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ABSTRACT

A STUDY OF INTERNATIONAL ACTIVITY
IN CANADIAN UNIVERSITIES

by

James Carey Miller Shute

The writer's purpose in this study was to describe and analyze
the international dimension of higher education in Canada. This
dimension consists of several elements, each of which was dealt
with in the study, namely: curriculum, research, administration,
finance, programs for foreign students, technical assistance,
exchange and the relationships between the university community
and government. Each of these factors was examined against the
background of recent developments in Canadian higher education.
Throughout the study, the components of international activity
were treated in their interrelationships so as to provide a wide
perspective on this special concern of higher education in Canada.

The study moved from general concerns to the more particular.
It opened by taking account of the challenge of the present world
order through a documentation of the current state of international
development, in particular, technical assistance. Next was
described Canada's technical assistance program, showing its basis
in foreign policy, its scope and methods, and finally, its admin-
istration.

The writer then summarized the existing international activity
in Canadian universities, beginning with an historical prétis of

the development of the universities, then examining technical

James Carey Miller Shute

assistance contracts, overseas student programs, the voluntary
assistance movement, instruction, research, exchange and other
Specialized programs.

Finally, the writer analyzed the principal difficulties in
the way of more effective work in each of these areas and, after
concluding that only a modest beginning has been achieved in
internationalizing Canadian universities, put forward some
forty-six recommendations covering each field under study for

consideration by the university community in Canada.

in

A STUDY OF INTERNATIONAL ACTIVITY

IN CANADIAN UNIVERSITIES

By

James Carey Miller Shute

A THESIS

Submitted to
Michigan State University
in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY

Department of Secondary Education and Curriculum

1967

G LrQWoS‘
'3- 1 VH6$

Copyright by
James C. M. Shute

1967

'— '

DEDICATION

This dissertation
is fondly dedicated to my incomparable parents
who have made all things possible

First, :0
adviser Dr. Ca
Edgcation and
gratitude, not
the productio:
enccuragenent

:irst place t

1.2:: the 3
“IE“.

kor) QC
E

C
“nation
“tctor of
I’m:
..\ k‘ri
535i

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

First, to the Chairman of his Guidance Committee and constant
advisor Dr. Carl Gross, Chairman of the Department of Secondary
Education and Curriculum, the writer willingly confesses his
gratitude, not only for wise guidance so freely given him during
the production of this study but, indeed, for providing the
encouragements and opening the doors which made possible in the
first place three irreplaceable years at Michigan State University.
Moreover, his sympathies with the development of Canada and hence
with the aspect of that development which is chronicled hereinafter,
should not go unrecorded by this Canadian.

To Mr. Richard Niehoff, Assistant Dean of International
Programs and, more important, friend and colleague, the author
also owes the enduring debts of pupil to tutor. In beginning
to learn the complex and hazardous arts of international develop-
ment, the author could have had no more humane and understanding
a mentor, nor in their application, so experienced and patient
an exemplar.

The author acknowledges the time given him from their busy
lives by Dr. Cole Brembeck, Director of the Institute for
International Studies in Education and Dr. Harm de Blij, Associate
Director of the African Studies Center.

The writer would remiss if he did not acknowledge the

assistance provided him by officials of the External Aid Office,

ii

the Association of Universities and Colleges of Canada and
Canadian University Service Overseas. Personnel in the
universities visited in the course of this study were helpful
as well, as was the writer's University, the University of
Guelph, which supported him with study time and encouragement.
To his diligent helpers, Mrs. Jean Van Douser of Michigan
State University and Mrs. Doreen Hummel of the University of
Guelph, the author is most grateful. Without their abilities
to decipher and to type, not only with accuracy but also with
speed and a generous measure of good humor, this study would

have remained not only undone but unreadable.

iii

 

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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS . . . . . . . . . ii
LIST OF TABLES . . . . . . . . . vi

LIST OF FIGURES . . . . . . . . . vii

Chapter

I. INTRODUCTION. . . . . . . . l
A. Purpose of the Study . l
B. Need for the Study . 3
C. Limitations of the Study . 4
D. Methods of the Study . . 5
E. Organization of the Study. 6
II. PRELIMINARY CONSIDERATIONS . . . . 8
A. International Development. . . 8
B. Foreign Aid . . . . . l6
1. Technical Aid in General . 17

2. Technical Assistance .
C. The Role of the Universities . . 31
D. Summary . . . . . . . 41

III. CANADA'S TECHNICAL ASSISTANCE PROGRAM . 43

A. Canadian Foreign Policy . . . 43
B. Canada's Philosophy of External

Aid . . . . . . . 48
C. Distribution and Methods of

Canadian Technical Assistance . 53

l.~ Distribution . . . . 53

2. Methods . . . . . 61
D. Administration: The External .

Aid Office. . . . . . 70
E. Summary . . . . . . . 75

IV. THE INTERNATIONAL DIMENSION OF
CANADIAN UNIVERSITIES. . . . . 79

A. The Nature of Canadian
Universities . . . . . 79

iv

Chapter

VI. C

Chapter Page

1. History and Development . 79
2. Recent Trends. . . . 79
B. The Universities and Technical
Assistance . . . . 93
1. University Contracts . . 93

2. The Association of
Universities and

Colleges of Canada . . 98
3. Canadian University
Service Overseas 100
4. Overseas Students . . . 103
C. International Studies . . . . 105
1. Teaching and Research . . 106
2. Exchange and Special
Programs . . . . . 110
D. Summary . . . . . . . . . 114

V. PROBLEMS CONFRONTING THE UNIVERSITIES
IN INTERNATIONAL ACTIVITY . . . . 116

Attitude. . . . . . . . . 116
Organization . . . . . . . 119
Finance . . . . . 121
Relations with Government . . . 124

Overseas Students. . . . . . 127
Exchange. . . . . . . . . 130
Summary . . . . . . . . . 132

OMMUOUU>

VI. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS . . . 134

A. Conclusions. . . . . . 134
1. Resume of Findings . . . 134
2. A Point of View . . . . 137

B. Recommendations . . . . . . 139
1. Organization . . . . . 140
2. Relations with Government. 142
3. Finance. . . . 145
4. Research and Planning . . 148
5. Technical Assistance . . 150
6. Curriculum. . . . . . 153
7. Overseas Students . . 155
8. Exchange (Including CUSO). 157

BIBLIOGRAPHY 160

LIST OF TABLES

Table Page
1. Canada's External Aid 1950-1964 . . . . . . 56

2. Canada's Colombo Plan Aid to
Pakistan 1951-1961 . . . . . . . . . . . . 58

vi

nail:

the

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure Page

1. Administrative Organization of
.the External Aid Office . . . . . . . . . . 73

vii

CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
A. Purpose of the Study

It is an extraordinary fact that at a time when
affluence is beginning to be the condition, or at

least the potential condition, of whole countries

and regions rather than of a few favored individuals,

and when scientific feats are becoming possible which

beggar mankind's wildest dreams of the past, more

people in the world are suffering from hunger and

want than ever before. Such a situation is so

intolerable and so contrary to the best interests

of all nations that it should arouse determination,

on the part of advanced and developed countries

alike, to bring it to an end.1

So begins Secretary-General U Thant in the Foreword to The
United Nations Development Decade proposals for action; so begins
this account of what is perhaps the world's major cluster of
problems and what one set of institutions, the universities of
Canada, is doing and can continue to do about them.

The purpose of this study is to describe and analyze the
international dimension of higher education in Canada. This
international dimension consists of several elements each of
which will be dealt with in the dissertation, namely: curriculum,
research, administration, finance, foreign students, technical

assistance, exchange and relationships with government. These

elements will be analyzed within the context of the developments

 

1The United Nations Development Decade: Proposals for
Action (Paris: The United Nations, 1961), p. l.

-1-

within higher .
financing, ad':
shown so as t:
cmunity 5110
Such a s
View, if it .
53’ the unive
:aking this
5331? with
This :
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366:} intr‘

within higher education in Canada today. As well, changes in the
financing, administration and structure of universities will be
shown so as to indicate directions to which the university
community should be alerted in planning subsequent programs.

Such a study as this would be incomplete, in the writer's
view, if it did not put forward recommendations for consideration
by the university community. This is part of the reason for
making this study and the attempt will be made to conclude the
study with a number of useful proposals.

This study should be viewed as a description and review of
the historical developments and current directions of higher
education in Canada into which international activities have
been introduced and in which they may flourish if carefully
nurtured. It is a synthesis of various developments in higher
education to which has been grafted, only quite recently, an
international dimension. The view which this study will attempt
to adopt and maintain is one which sees each aSpect of inter-
national activity in relation to its setting in higher education
rather than in isolation. Fragmentation will be avoided, if
possible, in favor of a holistic approach. From this framework,
other specialized studies can later be abstracted.

No attempt will be made to study in fine detail each com-
ponent of international participation by the universities. The
intent throughout will be to describe and inquire into the
problems as a whole in their interrelationships, in order to
provide a useful perspective on international activity in

universities on a national scale.

This s
in Canadia:
education
activity ,
Of this a
'15 a neec'

Vern as

B. Need for the Study

 

This study rests on the assertion that international activity
in Canadian universities is an indispensable element of higher
education and that conditions are ready for a heightened level of
activity. There is a need to demonstrate the value and validity
of this assertion for Canadian universities. Specifically, there
is a need for a comprehensive look at university international
work as it relates to foreign policy, international development
priorities and the work of government agencies, as well as to
traditional university concerns like teaching and research. To
this writer's knowledge there has been no such comprehensive
study done in the Canadian setting until this one. Closest to
it, perhaps, are Keith Spicer's2 study of external aid in relation
to Canadian foreign policy and the Hamlin-Lalande report on inter-
national studies inCanadian-universities.3 The former, however,
is a political study and is not concerned with higher education.
The latter deals almost entirely with curriculum alone and is now
outdated and incomplete.

There is a need to fill a gap existing in the literature in
Canada. Numerous able works have concerned themselves with

aspects of the concern of this paper but not until now have the

 

2Keith Spicer, A Samaritan State (Toronto: University of
Toronto Press, 1961).

3D. L. B. Hamlin, International Studies in Canadian
Universities, and Gilles Lalande, L'étude des relations
internationales et de certaines civilisations étrangéres
au Canada (Ottawa, Canadian Universities Foundation, 1964).

 

various elemem
together in a
beginning at t
In additi
opportunities
teaching, res
in a changing

universities

en

various elements that make best sense in synthesis been pulled
together in a single overview. This study, while only a modest
beginning at this synthesis, should be one chink in the gap.

In addition, there is a need to bring into focus the
opportunities available to Canadian universities to make their
teaching, research and associated efforts more relevant to life
in a changing world. Recent reorganizations in government and

universities lend emphasis to this demand.

C. Limitations of the Study

This study is likely to suffer the limitations imposed by
being contemporary. This means some risk in drawing conclusions
and in making predictions. Coupled with the limitations in the
author's own capabilities, this whole study may be more ambitious
than is entirely justifiable. Yet, certain other limitations
will be deliberately imposed on this dissertation in order to
make its point of view consistent and its documentation valid
and appropriate.

The study will not attempt to offer a detailed critique of
aid effectiveness, foreign policy dynamics or even of the minutiae
of university international programs. Nor will its recommendations
be intricately detailed. Instead, the inquiry will look at
university international activity in a world setting, retaining a
breadth of view throughout. The concluding recommendations, in
keeping with this approach, will hopefully take the form of

guiding principles for policy-making.

Resource ma
criticisms and r
of the Canadian
experience in 01

Again, it
km the princi
and the larger .
a Point of View
actions, It “'1
done by Hamlin
States, but in:
to bring tOgerk

Resource materials for the study as well as the terms of its
criticisms and recommendations will be limited to the peculiarities
of the Canadian setting, with only passing reference to relevant
experience in other countries of the western world.

Again, it is intended that this study be a general inquiry
into the principal relationships among governments, universities
and the larger world of which Canada is a part. It will assume
a point of view which leads inexorably to a series of recommended
actions. It will not attempt the detailed and specialized study
done by Hamlin and Lalande in Canada or by Weidner4 in the United
States, but instead will attempt, for the first time in Canada,
to bring together a diversity of international realities into a

unified view for higher education.

D. Methods of the Study

This study will be based on a variety of sources including
the literature of international development and Canadian foreign
policy, together with government documents, Specialized reports,
correspondence and unpublished studies.

Much of the information related in Chapter V will be based
on a series of interviews conducted by the author with officials
of the External Aid Office, Canadian University Service Overseas

and the Association of Universities and Colleges of Canada--all

 

4E. W. Weidner, The World Role of Universities (New York:
McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1962).

in Ottawa. 0th
personnel in Ca
In the course c
Canadian unive1
other universi

In additi
working intima
dissertation ‘
States have b

in Ottawa. Other interviews were conducted with university
personnel in Canada associated with international activity.
In the course of these interviews, the writer visited twelve
Canadian universities. Correspondence with persons in several
other universities provided additional useful data.

In addition, the advantages experienced by the author in
working intimately with the matters under study in this
dissertation in universities in both Canada and the United

States have been of invaluable assistance in getting perspec-

tive on the issues in question.

E. Organization of the Study

This study moves from general concerns to the more parti-
cular. It will open by establishing a global framework for the
concerns of Canadian higher education through an analysis and
documentation of international development, the directions
evident in technical assistance and the challenge of a new
world order to the university community, one already grasped
to some extent in Great Britain, the Netherlands and the
United States.

Chapter III will catalog the Canadian technical assistance
program, showing its basis in Canadian foreign policy, its scope
and methods and, finally, describing its administration. This
chapter will add to the grounds on which universities can build
and provide data essential to realistic university behavior

internationally.

In chapter IV will be summarized the present international
dimension in Canadian universities beginning with an historical
precis of university development in Canada and an indication of
several significant alterations in the pattern. The chapter
will then examine the main components of university technical
assistance programs, namely: overseas contracts, Canadian
University Service Overseas, overseas student programs and the
role of the national lobby for higher education, the Association
of Universities and Colleges of Canada. Finally, it will treat
the international dimension of teaching, research, exchange and
other specialized programs.

Problems and difficulties of several kinds face universities
as they increase their international activity. Several of the
most important of these will be analyzed in chapter V, beginning
with the problem of attitude or point of view and moving through
organizational and administrative provisions, financial inade-
quacies, relations with government agencies as well as specialized
exchange problems. Foreign or overseas student affairs are to be
treated separately, as foreign students constitute a unique
problem by virtue of their numbers and special needs.

Finally, in chapter VI, an attempt will be made to draw
pertinent conclusions on which can be based operational
recommendations and suggested reforms. Such proposals will

cover each of the major issues examined.

A.

The prob
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CHAPTER II
PRELIMINARY CONSIDERATIONS
A. International Development

The problems of international development are global in size
and enormously complex in character. It is only in comparatively
recent years, really since World War II, that they have been
examined with any real scrutiny. And only now are students of
development beginning to draw dependable conclusions from the
rather haphazard experience of the past twenty years. The
essential inference is a painful one; it is that we know
relatively little about the dynamics and complexities of social,
economic and political change. We are not certain hOW'mOSC
efficiently to apply our slight command of the forces of modern-
ization. Perhaps most discouraging is the apparent fact that the
rate of development is grindingly slow and retarded by an alarming
number of negative forces, like overpopulation, resistance to
innovation, poverty, unemployment, creeping capital formation and
inadequate supplies of assistance from the more advanced nations.

Because of the increasing difficulties of the less developed
nations during the fifties, the period from 1960 to 1970 was
designated by the United Nations as the Development Decade. New
techniques, additional resources and a fresh analysis of the

degree to which aspirations in less developed countries dovetail

with actual exer,
neat during thi:
tion to nationa1
of trade and fo:

emphasis during

 

 

Early in t:
very articulate
"Great Ascent",

problems to be

is not primaril

D'v’ which he mes

haoits and ins‘

\

are often miss;

;.
“I“ point of
reqdited are a

the tradition

draszic and 0a

1"“.
third, ecOnomi

with actual expectation were to be brought to bear on underdevelop-
ment during this decade. The Secretary-General called for atten-
tion to national planning, human resources development, balances

of trade and foreign aid, to name only a few of the points of
emphasis during the decade.

Early in the Development Decade, Robert Heilbroner wrote a
very articulate account of development, a process he called the
”Great Ascent", in which he issues five warnings about the
problems to be confronted.1 First, he says, "economic development
is not primarily an economic, but a political and social process"
by which he means that not capital accumulation per se but the
habits and institutions which are the preconditions for wealth,
are often missing in less developed countries and should be the
first point of attack. Second, the political and social changes
required are apt to be revolutionary in nature, even violent, in
the tradition of the French or Soviet revolutions in which
drastic and painful redistributions of power and wealth occurred.
Third, economic development is not likely to breed social content—
ment but will first have to endure a growing gap between expecta-
tions and actual achievements as well as frustration and dissatis-
faction. Fourth, he points out that the price of development will
probably be political and economic authoritarianism. Strong-man

government and dictatorship may be required for purposes of

 

1Robert L. Heilbroner,_The Great Ascent (New York: Harper
and Row, 1963), pp. 16-21.

 

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-10-

complete control over policy and to effect change Speedily.
Finally, Heilbroner warns that there is little assurance that
the long climb toward economic development will be successful
and, indeed, that for many countries, it may be not merely a
slow process but even a failure.

If one then turns to the United Nations appraisal of the
progress made in the first half of the Development Decade, one
can be justified in sharing the somewhat pessimistic view of
Heilbroner.2 Despite what seemingly has been an increase in
available financial resources, technical assistance and
indigenous skills, the achievements of the Decade have nearly
all fallen substantially short of targets.

The main objectives set by the General Assembly resolution3
and later embodied in the proposals for action were the attainment
of a five per cent growth in national income by the end of the
decade; an increased transfer of capital and technical assistance
to developing countries totaling one per cent of the combined
national incomes of the economically advanced countries; and the
development of more equitable trade, marketing and investment
arrangements for developing countries.

Today, halfway through the ten-year period the facts seem

as harsh as ever. The growth rate of less develOped economies

 

2The United Nations Development Decade at Mid-Point
(New York: United Nations, 1965). See also the Thirty-
Second Report of the Administrative Committee on Coordination,
U.N. Economic and Social Ccuncil, 2 May,1966 (E/4l9l).

 

 

3Resolution 1710 (XVI), 19 December, 1961.

slowed down frc
only four per 1
economies have
gap between to
annual per ca;
rcse lOO doll:
increased by I

With reg
finding is fr.

since about 1

-11-

slowed down from an annual rate of 4.5 per cent in 1955-1960 to
only four per cent in 1960-1963. At the same time the advanced
economies have enjoyed accelerated growth rates. Moreover, the
gap between countries has widened. Between 1960 and 1962, average
annual per capita income in the economically advanced countries
rose 100 dollars while that in the less developed countries
increased by barely five dollars.

With regard to international assistance, the mid-decade
finding is that the net flow has virtually stopped increasing
since about 1961. This has effectively delayed the attainment
of the one per cent goal of resource transfer. Net flow of
long-term funds from the advanced to the developing economies
and multilateral agencies increased from 0.6 per cent of the
advanced economies' combined gross national product in 1956-1959
to 0.7 per cent in 1960-1961. Since 1961, however, that level
has barely been maintained. The flow of capital from aid-giving
nations has remained at about six billion dollars per year since
1961, despite significant growth in GNP of the advanced nations
since that time. Total assistance thus represents a steadily
declining percentage of the national income of the advanced
countries. The Secretary-General's report continues:

At the mid-point of the Decade one cannot say that

the future of this essential financing is secure. In

spite of the increase in the flow of long-term capital

since the mid-1950's, the target set by the General

Assembly according to which resource transfers to the

developing countries are to rise to one per cent of the
national incomes of developed countries has not yet been

-12-

attained. In fact, the leveling off in the flow of funds
to the develOping countries since 1961 has set back
progress towards the target.4

George Woods, President of the World Bank, voices his alarm

regarding the situation like this:

Between now and 1970 the less developed countries
might productively use an additional three to four
billion dollars....To achieve that we need to change
political climates--in the industrialized countries,
to permit a much greater flow of official capital,
and in the develOping countries, to encourage a much
greater flow of private investment from abroad....

If the considerations I have mentioned are taken
together and if they are viewed against the background
of a certain boredom, at the least, and disillusionment,
at the worst, with the subject of development finance

in most of the unindustrialized countries, you can see
why I am concerned about the prospects for economic
development.5

The great burden of underdevelopment remains essentially
unlifted from the collective backs of the poor nations. The
profile of this burden continues to be of alarming proportions
and to loom even larger in many respects as the years go on.
Underlying many aspects of the situation is an intolerable
population growth rate, from two to three per cent per year
(and even higher) in Asia, Africa and Latin America. To see
how this difficulty is reflected in the persistent pattern of
underdevelopment, one can turn again to the mid-decade evalua-

tion of the United Nations:

 

4The United Nations Development Decade a; Mid-Point,
pp. 26-27.

5Excerpt from address to the Board of Governors of
the World Bank, 27 September, 1965, reprinted in Current,
No. 65, November, 1965, pp. 56-60.

Eur:

rouE

Ho
,1

-13-

In advanced nations the mortality rate of children under
five years of age varies from 4.5 to 6.3 per 1,000. In
Latin America the rates are five to ten times higher and
in Africa, higher still. One reason for this contrast
is the disparity in health services. Whereas in Western
Europe, North America and the Soviet Union there is
roughly one physician per 1,000 population, in India
there is one per 6,000, in Afghanistan one per 32,000,
in Mali one per 39,000 and in Ethiopia approximately

one per 96,000. Lack of health services and disease
control has led to a visible degeneration in health

and sanitation standards in many parts of the world.
Dietary deficiencies account, too, for the differences
in mortality rates. North Americans and Western
Europeans consume an average of 3,000 calories and
eighty to ninety grams of protein a day. In Latin
America (excepting Argentina), the daily average is
2,400 calories and seventy grams of protein; in Asia

it falls to 2,100 calories and fifty grams of protein--
level still below pre-World War II standards. African
protein consumption is lower yet.

These inadequacies in health are compounded by desperate
housing standards. About one billion people are forced
to live in sub-standard housing, without water, sewers

or roads.

-14-

Complicating the above factors is increasing urbanization
and resulting unemployment, caused by the excess of urban
migrants over job openings. India for example, had in
1961 some eight million unemployed. Even if production
objectives for the 1966 and 1971 Five Year Plans are
achieved, Indian officials estimate a rise in unemploy-
ment to twelve million and fourteen million by each
target date, respectively.. These figures do not account
for disguised rural unemployment. Cities around the
world grow by about four per cent per year and many

even more rapidly, like Rio de Janeiro where 5,000
newcomers arrive weekly. Since most of the migrants

are young people, the burden of unemployment falls
heavily on their shoulders. In Indonesia, fifty per

cent of the unemployed are under twenty-five years

of age.

Agricultural productivity continues to be severely
inadequate. The worldwide growth rate in agriculture

is barely three per cent per year and lower in many
places. It does not keep pace with population increase.

