . . . . . 186
F. GENERAL ATTITUDE QUESTIONNAIRE. . . . . . . . . 190
G. HED 171 ATTITUDE QUESTIONNAIRE. . . . . . . . . 199

H. TABLES: FACTOR ANALYSIS OF THREE
QUESTIONNAIRES O O O O O O O O O O C C O O O O O 200

I. TABLES: POST STUDY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204

CHAPTER I

THE STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

Statement of Research Question

 

The research question investigated in the study asks:
"How will a human being interact with a programmed cognitive
structure (sequence of programmed instruction) if the human
being is defined by the constructs of: (1) level of
information—processing ability, (2) nature of motivation
(intrinsic-extrinsic), and (3) locus of perceived control
(internal—external)?" These entry behaviors or independent
variables are examined through their interaction with and
their effect upon the dependent variables of: (l) attitude
toward college-level instruction in general, (2) attitude
toward the programmed instructional sequence in particular,
and (3) performance on a standardized criterion test. In
general, the study reflects a change in emphasis away from
content variables, or how much of what information a student
learns, to an interest in process variables, or how the
structure and processing of information relate to student
attitudes and performance. Following is an introduction and
a discussion of some current criticisms of education in gen-

eral and programmed instruction research in particular, which

suggest a need for a change in emphasis from content to

process variables.

Introduction

 

This chapter proceeds according to the following out-
line: first, the research question which has been stated is
related to some criticism of the status quo in contemporary
educational practices. The author interprets this criticism
in a way that suggests that the information-processing emphasis
being undertaken in this thesis can be useful in helping over-
come that criticism. Then research which summarizes some
criticism of contemporary research emphasis on programmed
instruction is briefly cited in support of the information-
processing emphasis of this thesis.

After a general definition of terms, the concept of
"structure" is deve10ped as it applies to information-
processing variables used in this thesis, and the philosophi-
cal assumptions of the thesis are set forth. Research is
then cited in the following areas of programmed instruction:
programmed instruction compared to conventional textbooks,
instructor-determined sequencing, and student-determined
sequencing of instruction. The chapter concludes with a

brief summary.

General Criticism of Content
Emphasis in Education

 

 

American educational practices have come under an in-
creasing variety of articular and scholarly criticism, begin-

ning with Goodman (1962) and as recently as Silberman (1970).

Goodman (1962) said of American academic life:
The objective culture that we have inherited is
by now, total confusion; and certainly there is too
much of it for anybody to cope with. As if this were
not bad enough, the young are kept from learning by
rules, task work, and extraneous distractions. They
have no conversation and they meet no veterans. (p. 339)
Silberman's (1970) critique amounts to a tour de
force of data in support of his claim that, in addition to
a certain amount of plain malpractice, there is an absence
of relevance in today's schools in comparison to apparent
needs of society. In recent years some criticism has become
more emotional, but just as articulate, as in the case of a
writer such as Farber (1969). Much of contemporary educa-
tional criticism can be traced to dissatisfaction (con-
sciously or unconsciously expressed) with the implications
of the dominant content-oriented approach. Postman and
Weingartner (1969) suggested the need for a "crap detector"
to be trained into each student. Rather than simply being
able to quote facts, "crap detecting" calls for the ability
to process accurately and flexibly a variety of information
from the high-information environment in which we live.
McLuhan (1962, 1965) suggested that we live in a high—
information "global village." He asserted that the informa-
tion level in the classroom is lower than the information
level in the external world, and that students can View the
classroom as an interruption in their education. Glasser

(1969) expressed his concern for a negative by-product of

our content-oriented educational emphasis:

When easy answers don't work or don't fit, they
[students] avoid the issues altogether. To counter the
avoidance of intellectual challenge and responsibility,
we must reduce the domination of certainty in education.
As long as we look at students as empty vessels to be
filled with facts, as long as we train them to be com-
puters to give us predictable answers to predictable
questions, we are building into the most basic institu-
tion of democracy, the educational system, the seeds of
its own destruction. (p. 44)

A need for process- rather than content-oriented
instructional systems is increasingly being expressed.

Berman (1968) stated:

It is our assumption that all persons are process
oriented to some degree and can become more so through
planned experiences. Furthermore it is our assumption
that it is "good" for persons to have some degree of
process orientation. (p. 9)

Likewise, Schroder, et a1. (1972) stated even more strongly:

If our democratic form of government is to survive
and prosper in this new age, American education must
prepare our children to cope with freedom. It can
accomplish this by teaching our youth how to think.

(As we will emphasize later, the capacity to think
should not be confused with the amount of knowledge a
student acquires.) The ability to think -- to cope with
problems, to seek information and uncertainty, to pro-
cess information in new and meaningful ways -- is
learned. The development of this creative talent can-
not be left to chance. It must become the central goal
of education in a new problem oriented, interdisciplin-
ary pedagogical environment. (p. 2)

 

Schroder differentiated between content learning and
process learning. Content learning is concerned with what

and how much a person knows. Process learning is concerned

 

with how a person thinks, how he structures what he knows,

 

and how flexibly and creatively he can modify and manipulate

the content structure.

A number of advantages can be gained, according to
Schroder, et a1. (1972), by following an information-processing
approach to meeting some of the contemporary criticisms of
education. The most important advantage, from the point of
view of this study, concerns the trained, heuristic generat-
ing ability of a person to exhibit novel, creative behaviors
which are appropriate in the context of the situation which
generates them. In addition, there may be advantages to be
gained from a fresh approach to programmed instruction
research in shifting from content variables to process
variables.

Criticism of Current Research on
Programmed Instruction

 

 

Although the author wishes to look at foundation
variables concerned with the process ability, a review of
the literature verifies that the major research interest
with respect to programmed instruction has been concerned
with content variables. Where individual differences are
looked at, they are usually examined in relation to content
variables, rather than in relation to personality variables
(Lumsdaine, 1965; Goldstein, 1964). Even the 1965 revised
statement on specifications for programmed instruction (by
the Joint Committee on Programed Instruction and Teaching
Machines, 1966) made no direct suggestion that deve10pers
of programmed instruction demonstrate an accountability for
individual differences relating to more process-oriented

personality variables which could have interactive effects

with the programmed cognitive structure. Markle (1971), in
the most recent summary of the state of the art of programmed
instruction, likewise saw process more as a design function,
rather than as a variable having as important an effect on
the student as content variables. She stated:

The programing of instruction is a process of
designing instructional materials and systems which
result if followed to its full extent in a rationally
constructed, and empirically validated product or set
of procedures. (p. 293)

The product, of course, relates to a content structure.
Markle cited five steps which define the programmed instruc-
tion. These steps can be seen to relate more easily to
content factors than to process factors.

1. Determining the objectives of instruction in order
to (a) describe an observable performance of a stu-
dent who has completed the instruction; (b) make
clear the conditions under which the student will
demonstrate mastery of the material; and (c) estab-
lish a standard of acceptable performance.

2. Designing and evaluating the "criterion measures"
which would rate students individually on a scale
of attainment of the desired knowledge or behavior.

3. Testing potential student groups to learn their
characteristics which will determine, in turn,
the design of the lesson.

4. Selecting instructional media and preparing
instructional material in draft form.

5. Refining the product through tryouts with individual
students until effectiveness reaches satisfactory
levels. The process is then continued with increas-
ingly large groups of students until effectiveness
proves satisfactory in approximately "real" situa-
tions. The materials are then finally "validated"
by publication of a complete description of their
performance in terms of their effect on specified
groups of students under carefully described con-
ditions. (p. 293)

The question at issue in this thesis turns on the

implication of the third step, which has to do with the entry

behavior of the students, and on the fifth step, which con-
cerns the criteria selected for validation of the programmed
instruction. There is a substantial body of research on the
third and fifth steps; this research was reviewed by Stolurow
(1969):
1. General intellectual ability compared with KR
(knowledge of results): Little, 1934; Porter, 1961;
Eigen, 1962.
2. Aptitude compared with sequencing of frames:
Cartwright, 1962; Smith, 1962; Stolurow and Davis,
1965.

3. Personality compared with the nature of evaluation:
Silberman, et a1., 1962; Frase, 1963; Parisi, 1965.

With the exception of the third group, all of these studies
examine content implications rather than processing implica-
tions. Studies in the third group, which look at individual
differences in terms of personality, are significantly in the
minority. Further, such studies are done in isolation from
other individual difference variables, since typically entry
behavior investigations are almost universally content ori-
ented, 1&L, focusing upon how much of the requisite behavior
the student already possesses, rather than upon how well the
student is equipped to identify and process relevant content
data. Stolurow (1969) wrote:

Unfortunately, there is no base rate from other
areas of education with which to make comparison of the
proportion of studies revealding n.s.d. (no significant
difference) between the conditions compared. . . . A
serious methodological question here is failure to
include individual variables such as aptitude, person-

ality and interests in the design of the study which
could be used as correlates of learning sources. (p. 1020)

Stolurow's statement echoes a concern expressed
earlier in critiques by Meierhenry (1964), Schramm (1964),
and Lange (1967). The author could find no study which was
directly concerned with information processing in interaction
with programmed instruction.

Even where content variables are at issue, a study
by Davis, Marzocco, and Denny (1970) led them to raise impor-
tant questions suggesting the need for a change in research
emphasis on programmed instruction. They summarized some
present frustrations that are experienced when a rigorously
controlled study fails to turn up significant relationships
among content-based variables.

The writers looked at modes of presenting programmed
instruction, comparing performance with a wide range of indi-
vidual differences on entry skills in traditional areas:
err” scores on Michigan State University (MSU) English Place-
ment Test, MSU Reading Test, College Qualification Test, MSU
Arithmetic Placement Test, MSU Mathematics (Algebra) Test,
and three nonstandardized tests of special abilities: Memory,
Arithmetic Operations, and Search Task Tests.

After their analysis, they found only one area which
they felt would permit a "weak generalization that poorer
readers do best under covert conditions whereas good readers

do best when they respond overtly.‘ (p. 201)
The authors suggested that there may have been a
negligible difference in their treatment variables (overt

versus covert response, feedback versus lack of feedback,

etc.). Also, they stated a more fundamental criticism:

In programed instruction, a given independent vari-
able may be defined in widely different ways. Obviously,
in the final analysis, the experimental situation defines
the independent variable manipulated. But any impartial
review of the literature of programed instruction reveals
that experimenters mean quite different things when they
employ precisely the same terms to describe their experi-
mental conditions, and it is extremely difficult (if not
impossible) to make valid generalizations across differ-
ent studies on the basis of the concepts used. (p. 203)

They concluded:

Along with a number of psychologists today, we ques-
tion the utility of measures of general intelligence
for prescribing instructional conditions. But, we would
go beyond this. At least, for the conditions of this
experiment and the population studied, a number of other
more specific ability measures appear to be of question-
able value. (p. 203)

It is for all of the above reasons, in part, that the
author proposes to look at the process-oriented structural
variables (cited on page 1) in interaction with programmed
instruction, rather than to use the traditional content-

based ability variables that Davis, Marzocco, and Denny and

others suggested be questioned.

Definition of Terms

 

Following are basic terms and definitions that are
used in this and subsequent chapters of the thesis:

A. Organization: Includes the following concepts

 

(Ashby, l968a,b):
l. Conditionality -- Any given structure exists in

response to some other structure.

10

2. Reducibility -- Any given structure can be arbi-
trarily isolated as existing in reference to some
other structure.

In this thesis, the organization of a person's

information-processing structure is analyzed as it

interacts with the structure of a sequence of pro-
grammed instruction (i.e., a particular cognitive
structure).

Constraint: Constraint exists as the fact of a par-

 

ticular organization of structure, or the existence
of a structure predetermines response or interaction
in a manner specified by the nature of the structure
(Ashby, 1956). In this thesis, a person's response
to his environment is looked at in terms of:

(l) information-processing style (i.e., a type of
structure or constraint, defined below); (2) whether
or not the person perceives the locus of control over
his own behavior to be external or internal to him-
self (a type of constraint, defined below); or

(3) whether the person's behavior is based on an
intrinsic or extrinsic locus of motivation (a type

of constraint, defined below).

Variety: The converse of constraint. Variety refers
to the number of distinct elements (complexity) in a
given structure (Ashby, 1956). The greater the num-
ber of elements in a given structure or organization,

the less severe the constraints existing within the

11

structure. Since organizations (structures) are in
constant interaction with each other, this thesis
asserts that when there is variety in human informa-
tion processing, there is flexibility in coping with
a given external structure. Figure 1 contains less

potential "variety" than does Figure 2.

 

 

 

 

 

 

Constraint: A+B+C+D = X

Figure l.--A simple structure.

 

 

 

 

A B C D
E F G H
I J K L
M N O P

 

 

 

 

 

 

Constraint: A+B+C...+P = X

Figure 2.--A complex structure.

12

Degrees of Freedom: A description of the relation-

 

ship of variety and constraint in a given structure.
Figure 1 illustrates a condition in which the struc-
ture has only three degrees of freedom. Given the
stated constraints, "A," "B," and "C" (or any three)
must be known before "D" (the fourth) is constrained.
Figure 2, however, given its stated constraints, has
15 degrees of freedom. That is, "A," "B," ,C," ...
"0" must all be determined before "P" is constrained
to have a particular value. There is room for
greater variety in Figure 2 than in Figure 1. In
information-processing terms, a person (defined below
as "concrete") who perceives the environment to be
analogous to Figure 1 will perceive that he has fewer
degrees of freedom to interact with the environment
than will the person (defined below as "abstract")
whose information-processing structure perceives the
environment to be analogous to Figure 2. Thus, the
Figure 2 type of person will perceive more available
options, both in the interpretation of and in inter-
acting with his environment.

Law of Requisite Variety: Describes the dynamic

 

interaction of variety and constraint within a given

system (structure) as defined by the larger structure
in which it is embedded. To paraphrase Ashby (1956,

p. 207), only variety (degrees of freedom) in one

structure can force down the variety in another

13

structure. If a concrete person "A" (analogous to
Figure 1) must interact with structure "B" (analogous
to Figure 2), he will have fewer degrees of freedom,
be less able to respond, will present more stereo-
typed response patterns, and will generally be more
dysfunctional in interaction with the complex struc-
ture "B," than if the situation were reversed. One
of the questions at issue in this thesis relates to
the differential effects of a fixed cognitive struc-
ture (sequence of programmed instruction) on persons
whose degrees of freedom, as evidenced by their
information-processing structure, are variously like
person "A" (defined later as System 1) or person "B"
(defined later as System 4).

Bit: The amount of information which causes a reduc-
tion of uncertainty by one-half. Figure 1 contains
two bits of information, if a person's task is to
find efficiently, with 100 per cent certainty, which
of the four cells (A, B, C, or D) contains a dot.
That is, only two questions need to be asked to
reduce most efficiently the uncertainty to zero:

1. "Is the dot in the top half?" (yes or no)

2. "Is the dot in the right half?" (yes or no)
Figure 2, however, contains four bits of information,
hence greater degrees of freedom, but greater uncer-
tainty. A human information-processing structure

with considerable degrees of freedom can cope with

14

great amounts of uncertainty, since his variety of
responses can be greater. In effect, the complex
information-processing type of person is freer to ask
questions of his environment than is a person whose
perceptions (and hence whose alternatives) are under
greater constraint. A person who perceives his
alternatives to be constrained will need to simplify
the environment and will tend to think along unidimen-
sional constructs instead of multidimensional con-
structs. He literally will perceive fewer bits of
information present in a structure than will the com-
plex information processor. The use of the concept
of "bit" is minimized in this thesis and is confined
to the fifth chapter, where some potential applica-
tions of this concept are briefly discussed within
the context of implications for future research.

Information Processing: As used in this thesis, the

 

term refers to Schroder, et al.'s (1967) use of
information processing. The concept is deve10ped in
detail in Chapter II, and the measurement is discussed
in Chapter III. A person's ability to process the
stimuli in his perceptual environment can be portrayed
as ranging across a continuum from:

1. Concrete (simple), in which there are few per—

 

ceived dimensions or alternatives in a given
situation (i.e., a simple structure), with cor-

responding few degrees of freedom; to:

15

2. Abstract (complex), in which any given situation

 

is perceived as having many dimensions and complex
relationships and alternatives (i.e., a complex
structure), with more degrees of freedom.

Intrinsic—Extrinsic Motivation: Intrinsic motivation

 

 

refers to the inherent curiosity within an individual,
which leads to exploratory, curious, or investigatory
kinds of behavior which is satisfying in its own
right, and is the end and not the means to an end.

Extrinsic motivation is behavior which is the means

 

to the end of obtaining rewards which have negligible
or coincidental relationships to the behavior at
issue.

Internal—External Control: Internal control is at

 

 

one end of a continuum, in which a person believes
that his own "self" is a principal causal agent or
force in the world, and that events in the world and
his own behavior can very much be under his own con-

trol. At the other end of the continuum is external

 

control, in which individuals believe themselves to
be mostly helpless to do other than respond to exter-
nal forces, over which they have no direct control or
hope of controlling.

Cognitive Structure: The internalized symbol system

 

(and associated affect) of the external referent
environment, also called "map" or "schemata." The

cognitive structure represents a stable internal

16

reference which is subject to gradual modification,
based upon perceived changes in external referents.
A sequence of programmed instruction is one way of
structuring a complex external referent system into
a symbol system for facilitating internalization by

the individual.

Theoretical Assumptions Followed in the Thesis

 

The information-processing model of man followed in
this thesis is basically a cybernetic model. "Man" can be
viewed as an organization or structure of functional entities
coordinated by a neural structure. The neural structure and
internal environment are the logical consequences of a mil-
lennium of interaction with the external environment in which
it has been embedded (La Barre, 1954).

"Man" is a portion of the universe, perceiving a por-
tion of itself with varying fidelity, with concomitant con-
straints, and with varying degrees of freedom. The neural
(information-processing) structure can be conceived of as an
internal map (structure) of the external environment
(von Foerster, 1968). The input from the outside organiza-
tion is internalized by the neural structure in such a man-
ner that its internal structure or "map" or "schemata" is
subsequently modified (Rosenzweig, et a1., 1972). The struc-
ture of what is perceived is as much a part of the history of
perception (including the genetic legacy within the neural

structure) as it is of "what's out there" (Rock, 1966).

17

"Man" can be conceived of as an information-processing mechan-
ism, constructed to facilitate the integration and differen-
tiation of perceptual constructs of the external world (Kelly,
1955, 1964). The processing mechanism also operates as a
function of intrinsic-extrinsic motivation, and, in response
to experience, determines whether the locus of perceived con-
trol is internal or external.

A sequence of programmed instruction represents a
specific kind of constraint or external structure. Individ-
uals with varying levels of information-processing capability,
intrinsic motivation, and locus of perceived control may
interact in different ways with such a structure. In the
following pages, research literature bearing upon programmed
instruction as a structure is examined in comparison with a
conventional textbook. Structure, as programmed by an
instructor, is analyzed. Literature bearing upon structure,
as organized by the student, is discussed. This research
is discussed in terms of the reported traditional variables
applied to programmed instruction and related, where approp-
riate, to the information-processing concepts under consid-
eration in this thesis.

Structure: Programmed Instruction Compared
With Conventional Texts

 

Leith's (1962) review of the literature led him to
conclude that programmed instruction saves time over conven-
tional texts, but produces no significant differences in per-

formance as measured by a final exam. However, Pressy and

18

Kinzer (1964) reported that it took students eight times as
long to complete a 1,7lO-frame section of the Holland-Skinner
(1961) basic psychology program, as it did for a second
treatment group to complete a 643-word summary of the same
compartmentalized material. Further, the summary group
scored higher on the post—test.

In an effort to resolve the contradictory data of
these and other studies, Roderick and Anderson (1968), who
questioned the methodological rigor of the Pressy experiment,
conducted a study controlling or examining the following
variables:

1. Student entry behavior (in content) at a low

level.

2. Redundancy of steps in the Holland-Skinner (1961)

program.

3. Immediate versus delayed post-tests.

4. Short-answer tests compared to multiple-choice

tests .

The writers found that for college undergraduates,
the results approximately replicated the Pressy findings,
with scores of 83.9 per cent (programmed group) and 84.9 per
cent (summary group) on the immediate post-test, with the
programmed group taking approximately four times as long.
However, with high school students there was a marked superi-
ority of performance for the programmed group. The pro-
grammed group was also found to be superior to the summary

group on the delayed post-test rather than on the immediate

19

post-test. This effect was held to be attributable to the
additional practice given on the immediate post-test. The
researchers found short answers gave results superior to
the multiple-choice questions.

Daniel and Murdoch (1968) used the same Holland-
Skinner (1961) program, and compared it with a textbook
judged to be equivalent in content (Skinner, 1953). The vari-
ables in the Daniel and Murdoch experiment were:

1. Multiple-choice testing:

a. Knowledge of Specific content

b. Knowledge of concepts

c. Response to novel material

d. Generalization to everyday life
2. Free-recall-format testing:

a. Free recall to novel material

b. Free recall as generalized to everyday life
3. Essay exams asking for a Skinnerian analysis of

"value of money" and "treatment of fears"

The Daniel and Murdoch experiment generally demon-
strated the superiority of the programmed text over the con-
ventional text. The authors concluded that the Specific
content is better learned from the programmed text and that
the superiority transfers better on the more abstract kinds
of exams. All of the objective-type questions were found to
be homogenous in their ability to account for the program/
textbook differences. An analysis performed on the essay

questions, however, suggested that for the essay exams,

20

knowledge of specific content and application to everyday
life are not both able to account for the textbook differ-
ences, in that statistical significance was not achieved.

In regard to the above studies, assumptions about
information processing could be stated in terms of the indi-
viduals who participated in the experiment. For example:

1. Given that there is increasing maturation of the
neural structure with age (Piaget, 1946),

2. and that there is increasing structural capacity
as the result of certain experiences (Schroder and
Suedfeld, 1971),

3. and that a sequence of programmed instruction repre-
sents a kind of cognitive structure with elements of
redundancy lacking in a comparable textbook,

4. it would be consistent to expect differential per-
formance on the part of individual persons as a
function of:

a. age, given identical information-processing

capacity, and

b. information-processing capacity, for an identi-

cal age.

Each of the above studies can claim that "N" students
perform at a certain level, but the data tell us nothing about
the information-processing ability of students in interaction
with the differential stimulus material.

Practice in writing responses serves to internalize

external structure within the neural "map." This, in turn,

21

leads to improved performance on subsequent post-tests, as
verified by Roderick and Anderson (1968). The findings are
consistent with a study by Williams (1963), who found covert
responding inferior to overt (greater internalization)
responding.

Information—processing theory holds that more infor-
mation processing would be required for students to construct
open-ended responses to questions than to identify correct
alternatives in multiple-choice items (a fixed structure),
which is given support from Daniel and Murdoch's (1968)
findings. However, the apparent inconsistency reported by
that study, in which the investigators were unable to account
for the difference between the textbook and programmed
instruction on the one essay exam, is also consistent with
information-processing expectations. On an essay exam, the
internalized cognitive structure is freer to "float" so that
more of the student appears in the written behavior. There
is more likely to be a discrepancy between the more organized
structure of the instructor and the less organized (by com-
parison) structure of the student, leading to inconsistencies
of evaluation which would be difficult to account for on a
strictly empirical basis. The greater flexibility of respon-
ses permitted by the essay exam would mask the possible effect
of the very highly organized programmed structure, when com-
pared with the less organized summary. Thus, it is difficult
to attribute variance to either the programmed or the textual

structure, or to the interpreter (instructor) of the essay exam.

22

In the context of this thesis, the author would ask

different questions of the same data. For example, if a com-

parison is made between a highly structured cognitive struc-

ture (programmed) and a less organized structure (text):

1.

Given a performance difference in either treat-
ment, to what extent is there a correlation with
the cognitive complexity or individual ability

to process information?

To what extent is the student's integration of

the cognitive structure (at any performance level)
consistent with the student's level of intrinsic
motivation with respect to the content material?
What effect would there be at any given perfor-
mance level, to the extent that the student per-
ceives control of his own life resides more within
himself (internal control) than in the environment
and over which he has little power (external
control)?