"On present showing", warns the mid-decade appraisal,

('Y

 

e~ Qr

-15-

"there is simply not in prOSpect a growth in agricultural
production sufficient to accommodate this rising flood of
people".6
6. By the time of the UN review of development in 1965, a
relatively new development problem was making itself
felt; that is the growing indebtedness of the less
developed countries. This debt volume, amounting to
some eighteen billion dollars by 1962, is hampering
effective utilization of aid. By 1963, for example,
the servicing of the external debt absorbed over
thirteen per cent of the export earnings of the
developing countries.
These, then, are some of the more threatening aspects of
underdevelopment,7 a condition still essentially undisturbed
over the first five years of the current decade, much less on

the way to total solution. What can be implied with some

certainty from this somewhat distressing conclusion is that:

 

6The United Nations Development Decade at Mid-Point, p. 8.
Unfortunately population control measures do not enjoy unqualified
worldwide support. At the June, 1966 meeting of the executive
board of UNICEF in Addis Ababa, a bloc of nations (led by the
predominantly Roman Catholic countries of Latin America) success-
fully opposed the family planning recommendations of the UNICEF
director general. As a compromise result, action on his recommen-
dations for birth control assistance was deferred. (Reported in
Survey of International Development, Vol. III, No. 6, June 15,
1966, pp. 1-4.)

7For a more complete analysis of underdevelopment, see
Benjamin Higgins, Economic Development (New York: W. W. Norton
& Co., 1959), particularly chapterone, "The General Nature of
the Development Problem", pp. 3-24. For a sociological view of
primitive society see Robert Redfield's well known account.
"The Folk Society”, American Journal of Sociology, Vol. III,
January, 1947, pp. 293-308.

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-l6-

1. The rate at which developing nations are attaining their
planned objectives is painfully and demonstrably slow.

2. Compounding the slow rate of social, political and
economic development is a series of interlocking diffi-
culties which are sizable obstacles in the way of
advancement.

3. The thrust of development is a worldwide phenomenon and
is absorbing the energies of about two-thirds of the
world's nations-—those, in short that can be said to
be poor.8

4. The advanced countries have not assumed anything like
the share of assistance, capital or technical, which
is consonant with their resources and skills.

This last point should be examined in more detail in order

to complete sketching out the dimensions of the challenge posed

to universities.

B. Foreign Aid

 

It has become customary to distinguish between the two major
components of foreign aid as capital assistance and technical
assistance. By capital assistance is meant the transfer of

financial resources and credits from an advanced to a less

 

8A widely accepted rule of thumb for designating less
developed countries is a per capita income less than one-quarter
that of the United States (about $500 or less). This is clearly
arbitrary and susceptible to exception.

advanced c9
used to me

 

Zen
31

(Pm h
In”

/’ (I?

-17-

advanced country. Technical assistance, put simply, is the term
used to encompass the transfer of skills to a less advanced
country in order to strengthen and improve its human and institu-
tional resources. Economists often refer to these two segments
of aid as physical and human capital respectively, preferring to
analyze growth in productivity as the dividends on both physical
and human capital investment.9 For purposes of this study,
however, aside from the necessary allusions to finance, technical
or human skill assistance to development is the emphasis. But
first, some comments on foreign aid in general are in order.
1. Foreign Aid in General
Although the foreign assistance experience of the
more advanced nations is dated essentially only from

post World War II reconstruction,10 there have already

 

9In this connection see the Report on the Policy Conference
on Economic Growth and Industrial Investment in Education
(Vols. I-V, Washington: Organization for Economic Cooperation
and Development, 1961). Possibly the best known human resources
approach to development is Harbison, F. and Myers, Education,

Manpower and Economic Growth (New York: McGraw-Hill Book Co.,
1964).

10Ohlin asserts that "the West has been involved in economic
development of the rest of the world since the time of the
Discoveries". Moreover, he points out, British and French
capital exports to underdeveloped regions before World War I
exceeded the present capital flow to underdeveloped countries.
Ohlin, G., Foreign Aid Policies Reconsidered (Paris: O.E.C.D.,
1966, p. 9).

-l8-

appeared numerous appraisals of foreign aid to date.11

If one can summarize in outline the consensus of such

reviews it would include at least these assertions:

a) The problem of-development will not be solved
quickly; it is‘a long run matter. Aid efforts
will require, as experience is already demonstrating,
a great deal of time. Not only do physical and
capital development changes need time to come
about but alteration in psychological conditions
and attitudes are necessary and consume even more
time. Aid-giving countries must confront this
fact and learn to tolerate rates of change much
less rapid than they themselves have experienced.

b) The wealthier countries must continue to provide
assistance to less developed countries. Foreign

aid has been recognized as a distinct area of

 

11For example, G. Ohlin, Foreign Aid Policies Reconsidered,
1966; A. Maddison, Foreign Skills and Technical Assistance in
Economic Development, 1965; W. L. Thorp, Development Assistance
Efforts and Policies, 1964, all published by the multi—nation
Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development, Paris.
Other recent representative reviews of some stature are
Motivation and Methods in Development and Foreign Aid, Proceedings
of the Sixth World Conference of the Society for International
Development, Washington, 1964 (edited by Theodore Geiger and
Leo Solomon); E. R. Black, The Diplomacy of Economic Development
(Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1961); International
Development, 1965 (ed. S. H. Robock, L. M. Solomon), (Dobbs Ferry,
New York: Oceans Publications, 1966). For a detailed acCount
of a‘bilateral aid-program see S. Chandrasekhar, American Aid
and'India's Economic Development (New York: Frederick A. Praeger,
Inc., 1965).

 

 

 

 

 

C)

d)

-19..

public policy in advanced countries and of develop-
ment planning in the less advanced. Experience and
expertise are being accumulated. New national and
international agencies for administering assistance
have emerged. In proportion, foreign aid amounts to
one-quarter to one-third of the capital formation of
the less developed nations. The flow of aid is
about six billion dollars annually.12
c) Total amounts of foreign aid appear to be insuffi-
cient for stimulating self-sustained growth in less
developed economies. The one per cent of GNP
minimum suggested by the United Nations is not being
assumed by the wealthy nations.13
d) Since 1961-1962, total foreign aid commitments have
been leveling off, for a variety of reasons. There
have been frustrations over the slow pace of
progress, political setbacks in developing countries
and instances of wastage and inefficiency. Confusion,

hesitancy and mixed motivations on the part of donor

nations14 have stimulated some of them to take stock

 

12G. Ohlin, op. cit., p. 9.

13Total proportion of cumulative GNP for twelve OECD member
countries remains around .7 per cent.

14"Donor" here merely describes a supplier of aid, whether
or not the aid is in the form of gifts or loans.

e)

-20-

of these factors and the forces working against
development.15 However, little in the way of a
policy for aid-giving and aid utilization has
developed. ”Recent history”, states Eugene Black,
"is full of instances where governments develop a
a rationale for what they are doing only after
having done it for quite a while first. I suspect
that this is the case with economic aid.”16

e) By far the bulk of development aid is bilateral in
nature. However, this term disguises a host of
different donor-recipient relationships. The
tendency is for bilateral aid to arise from and
occasionally perpetuate Special cases, such as
colonial relationships. Current thinking favors
a great proportion of assistance being channeled
through multilateral agencies, such as aid
consortia, the International Bank for Reconstruction
and Development (World Bank), the International

Monetary Fund, and the Specialized agencies of

 

15In 1963, the three principal donor nations of the West
published evaluations of their aid policies. Britain produced
a white paper entitled Aid to Developing Countries, France,
The Jeanneney Report (La Politique de Cooperation avec les Pays
en Voie de Developpdhent) and the United States, the Clay
Report (The Scope and Distribution of United States Military
and Economip;Assistance Programs). Only the British report
was an authoritative policy statement.

 

16Black, op. cit., p. 54.

f)

-21-

the United Nations. This kind of coordination
increases efficiency, reduces the influence of
narrow national interests both of the donors and
of recipients and lessens the complications
resulting from the various motivations of donor
nations.

f) The objectives of foreign aid are bound up in the
hope that recipient nations will become self-
sustaining after a more or less prolonged boost.
The hard fact, however, is that the developing
nations are faced with the eventual termination
of foreign assistance and must themselves force
the necessary capital accumulation, skills and
perhaps most difficult, attitude changes. The
greatest part of the burden of development must
be assumed by the country itself. Says Black,
"...no nation can supply another nation with

more than a tiny fraction of the resources needed

for self-sustaining growth; the road to self-
sustaining growth must be built by the poor

society itself".17 Millikan states "...it is
accepted that aid can have at best a marginal

influence or growth rates and that the critical

factors in determining the economic progress of

 

17slaok, p. 29.

8)

 

-22-

the underdeveloped countries are the efforts they
themselves make...".18

g) Aid-granting agencies and nations, less than satis-
fied at the effectiveness of aid utilization by
recipient nations, are moving toward the establish-
ment of performance standards which should be met
by recipient countries. The criteria of performance
have two purposes, namely helping the donor clarify
its own assistance policies and increasing the
incentive to the recipient to take more effective
measures to promote its own advancement.19
Whereas the above statements reflect consensus on

foreign aid in general, some of them are applicable as

well to the technical assistance component of aid. It

is to the latter which the writer now wishes to turn

in order to focus more precisely on the subject of this

study.

2. Technical Assistance

Technical assistance20 is the term given to describe

multilateral or bilateral aid in the form of training for

 

18Max F. Millikan, "Limitations and Performance Standards",
Ipternational Development, 1965; (ed. S. H. Robock and L. M.
Solomon), (Dobbs Ferry, New York: Oceana Publications, 1966),
p. 123.

19See Millikan, Ibid.;I. G. Patel, "Rationing Aid" in
International Development, 1965 (ed. S. H. Robock and L. M.
Solomon), pp. 129-132 and Angus Maddison, op. Cit., Chapter V.

20Synonymously referred to as "technical cooperation".

tr

(D

f'

-23-

host country nationals at home or in the donor country,
the supply of educational or training materials and per-
haps most significant, provision of skilled personnel.
The several principal types of advisory personnel are:
teachers to fill teaching positions; administrators or
technicians to occupy temporarily civil service posts;
management and survey people, attached largely to
capital assistance projects; volunteers. Most or all
of such personnel are advisory and are engaged in
training, demonstrating and transmitting a variety of
skills to local persons who, hopefully, will replace
them. By 1963-1964 many donor nations were beginning
to announce that an increasing proportion of their
total aid commitments would be gradually devoted to
technical assistance. For some capital-short and
skill-rich economies, like Norway and Denmark, this
had always been so. But the 1964 aid review of the

Development Assistance Committee21

of the Organization
for Economic Cooperation and Development clearly
indicated the substantially expanding needs for increased

technical assistance. As a result of this review and of

reassessments of technical assistance carried out by

 

21Madeup of twelve countries of North America and Western
Europe plus Japan (Belgium, Canada, Denmark, France, Germany,
Italy, Netherlands, Norway, Portugal, United Kingdom, United
States and Japan).

b)

-24-

other international agencies and by donor governments,

the following assertions are representative of concensus

about the present state of technical assistance and the

measures needed for improvement:

a)

13)

Programs in which technical assistance personnel
themselves take operational positions are more
costly in manpower and in finances than those in
which they train numbers of indigenous people.

For example, a request for aid in filling a gap

in secondary school teaching through the provision
of direct substitutes requires many more assistance
personnel than would be needed to educate teachers
or teacher-trainers. Both types of aid seem to be
needed simultaneously in many countries, but economy
and efficiency considerations are favoring the
latter type.

It is becoming increasingly clear that technical
assistance, like capital assistance, must be
directed at helping host country institutions to
become independent and self-sufficient. It seems
desirable, therefore, to integrate technical
assistance into established agencies and institutions
in the host country. The process of introducing
innovation into existing institutions strengthens
them to carry on the work of modernization when

technical aid is withdrawn. Success in this approach

is largely dependent on the willingness and capacity
of the host institutions to modify and adapt to the
development point of view.

c) The corollary of the above point is clear; assistance
efforts can be nullified by failure on the part of
the host country to marshal its own resources and
take forceful measures toward modernization.
External aid can but supplement and serve as catalyst
to domestic initiative.

d) Evaluation of the effects of technical assistance
remains difficult. Performance criteria alone
overlook a whole series of results. Few advanced
nations have assessed with any penetration the use
made of and the contributions of their advisory
people in developing countries. Immediate costs
and returns seem the only substantial evaluation
measure. "Given the presence of multipliers in the
economy and also of possible alternative rise of
resources, any final evaluation ought to be on a
level of the total economy. However, at that level,
so many forces are at work that even the latest
techniques of analysis cannot sort out the impact

of particular programmes".22

 

22Thorp, p. 64.

-26-

e) While the public in a donor country usually gives
moral support to technical assistance, there is a
shortage of suitable advisors for overseas service,
particularly in categories in relatively short supply
at home, such as physicians, nurses and teachers.
This difficulty, added to other problems of shifting
demands for and supply of advisory experts, is one
more stimulant for careful review and planning of
external aid, and for coordination of requests from
the various ministries within the recipient country.
"Technical assistance”, says Ihorp, ”must be treated
like a scarce commodity,"23 This calls not only for
careful analysis on the part of the donor but, more
especially, for a basis for determining aid prior-
ities within the host government. In this connec-
tion several donor nations are providing assistance
to developing countries to aid 1n planning for the
most efficient use of incoming aid.

f) A rapidly growing form of technical assistance is
the volunteer movement which enables volunteer
middle level personnel from industrialized countries
to gain intimate knowledge of the less developed
countries and which exposes rural and village folk

in the developing nations to people and attitudes

 

23Ibid., p. 74.

-27-

from the advanced countries. Since 1958, when
Britain's Voluntary Service Overseas24 was initiated,
a total of 32 nations have organized or planned
volunteer service for overseas or domestic work.25
Demand on the part of developing countries far
exceeds the supply. The primary advantages of this
type of aid are that it supplies useful middle level
assistance, requires little financing or administra-
tive machinery and provides for a wide range of
interpersonal contacts across cultures. In addition,
it attracts the energies and service motivations of
youthful volunteers.

Certain criticisms have been leveled at the volunteer
movements, notably that they are mainly good will
agencies with little real contribution to make to

the solution of the hard problems of development.26
While it is true that many volunteers are virtually
untrained, it is also the case that a great many

useful tasks have been assumed in developing nations

 

24For the account of the first V.S.O.'s overseas, see
Mora Dickson, A World Elsewhere (London: Dennis Dobson, 1964).

 

25For example, at this writing there are 585 volunteers
in Tanzania fnom eight countries (Australia, Canada, Denmark,
Germany, Israel, Liechtenstein, Britain and the United States).
Bulletin, Canadian University Service Overseas, May, 1966, p. 7.

26For example, see William and Paul Paddock, Hungry Nations
(Boston: Little, Brown & Co., 1964), pp. 99-101.

 

-28-

by volunteers. The benefit accruing to volunteers
themselves and the consequent likelihood increased
knowledge and understanding on the part of a sizable
number of returned volunteers is undoubtedly of con-
siderable value in establishing sympathetic and
informed public attitudes toward international
development issues.

Quite recently there has been developing a move
toward greater sophistication in the preparation

of volunteers for overseas assignments.27 It is
clear that developing nations require the services
not merely of people of good will. Good will needs
to be buttressed by skill and ability.

g) By far the major part of technical assistance is
comprised of what may broadly be termed education.
With the emphasis on the development of human
resources as well as of physical resources it is
understandable that the development of skills
should be of great importance. Not only skills,
of course, but also attitudes are affected through
educational processes. Basic literacy, while not

in and of itself a prerequisite for effective

develOpment, is regarded as a precondition for

 

27Michigan State University's 1965-1968 graduate program for
Peace Corps Volunteer teachers in Nigeria is one such effort.

-29-

continuous modernization and political development.
This seems particularly true when levels of literacy
attain or exceed 30-35 per cent of adult populace of
a country.28
The interest of developing countries in the development of
their educational systems has led to a powerful emphasis on
technical assistance to formal education, from primary education
through university and adult education. Many influential econ-
omists, such as Harbison29 and Schultz30 have argued that there
is a demonstrable cause and effect relationship between investment
in education and economic growth. While this view is open to
debate, it may well apply to many of the advanced nations.
Without considering historical differences and present economic,
political and social conditions, it may appear that the Western
experience can be replicated in less advanced societies. Indeed

the Addis Ababa Report is one example of a prescription of

 

28See Bert F. Hoselitz, "Investment in Education and Its
Political Impact" in James S. Coleman (ed.) Education and
Political Development, (Princeton: Princeton University Press,
1965), p. 554.

 

29Frederick Harbison, and Charles A. Myers, Education,
Manpower and Economic Growth (New York: McGraw-Hill Book Co.,
1964). See also Harbison, "Education for Development",
Scientific American, September, 1963. Harbison's contribution
to the Ashby Report (Report of the Commission on Post-school
Certificate and Higher Education in Nigeria, Lagos, Federal
Ministry of Education, 1960) accounts in part for its
orientation and for its appeal.

 

30Theodore Schultz, The Economic Value of Education
(Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1957).

 

-30-

educational planning based on just that assumption.31 It is not
the objective of this study to examine the accuracy or complexity
of views of this kind, or to attempt to find an adequate rationale
for the role of education in international, economic and social
development. The writer clearly recognizes that debates are
currently going on regarding the discontinuities of educational
tranSplantation and the precise effects of education in less
developed societies. But it must be agreed that, at a minimum,
education of both formal and informal varieties is one of the
principal ingredients in development and that it has been seized
upon as such by both donors and recipients. Moreover, it appears
that, despite budgetary and implementation difficulties, the
emphasis on human resource development is going to intensify

and that the technical assistance allotments to it will grow
correspondingly. Education and training remain high and may
climb higher in the scales of priorities of the less developed
countries.

It is at this juncture that it becomes relevant to examine
something of the growing international role of universities in
the context of international development and technical assistance
and the impact of international involvement on the universities

themselves.

 

31Final Report of the Meeting of Ministers of Education of
African Countries Participating in the Implementation of the
Addis Ababa Plan (Paris: Unesco, 1962).

-31-

C. The Role of Universities

 

Universities in the Western world have in recent years under-
gone sweeping changes. While their essential functions remain the
extension, transmission and preservation of knowledge, the variety
and number of subjects of legitimate study have greatly multiplied.
There has been, in addition, a trend among universities toward
increased interest in the application of knowledge to the problems
of the world. The segments of the university enterprise given over
to applied knowledge continue to grow in size and importance,
measured by financial support, research grants and student enroll-
ments.

Over the past few years many nations have initiated evalua-
tions of their systems of education. France had its Langevin and
de Gaulle plans, the Soviet Union its Khrushchev reforms of 1958,32
Australia its Murray Commission in 1959. Canada's Bladen and
Duff-Berdahl Commissions will be discussed in chapter 111.

Changing socio-political conditions and growing demands for educa-
tion everywhere have caused universities to take a fresh look at
their role. In most cases the results of the examination and the
reforms show up mainly in increased size, additional curricula and
similar signs of expansion.

One field into which universities have entered is that under

discussion in this study, international development. World affairs

 

32Which have themselves been revised, beginning in 1964.

-32-

have long interested universities and it was only natural that when
the rich sector of the world began to recognize the plight of the
poor nations the universities should have assumed an important
role. This may be accounted for because:

1. The problem of developing countries may be fitted into
existing disciplines--economics, politics, anthropology,
medicine, education, public administration and so on and
represented extensions of subject matter into new,
usually non-western settings. In addition, as a result
of cross-cultural experience, methods of inquiry have
been refined. The social sciences in particular have
benefited methodologically, to say nothing of new areas
of content. Comparative method has taken on new signi-
ficance in a great number of academic fields.

2. Universities represented reservoirs of skill and knowledge
which could be tapped by donor governments for the benefit
of recipients. Universities possessing expertise in
agriculture, education, business administration, health
sciences or engineering, were in an excellent position to
contribute.

3. Domestic development in the typical advanced nation had
already been influenced by universities. Not only
skilled manpower but also knowledge developed through
research were products of universities which contributed
to and, in return, benefited from the solution of local

problems.

-33-

4. Benefits have accrued to universities involved in overseas
work. Thrust into advisory positions, professors dis-
covered new research opportunities in unfamiliar settings.
Quite apart from broadening the outlooks of faculty
members, this new experience reverberated throughoutthe
home campuses of these faculty, to be felt by students in
turn exposed to returned teachers and scholars.

Even before these benefits began to be recognized, of course,
foreign students had been of benefit to university communities in
advanced nations, though not in easily measurable ways. Many a
Western student has through university contact with overseas
students first glimpsed something of international understanding,
whether or not he ever contributes directly to the hard problems
of development. The impact of these students and potential conse-

I
quences in knowledge and understanding cannot be overestimated and
in this writer's view deserves more concentrated attention and
exploitation.

As with any innovation, the venturing of universities into
world affairs has been accompanied by some perils and pitfalls.

It has first of all been difficult to break out of the Western
orientation of scholarship. Indeed, few institutions have struck
anything like a proportionate balance regarding west and non-west
studies or overseas research.

Second, inter-university cooperation to make more effective
use of rather scarce resources like libraries, lecturers and

finances, is still only embryonic.

-34-

Third, there are problems of capitalizing on overseas experi-
ence. ”Feedback" techniques remain somewhat patchy. Too often
developing insights coming from overseas advising or research fail
to be translated into teaching or publication on the home campus.

Fourth, many universities have been slow to develop efficient

devices for administering international curriculum and research

additions to their ongoing programs, with their concurrent com-
plexities of staffing, financing, and professional support
services.

Fifth, technical assistance and advisory roles for faculty
have been criticized as being academically impure, eSpecially
when intimately aligned with policies of either home or host
governments. The question of the maintenance of academic impar-
tiality and critical objectivity has been raised in this connec-
tion.

Despite a rapid transition period with its attendant diffi-
culties, universities and university people in many advanced
nations have been developing Special skills and techniques as a
result of international experience, and more important, perhaps,
international viewpoints. In order to illustrate, the relevant

experiences of three countries are here recounted briefly.

great Britain

The impending accession of colonies to independent status
shortly after World War II prompted the creation in Britain of
the Asquith Commission to study the needs of higher education

in the still dependent territorities. The Commission recommended

-35-

of the Inter-University Council constituted of one member from
each university'except London, which has two. The Council advises
the British government and requesting overseas universities on
matters of policy and assistance in the development of these
institutions. It maintains close contact with universities in

the developing countries, mainly ex-colonies. The University of
London was originally asked to concern itself with the development
of institutions in Africa and the West Indies, from which developed
the Special Relationship scheme by which students there were
awarded London degrees. Only University College in Salisbury,
Rhodesia remains under this relationship, the rest having become
independent universities, but the Council's influence remains
continuous, especially in providing staff and establishing
university-to—university relationships. In South Asia and the
Middle East the British Council operates in place of the Inter-
University Council.

In 1947 the Interdepartmental Commission of Enquiry on
Oriental, Slavonic, East European and African Studies (the
Scarbrough Commission) scrutinized the international orientation
of all educational institutions in Britain, including the civil
service. The Commission stressed, so far as universities were
concerned, the need for greatly increased emphasis on teaching
and research in Oriental, Slavonic and East European fields if
the broad educational needs of the country were to be met. It
proposed strengthening academic departments in place of relying

on the isolated chairs then existing, provision of more adequate

~36-

funds and the concentration of international studies in a limited
number of universities.33

The implementation of the Scarbrough proposals up to 1952 was
uneven, and somewhat disappointing. Staffing presented an acute
problem and total student enrollments increased rather slowly.
From 1952-1960, while some growth was realized, changes in the
grants system, national economic crises, the competition from
science departments for funds and even the ”brain drain" have
delayed the growth in international studies envisaged by the
Commission in 1947.34

In 1960, the Sub-Committee on Oriental, Slavonic, East
European and African Studies was established and charged with
the duty of ascertaining progress made in the fields in question
since the Scarbrough Report and recommending further measures to
the universities in view of national and international events
since 1947.

The Sub-Committee concluded in its Report that although the
political centers of gravity of the world had moved west and east,
British Universities had taken little account of it. The Report

went on to recommend larger grants, post-graduate awards, inten-

sive language study, travel grants, cooperation in library

 

33Details may be found in the Report of the Sub-Committee on
Oriental, Slavonic, East European and African Studies (London:
H.M.S.O., 1961), pp. 7-10.

 

 

34Ibid., pp. 11-40.

-37-

acquisitions and the setting up of area studies centers3S all
in the hope of "bringing the study of the non-western world into

the main stream of university life."36

The Netherlands

 

The Netherlands find themselves in a position much different
from either Britain or the United States with reSpect to the inter-
national role of their universities. For one thing, Dutch does not
enjoy worldwide distribution as a language. More significant,
in view of this study’s focus on Canada, is the fact that the
Netherlands is a middle power with all that implies as to political
power and resources.37

Early in the fifties the Dutch universities jointly created
the Netherlands Universities Foundation for International Cooper-
ation, the primary purpose of which was to organize teaching and
research on an inter-university cooperative basis in order to
enable foreigners to take part in it, thereby making a contribu-
tion to overseas development.

Owing to the language problem, it was decided initially to

establish an English—language university. Instead, however, this

plan was narrowed to the social sciences and thus the International

 

35This item resulted from a visit by the Sub-Committee to ten
U.S. and two Canadian universities in April, 1960, where area
studies centers had already been begun.

36Report of the Sub-Committee, op. cit., p. 5.

 

37Though,unlike‘m05t'of today's middle powers, it possesses
an imperial tradition, having once been the center of an empire.

-38-

Institute of Social Studies at The Hague came into being.38
Foreign students are now scattered throughout a number of similar
specialized institutes where training is provided mainly at the
postgraduate level and chiefly in English. The program of each
institute is designed especially for international development.
University-to—university assistance is not yet part of the
N.U.F.F.I.C. approach, partly for the reasons of pressing staff
and financial shortages.

Several internal commissions have been organized by the
Foundation in order more clearly to define the role of the Dutch
universities. For instance, in 1962 a N.U.F.F I.C. Commission
set out to determine by what means universities in the Netherlands
could contribute most effectively to development cooperation. The
resulting recommendations were that the Dutch institutions should
extend the system of Specialized postgraduate agencies in the
areas in which Dutch experience is strongest. In addition, the
secondment of individual faculty to overseas universities was
felt to be of less importance than direct university-to university

assistance.39

The United States

 

In the United States a good deal of attention has been given

to internationalizing the universities, especially since the

 

38The Role of Universities in Development Assistance (The
Hague: Netherlands Universities Foundation for International
Cooperation, 1964, p. 9.

 

391bid., p. 10.

-39-

country has assumed the mantle of world leadership and has had to
become more informed about and alert to the cultures of the world.
This impetus has been stimulated by Marshall Plan experience and
the establishment of a federal government agency charged with
administering overseas assistance. Now called the Agency for
International Development, this agency has provided large amounts
of money for university technical assiscance contracts. This
money, along with comparatively plentiful research funds available
from the great foundations, has financed changes in American
universities. The writer has identified, for instance, 265
international institutes, area studies centers and specialized
cross-cultural research installations in United States universities
as of June, 1966.

So extensive is the role of United States universities in
world affairs that the purpose of this study is best served by
pointing momentarily to a few of the principal documents which
have guided the evolution of international programs to date.

The 1960 report of the Committee on the University and World
Affairs,40 supported by the Department of State and the Ford
Foundation, made recommendations essentially similar to those
made by Britain's Sub-Committee (see above, page 36), going as
well into the part hopefully to be played by the federal govern-

ment and its specialized agencies in supporting university efforts.

 

40The University and World Affairs (New York: Education and
World Affairs, 1960).

 

-40-

One member of that Committee, John Gardner, president of the
Carnegie Corporation, was asked in 1963 by the Agency for
International Development to examine the relationships between
the universities and the Agency and to make whatever recommenda-
tions he saw fit. The resulting report“1 has to a large extent
governed subsequent AID-university relationships and has a good
deal of influence in the field of technical assistance contracts
and personnel selection and training.

Another Carnegie-supported study was that of Edward W. Weidner,

The World Role of Universities42 which studied in greater detail

 

than either of the above matters concerned with study abroad
programs, overseas research, participant training and technical
assistance.

More recently, Education and World Affairs has produced a
detailed analysis of the international affairs programs at six
major U.S. universities--Stanford, Michigan State, Tulane,
Wisconsin, Cornell and Indiana. This book traces the historical
antecedents to present programs and analyzes the extent to which
these institutions have been affected by their commitments to

world affairs.43

 

41John W. Gardner, AID and the Universities (New York:
Education and World Affairs, 1964).

 

42Edward W. Weidner, The World Role of Universities
(New York: McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1962). A useful bibliographical
note is appended, pp. 348-354.

 

43The University Looks Abroad (New York: Education and World
Affairs, 1965).

 

-41-

The influence of these reports can be implied from the facts
that not only have their principal recommendations been implemented
but that the major international developments in U.S. universities
have blossomed since 1960.

In each of the above cases, universities have mobed rather
rapidly from a haphazard and unplanned beginning to greater
sophistication in world affairs largely through the following
stepSi

l. Post-war interest among universities in events in a

shrinking and increasingly interdependent world.

2. Government impetus in foreign aid which brought about

not only a summons to the universities to assist but
also large amounts of funds.

3. Careful studies and evaluations by private agencies

and the universities themselves in order to define
more clearly the world role of universities and the

measures which they ought to implement.

D. Summary

The thrust toward modernization on the part of the developing
nations, while of recent origins and occasionally Spectacular, has
proved thus far to be a painful process and a prolonged one.
Numerous obstacles remain in the way, capable of delaying and even
thwarting the best efforts of developing nations and their
abettors. Objectives agreed on by advanced and less advanced

countries continue to exceed actual achievement. Assistance from

-42-

the wealthier nations has declined in volume and has been utilized
with less than maximum efficiency overseas. A certain disillusion-
ment with aid and its effects has appeared within aid-giving
nations. Yet greatly increased capital and technical assistance

is required in order for recipient countries to attain anything
like self-sustenance.

One of the principal ingredients of foreign aid is technical
assistance--the transfer of skills as opposed to the transfer of
capital. Much technical assistance is directed at strengthening
host country institutions to carry on their own work of develop-
ment. An essential aspect of technical assistance is comprised
of what may broadly be termed education--that is the deveIOpment
of human resources.

Universities, for a number of reasons, have assumed a central
role in technical assistance especially in Britain and the United
States. This was natural when it is considered how important has
been the contribution of universities to the development in their
own countries. Their pools of skill and capacity for finding and
applying knowledge have made them fit for aiding in the "Great
Ascent". In so doing the universities have found that considerable
benefits in curriculum breadth, overseas research opportunities,
overseas exchanges and the like have accrued. Problems have been
encountered in making best use of these opportunities. But where
the attitude prevails that universities are to some significant
degree responsible to the society that supports them these diffi-
culties have stood a very good chance of being satisfactorily

resolved.

CHAPTER III

CANADA'S TECHNICAL ASSISTANCE PROGRAM

A. Canadian Foreign Policy

 

No discussion of the nature of Canada's international assis-
tance and its impact on domestic institutions could be at all com-
plete without at least a cursory survey of the foreign policy from
which aid policy emanates. Accordingly, before going on to examine
assistance policy and its administration, it should be illuminating
to trace the main threads in the fabric of Canadian foreign affairs
since 1945.

Perhaps the fundamental fact about Canadian foreign policy is
that it is not entirely independent. Says Hugh Keenleyside,

It is Canada's fortune--good or bad--to have come on

the international stage at a time when anything like com-

plete autonomy in foreign policies is a rapidly vanishing

concept and an even more rapidly disappearing reality.‘1
In the caSe of Canada several factors account for this. For one
thing Canada's recent origins as a constitutional entity and
assumption of the management of its own affairs have militated

against the formation of a thoughtful, mature and independent

line in external affairs. As of this writing, Canada is less

 

1Duke University Commonwealth Studies Center, The Growth of
Canadian Policies in External Affairs (Durham, North Carolina;
Duke University Press, 1960), p. 6.

 

-43-

-44-

than one hundred years old. To illustrate this telescoping of
time in a different way, Lester Pearson, now Canada's Prime
Minister, was among the first to take the examinations for entry
into the foreign service. Vincent Massey, Canada's recent
Governor-General, now retired, was Canada's first diplomat to
serve abroad.2

A second fact is that Canada, the senior Commonwealth partner,
has an historic connection with Britain. This imperial connection
(though never imperialistic) is reflected not only in the often-
heard colloquial expression, ”the Old Country” but also in Canada"s
stance toward the world. Previously a spokesman for the British,
Canada now finds herself evolving a quite different position.
Still the senior white Commonwealth nation and a principal
Commonwealth supporter, Canada is more often than not cast in
the role of advocate of the newer, non-white Commonwealth
countries. This development has important implications for both
foreign policy-making and assistance policy. DeSpite this trend,
however, the ties with Britain remain strong. Put another way,
the imperial traditions which governed Canadian action in the
Boer War and in the 1914-1918 War have expanded to encompass the
whole Commonwealth. British ties are secure but the expanded
Commonwealth attachments are much different from those obtaining

in the bygone days of the British Empire.

 

21bid., p. 4.

-45-

Third, Canada has become an outward looking nation. It is
true that much insularity resists this change but an alteration in
national outlook certainly has come about, occasioned by two world
wars; massive immigration from overseas with its social conse—
quences; the growing dependency on world markets for Canadian
exports; and perhaps most important, by the omnipresent fact of
the United States. For Canada as much as for any other nation,
the modern world is a rapidly shrinking world. This has served
to thrust Canada more thoroughly than before into the orbit of
the United States. Since World War II, two major power foci
have developed in the world and Canada has found itself inevitably
pulled into the Western alliance, which itself has been quite
thoroughly dominated by the United States. It is this kind of
position, often one of anxiety for Canadians, which has led
Underhill to state, "Our American century is going to be a much
tougher experience for us than our British century was.”3

Clearly, one of the most difficult chores for Canadian policy-
makers has been and continues to be that of finding what can be

called an independent or unique foreign policy in the face of the

 

3F. H. Underhill, "Canada and the North Atlantic Triangle"

in In Search of Canadian Liberalism (Toronto: MacMillan, 1960),
p. 257. This was originally a speech delivered at Michigan State
University in 1957 and printed in The Centennial Review, Fall,
1957.

-45-

influences just mentioned.4 It has been easier for Canada to hew
an independent line within the Commonwealth, certainly, than to
find an autonomous position in relation to the United States.
Canada's voting record in the United Nations on the question of
the admission of continental China is evidence of this. Only on
November 29, 1966, did Canada differ in its voting pattern after
sixteen years of following the lead of the United States, or, more
precisely, after sixteen years of being careful not to alienate
the United States. It is similar reasoning (together with a
relative historic indifference to Latin America) which keeps
Canada at arm's length from the Organization of American States,
an association which Canada might be able to influence as a
distinctly independent North American member.

Canada enjoys the advantages and suffers the disadvantages of
being a Middle Power. Doubtless, the former outnumber the latter
in most areas except those in which the leverage of sheer power
is desirable. The advantages have appeared throughout Canada's
experience in the United Nations, a body in which a nation without

colonial interest or the power of the big stick seems to be able

 

4Three Speeches given in 1966 to influential audiences to
help to provide understanding of the intensification of efforts
to define such policy; viz., Paul Martin, Secretary of State for
External Affairs, "An Independent Foreign Policy", to the
Canadian Club, Toronto, January 31, 1966; Mitchell Sharp,
Minister of Finance, "Strengthening Canada's Ihdependence”, to
The Association of Canadian Advertisers, Toronto, May 4, 1966;
Prime Minister L. B. Pearson, ”The Identity of Canada in North
America", to the American Society of Newspaper Editors, Montreal,
May 19, 1966 (from Statements and Speeches, Nos. 66/3, 66/20,
66/22, Information Division, Department of External Affairs,
Ottawa).

-47-

to function most effectively in a Situation designed for continuous
diplomacy. When these qualities are coupled with the appeal of an
advanced technology and the Steady hand of a usually acceptable
diplomacy, the influence of such a nation can be felt irreSpective
of size, wealth or power. Such has been Canadian experience in
the United Nations.5
In order to round out this brief account of the principal
directions of Canadian external policies, some indication of
apparent trends should be made. The Commonwealth connections
promise to remain Strong and Canada's voice in it is growing
increasingly audible and influential. It is not without signifi-
cance that a Canadian career diplomat has been chosen the first
Commonwealth Secretary-General. In the United Nations, the
Canadian commitment is likely to expand as Canada takes a seat
in the Security Council and continues to Stress and exploit its
middle power position. Regarding relations with its most impor-
tant neighbor and trading partner, the United States, Canadian

policy is threatening to take a slightly more divergent line,
particularly in view of the growing Canadian distaste for the

war in Viet Nam. Beyond this, the traditional distrust of the
United States has not entirely dissipated and Canadian nationalism,

though impossible to assess accurately, is likely to press for an

 

5For a fuller analysis of the development and significance of
Canada's middle power role, see Edgar McInnis, "A Middle Power in
the Cold War" in The Growth of Canadian Policies in External
Affairs, op. cit.

 

-48-

increasing stake by Canadians in Canada--inevitably at some expense
to United States interests.

These three factors--Commonwea1th connections, relations with
the United States6 and the United Nations commitment--all in the
context of a rapidly changing world and complicated by growing
affinities with the French-speaking countries are of great impor-
tance in the formulation of assistance policy, in the nature and
content of that assistance and in the reaction that can be expected

from Canadian institutions.7

B. Canada's Philosophy of External Aid

 

"Like most other lands, Canada finds her policies conditioned
by her Structure and her history.”8 This statement could, perhaps,

be regarded as self-evident. But for a country with the

 

6Until recently, Canadian affairs were dealt with by the
European Desk in the U. S. State Department.

7Some standard and widely accepted works on Canadian external
relations are C. P. de T. Glazebrook, A History of Canadian
External Relations (Toronto: Canadian Institute of International
Affairs, 1950); Canada in World Affairs (Toronto: Oxford Univer-
sity Press, 11 volumes, beginning 1940); Frank H. Underhill, Th3
British Commonwealth (Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 1956);
Edgar McInnis, The Unguarded Frontier: A History of Canadian-
American Relations (Toronto: Doubleday, 1942); Hugh L. Keenleyside
and G. S. Brown, Canada and the United States: ASpects of Their
Historical Relations (New York: Knopf, 1952). A paper which
explicates differing points of View in Canada regarding Canada's
world role is David Gauthier, "Alignment for Peace" in Abraham
Rotstein (ed.), The PrOSpect of Change: Proposals for Canada's
Future (Toronto: McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1965), pp. 344-361.

 

 

 

8Edgar McInnis, The Unguarded Frontier, p. 142.

 

-49-

peculiarities of Canada, especially as regards history and internal

development, the point is worth emphasizing. The main developments

in policy toward the outside world have already been suggested.
Now Specific aid policy should be examined.

"Canadians generally agree about the primary objectives of
their foreign policy: so much so, in fact, that statements about
them tend to be drearily platitudinous.”9 This sentiment can be
applied with nearly complete congruence to aid policy pe£_§g, In
general, Since aid policy is an outgrowth of foreign policy, the
same set of generalized objectives appears to be valid for both.
They are "peace, freedom, national independence and material
well-being".10

Philosophically, Canadian behavior in any field may be
described as pragmatic. Rather than consistently developing a
theoretical and logical basis for action, Canadians often seem
to prefer to do what is practicable and direct their energies to
whatever brings useful results. Whatever the weaknesses of this
approach, (and however questionable the results) it has the advan-
tages of getting programs and policies off to fairly ready imple-
mentation and of being more assured of success (on a relative
scale) than if projects were chosen on a less selective basis.

If Canadian foreign policy takes on the coloration of pragmatism,

no less so does Canadian aid policy and practice.

 

9Peyton V. Lyon, The Policy Question (Toronto: McClelland
and Stewart, 1963), p. 41.

 

101bid., p. 41.

-50-

The "foundation for lasting peace and stability"11 is the main
factor in Canadian aid rationale. This, of course, has direct
implications for the other factors dependent on it. International
peace and stability mean, for one thing, a favorable trade environ-
ment and the Canadian economy is an export-dependent one. For
another, peace abroad means lack of military threats at home and
the possibility of reducing the deployment of Canadian forces
overseas. A further special implication for Canadians is that
a stable world is the only fit setting in which Canada can fashion
and correct, where necessary, the structure of its own independence
and internal development.

The moral imperative, has been equally prominent in the
formulation of international assistance policy and practice.
Stability, peace, freedom and higher levels of living in the less
developed nations are goals worthy of Canada's assistance, it is
felt, not only because Canada itself benefits. There is near
unanimity in Canada that a rich nation has no less than an obli-
gation to assist the nations which are poor.

We Should remind ourselves that the Family of Man is

three billion strong and that we, in our white affluent

society, fall short of mirroring its make-up. For its

predominant colour is not white; and far from being

affluent, most of the members of the Family of Man today

are more deeply engulfed than ever before in the search
for survival against hunger and destitution and disease.

 

11Paul Martin, "Aid Policies and Programs”, Speech delivered
to the Development Assistance Committee, Washington, July 20, 1966.
Statements and Speeches, No. 66/32, Information Division,
Department of External Affairs, Ottawa, 1966.

 

-51-

Those who are striving today to be free, or remain free,
not illogically crave also to be fed.12

It is difficult to separate the lements of this subtle mix
of motives. They are thoroughly interwoven. Selfcinterest and
altruism are two sides of the same coin. There may be a hierarchy
of motivations in the rationale of a donor nation’s philosophy,
but such a hierarchy is rarely explicit. In Canada's case, the
moral motivations are most explicitly put forward. But self-
interest is undoubtedly there, with no attempt made to deny or
conceal it. When, for instance, Prime Minister Diefenbaker pro-
posed, in 1958, the creation of a food bank, a proposal which
laid the basis for "Food for Peace”, he had not only the needy
nations in mind, but also the threat to Canadian wheat farmers
inherent in the surplus disposal policies of other major world
wheat producers.13

No precise and unwavering hierarchy of aid motives can be
satisfactorily established in the Canadian setting. "Political
motives are dominant with respect to Government decisions and
actions; economic ones predominate in the minds of businessmen,

while the general public seems more influenced by humanitarian

 

12L. B. Pearson, "World Brotherhood”, acceptance address to
the Award Dinner of the Society for the Family of Man, New York,
November 17, 1965, Statements and Speeches, No. 65/29, Information
Division, Department of External Affairs, Ottawa.

 

13Richard Preston, Canada in World Affairs (Vol. XI, 1959-
1961, Toronto: Oxford University Press, 1965), pp. 221-222.

-52-

arguments."14 Paul Martin, Speaking to the Memorial Assembly at
McGill University on February 9, 1965, stated his point of view
like this:

For my own part, I have no hesitation in saying that
I regard humanitarian considerations to be foremost in
the minds of those who have supported and sustained the
principle of Canadian aid to the developing countries.
The humanitarian approach to foreign aid is itself com-
pounded of a number of factors which defy separate
analysis. In essence I would say it rests upon the
recognition that, as flagrant diSparities in human
wealth and human welfare are no longer morally acceptable
within a Single community, whether it be local or
national, the same principle is applicable to the larger
world community.15

From this statement, he proceeds to list benefits which accrue

to Canada in economic, political and domestic terms. Here Martin
(and by implication, the Government of Canada) seem to be in
agreement with Barbara Ward who, in the Massey Lectures of 1962
said: "I would say that generosity is the best policy and that
expansion of opportunity sought for the sake of others by bringing

well-being and expansion to oneself....Our morals and our

 

14A. A. Fatouros and R. N. Kelson, Canada's Overseas Aid
(Toronto: Canadian Institute of International Affairs, 1964),
p. 30. See in this connection, Claude Lemelin and Jean-Claude
Marion, Le Canada francais et le Tiers-Monde (Ottawa: 1963).
This 1962 survey of 550 French-Speaking Quebec residents
indicated that 82 per cent approved of Canadian aid. Motives
most often given for supporting aid were: "Christian charity”
(21 per cent); "Strengthening peace" (15 per cent); ”Human
solidarity" (12 per cent); "Anti-Communism” (8 per cent).

15"Principles and Purposes of Foreign Aid”, Statements
and Speeches, No. 65/2, Information Division, Department of
External Affairs, Ottawa. Since 1958, "every party in the
House of Commons has stressed its moral commitment to larger
overseas aid." Keith Spicer, p. 10. Spicer's is the most
complete and competent analysis to date of Canada's external
aid, particularly as it relates to foreign policy.

 

 

-53-

intereSt--seen in true perspective—-do not pull apart."16 The

pragmatic Canadian view on this issue has also been expressed
thus:

It seems both reasonable and realistic to hold that
the reasons and motives which have led to the initiation
and continuation of foreign aid are multiple and follow
no definite order of importance. Their relative order
of importance iS not well-settled and immutable. It
varies depending on the external and internal Situation
at any particular moment and on the position and interests
of governmental decision-makers and those who influence
them.17

The foregoing assertions represent as neat a summary of
Canadian aid philosophy as exists. The next section of this
account will review the scope and methods which to date have

been used to implement this philosophy.

C. Distribution and Methods of Canadian
Technical Assistance

 

 

1. Distribution

 

In January, 1950, seven diplomats representing
Australia, Great Britain, Canada, Ceylon, India, New
Zealand and Pakistan met in Colombo, Ceylon to discuss
problems confronting the less developed countries of
the Commonwealth. Their proposals, known as the
Colombo Plan, soon expanded from a Commonwealth focus

to include most of the countries of South and Southeast

 

16Barbara Ward, The Rich Nations and the Poor Nations
(New York: W. W. Norton and Co., 1962), p. 150.

 

17Fatouros and Kelson, p. 32.

-54-

Asia and the original donors (Australia, Great Britain,
Canada and New Zealand) were joined by the United States
and Japan. Though Canadians had long been engaged in
overseas missions and in post-World War II reconstruction,
mainly through United Nations agencies, the Colombo Plan
marked the beginning of Canadian international assistance
as an organized and conscious aspect of Canadian govern-
ment policy.

An analysis of Canada's participation in the Colombo
Plan shows the emergence of a pattern of emphasis on four
main fields: power, tranSportation, natural resources
development and education.18

"The practices of at least the decade following the
Colombo Plan Conference of 1950 have shaped indelibly
the outlook and methods of today's administrators."19
One of these practices has been what Spicer calls "a
form of consultative bilateralism, a loose and pragmatic
Sharing of ideas and information by nations giving and
receiving aid in a series of district, two-Sided
relationships”.20 This casual liaison of bilateral

and multilateral approaches, identifiable first in the

 

18An early evaluation of the Colombo Plan can be found in
Frederic Benham, The Colombo Plan and Other Essays (London:
Oxford University Press, 1956).

19Spicer, p. 93.

201bid., p. 71.

 

-55-

Colombo Plan, is revealed in subsequent aid arrangements.
It is not altogether surprising, therefore, that the
great bulk of Canadian aid is bilaterally distributed,
mainly through the Colombo Plan, an arrangement which
suits the pragmatic preferences of both donors like
Canada and recipients. In this fashion, bilateral
arrangements are worked out in the setting of group
consultations.