Given differing levels of integrative complexity,
intrinsic-extrinsic motivation, and locus of per-
ceived control, what would be the nature of the

affective involvement with the programmed cogni-

 

tive structure as a function of performance?

To what extent can the internalized cognitive
structure be expressed as creative applications

by individuals with differing levels of information-

processing capacity?

23

Comparison between a programmed sequence of instruc-
tion and a textbook sequence of instruction is one way of
investigating the effect on students of differences in exter-
nal structure and information. Another way is to compare the
effect of organization of information when prestructured by
the instructor, with the case in which the student is free
to structure the information himself.

Structure: Instructor-Determined Order of
Presentation in Programmed Instruction

 

 

Using Gagne and Brown's (1961) study of a guided dis-
covery program, Brown (1970) sought to pin down the effect of
sequencing variables in an instructional program.

Brown cited Niedermeyer's (1968) analysis, which sum-
marized the conflicting data as to the effect of sequencing.
The data supported the idea that sequencing is not an impor-
tant variable in learning. Niedermeyer (1969) set forth
three hypotheses, which were reviewed by Brown (p. 41); the
hypotheses state that sequencing effects depend upon:

1. The nature of the subject matter being taught.

2. The learner's ability (high-ability learners can
overcome the effect of poor sequencing more than
low-ability learners can).

3. The age of the learner (according to Gagne, 1970,
a student becomes more immune with age to the
effects of poor sequencing).

The Brown study yielded the following findings:

24

1. Verbalizable skills and intellectual (nonordered)
skills are learned in different ways.

2. For problem—solving tasks (ordered), high-ability
subjects were better able to "unscramble" the
information presented to them, and thus overcome
sequencing effects.

3. Short programs are more immune to sequencing
effects than are longer programs.

The findings are consistent with assumptions of
information-processing theory. As stated in the third find-
ing, there is less complexity in a short program; hence a
person will have less difficulty in internalizing the pro-
grammed structure with his own cognitive scheme. For high-
complexity levels, however, the full integrative ability of
the individual is called to task; hence sequencing (struc-
ture) becomes more important, especially for those individuals
Who have information-processing structures that are relatively
undeveloped or inflexible. Problem-solving tasks require a
higher order of information processing; hence there should be
more difference effects among individuals according to
information-processing ability. Both the question of length
Of information sequence and those of application to various
PrOblem-solving tasks are fair game to the application of
information theory.

Other studies of related variables to be manipulated
by an instructor, such as "chunking" (Furukawa, 1970), "gap,"

"irrelevancies,' and "masking" (Moore, 1968), can also be

25

investigated using information theory concepts. A study by
Tobias (1969) is highly consistent with information theory
expectations. Creative subjects learned more under all
conditions -— there is a correlation between creativity and
level of information processing, but not with creativity and
intelligence (Schroder and Suedfeld, 1971); but the con-
structed response group achieved more on technical than on
familiar subject matter. "Technical" information has a more
novel structure than does the "familiar" structure which,

by definition, is already well internalized. By requiring a
person to construct responses (structure) to the technical
information, there would be greater internalization of the
novel information, according to information theory predic-
tions. Such a requirement leads to the question of the
effect of the student controlling the construction of his
own internal structure.

Structure: Student-Controlled Order
of Presentation

 

 

A first consideration would relate to the student's
entry behavior as explicated through personality variables
(related to information processing) rather than content com-
petence.

A study by Ripple, et al. (1969), comparing students'
use of conventional textbooks with programmed instruction,
failed to show significant interaction effects among all
personality variables (anxiety, compulsivity, and exhibition-

ism). An effect for "anxiety" was associated with lower

26

criterion scores. This effect is consistent with the
information—processing research reported by Schroder (1967).
Anxiety has the effect of temporarily reducing a person's
information—processing level so that there would be less
internalization of novel constructs. Student sequencing of
information would allow the student an opportunity to control
for anxiety, and could yield differential performance if
taken into account.

Sutter and Reid (1969) reported another study which
underscored the importance of looking at individual differ-
ences in terms of basic learner personality variables. They
looked at individual differences in attitudes of students
interacting with a sequence of computer-assisted programmed
instruction. They found no significant differences in atti-
tudes of students working together, compared with students
working alone. However, when individual performance and
attitudes were compared and then correlated with individual
differences as defined by test anxiety, sociability, and
dominance, significant differences among the subjects' atti-
tudes were revealed in regard to performance and to their
preference for working in association with certain person-
ality types. Such studies (although few in number) justify
the attention being given to personality variables in this
thesis.

A second consideration relates to the dynamics of
how students actually structure information when allowed to

do so according to their own internal organization.

27

Beginning with a series of studies by Mager (1961),
Mager and McCann (1961), and Mager and Clark (1963), the
researchers demonstrated that student control of sequencing
yielded (after initial student cynicism had abated):

(1) higher levels of involvement than that found when cogni-
tive structures are arranged for students by instructors,

(2) that the students proceeded through the instruction
sequence more quickly and with more internal cooperation than
did a traditional class, and (3) the progress of the infor-
mation acquisition or structuring progresses from integral
structures of a simple nature to integral structures of a
complex nature. This is a different phenomenon than the
traditional assumption that learning progresses from dis-
crete parts to integral wholes. The questions asked by
students reflected a concern with how (in the overall struc-
ture) things are related (i.e., process questions), rather
than with what makes something work (i.e., discrete ques—
tioning).

A series of experiments by Campbell (1964) supported
the findings of Mager, et a1., as did a series of studies by
Grubb and Selfridge (1964).

Fry (1970) conducted an extensive review of the lit-
erature regarding programmed instruction prior to conducting
his own investigation into student-controlled sequencing.

He summarized the most common hypotheses relating to student

sequencing of instructional materials:

28
l. Learners who are highly motivated are able to over—
come poor sequences (Briggs, 1968).

2. High—ability learners are able to overcome the poor
sequencing (Neidermeyer, et a1., 1969).

3. If the content structure is of a low-order hierarchy,
it can be learned in any order.

4. If content is too short and too redundant, it can be
learned in any order (Payne, et a1., 1967; Briggs,
1968).

5. The learner can set his own pace and thereby sort
out any confusion (Payne, et a1., 1967).

6. The learner is kept more alert during random
sequencing (Roe, et a1., 1962).

Fry stated, in reporting the research of Grubb and
Selfridge (1964):

The highly dynamic, interacting, responsive environ-
ment with its immediate feedback during problem solving
also contributed to consistently high motivation on the
students' behavior. (p. 11)

However, after completing his review of the literature on
programmed instruction, Fry also concluded that:

Although it is true that programed instruction is
individualized instruction and potentially permits
student control (e.g. self-pacing) according to
Campbell (1964), it tends to give the learner even
less control than he has with an ordinary textbook. (p. 24)

Some of the reasons he cited relate to: small frames encourage
rote learning (Ausubel, 1968); there is the presence of "pall
effect" (Feldhusen, 1963; Smith and Smith, 1966; DeCecco,
1963); programmed instruction can be "mechanized, non-thought
provoking, anti—insightful, etc." (Roth, 1963); individual

differences are not adjusted for (DeCecco, 1964); and control

is wrested from the student and given to the programmer

29

(Smith and Smith, 1966; Pressy, 1963; Ausubel, 1963;
Campbell, 1964). Fry concluded:
Clearly, programed instruction has shown little
improvement over other methods of adapting training
to the interests, aptitudes, motivations, and back-
ground characteristics of the learners. (p. 26)

Although it has been almost 20 years since Skinner's
(1953) challenge to education to apply fruitfully the promise
of behavioral control, Fry and others continue to make a
strong case for deficiencies in the application of programmed
instruction using present research variables. As Davis,
et a1. (1970) pointed out, there is confusion in referent
terms, leading to numerous conflicting reports.

Fry's (1970) experiment sought to overcome some
methodological deficiency of the earlier studies by control-
ling for: (1) student-controlled sequencing, (2) fixed
sequencing prepared by experts, (3) random sequencing, and
(4) absence of instructions to a control group. He found
that high-aptitude and high-inquiry type subjects learned
more under the expert treatment, and that within the student-
controlled sequencing, the more questions that the subjects
asked the more they learned and the more favorably they
rated the experience. Both of these findings are consistent
with information theory predictions; however, a different
order of questions could be asked. For example, how would
concrete vs. abstract processors prefer the "expert" sequences
compared to the student-controlled sequences? Given that

high-inquiry and high-aptitude subjects prefer the "expert"

30

treatment, what is the relationship of "high inquiry" to
information-processing-related personality variables? The
following chapter explores the relationship of three such

variables to the research question set forth in this thesis.

Summary

Contemporary criticism of educational practices has
pointed up some underlying deficiencies in instructional
emphasis. Schroder, Berman, and others suggested that a
change from a preoccupation with content variables to a new
emphasis on processing variables would have beneficial
effects on the schools, which would transfer to society in
general.

Scholars in the field of programmed instruction,
which is presently exerting a major influence on academic
programs of instruction, have suggested that traditional
variables, which at present comprise the bulk of the research
literature, have served their usefulness and a new approach
is in order.

The author proposes to follow a process model, using
information-processing variables rather than the traditional
content-based variables, which have fallen under criticism.
The variables to be examined are: information processing,
intrinsic-extrinsic motivation, and internal-external control
as they interact with a fixed cognitive structure in the form

of a sequence of programmed instruction.

31

The chapter included a review of some of the pro-
grammed instruction literature as "structure," and a dis-
cussion of the relationships between the traditional content
variables and the processing concept of structure as it
relates to this thesis. Research variables bearing upon
programmed sequences compared with conventional textbooks,
instructor-controlled sequencing, and student-controlled

sequencing were reviewed.

Overview

 

The following chapter discusses the literature bear-
ing upon the independent variables at issue in the study.
These are: level of information processing, intrinsic-
extrinsic motivation, and internal-external locus of per-
ceived control. Ten hypotheses relating these variables to
student attitude, performance on a criterion test, and cumu-
lative grade-point average are set forth.

In Chapter III, the methodology of the study is pre-
sented. The sample of textile students who participated in
the study is discussed. A preliminary study which was con-
ducted on the programmed instructional system is described;
in this discussion data are presented to justify the use of
the program as a basis for the "after-only" treatment applied
in the main study. The procedures and statistical analysis
of the main study are also set forth in Chapter III.
Finally, a factor analysis of three of the questionnaires

is briefly described.

32

The results of the main study are discussed in
Chapter IV.

Chapter V contains an analysis of the conclusions
of the main study, a critical evaluation of the study, and

implications for further research.

CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

The preceding chapter looked at some relationships
between research using traditional programmed instruction
variables and research using some variables suggested by
information processing. In this chapter, information-
processing variables used in this study are looked at in
detail. Since programmed instruction is grounded in certain
"drive" theories of the behavioral school of psychology,
these classical drive theories are briefly discussed, along
with some criticism that has been directed at them. Then
human sensory processing is discussed in terms of a cyber-
netic model of "drive" used in this thesis. Hunt's concepts
of intrinsic-extrinsic motivation, Schroder's concept of
level of information processing, and Rotter's concept of
locus of perceived control are then developed. Finally, the
theoretical hypotheses are presented and discussed in view

of the literature that has been cited.

Classical Drive Theories of Motivation

 

Three major questions have been asked in the motiva-
tion literature in order to interpret the dynamic complexity
of human behavior (Hunt, 1960):

33

34

A. Why does a person become active?

B. Why does a person act one way rather than another?

C. How can you change a person's behavior to become

more apprOpriate?

Much of the psychological literature has been produced
on the assumption that external factors are responsible for
human behavior. Man is "pushed" or "driven" to satisfy pri-
mary needs. Freud (1938) developed the theoretical constructs
of the analytical school in which the ID (basic animal primi-
tive drives) were counterbalanced by the EGO (practicality,
rationality, trade-offs) and the SUPER EGO (moral concepts of
good and evil). Normal through neurotic through psychotic anom-
alies of behavior could be interpreted as the logical outcomes
of frustrations arising from the suppression of basic drives
or thwarted behavior. This theoretical structure did not
lend itself to reliable experimental manipulation. The
behavioristic theoretical school emerged, with a strong empha—
sis and base in scientific controls (Brodbeck, 1968, p. 3).

The legacy of programmed instruction originated in
the behavioral (stimulus-response) school, rather than the
analytical school. Like Freud, the behaviorists find the
origination of behavior as a response to primary psysiologi-
cal needs, but their explanation of the dynamics of behavior
is different, namely, that the organism's random interaction
with environmental stimuli in response to primitive drives is
reinforced, contingent upon instrumental behavior, by grati-

fication of the primary drives. After reinforcement,

35

probability of the same instrumental behavior is increased

in the presence of the environmental stimuli when the primary
drive regains its strength. Selective use of primary rein-
forcers can be used to make predictable the behavior of the
-organism when the primary drives are present. Social behavior
not directly associated with primary drives is explained
through the concept of secondary reinforcers. When primary
drives are being reduced contingent upon apprOpriate instru-
mental behavior, secondary reinforcing stimuli such as
praise, money, and other symbolic rewards are paired with the
primary reinforcers (food, water, sex). The secondary rein-
forcers take on the effect of primary drives, so that people
behave in certain ways in order to receive praise and the
other social reinforcers.

Hull (1943), Miller and Dollard (1941), and others
have erected elaborate theories accounting for anticipatory
responses, drive states, contiguity of chaining, and so forth
to derive a theoretical explanation of what is occurring
within the "black box" called a human being. Their basic

premise assumed that observed behavior was in response to the

 

interaction effect of stimuli with primary and secondary

drives, and thus is called a respondent theory of condition-

 

ing.

However, programmed instruction is more an outgrowth
of Operant conditioning, as stated by Skinner (1953), and
has a slightly different theoretical premise. Skinner

rejected the "black box" hypothesis in terms of theoretical

36

constructs as to what is occurring within it. He held that
it is only necessary to observe input (stimuli) and output

(behavior) in order to determine cause-effect relationships
on a probability basis. Theories of intervening variables

are unnecessary and irrelevant.

Both respondent and operant conditioning conceive of
habit as the logical outcome of successful contingencies of
reinforcement leading to drive reduction or increased prob-
ability of response. Thus, regardless of whether one refers
to the black box theories of hypothetical constructs involv-
ing intervening variables (Hull) or probability statements of
outcome behavior based upon contingencies of reinforcement
(Skinner), all behavioristic theories have in common their
premise that the "trigger" of motivating factors lies in
stimuli which are essentially external to the organism and
which relate directly or indirectly to primary physiological
needs relating to oxygen, food, water, and sex. Thus, one

should control extrinsic rewards in order to control behavior

 

of human beings. Predispositions to respond are the outcomes
of a history of reinforcement contingencies and existing
drive states.

Consistent with the above premise, behaviorists (who
have fostered the development of programmed instruction)
analyze entry behaviors of students exclusively in terms of
the outcome behaviors to be reinforced through interaction
with the program. For example, entry behaviors into a pro—

grammed structure of basic textile information are examined

37

with respect to outcome behaviors and resulting extrinsic

rewards (e.g., mastery yielding high grades, good jobs, one
less requirement to beat the system, etc.). Intrinsic fac-
tors relating to information-processing considerations have

heretofore played a minor role.

Critique of the Drive Hypothesis

 

In contrast to the drive theories, the cybernetic
model of behavior does not assign any special importance to
traditional drive concepts. "Drive" is assumed to be present
within any living organism as a definition of "life." The
emphasis in the cybernetic model is upon the internal inte-
gration, differentiation, and evaluation of perceptual phe-
nomena such that observable behavior is logical and consis-
tent. The importance of external loci of stimuli as the
source of "push-pull" is de-emphasized. Hunt (1971, p. 92)
cited some evidence which illustrates certain deficiencies
in current drive theories:

1. Monkeys, well fed and watered, will work for

hours to learn to disassemble a puzzle just for
the privilege of disassembling it (Harlow, 1950).
2. Rats will explore new areas, given only the Oppor-
tunity, and this tendency increases in prOportion
to the novelty of the situation (Berlyne, 1960).

3. Variations in innocuous receptor inputs will

instigate and sustain looking or listening; and

novelty, incongruity, and complexity will

38

reinforce behavior in human beings (Berlyne,
1957a,b,c; 1958a,b).
4. Rats running a T-maze will consistently favor
the less-familiar alternative (Montgomery, 1952).

5. Rats will learn merely to earn an Opportunity to
explore unfamiliar territory (Montgomery and
Segall, 1955).

6. Monkeys will learn to discriminate merely to
obtain the privilege of peeking through a window
in the opaque walls of their cages (Butler, 1953).

7. Human beings (their primary needs kept satisfied)
have been found to be unable to tolerate homo-
geneity of input (lack of stimuli) for more than
three days (Bexton, Heron, and Scott, 1954;
Heron, Doane, and Scott, 1956).

More recently, Houston and Mednick (1963) demonstrated
that creative individuals need greater novelty in the environ-
ment than do noncreatives. Although Skinner (1957) con-
structed an elaborate defense of the development of language
according to the behavioristic model, Chomsky (1965) and
others raised plausible questions about how young children
can construct novel speech which could not possibly have been
the result of conditioning (e.g., by using syntactical dif-
ferences of word arrangement they could not have heard
before). Studies of stimulus deprivation of human beings
during infancy have demonstrated that such infants, although

otherwise well fed and cared for, show marked impairment of

39

psychological and physiological adjustment and development,
even to the point of unrecoverable damage (Ribble, 1943;
Spitz, 1946). In an elaborate series of experiments with
primates, Hebb (1946) showed how fear that could not possibly
have been explained by conditioning could be elicited in
primates. Koestler (1967) devoted an entire book to construct-
ing arguments against traditional behavioristic theories.
Hunt (1971) concluded:
These modes of theoretical recognition fail, then,

to explain the evidence. Further, since organisms do

not become quiescent in the absence of painful stimula-

tion, homeostatic need, and sex, or in the absence of

acquired drives based upon these, a mechanism of motiva-

tion must inhere within the informational interaction of

organisms with their environments. There must be a sys-

tem of motivation inherent in information reception

through the ears and eyes, information processing and

action. These systems of motivation, one in information

processing per se, and another in action, may be termed

"intrinsic motivation." (p. 94)

Human Sensory Processing of External Structure
Recall that a human being can be conceived of as an

information-processing device. The internal neural map and
the external structure are in continual interaction. The
amount of information that can be processed, however, has
finite limits (Miller, 1956). Therefore, the flux of incom-
ing information (i.e., uncertainty) must be selectively
received and selectively processed. However, due to the regu—
larity of both internal and external structure, the capacity

of the neural structure to process information can be

increased by "chunking" the information to increase the

40

effective number of bits and at the same time increase redun-
dancy in order to overcome noise (Shannon and Weaver, 1949;
Miller, 1956; Katzman, 1971). The neural structure is alert
to changes in the external structure, which, when perceived,
is compared with the internal map and cast into the short-
term memory (Broadbent, 1958). If the incongruence is vali-
dated while in the short-term memory, it is transferred in to
and modifies the permanent map in the long-term memory. If
the incongruence is of no consequence, it is expunged (for-
gotten).
The construction of a neural map or cognitive struc—
ture of the external environment can be conceptualized as a
schemata (Bartlett, 1932; Piaget, 1936; Woodsworth, 1938;
Hebb, 1949; Attneave, 1954, 1959).
The schemata arises in the neurological structure as
a result of the regularity or constraints existing in the
external environment. The dynamics of interaction can be
conceptualized through a feedback model (TOTE) proposed by
Miller, Galanter, and Pribram (1960). The organism:
TESTS the environment and compares it with its
existing schemata,
OPERATES to reduce any irregularities or modifies
the internal schemata,
TESTS the environment again and either recycles to
the operate phase if the incongruity remains, or
if incongruity is no longer present, then it will

_E_:_XIT

41

The TOTE model of human information processing depends
heavily upon the concept of feedback or, in effect, knowledge
of results (KR) of the organism's OPERATE phase. The concept

of reward (the KR) or extrinsic motivation does not share the

 

central emphasis in the cybernetic TOTE model that it does
in the respondent- or operant-conditioning models. Annett
(1969) said:

It is suggested that we describe an organism as being
"motivated" when we see it pursuing some plan of action.
Since plans involve hierarchies of feedback loops, feed-
back is essential to motivation, but motivation is not
an additional energizing factor; it is simply descriptive
of feedback in action. (p. 169)

In the TOTE model, it is the resolving of schemata—
environmental structure incongruencies which is rewarding.
Only a portion of the incongruencies occurring in the TOTE
model for a given organism are concerned with primary
"drives." Life itself means change, and a primary need is
for stimulation from the external environment so that the
organism can exercise its TOTE mechanisms (von Forester, 1968;
Mackworth, 1969, 1970). So important is this need for TOTE
(intrinsic motivation) that in an excessively static environ-
ment an organism must seek variety within the constraints
(Berlyne, 1960).

Information processing is inherent in the organism
and is basic for survival. Each human being has a capacity
for information processing, but the capability for process-

ing information is not fixed, and considerable variability

exists among different persons. Hoepfner, et a1. (1970)

42

demonstrated that what is called "learning" amounts to a con-
tinual process of redefining and interpreting known informa—
tion, regardless of level of ability. Such findings are
highly congruent with the TOTE-process notion in regard to
the concept of internal schemata, and with the concept of

intrinsic motivation discussed below.

Intrinsic Motivation and Human Information Processing

Recent concepts of intrinsic motivation were thor-
oughly reviewed by Hunt (Schroder and Suedfeld, 1971), and
relate to the preceding discussion of an internal schemata,
which is a map of the structure external to the person.

Of interest in human information processing is the
phenomenon of how different persons process various amounts
of incongruity between the internal schemata and the environ—
ment. Figure 3 illustrates the conceptualization of how dif-
fering amounts of incongruity have been demonstrated to affect
the processing agent. In Figure 3, the relationship between
affect and incongruity is demonstrated. The figure illus-
trates that there is an Optimum amount of discrepancy,
regardless of whether or not it is positive or negative,
which is received with positive affect. This amount of dis-
crepancy was discussed by Berlyne (1957, 1958, 1960) in terms
of curiosity or amusement. When the discrepancy proceeds
beyond the optimal point, first denial occurs, then fight or

flight (Lorenz, 1963).

43

Positive
Affect

 

Indifferent
Affect

 

Negative
Affect

 

 

 

 

Negative Adaptation Positive
Discrepancy Level Discrepancy

Figure 3.--Affect compared to amount of discrepancy.

Source: Schroder and Suedfeld, 1971, p. 111.

Hunt (in Schroder and Suedfeld, 1971) cited a variety
of experimental data which give support to the model. Figure
illustrates the relationship between level of cue function
or efficiency and the level of arousal. Figure 5 illustrates
the relationship between arousal level and effect of "drive
reduction." Intrinsic motivation can be defined as the TOTE
operation of the human being as he operates in the environ-
ment, which provides a variety of incongruencies and con-
straints. Hunt discussed how seven major behavioral issues
are handled in terms of intrinsic motivation.

1. Instigation -- Behavior is instigated when there

 

is perceived incongruity between external con-

straints and the schemata.

44

Increasing Interest Increasing Emotional
and Positive Emotion Disturbance; Anxiety

     
 

 

 

 

 

2

D

E

H

E PANIC

O
Drive-induction is Level of Drive-reduction is
reinforcing and has Arousal reinforcing and has
incentive value incentive value

Figure 4.--Level of "cue function" compared
with level of arousal.

Source: Schroder and Suedfeld, 1971, p. 114.

Arousal

 
  

  

OPTIMUM

BOREDOM

 

 

 

 

AROUSAL POTENTIAL INCONGRUITY
Drive reduction Drive reduction
is reinforcing is reinforcing

Figure 5.--Arousa1 as a function of incongruity.

Source: Schroder and Suedfeld, 1971, p. 116.

45

Energization -- Energization is the arousal level,

 

due to the incongruity, which can range from
curiosity behavior and exploration to panic beha-
vior.