It is quite true, at the same time, that Canada has
supported the United Nations programs of assistance from
their inception. The the world organization and its
Specialized agencies Canada contributed 129.01 million
dollars (Canadian) in the period 1945-1965. If to that
figure were added IBRD (World Bank), IDA and other loans,
this amount becomes 261.67 million dollars.21 Over the
same period, however, bilateral grants and loans have
amounted to a total of 922.44 million dollars. A
detailed breakdown of figures for the period 1950-1964

looks like this:

 

21Ibid., pp. 252-253.

-56-

TABLE 122

CANADA'S EXTERNAL AID 1950-196423
(Millions in Canadian Dollars)

Total to
March 31, 1964

 

1. Economic Aid Programs

3. Bilateral

Colombo Plan . . . . . . . . 464.67
Canada- West Indies Aid Program . . . . . 9.45
Commonwealth Technical Assistance Plan . 0.54
Commonwealth Scholarship and
Fellowship Plan . . . . . . . . 2.89
Special Commonwealth Africa Aid
Program . . . . . . . . . 7.14
French Speaking African Educational
Assistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.54
Total 485.24
b. Multilateral
UN Technical Assistance (EPTA) . . . . . 21.73
UN Children's Fund (UNICEF) . . . . . . 8.60
UN Special Fund . . . . . . . . . . 11.37
Miscellaneious Grant524 . . . . . . . . 0.51
Total 42.21
Total Economic Aid 527.45

 

22From Peter C. Briant, Canada's External Aid Program
(Montreal: Private Planning Association of Canada, 1965),
pp. 24-25.

 

23Table 1 includes NATO Mutual Aid; advances to the
International Monetary Fund; Canada's assessed Share of
costs of international programs, operations and budgets.

24Of which (in rounded figures): Operative program of
the International Atomic Agency (IAEA) $176,000 (1959-1963);
gift of uranium to IAEA $62,000 (1959); Malaria Eradication
Program of WHO $100,000 (1960); U.N. Technical Assistance
Training Centre in B.C. $30,000 (1959-1961); and Freedom
from Hunger Campaign of FAO $23,000 (1960).

-57-

IABLE 1--Continued

2. Special Aid Programs

8. Refugees

Hungarian Refugees . . . . . . . . . . . 4.32
IRO, UNREF, and UNHCR . . . . . . . . . 15.35
Palestine Refugees (UNRWA) . . . . . . . 0.45
Far East Refugees . . . . . . . . . . 16.22
Tubercular Refugee Program . . . . . . . 0.51
Total 36.85
b. Other

UN Korean Reconstruction Agency . . . . 7.75

Wheat/Flour to India, Pakistan
and Ceylon . . . . . . . . 34.96
Miscellaneous Relief in Kind)25 . . . . 16.52
UN Fund for the Congo . . . . . . . . . 0.99
World Food Program . . . . . . . . . . . 2.75
Total 62.97
Total Special Aid Programs 99.82

3. Loans and Advances

Colombo Plan Countries for Purchase

of Canadian Wheat and Flour . . . . . 34.97
UN for Suez Canal Clearance

(Special Aid) . . . . . . . . . . 1.00
International Finance Corporation

(Economic Aid) . . . . . . . . . . . 3.52

International Bank for Economic
Reconstruction and Development

(Economic Aid) . . . . . . . . . . 9.79

International Development Association
(Economic Aid) . . . . . . . . . . . 32.80
Total Loans and Advances 82.08
Total 709.35

The Colombo Plan has figured prominently in Canada's aid
program. Up to 1964, 85 per cent of the total Canadian allotment
had been directed to India and Pakistan. To illustrate the range

of aid included the following table is presented:

 

25Mostly dry skimmed milk, canned pork, wheat and flour.

-58-

TABLE 226

CANADA'S COLOMBO PLAN AID TO PAKISTAN

 

 

1951-1961
Year Project Allocation

1951-1957 Cement Plant, Daudkhel . $ 6,541,547
1951-1952 Railway Ties . 2,770,490
1951-1952 Aerial Resources Survey 2,000,000
1951-1952 Thal Experimental Farm . 196,745
1952-1953 Wheat 5,000,000
1957-1958 Wheat 2,000,000
1958-1959 Wheat . . . . . . . . . 4,000,000
1959-1960 Wheat . . . . . . . . . 3,650,000
1960-1961 Wheat . . 3,650,000
1952-1953 Three Beaver Aircraft for

Pest Control . . . 176,807
1954-1955 Biological Control Station--

Rawalpindi . . 55,383
1954-1955 Hatching Eggs and Incubator 3,106
1955-1956 Two Mobile Dispensaries 11,795
1955-1956 Equipment for Tractor Training

School, East Pakistan . 18,000
1956-1957 Trucks for Locust Control 80,414
1957-1958 Tarnab Farm Workshop Equipment . 2,400
1954-1955 Ganges-Kobadak Project . 1,306,343
1953-1958 Aerial Resources Survey 1,292,095
1954-1955 Commodities . . . . . 1,000,000
1958-1959 Commodities--Copper, Aluminum,

Steel and Tin Plate . 2,801,000
1958-1959 Woodpulp for Khulna Newsprint

Mill . . . . . . . . . 650,000
1958-1959 Pesticide Spraying Equipment . 120,000
1958-1959 Three Beaver Aircraft 200,000
1958-1959 Sukkur Thermal Plant . . 3,629,000
1959-1960 Pre-stressed Concrete Factory 60,000
1952-1959 Warsak Hydro-Electric and

Irrigation Project 37,121,762
1953-1954 Shadiwal Hydro-Electric

Power Development . 3,507,095
1954-1958 Dacca Chittagong Karnafuli

Transmission Line . 6,706,343
1955-1956 Goalpara Thermal Station

(Khulna) 2,000,000

26Source: Ibid., pp. 27-28.

Year
1957-1958

1959-1961
1960-1961
1959-1961
1960-1961

1959-1960

-59-

TABLE 2--Continued

 

Project Allocation
Bheramara-Kushtia Transmission
Lines (Khulna) . . . . . . . . . $ 1,000,000
Metals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4,870,000
Woodpulp . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,300,000
Fertilizer . . . . . . . . . . . . 5,010,000
Aerial Survey and Forestry
Inventory . . . . . . . . . . . 500,000

Books on Cost Accounting for
Pakistan Institute of
Industrial Accountants . . . . . 15,000

Most bilateral aid outside the terms of the Colombo
Plan has been oriented to the Commonwealth. In 1958, the
Caribbean Assistance Program began. Since then have
developed the Commonwealth Technical Assistance Plan
(for countries not included in other programs); the
Commonwealth Scholarship and Fellowship Plan and the
Special Commonwealth Africa Aid Plan (SCAAP).

In more recent years Canadian assistance has been
requested by and provided to a number of non-Commonwealth
nations and the exclusive nature of the Commonwealth club
has been dissipated to some degree. The Colombo Plan
took account of non-Commonwealth nations fairly early
in both donor and recipient membership. Beginning as
early as 1953, Canada provided aid to Viet Nam. The
Mekong River Basin Project extended Canadian attention
to include Laos, Cambodia and Thailand. In addition
Canadian assistance has been given Afghanistan, Burma
Philippines, Indonesia, Korea and Nepal, usually under

the terms of reference of the Colombo Plan.

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In 1961, a program of assistance, mainly educational,
was initiated for 21 francophone countries of Africa. The
bilingual and bicultural makeup of Canada make this
especially appropriate as a focus of attention for
francophone Canadians and their institutions.

Only in 1964 did Latin America officially enter the
domain of Canadian external aid policy. Experience with
the World Bank suggested the advisability of establishing
a working relationship with the Inter-American Development
Bank. Since 1964-1965 Canada has set aside 30 million
dollars from its Special development loan fund for
exclusive use of Latin American countries.27 During the
same period, Canada became a charter member of the new
Asian Development Bank. The trend continues to favor

bilateral aid as these figures Show.28

 

 

1964-1965 1965-1966
Bilateral Aid $132.6 million $140.6 million
Multilateral Aid $ 17.5 million $ 24.6 million
Tota129 $150.1 million $165.2 million

 

27International Development (Ottawa: External Aid Office,

October,

1966).

28External Aid Programs (Ottawa: External Aid Office,

 

1965-1966), p. 2.

29Excludes export loans and credits.

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Mention should be made of the not inconsiderable
assistance rendered by voluntary organizations in Canada,
an amount estimated to be almost 26 million dollars
annoally.30 In 1965-1966, for instance, 500,000 dollars
were raised on behalf of CUSO (Canadian Universities
Service Overseas) to help that organization field a

number of overseas volunteers.31

2. MEL

Assistance methods may be subsumed under capital
assistance, technical assistance and emergency assistance.
Emergency aid follows wars, diSplacements of refugees,
famine or natural disaster as a rule and can absorb
large amounts of capital and technical resources in
itself, as several donor nations have experienced in
Palestine, Cyprus, Korea and, at this writing, in India
as famine again threatens.

With regard, however, to technical assistance, the
chief concern of this study, Canadian attention and effort
have gradually intensified. In Africa, for example,
where Canada's experience is more recent than its Asian

experience, 60 per cent of all aid effort has been

 

30External Aid Programs 1965-1966, p. 2 and more particularly,
Non-Governmental Agencies in International Aid and Development,
(Ottawa: External Aid Office, 1966).

 

31A fuller account of this organization is to be found in
chapter IV.

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technical assistance. This is reflected particularly in
Special Commonwealth Africa Aid Program (SCAAP) and in
the aid program for francophone Africa.32

Donors, ”wishing their capital aid to bear lasting
fruit are obliged to supply suitable instruction as a
matter of first priority. This instruction may include
gifts of equipment for research or demonstration; but
essentially it is given by mingling the donor's and the
recipient's professional elites”.33 In Canadian terms,
technical assistance means sending Canadian teachers,
advisors and professors abroad and bringing overseas
students and trainees to Canada for training.34

Between 1960 and 1965, responding to the increasing
demands of new African and Commonwealth programs Canadian
technical assistance has taken on expanded proportions,
its participants both ways having multiplied by more

than four.

 

32Canada 1965-1966 (Ottawa: Dominion Bureau of Statistics,
1965), p. 50.

33Spicer, p. 213.

34Technical assistance figures usually include not only the
contributor's staff but also equipment. AS a result comparative
figures do not consistently take complete account of Canada's
full technical assistance allotments.

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TABLE 335
192.9 1165
Students and Trainees in Canada 711 2538
Advisors and Teachers abroad 83 874

Since 1960, there has developed a shift in emphasis
in Canadian technical assistance from practical assistance
in science, technology and medicine to much broader educa-
tional assistance, occasioned largely by the need for
education and training at all levels on the part of
countries that became independent around 1960, especially
Africa. The nature of this new direction can be seen by
looking at four aspects of educational assistance-~the
teacher, professor, advisor and training programs.

a) The Teacher Program

 

The year 1960 marked the beginning of the
current plan of providing at host country request
not only teachers (usually for senior positions)
but more significantly teacher training personnel
at both primary and secondary school levels. It
was felt that by supplying mainly training level
teaching staff the maximum contribution could be

made within existing educational systems abroad.

 

35Source: A Report on Canada's External Aid Programs
(Ottawa: External Aid Office, fiscal year 1965-1966),
pp. 26-27. These figures account only for official government
aid contributions and not voluntary agencies' contributions.

 

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The priorities, requests and eventual assignments
are entirely in the hands of the recipient govern-
ment. Contracts are for an initial period of two
years and may be extended to five. Administration
of this program rests with the External Aid Office.
An indication of the growing importance of this
aid approach is seen in the figures. In 1960, 16
teachers were serving abroad whereas in 1965-1966
there were 460 teachers as well as 39 educational
administrators and 31 educational advisors on
External Aid assignments overseas. Of these,
about half were undertaking duties as teachers of
teachers and a substantial number of others were
participating in courses of in-service training and
up-grading and, by virtue of their experience and
seniority, contributing to curriculum and methodology
development.36' By request, most teachers and educa-
tional advisors were working in the fields of
mathematics, science, technical subjects and, of

course, French and English.

 

 

b) The University Program
The provision of university personnel overseas
has grown from five professors in 1961 to 110 for
36Ibid., p. 4.

 

-65-

the 1966-1967 academic year.37 Representing most
academic fields38 these faculty personnel go abroad
for a minimum period of one year, usually to senior
university posts where they assist in the establish-
ment of new faculties and courses. Thus, the aid
program in higher education parallels the Teacher
Program in function.

A growing proportion of the university staff
abroad are French-Speaking. In 1966-1967, for
example, 40 French Canadian faculty are abroad,

38 of them in francophone Africa, 2 in Southeast
Asia.

Some professors are sent abroad on individual
contracts or on the basis of secondment from their
universities. Others are provided by their univer-
sities as members of a team under contract between
the university and the External Aid Office. The
matter of contracts will, along with other relevant
university concerns, be taken up in more detail in

chapter IV.

 

37International Development (Ottawa: External Aid Office,
September, 1966), p. 1.

 

38But most often in medicine, agriculture, engineering and
related fields.

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c) The Advisor Program

Canada provides technical advisors in mosc
fields of economic and social development. Their
duties are in most instances either directly or
indirectly educational in nature. ”In many instances
the assignments involve a degree of counterpart
training, though, in some cases, advisors are
assigned to operational positions so that vital
services or surveys can be carried out while local
personnel receive training abroad."39

Though financial arrangements made for technical
advisors are similar to those for teachers and
university personnel, the administrative aspects
of their assignments differ somewhat, owing to the
individualized nature of requests, recruitment and
briefing.

Growth in this area of technical assistance,
too, can be understood by looking at statistics.
From not more than a score in 1960, the number of
advisors has grown to about 300 in 1966-1967. Main
fields of assistance continue to be those in which
Canadians have become experienced during Canada's

own development, such as agriculture and extension,

 

39Canadian Technical and Educational Assistance (Ottawa:
Department of External Affairs Reference Paper No. 118, 1965),
p. 6.

 

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forestry, fisheries, and other resources development
and management, community development and coopera-
tives, transportation and communication, medicine
and nursing, management training and the like.

d) Training Programs

 

”Almost as striking as the increase in Canadians
serving abroad has been the growth of programmes for
training visitors in Canada."l'O The number of
trainees Studying in Canada under government
auspices rose from 323 in 1960 to 1,242 in early
1965.41 The number of government programs increased
from 700 in 1960 to about 2,100 in 1965. Overseas
students in Canadian universities constitute six
per cent of total enrollment. In 1965-1966 there
were about 11,500.42

Visiting trainees Sponsored in Canada by the
External Aid Office have programs especially arranged
for them either by the Office or by public or private
agencies. In either case the reSponse comes

following a request from an overseas government.

 

4OSpicer, p. 229.

41This figure excludes those trainees and students in Canada
sponsored by the U.N. and other agencies including universities.

42E. F. Sheffield, Enrolment in Canadian Universities and
Colleges,_to 1966-1967 (Ottawa: Association of Universities and

 

 

Colleges of Canada, 1966), p. 14.

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Selection and assignments in Canada are administered
and financed by EAO but considerable use is made of
advisory committees drawn from industries and
universities.

Scholarships and awards provide for under-
graduate, graduate and post-doctoral Studies, sub-
professional trades and technical training,
practical attachments to industry and government
departments--a11 at post-secondary levels. Since
most trainees are preparing for an instructional
role upon their return home, a year of teacher
training is frequently offered in Canada following
the training program.

As a donor nation whose educational resources
and domestic staff are limited, Canada has found
the group training approach attractive. It has
the advantages of concentrating efforts, permitting
Specially tailored courses to be devised, and of
being cheaper and easier to administer. At least
seven such group training programs are now available
on a continuing basis in such fields as social
leadership (an outgrowth of Nova Scotia's Antigonish
Movement), cooperative development, public adminis-
tration, labor leadership, steel production, business
management and primary school teacher training.

Several of these programs are bilingual programs.

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Only two per cent of the trainees fail successfully
to complete their programs.

The quite recent Commonwealth Scholarship Plan,
also under the aegis of EAO, provided university
Scholarships in the 1965-1966 academic year for
222 Commonwealth Scholars, 80 per cent of them
from developing nations.

Before leaving this description of Canadian
technical assistance a word Should be added about
a scheme designed to unite all these elements, the
composite project. By this term is meant the effort
to blend the capital, advisory, counterpart and
training aspects of a Single project. In such a
project Canada will provide feasibility Studies,
construction and equipment, initial Staff and the
training of their replacements in Canada and 12
EEEE- The Accra Technical Training Centre in
Ghana is a recent example43 of this approach.
Designed for mid-level training its cost (1,155,000
dollars), construction and staffing have been
provided by the Canadian government. Currently
20 local staff are in Canada training to replace
the Canadian staff. The EAO has used the services
of the Saskatchewan Department of Education

throughout.

 

43

It opened in 1966.

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D. Administration: The External Aid Office

During the years immediately following World War II no
central agency existed for processing and administering assis-
tance. Aid was channeled through the United Nations. Grants
were handled by the Department of Finance in conjunction with the
Department of External Affairs, while the United Nations
specialized agencies dealt directly with the pertinent government
departments--FAO with the Department of Agriculture, WHO with the
Department of National Health and Welfare and so on.

The creation in 1949 of the United Nations Expanded Programme
of Technical Assistance (EPTA) and, within a few months, of the
Colombo Plan gave double indication of the need to establish
government machinery for coordinating the growing variety of aid
efforts. Consequently in December, 1950 an Interdepartmental
Group on Technical Assistance (IGTA) was formed to consider
Canadian resources, policies and procedures in technical assis-
tance. Chaired by a senior official of the Department of
External Affairs, the Group consisted of some 20 members from
such Departments as Trade and Commerce, Finance, Agriculture,
Mines and Technical Surveys, Health and Welfare and the Bank of
Canada. It was Soon decided by this body that a new agency was
needed to direct both technical and capital aid. Its precise
location was, however, in doubt Since External Affairs wanted
control of aid policy but not day-to-day administration. The
Department of Trade and Commerce agreed to take charge of admin-

istration and so in 1951 the new agency, called the International

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Economic and Technical Cooperation Division (IETCD) began work,
Still an interdepartmental group, and with a few modifications
operated for nine years during which time it largely set the
pattern for both Canada's bilateral aid program44 and its admin-
istration.

Failure to work out a more comprehensive and systematic
scheme can in some measure be accounted for by the widely held
view at that time that foreign aid was to be little more than
a temporary measure. This "deliberate Short-term View of aid
led to a nearly disastrous failure--far from overcome today--
to attract competent career aid administrators”.45

By 1960 it had become painfully clear that the increasing
Size and complexity of the aid program required a tightening
and strengthening of administration. Difficulties in recruiting
and retaining high quality staff, diffuse reSponSibility and
similar problems had made the execution of aid policy less and
less effective even as the extent of aid grew. The resulting
instability led the Prime Minister to establish an External Aid
Office directly under the Secretary of State for External
Affairs, who would be responsible for it to Parliament. Policy
was to be reviewed and considered by a five-man External Aid
Board constituted by the deputy ministers (or alternates) of

the Department of External Affairs, Finance and Trade and

 

44Multilateral aid remained in the Department of Finance.

45Spicer, p. 95.

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Commerce; a representative of the Bank of Canada; and the
Director-General of the Office, who would also act as chairman.

This move indicated the government's growing concern not
only with aid pgr ES but also its desire to organize more effec-
tive machinery for its administration. The establishment of the
External Aid Office preceded but was paralleled by the organiza-
tion of both the Agency for International Development in the
United States and the Development Assistance Committee of OECD.46
The political significance, too, of consolidating assistance
programs was unmistakable. "By raising aid to a semiautonomous
footing under the immediate direction of the Secretary of State
for External Affairs, the cabinet recognized aid as a momentous
activity of long-range Canadian diplomacy. . . . At last aid
appeared to command the coherent ministerial supervision and
rational management demanded by an alert, effectual foreign
policy."‘/+7 The following chart shows administrative organization
of EAO.

Since 1960, then, unified political control has brought a
badly needed and somewhat unaccustomed sense of direction and
purpose to Canada's assistance program. Problems remain, however,
particularly as regards the recruitment and retention of well
qualified staff. Unfortunately there is no career external aid

service in government. Staff are seconded from other government

 

46Preston, pp. 232-233.

47Spicer, p. 107.

Figure 1.

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Administrative Organization
of the External Aid Officel+8

 

 

Secretary of State for
External Affairs

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Director-General

 

 

 

External Aid Board

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Deputy
Director-General

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Director of Director of
Information French-
Languages
Programmes
Finance & Technical Planning & Policy Education Capital
Administration Assistance Coordination Division Assistance
Division Division Division Division
.Advisers Student & Trainee Training
Section Services Section

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

48Source:

A

 

EAO Finance and Administration Division.

 

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agencies and departments and the resulting transient nature of EAO
people makes for a series of administrative inadequacies. In
addition, a peculiar immobility has characterized the staff of EAO.
Most are not merely desk officers but apparently desk-bound.

Underlying aid operations Since 1960 has been a kind of
malaise which has commonly, though of course informally, been
attributed to the leadership of the Director-General. As his is
the central and pivotal role in EAO and since he enjoys a good
deal of autonomy as well as the status of deputy minister, what
happens or fails to happen in the Office can be largely regarded
as the fruits of his energy, vision and management. AS of the
preparation of this account, the first Director-General has been
replaced. A status-quo point of view is widely held to have
prevailed during the six years of his administration.

In this connection it is more than relevant to understand
the qualities of the new appointment and the atmosphere within
which he has assumed office. One reason that this study can
claim to be timely is, in the writer's opinion, that the impact
of the new administration of EAO is beginning to be felt as this
account is being written. The impact of the change cannot fail
to have incalculable significance for developments in the
university community. Suffice it at this stage merely to indicate
there is eager anticipation that the new Director-General, who
took office only in October, 1966, will play the role of the new
broom and that he will sweep away the cobwebs and replace them

with a new look consistent with his record as a successful and

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talented businessman. Though, it is early to know with certainty,
the indications are that such anticipation is not unwarranted. In
chapters IV and V the evidence of these indications will be viewed

in more detail.

E. Summary

The Canadian contribution to global development emanates, as
does that of any donor nation, directly from its foreign policy
motives and commitments. For Canada, these motives have become
conditioned by factors of time--its mid-twentieth century rise
to relatively mature nationhood--and p1ace--its location in the
Atlantic community and as neighbor to the United States. In
addition, historic connections to Great Britain and France have
been reflected clearly in Canada's diplomatic connections with
the Commonwealth and, increasingly, with the French-Speaking
nations. Canada has enjoyed advantages of being a middle
power in the world, particularly in the United Nations and in
relations with developing countries. Lacking an imperalist
tradition but possessing modern technology49 Canada has found
fairly ready acceptance through both diplomats and foreign aid

channels in many of these disadvantaged nations.

 

49Prime Minister Pearson expressed it ”American plumbing
without American power" in a Speech to the Canadian Club of
Ottawa, February 10, 1965, (Statements and Speeches No. 65/3,
Information Division, Department of External Affairs, Ottawa,
1965).

 

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It is clear that Canada's Commonwealth and United Nations
involvements loom large in its aid policy, added to which is the
more recent expansion of diplomatic and assistance relationships
into non-Commonwealth Colombo Plan countries and recently indepen-
dent French-Speaking countries. These pragmatic relationships
rather than theoretical or visionary considerations have underlain
Canadian aid motivations, though an unmistakable moral conviction
must be said to be present. To assist in rendering the world a
peaceful and prosperous atmOSphere for national development and
mutually beneficial trading relations has been the Canadian
commitment, within which is clearly implied the obligation of the
rich to the poor nations.

What is persistently clear, also, about the Canadian commit-
ment is that it has been inadequate in relation to the needs and
objectives of international development. There are reasons for
this, such as the perennial domestic Shortage of qualified people
for internal development50 and the view prevailing in the fifties
that overseas aid would be merely a temporary affair, hence the
failure to take it seriously enough. Canada has never attained
the one per cent Gross National Product goal, modest as that goal
is. Neither comparative and absolute figures tell the tale com-
pletely but 0.6 per cent is about the best Canada has achieved
so far. It is the announced policy of the present Liberal

Government in Ottawa, however, to raise this level to one per

 

50Canadians often Speak of Canada as a developing country
which, of course, it is, according to a number of indices.

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cent and it is some consolation that over the past two or three
years Canadian aid amounts have risen more rapidly than those of
almost all other donor nations.

Canadian capital and technical assistance finds its way
mainly to the Commonwealth and is largely bilateral in nature.
Recent subscriptions to the Asian Development Bank and the
International Monetary Fund51 and increases in United Nations
support give some indication of growing support for the multi-
lateral approach.52 Also significant is the soft loan policy
of Canada, now the easiest borrowing terms available to capital-
hungry nations. Most loans are interest free with a ten-year
grace period and repayment to be made over a Subsequent 40 years.
Outright grants, however, continue to predominate over loans. In
addition there has been a relaxation of "tying”, allowing more to
be spent on local materials.53

Technical assistance, the setting for the main concern of
this study, is increasing in proportion within the overall aid
program, though it is beset by domestic competition for skilled
people at every level and by a conservative administrative body

at the Federal government level. Aid allocations do not

 

51Canada increased its IMF quota from 550 million dollars to
740 million dollars in 1966 (Survey of International Development,
Vol. III, No. 7, July, 1966), p. 2.

 

52This was Stated in the Second Committee of the United
Nations General Assembly on October 7, 1966, by D. S. MacDonald,
Canadian Delegate to the United Nations.

53Bulletip, Overseas Institute of Canada, July, 1966, p. 7.

~78-

graphically Show this growing emphasis on technical assistance as
it is inexpensive relative to capital projects. The emphasis is
on senior university, senior secondary school staff and technical
advisors going abroad, with larger and larger numbers of trainees
and students coming to Canada for training and education. Many
projects are comprehensive, combining capital construction and
Canadian Staffing while local replacements are trained either on
site or in Canada. A large contribution to technical assistance
is made by non-government agencies as well, following similar
guidelines. Canadians have encountered problems like those
facing developing nations and domestic experience, still being
accumulated, has been found useful abroad.

The prevailing criteria for technical assistance continue
to be that they make maximum contribution to host country
development and self-support or in other words that they meet
host country needs. What can be said at this point with some
conviction, is that technical assistance is on the increase and,
though limited by personnel and resources which can be released
by Canada from her own ongoing deve10pment, promises under the
leadership of the newly appointed Director-General to grow in

scope, skill and relevance in the immediate future.

CHAPTER IV

THE INTERNATIONAL DIMENSION OF CANADIAN UNIVERSITIES

A. The Nature of Canadian Universities

1. History and Development

 

AS a consequence of being a bicultural nation, Canada has
developed two somewhat distinct and separate systems of higher
education. One was originally designed on the pre-Revolution
French pattern, with Roman Catholic ecclesiastical orders in
charge of most institutions. The other system was patterned
largely on English, Scottish and American practice, with
institutions under the control of a variety of bodies including
churches, governments and private agencies.

Since Canada was until 1763 a French colony, it is under-
standable that the first university-level instruction should
have been offered at the College des Jesuites, founded in
Quebec City in 1635, one year before the establishment of Harvard
University in the United States and about a century after the
establishment of universities in Mexico and Peru. The Collége
offered arts courses at first and later added theology. At about
the same time, the Séminaire de Québec was organized by the clergy.
In 1852, the Séminaire was instrumental in establishing Universite
laval in Quebec City. A branch of Laval opened in 1878 in
Montreal and was chartered as the Université de Montreal in 1920.

Montreal and its affiliated colleges now enroll the largest

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-80-

number of Students of any Canadian university, about 30,000.1

Soon after French control of Canada ended, English-Speaking
institutions of higher education began to appear. Amongst the
first were three King's Colleges, at Windsor (then later at
Halifax), Nova Scotia (1790), Fredericton (1829) and Toronto
(1843). They were associated with and dominated by the Anglican
Church. Attempts by the church to restrict enrollment to Anglican
adherents drew both religious and political criticism and resulted
in two of these colleges becoming provincially controlled--the
University of Toronto (1850) and the University of New Brunswick
(1859).

Most universities in Ontario and the Maritime provinces were
denominational in origin, owing to the desire of various church
bodies to educate their youth in the atmosphere of their faiths.
Such were Queen's University, Kingston, Ontario (Presbyterian,
founded 1841); Acadia University, Wolfville, Nova Scotia (Roman
Catholic, founded 1853) and Mount Allison University, Sackville,
New Brunswick (Methodist--now United Church of Canada--founded
1858). Queen's is now entirely non-denominational though the
others mentioned retain varying degrees of denominational interest.
Essentially the pattern has been the gradual entry into the public
domain, as it were, of most universities outside Quebec, largely

for reasons of financial burden; churches have had to go to

 

lThis includes enrollment at affiliated colleges classiques.
Canadian Universities and Colleges, 1966 (Ottawa: Association of
Universities and Colleges of Canada, 1966), p. 142.

-81-

government for financing and one result has been the secularization
of the universities.

Early exceptions to this pattern were McCill University,
which was founded in Montreal in 1821 and Dalhousie University in
Halifax. McGill was the country's first non-denominational univer-
sity. Dalhousie, founded in 1818 (though it did not begin teaching
until 1838) was established in protest against the Anglican exclu-
siveness of King's College, Windsor.2

After Confederation in 1867, efforts were made to establish
provincial universities and, as early as 1878, this was achieved
in the University of Halifax in Nova Scotia. Modeled on the
University of London, the University was to encompass the existing
Nova Scotia institutions as constituent colleges. The experiment
did not catch on and was dropped in 1881.

The pattern developed at the University of Toronto, in which
the conflicting interests of church and State were reconciled by
affiliating sectarian arts colleges to a non-sectarian university,
formed the basis for the subsequent development of the western
Canadian universities. The University of Manitoba, for example,
founded in 1877 on the University of London pattern, early became
the sole degree-granting institution in the province, although
three sectarian colleges were already in existence. Only now is

the pattern being threatened, as Brandon College approaches

 

2Ralph D. Mitchener, Canadian Universities and Colleges
(Ottawa: Information Division, Department of External Affairs,
1964), p. 2.

 

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university Status. Virtually the same pattern has applied in the
newer provinces of Saskatchewan and Alberta, though two new univer-
sities have recently been established in Alberta. Saskatchewan's
Regina campus may become a separate university. A Similar pattern,
with variations, applied in British Columbia, the main variation
being that, prior to the University of British Columbia, charter

in 1915, university-level instruction had been given in that
province by institutions connected with McCill and the University
of Toronto.

Until the mid-nineteenth century, Canadian higher education
consisted of little more than instruction in arts and theology.
Gradually scientific and professional studies were added. Large,
multi-faculty universities are comparatively recent and graduate
studies have had a slow growth in Canadian universities until
very recently. Doctoral Studies, in particular, were not regarded
as important until 1920, as Canadian universities had previously
been more attuned to British practice than to that of the United
States in which the doctoral degree enjoyed wider currency.
Full-time graduate enrollments have grown from just over 3,000 in
1951-1952 to more than 17,000 in 1965-1966.3

It should be remembered that, constitutionally, responsibility
for education at all levels (apart from Specialized educational
functions of the federal government) rests with the provincial

governments. There is no federal ministry or office of education,

 

3E. F. Sheffield, p. 13.

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although the federal government contributes to the costs of higher
education in the provinces. "Canada is almost alone among the
nations of the world in not having a national ministry or federal
office of education."4 National policy and planning for higher
education, therefore, are non-existent aside from the annual
financing agreements which are worked out among federal and
provincial finance ministers. In addition, the Association of
Universities and Colleges of Canada (A.U.C.C.) acts as a lobby
and clearing house on behalf of higher education and maintains
an office and research staff in Ottawa.5

Provincial legislatures enact the legislation governing the
creation of new universities or changes in existing ones. Control
of a university is then given to a Board of Governors (sometimes
called Board of Regents or Board of Trustees), the composition of
which varies according to the type of institution it is. If
church-related, the clergy will be represented; if a provincial
university, government is represented. Nearly all have represen-

tatives from business. Occasionally faculty are represented and

 

4T. L. Reller and E. L. Morphet, Comparative Educational
Administration (Englewood Cliffs, N. J.: Prentice-Hall, Inc.,
1962), p. 135.

 

5For a summary of the structure and division of responsi-
bilities in Canadian education, see J. F. Cramer and G. S. Browne,
Contemporary_Education (New York: Harcourt, Brace and World, Inc.,
1965), chapters 7 and 15. A much more detailed source of infor-
mation about all aspects of education in Canada is The Organization
and Administration of Public Schools in Canada (Ottawa: Dominion
Bureau of Statistics, 1966,‘Third Edition).

 

-84-

attempts are now being made to increase the number of faculty on
boards of governors.

The Board has ultimate control of the university, including
financial powers and the power to appoint a president and approve
faculty appointments. From the Board of Governors, authority
passes to the President or Principal, who usually carries the
additional title of Vice-Chancellor (Rector in French language
universities). The Senate, sometimes called the Faculty Council
or University Council, is made up mainly of faculty members,
although it may contain alumni, student and non-academic repre-
sentatives. Senates are delegated responsibility over academic
matters such as curriculum, admissions, discipline and the
awarding of degrees. Other administrative officers in Canadian
universities include: the registrar, who acts as secretary to
various committees and boards and whose office keeps records
and admits students, the business officer (comptroller or bursar),
deans and heads of academic departments. Some universities,
particularly larger ones, have the post of vice-president.

In Canada, an institution of higher education is usually
defined as one that offers courses of instruction beyond the
highest high school grade in the province. Not all of the
institutions thus defined offer degrees, however; such is true

of polytechnics, technical colleges and community colleges.6

 

6See L. S. Grant, "Canada's Evolving Two-Year Colleges",
Junior College Journal, February, 1967.

-85-

In numerical terms, in 1960, the pattern was that of 354 institu-
tions of higher learning, 59 granted degrees in one or more fields,
51 offered fewer years than required for baccalaureate degrees and
244 (most of them in Quebec) were affiliated colleges giving
baccalaureate or teacher certification courses, degrees being
awarded by the parent university.

Most students obtain the bachelor's degree after three or
four years of full-time university study. General degrees are
awarded after three years in provinces having a "senior matricu-
lation" secondary school year, which is equivalent to the first
year of a four-year university program. For the honors degree
an additional year in university is required. Masters' degrees
normally require one or two years after the honors B.A. or B.Sc.
In French Canada most French-Speaking students enter university

with a B.A. obtained in a collége classique and continue toward

 

the licence or maitrise SS arts which they earn in one year.

 

For a baccalaureat in science, engineering or commerce, candidates
are admitted directly from secondary schools as well as from the
collEge classique. The trend is toward entering the university
from public secondary schools, particularly as changes in the

organization and financing of education in Quebec accelerate.7

 

7These changes result from the work of the Parent Commission
gin Quebec (The Royal Commission of Inquiry on Education 1961-1965)
and began in May, 1964 with the formation of a Department of
Education. Publication of individual Commission reports continues.

-86-

University enrollment figures give perhaps the most graphic
index to the size of higher education in Canada. In 1930, there
were 33,000 full-time students in Canadian universities. By 1959-
1960, there were about 102,000; by 1963-1964, 158,000. The 1966
full-time enrollment (206,000) was double the 1960 figure. If
current growth continues, enrollments are expected to double again
in the next Six years and reach 553,000 in 1976-1977.8 Part-time
enrollments are consistently about one-third of full-time enroll-
ment. This will mean in 1976-1977 a part-time student body almost
as large as the total full-time enrollment for 1965-1966. The
proportion of women (32 per cent in 1965-1966) is increasing and
is expected to reach 42 per cent by 1976-1977. Graduate enroll-
ment is growing more rapidly than undergraduate enrollment. By
1971-1972 it Should be ten per cent of the full-time figure.

It is expected that the 18-24 age group in Canada will grow
50 per cent, from two to three million, over the period from
1966-1976. In 1965-1966 about eleven per cent of this population
group were enrolled full-time in Canadian universities.9 An

extension of the growth rates of the past years yields a 1976-1977

 

8E. F. Sheffield, p. 6. It is worth noting that almost all
recent enrollment projections have underestimated actual enroll-
ments in Canadian universities.

9This figure represents 6.5 per cent of the females and
14.3 per cent of”the males in the 18-24 age bracket. Also it
accounts for students enrolled for degrees and thus excludes
students enrolled in teachers colleges, polytechnics, summer
schools, community colleges and university correspondence
courses.

-87-

figure of about 25 per cent. Sheffield predicts, however, a
leveling off by 1976-1977 to about 18.6 per cent (consisting
of 21 per cent of the males and 16 per cent of the females of
the 18-24 population at that time). From these percentage
predictions, expected enrollment numbers have been calculated.
Full-time and part-time students together in 1976-1977, then,
could number 750,000.

By the end of 1966 there were 59 degree granting universities
in Canada. Including enrollment at affiliated or federated
institutions, eight of these universities had over 10,000 full-
time students in 1966. The University of Montreal was largest,
with 29,323, followed by the University of Toronto (17,810),
Universite Laval (17,006), the University of British Columbia
(15,916), the University of Alberta (14,444), McGill University
(11,696), the University of Manitoba (10,786) and the University
of Saskatchewan (10,583). In each of the ten provinces there is
at least one degree-granting institution. Only Newfoundland has
but a single degree-granting university. More than 300 additional
institutions offer courses at university level but do not confer

degrees.10

 

10A convenient handbook giving data on higher education in
Canada, including the offerings of individual universities, is
Canadian Universities and Colleges (Ottawa: The Association of
Universities and Colleges of Canada, published annually).

 

-88-

2. ‘ Recent Trends

 

In addition to rapid growth in university enrollments, both
in absolute and proportional terms, and aside from the increased
number of universities,11 several other pertinent developments are
making themselves felt. They are changes in university government,
shifts in means of financing and the impulse toward inter-
university cooperation.

In 1965, a two-man commission appointed by the Association of
Universities and Colleges of Canada (A.U C.C.) and the Canadian
Association of University Teachers visited 35 universities through-
out Canada for the purpose of examining and evaluating university
government. The Commissioners, one British the other American,
brought forward a number of recommendations12 for improving the
governance of universities which have already had some impact on
the administration of higher education in Canada. The substance
of the recommendations is to broaden the faculty representation
on Boards of Governors and Senates, as well as in other areas of
decision-making; to give students a greater voice in university
affairs; and to strengthen university-community and university-

government relations by means of the creation of joint groups on

 

11"New universities are going up at the rate of two a year”,
asserted Time (April 23, 1965), with a characteristic dash of
hyperbole.

12University Government in Canada, Toronto, Association of
Universities and Colleges of Canada and the Canadian Association
of University Teachers, University of Toronto Press, 1966. A
summary of the Report is J. Percy Smith, "The Duff/Berdahl
Report on University Government", University Affairs, Vol. 7
No. 4, April, 1966, pp. 1-3.

 

-89-

which academic people are well represented. This study has
strengthened the hand of academic reformers and, as a result,
faculty and student interests are beginning to be more fully
expressed on Boards and Senates.

The financing of universities in Canada has undergone marked
change since 1965. Beginning in 1951-1952, the federal government
provided annual grants to universities and colleges for operating
purposes based on the population of each province. In 1962-1963
the amount was raised to $2 per capita or $297 per full-time
student. The remaining 1962-1963 finances originated from
provincial governments (38.9 per cent); endowment income (3.5 per
cent); student fees (26.6 per cent); other sources (11.7 per cent).
The federal share was 19.3 per cent.13 (Parenthetically, some-
thing over five per cent of Canada's Gross National Product was
Spent on education in 1961; 2.3 per cent of federal expenditures
went to education.)14

In the early Sixties, faced with burgeoning enrollments and
aware of the magnitude of the financial implications of university
growth, the universities pressed the federal government for

greatly increased funds. In 1964, an independent commission

 

13R. D. Mitchener, p. 11.

14R. E. Whitworth, The Canadian System of Education (Ottawa:
Department of External Affairs Reference Paper No. 45, March,
1965), p. 13.

 

-90-

(the usual Canadian response to crisis)15 was appointed by what
is now the A.U.C.C. to make an estimate of the financial needs
of Canadian universities and to recommend means of supplying the
needs.

The Bladen Commission (inevitably named after its Chairman,
Dean V. W. Bladen of the University of Toronto) recommended
Sharply increased federal grants based on a per capita base of
five dollars for 1965-1966, to be increased by one dollar each
year thereafter. To the provinces, the Commission recommended
the continuation of student fees, at least for the next decade,
and that they adopt a means of determining operating and capital
grants in a way that would allow the universities to plan ahead
for periods of at least three years. The most important
recommendation to the provinces, however, was that formula-
financing be introduced, the formula to be related to the number
of Students in various curricula, weighted according to the cost
per student in each category.16 This recommendation was fated
to become centrally important because in its 1967 tax-Sharing

agreements with the provinces, the federal government placed

 

15At least a dozen education commissions in at least seven
provinces across Canada have completed studies since 1962, to
say nothing at all of other Provincial and Royal Commissions.
The most massive Royal Commission in Canadian history, the
Royal Commission on Bilingualism and Biculturalism, will have
Significant impact on education at all levels.

16FinancingHigher Education in Canada (Toronto: University
of Toronto Press, 1965). A summary of the Report is V. W. Bladen,
"The Bladen Report Recommends...", University Affairs, Vol. 7,
No. 1, October, 1965, pp. 1-3.

 

 

-91-

the burden of university financing on the provinces and is no
longer making direct grants to higher education.

Cooperation among various universities was urged by both the
Duff/Berdahl Commission and the Bladen Commission. There had been
some degree of voluntary inter-university cooperation prior to
these Commissions, most often in the forms of Councils of
Presidents, as in Quebec, Ontario and the Prairie Provinces.

The Maritime Provinces have the Association of Atlantic Univer-
sities which is probably the most effective such body in the
country. Both Duff-Berdahl and Bladen proposed that each province
establish a master plan for higher education. Bladen sees formula-
financing as one incentive to cooperation, as it would discourage
costly duplication, especially in graduate Studies.

Implicit in the recommendation that provinces create systems
of higher education rather than perpetuating isolated and entirely
independent universities is the problem of differentiation of
function and degree of Specialization. For example, in 1966 the
Committee of Presidents of the Universities of Ontario set up a
commission to investigate graduate study and research in the
fourteen provincially-supported universities in Ontario.17 The

Spinks Commission discovered costly duplications in graduate work,

 

17The Spinks Commission (named as is the custom, after its
Chairman, Dr. John Spinks, President of the University of
Saskatchewan).

-92-

insufficient coordination among universities and financial inade-
quacies, particularly in library acquisition.18

The Commission recommended, therefore, additional financial
assistance for research, most of which should be administered by
an Ontario Universities Research Council which would insure that
adequate research facilities be established and that the needs
of the province be met by rational cooperation among universities.
The recommendations went on to suggest that academic as well as
fiscal coordination be effected, primarily through creation of
the University of Ontario which would be a center of excellence
for the province and into which would fit the existing provincially-
supported universities in a coordinated fashion.19

The university presidents unanimously rejected the prOSpect
of a University of Ontario and with it the London and California
models, though they admitted their lassitude in bringing about
coordinated planning.20 It is likely that the Spinks Report will

accelerate incipient efforts at coordination.

 

18See "Ontario Graduate Commission Report", University
Affairs, Vol. 8, No. 3, February, 1967, pp. 1-2; also
J. W. T. Spinks, "The Spinks Report”, Canadian University,
March-April, 1967, pp. 51-52.

 

 

19It is significant that of the four commissioners, three
were from the University of Saskatchewan, the University of
California and the University of London. The fourth was from
the Ontario Department of University Affairs.

20Dr. J. A. Corry, Chairman of the Committee of Presidents,
replied on behalf of the committee in an article ”The Spinks
Report", The Globe and Mail, Toronto, December 30, 1966, p. 7
(reprinted in University Affairs, Ibid., pp. 3-4).

-93-

These three factors--university government, finance and
cooperation--are important to this study, not only because they
are timely but because they represent changes which may well
affect the degree to which the recommendations to be found in
chapter VI, below, are susceptible to implementation. In sum,
the changes imminent in university government should mean a
Stronger role for faculty personnel (and even Students) and
Boards and Senates which will hopefully be more responsive to
the needs of society. Formula-financing means that education .
is thrust more firmly than ever into the arms of the provinces,
at least fiscally. The push for coordination opens the door
even wider on the possibility of joint international work and
library acquisitions among universities. Though it is far too

early to predict with certainty precisely what influence these

trends will exert, there seem to be at least these possibilities.

B. The Universities and Technical Assistance

 

1. University Contracts

 

For many years there have been in Canada close working
relations between universities and the Department of External
Affairs. "Some of our most distinguished Canadians, men like
0. D. Skelton, R. A. MacKay, George Glazebrook, Norman Robertson,

Marcel Cadieux and many others, have been and are equally at home

-94-

in either milieu."21 Yet in that Specialized aspect of external
affairs known as technical assistance, the experience of Canadian
universities is comparatively recent. As noted above, assistance
to developing nations was once thought to be a temporary matter
and not until 1960 did the Canadian government establish an office
for its administration. This apparent absence of challenge and
lack of adequate administrative machinery merely served to confirm
the traditional provincial attitudes of Canadian universities.
With the advent of the EAO and radically increased emphasis on
technical assistance, however, the university community began,
albeit slowly, to respond to requests for educational assistance.

The first team contract for overseas educational assistance
was Signed in 1961 and provided for the University of British
Columbia to assist the University of Malaya and the University
of Singapore over a five-year period to establish courses in
accounting and business administration.

Subsequently, university-External Aid Office contracts have
been implemented in such fields and with such contractors as these:

Social Work (University of
the West Indies) University of Toronto

Medicine (University of
Madras) McGill University

 

21Paul Martin, "The University and International Affairs",
Speech delivered to the National Conference of Canadian
Universities and Colleges, Ottawa, April 20, 1964. Statements
and Speeches, No. 64/8, Information Division, Department of
External Affairs, Ottawa, 1964.