Direction -- Behavior derives its direction based

 

upon the schemata. In young children, behavior
tends to be more random and the TOTE process
serves to construct the schemata. In adults,
behavior is less random or more constrained due
to the fully developed schemata, except during
extremely high incongruency (panic).

Cathexis -- The presentation of positive affect
toward a person or object moves from simple
imprinting to affection and trust in complex
neural processing. Cathexis can be traced to
fundamental consistencies in the environmental
constraints. A characteristic of all love
objects is their perceived stability.

Choice -- The concept of choice relates to the
structure of the schemata, in which there is a
hierarchy of "prepotency" to respond, ranging
from high priority incongruencies (e.g., pain
producing, which is most directly linked to the
neural structure) to discrepancies of low pri—
ority (e.g., subtle cues relating to cultural

norms embedded in the schemata).

46

6. Change -- Behavioral change relates to mainten-
ance of an optimal incongruity level. Change can
be gradual, the result of efforts to defeat bore-
dom, or at the other extreme, rapid to extrinsic
input which forces a rapid change in the schemata.

7. Persistence -- Persistence is the logical outcome

 

of mixed experience of success and failure (in S-R
psychology the phenomenon is variable ratio rein-
forcement). Behavior is more persistent when

the schemata is constructed in an emotional state
characterized by high affect (Schroder and
Suedfeld, 1971):

Frenkel-Brunswik (1949) attributed such evidence of
affective rigidity to children's inability to express
their emotional ambivalence toward parents, but perhaps
the basic factor is the level of arousal at the time the
beliefs, attitudes and plans were laid down. If the
level of arousal has been high, the central processes
upon which such standards are based may become highly
stable, so that it takes a higher degree of incongruity
to effect a modification of the system in the storage,
and unadaptive rigidity may be the consequence. (p. 129)

The genetic legacy and prenatal development bring

tremendous variety within the human species with respect to
perceptual fidelity, psychomotor skill, and neural processing
potential with which the environment then interacts with
incredible variety. In comparison to the variety of con-
straints which the environment can exercise and in which the
human processing system can find itself, the variety which

exists in terms of the neural processing structure is, by

comparison, trivial. Is there a pattern which gives rise to

47

a consistent pattern of constructs (Kelly, 1955) or ways of

 

viewing the world?

Suppose (call the following System 1) that the char-
acteristics of environmental constraints during the construc-
tion of the schemata are extremely rigid. The child is
required always to conform to the training agent's demands.
Compliance or rebellion is dealt with by the training agent
in terms of rewards or punishments. Thus, the child learns
to conform to highly specific and unvarying behavioral cri-
teria. For the child, the constrained environment reflects
high certainty and minimum variety.

Suppose, however (call the following System 2), that
the training agent is capricious in exercising constraints.
Although rigid and unyielding in his demands, the training
agent's standards vary widely. Sometimes the child is
rewarded for conforming, sometimes not. Sometimes there is
reward for an act, but on other occasions there is punishment
for the same act. The criteria for rewards and punishments
are never clear. For the child, the environment is in a
constant state of high uncertainty.

Suppose (call the following System 3) the environment
exercises negligible human-imposed constraints. The child
has a high level of degrees of freedom to operate in the
environment, subject only to natural environmental con-
straints, with even the training agent being subject to easy
manipulation by the child. The child is allowed to want for

nothing. All demands are acceded to when humanly possible,

48

so that the child is infused with an enormous sense of power
over the environment. What might be the behavioral differ-
ences of such a child's processing style when compared to the
previous systems?

Finally, suppose (call the following System 4) the
child is raised with considerable degrees of freedom to Oper-
ate in the environment, but the training agent is 22E manip-
ulatable. Suppose that the child finds his own rewards in
exploration and experimentation, with the training agent
neither punishing nor rewarding for any particular behavior,
but rather serving as a source of information to the child
to save him from punishment by extreme but natural environ-
mental constraints (e.g., getting burned by fire), to provide
shortcuts to information acquisition, and to assist the devel-
Opment of the child's level of skill. Such a child is
encouraged to be independent, but constrained in behavior
only to conform to standards such that respect for the rights
of others is a part of the natural environmental constraints.

Given these four arbitrarily defined systems or
"worlds of constraints" into which a child might be placed,
what patterns of information processing or other behavioral
consistencies in the schemata might be discovered? Harvey
(1966) reported an intensive series of studies into various
measures of personality and found fairly discrete consisten-
cies within each of the four systems. Some of the variables
investigated include: cognitive complexity (Kelly, 1955;

Campbell, 1960), authoritarianism (measured by the F scale),

49

dogmatism (Rokeach, 1960); left and right opinionation
(Rokeach, 1960); rigidity (Cough and Sanford, 1952); auton-
omy, affiliation, change, and aggressiveness (Edwards Per-
sonal Preference Schedule; self-causality (Srole Scale of
Anomie, 1956); identification of the American motif (Nettler
Scale of Anomie, 1957); self-concept (Dymond's Self-Concept
Scale, 1953; Deck 13 of Hilden's Self—Concept Statements,
1954); self-control, honesty, creativity, kindness, loyalty,
independence, religiousness, and status (Scott's Scale of
Values); and need for affiliation (French, 1956).

Harvey (1966, p. 44) summarized the correlation of
the preceding measures with persons who are products of the
four different systems:

System 1 Persons (low information processing)

 

Highest on religious beliefs (i.e., most closed-minded)
authoritarianism
dogmatism
right opinionation
rigidity '
deference

honesty

kindness

loyalty

status seeking

identification with the American motif
self-control

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Lowest on cognitive complexity (i.e., information
autonomy processing)
anomie
creativity

 

 

2nd highest on need for affiliation
change (with System 3)

 

3rd highest on self-causality
self-esteem
independence (with System 3)

 

 

 

50

System 2 Persons (moderately low information processing)

 

Highest on change (with System 4)
aggreSSiveness
creativity
independence
Machiavellianism
left opinionation

 

 

 

 

 

Lowest on religiousness
self—causality
self—esteem
need for affiliation
identification with American motif
self-control

honesty

kindness

loyalty

2nd highest on dogmatism
rigidity
deference
status seeking (with Systems 3 and 4)

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

3rd highest on authoritarianism
right Opinionation
cognitive complexity (information processing)

 

 

 

System 3 Persons (moderately high information processing)

 

Highest on need for affiliation
kindness

 

Lowest on none of the measures

2nd highest on cognitive complexity (information
religiousness (with System 4) processing)
authoritarianism
Opinionation
change (with System 3)
self-causality
self-esteem
identification with American motif
self-control (with System 4)
honesty (with System 4)
creativity (with System 4)
loyalty (with System 4)
status seeking (with Systems 2 and 4)

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

3rd highest on anomie
dogmatism
rigidity

independence (with System 1)

 

 

51

System 4 Persons (high level of information processing)

Highest on change (with System 2)
cognitive complexity (information processing)
self-causality

 

Lowest on authoritarianism
dogmatism
opinionation

rigidity

2nd highest on self-control (with System 3)
honesty (with System 3)
creativity (with System 3)
independence
status seeking (with Systems 2 and 3)
anomie

 

 

 

 

 

 

3rd highest on need for affiliation
identification with American motif

The above information provides criteria for evaluating
the schemata and for predicting the kinds of constraints that
representative persons are likely to project into the environ-
mental structure. One of the most pervasive and significant
predictors of cognitive interaction with the environment is

the construct of cognitive complexity.

 

The Assessment of Cognitive Complexity

A human being can be categorized according to the
number of bits of information that he can perceive in the
environmental structure. A System 1 type person perceives
fewer bits (less uncertainty) in the external structure than
does a System 4 type. Hence the world is simpler for a
System 1 type, who processes information along fewer dimen-
sions than does the System 4 person. The range of processing

competence ranges from concrete (System 1) to abstract

52

(System 4), with differing levels lying along the continuum

(Hunt, 1961).

Schroder, et a1. (1967) reported a substantial body

of research dealing with aspects of processing abilities.

The authors described the four systems as follows:

A.

Low integration index (System 1) -- characterized by:

1. Categorical thinking (i.e., black-white)

2. Minimization of conflict (i.e., either fit or
exclude)

3. Anchoring of behavior in external conditions

4. Change, when it occurs, is abrupt and categori-
cal (i.e., 180-degree changes)

Moderately low integration index (System 2) --

characterized by:

1. Generation of simple dimensions to a category
(more or less of something)

2. Elements of the schemata only primitively related

3. Ambivalence and inconsistency

4. A preponderance of negativism and defensiveness
since possibilities of alternative schemata are
threatening

Moderately high integration index (System 3) --

characterized by:

1. Alternate combinations of perspective, more
complex rules for categorizing

2. Less deterministic

3. Multiple tracking of environmental structure

53

4. Use of internal processes due to the presence of
choice. "Self" becomes a viable agent in the
total schemata.

5. A more empirical outlook with some data-based
decision making

D. High integration index (System 4) -— Characterized by

1. Multiple combinations of dimensional scale val-
ues, flexible rules for comparison, and a struc-
ture for generalizing complex relationships

2. Elaborate theoretical conceptualization beyond
simple empiricism

3. The generation and accommodation of multiple
possibilities of schemata

4. Simplification of complexity in a variety of
creative and flexible ways

5. High diversity permitted and sought after

6. Absence of "checking" behavior, many perceived
degrees of freedom to operate within the environ-
mental constraints

Schroder, et a1. (1967) cited a body of research

which suggests that if any two of the three variables shown
in the abscissa in Figure 6 (complexity, noxity, eucity) are
held constant, the third variable can be manipulated from

low to high levels, and the characteristic curves will emerge
as illustrated. The two curves illustrate the information-
processing rate for concrete and abstract persons. Notice

that the curve for information processing is lowest for

54

concrete persons, and peaks earlier when complexity, noxity,
or eucity is increased. Harvey's (1966) summary, reviewed
above, shows some of the behavior correlates associated with

a person's information-processing level.

High

Abstract

Concrete

Level of
Information Processing

Low

 

 

Low ENVIRONMENTAL: High

1. Complexity

2. Noxity (negative, threaten-
ing, aversive)

3. Eucity (positive, rewarding,
enjoyable)

Figure 6.--Processing level compared to
environmental factors.

Source: Schroder, et a1., 1967; Figure 6, p. 40 (modified).

In addition, a major element that emerges from the
information-processing model just described is the extent to
which the locus of perceived control is perceived to be exter-

nal to the person (with few degrees of freedom) or internal

55

to the person (with many degrees of freedom). The dimension

of control is an important variable in this study.

The Locus of Perceived Control

 

A person can be described according to where he per-
ceives the locus of power to reside insofar as environmental

constraints are effected. The locus of control can reside

 

either:
A. Internally -- with the person as the basic control-
ling agent. Environmental constraint is perceived
as being indeterminant, temporary, and an artifact
of perception to be overcome (even though perhaps
with difficulty), if convenient.
B. Externally -- with the person powerless as a control-

 

ling agent. Environmental constraint is inviolable,
with the person's degrees of freedom limited to
Operate within the given structure.
Schroder, et a1. (1967) held that, for persons of
low integrative complexity (System 1 types):
. . . behavior is maximally controlled by external stim-
ulus conditions. With increasing conceptual levels,
alternative perspectives and interrelationships can be
generated from the same dimensional value of informa-
tion. This represents an increase in the concept of
"self" as agent, a going beyond any single or externally
given interpretation, in an increase in the conception
of internal causation. (p. 17)
To what extent is interaction with a programmed cog—
nitive structure dependent upon information-processing level

and the locus of control perceived by the student? Follow-

ing is background information on the locus of control question.

56

The concept of "self" as agent in regard to control
originally appeared outside of information-processing litera-
ture, in the area of clinical psychology (Allport, 1943;
Lecky, 1945; Rogers, 1942, 1951; Murphy, 1947; Hilgard, 1943).
Bugental and Zelen (1950), who explored the phenomenon
through systematic use of the W-A-Y technique (Who Are You?),
attempted to move beyond nondirective, therapeutic applica-
tions to define basic parameters concerning self-concept.

The concept of self (as related to control) which is dis-
cussed here is analogous to the analytical concept of 292

competence (White, 1960).

 

A variety of early studies have been conducted explor-
ing self-concept as it affects different parameters. Taylor
and Coombs (1952) found that children who were "better
adjusted" than others, as measured by external criteria, were
better able to COpe with criticism. Bills (1954) found a
significant correlation between what a person says about him-
self in an interview and his self-ratings on an index of
adjustment and values, findings which were supported by
Hanlon, et a1. (1954). Diller (1954) looked at conscious
and unconscious attitudes toward self after experiencing
success and failure, and found that both conscious and uncon-
scious attitudes fluctuated directly with success and failure.

Janis (1954) looked at the persons who were suscep-
tible to persuasion as a function of personality. He found
that persons with low self-esteem tend to be more readily

influenced by others, and that persons with acute symptoms

57

of neurotic anxiety (i.e., high levels of perceived environ-
mental uncertainty) tend to be more resistant to persuasion
than others.

Lepine and Chodorkoff (1955) and Steiner (1957) found
that the more an individual tends to express feelings of
adequacy, the less dependent he is upon environmental (exter-
nal) evaluation of past performance in setting goals.

More recent investigations continue to find support
for the relationship of locus of perceived control and per-
formance, and for the construct validity of the internal—
external control variable as a generalized personality dimen-
sion (Rotter, 1960; Battle, 1963). Harvey (1964) found per-
sons of high cognitive complexity (more internally controlled)
were less influenced during tests of discrimination when cues
were falsely manipulated.

Sherwood (1965) conducted a detailed analysis of the
"self's" relationship to peer group factors in the environ-
ment, and found that self-concept was directly related to
public identity in regard to the importance of peers to the
person, the extent of peer group communication of peer val-
ues, and the extent of the person's investment (involvement)
in the group.

A major review of the literature bearing upon the
locus of control construct was conducted by Lefcourt (1965).
He concluded that while there was a demonstrated relationship
between internal locus of control with intelligence (citing

Bailer, 1961; Crandall, et a1., 1962; Cromwell, 1963), he

58

observed that these studies used extreme ends of the intel-
ligence scale. He cited Battle and Rotter's (1963) study,
which demonstrated that there is generally little correlation
between intelligence and locus of perceived control. There-
fore, Lefcourt argued that the concept of locus of perceived
control is more than a simple phenomenological response to
one's own intelligence.

Related to the problem of correlating control with
intelligence is the question of the relationship of control
to academic performance. While evidence supports the lack
of a relationship between intelligence and control, a rela-
tionship between control and performance has been demon-
strated.

Crandall, et;11.(1965) found that young children
(undeveloped schematas) tended to show greater initiative
in seeking rewards and showed greater persistence in the
face of difficulty as a function of the extent to which they
felt responsible for their own success in academic situations.

A social learning approach (Bandura and Walters, 1963)
was employed by Ringness (1970) to identify why some children
are more highly motivated to achieve in school than are
others. He concluded that there is an effect due to the
presence of "significant others" with whom the child iden-
tifies. However, the findings of the study can be related
to the differential perception of perceived locus of control
in relation to the nature and personality of "significant

others": ". . . not only identification with various figures,

59

but the values attributed to these figures do relate to dif-
ferences in achievement commensurate with ability." (p. 184)
Humphreys (1968) demonstrated the inconsistency of
predicting a student's college success using the traditional
academic criteria, but Flook and Saggar (1968) looked at
academic performance as a function of both knowledge of
results (KR) and personality. The KR group performed sig—
nificantly better than the no-KR group, a difference which
the authors attributed to ". . . improved self-evaluation
through social comparison, with the KR being the catalytic
agent." (p. 395) This conceptualization of KR places its
function in a different context than the function of KR,
according to the behaviorist (stimulus—response) model.
Keefer (1971) reported that accurate predictors of
college success tended to differ in academic classification,
academic achievement, and self-concept. Accurate predictors
were:
. . . more "self-acceptant" as inferred from Bills Index
of adjustment, and values, and from their self-reports
of feelings of academic success and predictive accuracy,
operationally more successful in achieving their stated
goals and operationally more accurate in predicting their
achievement. (p. 404)
The data generally point to locus of perceived con—
trol as an important predictor of student performance in an
academic environment. However, a study by Egeland, Hunt, and

Hardt (1970) provides an interesting exception. In this

study, interpersonal flexibility (Hunt, 1964) was found to

 

be a predictor (p<.05) of college-bound students, but internal

60

control (Rotter, 1966) failed to discriminate between the
college and noncollege groups. This finding is inconsistent
with the findings of Coleman (1966), who reported that inter-
nal control is correlated with academic achievement. Egeland,
et a1. assumed that since both college enrollment and control
are correlated with academic success, there should be a cor-
relation between control and college enrollment. One possi-
ble reason for the apparent discrepancy is that while control
may be correlated with performance, the values which lead to
college enrollment may just as easily be in response to per-
ceived external control as to internal control, hence the
lack of correlation.

Rotter (1971) summarized the research to date on the
question of control, which illustrates the wide range of
applicability of the concept. The following generalizations
were made:

A. Lower-class children tend to be more external than
middle-class children.

B. Young children tend to be more external and become
more internal as they mature, but there is consider-
able variability due to cultural factors (Harvey,
1966).

C. Black prisoners in a reformatory were more external
than were white prisoners.

D. Among disadvantaged children, high scores on achieve—
ment were more correlated with internal control than

external control.

61

E. In a hospital and in a reformatory, patients and
inmates who were internal knew much more about their
state and about conditions in the institution than
did externals.

F. There is negligible correlation between intelligence
and control.

G. Persons who are internal are more successful at per—
suasion than are external persons.

H. Nonsmokers are significantly more internal than are
smokers.

I. Externals are more susceptible to subtle persuasion
than are internals, but externals express more
unfounded suspicion than do internals.

J. Internals actively resist being "conditioned."

K. Internals may be willing to "play the game" in sub-
mitting to subtle pressures under certain social con-
straints (e.g., the schoolroom).

L. Internals forget failures more readily than do
externals.

Studies of college students in 1960 showed that the
norm was more toward an internal locus of control, but recent
studies by Rotter showed that college students have become
significantly more external. (The measure was Rotter's and

is the same measure used in this thesis.)

62

Summary: The Relationship Among Motivation,
Control, and Information Processing

 

 

A person is born with a neural structure which is an
internal information-processing structure. This structure
is the product of his genetic and prenatal legacy. At birth
the internal structure begins its life history of interaction
with the organization in the external environment. The
organization or external structure is perceived to be made up
of permutations and combinations of forms of variety and con-
straint.

The environmental structure (at one point on a con-
tinuum) can represent a degree of constraint which is extreme
in its rigidity. In such a case the emerging schemata or
internal representation will reflect behavior patterns indic-
ative of few degrees of freedom. The schemata will become
efficient in responding only within the narrow parameters of
the constraints set by the restricted environment. On the
other hand, the environmental structure can contain consid-
erable variety, in which there are many degrees of freedom
for the human processor to exercise in the construction of
his schemata.

In addition to amount and type of variety and con-
straint existing in the environment, the structure will
represent a range of stability, from low uncertainty (i.e.,
high stability and consistency of structure) to high uncer-
tainty (i.e., randomness, capricious interaction, and erratic

and inconsistent reinforcement of constraints).

63

Depending on the accident of birth, a given child can
find himself in an environment which is consistently repre—
sentative of Some particular combination of: (l) a point on
the continuum of structural constraints, and (2) a point on
the continuum of structural stability (certainty-uncertainty).

As the child develops into adulthood, the organiza-
tion of the schemata (internal map of the external environ—
ment) develops through the TOTE interaction with the
environment. Depending upon whether or not the person is
evolving into a predominantly System 1, 2, 3, or 4 type, the
domination of behavioral orientation will become more or less
intrinsically or extrinsically motivated, and the person will
perceive the locus of the agent controlling his life to be
more or less internal or external to himself.

The visible behavior of the adult, which is the out-
come of his schemata's interaction with existing perceived
external structure, can be measured by a number of dimensions
(e.g., rigidity, creativity, authoritarianism, kindness,
etc.).

Of interest to this thesis are the dimensions of cog-
nitive complexity (level of information processing), motiva-
tion (intrinsic-extrinsic), and locus of perceived control
(internal—external).

There can be a range of information processing from
concrete (characterized by rigidity, few dimensions, categor-

ical thinking, and decision making) to abstract (characterized

64

by flexibility, multiple dimensions, qualified thinking, and
decision making).

There can be a range of motivation from intrinsic

 

(anchored in curiosity and exploration for the purpose of

matching environment with schemata) to extrinsic (anchored

 

in gratification of external rewards). In extrinsic motiva-
tion, the cognitive incongruency between structure and
schemata which leads naturally to exploratory behaviors may
be suppressed in order to invest behaviors in the acquisition
of the external reward. Facilitation or suppression of
intrinsic motivation can be a function of the structure of
the training environment.

There can be a range of locus of perceived control
from internal (the person is the controlling agent) to
external (the person is subject and helpless to controls
other than himself).

The research interest of this thesis lies in how a
person with varying "amounts" of the above variables will
interact with a fixed cognitive structure in the form of a
sequence of programmed instruction, as measured by perfor—
mance and attitude. To what extent, it can be asked, can
persons representing commonalities of the above variables be
predicted to cluster together as representatives of the above
variables, in relation to their performance on criterion
tests of the cognative structure, and their oreintation or
attitude toward a particular cognitive structure? The answer

to such questions will have implications for the design of

65

instructional systems, not only for the purpose of developing
content competencies, but most especially in developing
efficient and personally rewarding styles of interaction with
environmental organization, and in interacting with other

human beings.

Statement of the Hypotheses

 

Hypothesis I

 

There will be a positive attitude shift (as measured
by the group mean) in favor of the highly structured
sequence of programmed instruction when the attitude
toward HED 171* is compared with attitude toward college-
level instruction in general on several dimensions.

The reason for this shift lies in the human being's
penchant for order or congruity in input structure. The
input (programmed cognitive structure) was intentionally
designed to reflect an optimum of incongruity, to defeat the
boring tradition of the program, and, when combined with the
use of salient referents, defeat the "boring" tradition asso-
ciated with linear programs. (Development of the program is
discussed in Chapter III.)

The majority of college courses are instructor ori-
ented, rather than student oriented. The information organ-
ization is designed to reflect the schemata of the instructor
rather than of the student. The student is on his own to
reorganize the content information to meet two criteria:

A. It must be compatible with his own existing schemata,
and

B. It must be compatible with the instructor's schemata.

 

*HED l71-—Human Environment and Design.

66

The second criterion serves to introduce anxiety,
because while the content structure can be analyzed in the
context of the student's schemata, the cues to the instructor's
schemata may not be readily apparent. In fact, the instruc-
tor's schemata may itself be in a state of flux, or the student
may misinterpret cues to the instructor's schemata which, while
salient for the student, are not salient for the instructor.

The problem is compounded if the student is taking the

course for reasons of extrinsic motivation. Extrinsic rewards

 

may exist at the conclusion of a chain of delayed gratifica-
gions, e.g.:
A. Attractive mate and other status symbols (ultimate
reward) or independence
B. A well-paying job (makes possible "A")
C. A college degree (makes possible "B")
D. Passing the course with a high grade (makes possible

"C")

Under the present state of art of college instruction,
students enrolled for basically extrinsic reasons find the
experience aversive. For such a student, the low uncertainty
of the programmed cognitive structure is fully appreciated,
since the second criterion is fully accounted for and the
student need only apply energy in assimilating the content
information. Such students will, in general, find more
approval for the structured course rather than for courses

which reflect the college norm.

67

Some students enroll in college for reasons of

intrinsic motivation. Since the program was designed for

 

these students, intrinsically motivated students should also,
in general, approve of the structure since it will not hinder
them while appealing to their intrinsic needs. Since both
intrinsically and extrinsically motivated students should, in
general, approve of the program, Hypothesis 1 should find
support when an attitude survey toward college level instruc-
tion in general is compared with an attitude survey which is

specifically about the course experience.

Hypothesis 2a

 

Students who are extrinsically motivated will report
reater satisfaction with HED 171 than will students who
are intrinsically motivated.

 

Hypothesis 2b

 

Students who perceive the locus of control to be'
external will report greater satisfaction with HED 171
than will students who are internally controlled.