 

 

-95-

Anaesthesia (University of
Lagos University of Toronto'

Social Work (University of
Dacca) McGill University

Engineering (Karnataka
Regional Engineering

College, India) University of Toronto

Institute of Community University of British
Planning (Ghana) Columbia

Adult Education (University University of British
of Rajasthan) Columbia

Business Management (Multi- Waterloo Lutheran
national through EAO) University

Secondary Education
(Ministry of Education,
Thailand) University of Alberta

Agriculture, Engineering
(University of the North

East, Thailand) University of Manitoba
Law (Haile Sellassie University of Montreal
University, Ethiopia) in cooperation with

McGill University

University contracts, like other technical assistance
projects, are reSponsive to official requests. They are designed
to be developed in cooperation with local authorities in fields
which are felt by the hosts to demand priority. The Director of
the Education Division of EAO states: "We have only attempted to
meet those requests which are based on realistic priorities of
development, where there are reasonable staff-student ratios,

and where there is some assurance that the local authorities will,

 

 

-96-

out of their own resources, ultimately be able to sustain the
faculty or institution involved.”22

The terms of External Aid Office contracts are similar to
those of United States Agency for International DevelOpment
contracts. The host nation usually provides living and trans-
portation allowances. The university provides the advisory
faculty and the project leadership. The EAO finances transpor-
tation, overhead costs to the Canadian institution and the funds
for operating and equipping the project. Contract periods have
run from two to five years, and some like Toronto's effort to
assist in the establishment of a Regional Engineering College
in Mangalore, India, have been terminated prior to completion.23

In addition to advisory personnel and administrative services,
the Canadian university customarily provides training for counter-
parts on site and for trainees on the home campus. As well,
research and evaluation provisions are often written into the
contract. Teaching duties are important but a good deal of the
advisor's time is given to assistance in academic planning. A
number of senior Canadian faculty have acted as administrators,
especially in new or recently created departments, faculties and

even of whole universities.

 

22Harry J. Hodder, "Canadian Aid to Developing Countries",
J. E. Hodgetts (ed.), Higher Education in a Changing Canada
(Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1966), p. 31.

23In this case for lack of sufficient c00peration on the
part of the host country authorities.

.\‘-..

:L._7."_ T?! n‘ ~.

.. Lam-2b T

Pym-”H1455
. . .

 

-97-

Evaluations of contracts are made at mid-contract and upon
completion by the contracting university, the EAO and the Canadian
mission in the host nation. Almost all contracts fall within
Canadian technical assistance agreements with countries of the
Colombo Plan, Commonwealth and Francophone Africa.

Much the greatest part of the experience of Canadian univer-
sities abroad had been in what has come to be termed institution-
building. Canadian advisors have been mostly senior university
faculty who assist in the establishment and development of new
departments and faculties. Such is the case in each of the con-
tracts listed above. In each case it is intended by all three
parties to the agreement that Canadian assistance be phased out
as the host country institution develops the capacity to become
self-sustaining in both personnel and finances.

The team approach has so far been difficult, or at least
slow, to develop in universities in Canada, owing largely to
the pressing domestic need for faculty and the rapid growth of
universities. Most university participation continues to be
the assignment by the EAO directly of individual faculty members
to institutions abroad. In such cases the faculty members take
leave from their campus for one or two years and EAO pays their
costs in addition to an amount for overhead to their university.
Their advisory tasks are essentially the same as those of a team
except that briefing, administration and policy are managed
entirely by EAO. The Size of this program has grown from five

professors in 1961 to 110 for the 1966-1967 academic year.

 

-98-

A combination of the individual and team approaches can be

seen in the program in which 35 French-Speaking academics have
assisted in the establishment of the National University of

Rwanda under the auSpices of the FAQ and the host government.

2. The Association of Universities and Colleges of Canada24

 

AS Canada's only agency acting in the interests of the
academic community at the national level, the A.U.C.C. figures
strongly in shaping the reSponse of the universities to inter-
national work on a number of fronts.

Constitutionally the A.U.C.C. was created by Act of
Parliament (1965) to succeed and expand on its predecessor, the
Canadian Universities Foundation. It brings together on a

voluntary basis 59 institutions of higher education in Canada.

The functions of the organizations include ”the study of current

problems of higher education; the systematic collection of

information about academic programmes and administrative practices
of universities; the administration of programmes of student aid

and international cooperation; and the making of representations

to governments on behalf of the membership as a whole."25
The Secretariat of the A.U.C.C., located in Ottawa, has a
Domestic Programmes Division, Awards Division, a Research and

Information Service and an International Programmes Division.

 

24Hereafter called A.U.C.C.

25Canadian Universities and Colleges 1966, p. 1.

 

 

  

flu“ - “a???“‘(i‘w "H; - ..

-99-

The International Programmes Division attempts a number of roles,

namely:

a)

b)

C)

d)

e)

f)

g)

h)

The

agencies

the administration of the Commonwealth Scholarship and
Fellowship Plan;

the facilitation of the movement of Students from
developing countries to Canadian universities;

the discovery of faculty for universities in developing
countries;

the publication of information materials for foreign
students coming to Canada;

the evaluation of transcripts of secondary, university
and professional education from overseas;

the undertaking of a continuing study of the performance
of foreign students in Canada;

the encouragement of institution-to-institution relation-
ships between Canadian universities and universities in
developing countries; and

the commissioning and publishing of special studies

such as the Hamlin-Lalande study: International Studies

 

in Canadian Universities, 1964.

 

Division works closely with government and private

interested in international affairs and, in general,

acts as a continuing liaison between those agencies and the

universities wherever matters arise which have to do with

international cooperation in higher education.

 

# v——*.
.1 J

- I

V“ .E‘.‘F.

“"r-‘Irfi-w:

 

-100-

3. Canadian University Service Overseas26

 

Symptomatic of the apparently growing social and political
involvement of young people and the drive for international
development has been the international voluntary movement of the
past ten years.

The objectives of voluntary service are to do charitable and
useful work in developing areas at low cost. Equally important
are the objectives of fostering better relations between countries
and of providing an educational experience for the volunteers
themselves.

The volunteer movement, now worldwide with about 160 organi-
zations sending out some 17,000 volunteers,27 began in Australia
and New Zealand in a modest way in the early fifties. In 1958
the British Voluntary Service Overseas was established on a larger
scale and in 1961, the United States Peace Corps came into being,
making the voluntary movement a growing source of mid-level
manpower for technical assistance.

CUSO evolved organizationally from a clutch of groups on

Canadian campuses about 1960, several of which sent their own

 

26Hereafter called CUSO.

27Adrian MoyeS, Volunteers in Development (London: Overseas
Development Institute; 1966), p. 10. An account of the Inter-
national Secretariat for Volunteer Service written by its
Secretary-General is William A. Delano, "Volunteers and
Development", International Development Review, September, 1966,
pp. 2-7.

 

 

 

pr: 7 .

 

-101-

28 In 1961 these diverse elements coalesced

volunteers overseas.
as CUSO and the first CUSO volunteer reached Bombay on September 4,
1961, three days after the first Peace Corps group arrived in Ghana.
Not until 1962, however, was the program consolidated. That year
fifty volunteers were placed. The program has Since grown to 570
volunteers in 1966-1967 serving in 35 countries of the developing
world. The number of volunteers anticipated for the fall of 1967
is 1,000. This makes the Canadian program approximately fourth

in Size after those of the United States, Great Britain and West
Germany.

CUSO emerged from a campus setting and has since been careful
to maintain its identity as a private, university-based organiza-
tion. It does receive government support, however, in the amount
of about eighty per cent of its budget. This amalgam of govern-
ment financing and private control is characteristic, in addition
to CUSO, of the Belgian, Dutch, British and Danish voluntary
services as contrasted with those operated by government agencies
such as the United States Peace Corps and the German Development
Service. This has meant for CUSO a felicitous combination of
operational flexibility, non-political flavor and yet sufficient'
resources upon which to base an expanding program. To insure the

university connection, CUSO is directed by an Executive Committee

 

28The origins, development and program of CUSO are dealt
with in detail in G. S. M. Woolcombe, Canadian University
Service Overseas: A Case Study of an Overseas Volunteer
Program (Unpublished M.A. thesis, Pennsylvania State
University, 1965).

 

-102-

of ten persons almost all of whom have been or are associated with
university life and two of whom must be students. Funds are
solicited from a number of business and private organizations to
supplement government grants. The university connection is
further observable in the recruitment, selection and training of
CUSO volunteers. Local CUSO committees have been established at
each university in Canada. These committees are composed of
faculty, students (often returned volunteers) and community
representatives and they provide for publicity, recruitment and
the preliminary screening of potential volunteers. Then the
local committee forwards its recommendations to the National
Selection Committee for final selection. The extent to which
this local selection method is valid may be gauged from the fact
that in 1966, of the 493 prospective volunteers interviewed and
recommended by local university committees, 473 were chosen by
the National Selection Committee.29

Orientation, too, is held on university campuses across the
country with university faculty responsible for the content,
method and administration of the training in consultation with
the national CUSO office. Up to 1966, about 80 per cent of all
volunteers were university graduates.

Volunteers go overseas in answer to requests from host
governments and on arrival become employees of, and thus

responsible to, the local agency. Local rates of remuneration

 

29cuso Bulletin, August, 1966, p. 6.

 

-103-

apply to CUSO volunteers and in fact the recipient government is
expected to meet a large amount of the costs of the program from
its own resources. CUSO volunteers do not come free. Up to
fifty or sixty per cent of the salary, food and accommodation
costs of CUSO volunteers is met by the recipient government.30
This works out to be one-third of the total costs of CUSO'S

program.

4. Overseas Students

 

In many ways the most Significant fact about foreign students
in Canada is their numbers. From this fact flow the related items
which become of concern to a university.

The number of international students represents roughly Six
per cent of the total Canadian university enrollment. Of these,
approximately one-third are students from the United States; the
rest come from some 150 nations. In Ontario students from outside
Canada constituted 8.3 per cent of the total enrollment in 1965-
1966.31 This total, some 11,284 in 1965-1966, is made up of two
main groups, namely; the more than 8,000 non-Sponsored students

accepted annually by Canadian universities and some 1,000 brought

 

3OMoyes, p. 66. The cost to CUSO of placing one volunteer
overseas for two years is about $2,500. This compares with
about $16,500 for United States Peace Corps or $12,600 for the
German Volunteer Service (Ibid., p. 67).

31University Affairs in Ontario 1966, a statement by
William G. Davis, Minister of Education, to the Ontario
Legislature, June 16, 1966, p. 6.

 

-104-

to Canada under the terms of various aid agreements.32 Universities
tend to regard the education provided for non-sponsored international
students as a considerable contribution to international development
since only one-third of the costs of a university education is met

by tuition.

It is significant that the proportion of non-Canadian students
in the full-time university enrollment in Canada has remained
consistently (about six per cent) in view of the fact that full-
time enrollments have doubled since 1960.

The universities, mainly through the clearinghouse offices of
the A.U.C.C., are consulted regarding the disposition of scholar-
ships and fellowships for international students, particularly '
through the provisions of the Colombo Plan, the Commonwealth
Scholarship and Fellowship Plan, the Special Commonwealth African
Plan and the Commonwealth Caribbean Assistance Plan. Other efforts
in the foreign student field which are to some degree coordinated
have been assistance to the African Students Foundation and to an
organization called the Canadian Service for Overseas Students
and Trainees (C.S.O.S.T.). For the African Students Foundation
the universities have found tuition-free places for a number of
African students and, in the same connection, have assisted in
selection procedures. As for CSOST, which serves the welfare of

overseas Students in Canada, universities took an important

320. C. Andrew, "External Aid or International Cooperation",
in J. E. Hodgetts (ed.), p. 43.

-105-

initiative not only in its foundation but also in its financing.
Approximately $2,500 a year are contributed by the AUCC for the
support of CSOST. J. A. Corry, then President of the National
Conferences of Canadian Universities and Colleges, estimated that
the cost to "individual university budgets for both tuition and
welfare services to foreign Students in Canadian universities
would be well in excess of $10,000,000 a year.33

Several studies are complete or in progress which give
detailed information on foreign student origins, academic

progress and related items.34

C. International Studies

One result of the international involvement of Canadian
universities has been the growth in recent years of what broadly
is termed international studies. In some cases, as at Toronto,
McGill and British Columbia, international Studies have long
been part of university activity but on the whole developments
in international studies (by which is meant the international
elements in teaching and research programs) have occurred alongside
Canada's aid program. Professorial assignments abroad and the

presence of foreign Students, coupled with and related to Canadian

 

33From a letter to Paul Martin, Secretary of State for
External Affairs, April 3, 1965, p. 2.

34See, for instance, Universipy Student Expenditure and
Income in Canada 1961-62: Part I--Non-Canadian Students
(Ottawa: Dominion of Bureau of Statistics, 1963).

 

-106-

foreign policy since World War II, have been important catalysts
in the process.

Several components of international studies merit attention
here:

1. Teaching and Research

 

Only one large-scale study of the place of international
studies in the universities of Canada has been done up to this
writing.35 In it Hamlin and Islande review the state of Russian
and East European studies, Asian studies, African studies and
Latin American studies in Canada. Programs dealing with Western
EurOpe, the white Commonwealth and the United States of America
were left out of their survey as it was felt that these areas
have been included in conventional curricula.

For the sake of perspective and to bring up to date some of
the Hamlin-Lalande observations, the following summary cf inter-
national studies programs, offered or being planned, is proffered,

by institution and field.36

 

35The study, though in one volume, appears in two parts:
D. L. B. Hamlin, International Studies in Canadian Universities,
and Gilles Lalande, L'étude des relations internationales et de
certaines civilisations Strangéres au Canada (Ottawa: Canadian
Universities Foundation, 1964).

 

 

36A variety of sources have yielded this information, such
as: university calendars; the Hamlin-Lalande Study; personal
correspondence; the Canadian National Commission for UNESCO and
the A.U.C.C. The data are current as of September, 1966. Items
marked with an asterisk are those expected to be initiated
imminently.

University

 

Acadia

Alberta

British Columbia

Brock

Calgary

Carleton

Dalhousie

Guelph

King's College
(Halifax)

Lakehead

Laval

-lO7-

Program

West Indian Studies (graduate and
undergraduate)

Centre of International Affairs
(graduate study and research)
(interdisciplinary)

*Slavonic Studies

Africa (7 courses); Asia (10
courses); Middle East (2
courses)

Far Eastern Studies
South Asian Studies (in cooperation
with Simon Fraser University)
Slavonic Studies
Asia (15 courses); Middle East
(3 courses)

Africa (1 course); Asia (2 courses)

Latin American Studies (second
subject for honors degree)
Africa (2 courses); Asia (2 courses)

Soviet and East European Studies
(honors degree)

School of International Affairs
(M.A. degree)

Public Administration Diploma

Africa (2 courses); Asia (1 coulse)

Centre for International Programs
(coordination for teaching, research,
technical assistance and exchange)

Africa (3 courses); Asia (8 courses)

Latin American Institute
Asia (2 courses)

*International Centre on Bilingualism
(research)

Institute of Geography (international
research interests)

International Relations (M.A. degree)

Africa (3 courses); Asia (3 courses);
Middle East (3 courses)

Loyola

Manitoba

Memorial

McCill

McMaster

Moncton

Montreal

New Brunswick

Ottawa

Queen's

St. Francis Xavier

St. Mary's

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African Studies (undergraduate)
Middle East (2 courses)

International Relations (M.A. degree)
Slavonic Studies (M.A. degree)
Asia (1 course)

South Asian Studies (M A. degree)

Centre for Developing Area Studies
(graduate study and research)

Institute of Islamic Studies
(graduate Study and research)

Air and Space Law Institute

Africa (3 courses); Asia (10 courses--
mainly on India)

Comparative Studies (Political Science)
Africa (3 courses); Asia (5 courses)

International Law (1 course)

International Relations (M.A. degree)

*Comparative Legal Studies

African Studies Diploma (1 year past
B.A.) (32 courses offered)

Africa (11 courses); Asia (3 courses)

North American Studies the major
emphasis
Africa (2 courses); Asia (2 courses)

*Centre of International Cooperation

Diploma in International Public
Administration

West Indies Studies (graduate and
undergraduate)

*Institute of International Studies
*International Relations
*International Law

Africa (2 courses); Asia (4 courses)

Coady International Institute
(Cooperatives and Community
Development Training)

International Studies (Political
Science) (undergraduate)

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Saskatchewan Slavic Studies and Far Eastern Studies
(Saskatoon) (undergraduate)
Middle East (2 courses)
Graduate Courses in International Law,
Politics and Economics

Simon Fraser South and South East Asia (Anthropology-
Sociology)
Africa (2 courses); Asia (9 courses)

Sir George Williams Africa (3 courses); Asia (6 courses);
Middle East (1 course)

Toronto International Studies Programme
(coordinates area studies)
Centre for Russian and East European
Studies
Centre for International Relations
Near Eastern Studies
East Asian Studies
Islamic Studies
Victoria Asia (7 courses)
Western Ontario Africa (1 course); Asia (3 courses);
Middle East (1 course)
Latin American Research and Library
Development
Windsor *East Asian Studies
International Relations (interdisci-

plinary honors degree)

York Africa (1 course); Asia (2 courses)

The curricular offerings characteristic of these programs are
concentrated in the social sciences and, to a lesser extent, the
humanities. Professional schools have largely eschewed the inter-
national emphasis in teaching and research, with exceptions of
agriculture, law, and faculties of education offering comparative
education. The University of Montreal's African Studies Diploma

offers courses in tropical medicine and hygiene on a non-degree

-110-

basis. Most schools of medicine, engineering, business administra-
tion, architecture, forestry, social work and so on do little in
this connection.

The above list, however, represents measurable expansion in
very recent years, especially in courses on Asia and Africa. The
first meeting of the Committee on African Studies was held only
in 1962. One 1963 sample of university course offerings on
Africa, Asia and the Middle East showed 54 courses. The same
sample in 1966 indicated that the number had risen to 100.37
Another indication of growth is in the number of scholars working
in Asian, African, Slavic, West Indian and Latin American Studies.
One register of scholars contributing to Studies of Asia and
Africa compiled in 1964 lists 52.38 The UNESCO survey identified

147 scholars working in Asian Studies alone.

2. Exchange and Special Programs

 

Student and faculty exchange schemes have contributed to the
growth in international awareness on Canadian campuses. In addition
to large numbers of overseas students coming to Canada, increasing
numbers of Canadian students are studying abroad. To be sure, most

of this study is in Europe but under the terms of the Commonwealth

 

0
37Survey compiled by the Canadian National Commission for
UNESCO, September, 1966 (unpublished).

38w. A. c. H. Dobson (ed.), The Contribution of Canadian
Universities to an Understanding of Asia and Africa (Ottawa:
Canadian National Commission for UNESCO, 1964).

 

~111-

Scholarship and Fellowship Plan, Canadian students beginning to
choose to study in non-western countries of the Commonwealth.
The doctorate at McGill'S Centre for Developing Area Studies
requires at least one year of living overseas. The A.U.C.C.
administers a number of awards for study abroad outside the
Commonwealth. The University of Toronto's Centre for Russian
and East European Studies conducts a student exchange program
with the University of Moscow. Toronto is also working out a
program of faculty exchange among Duke University, the University
of Toronto, the University of London and the University of East
Africa. Alberta Operates a Similar exchange with Schevchenko
Kieve State University in the Soviet Union.

Faculty exchanges are more numerous in View of the habit of
"twinning" between Canadian and overseas universities. In its
fullest expression, "twinning" gives opportunities for student
and faculty exchanges, (for both degree studies and research)
and technical assistance if the partner university is in a
developing country. Worthy of note is the exchange between
McGill University Medical School and the Chinese Medical University,
Peking. In 1966 this meant two Chinese professors coming to Canada.

Two recent reports have indicated means for facilitating
exchange. One, submitted to the A.U.C.C. by the Director of its
International Programmes Division, grows out of the increasing

mutual interest in each other of Quebec and France.39 The other,

 

39June 18, 1966 (mimeo).

-112-

longer and more Specialized, suggests for the first time a system-
atic approach to collaboration between Canadian and Latin American
universities.40

A number of Special study programs should be noted here Since
they are outside the usual curricular and research patterns. The
University of Windsor has a non-credit program in English language
for students from Sophia University, Tokyo. Thirty-five Japanese
students took the course in the summer of 1966. The University of
Toronto introduced in 1963 a two-year diploma course in Economic
Development, primarily, though not exclusively, for students from
developing countries. St. Francis Xavier University in Antigonish
attracts students (non-degree) from some 30 countries each year
for an eight-month diploma program in social leadership, coopera-
tives management and rural development. Carleton University has
held an eight-month diploma program in public administration for
Students from developing nations, an optional part of which was
the opportunity of Spending four months in a government department
in Ottawa on completion of the course. Mention has already been
made of the Similar course being offered at the University of
Ottawa which is mainly for French-Speaking civil servants from

overseas .

 

40Gerard Dion, Suitability, Possibility and Means of Inter-
University Collaboration between Canada and Latin American
Countries in the Field of the Social Sciences (Ottawa: A.U.C.C.,
1966).

 

-113-

There are other international resources in Canadian univer-
sities which are almost always ignored, both in discussions of
this sort and by universities themselves. The first of these is
the large number of faculty who come from countries other than
Canada. Owing largely to the failure of Canada's graduate schools
to provide sufficient graduates to staff the universities during
the current period of unprecedented growth, Canada has had to
rely on the ”brain drain" from other countries for over one-third
of all new faculty appointments since 1960. In 1962, for example,
49 per cent of all new faculty members were recruited outside
Canada.41 The University of Guelph, to cite only one example,
engaged faculty in 1966 from 21 countries. Coupled to this is
the attempt to repatriate Canadian graduate students from the
United States, Britain and Europe, all of whom have at least been
exposed to the advantages provided by Study abroad.42

The second of these virtually untapped resources is returned
CUSO volunteers. Abroad for two years, these volunteers are
trickling back to Canada in growing numbers and it is Significant
that 20 or 30 per cent of them are known to be going on for
further Study. One sample of 193 returnees Showed that 43 were

enrolled in university, 37 of them in graduate schools.43 Another

 

41J. A. Corry, p. 10.

42The writer has had personal experience with this approach
to repatriation.

43CUSO Bulletin, February, 1966, p. 8.

-114-

indicated that of a group of 101 returned volunteers in late 1965,
34 were continuing their studies, exclusive of a number who were

training to become teachers.44

D. Summary

Canadian universities have evolved over time, a variety of
approaches to curriculum, staffing, financing and organization.
In this century the work of the universities has been greatly
broadened until now a large number of professional and applied
studies are undertaken. Post-graduate Studies are enjoying
unprecedented expansion as is university enrollment at all levels.
This rapid growth in enrollment and in the absolute number of
universities and other institutions of post-secondary education
has meant a good deal of rethinking under Strain of members.
Financing arrangements between the federal and provincial govern-
ments have been revised, placing more securely than ever the
responsibility for higher education under provincial control.

A broadened base of university government is deve10ping to take
account of faculty and student demands for a larger voice in
higher education. A number of study commissions have made
sweeping recommendations for changes, many of which have already
been adopted.

It is in this setting of change and uncertainty that the

universities have been finding their way into international

F

44Woolcombe, p. 131.

-115-

activities of various kinds. Technical assistance contracts,
overseas research and exchange arrangements, efforts to deal
with larger and larger numbers of foreign students, CUSO recruit-
ment and training-~all of these have been developing Side by Sided
The national universities secretariat, the A.U.C.C., has provided
coordination for some of these activities.

Virtually all of this activity has taken Shape since 1960
and has become most pronounced Since 1963. This factor of time
and other considerations give rise to a range of problems and
challenges confronting the universities in international activity.

It is these issues which the next chapter will attempt to analyze.

CHAPTER V

PROBLEMS CONFRONTING THE UNIVERSITIES
IN INTERNATIONAL ACTIVITY
A mixture of optimism and disappointment dogs the attempts of
anyone to evaluate international activity in Canadian universities--
optimism because so much seems to have been achieved in a short
time, disappointment in that much more could have been done. The
purpose of this chapter of the study is briefly to describe some
of the principal difficulties presently facing universities in
order more precisely to prescribe in the final chapter possible

means by which the universities might play a more effective part.