 

While the general attitude toward the course should
receive support as per Hypothesis 1, there will be individual
differences among specific students. Extrinsically moti—
vated and externally controlled students have more to gain
from the programmed structure. Intrinsically motivated stu-
dents may have to take the textile course as a university
requirement, but they may not be interested in textiles.
Thus, the programmed instruction will do them no favors, and
in fact will reduce their degrees of freedom to conduct the

exploratory activities so important to them. Harvey (1966)

68

and Schroder and Suedfeld (1971) reported that there is a cor-
relation between intrinsic motivation and complexity of think-
ing (i.e., abstract information processing). The same argument
can be advanced for externally controlled students preferring
the low uncertainty of the program as being consistent with

the normal state of affairs. Therefore, a third hypothesis

can be stated, which is directly related to the second.

Hypothesis 3

 

Students who are more cognitively simple (concrete
information processing) will report greater satisfaction
with HED 171 than will cognitively complex (abstract
information processing) students.

Houston and Mednick (1963) reported that the greater
the creativity of the person, with creativity being associated
with cognitive complexity (J. M. Hunt, 1960), the greater his
need for novelty. Such individuals would not find any pro-
grammed structure to be equal to the degrees of freedom per-
mitted by free exploration.

Suedfeld and Streufert (1966) found that cognitively
simple subjects require more feedback, a feature provided
by programmed instruction.

Karlins and Lamm (1967) found that high complex stu-
dents tend to ask more questions, an alternative denied them
in programmed instruction. Likewise, Wicker (1969) found
cognitively complex students become more involved through

asking questions, an alternative denied in working through

programmed instruction.

69

The latent anxiety to which cognitively simple per-
sons are subject when confronted with uncertainty is also a
factor supporting Hypotheses 2 and 3. Krohne and Schroder
(1971), building upon earlier research by Driver (1962),
Bryne (1964), and Epstein (1967), found that cognitively sim-
ple persons yield a regression of information from the envi-

ronment and differing interaction styles:

A. Repression -- amounting to denial of existing infor-
mation
B. Sensitization -- amounting to over-preoccupation

with anxiety-producing stimuli

Either style is dysfunctional in information acqui-
sition. Once again, the low uncertainty of the programmed
structure would permit a less-hampered interaction with the
course information and yield a more positive attitude toward
the course than should be expected from complex cognitive
persons,to whom high uncertainty levels are less disturbing.

Additional support is provided by Mouw (1969), who
found that closed-minded persons (cognitively simple) tend
to rely on authority for direction, a feature inherently

provided by programmed instruction.

Hypothesis 4

 

As a person's information processing progresses
toward abstraction, he will hold less-polarized atti—
tudes toward college-level instruction.

Complex thinkers can perceive more dimensions in a

situation than can cognitively simple persons. Thus, their

7O

attitudes toward college would be less anchored in success-
failure experiences than would concrete person's attitudes.
Waterman (1970) showed that stress produced by identity
crisis in college (Who am I? Why am I here?) will produce a
significantly more negative attitude toward college than that
held by people who have passed or do not experience such a
crisis. Since concrete persons are more subject to anxiety,

the effect will be greater for them than for abstract types.

Hypothesis 5

 

As a person's information processing progresses
toward abstraction, there will be fewer differences
when attitudes toward the course are compared to atti—
tudes toward college-level instruction in general.

Scott (1962) and Suedfeld (1964) found that concrete
thinkers tend to change opinions in a more categorical way.
Schroder, et a1. (1967) wrote: "When highly salient (but
discrepant) information is presented to concrete persons,
there is a strong tendency to adopt the new attitude in
a categorical manner." (p. 139) Since concrete thinkers
process information on fewer dimensions, any association with
success or failure in the course will be associated with the
programmed instruction, which is the most salient feature of
the course. Complex persons will attribute success or fail-
ure to multiple causes; however, concrete persons will
attribute success or failure to the program and will "vote"

accordingly, showing more extreme positive or negative atti—

tudes than will complex students.

71

Hypothesis 6

 

There will be a relationship between increasing
cumulative grade—point hours and increasing levels
of internal control.

Hypothesis 7

 

There will be a relationship between increasing
cumulative grade-point hours and increasing levels
of intrinsic motivation.

Hypothesis 8

 

There will be no relationship between performance
on the course criterion test and locus of perceived
control.

Hypothesis 9

 

There will be no relationship between performance

on the course criterion test and intrinsic or extrinsic
motivation.

Several factors relating to information processing
could work to support the above hypotheses. Streufert, et a1.
(1965) showed that as information load increases, information
search decreases with narrowing of categories, and this effect
is more pronounced for concrete thinkers than for complex
thinkers. Marx (1970) supported that finding with data which
showed that incidental concept formation decreases with
increasing information complexity and the effect is greater
for concrete persons.

The high-information environment of college-level
courses should tend to produce divergence in grade—point

hours between individuals who are concrete and those who are

abstract, because of the compounding effect of increasing

72

anxiety with extrinsic motivation and external locus of
control. The grade-point hours of concrete persons should
be more variable.

However, the high structure (low uncertainty) of
this particular programmed course should reduce anxiety and
provide the necessary organization required for such persons
to concentrate on the material, so that there will be no cor-
relation between performance and locus of control or type of

motivation for this course.

Hypothesis 10

 

Persons who are intrinsically motivated, internally
controlled, and complex in cognitive structure will be
highly intercorrelated.

Support for this hypothesis is general in nature and
is found outlined in the preceding review of the literature,
most especially in Harvey (1961, 1966), and in Schroder,
Driver, and Streufert (1967), Schroder and Suedfeld (1971),

and Schroder, Karlins, and Phares (1972).

CHAPTER III

METHODOLOGY

In this chapter the following aspects of the study
are described: the sample of HED 171 students, the proce-
dures of a preliminary study testing the effectiveness of
the programmed cognitive structure in increasing student
performance, the measuring instruments used in the main
study, the statistical tests applied to the theoretical
hypotheses, and a secondary analysis of three of the ques-
tionnaires, for the purpose of possibly assisting in the
analysis of the study.

The study was conducted in two parts: a preliminary
study, completed in 1970, in which the programmed cognitive
structure was developed and tested; and the main study, con-
ducted winter quarter, 1972, in which the programmed cogni-
tive structure was used to investigate the research variables

discussed in Chapter II.

The Sample

 

In both the preliminary and the main studies, stu-

dents enrolled in Consumer Textiles (HED 171)* were used

 

*During development of the programmed cognitive
structure, HED 171 was called Textiles and Related Arts
(TRA) 270.

73

74

as the sample. After design and develOpment, the completed
sequence of programmed instruction was tested on the entire
enrollment of students during summer of 1969 (N = 38), fall
of 1969 (N = 175), and spring of 1970 (N = 141).

The main study was conducted during winter quarter,
1972, using a random sample of 50 students selected from the
class of 142. Costs of analyzing the information-processing
classification instrument precluded using the entire class.
Selection of students was achieved through matching with a
table of random numbers.

In the secondary study, all 142 students enrolled in
HED 171 during spring quarter, 1972, were used for the factor
analysis of the three questionnaires.

Detailed demographic data on the sample are found in
N. Harries (1972).

The Preliminary Study: Design of the
Programmed Cognitive Structure

 

 

N. Harries, in c00peration with this writer, worked
during the 1967—69 academic years to design a consumer
approach to basic textiles (Harries and Harries, 1969). See
Appendix A for the statement of behavioral objectives for
each of the seven sections of the program. The program pro-
gresses in complexity, beginning with basic facts and con-
cepts related to the dimensions of durability, comfort, care,
and aesthetic appearance. These foundation concepts are then
applied to increasingly complex alternatives introduced by

fibers, yarns, structures, finishing treatments, and color

75

and design applications. The student's cognitive structure
is intended to be developed to facilitate complex decision
making in the selection of textile alternatives on the vari-
ety of dimensions described above, through the correct appli—
cation of a substantial amount of factual material.

The basic outline of the seven sections of the pro-
gram was written and modified as a result of the authors
interacting with six students of varying ability as they
worked with the program. The program was then tested on a
class of 38 students during the summer of 1969. A printed
version, prepared by the University Printing Office, has been
used since the fall of 1969. In anticipation of testing the
programmed structure, the writers identified 46 test ques-
tions that had been used at least five times (most had been
used at least ten times) during the period of conventional
instruction. These particular questions were selected for
several reasons:

1. Because of their history of regular use, the ques—
tions could be assumed to be fair tests of the
objectives used by the department faculty EElQE to
the new sequence of instruction.

2. The faculty committee agreed that the 46 test items
were fair and representative tests of student per-
formance, as defined by the new program's stated

objectives.

76

3. Each of the questions met the classical* accepted

 

standards for discrimination and difficulty.
Items similar to the 46 test questions are found in Appen-
dix B.

All of the courses were under the direction of
Nancy Harries, both during the quarters representing conven-
tional instruction, and those analyzed during use of the
experimental program. The course structure consisted of
twice-weekly multimedia, large-group lectures, each taught
by Nancy Harries, and once-weekly smallfgroup recitations,
some of which were taught by Nancy Harries and the rest of
which were taught by department faculty who had varying
degrees of experience and ability. The only significant
difference in format between the conventional (control) and
the experimental groups was the use of the 700-page pro-
grammed text, instead of the conventional textbooks, during
the experimental quarters. There was change in certain con-
tent emphases of the course, due to the new consumer orien-

tation; however, as was described above, the preliminary

 

*Note: The author rejects the classical criterion
for selecting test items based upon discrimination and diffi-
culty. The author holds that a "difficult" item that "dis-
criminates" does so because the sequence of instruction fails
to account for individual differences of the students. Stu-
dents should not be punished for deficient instruction.
Ideally, an item should be a fair test of the instructional
sequence's objectives, and show zero difficulty and discrim-
ination, indicating that individual differences have been
overcome, and that all students in the sequence have been
able to meet the learning criteria reflected in the test
question. The writer advocates what is sometimes referred
to as a "mastery model."

77

study tested only those content areas that had been carried
over to the new programmed course.

The purpose of the preliminary study was to ascertain
the probability that increased performance of students in
meeting the course objectives could be attributed to the
sequence of programmed instruction.

'Using the 46 test items that had been carried over
from the preceding conventionally taught courses, an analy—
sis of covariance was performed, comparing the students'
ability to master the test questions under the programmed
conditions with their ability under the conventional condi-
tions. Other than the instructional system, the only variable
thought to influence performance systematically was student
ability. To control for the possibility that the experi—
mental groups might be of above-average ability, the students'
cumulative grade-point averages at the time of enrollment
in the course were used as the covariate. The study was con-
ducted, comparing students who had been taught by the pro-
grammed sequence of instruction during fall term of 1969 with
students who had been taught by conventional methods during
spring term of 1968. The study was replicated, comparing pro-
grammed students during fall of 1969 with conventionally
taught students during the spring of 1969, and replicated
again,comparing programmed students during spring of 1970
with conventionally taught students during spring of 1969.

The results are discussed in Chapter IV.

78

The Main Study: Analysis of the
Measuring Instruments

 

 

Five measures were taken during the main study:
/
level of information processing, internal-external perceived
control, intrinsic-extrinsic motivation, attitude toward
college-level instruction, attitude toward HED 171, and
performance on the final exam. Each of these measures is
discussed below. In addition, the student's cumulative

grade-point average was recorded at the beginning of the

quarter.

Performance on the Final Exam

Each of the participants was given the textile
instruction in HED 171, following the identical format used
in all preceding quarters. There were no significant excep-
tions or interruptions in the course format and modes of
presentation from those of previous quarters. The final exam
was representative of all previous quarters, in that it con-
tained many of the same questions that had been used in pre-
vious quarters; all test items were judged to be fair tests
of the course objectives. Finally, all test items, taken
together, reflected a comprehensive examination over the
entire instructional sequence. The total scores on the sev-
eral parts of the exam were combined into a total score,

which was used in the study.

79

];eve1 of Information
Processing

 

 

The means of classification used was a Paragraph
Completion Test, deve10ped by Harold Schroder (1967, pp. 185-
204). The 50 subjects used in the main sample completed
the test at the beginning of the sequence of instruction.
Each subject was asked to complete paragraphs beginning with
the stems:

1. Rules.....

2. When I am criticized .....
3. When I am in doubt.....
4. Parents.....

Student responses were sent to Harold Schroder at the
University of Southern Illinois (Edwardsville campus), where
they were analyzed by coders who had been trained and super-
vised by Dr. Schroder. Students were classified on a seven-
point scale ranging from simple (or concrete) information
processing (Scale of 1) to complex (or abstract) information
processing (Scale of 7). The minimum acceptable level of
intercoder reliability is reported by Schroder (1967, p. 190)
to be from .80 to .95. Coders are specifically trained to
ignore content referents and look only at the structural com-
plexity generating the response. Two examples are given
below, showing typical student responses reflecting a score
of 1 (concrete) and typical student responses reflecting a

score of 7 (complex) in response to the stem “Rules....."

80

£3core l (a) "are made to be followed. They give direction
to a project or life or anything. They should
not be broken except in extreme circumstances."

(b) "are made to govern society and to keep society
from living in chaos. We also have enforcement
agencies to make sure people follow rules. If
they don't, punishment follows."

Score 7 (a) "serve mankind and should be interpreted in
terms of their ends, not their letter. They
have a purpose both for the governed (keeping
order) and for those who govern (order, main—
taining status quo, etc.), which purpose can and
perhaps should, change from time and place and,
hopefully, lead to a better, broader basis of
understanding humans and making rules."

(b) "are made for everyone but are interpreted in
many ways. It depends on the point of view of
the interpreter. It is in this very process
of interpretation that a society stays dynamic
and changes and grows."

Internal consistencies of the paragraph completion

.test are relatively high, as reported by Schroder (1967):

. . . correlations between individual stem scores and
total scores (over six stems) vary between .57 and .75.
These figures remain substantially the same whether the
mean of six scores or the mean of the top two scores are
used. These correlations support the procedure of using
mean scores. A correlation of .70 . . . exists between

approximately equal split halves of the test (scores on
stems "doubt," "rules," and "when criticized" versus

81

scores on "confusion," "parents," and "criticism means").
A third measure of internal consistency is provided by
the intercorrelations among similar pairs of stems. The
correlations between scores based on ambiguity stems,
external imposition stems, and the interpersonal con-
flict stems are .46, .38, and .56, respectively. While
this may suggest that different classes of stems (stimuli)
produce somewhat different levels of conceptual function-
ing, the correlations are sufficient to warrant the sum-
mation of scores across these stimuli to arrive at a
general score. (p. 196)

See Appendix C for details of how the test was administered.

Internal-External
Perceived Controls

 

 

A 23-item questionnaire developed by Rotter (1960,
1966) is used to provide a measure of locus of perceived con-
trol. See Appendix D for a copy of the questionnaire and
instructions for administrators. Analysis of the test was
reported by Robinson and Shaver (1969). Robinson said:

For the student group just mentioned (200 male and 200
female Ohio State University elementary psychology stu-
dents) an internal consistency analysis (Kuder—Richardson)
yielded r = .70 for males, and the same for females. For
two subgroups of this population test-retest reliability
coefficients were computed. After 222 month: males,

r = .60 (N = 30); females, r = .83 (N = 30); combined,

r = .72 (N = 60). After Egg months: males, r = .49

(N 63); females, r = .61 (N = 54); combined r = .55

(N 117). Rotter suggests that part of the decrease
after the two-month period is due to differences in
administration (group vs. individual). Correlations with
the Marlowe-Crowne Social Desirability Scale (1964) range
from -.07 to -.35. Several factor analyses reported by
Rotter support the assumption of unidimensionality of

the I-E Scale, and numerous laboratory and survey studies
give evidence for its construct validity . . . . (p. 143)

Rotter (1966) reported extensively on the history of
the instrument. He cited an intercorrelation table (p. 11)
which, he asserted, gives evidence of the measure's internal

consistency, and which gives support to his assertion that

82

the concept of control represents a general measure of behav-
ior. Rotter cautioned against using the test to discriminate
among college students within the middle 50 per cent of the
distribution. Inasmuch as this study is looking at the total
continuum, the application of the Rotter measure to this
study is believed to be valid.

Although Rotter's factor analysis does not reveal
that there are significant subfactors within the test, a study
by Gurin, et a1. (1969) showed that discrete factors could be
discerned (although weakly). One of these factors, dealing
with race ideology, is a result of her having introduced a
series of questions of her own dealing with black student
perceptions of control. The other three factors do bear upon
the Rotter instrument. These factors include: (1) control
ideology, (2) personal control, and (3) system modifiability.

The Rotter test, as applied to this study, assumes
that "control" is a general factor.

Intrinsic-Extrinsic
Motivation Questionnaire

 

No instrument which was designed to get at the con-
structs of intrinsic-extrinsic motivation, as described in
Chapter II, could be found in the literature. Therefore,
the writer designed a 21-item questionnaire, intended to
differentiate between intrinsic and extrinsic motivational
appeals. Following are three examples of questions. (See
Appendix E for the complete questionnaire and instructions

for use.)

83

l. I would most likely climb Mount Everest because...

...it is there. (intrinsic stem)*
...I would, frankly, somewhat

enjoy the publicity, or the task (extrinsic stem)
would be useful in my work.

2. The major reason I would invest extensive money and
time in flying lessons is because...

...of the fun and challenge of

flying. (intrinSic stem)

...an airplane is a useful

transportation tool. (eXtrlnSlC stem)

3. When you get right down to it, I might work overtime
earning an income...

...even though having to earn

money gets in the way of (intrinsic stem)
things that are important.

...because money makes

possible the things that (extrinsic stem)
are important.

For each queStion, the student can select egg stem
from the choice of two stems. The choice calls for a value
judgment, in which the alternative at issue could be contem—
plated for reasons relating mostly to interest or satisfac-

tion from the act itself (defined as intrinsic motivation).

 

The alternate stem, if chosen, implies values which relate
mostly to activities which are the means to some other end,
such as money, travel, degrees of freedom, social approba-

tion, and so forth (defined as extrinsic motivation). The

 

*The identifier does not appear on the question-
naire used by students.

84

student is asked to select which of the two stems mostly
applies to him; after making the selection, the student eval-
uates the extent to which the chosen stem applies (e.g., much
or little). A total score can then be computed, indicating
the level of intrinsic-extrinsic motivation.*

Attitude Toward College-Level
Instruction in General

 

 

A 37-item questionnaire was prepared, which inquired
about college-level instruction in general. See Appendix F
for the complete questionnaire. An effort was made to write
three specific types of questions into the questionnaire.
The first type dealt with the concept of control in the
fashion of the Rotter test (Items 1 through 6, inclusive);
the second type dealt with the concept of motivation (intrin-
sic or extrinsic); and the third type was general attitude
questions. Not all of the questions were appropriate for
the objectives of the main study, but were included for pos-
sible application subsequent to the study. Only Items 1
through 30, inclusive, were used; within that group, items
7, 8, 9, and 12 were drOpped since they were not applicable
to the objectives of the main study.

The weightings of all questions are indicated. To
conform with the attitude format, the questions pertaining

to control were weighted positively (value of 5) to the

 

*Note: This questionnaire was to prove unsatisfactory
for methodological reasons described later, but the discussion
is retained because of the theoretical importance of the concept.

85
extent that they indicated internal control. The questions
on motivation were weighted positively (value of 5) when

the response implied intrinsic motivation. The weightings

 

are indicated to the right of the item in Appendix F. (For
the control and motivation questions, the weightings in
parentheses indicate 1 = internal control or intrinsic moti-
vation and 5 = external control or extrinsic motivation,
depending upon the item. These valuations were not used in
the main study.)

For the purposes of the main study, all questions
were evaluated as dealing with attitude. The questions
weighted according to the control or motivation (in paren—
theses) were entered when applied to a secondary analysis,

described below.

Attitude Toward HED 171

 

This questionnaire is identical to the general atti-
tude questionnaire, with the exception that the referent for
each item was changed to HED 171. Thus, each item in the
HED 171 questionnaire asks the same question as the item in
the general questionnaire, but with reference exclusively to
the programmed course. In the HED 171 questionnaire, the
same considerations apply for the special control and moti-
vation questions. As in the general questionnaire, the main
study weightings are with respect to attitude, and the same
items have been eliminated from application to the main

study. The complete questionnaire is found in Appendix G.

86

The Main Study; Procedure

 

The sample of students was given a series of tests
designed to measure entry behaviors on the three independent
variables: level of information processing, intrinsic-
extrinsic motivation, and internal-external control. These
tests were given at T1' as illustrated in Table 1. Also
given at T1 was an attitude survey designed to measure
student attitude toward college—level courses in general.
The cumulative grade-point average (GPA) was also recorded

at T1.

TABLE 1.--Timetab1e for collection of data.

 

T T T

 

l 2 3
(Beginning of lst Week) (End of 9th Week)
Attitude Toward Attitude Toward
College-Level Inst. HED 171 HED 171
Motivation Test Criterion (Final)

Locus of Control Test-—150 Items

Test

Level of Information-
Processing Test

Cumulative GPA
Recorded

 

At T3, the conclusion of the course, the students
were given the criterion test (final exam) on the course
objectives, followed immediately by an attitude survey
designed to measure attitude toward the specific instructional
experience--HED 171.

The cumulative grade-point average (GPA) was that at

the time the student enrolled in the course (Tl).

87

Main Study: Statistical Analysis
The following statistical procedures were performed

as tests of the ten hypotheses (Wright and Finn, 1970).

Hypothesis 1: There will be a positive attitude shift (as
measured by the group mean) in favor of the
highly structured sequence of programmed
instruction when the attitude toward HED 171
is compared with attitude toward college-level
instruction in general on several dimensions.

Treatment: A one-cell analysis of variance, testing difference
from 0 with the dependent variable being the discrepancy score
between the attitude toward college-level instruction in gen-
eral and the attitude toward HED 171.

Hypothesis 2a: Students who are extrinsically motivated will

report greater satisfaction with HED 171 than
will students who are intrinsically motivated.

 

Treatment: An analysis of covariance, with the independent

 

variable being the dichotomized score on the motivation test,

the dependent variable being the score on the attitude toward

HED 171, and the covariate being the performance level on

the course final exam.

Hypothesis 2b: Students who perceive the locus of control to
be external will report greater satisfaction

with HED 171 than will students who are inter-
nally controlled.

 

 

Treatment: An analysis of covariance, with the independent

 

variable being the dichotomized score on the control test,
the dependent variable being the score on the attitude
toward HED 171, and the covariate being the performance

score on the course final exam.

88

Hypothesis 3: Students who are more cognitively simple
(concrete information processing) will report
greater satisfaction with HED 171 than will
cognitively complex (abstract information
processing) students.

Treatment: An analysis of covariance, with the independent

 

variable being the dichotomized score on the information-

processing measure, the dependent variable being the score

on the attitude toward HED 171, and the covariate being

the performance score on the course final exam.

Hypothesis 4: As a person's information processing pro-
gresses toward abstraction, he will hold less-

polarized attitudes toward college-level
instruction.

 

Treatment: A regression analysis, with the independent vari-

 

able being information-processing level and the dependent
variable being attitude toward HED 171. The hypothesis was

tested for a curvilinear relationship.

Hypothesis 5: As a person's information processing pro-
gresses toward abstraction, there will be
fewer differences when attitudes toward the
course are compared to attitudes toward
college-level instruction in general.

 

Treatment: A regression analysis, with the independent vari-

 

able being information-processing level and the dependent
variable being the difference score between attitude toward
college-level instruction in general and attitude toward

HED 171.

Hypothesis 6: There will be a relationship between increas-

ing cumulative grade-point hours and increas-
ing levels of internal control.

 

89

Treatment: A regression analysis, with the independent vari-

 

able being the dichotomized score on the control question-
naire and the dependent variable being the cumulative grade—
point average.

Hypothesis 7: There will be a relationship between increas-

ing cumulative grade-point hours and increas-
ing levels of intrinsic motivation.

 

Treatment: A regression analysis, with the independent vari-

 

able being the dichotomized score on the motivation question-

naire and the dependent variable being the cumulative grade-

point average.

Hypothesis 8: There will be no relationship between per—
formance on the course criterion test and

locus of perceived control.

Treatment: A regression analysis, with the independent vari-

 

able being the score on the control questionnaire, and the
dependent variable being the score on the final course exam-
ination.

Hypothesis 9: There will be no relationship between per-

formance on the course criterion test and
intrinsic or extrinsic motivation.

 

Treatment: A regression analysis, with the independent vari—

 

able being the score on the motivation test and the dependent
variable being the score on the final course examination.
Hypothesis 10: Persons who are intrinsically motivated,

internally controlled, and complex in cogni-
tive structure will be highly intercorrelated.

 

Treatment: A Pearson product-moment correlation matrix

 

between the following variables:

9O

1. Score on the motivation questionnaire.
2. Score on the control questionnaire.

3. Score on the information-processing continuum.

Secondary Study

 

As an aid in analyzing results, and to learn more
about the basic test instruments, a factor analysis was con-
ducted using the Factor A program of the Michigan State
University Computer Institute for Social Science Research
(Williams, 1967). The program was run with the following
instructions: Communalities are unities, principal axes
solution followed by varimax (orthoganal) rotation with
Kiel—Wrigley criterion set at 3, and eigen-value threshold
set at -0.000. The factor analysis was applied separately
to each of the following questionnaires: the control ques-
tionnaire, the motivation questionnaire, and the general
attitude questionnaire. The analysis was applied using
responses from the entire class of 142 students* who had

completed all of the questionnaires.

Assumptions of the Study

 

1. No abnormalities or irregularities occurred during
winter quarter of 1972 to cause the HED 171 class
to represent other than a normative class of HED 171

students.

 

*Note: By the end of the quarter, five students
had dropped the class, reducing the final N to 137.

91

2. No abnormalities or irregularities were present in
the answers to questionnaires or other data sub-
mitted by students and accepted for the study.

3. There was no special or unusual treatment of the
course content and method of presentation of HED 171
during winter quarter or 1972 to cause the course
experience to be other than the normative experience
of previous quarters using the programmed text.

4. The acquisition of test data from students did not
significantly affect student interaction with or
perception of HED 171 content and structure, nor did

it affect their responses to measuring instruments.

Limitations

 

l. HED 171 reflects a specific content orientation for
a special-interest audience, predominantly female,
and the findings of the study may or may not be gen-
eralizable to other audiences.

2. The programmed text (Harries and Harries, 1969) rep-
resents a particular design of programmed instruc—
tion and the findings based upon this particular
program may or may not be generalizable to experi-
ences based upon classical linear programs or

branching-type programs.

Summary

The samples of students used in the preliminary

study, the main study, and a secondary analysis were described.

92

The preliminary study applied an analysis of covariance
technique to test student performance on questions that were
used in the course as conventionally taught, comparing student
performance after conventional instruction with student per-
formance after the programmed instruction. The procedures

and various measures used in the main study were described.

A secondary study, done for the purpose of assisting in the
analysis of the questionnaires, was also described. The

results of the procedures follow in Chapter IV.

CHAPTER IV

ANALYSIS OF RESULTS

In this chapter, the analysis of the preliminary
study comparing the effectiveness of the programmed sequence
with conventional instruction is summarized. The analysis
of the 11 hypotheses set forth at the conclusion of Chapter II
is summarized. Finally, a secondary study, factor analyzing
three of the questionnaires, is summarized. Where statisti-

cal significance is at issue, alpha is set at 0.01.

Findings of the Preliminary Study

 

The purpose of the preliminary study was to compare
HED 171 as conventionally taught with HED 171 as taught using
programmed instruction, and to attribute the increased
effectiveness to the programmed instruction. Such a step is
necessary in order to insure that the programmed instruc-
tional sequence used in the main study is significantly
different from, and an improvement over, general college-
1evel courses in terms of performance, and that the perfor-
mance is stable and consistent from quarter to quarter.
Analysis of the data suggests that in HED 171, student
performance using programmed instruction is significantly
improved over conventional instruction, that the performance

93

94

is stable from quarter to quarter, and that the difference
in performance can be attributed to the programmed instruc-
tion.

The final examination grade distributions are shown
in Table 1. Nancy Harries was the instructor for all quar-
ters included in the table. Fall 1968 and spring 1969 are
the two quarters which were taught using the conventional
(textbook) method of instruction, and the distributions shown
are normative for the conventionally taught course, even when
different instructors were in charge of the course. Summer
1969 was the first quarter using the new programmed text.
Winter 1972 was the quarter during which data were collected
for the main study.

The results described in Table l are accepted as
being indicative of a relatively consistent or stable base
of performance using the sequence of programmed instruc—
tion. The stability is maintained in spite of two anomalies
believed to have adversely affected spring 1970 student per-
formance. The grade distributions on the final exam have
been relatively consistent each quarter of use, with the
exception of spring of 1970, when an unusually low performance
level was reflected.

The first anomaly during spring of 1970 occurred
when the university was disrupted by student protests relat-
ing to the Vietnam War, causing exceptionally high emotional
levels and excessive and widespread absenteeism. Second,

the instructors, who were still under the influence of

95

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96

traditions which hold that no test item should be easy,"
beginning in fall 1969 had removed a number of test items
(which they had agreed were fair tests of the program's
objectives) because they were now "too easy." Thus, the

test had inadvertently become an unfair test of course objec-
tives, because the fall 1969 through spring 1970 exams con-
centrated on questions measuring those concepts in which the
instructional sequence was less effective, rather than on a
balanced measurement of all important concepts set forth in
the objectives. The eliminated test items have subsequently
been returned to the exam. In spite of the introduction of
the above-described disparities, performance in HED 171 was
maintained at a significantly high level. Further, perfor-
mance is internally consistent within a class, in which reci-
tation sections are taught by instructors of varying ability
and experience.

Table 2 presents the results of the analysis of
covariance that was done comparing fall 1969 with fall 1968,
and replicated comparing fall 1969 with spring 1969, and
replicated again comparing spring 1970 with spring 1969.

The replications were necessary to answer concerns that stu-
dents enrolled during spring quarter were a different type

of student, in that they were enrolled for different reasons,
had different social pressures, were tired from a year's
work, were looking forward to summer, and so forth. Spring
quarter 1970 was the quarter in which the students were under

the most severe social disruption during the Vietnam protests,

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98

and represented the lowest performance level since the pro—
grammed instruction was instituted. Nevertheless, the per-
formance during that quarter is significantly above traditional
norms and can be attributed to the programmed instruction at

an alpha level below .05. The analysis indicates that the
cumulative grade—point average accounts for a significant

portion of the effect.

The Findings of the Main Study

 

The purpose of the main study was to evaluate three
student entry-behavior variables in interaction with the
programmed cognitive structure. These independent variables
were: information—processing level, locus of perceived
control, and intrinsic-extrinsic motivation. The dependent
variables were: attitude toward college-level instruction in
general, attitude toward HED 171, performance on the course
final exam, and difference score between attitude toward
college—level instruction in general and attitude toward
HED 171. Student grade-point average was also used as a
variable for certain of the hypotheses. Group means and
standard deviations for the variables are shown in Table 3.
An intercorrelation matrix showing relationships between all
variables contributing to the study is presented in Table 4.

Following are the experimental hypotheses and the

findings of the main study:

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100

 

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101

Hypothesis 1

 

There will be a positive attitude shift (as measured
by the group‘mean) in favor of the highly structured
sequence of programmed instruction when the attitude
toward HED 171 is compared with attitude toward
college-level instruction in general on several
dimensions.

TABLE 5.--Attitude toward college-level courses in general
compared to attitude toward HED 171.

 

 

 

 

_ Standard

X Deviation
General Attitude 74.78 8.60
HED 171 Attitude 97.00 14.74
Difference 22.20 17.28

Univariate F = 82.67 df = 49 p .0001
Hypothesis 1: Univariate Analysis of Variance
Finding: There was a significant difference in attitude

when attitude toward college—level instruction in general
was compared to attitude toward HED 171 in particular.
Students preferred HED 171 over other college-level courses

in general. The experimental hypothesis was supported.

Hypothesis 2a

 

Students who are extrinsically motivated will report
greater satisfaction with HED 171 than will students
who are intrinsically motivated.

 

102

TABLE 6.--Attitude toward HED 171 compared with intrinsic-
extrinsic motivation with final exam grade as covariate.

 

Attitude Toward

 

 

HED 171 Final Grade
_ Standard _ Standard
X Deviation X Deviation
Extrinsic Motivation 99.17 15.13 123.08 19.12
Intrinsic Motivation 95.00 14.40 120.00 18.10
p<o.43 p<0.0001 (of covar.)
F = 31.13 df (hypothesis) = 1 df (error) = 47

Hypothesis 2a: Analysis of Covariance

 

Finding: The greater preference for HED 171 of extrinsically
motivated students over intrinsically motivated students was
not significant with the effect of performance removed. The

experimental hypothesis was not supported.

Hypothesis 2b

 

Students who perceive the locus of control to be
external will report greater satisfaction with
HED 171 than will students who are internally
controlled.

 

TABLE 7.--Attitude toward HED 171 compared with locus of
control with final exam grade as covariate.

 

Attitude Toward

 

 

HED 171 Final Grade
_ Standard _ Standard
X Deviation X Deviation
External Control 94.96 16.68 123.70 17.27
Internal Control 99.39 12.01 118.87 19.74
p<0.03 p<0.0001 (of covar.)
F = 37.89 df (hypothesis) = 1 df (error) = 47

Hypothesis 2b: Analysis of Covariance

 

103

Finding: The greater preference for HED 171 of internally
controlled students over externally controlled students was
not significant. The experimental hypothesis was not sup-

ported.

Hypothesis 3

 

Students who are more cognitively simple (concrete
information processing) will report greater satis-
faction with HED 171 than will cognitively complex
(abstract information processing) students.

TABLE 8.--Attitude toward HED 171 compared with level of
information processing with final exam grade as covariate.

 

Attitude Toward

 

 

HED 171 Final Grade
_ Standard _ Standard
X Deviation X Deviation
Concrete 97.16 15.96 122.75 19.30
Abstract 96.75 13.09 120.63 17.47
p<0.65 p<0.0001 (of covar.)
F = 32.00 df (hypothesis) = 1 df (error) = 47

Hypothesis 3: Analysis of Covariance

 

Finding: There was no difference between the attitude toward
HED 171 of concrete compared with abstract students with
the effects of increased performance removed. The experi-

mental hypothesis was not supported.

Hypothesis 4

 

As a person's information processing progresses
toward abstraction, he will hold less-polarized
attitudes toward college-level instruction.

104

TABLE 9.--Test for curvilinear relationship between informa-
tion processing and polarized attitudes toward college-level
instruction in general.

 

2

F = 1.15 df (hypothesis)

p<0.32 df (error) 47

Adding Dependent Variable "Information Processing" to the
Regression Equation: Chi-square = 0.27 df = l p<0.60

Adding Dependent Variable "Information Processing" Squared
to the Regression Equation: Chi—square = 1.95 df = l
p<0.l6

Hypothesis 4: Regression Analysis of 2nd Degree Equation
With Two Covariates

 

Finding: There is not a significant relationship between
level of information processing and polarity of attitude in
regard to college-level instruction in general. The experi-

mental hypothesis was not supported.

Hypothesis 5

 

As a person's information processing progresses
toward abstraction, there will be fewer differences
in attitudes toward the course when compared to
college- -1evel instruction in general.

TABLE 10.--Information processing in relationship to the
difference in attitude between college-level instruction
in general and HED 171.

 

F = 0.1071 p<0.74
df (hypothesis) = 1
df (efror) = 48

Hypothesis 5: RegresSion Analysis With One Dependent
Variable

 

105

There is no relationship between a student's level

Finding:
of information processing and the difference between attitudes

toward college-level instruction in general and HED 171. The

experimental hypothesis was not supported.

‘Hypothesis 6'

There will be a relationship between increasing
cumulative grade—point hours and increasing levels

of internal control.

(FABLE 11.--Locus of control in relationship to cumulative
grade-point average.

 

F = 0.72 p<0.40
df (hypothesis) = 1
df (error) = 48

qupothesis 6: Regression Analysis With One Dependent Variable

Filuding: There is no relationship between a student's locus

01? perceived control and his cumulative grade—point average.

Thus experimental hypothesis was not supported.

Hypothesis 7

There will be a relationship between increasing
cumulative grade-point hours and increasing
levels of intrinsic motivation.

106

TABLE 12.--Intrinsic-extrinsic motivation in relationship to
cumulative grade-point average.

 

F = 1.11 p<0.30
df (hypothesis) = 1
df (error) = 48

Hypothesis 7: Regression Analysis With One Dependent Variable

 

Finding: There is no relationship between a student's level
of intrinsic-extrinsic motivation and his cumulative grade-

point average. The experimental hypothesis was not supported.

Hypothesis 8

 

There will be no relationship between performance
on the course criterion test and locus of perceived
control.

TABLE 13.--Locus of control in relationship to final exam

 

grade.
F = 0.68 p<0.41
df (hypothesis) = 1
df (error) = 48

Hypothesis 8: Regression Analysis With One Dependent Variable

 

Finding: There is no relationship between a student's locus
of perceived control and his performance on the course final

exam. The hypothesis was supported.

107

Hypothesis 9

 

There will be no relationship between performance
on the course criterion test and intrinsic or
extrinsic motivation.

 

TABLE l4.--Motivation in relationship to final exam grade.
F = 0.06 p<0.80
df (hypothesis) = 1
df (error) = 48

Hypothesis 9: Regression Analysis With One Dependent Variable

 

Finding: There is no relationship between a student's level
of intrinsic-extrinsic motivation and his performance on the

course final exam. The hypothesis was supported.

Hypothesis 10

 

Persons who are intrinsically motivated, internally
controlled, and complex in cognitive structure will
be highly intercorrelated.

TABLE 15.--Re1ationship of control, motivation, and informa-
tion processing with each other.

 

 

 

Information
Control Motivation Processing
Control 1 ... ...
Motivation -0.09247 1 ...
Information
Processing —0.24268 -0.074395 1
rs = .05 = .2353 df = 49
rcc = .01 = .3281

Hypothesis 10: Pearson Product-Moment Correlation

 

108

Finding: There is no significant relationship between per-
ception of locus of control and concreteness of information
processing. Neither is there a relationship between motiva-
tion and information processing, nor between intrinsic-
extrinsic motivation and locus of perceived control. The

hypothesis was not supported.

Secondary Study

 

Recalling that a factor analysis was performed by
Rotter and Gurin (Rotter, 1966; Gurin, 1969) on the Rotter
scale of internal-external control, the writer decided also
to run a factor analysis on the scale and separately on the
other three "before" questionnaires. It was thought that
the factor analysis might assist in the interpretation of
the main study. Following are the results of this secondary
study. Table 16 summarizes the results of the factor
analysis.

The items corresponding to the useable factors are
found in the respective intercorrelation table (see Appen-
dix H). Following Table 16 are the definitions of the factor
names as related to the topics of the items that clustered

together.

109

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110

Control Questionnaire

A.

System Modifiability--Perceived ability or power to

 

change or influence the institutions of society,
especially government.

Personal Ideology--An abstract orientation toward

 

"self" as an agent of influence in the environment.

Motivation Questionnaire

A.

General

A.

Personal (Significant Other)--Relating to actions

 

of the self as judged by another.

Practical--Tendency of the item to be related to

 

decisions outside of the "self."

Attitude Questionnaire

Control-~Re1ating to factors similar to the Rotter
measure, as the perception of alternatives relating
to the self's ability to control or to function.

Motivation--Relating to questions of intrinsic or

 

extrinsic motivations as measured by the motivation
questionnaire.

Challenge-—Relating almost exclusively to an element

 

of challenge or mastery.

Summary
The findings of data gathered and the analysis of

those data have been reported for a preliminary study of the

programmed cognitive structure; for the main study, which

was the programmed cognitive structure, to investigate the

theoretical variables of interest; and for a secondary factor

111

analysis of three of the questionnaires. Discussion and

implications are considered in the following chapter.

CHAPTER V

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS

In this chapter, the results of the preliminary study
are discussed in terms of its effect on student performance
and in terms of its use as a stable base for the conduct of
the main study. Second, the implications of the intercor-
relation matrix of the main study variables are discussed.
Some conclusions are drawn, based upon the matrix and the
tests of the specific hypotheses as related to the entry
behavior variables of information-processing level, intrinsic-
extrinsic motivation, and internal-external locus of per-
ceived control. Then the implications of the findings are
briefly related to certain of the literature. Third, the
findings of the study are discussed in regard to their impli-
cations for instructional development. Finally, the thesis

concludes with a summary of implications for future research.

Implications of the Preliminary Study

 

The preliminary study clearly demonstrated an increase
in performance in the basic textiles course, which could be
attributed to the programmed cognitive structure. Analysis
of the performance of students for each quarter since the
implementation of the programmed text, beginning in summer

112

113

of 1969, indicates that the level of performance is stable.
Use of the structure as a predictable vehicle for examining
student personality variables applied in the main study in
interaction with the programmed structure appears to be jus-
tified.

Implications of the Intercorrelation Matrix
and Tests of the Hypotheses

 

 

Because of the large number of correlations in the
study, the writer concluded that a more proper test of sig-
nificance would be to set the alpha level at 0.01 rather
than at 0.05, as was originally planned. Based upon a sig-
nificance level of 0.01, the conclusions which can be drawn
from the matrix are as follows:

1. There is a general factor called "Locus of Perceived
Control" which interacts with a student's general attitude
toward college-level instruction (-0.39) in that the more
internal the control, the more positively the student will
View the college instructional experiences; the more exter-
nal the control, the more negatively the student will View
the experience.

2. Regardless of a student's locus of perceived con-
trol, the effect of the HED 171 instructional experience
effectively removes the relationship of control to attitude
in that there is no apparent relationship between control
and attitude toward HED 171 (-0.ll).

3. The concept of intrinsic-extrinsic motivation did

not show any significant relationship to the variables of

114

control (—0.09) or information processing (-0.24); therefore,
there will be no discussion of this variable in terms of
application.

4. The concept of information-processing level did not
show a significant relationship to the variables of control
(-0.24) or motivation (-0.07).

5. The most significant correlation is between GPA and
final grade (0.67). Students who typically tend to perform
above the norm still perform above the norm in HED 171, but
when the performance level is examined, the effect of HED 171
is to raise the lowest common denominator of performance
level significantly above the norms established during appli—
cation of conventional instructional techniques.

6. The difference score (DIFF) between the general atti—
tude questionnaire and the HED 171 attitude questionnaire
correlates most with attitude toward HED 171 (.87) and second
with attitude toward college—level instruction in general
(-.52), but not significantly with GPA (.30). In other words,
the more negative the attitude toward college instruction,
the more striking was the difference in student attitude
toward HED 171, with the difference being in the positive
direction. Students who typically disliked college-level
instruction, typically approved of HED 171. This relationship,
however, has its exceptions, in that these relationships are
based upon group means, and analysis of the attitude ques-
tionnaire weightings found in Appendix F shows that there

were still some students (less than 10 percent) who viewed

115

HED 171 negatively. The study sheds no direct light on the
nature of these individual differences.

7. GPA correlated significantly with attitude toward
HED 171 (0.40), but there was no correlation with attitude
toward college-level instruction in general (0.08). What-
ever is the nature of student individual differences as
measured by this AGEN (general attitude) questionnaire, those
individual differences were apparently significantly overcome.
This was demonstrated in the fact that increasing levels of
performance in college-level instruction tends to be asso-
ciated with increasing positive attitude toward HED 171, but
not toward college-level instruction in general.

8. Student performance on the final exam was most sig-
nificantly correlated with GPS (0.67), attitude toward
HED 171 (0.63), and the difference score (DIFF) between
attitude toward HED 171 and college-level instruction in
general. Performance on the final exam was not related to
attitude toward college instruction in general (.08). In the
tests of the specific hypotheses to follow, performance was
found to be the most significant relationship with attitude
toward HED 171. This relationship becomes even more signif-
icant since performance does not seem to be related to atti-
tude toward college instruction in general (i.e., GPA with
AGEN = 0.08), and that the measure of HED 171 was taken
immediately after the HED 171 final but before knowledge of
the outcome. The students had to place their feelings about

the previous course experience in the context of their

116

feelings toward their performance on the exam when reflecting
their attitudes in the AHED questionnaire.

The difference score (DIFF) between attitude toward
college instruction in general and attitude toward HED 171
correlated with AGEN -0.52. This relationship suggests that
the greater the DIFF, the lower the AHED. This is of inter-
est because, since there was no correlation between AHED
(attitude toward HED 171) and AGEN (-0.03), the greatest dif-
ference in attitude was demonstrated by students with a
history of poor attitude toward college instruction in general;
or the group with the least probability of showing positive
affect toward a college-level course showed the most signifi-
cant change in a positive direction.

In view of the relationships suggested by the corre-
lation matrix, there were findings based upon some specific
tests of the hypotheses. One of the first conclusions reached
as a result of specific tests of the hypotheses and interpre-
tation of the correlation matrix was to discount the findings
based upon the intrinsic-extrinsic motivation questionnaire.
The matrix shown in Table 4 indicates that no significant
relationships with the questionnaire emerged on any of the
variables in the study. Further, a check of the range of
scores found in Table 3 shows that out of a possible range
from 21 to 84, the actual range was only from 36 to 61, with
a standard deviation of 8.06. The concept of intrinsic-
extrinsic motivation is assumed not to have been measured

by the questionnaire; hence no conclusions can be drawn

117

with respect to that variable. In consequence, no further
consideration will be given to that variable in this dis-
cussion. However, the theoretical concept of intrinsic-
extrinsic motivation is still believed to be a tenable con—
cept and is discussed further below, under the heading of
"Implications for Further Research."

The construct of information processing also failed
to produce significant relationships. In light of the his—
tory of research, and extensive successful use of the
Schroder measure, the only possible methodological factor
that could account for the problem would be excessive vari-
ability of the coding of the information—processing test.
Since the coding of the information-processing levels was
supervised by Schroder himself, this possibility has been
discounted. The reasons for the failure of the information-
processing measure to emerge in significant relationship to
the other variables relates to theoretical reasons and con-
stitutes an important finding of the study.

Hypothesis 3, which states that there will be dis-
crimination by information—processing level in relation to
attitude toward HED 171 and AGEN, was predicated upon the
assumption that certain salient features of the experience,
such as the nature of the structure in regard to degrees of
freedom and level of perceived uncertainty, would be such as
to generalize to the overall attitudes of the students who
were concrete processors and would reveal itself in discrim-

ination on the general attitude questionnaire. This was not

118

the case, however, and given the generalized nature of this
questionnaire, the outcome of the study is still consistent
with the theory of Schroder, who wrote (Schroder and Suedfeld,
1971):

One of the most common and simplistic assumptions
in psychology, however, is that persons typically use
single combinatory rules in judging, evaluating and
thinking. Much of the work in personality, in atti-
tudes and needs assumes a single "position," an "own
stand." However, it is obvious that persons can gen-
erate different perspectives about the same scale of
values of information by varying the weightings of
dimensions. This variation of weightings, the genera—
tion of alternate combinatory rules, is common when the
situational context changes. (p. 251)

In order to check on the apparent support for
Schroder's assertion, as revealed by the findings, a post
study was done, in which extreme scores (information—
processing level scores of l and 2, concrete; and information-
processing level scores of 6 and 7, abstract) were subjected
to a multivariate analysis of variance. The results are
tabulated in Table 20 of Appendix 1. Even at the extreme
ends of the scale, the hypothesized relationships are not
significant. Thus Hypothesis 3, Hypothesis 4, and Hypothe-
sis 5 are rejected on the assumption that there is no uni-
dimensional attribute related to "attitude" that is
sufficiently salient to discriminate even at the concrete
end of the information-processing continuum. This finding
is of interest because of the almost universal use of gen-
eralized measures of attitude used in support of the analysis

of student attitudes toward instructional alternatives. The

implications of this finding are discussed below under the

119

heading "Implications for Future Research." Although a
generally positive attitude toward the course is shown, no
conclusion can be reached about student individual differ-
ences relative to information processing.