A. Attitude

Though elusive of documentation, it is nevertheless fair to
say that a certain smugness attends much of the planning and
policy-making in Canadian universities. This is a smugness born
of a confidence in being adequate, if not superior, as measured
by some intuitive assessment of higher education around the world.
Historically, this satisfaction grows out of experience somewhere
between European (especially British) and American universities.
A feeling for tradition and a distrust of rapid innovation con-
solidate this stance. One of its major effects has been a
provincialism in higher education not only vis a vis the world

community but even among the provinces. Only recently has this

-ll6-

-117-

begun to break down but strong evidence of provincialism remains.
For example, Speaking of the place of the university in the
Canadian community, Principal Corry of Queen's University, then
President of the A.U.C.C., said in his President's Address:

There is a world-wide community of scholars in

which we want to affirm our membership and enlarge

our part. Of course, the Canadian university has a

concern for humanity that goes beyond national

boundaries but if it cannot come to effective terms

with the society from which it must draw its energy

and vitality, it cannot do much for humanity at

large or cut much of a figure on the world Stage.

At this particular moment of time, our first attention

must be fixed on the place of the university in the

Canadian community. This is a big enough Subject for

me today.1

The result of this reluctance to cultivate an international
point of view has been a half-hearted and casual attempt to seize
the chances clearly available to universities in research, teaching
and related enterprises.

It can be pointed out, of course, that the demands of Canadian
higher education preclude more resources of money and faculty being
freed for international activity. This again is the manifestation
of a parochial attitude which holds that such activity is marginal
to a university's real and immediate concerns. Such a premise is
not hard to identify in the thinking of university people in Canada

today. AS a result, much of the growth in international activity

is somewhat superficial and is paid as much lip service as concrete

 

1Proceedings: Annual Meeting, Association of Universities
and Colleges of Canada, 1965 (Ottawa: Association of Universities
and Colleges of Canada, 1965), p. 40.

 

 

~118-

attention. Deep commitment is rarely apparent, though the seeds

of change are beginning to be visible, as shown in chapter 111.
What cannot be gainsaid, however, is the evident fact that such
international activity as is undertaken by Canadian universities

is by no means commensurate with their capabilities and available
resources. The attitudes necessary for graSping the Significant
possibilities for universities in international work have failed

to keep up the sweep of international events, or indeed, to
Canada's changing role in the world community. Consequently,
international work in Canada's universities ”has not yet achieved
maturity or international Significance".2 Or, as put to the

author by an official of the External Aid Office, the response

of the universities to technical assistance varies ”from enthusiasm
to complete ignorance". The world, as opposed to the province and
nation, has not yet become the frame of reference for higher
education in Canada. Lalande has put it even more severely:

”The degree to which international studies as a whole are being
neglected in most of our universities is to my mind an unmistakable

sign of the general Canadian indifference towards foreign lands".3

 

2Norman MacKenzie in his Foreward to Hamlin and Lalande, p. v.

3Gilles Lalande, ”Canadian Aid to French Developing Countries"
in J. E. Hodgetts (ed.), p. 37.

-ll9-

B. Organization

 

From the underlying question of attitude Spring the other
principal barriers to university involvement in international
work of various kinds. One is organizational arrangements.

The administration of international activities has developed,
in short, on an ad hoc basis with few exceptions. The universities
have taken on technical assistance projects, area studies, exchange
programs and foreign students in a patchwork, each quite unrelated
to the other. Individual faculty have gone abroad with little
support from the home campus. Team projects have come to life,
then subsided without any impact whatever on campus life. The
Malaysian project of the University of British Columbia, for
instance, engaged the services of only three or four U.B.C.
faculty, none of whom, it was intimated to the author, has had
occasion to alter appreciably his teaching or research since
returning. Moreover, among these faculty members there is little
intention to take subsequent overseas assignments, in Malaysia or
elsewhere. The coordinator of the project worked abroad for a
time, leaving no one on the home campus for supporting adminis-
tration. Admittedly, this was the first technical assistance
effort by a Canadian university. But, writing several years
later about McGill University's well known Institute of Islamic
Studies, Norman MacKenzie, chairman of the committee which
Sponsored the Hamlin-Lalande report, said: ”I was disappointed

in the impression I received that this excellent work had very

-120-

little influence or effect upon the general McGill University
community. Apart from the director, Dr. Wilfred Smith, who
unfortunately for Canada is taking up a post in the United States,
there seemed to be very few Canadians attached to the Institute,
either as staff or students, and little evidence that the Institute
had done much to introduce any of the McGill undergraduates to
this most important and interesting field of international
studies."4

Such fragmentation of approach has been characteristic. Most
efforts have been centered on graduate study and research5 with
undergraduate studies being given rather Short Shrift and foreign
student programs almost no special attention at all. Professional
schools have, on the whole, scarcely entered the field of inter-
national teaching and research, preferring to release personnel
occasionally through the External Aid Office. As indicated in
chapter IV, only a few courses in comparative law and education
alter this profile.

Most centres, like McGill University's Centre for Developing
Area Studies, Institute of Islamic Studies and the University of
Toronto's International Studies Program remain removed from

undergraduate education, which by all odds accounts for the

 

4Hamlin and Lalande, p. xi.

5Though Lalande asserts: "There is not yet...throughout the
whole of Canada, a Single, well-equipped research centre for
dealing with underdeveloped or developing countries”. (Ibid.,
p. 37.)

-121-

greatest part of the work of Canadian universities. The only
institution in Canada giving attention to a balanced and coordi-
nated approach to international activity on all fronts is the
University of Guelph, whose Senate has adopted a comprehensive
international program.

Within universities, the interdisciplinary method of studying
problems in international perspective has been Slow to catch on.
Part of the reason for this, as for most of the shortcomings cited
here, is the pressing need for faculty in expanding academic
departments. But, as Hamlin points out, ”inter-departmental
cooperation is essential"6 and so long as it fails to develop,
cross-cultural studies will continue to lag.

Among universities, the same reluctance to cooperate remain
evident, though it is beginning to break down as noted in
chapter IV. No consortium of universities has yet appeared
to coordinate faculty exchanges, library growth and similar

costly items related to international activity.

C-Eieaecs

Again, for reasons of domestic needs and in the shift in
methods of university financing little in the way of reliable
financial arrangements has been worked out for international

activity. Technical assistance contracts have been funded by

 

6Ibid., p. 87.

-122-

the External Aid Office, but few such contracts have provided for
items beyond expenses plus overhead, such as research. Other
aSpectS of international work have been financed on a catch-as-
catch-can footing. This has persisted partly because no university
in Canada has yet confronted EAO with a scheme needing funds beyond
the requirements of a contract period. Interviews suggest that EAO
would willingly entertain a longer-range approach on the part of
universities.

In the meantime universities finance their budding inter-
national activities from various sources. Philanthropic foundations
in the United States are some of the most generous of these. The
Hamlin-Lalande study was Supported by the Carnegie Corporation;
Laval University's new Centre on Bilingualism is Ford Foundation
financed, as in part has been McGill's Centre for Developing Area
Studies. Many visiting professorships, exchanges, library grants
and fellowships are provided by U.S. foundations. Toronto's
International Studies Program was supported initially by a 100,000
dollar bequest. The Laidlaw Foundation assists the University of
Toronto's Centre for Russian and East European Studies. Scholarly
grants emanate from the Canada Council and the Humanities and
Social Sciences Research Councils.

Beyond this assortment of financing, universities dig into
operating budgets for expanded departmental teaching and research
needs. They do so Somewhat reluctantly especially in institutions
(and this covers the vast majority) which regard international

Studies, technical assistance and Similar affairs as marginal.

-123-

A certain embarrassment is expressed occasionally about the
willingness of American foundations to support international work
in Canadian universities while Canadian sources of wealth remain
comparatively stingy. Without EAO provisions, and these are
always related to aid policy, academic work in international
fields would depend largely on American funding agencies. Speaking
of the Carnegie, Rockefeller and Ford Foundations, Hamlin says:
"Without the grants which they have made Canada would not have
those facilities which exist today in Russian and East European
Studies and Asian Studies".7 T. L. Hills of McGill's Centre for
Developing Area Studies estimates that over 50 per cent of inter-
national research by Canadians is financed by U.S. sources.8 It
is beyond question that great cost is involved in expanding along
the lines suggested in this study and in such other proposals as
those of Hamlin and Lalande. Travel grants, library collections,
scholarships and language facilities require amounts of some
magnitude eSpecially during the early years of a program. Hamlin
estimates the financial requirements to be 100,000 to 200,000
dollars per year for five to ten years for a university planning
on ”comprehensive facilities for undergraduates and graduate study

and research in one field".9 Such a scale of need does not provide

 

7Ibid., p. 83.

8T. L. Hills, "Canada and Research Relevant to the Developing
Countries", Ottawa, Overseas Institute of Canada, November, 1965
(mimeo) p. 5.

9Ibid., p. 85. McGill's Institute for Islamic Studies and
Toronto's Centre for Russian and East European Studies now plan
for periods of five years.

-124-

grounds for unbridled optimism when the current availability of

finances in Canada is considered.

D. Relations with Government

 

Unfortunately, there is at present no machinery
designed to relate the total involvement of the
university community in international co-operation
to the involvement of the Government, with the result
that in specific fields like university teacher
recruitment, there is no way at present by which we
can set agreed upon targets representing what Canada
can reasonably be expected to produce over and above
producing the increased numbers required for her own
purposes. The production of university and college
teachers takes a long time and we Should be planning
ahead jointly if this would seem to be an important
segment of the Canadian programme of international
co-operation.

In addition to setting target figures, of course,

it is desirable to try to establish relatively uniform

procedures throughout the academic community with

regard to the granting of leave for fairly extended

periods, the provision of pension continuity, and the

host of other technical matters, having to do with

salary equivalents, insurance coverage, etc.10

Here Dr. J. A. Corry points up one of the barriers to effec-
tive university participation in international cooperation.
University-EAO relations originated on an individual basis and
have remained so. Neither the universities nor the Office had
established procedures for continuing liaison nor, indeed, for

expediting even individual contracts. The writer interviewed

one university desk officer in the EAO who had not visited a

 

10Letter from J. A. Corry, President, National Conference of
Canadian Universities and Colleges, to Paul Martin, Secretary of
State for External Affairs, June 8, 1965.

-125-

Single university in the course of his work on overseas contracts.
In negotiations with both individual faculty members or teams, the
EAO has been painfully slow in concluding arrangements with the
result that projects are delayed in starting longer than should be
the case. The reasons given by the EAO for such delay are that
selection procedures are rigorous and that the Speed of host
country approval is beyond EAO control. In addition, the EAO is
desperately Short of qualified staff, such has been the growth of
the Office's work in the past half-dozen years.

University contractors interviewed indicate for their part,
that despite delays, their relations with government are positive
and satisfactory. The tendency is to negotiate on a safe basis,
however, in that delays seem to be compounded whenever an element
of innovation is introduced into the contractual terms. One
university administrator indicated that to get his unorthodox
program underway he had to insist vehemently on special provisions.
These were met and relations have remained satisfactory. But the
ad hoc nature of arrangements, particularly for individual con-
tracts, have made for ponderous administration by both parties
and have had the effect of discouraging some promising projects.

The question of university autonomy in relation to government
has not been fully aired but is likely to be of greater impact in

the near future.11 EAO officials insist that they give direction

 

11For comparative purposes, a recent American report is of
interest in this connection: J. M. Richardson, Jr., An Analysis
of AID-University Relations 1950-1965 (Minneapolis: Centre for
Comparative Political Analysis, University of Minnesota,
Preliminary Report for Project Use, 1967), eSpecially Chapter 8.

 

-126-

to university technical assistance work since policy is a govern-
ment function, though their intent is to offer this direction in
a purely advisory fashion so as not to infringe on university
autonomy. Universities have no influence on policy in cases of
individual faculty released to the EAO.

This issue is coming to the fore as the A.U.C.C. increases
its interest in international cooperation. On behalf of the
universities, this body is giving more and more attention to
international activity. There is some apprehensiveness in EAO
that the A.U.C.C. will want to move into the area of the EAO'S
authority for administration and implementation of university
contracts. A.U.C.C. is thus seen as interposing itself between
the EAO and the individual universities. Moreover, the EAO sees
the A.U.C.C. as an official body Speaking for university presidents
whereas the EAO, as was intimated in one interview, wishes not to
crystallize its relationships with administrations only but is
interested in communicating with other levels within the university
community.

For its part, the A.U.C.C. has never felt that the EAO has
Shown sufficient interest and confidence in Canadian institutions
of higher education. Never, up to the time of this writer's
interview with officials of its secretariat, had the A.U.C.C.
been approached by government on the creation of policy for
Staffing or recruitment. Nor had individual universities been
canvassed on this or related matters. One official stated that

this was because the government was afraid of becoming committed

-127-

to finance the recruiting and programing which, if it were free
to, the A.U.C.C. might assume. In the absence of what the Director
of the A.U.C.C. termed a ”national clarion call” to universities by
government to maximize their resources for the benefit of inter-
national assistance, the A.U.C.C. seems willing to assume additional
reSponSibility. Being, in addition, research-minded, A.U.C.C.
people see the need for research to accompany international assis-
tance projects, foreign student programs and the like. The EAO

has no research divisions and, though one is planned, during the
hiatus the A.U.C.C. may fill the vacuum to some degree, further
aggravating the less than ideal relations between these two
agencies.

Within the university community itself, there is no planning
machinery by which institutions may determine the kind and amount
of their international activity. Accordingly the universities
respond Spontaneously rather than from a basis of rational policy

and planning to the requests made to them by government.

E. Overseas Students

 

This study has already given some idea of the numbers of
overseas students in Canada and expected to arrive over the
next few years. Assuming uncritically, as the universities
appear to be doing, that such an influx is desirable, little
thought seems to be given to the best means of providing them

with the education they want or need after they arrive in Canada.

-128-

The problems and programs of EAO-Sponsored students have been
discussed by Spicer12 and Hodder.13 Though by no means ideally
arranged for, these Students are the responsibility of FAQ in
collaboration with universities.

The majority of overseas students are privately sponsored or
are scholarship holders. It is tacitly assumed that they want a
Canadian education and in general this is what they get with little
thought given to appropriateness of this education to the student
who presumably will return to his homeland. A Canadian degree
program helps to "Canadianize" the Student and one result is that
numbers of Canadian-trained graduates stay in Canada. Ironically
universities often gain by the brain drain Since some faculty are
attracted to university posts from among the pool of foreign
graduates. But development objectives are damaged if Skilled
people fail to return home. And so many who do return are quite
out of step with the temper of their countries and unable quickly
to adapt Canadian degree studies to local conditions. Only a
fraction of one per cent of BAD-Sponsored students have-failed
to return home. The percentage among privately Sponsored students
is much higher, though no complete figures have yet been published.
At this writing the first major study of foreign Students in

Canada is being prepared by A.U.C.C. in cooperation with EAO.

 

12K. Spicer, pp. 229-239.

13H. J. Hodder, ”Canadian Aid to Developing Countries” in
J. E. Hodgetts (ed.).

-129-

The universities have accommodated to the growing numbers of
foreign students in a hodge-podge of ways, ranging from sophisti-
cated international houses with qualified full-time advisors and
Staff to almost complete indifference. Few have, however, shown
any imagination in adapting curricula to the needs to foreign
Students. The exceptions have been noted in chapter IV, above.

Without detailing further each interlocking aSpect of the
foreign student problem in Canada, it Should be sufficient to note
that the following needs demand attention in a coordinated and
consistent way in most Canadian universities: admissions policy,
curriculum adaptation, briefing and counseling by qualified full-
time personnel, English language training, coordinated reception
by local communities,14 family arrangements for married foreign
students, determination of emphasis as between graduate and
undergraduate students, housing policies, Specialized programs
for both degree and non-degree students, overseas advising and
selection assistance, financing, research and follow-up to
determine effectiveness of programs. Some institutions, such
as the University of British Columbia, have made rapid headway
in recognizing that these needs are deserving of attention.

Most have settled for casual attention to one or two of these

items. Meanwhile, the problem literally multiplies.

 

1l‘See Reception of Short-Term Visitors in Canada (Toronto:
Canadian Association for Adult Education, 1963) and the publica-
tions of the Canadian Service for Overseas Students and Trainees
(C.S.O.S.T.).

-130-

F. Exchange

Faculty and student exchange programs have been minimal
although the recent developments noted in chapter IV give promise
of continued growth. Although exchange arrangements with China,
at best difficult to bring about, have been made more awkward by
recent internal problems in China, exchanges proceed with the
Soviet Union and Europe. The terms of the Commonwealth Scholarship
and Fellowship Plan make for fruitful exchanges with a number of
Commonwealth countries.

But these exchanges, for graduate study, teaching, research
and visiting, have not assumed proportions commensurate with the
possibilities. They are essentially the preserve of senior
scholars and scientists with less emphasis on graduate students
and almost none on undergraduates. Aside from the Commonwealth
Scholarships, few sources of support are available for other than
established scholars. Junior university faculty and graduate
students make do with such support as they can muster.

Exchange relationships with developing countries are even
fewer than with Europe, the Soviet Union, the United States and
Australia. The intention of Canadian university "twinning" with
overseas institutions as a result of an initial technical assis-
tance program has not always resulted, again because of the
"donor" attitude, an unwillingness to benefit from a ”backward”
culture and the persistent need for teaching faculty at home.

CUSO offers a Specialized case within this category. Relations

with the universities, the writer was assured by the first CUSO

-13l-

Executive-Secretary are "deep, continuous and good”. But the oft-
Stated intention of CUSO to remain a non-governmental, university-
related organization clearly places on both CUSO and the univer-
sities the reSponSibility to clarify the form and depth of that
relationship and the extent to which it should continue. Univer-
sities have to date assumed reSponSibility for publicity, initial
selection and, to a lesser extent, orientation of trainees, as
usual in an informal and voluntary manner without Spelling out
how this process fits into a university's ongoing concerns. The
relationship ceases the moment the trainees leave the campus after
orientation. Since a few campuses take care of orientation programs
the responsibility of most universities ceases at the moment of
initial selection. The campus representatives are interested
faculty or administrators who act voluntarily for CUSO and who
suffer from inadequate communication with Ottawa. The result is
often inadequate publicity, casual recruitment of volunteers and
a continuing lack of clear policy. "On many campuses, particularly
some of the smaller ones more remote from Ottawa, the Representative
does virtually nothing beyond receiving applications and arranging
for the candidates' interviews".15

The exchange aspect of CUSO has been totally ignored. If
universities opt for a larger share of CUSO planning and programing,
they may take advantage of the resource represented by the between

25 to 34 per cent of volunteers who return to university after their

 

15Woolcombe, pp. 105-106.

-l32-

two years abroad. The potential inherent in such a group of
returned volunteers has implications for university instructional,
language and research programs which remain almost totally
unexplored. So far the universities seem content to select and
train volunteers, then admit, quite incidentally, large numbers
of them two or three years later in a way which takes no account

of their overseas experience.

G. Summary

This brief analysis of selected factors standing between the
universities and their more effective role in international
activity underscores the basic issue of lingering insular attitudes
in the Canadian university community, from which all the other
factors mentioned seem to follow. DeSpite the real pinch on
domestic resources, it is these attitudes which prevent Canadian
universities from seizing initiatives which might lead to a
broadening of their horizons in research, teaching exchange,
technical assistance and foreign Student programs. So long as
the commitment is shallow, international activity will be to
continue to be thought of as peripheral and exotic instead of
becoming regarded legitimate concerns of higher education in
Canada.

Strengthening this conservative stance is the failure to have
devised comprehensive administrative procedures to facilitate and
expediate the valuable beginnings which have been made. Ad hoc

assumption of responsibility has led to ad hoc and casual

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administration of technical assistance contracts, overseas Student
programs and exchange arrangements as well as to rather casual
evaluations of the programs during and after their existence.

When it is realized that government agencies have usually
been in the van of universities in international activity and
that government policies and procedures have been haphazard in
their own right, it can be understood why university reSponse
to official programs have themselves often been indifferently
organized. Failures to agree on the divisions of responsibility
between FAQ and the universities have further clouded the policies
and prerogatives. Hence, little in the way of rationale has been
developed by universities into which, singly or together, they may
fit curricular developments, foreign student and CUSO programs,
research and exchange or by which they can attract the finances

necessary to achieve excellence.

CHAPTER VI

CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

A. Conclusions

 

1. Resumé of Findings

 

"Canadian universities have only made a small beginning
toward the breakdown of parochialism; they dearly need the open
windows and the vistas that international participation can give."1
This statement succinctly summarizes the findings of this study.

In order, however, to rehearse the grounds upon which recom-
mendations below are based, the following presentation of the
major conclusions is offered:

a) The process of economic, political and social advance
among the poorer nations of the world has been not only
slow but in some cases, even retrogressive.

b) Assistance has been offered the developing nations in
various amounts and kinds by the more advanced nations.
Despite good intentions, however, the amounts have

proved insufficient and the kinds often inappropriate.

 

1Claude Bissell, "Report of the President to the Governors
and Senate of the University of Toronto”, reprinted in Varsity
Graduate, March, 1966, p. 12.

-l34-

d)

e)

f)

-l35-

One of the principal aid forms, technical assistance, has
meant emphasis on the transfer of skills in the effort to
develop human resources.

Universities in the more developed countries have been
one source of technical assistance. Many have found that
benefits have accrued to the university community as a
result of international participation.

Canada's international position as a middle power and its
foreign policy commitments have permitted it to pursue a
wide-ranging aid policy. Though far from being commensu-
rate with Canadian capacities and despite certain inade-
quacies of both policy and execution, this aid is growing
more rapidly in proportion than that of other donor
nations, and is expected to reach one per cent of Canada's
Gross National Product in the early seventies.

Canadian higher education has been, roughly since 1960,
undergoing rapid growth and change, particularly with
reSpect to enrollment figures, staffing, financing and
internal governance. Simultaneously, many universities
have been entering the field of international work either

as a result of long interest in non-Western studies or in

response to government technical assistance faculty assign-

ments. The rise of CUSO and the visibly growing presence
of overseas students have given emphasis to the rather
recent awareness by universities of the challenge of

international activity.

8)

h)

i)

J)

~136-

Emanating from a lingering legacy of insularity in
Canadian universities is a series of obstacles to more
effective university participation in international
activity. Adequate financing for research and exchange
has not appeared and a large proportion of such funds
as have been available have been of U.S. origin. Most
universities, either individually or as a collectivity,
have not devised either policies or administrative
arrangements which would permit them to capitalize on
the advantages of international work.

The spectacular expansion of higher education in Canada
has placed strains on faculty and resources at home.
This is one principal reason for the delay in expanding
upon traditional curricula and in releasing faculty for
overseas assignments.

Foreign or overseas students in Canada constitute a
Special problem owing to their numbers, distribution,
the cost of their education and their often unrealized
potential for assisting the progress of their own
countries. Though a large study of this issue is
underway at this writing, little attention has been
given by the majority of universities to the Special
needs of this group.

The potential for contributing both to international
development and international understanding, together

with the opportunities for their own gain from

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international activity have as yet failed to be grasped

by most Canadian universities.