A second conclusion that can be reached is the sup-
port for Rotter's assertion that the construct of locus of
perceived control is a generalized construct, in that there
was a significant correlation between control and the gen—
eral attitude toward college-level instruction in general
(-0.39). The specific assumption in Hypothesis 2b, to the
extent that the control variable will discriminate toward
HED 171 in particular, was not supported, however. Further,
a post study multivariate analysis of variance was also run
on the extreme ends of the internal—external continuum in
order to ascertain whether variability in the middle range
was exerting a confounding effect, since Rotter cautioned
against using the middle range for college students. The
results of this study are found in Table 21 in Appendix I.
Although a trend emerged, there was no statistical signifi-
cance in support of the hypothesis at the extreme ends of
the range. Given the emergence of a relationship to control
in terms of a general attitude toward college—level instruc-
tion in general, the failure of the same relationship to
emerge in regard to student attitude toward HED 171 is
attributed to the effects of HED 171. The study, however,
sheds no direct light on the dimensions accounting for the

finding. The significant conclusion emerging from this

120

portion of the study is the apparent possibility of generat—
ing external cognitive information structures which, because
of their low uncertainty, override the negative associations
of externally perceived control with instructional systems,
in order to increase performance level, regardless of the
history of performance, and with associated high positive
affect. The structure provides external cues that outcomes
are really based upon skills rather than chance.

Hypothesis 8, which predicted that there would be no
relationship of control to performance in HED 171, was sup-
ported. Hypothesis 6, however, which predicted that there
would be a relationship of internal control to high GPA, was
not supported by this sample of students. The hypothesis was
predicated upon the structural nature of most college courses
as compared to HED 171, in which there is a substantially lower
level of uncertainty than in college courses in general.

It was thought that, in addition to the existence of some
direct support for the hypothesis in the literature (Seeman,
1962; Seeman and Evans, 1965; Rotter, 1966), the less depen-
dence of internally controlled students upon visible struc-
ture would lead to the hypothesized relationship between GPA
and control. However, apparently Lefcourt's (1966) assessment
is more applicable:

. . . in investigations concerned with learning and

achievement related variables, the control construct

allows some prediction when the materials are relevant

to the subjects' goal strivings. (p. 214)

In addition, Lefcourt reported that there can be failure to

121

discriminate among goal—directed learning and achievement
activities where female subjects are involved (Crandall,

et a1., 1962, 1965). Since the sample used in this study
happened to be 98 percent female, there could be a sex bias
operating in terms of the control construct as applied to

the GPA, since GPA is a goal-related variable. Nevertheless,
the control construct did clearly relate to general atti-
tude. In relation to the phenomenon of goal striving, the
failure of the intrinsic-extrinsic motivation variable to
function for the methodological reasons described above is
especially disappointing in this instance, since there remains
the possibility of relating variability, on the motivation
construct of this particular finding, to control. Stated
another way, it is possible that control is a unidimensional
construct when applied to attitude, but multidimensional
when applied to goal-directed behaviors, and there may be a
relationship to intrinsic-extrinsic motivation.

A Complementary Study by
Nancy Harries (1972)

 

 

Using the same winter quarter, 1972, students, Nancy
Harries investigated the effect of the programmed cognitive
structure on decision rule, information processing, and time
orientation. Significant gain scores were revealed on both
information processing and future time orientation in the
area of textile decision making covered by the course con-
tent. Further, there was evidence of a small but statistic—

ally significant generalization of information-processing

122

ability beyond the textile area, as measured by a posttest
using the Schroder instrument on a second sample of 25 stu-
dents. This evidence suggests that it is possible for the

structure of cognitive information, regardless of content

 

orientation, to influence information-processing ability and
to modify a person's time orientation in the future direc-

tion.

Summary of Implications

 

1. The "control" construct seems to be a generalized
unidimensional construct where attitude is concerned, but pos-
sibly a multidimensional construct where goal-directed per-
formance is concerned.

2. The "information-processing" construct is a multi-
dimensional construct, and does not lend itself to applica-
tions or measures which assume unidimensional constructs,
such as attitude surveys or goal-directed performance.

3. The function of the intrinsic-extrinsic motivation
construct is indeterminate for methodological reasons applic-
able only to this particular study.

4. The nature of the programmed cognitive structure,
for this particular sample, is such as to increase signif-
icantly the performance, as tested by rigorous criterion
measures. (See Appendix B.)

5. The nature of this particular programmed cognitive
structure is such as to generate high positive affect for a

substantial majority of the sample studied.

123

5. When combined with the N. Harries study, it was
found that the nature of this particular structure of cog-
nitive information can be used to increase significantly the
processing level of the cognitive information covered, and
to change the time orientation from present to future. Further,
the evidence suggests that there is some generalization of
information processing beyond the content area to other stim-
ulus dimensions.
Application of the Findings and Implications
to Instructional Development

Three general areas might find some application of

H)

the findings of this study: application to the writing 0
programmed instruction, application of the concept of locus
of perceived control to Instructional Development, and appli-
cation to heuristics in the designing of instructional system
prototypes.

One of the common heuristics of writing programmed
instruction is the Skinnerian injunction that no more than
10 percent errors should be allowed throughout the length of
the program. The Holland-Skinner (1961) program is a clas-
sic example. However, one of the characteristic phenomena
that has come to be associated with such programs is "pall
effect," or extreme fatigue and boredom reported by students
when working such programs. Roth (1963) reported on this
effect in detail in Enalyzing student reaction to working

through the Skinner-Holland program. Twenty—one out of 26

students increasingly reported frustration and boredom as

124

they progressed through the sequence even though they con-
tinued to do well in performance. Although there were some
students who agreed that the HED 171 sequence of instruction
was "boring," the majority disagreed with that statement.
(See Appendix F.) It is felt that the 10 percent error rate
was adhered to only during the initial stages of the program.
The increasing level of complexity soon made it extremely
difficult to maintain the minimum 10 percent error rate since
closure on a complex concept might require several frames.
Throughout the program, however, all deliberate effort was
made to cast the structure in terms of familiar referents
with which the students could identify. These techniques
included references to fashion, human factor anecdotes, and
references to industry-related conditions and implications.
Although the authors were not entirely familiar with
information—processing theory and concepts of intrinsic-
extrinsic motivation at the time the text was written, it
seems that the net effect of the different techniques used in
the program was such as to strike near the Optimum information-
stimulation level illustrated in Figure 5, p. 44.

The theory explains a second area of possible appli-
cation relating to the Rotter measure as it might be applied
to Instructional Development. Rotter (1966) said:

Research in human learning should be understood

in the light of a position on a continuum of internal

to external control that the tasks and procedures would
be perceived by the subjects. (p. 25)

125

Some different interpretations of the results of
Instructional Development efforts might result if student
interaction with information structures were to be examined
from the perspective of the student. Perhaps it should be
considered that when an instructional system is designed for
25 students, not to mention 225 student, not one instruc-
tional system is designed, but rather "N" instructional
systems are designed. For example, on the control dimension

alone:

If a person sees reinforcement as being outside his

own control or not contingent, that is, depending upon

chance, fate, powerful others, or unpredictable, then

the preceding behavior is less likely to be strengthened

or weakened. . . learning under skill conditions [internal

control] is different from learning under chance conditions

[i.e., external control]. (Rotter, 1966, p. 5)
Applications of the Rotter measure to instructional development
are discussed further under "Implications for Future Research."
Thus the data suggest that extremely controlled students will
respond more positively when information is contained in an
uncertainty-reducing structure.

The third area of application of the findings relates
to the design and development for instructional prototypes.
Abedor (1971) proposed an Instructional Development heuristic
for analysis and further development of existing instructional
prototypes. Based upon the demonstrated effectiveness and
satisfactory student reception of the HED 171 instructional
system, following are some heuristics which can be applied

during design of the prototype stage, and which lend them-

selves to further analysis within the Abedor model. All

126

of the following are inherent aspects of the HED 171 sequence
of programmed instruction. There is nothing in the study
which points conclusively to or relates these heuristics
causally to the outcomes reported in this study, but clearly,
taken together with perhaps some other intangibles, they
seemed to work for the intended HED 171 student audience.

All page numbers refer to Harries and Harries (1969).

1. Define responsibility of the student. Part of the

 

introductory material of the program clearly explicated for
the students their expected role in the instructional
sequence (pp. 1-6).

2. Identify salient audience referents. Prior to decid-

 

ing upon the nature of the information structure in which the
content information would be embedded, pains were taken to
identify topics, items, areas, trends, applications, and
personalities which were of importance to students, which
were known to "turn them on," which would not be so transient
as to be illogical within the lifetime of the text prior to
revisions, and which lent themselves to use as a suitable
vehicle for the content data.

3. Control complexity development. The details of the

 

developmental sequence are described in the preface to the
text (pp. v-vii). One student was selected who was above
average in ability, and who had completed the course. Such
a person gives the advantage of relative newness, yet can
combine the advantage of perspective with existing course

material and experience with a still relatively simple

127

construct in regard to the course content. This student worked
through the first draft which the authors by her side. A
detailed explanation was given for each ambiguity the program
presented to the student. (This student involvement occurred
after the authors thought all communications problems had

been solved, but they obviously had not.) Then the program
was tested at that stage by a selected sample of six students
of varying ability; the program was revised again, prior to
large-scale tests of the mimeographed version. In this way,
the complexity of content development was carefully controlled
to retain the Optimum level indicated by student performance
in relationship to group norms.

4. Reduce uncertainty. Deliberate efforts were made to

 

reduce student uncertainty while working through the program.
The estimated time objectives were established for each unit,
and written so that the student could see and understand
them. Estimated time frames were given so that the students
could know in advance approximately how long they would
commit themselves to in beginning a section of the program.
There was immediate knowledge of results. Sample test items
were included at the conclusion of every unit. The student
was told, in advance, the nature of the test format, and was
given practice in working in that format. Where possible,
the content under discussion was related to the "real world"
so that the student had cues to the place of the materials

‘within the textiles field. The authors made every effort to

128

anticipate and answer the question at the time it would logi-
cally be asked by the student: "Why am I being asked to learn
this?"

5. Construct an information-linking structure which is
compatible with the content structure. The purpose of the
linking structure is to relate content items with each
other. What is said at Time 1 is said with respect to
Time 2. What is said at Time 2 is designed to link Time 1
with Time 3, and so on. The students were encouraged to
review as often as needed. The linking structure has far
greater potential than was exploited in the HED 171 program.
Given present understandings of process variables, the link—
ing structure can be used to develop student processing
ability more fully in handling the course content. In order
to assist students in linking content, special memory matrixes
were designed, which contained the skeleton or outline or
logic flow of the system, and students could fill it in
according to the detail which was suitable for them.

6. Establish discrete and short breaking points. Every
effort was made to introduce logical stopping points such
that the student seldom had to work longer than 30 minutes
without an opportunity to stop.

7. Provide devices for student internalization of behav-
iggg, The student interaction with the memory matrixes
served.this purpose. Fabric samples were provided at approp—
riate points for students actually to work with the textile

materials they were studying about in the program. Students

129

were put in role-playing positions in working through the
program. Future development of the course will involve the
design and development of visualized sequences to be used in
conjunction with an instructional game to further facilitate
internalization of key concepts.

Scientific procedures can be used in the analysis of
student interaction with such instructional systems, but
until much more is learned about the process of student
interaction based upon student individual differences in
regard to personality and ability, the design of such sys-
tems must remain as much an art form as a scientific applica-
tion. The author is convinced that a fruitful path toward
increasing the predictable results of such "art forms" is
through the route of cybernetic psychology and information—
processing concepts within the overall concept of general
systems theory.

At the practical level, for example, a study of a
training program involving the complex behaviors of radar
controllers revealed a construct called "visibility"
(Alexander, et a1., 1962). In information-processing terms,
it was learned that when an external structure is to be
internalized, or in other words becomes a part of the person's
Operational "map" of the external environment, knowledge of
results has little effect when the person-environmental inter-
action is direct. This effect can be interpreted as the
result of the structures being in direct interaction so

that feedback was redundant, hence irrelevant. However, when

130

the radar controllers had to interact with structure which was
remote, they had to resort to devices such as telephones,
printouts, etc., which, in effect, extended their senses
beyond immediate direct interaction. Under these conditions,
the behavior of external and remote structures with which
they had to interact had to be codified by means of a common
symbol structure. Under these conditions, feedback in the
form of knowledge of results (i.e., the making "visible"
of remote structure) became the critical factor in increas-
ing accurate Operational performance of the radar controllers.
At the theoretical level, the concept of "visibility"
and the effect of structural interactions is more fully
developed through the related concept of "adaptive self-
organization" (Ashby, l968a,b). Interaction with the cog—
nitive symbol structure of HED 171 leads to a form of adap—
tive self-organization. By means of interaction with the
programmed cognitive structure, the student constructs an
internal map of the remote external world called "Consumer
Textiles." As a result of this interaction, the internal
schemata becomes altered in such a manner that a more
functional interaction is possible when confronted with the
real structure in the external world of consumer textiles.
Concepts of information processing can also be found
to be compatible at the philosophical level relating to sys-
tems theory concepts, for example in terms of the "invariant

Gestalten" of Lazlo (1969). Lazlo provided a cybernetic

 

:model capable of dealing not only with the tangible evidence

131

of physical structure, but also the intangibles of visual
syntax, poetry, and art.

There seems to be a variety of possible applications
to which the implications of this study might be relevant,
not only in existing patterns of instruction, but also in
more radical innovative approaches, such as cognitive map-
ping (Hill and Nunney, 1971). In any case, the utility of

this study can be related to future research.

Implications for Future Research

 

The potential of the findings of this study for
future research may be found in three areas: (1) in terms
of the experimental variables used in the study; that is,
information processing, locus of perceived control, and
intrinsic-extrinsic motivation; (2) in the application of
the variables to instructional systems; and (3) in suggesting
a different approach to research using treatment by individ-
uals rather than treatments using the normative group means
of the variable under consideration.

Research Relating to the
Experimental Variables

A factor analysis of the three questionnaires is of
interest in terms of the findings related to the attitude
questionnaire. (See Appendix H.) Recall that the writer
deliberately attempted to structure control-oriented and
motivation-oriented questionnaires. Although the correla-

tions are weak, both of the constructs of motivation and

132

control emerged as the principal factors, along with a third
factor called "challenge." In addition to some of the items
deliberately intended to reflect control or motivation, some
other items clustered with the factor. While these items
were not intended to represent the factor, upon examination
they can be seen to be related to the factor with which they
clustered. The concept of motivation should be looked at
more closely. Perhaps a more basic level of examination
using words, instead of sentences (with their additional
syntactical confusion), in association with the intrinsic-
extrinsic motivation variable, could be achieved through

the application of the semantic differential (Osgood, et a1.,
1957).

Information—processing concepts relative to the "bit"
also might be pursued. This would involve codifying the pro-
grammed structure in terms of information "bits" and then
developing or modifying test instruments into the "bit"
format.

Research Relating to Other
Instructional Systems

'Only the control instrument combined with the atti-
tude survey would seem to have immediate application to other
instructional systems. Comparative analyses could be made
as to the effect of such systems on the control and attitude
variables and their relationships, as measured by this study.

Would engineering courses (with primarily male students)

133

reveal a different dynamic? Would human ecology students
(primarily female) reveal a different dynamic in other human
ecology courses?

While all of these explorations might be useful
endeavors, and would certainly be interesting, such approaches
essentially replicate what the author believes to be one of
the major difficulties encountered in this study—-name1y, the
attempt to generate useful findings based upon group means,
in order to measure variables which are essentially based
upon individual differences rather than upon group means.
Treatments to
Individual Differences

A possible area of research lies in applying the
information processing and locus of control variables to
studies concerned with individual differences. Such an
approach to individual differences would be possible using
Q—techniques (Stephenson, 1953) and the reportory grid of
Kelly (1955).

The findings of this study support Schroder's conten—
tion that, in the case of information-processing constructs,
a multidimensional variable is at issue; hence it is subject
to considerable individual differences effects. Likewise,
the findings also support Lefcourt's (1966) assertion that
use of the locus of control variables depends upon the nature
of relationships with goal-directed behavior. In such an
application, control is another variable which is subject to

wide individual differences. In order to maximize the

134

acquisition of individual variables, several lines of inves-
tigation seem feasible.

In Figure 7, groups are classified as being high or
low as the variables of information processing or locus of

perceived control.

Group I

Group II

Indicators:

1) Cognitive
2) Affective

3) Psychomotor

 

 

 

Classification by:

l. Information-processing level
2. Locus of control

Figure 7.--Dimensions of potential research.
Given the Groups representing a high or low
point on a given classification; of interest
would be the height and shape of their
respective curves as measured by the indicators.

The following research treatments can be applied

based upon:

135

Personality typologies emerging from reportory grid

analysis.

1.

Using the reportory grid, the students generate
their own constructs with respect to attitudes
toward instructional experiences.

Using a large N (+200), a number of dimensions which
seem to cluster together are identified as repre-
senting major attitudinal dimensions.

Students are then asked to rank order the instruc—
tional attitude dimensions relating to their pref—
erences. Students' responses are then analyzed to
see if these measures cause certain students to
cluster together.

Students found clustering on a given attitudinal
dimension can be evaluated on the information-
processing level, locus of perceived control, and
nature of their motivation. Demographic and other
personality variables might also be correlated.

The attitudinal dimensions can then be applied to
other instructional experiences, and/or predictions
made as to the effect of a particular instructional
system on a given student typology.

This same technique can also be applied to the

structural dimensions of a particular instructional system,

in order to determine if there are not dimensions of individ—

ual differences which suggest an Optimum instructional treat-

ment.

Hill, Hunney, and others (1971) appear to have made a

136

significant start in this direction at Oakland Community

College, with respect to their use of cognitive mapping based

upon student individual differences as clustered around

behavioral typologies. Based upon the nature of the typology,
the student is assigned a particular instructional alterna-
tive, such as lecture, small group, auto-tutorial, and so
forth. The above-suggested research approach seems to pro—
pose a related research alternative.

B. Relationship to modes of presentation, such as:

l. Visual—aural channel combinations

2. Group vs. individualized treatments

3. Student-controlled structuring compared to
instructor-controlled structuring

C. Relationship to manipulations of noise within the commu—
nications channels.

D. Interactions with manipulations of message redundancy.

E. Responsiveness to process methods of instruction (Berman,
1968) compared with content methods of instruction as
defined by Schroder, et a1. (1972).

In addition to Schroder and Berman, other workers are
suggesting that traditional group mean dependent measures of
evaluation such as the Scholastic Aptitude Tests be de-
emphasized in favor of more complex and more individualized
measures (e.g., MeeSe, 1972).

Finally, there is the potential of the concepts of
intrinsic motivation compared to the traditional extrinsic

sources of motivation that have been much studied. Intrinsic

137

motivation can potentially be channeled to maintain the
creative energies of very young children throughout their
educational experiences. A major task for future research
is to explicate satisfactorily, in a measurable form, the
construct of intrinsic motivation as developed by Berlyne,

Hunt and others.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

138

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APPENDICES

160

APPENDIX A

STATEMENT OF OBJECTIVES FOR THE PROGRAM

161

STATEMENT OF OBJECTIVES FOR THE PROGRAM

Following are the objectives for each of the seven

(Jriits of HED 171. The student progresses from the general
L1sse of specific terms to a more and more specific use of the
t;earms as appropriate for each of the areas. The objectives
s;t;ated for Unit VII are the terminal objectives for the
c:<>urse. All of the preceding statements of objectives are
<2c>nsidered enabling objectives.

(1)

(2)

(l)

(2)

(3)

(4)

 

 

OBJECTIVES FOR UNIT I: Textile and
Serviceability Concepts and Terminology

You will be asked to list the four subconcepts which under—
lie the basic concept of serviceability. These are:
durability, comfort, care, and aesthetic appearance.

 

 

 

 

You will be asked to list and give definitions for the
specific prOperties which define each of the four
serviceability subconcepts.

OBJECTIVES FOR UNIT II: Fibers

You will be asked to describe the serviceability char-
acteristics of each of the following fiber categories:

(A) Natural cellulosic
(B) Protein

(C) Man-made cellulosic
(D) Synthetic

(E) Mineral

You will be asked to recall at least three specific fiber
examples from each fiber category.

You will be asked to discuss the implications of each
fiber category in terms of potential serviceability.

You will be asked to prescribe the appropriate care pro-
cedures for each of the fiber categories.

162

(5)

(EH

(3.)

(.2)

(.3)

(1)

163

You will be asked to list and defend potential end uses
for which a fiber category is best suited, and you must
be able to account for the major advantages and disad-
vantages a category offers for a particular end use.

In all of your discussions, you should be able to use the
properties discussed under the serviceability concepts
presented in Unit I.

OBJECTIVES FOR UNIT III: Yarns

You will be asked to identify and describe the manufactur-
ing process which differentiates the following yarn types:

(A) Singles
(B) Ply
(C) Novelty

(a) Slub
(b) Crepe
(c) Bouclé
(d) Tweed
(e) Core

You will be asked to identify your fabric samples from
the above listing.

Given any one of the above yarn types, you will be
expected to define its serviceability implications using
the terminology of Unit I, and the variations introduced
by different fiber choices.

OBJECTIVES FOR UNIT IV: Fabric Structures

Given a package of fabric samples, you will be able to
identify the structures listed below:

(A) Knit

(a) Warp
(b) Filling

(B) Woven

(a) Plain
(b) Twill
(C) Satin
(d) Pile

(e) Dobby
(f) Jacquard

(C) Net, lace, braid

(4)

(5)

(l)

164

(D) Multi-component

(a) Double woven

(b) Double knit

(c) Laminate

(d) Knit-sew (Malimo)

(E) Nonwoven

(a) Felt

(b) Bonded web
(c) Needle felt
(d) Film

You will be able to identify and explain the function of
the parts of a loom:

(A) Warp beam
(B) Heddle

(C) Harness
(D) Reed

(E) Shuttle
(F) Cloth beam

You will be expected to describe the serviceability char-
acteristics of the fabric structures studied.

You will be expected to describe the particular care pro-
cedures necessary for preservation of a particular
fabric structure.

You will be expected to make "end use" judgments in
regard to the serviceability concepts of the various
structures.

OBJECTIVES FOR UNIT V: Fabric Finishes

You will be asked to describe the following finishing
processes:

(A) General Mill Finishes

(a) Cleaning
(b) Bleaching
(c) Singeing
(d) Calendering
(e) Tentering

(B) Finishes which contribute to durability

(a) Abrasion-resistant
(b) Antislip

(c) Shrinkagejcontrol
(d) Mercerization

(©)

(3)

165

(C) Finishes which contribute to comfort

(a)
(b)
(C)
(d)

Absorbent
Antistatic

Thermal
Slack-mercerization

(D) Finishes which contribute to ease of care

(a)
(b)
(C)
(d)
(e)
(f)
(g)
(h)

Softeners

Soil- and stain-resistant
Mothproof

Antiseptic

Waterproof
Water-repellent
Flameproof
Flame-retardant

(E) Finishes for aesthetic appearance

(a)
(b)
(C)
(d)
(e)
(f)
(g)
(h)
(i)
(j)
(k)
(l)
(m)
(n)
(O)
(p)
(q)

Given a
how the

Singeing--Shearing
Sizing

Weighting

Brushing

Napping

Fulling

Beetling

Embossing

Pleating

Glazing

Ciréing

Moiréing
Schreinerizing
Flocking
Fume-fading resistant
Parchmentizing
Chemical crepeing

particular finish, you should be able to explain
finish contributes to:

(A) Durability

(B) Comfort

(C) Care

(D) Aesthetic appearance

Given an end use, you should be able to determine the
most suitable finish.

166

OBJECTIVES FOR UNIT VI: Color and Design
of Textile Products

(1) Given any of the following coloring methods, you will be
asked to describe the techniques involved:

(A) Solution dyeing

(B) Fiber (stock) dyeing
(C) Yarn dyeing

(D) Piece dyeing

(a) Union
(b) Cross

(2) Given any of the following design applications, you will
be asked to describe the differences among them and their
implications for serviceability:

(A) Roller (surface) printing
(B) Warp printing

(C) Stencil printing

(D) Screen printing

(E) Discharge printing

(F) Resist printing

(a) Batik
(b) Tie-and-dye

(3) Given a packet of fabric samples, you will be expected
to identify their:
(A) Coloring methods
(B) Design applications (where applicable)

(4) Given a particular end use or a method of coloring and/
or design application, you will be able to list the

applicable criteria relative to the serviceability
concepts of:

(A) Durability
(B) Comfort
(C) Care procedures

(D) Aesthetic judgments regarding choice of color and
design

(l)

(2)

(3)

167

OBJECTIVES FOR UNIT VII: Decision Making
from Textile Alternatives: Summary

You will be asked to recall the specific properties of

fibers, yarns, structures, finishes, and various color

and design alternatives as they relate to the four ser-
viceability concepts.

You will be asked to apply the above properties to
specific hypothetical situations, and select appropriate
textile alternatives in each case.

You should be able to select the appropriate service-
ability alternative in 90% of the simulated situations.

APPENDIX B

SAMPLE TEST QUESTIONS

168

SAMPLE TEST QUESTIONS

Final Examination Type Questions

 

The actual final examination can not be used because
of the reuse of some of the questions in course examinations.
The examination is typically divided into three parts. The
first part consists of multiple-choice items to test knowledge
of facts, concepts, and relationships. A second part of the
examination consists of students identifying actual fabric
samples by fiber (when possible), yarn, structure, finishes
(when possible), color and design treatment (when possible),
and then recommending types of applications for which the
sample would be most apprOpriate. This part of the examina-
tion is ngt_included in the sample questions which follow.
The third portion of the examination is situational-type
questions, in which the student is placed in the role of
textile consumer or professional, and is asked to make deci-
sions regarding textile alternatives within the context of
the situation.

Part I-—Mu1tiple-Choice Type Questions

 

A fiber with high tenacity will be able to

a. absorb a large amount of moisture.

. conduct a high amount of electricity.
. withstand a heavy pulling force.

. retain its shape after elongation.

DJIO (T

If a fabric is dimensionally stable, it will

a. lose its shape through stretching.
. have a low amount of elasticity.
retain its shape over time.

have a high amount of elongation.

QJIO U‘

"Built" detergents have a higher content than
"unbuilt" detergents.

 

. acidic
alkaline
salt
soap

DJOIU‘DJ

yarns produce fabrics of rough texture.

 

Wollen and worsted
Worsted and combed
Carded and woolen
Carded and combed

cmozrm

169

170

What is the correct order of steps for forming a cord yarn?

a. singles--ply--roving--cord
p. roving--singles—-ply--cord
c. roving--ply--singles--cord
d. ply--singles--roving--cord

Which yarn would be least affected by agitation in laundering?

3. core
. bouclé
c. slub

. tweed

U‘

Q.;

A 50/50 blend of rayon and polyester in a fabric ompared to
a 100 per cent rayon fabric would have

half the prOperties of each of the fibers.
greater loss of strength when wet.
increased wrinkle resistance.

higher heat resistance.

greater resistance to oily stains.

(DQIOU'W

Why are twill weaves generally stronger than basket weaves?
Twill weaves

a. are more loosely woven.

b. have a plain weave pattern of interlacing.
c. are woven with yarns of low twist.

d. have shorter yarn floats.

The major advantage to the consumer of knit-sew fabrics
is their

a. increased durability.
b. wide range of uses.
0. increased absorbency.
d. lower cost.

Which fabric structure would be the least absorbent and con-
sequently uncomfortable to wear?

3. unsupported film

b. supported film

c. fabric-foam-fabric laminate
d. fabric-fabric laminate

171

Match the most desirable structure to the appropriate con-

sumer need:

1. needle felt a. reversible blanket with contrasting
colors.

2' double ClOth b. durable blanket for camping

3. double-faced c. lowest cost blanket

4 twill d. blanket with highest thermal retention

Answer: l--c; 2--d; 3--a; 4--b

Match

the most appropriate carpet description to the

consumer need:

1. wool woven pile a. den carpeting that successfully
imitates natural fiber com-
petitor

2' acrylic tufted b. low-cost porch carpeting

pile

3. olefin needle c. durable, abrasion-resistant
felt carpet for hallway

4. nylon tufted d. nonabsorbent and durable
pile kitchen carpeting

5. olefin tufted e. cost is no Object for living
pile room carpet of high workmanship

Answer: 1--3; 2--a; 3--b; 4--c; 5--d

AS an

interior designer, for which purpose would you recommend

thermoplastic fabrics with an embossed finish?

 

a. to achieve a true crepe
b. to increase durability
g. to achieve a dimensional effect
d. to increase luster
Match the appropriate finish to the consumer need it would
fulfill:

(l) parchmentizing (a) plissé fabric

(2) sanforization (b) soft, lustrous cotton
————— fabric

(3) shearing (c) sculptured carpet

(4) mercerization (d) garment with comfort
-————- stretch

(5) chemical crepeing (e) shrinkage guaranteed to be

(6) slack mercerization less than one percent
-————- (f) etched effect

(7) antiseptic (g) shrinkage guaranteed to be

less than two percent

Answer: l--f; 2——e; 3--c; (h) action stretch
4--b; 5--a; 6--d; 7--i (i) shower curtain

172

What advantages do woven-in fabric designs have over those
that are printed on? Woven-in designs

a. are less expensive to produce.

. are often reversible.

c. have the design structured with the grain.
d. have more thorough dye penetration.

e. all of the above

f. b, c, and d above

0‘

Which of the following fabric finishes are used solely for
design effect?

a. schreinerizing and flocking

p. moiréing and embossing

c. parchmentizing and mercerizing
. fulling and beetling

D.)

Match the design application to its description:
a. batik 1. printing on a flat surface
b. discharge 2. printing with bleach
c. screen 3. resist dyeing with waxed thread
d. tie-and-dye 4. resist dyeing with wax
e. surface 5. printing with etched copper
rollers

Answer: a--4; b--2; c--1; d--3; e--5

If a department store buyer ordered the most economical
tweed-effect carpet, the order would have been for carpet
colored by

a. fiber dyeing.

. solution dyeing (filament tow).
c. roller printing.

d. cross dyeing.

e. union dyeing.

U‘

173

Match the coloring or design method which would be most
feasible and serviceable for each of the end uses indicated.
You may use the choices (1. through 9.) more than once or
not at all.

a. floral glass drapery . fiber dyed
b. olefin needle-felt . yarn dyed
c. boy's polyester/ . piece dyed

cotton school slacks

solution dyed
d. man's wool tweed cross d ed
Sports coat y

union dyed

e. lady's linen dress
pigment colored

f. cotton plaid bedspread

g. flowered, cotton roller printed

kitchen curtains

KDCDQO'NU'IQUJNH
O O

discharge printed
h. birdseye huck toweling
i. brocade evening jacket

j. black and white silk

dress print
Answer: a--7; b--4; c--6; d--1; e--3; f——2; g--8; h--3;
i--2; j--9

Part II--Omitted

 

Part III--Situationa1 Questions

 

SUPPOSE YOU ARE A DESIGNER-CONSULTANT

You are assigned as a designer-consultant to assist
in meeting low-income housing needs. From the alternatives
listed below, suggest the floor covering, wall covering, and
drapery fabric that would be most economical, durable, and
yet attractive for furnishing a mobile home. Remember to
justify all choices.

Check the best floor covering:

1. Polyester; sculptured, tufted pile; piece dyed; soil
resistant.
2. Nylon; sculptured, tufted pile; solution dyed; soil
resistant
. Olefin; uncut tufted pile; solution dyed; soil resistant
. Acrylic; cut tufted pile; fiber dyed; soil resistant

174

*Justification: The Olefin carpeting (3) would be the most
economical and durable choice due to the fiber content and
uncut pile, which does not require the extra expense of
cutting or shearing to give a sculptured appearance.

 

Check the best wall covering:

1. Conventional wallpaper
2. Flocked wallpaper
3. Embossed vinyl wall covering
4. Smooth vinyl wall covering
Justification: A smooth vinyl wall covering (4) is inexpen-
sive, durable, and easy to clean.

Choose the best glass drapery fabric:

1. Glass fibers; plain weave; pigment printed; antislip

Glass fibers; plain weave; solution dyed; abrasion resistant
Glass fibers; leno structure; solution dyed; abrasion
resistant

g.
3.

Justification: The plain weave structure (2) would put less
stress than the leno structure on the low flex life of glass
fibers; and the solution-dyed coloring would be more suitable
for draperies than a pigment application, which could crock
off.

 

 

SUPPOSE YOU ARE A MANUFACTURER'S REPRESENTATIVE

You are a shipping Officer for a textile manufacturing
concern. As you are checking the invoices on four truck—
loads Of cotton fabric which are to go to a tablecloth manu-
facturer, you notice that the fabric is incorrectly billed.
Each truckload has the same yardage of comparable weight
fabric suitable for table linens.

Match the appropriate price with each tablecloth fabric:
1. Jacquard a. $250
2. Plain b. $150 Answer: 1--a; 2--c;
3. Malimo c. $100 3--b; 4--d
4. Dobby d. $50

*Student's justification should be similar to the most apprOp-
riate one given as an answer in the example. The "sample
answer" is most appropriate in View of course content and
structure.

175

Since you are concerned that there may be additional errors,
you look through a consignment of dobby structures which have
been woven with a different fiber content. Which price
should be on each comparably woven dobby fabric?

1. Cotton a. $300
2. Acetate b. $175
3. Wool c. $150 Answer: 1--c; 2--d;
4. Silk d. $100 3"b’ 4"a

SUPPOSE YOU ARE A BUYER FOR A RETAIL
DEPARTMENT STORE

 

 

You want to select a versatile suiting fabric suitable for
customers who travel in variable climates. Indicate the
combination you would order and justify your selection.

 

___cotton ___double knit ___antistatic
___polyester ___plain weave ___mercerized
___clefin ___plain filling knit ___durable press
___flax ___rib weave ___sanforized
___rayon ___pile weave ___schreinerized
Justification:

Polyester would be the most versatile fiber to use in travel
fabric, since polyester is very resilient.

 

The double knit structure would contribute to stability and
wrinkle recovery; it would make the nonabsorbent polyester

fibers more comfortable. (The plain filling knit would not
be as stable and suitable for traveling as the double knit.)

 

An antistatic finish would be most desirable to prevent
fabric clinging.

 

Note: The other combination which would be a possibility for
travel would be a cotton, plain weave, with a durable press
finish. However, in traveling you would not have a washer

and dryer, which give the best results when laundering durable
press fabrics. A polyester double knit launders very well by
hand and is serviceable in more kinds of weather than a cotton
or polyester plain weave.

176

A large order of shirts has just arrived and your assignment

is to send them to their appropriate departments.
shirts with their most likely sales department.

one shirt may go to the same department.

Silk;

Combed cotton/polyester blend;
high yarn count; plain weave;

slub yarn; plain weave

Match the
More than

a. men's specialty

permanent press

b. main floor men's

3. Combed cotton; high yarn count; de artment
basket weave (oxford); permanent p
press c. budget basement
4. Cotton; low yarn count; sizing;

permanent press

5. Worsted wool;
light napping

Answer: 1--a; 2--b; 3--b; 4--c;

twill weave;

5--a

You are ordering suits and tuxedoes for the rental shop.
Match the fiber content you would order for the following

end uses:

_____ 1. summer wedding

_____ 2. winter black
3. modern dance

4. concert pianist

nightlub entertainer

Answer: 1--c; 2--a; 3--d; 4--b;

75 percent wool/25 percent
polyester

b. 65 percent acetate/35
percent silk

c. 75 percent flax/25 percent
cotton

d. 40 percent nylon/30 percent
cotton/30 percent spandex

e. 50 percent cotton/30 per-
cent silk/20 percent
metallic

5--e

177

You are ordering blankets for a variety of purposes. Indicate
the most appropriate blanket structure you would order for
each use listed below:

1. light-wieght spring blanket a. rayon needle felt
b. cotton plain weave,
2. heavy-weight, durable, napped (flannel-
winter blanket ette)

c. laminated nylon
3. inexpensive blanket for twill, napped

college students d. wool twill weave,

napped
4. average-weight durable

_____ blanket e. wool double cloth,
napped

Answer: l--b; 2--e; 3--a; 4--d

SUPPOSE YOU ARE A TEACHER

A student approaches and asks that you differentiate among
the terms hydrophilic, hydrophobic, hygroscopic, and wicking.
Your explanation should include fiber examples of each.

Answer: All terms describe absorbency relationships.

Hydrophilic literally means "water loving"; therefore, a
hydrophilic fiber absorbs moisture readily into its structures.
Cotton, flax, rayon, and wool are hydrophilic, as well as

most of the natural cellulosic and protein fibers.

 

Hydrophobic fibers are those which will not accept moisture
internally, such as the synthetic and mineral fibers.

 

Hygroscopic fibers can absorb moisture vapor without feeling
wet to the touch because the moisture is trapped under scales;
wool and other animal hair fibers are hygroscopic.

 

Wicking describes the property of a fiber to transmit moisture
along the fiber length or around its width. Thus, hydro-
phobic fibers, such as certain synthetics, can wick along

the outside of the fiber, thereby increasing comfort.

A student does not understand how a fiber can absorb mois-
ture and not feel wet. Explain!

Answer: The hygroscopic property is possible in fibers with
scales. The water molecules are held under the scales such
that the surface of the fiber feels dry until the product is
saturated with water.

178

You are explaining to your textiles class the implications
and importance of the EFPIA. Discuss the major significance
of the act, and give the three items which the law requires
on a fabric label. -

Answer: The major significance of the act is that it estab-
lished the generic classifications of fibers and forced
common fiber groupings on a market filled with trade names.

 

The Textile Fiber Products Identification Act requires that
the manufacturer accurately label the following:

1. Generic classification of all fibers present in
amounts over 5 percent
2. Fiber percentage

3. Manufacturer's name

(Note: The label does not have to be sewn in.)

Explain the implications of the WPL for the consumer.

Answer: The consumer can evaluate the serviceability of a
wool garment based on the percentage by weight and type of
wool. For example, a consumer should think twice before
purchasing a product of reused wool, which would be less
durable than one of reprocessed or virgin wool.

 

SUPPOSE YOU ARE A CONSUMER

 

You are interested in purchasing some shirts for school or
work, and you want them to require NO ironing. Indicate
which purchase you would make from the alternatives listed
below and tell why.

1. 100 percent cotton; durable press
2. 80 percent polyester/20 percent cotton; durable press

3. 100 percent polyester; antistatic

4. 65 percent cotton/35 percent polyester; durable press

Answer: The durable press blend with the most polyester (2)
would contribute to the highest wrinkle resistance and
recovery after laundering.

 

(Note: The 100 percent polyester (3) is not a durable press
product.)

179

You want to select some pajamas for a friend in the hospital.
Comfort is the most important consideration. Indicate the
selection you would make and tell why.

l. 100 percent cotton; plain weave; durable press

2. 50 percent cotton/50 percent polyester; twill weave;
easy—care finish

3. 100 percent cotton; plain weave; chemical crepe;
(plissé)

4. 100 percent flax; plain weave; easy-care finish

Answer: The 100 percent cotton plissé fabric (3) would be
most comfortable and would require little ironing due to the
crinkled effect.

(Note: The 100 percent cotton durable press fabric would
have a somewhat stiff hand, which would not be desirable in
pajamas.)

APPENDIX C

ADMINISTRATION OF THE SCHRODER TEST

180

I.

181

 

Student Number

INSTRUCTIONS TO PARTICIPANTS

Part One: Paragraph Completion

 

On the following pages you will be asked to complete
certain sentences and write a short paragraph.

On each page you will find the beginning of a sentence,
and your task is to complete it.

For example: I like....

When you are given the signal turn to Page 1. Complete
the sentence given and write at least three additional
sentences. You will be given 120 seconds. After 100
seconds I will say "Finish your sentence," and at 120
seconds I will ask you to turn to the next page. Make
sure you complete your last sentences. There are 6
sentence completions in all.

 

 

Write your sentences as quickly but as clearly as
possible.

Do not turn this page until you are given the signal.

APPENDIX D

ROTTER QUESTIONNAIRE

182

ROTTER QUESTIONNAIRE

Instructions:

 

Following are some pairs of statements about life
experiences. Will you please read each pair of these state-
ments and mark an "x" beside the statement which best fits your
feelings about the topic. It may be hard for you to decide

which statement of the pair to mark; but please mark only

 

one statement in each pair, selecting the one you most nearly

 

agree with. There are no "right" or "wrong" statements, and

all statements will be selected by university students.

Comments:

Following are the questions and response weights
for the Rotter questionnaire. A "I" to the left of the item
indicates the question loaded on Factor I, called System
Modifiability; a "II" indicates the question loaded on
Factor II, called Personal Ideology. See Table 17, Appen-
dix H. Two points are assigned to "external" responses and
one point is assigned to "internal" responses. The factors,

code, and weights do not appear on the actual questionnaire.

183

Factor

 

10.a.

ll.a.

b.

12.a.

l3.a.

l4.a.
b.

15.a.

184

ROTTER LOCUS OF PERCEIVED CONTROL QUESTIONNAIRE

Children get into trouble because their parents
punish them too much.

The trouble with most children nowadays is that
their parents are too easy with them.

Many of the unhappy things in people's lives are
partly due to bad luck.

People's misfortunes result from the mistakes
they make.

One of the major reasons why we have wars is
because people don't take enough interest in
politics

There will always be wars, no matter how hard
people try to prevent them.

In the long run people get the respect they
deserve in this world.

Unfortunately, an individual's worth often
passes unrecognized no matter how hard he tries.

The idea that teachers are unfair to students
is nonsense.

Most students don't realize the extent to which
their grades are influenced by accidental
happenings.

Without the right breaks one cannot be an
effective leader.

Capable people who fail to become leaders have
not taken advantage of their opportunities.

No matter how hard you try some peOple just
don't like you.

People who can't get others to like them don't
understand how to get along with others.

Heredity plays the major role in determining
one's personality.

It is one's experiences in life which determine
what they're like.

I have often found that what is going to happen
will happen.

Trusting to fate has never turned out as well
for me as making a decision to take a definite
course of action.

In the case of the well-prepared student there
is rarely,
Many times exam questions tend to be so
unrelated to course work that studying is really
useless.

Becoming a success is a matter of hard work,
luck has little or nothing to do with it.
Getting a good job depends mainly on being in
the right place at the right time.

The average citizen can have an influence in
government decisions.

This world is run by the few people in power,
and there is not much the little guy can do
about it.

When I make plans, I am almost certain that
I can make them work.

It is not always wise to plan too far ahead
because many things turn out to be a matter
of good or bad fortune anyhow.

There are certain people who are just no good.
There is some good in everybody.

In my case getting what I want has little or
nothing to do with luck.
Many times we might just as well decide what
to do by flipping a coin.

if ever, such a thing as an unfair test.

Code

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Item

 

16.

I l7.a.

18.

19.

20.

21.

23.

24.

25.

26.

27.

28.

a.

b.

185

Who gets to be the boss often depends on who

was lucky enough to be in the right place first.
Getting peOple to do the right thing depends upon
ability, luck has little or nothing to do with it.

As far as world affairs are concerned, most

of us are the victims of forces we can neither
understand, nor control.

By taking an active part in political and social
affairs the peOple can control world events.

Most people don't realize the extent to which
their lives are controlled by accidental
happenings.

There really is no such thing as "luck.”

One should always be willing to admit mistakes.
It is usually best to cover up one's mistakes.

It is hard to know whether or not a person really
likes you.

How many friends you have depends on how nice

a person you are.

In the long run the bad things that happen to us
are balanced by the good ones.

Most misfortunes are the result of lack of
ability, ignorance, laziness, or all three.

With enough effort we can wipe out political
corruption.

It is difficult for people to have much control
over the things politicians do in office.

Sometimes I can't understand how teachers
arrive at the grades they give.

There is a direct connection between how hard
I study and the grades I get.

A good leader expects people to decide for them—
selves what they should do.

A good leader makes it clear to everybody what
their jobs are.

Many times I feel that I have little influence
over the things that happen to me.

It is impossible for me to believe that chance
or luck plays an important role in my life.

People are lonely because they don't try to be
friendly.

There's not much use in trying too hard to please
people, if they like you, they like you.

There is too much emphasis on athletics in
high school.

Team sports are an excellent way to build
character.

What happens to me is my own doing.
Sometimes I feel that I don't have enough control
over the direction my life is taking.

Most of the time I can't understand why
politicians behave the way they do.

In the long run the people are responsible for
bad government on a national as well as on a
local level.

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APPENDIX E

MOTIVATION QUESTIONNAIRE

186

MOTIVATION QUESTIONNAIRE

Instructions:

 

Below is a sentence completion questionnaire, and
each of the sentences has two possible endings. Will you
please read each sentence carefully and select the one
conclusion that mostly applies to you, or the one that you
most agree with. In some cases both alternatives may apply,
but select the one that you believe applies more often than
the other. In some cases, neither alternative will apply
very much; nevertheless, select the one alternative that
applies more than the other.

Now notice that to the right of each alternative are
the words "much" and "little." If you feel that the alterna—
tive you have chosen applies a great deal, or you agree with
it very much, mark on the answer sheet the number that cor-
responds with "much" [e.g. (1) much, mark 1 on the answer
sheet]. If you feel that the alternative only applies a
little, or you agree with it only a little, then select the
alternative "little" beside your selected conclusion, and
mark on the answer sheet the number which corresponds with
"little" [e.g. (4) little, fill in "4" on the answer sheet].

Be sure to complete each sentence by choosing only
the one alternative which applies more than the other, and
by indicating whether the chosen alternative applies "much"
or "little." Thus, you should have marked only one of the
four choices for each of the 21 questions. There are no
correct answers, and many students will select each of the
alternatives.

 

 

 

 

Comments:

Following are the questions and weights for the
Motivation questionnaire. A "4" indicates a highly extrin—
sic orientation; a "1" indicates a highly intrinsic orienta—
tion. A "I" indicates that the question loaded on Factor I,
called Personal (Significant Other); a "II" indicates the
question loaded on Factor II, called Practical. See Table
18, Appendix H. The factor numbers, codes, and weightings
do not appear on the actual questionnaire.

 

 

187

Factor

II

II

II

Item

1.

10.

11.

12.

13.

188

MOTIVATION QUESTIONNAIRE

I feel that I would most likely enjoy using tools...
...on a do—it—yourself project for fun.

...to repair or paint something that needs
attention.

When I read a book (other than an assigned reading)
I would more likely be reading a topic because...
...it is just plain interesting.

...it somehow contributes to my effectiveness

or growth.

Whenever I find a moment in which I have nothing
to do, most of the time I feel...

...empty and seek out something to stimulate me.
...relaxed and relieved for the brief respite
before going on to the next task.

 

PeOple who watch my activities and know me,
would be most likely to say that I...
...have many non-practical but fun and
challenging hobbies.

...pursue hobbies that serve a utilitarian
or useful function.

I would most likely attend some kind of public
concert because...

...the intricacies of music excite me.

...the experience relaxes and refreshes me so
that I can better attend to more important tasks.

I would most likely climb Mount Everest
because...

...it is there.

...I would, frankly, somewhat enjoy the pub—
licity, or the task would be useful in my work.

I would most likely be found taking a long hike
by myself...

...for complex reasons that are difficult to
explain.

...because it contributes to a healthy mind

and body.

The reason that most often explains why I
complete a difficult and challenging assignment
is because...

...I get my "kicks" out of doing it.

...it is a responsibility that has to be met.

The major reason I would invest extensive
money and time in flying lessons is because...
...of the fun and challenge of flying.

...an airplane is a useful transportation
tool.

I would travel the length of the Amazon River
mostly because...

...I would enjoy the exploration.

...it would be a part of some income-
producing responsibility

I would spend considerable time weaving a
complicated fabric mostly because...