2. A Point of View

 

Canadian higher education has responded with tolerable style
to the internal needs of Canada; it must now accept the challenge
of the Shrinking world which Canadians inhabit. No longer can
Canadian universities be secure islands in a raging and uncertain
sea. The vast enterprise of education is part of a global network.
To ignore or turn aside from this simple fact is to embrace anti-
intellectualism of deep dye. ”A university is, by nature, inter-
national."2 It is obliged, in this writer's view, to universalize
its horizons and broaden its world-view. In the declining decades
of the twentieth century there is no other option. This is the
essential philosophic Stance necessary if universities are to
remain viable and relevant in the years ahead. In this connection,
what has been said of American universities is equally appropriate
to Canadian higher education.

The innovators and educators; the originators,

modifiers, and transmitters of idea systems; the

researchers and teachers; these are characteristically

found in or about educational institutions. Insofar

as cultures condition folkways, the role of centres of

learning is pivotal--as contributions to or distributors

of cultural forms and directions. The academic estate

has for centuries engaged more than most other elements

of society in international communication of scholarship

and ideas. It would be strange indeed if the colleges

and universities had not been enlisted to play and did
not themselves seek a leading role in adjusting the

 

ZHamlin, p. 94.

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American sense of mission to the needs of a world become

so small that its peoples must live together, if they

live at all, peaceably and with mutual cooperation.3

The central functions of a university are to collect, preserve,
disseminate and extend knowledge. The boundaries around knowledge
have stretched and even Shattered under the impact of world events
Since 1945. To be satisfied with functioning within now--ancient
bounds is to sustain a mere counterfeit of the university role.
International involvement on several fronts is an inescapable
concomitant of being a university.

Unfortunately, the top levels of academic leadership have
been less than vocal and active in their support of this point
of view, with a very few exceptions. Evidently they have not
internalized what has been pointed out before now,4 that university
involvement in international concerns is of advantage to the
university rather than being Sheer charity. Assistance in this
context becomes mutual assistance, a true exchange of ideas and
cultural points of view worth of a university's mission. This
conceptualization of international activity in a university
provides a reference point for whatever international work it
chooses to initiate. There are advantages and mutual benefits
to be gained by a university as a consequence of thoughtful

attention to technical assistance in fields best handled by

 

3E. w. Weidner, p. 2.

4By for example, G. C. Andrew, "External Aid or International
Cooperation", in J. E. Hodgetts (ed.), and in the "Report on the
International Role of Canadian Universities from the External Aid
Office", 19 September, 1963, p. 5.

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universities, international research, the introduction, even as
obligatory degree requirements, of non-Western course materials
and related sensitive exploitation of international involvements,
if the university adopts this unifying principle.

Such a modification is not, of course, entirely painless or
without costs. But until it is understood that world affairs and
international involvement are in fact an integral part of the con-
cern of the Canadian university and not at all peripheral and
remote, then Canadian institutions of higher education risk being
somewhat removed from the world network of higher education, with
all that implies for the relevance of both Canadian education and

its possible contributions to the world.

B. Recommendations

 

The considerations described in the foregoing chapters of
this study and the point of view taken in part A of this chapter
lead to the following interrelated recommendations.5 They are
aimed frankly at the planning and policy-making cadres of higher
education in Canada.

The temptation to urge reforms and improvements in Canadian
assistance policy in general and on the administration of its

technical assistance in particular is resisted. These have

 

5This cannot hope to be and does not pretend to approach
an exhaustive or complete list. It is a selective choice based
largely on the main concerns of this Study.

-l40-

been treated in good form by Spicer, Escott Reid and others.
Instead, Specific suggestions at the level of general operating
policy are herewith offered, with a boldness and yet confidence

appropriate to this Centennial Year.

1. Organization

 

In order not only to counteract prevailing piecemeal
approaches to international activity but also for reasons of
financing, as well as to be prepared for possible conflicts of
interest between government and themselves, universities must
develop rationales for their international involvements.
Efficient approaches would include at least one of the following:

a) Each university should set up machinery, appropriate
to its own Structure, to examine its potential (or
if already active in some form of international effort,
its effectiveness) in international activity. It should
then take steps to express its intentions in an integrated
fashion under the direction of personnel responsible to
the highest levels of university administration.

b) Through A.U.C.C., the universities jointly Should
establish a standing committee on international programs
consisting of university faculty from across the country
to provide on a continuous footing, communication among
universities themselves and liaison with government and
private agencies, as well as direction in international

work for the university community as a whole.

-141-

c) New demands on educational institutions coupled with a
desire to avoid duplication of costly facilities and
programs are pushing universities into cooperative
relationships. International activity can be strengthened
by institutional cooperation among Canadian universities.
Regional associations along the lines of the embryonic
consortium developing among nine universities in southern
Ontario Should be expanded. Pairs of universities
(McGill-Montreal, Dalhousie-King's, British Columbia-
Simon Fraser) have begun collaboration in course
offerings, as indicated in chapter V. The French-
language universities are members of AUPELF (l'Association
des Universities Partiellement ou Entiérement de Langue
Francaise).6 Developments of library collections, course
offerings, Special courses, extension activities, exchange
and twinning, graduate student and research Specialties
and other international activity could thereby be
coordinated and small efforts merged into meaningful
contributions.

In the face of the power of provincial and federal
governments universities should take immediate steps
to establish consortia for international activity in

order to safeguard their autonomy, pool their resources,

 

6Not considered here is the special cooperation envisioned
by the Dion Report.

-142-

influence policy and claim their share of financing
international work.

d) University machinery must be viewed as a means rather
than as an end in itself. Objectives worthy of univer—
sity effort should be identified and kept clearly in
view so that universities do not attempt to do what
they cannot or should not do (in relation to capabilities
and the mission of the university), especially overseas.
This calls not for casual procedures but for rigorously
wrought and administered policy.

e) It is in the interest of Canadian universities to press
for the establishment of a federal bureau or office of
education which, as one of its functions, could coordinate
at a national level the relationships between Canadian
higher education and international agencies with an
interest in higher education, like OECD, UNESCO, ILO,
IBRD, and the International Institute of Educational
Planning. It could provide liaison, too, with ministries
of education in countries figuring in Canada's foreign
relations--a11 for the purpose of better communication
on matters like educational planning, technical needs,

exchange, research, participant training and the like.

2. Relations with Government

 

a) It must not be forgotten that is "the congresses and
parliaments in the West whose decisions determine what

the actual expenditures will be. And congresses and

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parliaments are not in the habit of supporting vague
theories or statistical studies with revenue. They
support specific programs and institutions."7 For

the financial support needed to mount creditable
international programs, Canadian universities alone

or in company must appeal to government. This requires
not only organized programing by universities but the

maintenance of strong links with government agencies.

Government influence in higher education will increase
on both federal and provincial levels, as public
legislators demand that higher education become more
reSponsive to national needs. This includes inter-
national affairs and ”in deciding the role of the
universities in meeting our international commitments,
the Government of Canada must be involved."8 It is
advisable therefore for universities, individually

and collectively through A.U.C.C. to create procedures
such as the establishment of advisory committees to
the Minister for External Affairs9 by which continuing
consultation with government departments and agencies

might be carried on not only for financial purposes

 

7Eugene R. Black, p. 56.

8J. A. Corry, "Higher Education: Trends and PrOSpects”,
J. E. Hodgetts (ed.), p. 7.

9A step suggested by the A.U.C.C. in 1965 (in a letter
from J. A. Corry to Paul Martin, op. cit.).

b)

d)

-144-

but also in order to clarify policy, define authority

and expedite the heretofore unwieldy implementation

of decisions.

The university community faces a task of persuasion

since the funds it seeks are limited. Accordingly,
A.U.C.C. will have to be sensitive to government
prerogatives in international policy-making while

at the same time being forceful and confident in
presenting the case of the universities. Initially

the degree to which A.U.C.C. can be permitted to Speak
for higher education will have to be decided. Individual
institutions or consortia must have unmediated access to
funding and foreign policy agencies when it seems desirable
to them.

Government agencies and departments, for their part, must
be ready to give prompt and thoughtful hearing to the
initiatives of universities, find means to elucidate
their plans for the benefits of university planners and
must give sufficient freedom to universities. This will
mean a loosening of the mystique of ”quiet diplomacy" at
home for the benefit of programs abroad. And it will
mean proving whether or not EAO means to favor the team
approach in technical assistance contracts.

Universities must tolerate the fact that policy in
agencies like EAO is administered by career civil

servants and not qualified professionals. Better still,

-145-

the universities might lend, on a rotating advisory
basis, trained international development experts to
EAO until EAO can manage to solve its staffing

difficulties.

3. Finance

a)

b)

C)

There is no Canadian funding source presently in sight
to support international activity in universities on
sufficient scale other than the government. EAO, of
course, will have to finance all technical assistance
effort by universities. U.S. foundations will no doubt
continue to give valuable support, but more support must
be provided by government and private Canadian sources.
There should be no delusions on the part of universities
about the cost of "internationalizing". They cannot
expect government to provide funds for programs they

are not willing to find some finance for themselves.
Formula-financing means that endowments and private
sources of funds are now ignored by government, as it
views the financial need of a university as based
entirely on enrollments. This means that for the

first time all grants, gifts and bequests which the
university can acquire are not required for operating

expenditures. Universities should actively seek private

-146—

funding in Canada for international activity, not
excluding such charitable foundations as now exist.10

d) Neither governments nor private sources should be
expected to support vague programs. Solid budgetary
projections and program plans should be part of all
requests for support. In dealing with EAO, for
instance, which plans for five-year periods, univer-
sities should prepare schemes for similar periods.
Formula-financing makes this possible more accurately
than ever before whenever enrollment projections are
a useful indication. This would permit more adequate
planning for research, training and staffing by univer-
sities.

e) Several Specialized agencies supporting research should
be canvassed by universities for support of international
activity. These include the Humanities Research Council,
the Social Sciences Research Council and the Canada
Council. They have not yet been confronted by an
organized university scheme and have limited support
largely to individual scholars or, on occasion, depart-
ments. The National Research Council ”states categori-

cally that it is not one of their functions to support

 

10A recent study of the contributions of Canadian business
to higher education reveals much about the attitudes of business
to giving and its potential. See Herbert Byleveld, Corporate
Aid to Higher Education in Canada (Montreal: National Industrial
Conference Board, 1966).

 

f)

-147-

the research of Canadians in the developing areas."11
Such is the absolute need and the scale of need for
increased finances in Canada12 that the academic
community should attempt to influence changes in the
terms of reference of such a body, one which deals in
enormous expenditures annually.

If such modifications cannot be effected, the university
community in Canada should call for the establishment of
a quasi-governmental or governmental research organiza-
tion to sponsor needed study. This may indeed become
one of the functions of the Centennial International
Development Program which has been slow in getting
started. It began in early 1967 with a $200,000 grant
from the Centennial Commission in order to influence
public opinion in Canada to be more outward-looking
during the country's centennial. There is a chance
that a permanent organization will persist after the
centennial year. Universities should make representa—
tions to insure that such a development does not occur
and that it be expanded into an international develop-
ment foundation to stimulate and finance research and
international sensitivities of all kinds in Canada.

The A.U.C.C. could play a useful liaison role between

the universities and the new foundation.

 

11T. L. Hills, p. 6.

12See chapter V, p. 8, above.

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Research and Planning

 

a) Aside from financial concerns, academic planning in

b)

Canada must take account of the international dimension
of research needs and opportunities. Canadians, it has
been said,13 are more doers than analysts. But while
doing is desirable, Canadian action in both inter-
national development and domestic educational planning

has been too little concerned with analysis.

There is an obvious need for more research in Canada
on, among other things, social change, foreign policy
problems, the development process and on the diffusion
of technology and attitudes. Universities should, in
determining their international roles, settle on some
attractive research schemes and give them concentrated
effort.14

It has been suggested15 that centers for research be
distributed across the country in universities in which

the beginnings have already been established, especially

 

13By, for one, Julia Henderson of the United Nations Bureau

of Social Affairs, in "The Challenge of Worldwide Social

Conditions", Canada's Participation in Social Development Abroad
(Ottawa:
Welfare Abroad, 1963), p. 28.

National Committee on Canada's Participation in Social

14A useful systematic view of research is Ralph Smuckler,

"University Responsibilities and International Development
Research", paper presented to the American Council on Education,
May 12-13, 1965 (mimeo).

15Hamlin, pp. 88-91 and Guilbeaut, p. 10.

-149-

'in the larger universities. However newer and smaller
universities should organize within their own capacities
for sound research programs to accompany their growth in
other areas of international work.

c) Universities should insist on research provisions in
technical assistance contracts with adequate funding and
should conduct such research not only at home but on the
overseas site.

d) In many cases, the researchers should include graduate
students of both donor and recipient country, the latter
preferably meeting the research requirement of Canadian
graduate degrees (or their own) through investigations
carried out in their own country.

e) Ironically, the so-called advanced countries have urged
the planning approach on the less advanced ones while
the former have had virtually no experience in planning
their own economic or educational systems. This had led
advanced countries to prescribe the transfer of their
own institutions to nations quite different from them-
selves. It is now clear that holu-bolus institutional
transplantation is invalid.16 Cooperation with foreign

universities, until now the greatest part of Canadian

 

16See, in this connection, Sir Eric Ashby, African Universities
and Western Tradition (London: Oxford University Press, 1964);
T. L. Hills, p. 5, D. L. B. Hamlin, p. 101.

-150-

international work in higher education, has tended to
strengthen the status quo. Research and planning

devoted to the question of the forms of technical
assistance itself, particularly in view of EAO's

failures in this connection, should be of higher priority
and should antedate much of the research and programing

based upon its findings.

5. Technical Assistance

 

8)

b)

' asserts Sir Eric Ashby, "universities have

"In Europe,’
stood for continuity and conservation; in Africa univer-
sities are powerful instruments for change."17 Canadian
universities, if they choose the role of fostering change,
can help less fortunate countries in their efforts to

advance. If they choose not to, but instead support the

statusgguo, they should stay entirely out of technical

 

assistance.

Aid or mutual cooperation in higher education should
take account the degree to which prevailing educational
models in the recipient nation are dysfunctional and the
means by which desirable change can be effected by the
efforts of Canadian academics. An indiSpensable
ingredient of such cooperative undertakings ought to be

a willingness of the recipient to release staff and

 

17Sir Eric Ashby, p. 98.

d)

~151-

funds for the program as well as to perpetuate the
institution. Without this and other evidence of self-
motivation, payoffs are unlikely and Canadian efforts
may be wasted. This approach means hard choices for
Canadian as well as for overseas universities,
determined by head as much as by heart. Random projects
are not good use of Canadian academic talents. Responses
to requests should take stock of the educational provisions
of national development plans on the one hand and the
capacities of the recipient institution to be effective
on the other.

Assistance may well be provided by Canadian institutions
in educational planning of various kinds well before
detailed technical assistance needs are defined by the
recipient nation.

Canadian universities should stress their strengths
abroad. Put another way, a university should not
attempt to do overseas what it does not do at home.
Resources development, communications, engineering,
agriculture, forestry, education, power, transportation
and health services are prime examples of fields well
served by Canadian universities. It is to such areas

as these that Canadian academics can apply their basic
and applied knowledge abroad.

University technical assistance projects should be

staffed, where possible, by the institution's own

-152-

faculty. This implies the limitation of projects to a
university’s capabilities. Each university serious about
technical assistance, however, should provide capable
administrative personnel and sensitive campus support,
two elements essential for effective overseas work.

f) Universities will have to get accustomed to asking more
questions prior to (as well as after) undertaking
technical assistance projects-~questions relating to
development planning; government requirements at home
and abroad; whether the most desirable relationship
would be department-to-department, institution-to-
institution, institution-to-regional center or
institution-to-ministry; overstaffing; permanence of
relationships and a host of related matters. Again,
this requires careful preliminary study.

g) University technical assistance planners should become
fully conversant with the conditions now thought to be
requisite to effective and successful overseas projects.
Various aSpects of personnel selection, briefing, over-
seas role definition and reentry into campus life are

crucial elements of a project.18

 

18A vast literature exists in technical assistance adminis-
tration by universities. One digest of technical assistance
criteria useful for some Canadian universities may be found in
Policy Guidelines for International Programs at the University
of Guelph, University of Guelph Senate Committee on International
Studies, 1967, pp. 25-28.

 

 

 

6.

-153-

Curriculum

 

8)

b)

The Hayter Commission study of Oriental, Slavonic, East
European and African studies in Great Britain emphatically
made the point that ”the political center of gravity of
the world, which up to the time of the Second World War
was in western Europe, has moved outwards, east, west

and south. But the British educational system has taken
little account of these developments."19 The report goes
on to stress the need for the inclusion of non-Western
studies in university curricula. For the Canadian
situation precisely the same observation and suggestion
are applicable.

The greatest need in quantitative and numerical terms is,
and will continue to be, undergraduate studies. It is
probably not possible in our time to be liberally educated
without some exposure to non-Western ideas. Steps should
be taken to assume greater opportunity for exposure to
non-Western studies not only in the social sciences which
are disposed by nature to include them but also in the
humanities, language studies and professional schools.
Curriculum development can be stimulated if faculty with
overseas experience are positively and systematically
encouraged to assimilate into their teaching, as well

as into their research, material relevant to that

 

19?. 41.

-154-

experience. Commenting obliquely on this, Spicer states
"The education in world politics that aid can confer is
needed by few countries more than Canada."20

d) Implied in the suggested expansion of course offerings
is a shift in emphasis which would place much more
importance than previously on non-Western (as opposed
to Western European and older Commonwealth) studies.

e) Library collections will be directly affected by all of
these recommendations. They should be expanded as
efficiently, selectively and rapidly as possible to
accommodate student and faculty interests.

f) Canadian experience and scholarship provide a useful
starting point for more emphasis on modern Chinese
studies.21 In this, as in all suggestions for expanded
and reformed curricula, undergraduate students22 should
be provided an increased share of the opportunities for
study.

g) Even if many universities opt to stay out of comprehen-

sive international programs, they can scarcely deny

 

20Spicer, p. 52.

21See Escott Reid's recent proposals for Chinese studies in
"Canadian Foreign Policy, 1967-77: A Second Golden Decade".
International Journal, Vol. XXII, No. 2, Spring, 1967.

22Two reasonable views of this question can be found in
W. L. Anderson, "World View for Undergraduates”, Saturday Review,
August 20, 1966, and J. B. Howard, "University Involvement in
International Education--Present and Prospective", The University
and World Affairs, East Lansing, Michigan State University,
Memorandum Series 1001, 1961.

 

 

-155-

their obligation to provide meaningful course programs

for Canadian students. There is no rational alternative
but to internationalize curricula. Says Hamlin, ”It is
not an exaggeration to say that if Canadian universities
would remain part of the university they cannot neglect

these fields."23

7. Overseas Students

 

8)

This subject has prompted a good deal of discussion in
university circles but little in the way of action has
been taken to remedy the weaknesses which are now well
detailed. Canadian universities simply must face the
need to take action, however, because next to the need
to reform their curricula for Canadian students, univer-
sities cannot hope to escape the presence of at least
some foreign students. However ”merely including foreign
nationals in the student body does not relieve the
admitting institution of further reSponSibility. The
presence of foreign students on campus should be the
result of a carefully thought out rationale, and their
academic program should be an integral part of the

institution's educational strategy.”24

 

23Hamlin, p. 92.

24The University Looks Abroad, p. 275.

 

-156-

b) Every university having a substantial number of foreign
students should appoint a director of foreign student
affairs who can give full-time attention to the services
and guidance needed by overseas students, including
orientation and close liaison with community hOSpitality
groups.

c) Attention should be given to selection and admissions
procedures, using the transcript evaluating services
of A.U.C.C. Criteria should be applied which make more
rational choices as between graduate and undergraduate
students, and as to some set of development needs and
priorities in the students' homelands.

d) The content of curricula for foreign students should
be modified so as to be more suitable to their needs.
Canadian degree work is not always appropriate to
students who return home. More should be done in the
way of specialized programs and short courses for
foreign students leading to degrees or diplomas,
especially in applied fields to which internships
could be added.25

e) Evaluation of the effectiveness of overseas student
programs, though beset by difficulties, should be

pursued, especially through follow-up studies.

 

25See, for example, Training Programmes in Economic Development
(Paris: Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development,
1962).

-157-

f) Controls rigid enough to staunch the "brain drain" should
be exerted on overseas student programs. Students in
Canada for courses of more than two years in duration
however, should be accompanied by their families.

g) More Canadian universities should shift some of their
foreign student programs to the host countries of students,
possibly in cooperation with institutions there with whom
"twinning" relationships exist. This would have the effect
of improving selection and screening, making more relevant
degree (or other) programs and of minimizing social,
cultural, emotional and intellectual dislocations.

h) Universities in Canada could make good educational use of
overseas students in Canada not only as resources for
inter-cultural studies and research but for purposes of
improving international understanding. No study yet
published in Canada has examined these two potential

contributions of overseas students.

8. Exchange (Including CUSO)

a) No thoroughgoing analysis of the advantages and disadvan-
tages of travel and exchange programs as an integral part
of degree studies has ever been done in Canada. The
universities should undertake such a study, possibly
through A.U.C.C., in order to investigate the degree to
which study abroad for graduates and undergraduates,

exchange professorships, financing and related aspects

b)

-l58-

of international exchange arrangements are or can be a
desirable part of university international activity.

It seems fairly evident that the information yielded

by such an examination is a prerequisite for deciding
what, if any, exchange arrangements should be pursued.
This study has viewed CUSO as a program which can be
regarded as a Specialized kind of exchange. Universities
can, by adopting this view, utilize the many CUSO volun-
teers who return to study as educational resources in
various areas of their overall international efforts,
such as language training, area studies and foreign
student programs.

Universities can make their contribution to CUSO more
efficient and increase their benefit from that contri-
bution if they will View publicity, recruitment,
selection, orientation, field evaluation and support,
readmission and subsequent degree studies as an inte-
grated flow. A university that will go so far as to
program such a flow from start to finish will break
new ground in Canada. Several U.S. universities have
turned to this alternative after finding the fragmented
approach unsatisfactory.26 Memorial University and
Dalhousie University now follow a policy of granting

exemption of tuition fees for returning CUSO volunteers.27

 

26See W. A. Delano, pp. 6-7.

27University Affairs, February, 1967, p. 6.

 

~159-

d) Such an approach to CUSO would be easily manageable given
the number to be dealt with over the next few years. CUSO
administration in Ottawa would probably be willing to
finance the strengthened university mechanism required,
such as full-time CUSO representatives, research budgets,

staffing and related needs.

So long as CUSO grows and maintains close identification
with higher education, universities will be faced with
the need to clarify, in this way or in others, their
relationships with CUSO.28
No university in Canada today can ignore with impunity the
academic imperatives to life in a shrunken world. Those which
choose the more rewarding, though more costly and difficult part,
can scarcely, in turn, avoid dealing with those issues raised in
this study. For the universities as much as for the country as
a whole the following words resound clearly:
But nothing will be so demanding of Canada perhaps
in the long run as the option we choose or refuse in
our relations with the non-white, underdeveloped
worlds of poverty, of disease, of illiteracy. We have
yet to cross the immense psychological chasm which
would have us divert our intelligence, our treasure
and our markets in increasing amounts to make viable
the new relations of the affluent minority of white

peoples to the rest of mankind. It is one option
where history will give us no choice.29

 

28More detailed suggestions for CUSO can be found in
G. S. M. Woolcombe, chapters III and IV.

29Maxwell Cohen, ”The Issues and Options Facing Canada
in 1967", Toronto Globe and Mail, December 28, 1966, p. 7.

 

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