...the weaving would be fun.

...the fabric would make a useful, attractive
product.

I more often would find myself...
...tinkering with intriguing objects to see
what can result.

...putting objects together to create or repair
a useful item.

I believe that many people pursue the friendships
of others because...

...such relationships can be mutually beneficial.
...people are just plain interesting

9.022

intrinsic
to
extrinsic

intrinsic
to
extrinsic

intrinsic
to
extrinsic

intrinsic
to
extrinsic

intrinsic
to
extrinsic

intrinsic
to
extrinsic

intrinsic
to
extrinsic

intrinsic
to
extrinsic

intrinsic
to
extrinsic

intrinsic
to
extrinsic

intrinsic
to
extrinsic

intrinsic
to
extrinsic

extrinsic
or
intrinsic

Weighting

1234

1234

1234

1234

1234

1234

1234

1234

1234

1234

1234

1234

4321

Factor

I

11

II

Item

14.

16.

18.

19.

20.

21.

189

I would spend time and energy planting and taking
care of a lawn and plantings surrounding a home I
might own, mostly because...

...it's kind of fun to observe the outcome.

...it enhances the beauty and attractiveness

of the home.

I generally select the clothes I wear mostly
according to the criteria of...

...what I would be expected to wear for an
occaSIon.

...whatever "turns me on."

I Spend time caring for my wearing apparel...
...in order to have it look right for the occasion.
...because I enjoy experimenting with it.

I generally spend my leisure time...
...satisfying my curiosity about non-practical
things I normally don't have time for.
...improving awareness and my competence to
make hinws happen in the world and to deal
with practical needs.

When I day dream it most often concerns...

...the planning and analysis of practical matters.
...mulling over abstract relationships regardless
of practical considerations.

In having to choose between one of two college
courses, I would tend to select the course that...
...arouses my curiosity and relates to something
that interests me.

...contributes more directly to a goal to which

I aSpire.

If there is a driving force that influences me
more than the other, it would be...
...identification of practical goals and choosing
alternatives (even if unpleasant) that enable me
to reach them.

...eXploration of the unknown, and choosing alter-
natives that answer my questions (regardless of
practical concerns).

When you get right down to it, I might work
overtime earning an income...

...even though having to earn money gets in the
way of things that are important.

...because money makes possible the things that
are important.

9993

intrinsic
to
extrinsic

extrinsic
to
intrinsic

extrinsic
to
intrinsic

intrinsic
to

extrinsic

extrinsic
to
intrinsic

intrinsic
to
extrinsic

extrinsic
to

intrinsic

intrinsic
to
extrinsic

W

1234

4321

4321

1234

4321

1234

4321

1234

APPENDIX E

GENERAL ATTITUDE QUESTIONNAIRE

190

GENERAL ATTITUDE QUESTIONNAIRE

Instructions:

 

Unless otherwise specified, please answer the follow—
ing questions according to the format:

Very much Somewhat Not Somewhat Very much
agree agree Sure disagree disagree
1 2 3 4 5

Please work thoughtfully and quickly.

Comments:
Following are the questions and weights for the

Attitude Toward College—Level Instruction in General ques—

 

tionnaire and the Attitude Toward HED 171 questionnaire. A

 

"5" in the weightings to the right of each pair of questions
indicates a very positive weighting; a "1" indicates a very
negative weighting on the Likert scale. The weightings in
parentheses for items 1-6 inclusive (i.e., questions having
implications of control) indicate internal (1) to external
(5) perceived control; for items 7-12 inclusive (i.e., ques—
tions having implications of motivation) the weightings indi—
cate intrinsic motivation (l) to extrinsic motivation (5).
Immediately following the question is a row of per—
centages. This indicates the student response to the question
on the Likert scale from: "Very Much Agree" at the extreme

left, to "Agree" next to extreme left, to "Uncommitted" in the

191

192

middle, to "Disagree" next to extreme right, to "Very Much
Disagree" at the extreme right.

Note that the first question is numbered "l.G." The
"G" is for "General Attitude Questionnaire." Immediately
following the row of percentages indicating student response
to that question on the Likert scale, is a second question
numbered "1.H." This question is the comparable question
which is found on the Specific attitude questionnaire regard—
ing student attitudes toward the HED l7l experience. The "H"
stands for HED 171. The weightings of the "H" item are the
same as the corresponding "G" item. Immediately below the
question is another row of percentages. These indicate stu—
dent responses on the same Likert scale to the "H" questions,
as described above for the "G" question.

By reading the "G" question and noting the student
response pattern, and then looking at the corresponding “H"
question and noting its response pattern, you can easily
compare the change in student responses from their feeling
about the question in regard to college—level instruction in
general, as compared with their attitudes toward HED 171 in
particular.

A "I" to the left of a question indicates that the
"G" question loaded highly on Factor I, Control; a "II"
indicates that the question loaded highly on Factor II,

Motivation; and a "III" indicates that the question loaded

 

highly on Factor III, Challenge. See Table 19 in Appendix H.

 

193

An "omit" means that the item was not included in the atti-
tude analysis.

The factors, codes, and weights do not appear on the
actual questionnaire. The "G" numbered questions were on the
questionnaire dealing with attitude toward college—level
instruction in general. The "H" numbered questions were on

the attitude toward HED 171 questionnaire. The instructions

were identical.

Omit

Omit

Omit

Omit

Omit

Factor

II

II

Item

1.G.

.5
:1:

194

 

 

Very Much VCFY MUCh
Agree Agree Uncommitted Disagree Disagree ngg
Most of the courses I have taken provide me with
methods to COpe with difficulties, and to score (Control)
well on exams.
4.1 45.6 14.3 26.5 9.5
HED 171 has provided me with methods to cope with
difficulties, and to score well on exams.
29.4 37.1 16.1 16.1 1.4
In many of the courses I have taken, factors other than
my own efforts are most likely to influence my final
grade. (Control)
7.5 31.3 11.6 36.1 12.9
In HED 171, factors other than my own efforts have
influenced by grades.
8.4 25.2 10.5 23.8 31.5
I often find that the structure of a course is such
as to make it difficult for me to do the best I can. (Control)
9.5 30.6 19.7 33.3 5.4
I often found that the structure of HED 171 was such as
to make it difficult for me to do the best I can.
4.2 6.3 7.0 22.4 58.7
In most of my courses, I know exactly what is
expected of me. ' (Control)
21.1 44.2 6.1 23.8 4.8
In HED 171, I knew exactly what was expected of me.
65.7 21.0 9.1 3.5 ...
I often find it helpful to check with a classmate
concerning what I am supposed to be doing in a course. (Control)
25.9 45.6 4.1 19.7 4.8
I often found it helpful to check with a classmate
concerning what I was supposed to be doing in HED 171.
4.2 11.2 8.4 31.5 44.8
As far as most courses are concerned, I really feel that
I am in the "driver's seat" in getting the grades I
receive. (Control)
18.4 51.0 12.2 _ 17.0 1.4
As far as HED 171 is concerned, I really feel that I
have been in the "driver's seat" in getting the
grades I receive.
58.0 29.4 5.6 2.8 3.5
In many of the courses that I take, even though they
are a requirement, I find myself deeply involved in
the substance of the course. (Motivation)
10.2 42.2 9.5 29.9 8.2
Even though HED 171 is a requirement, I find myself
deeply involved in the substance of the course.
(Not answered unless course is a requirement.)
39.2 28.7 6.3 4.9 2.8
As a result of being involved in a required course, I
generally find myself relating to many of the other
students in the course through a commonality of
interest. (Motivation)

13.6 32.0 20.4 25.2 8.8

As a result of being involved in this required course,

I generally find myself relating to many of the other
students in the course through a commonality of

interest. (Not answered unless course is a requirement.)

10.5 27.3 17.5 21.0 2.8

Weighting

54321
(12345)

12345
(54321)

12345
(54321)

54321
(12345)

12345
(54321)

54321
(12345)

54321
(12345)

54321
(12345)

Omit

Omit

Omit

Omit

Omit

Omit

Omit

Factor

II

II

II

Item

9.6.

10.6.

10.H.

11.6.

11.H.

12.6.

12.H.

13.6.

l3.H.

14.6.

14.H.

15.6.

15.H.

16.6.

16.H.

195

Very Much Very Much
Agree Agree Uncommitted Disagree Disagree

 

At the completion of most of the required courses I
have taken, I invariably look back and decide that
the experience would have been worthwhile, even if
the course were not required.

17.7 36.1 15.0 21.8 9.5

At the completion of this required course, I can now

look back and feel that the experience would have

been worthwhile, even if the course were not required.

(Not answered unless course is a requirement.)

52.4 14.7 2.8 4.9 2.1
The real satisfaction I get from most of my courses
is just being involved.

8.8 41.5 19.7 25.9 3.4

 

The real satisfaction I got from HED 171 was just
being involved.

7.7 42.7 28.7 16.1 4.9

 

I find that a magor attraction of most courses I enjoy,

lies in their relevance to practical applications.
53.1 29.3 4.8 11.6 1.4

I find that a major attraction of HED 171, lies in its

relevance to practical applications.
73.4 20.3 2.8 3.5 .

Many of the courses I take are required (rather than

due to initial interest on my own part).
26.5 34.0 4.1 29.9 4.8

Many of the courses I take are required (rather than

due to initial interest on my own part).
28.0 35.0 5.6 21.7 9.8

Instructors generally hold my interest and attention

during their lectures.
6.1 56.5 12.9 22.4 2.0

Mrs. Harries generally held my interest and attention

during her lectures.

41.3 41.3 8.4 7.7 1.4
I often have difficulty knowing what I am expected
to remember when I study a textbook.

25.2 40.1 6.1 21.1 7.5

I often had diffiCulty knowing what I was expected to
remember when I studied the textile progranmmd textbook.

4.2 14.0 3.5 38.5 39.9

In courses oriented toward a professional preparation,

I almost always feel that I am being as thoroughly
prepared as intended by the course's objectives.

12.9 36.7 22.4 23.8 4.1

 

In HED 171, I almost always felt that I was being
thoroughly prepared as intended by the course's

objectives.
41.3 39.2 11.2 5.6 2.1

 

Questions asked by others in many of my classes
generally have little relevance to what I expect
to get from the course.

4.1 12.9 27.9 47.6 7.5

Questions asked by others in HED 171 generally had
little relevance to what I expect to get from the
course.

2.1 7.7 10.5 42.7 37.1

Code

(Motivation)

(Motivation)

(Motivation)

(Motivation)

Weighting

54321
(12345)

54321
(12345)

12345
(54321)

12345

(54321)

54321

12345

54321

12345

196

Very Much Very Much
omit Lactor item Agree Agree Unconmitted Disagree Disagree Code Weighting

 

 

 

17.6. Textbooks used in many courses could definitely be
improved to make them more relevant or compatible with
the course's stated objectives. 12345

38.1 36.7 12.9 8.8 3.4

l7.H. The HED 171 textbook could definitely be improved to
make it more relevant or compatible with the course's
stated objectives.

2.1 7.7 10.5 42.7 37.1

18.6. I have noticed that course instructors often spend
considerable time repeating what has already been
stated in assigned readings. 12345

25.9 46.3 8.2 17.7 2.0
18.H. I noticed that Mrs. Harries often spent considerable

time repeating what had already been stated in the
assigned readings.

11.2 45.5 14.7 23.1 5.6
II 19.6. A typical result of most professionally oriented

 

courses is that I feel more comfortable in using the
thought processes and jargon of the profession as a
result of experiencing the course. 54321

33.3 47.6 13.6 4.8 0.7

IU.H. A typical result of HED 171 is that I feel more
comfortable in using the thought prOCesses and
jargon of the profession as a result of experiencing
the courSt.

57.3 34.3 5.6 2.1 0.7

20.6. I have noticed that the effort I have spent in study-
ing assigned readings often has 295 paid off in terms
of tangible results. 12345

26.5 37.4 2.7 25.9 7.5
20.H. I noticed that the effort I Spent in studying HED 171
assignments often did not pay off in terms of tangible
results.

5.6 9.1 6.3 37.8 41.3

21.6. I have noticed that I invariably do better on examina-
tions where there is Hut a Specific textbook, but

 

simply a variety of assigned readinis. 12345
6.1 9.5 38.8 24.5 21.1
31.H. 1 would hth invariably donw better on vxaminations
1,! act; }§[1ki 11(L t Litétwd 1 .AL‘ si.ta<:i 1 1(7 tijzx ti)()L)K , IJth. s lih] 1 y
a variety of assigned itiiings.
1.4 5.6 4.2 16.1 72.7
22.6. In most classes, how classroom topics relate to the
textbook materials is made explicitly clear. 54321
8.8 32.7 17.0 38.1 3.4

22.H. In HED 171, how classroom topics relate to the
textbook materials was made explicitly clear.

41.3 40.6 10.5 5.6 1.4
23.6. I often find that I run out of time as an exam draws

near, and I have to "cram" in order to prepare for
the exam. 12345

15.6 39.5 6.8 32.0 5.4
23.H. I often found that I ran out of time as an exam

drew near, and I had to "cram" in order to prepare
for the exam.

13.3 30.8 4.9 28.7 22.4
24.6. I often find that textbooks make a course more
dull and boring than it has to be. 12345
13.6 38.8 15.0 31.3 1.4

197

Very Much Very Much
Omit Factog Item Agree Egree Uncommitted Disagree Disagree Code Weighting

 

24.H. I often found that the HED 171 textbook made the course
more dull and boring than it had to be.

5.6 7.7 9.1 30.8 46.9
25.6. There is no special teaching method that I would prefer
to be used in all courses. 54321
18.4 36.7 20.4 18.4 6.1

25.H. I wish that the methods used in this course were used
in all courses.

 

28.0 30.1 21.0 11.9 9.1
26.6. When I think about the kinds of questions that students
ask in class, they generally do not relate to my 12345
interests in the course as much as I would like. (Motivation) (54321)
2.0 22.4 28.6 39.5 7.5

26.H When I think about the kinds of qqutIDnS that students
usually asked in HED 171 classes, they generally did
ggt relate to my interests in the course as much as I
would have liked.

0.7 6.3 35.0 45.5 12.6

27.6. I often find at the end of a quarter, that students

feel they did not really get their "monty's worth"
in a course. 12345
15.0 38.1 23.1 19.7 - 3.4

27.H. I often found that students felt they did ggt really
get their "money's worth" in HED 171.

2.1 3.5 18.2 38.5 37.8
28.6. I often find myself taking short cuts in a course
in order to "beat the syst‘n." 12345
4.8 28.6 8.8 40.8 17.0
28.H. I often found myself taking short cuts in Hi3 171
in order to "bwdt the system."
2.8 14.7 8.4 32.2 42.3
29.6. Programmed instruction does not substitute for a
good textbook. 12345
3.4 6.8 39.5 26.5 23.1

29.H. Programmed instruction does not substitute for a
good textbook.

6.3 2.8 8.4 24.5 58.0
I 30.6. Too much is expected of students in most courses,
if the objectiyes of the course are to be really met. 12345
10.2 32.0 16.3 36.1 4.8

30.8. Too much is expected of students in HED 171 in order
that the objectives of the course be met.

4.9 21.7 9.1 34.3 30.1
Omit 31.6. I would expect a programmed text to be boring and
frustrating. 12345
2.7 18.4 28.6 35.4 15.0
Omit 31.8. I would expect a programmed text to be boring and
frustrating.
3.5 25.2 23.1 32.2 16.1
Omit III 32.6. One characteristic of a “worthless” course is that 12345
I only apply what I learn in a practical way. (Motivation) (54321)
2.0 10.9 24.5 37.4 25.2
Omit 32.H. One characteristic of a "worthless" course is that

I only apply what I learn in a practical way.
5.6 13.3 18.2 28.7 33.6

emit

Omit

Omit

Omlt

Omit

Omit

Ur”; ‘ L

Omit

(knit

Egctor

111

III

ltcfl

33.G.

33.}1.

34.6.

34

36.

36.

.H.

G.

198

 

 

Very Much Very Much
Agrtu Agree ULCUfimi£}Lg_ BtEdurCC bgsa41<g Code Weighting
One criterlon of a "wnni" cgurso 15 that It ohallunqts 54321
my mind, regardless of practicul dipllCutiOfl. (Motivation) (12345)

21.8 54.4 11.6 10.9 1.4

One crxterxon of a "noun" cour~u .» th¢t Lt challwnqes
mv mind, rvnardluss o: [ractxcal azfzxvg'! r.
_L—_—_. .

25.9 44.1 9.8 16.8 3.5

I Will enroll 1n a c ullonwxnu COUKFV OVwr a "yract1ca1" S4321
one any tlmu, 1f 1 Can't tnrtll in turn. (Motivation) (12345)
6.8 21.8 $0.6 29.3 10.9

I will enroll 1n a Chall\flm¥h4 UwurSn nvnr a "practical"
Ono an? tlno, if I CJn't Wuroll 1n twin.

7.7 7.7 30.2 32.2 11.3
I qvnnrally cxpuct to HAEV ( ) of a gqrfgct «cwrl
on most of my flnqls. 54321

1 (100—93!)
2. (94—903)
3. (89-80:)
4. (79-70t)
5. (‘80?)

3.4 47.2 u;.4 15.b ...
ancrall} uxptot tw Wun- ( ) of a gtrztcr bCUIc

n most of my Ilnals.
. (100-95!)

(94-905)

. 89-80%)

. 79-70%)

. (-60é)

2.1 21.7 73.2 18.9 0.7

UlJ-parQHOH

Based ugon my gas: 1-1. INALU\ an 113.1 .xtfis, i [XELCC
to make ( } wn tnw L: a! tIJH 1n LL;: ;-ux:l. 54321

1. mun-38“";

:. \v4-10~;
3. (Bu—Bu»)
4. (I;(;‘-7“_;
5. C-WO-fi
3.4 27.2 4.4 L3.”
13;: 53‘ ti L1; If” rt r¥13= }). 1‘) t. grim‘ 1' z < ,1 z; .4 z.. ~.. \ ax; 1! 3'! 1 ‘7 1 ~ , . : . . I
n:X;:v<‘t tC) WMXKC‘ ( ) «wn txzu I iluzl u:vu.w 1 n Lill‘ <‘ WIITSCw

1 (IMO—9% )
2. (34-90!)
5 (8v-8ur)
4. (79-7t;-)
3. ('CU‘)

4.2 5

APPENDIX G

HED l7l ATTITUDE QUESTIONNAIRE

(See "H" numbered questions and comments
in Appendix F.)

199

APPENDIX H

TABLES: FACTOR ANALYSIS OF THREE QUESTIONNAIRES

200

 

201

TABLE l7.--Intercorrelations of items on Intrinsic-Extrinsic

Motivation Questionnaire.

 

 

 

I II
Iteme-15 8 19 6 14 21 16 17 18 9 12 4
+
15 .. 24 22 07 15 25 27 -oo -09 O8 O8 —03
g (S 8 24 .. 27 05 18 02 O6 -02 O6 —19 02 08
R I o 19 22 29 .. 10 13 1o 04 14 03 08 13 04
g g g 6 07 05 1o .. 13 17 17 -07 -01 —O6 —05 —05
N 1 E 14 15 18 13 13 .. 13 02 07 -01 —11 03 —09
f F R)21 25 02 1o 17 13 .. 09 03 —01 10 06 O6
16 27 O6 04 17 02 09 .. 02 -18 08 —04 01
P 17 -oo -02 14 07 07 03 02 .. O6 16 17 21
i 18 -O8 O6 03 -01 -oo -01 ~18 06 1o 11 07
II c 9 O8 —19 07 -O6 -11 10 —01 16 1o 09 08
i 12 07 06 13 -04 02 O6 -04 17 11 04 10
c 4 -03 -02 04 05 -09 06 01 21 07 08 1o
3

202

 

 

 

TABLE 18.--Intercorrelation of items on Rotter Intrinsic-
Extrinsic Control Questionnaire.
I II
Item + 22 17 12 13 29 3 6 2 7
4
S M 22 .. 47 51 23 36 24 -oo 03 10
Y o 17 47 . 41 29 35 19 -07 05 07
I 3 g 12 51 41 . 18 33 11 -oo 06 00
E F 13 23 29 18 16 18 07 -04 -00
M ‘ 29 36 35 33 16 . 06 oo 15 03
3 24 19 11 18 06 . -01 —13 —07
P I
E D
R E 00 -07 -oo 07 oo -01 . 21 19
11 g g 03 05 O6 -04 15 -13 21 21
N o 10 07 oo -oo 03 -07 19 21 .
A G
L Y

 

203

 

.. ms ss ss
os- .. om om
ms os- .. ss
ss om- ss ..
oo- so oo os
so so oo oo
so- ss so- so
ss- ss so oo
oo- oo mo- oo-
so oo oo oo
os- oo oo- oo-
mo oo oo- so-
so ms- mo- oo-
ss oo- os os
mo oo- mo- oo-
os ss- oo- mo-
oo- os- so- os-
sm mm mm sm
sss

 

ool mo vol «HI mo1 vo
vo Ho HH HH oo mo
mo oo HoI vo No1 No
oH oo vo mo mol mo
.. mo HHI mml mm! mm
mo .. HNI owl HNI mm
HHI Hm .. mm nH om!
mNI mNI mm .. mm om:
mm: HNI NH mm .. mm:
mm mm owl om: mm: ..
oH HHI Hm mo NH ool
mo ho vo oml NH mo
mHI mot no No 5H «01
oH ool vo HHI mo OH
mot Ho Hml mo mH mH
mo OHI vol mo ool mHt
mot mo MHI H0 H01 Non
MH mH m o h mH
HH

OH: mo Ho HH mo oH

oo mo mHI ool oOI HH-
ool ool moi oH Non mot
moi won mo oH moi mo:

mH mo mHI oH mo: mo
HHI no mol won Ho oHI
Hm vo no mo Hm: vol
mo om mo HHI mo No
PH NH bH mo mH oo
ooI mo vol OH mH mHI

.. mm mm Ho NHI NHI

mm .. Hm mH mHI mHI
mm Hm .. HH HNI HNI
Ho mH oH .. v01 NNI

NHI mHI Hm: wot .. mH
NH: mHI HNI mml mH ..
mHI oml oHI MN: wH mm

oo- so
os- mm
so- mm
os- sm
oo- ms
mo os
ms- o
so o
so- 8
mo- ms
ms- N
om- m
os- m -.
mm- ms
os om
mm om
.. ss

4
ss.-Emss

 

 

. QHHMCCO-wu. WQSO MUD-.«H-vussw HMHQGGD

co mamas mo muoHumHmssoosmucH-|.mH mqm<e

APPENDIX I

TABLES: POST STUDY

204

205

TABLES: POST STUDY

TABLE 20.—-Information processing: Test for effect of
extremes of range.

 

Scores g
Concrete 1 & 2 6
Abstract 6 & 7 6

Cell Means

 

Att. Gen. Att. HED GPA Final

Concrete 28.83 103.16 3.32 131.83
Abstract 75.50 100.16 2.77 125.00

 

Test: Equality of Mean Vectors

 

 

 

Overall: f = 0.68 p<0.62 df = 4 and 7
Variables: Univariate F
Att. Gen 1.05 p<0.32
Att. HED 0.41 p<0.53
GPA 3.36 p<0.09
Final 0.79 p<0.39

df (hypothesis) = 1
df (error) =

Diff.

24.33
24.66

 

TABLE 21.-~Locus of control:

206

of range.

Test for effect of extremes

 

res

Sco

External Control 3
Internal Control 3

Cell Means

 

External
Internal

Att. Gen.

9+
0-

Att. HED

 

72.16
80.75

Test: Equality of Mean Vectors

 

Overall: f = 2.

Variables:

 

Att. Gen
Att. HED
GPA
Final

df (hypothesis)
df (error)

87

II II
|_.n
N

p<0.08

Univariate F

 

5.35
0.33
0.02
0.21

 

89.00
94.50

df

| 2

com

GPA Final

2.78 118.16
2.74 112.37

and 9

p<0.04
p<0.57
p<0.90
p<0.65

Diff.

 

16.83
13.75

"‘1111111111111ES