-- "I'I-I-v ‘ by . y ,. . . .uu r. n-vvw-v I" ' mm ws. cm '. :iSTiCS‘ a; momma 1’» ' EN or»- ;scms, THE CARIBQU EASTERN ' THE‘PODZOLREGIQNOF [N A 5 "CANADA: A ‘ 1 . mi; m Hm mm D. . 7, . MICHIGAN surnames: Ward Wicklund Reuben! 1955- « Hams 1|!le W “W WW I 071430000 "HM! 1005 LIBRARY Michigan State University This is to certify that the thesis entitled Characteristics of a TOposequence of Soils, the Caribou Catena, in the Podzol Region of Eastern Canada presented by Reuben Wicklund has been accepted towards fulfillment of the requirements for Doctor's degree in Philosophy 01mm? Major professor Date May 13. 1955 0-169 PLACE ll RETURN BOX to remove thle checkout treat your record. 1’0 AVOID FINES return on or before dete due. DATE DUE DATE DUE DATE DUE "’83 t 3 it“? usu leAnAfflrmetlve AetlonlEquel Oppommlty lnetltutlon WWW- Q: I . CHARACTERISTICS OF A TOPOSEQUENCE OF SOILS, THE CARIBOU CATENA, IN THE PODZOL REGION OF EASTERN CANADA. By Reuben Edward Wicklund AN ABSTRACT Submitted to the School of Graduate Studies of Michigan State College of Agriculture and Applied Science in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Department of Soil Science Year 1955 Approved it 9 e Ire upwv ABSTRACT Investigations of Podzol development in the regions of Eastern Canada reveal that those soils possess por- file characteristics that differ in many reSpects from Podzol soils reported elsewhere. This study presents the physical and chemical characteristics of soils occur- ring on a given slope and evaluates the factor of tOpo- graphy in their deve10pment. Four soil profiles were selected to represent the variations in this t0posequence. Core samples were taken of the various horizons in the several profiles from which was obtained data on percolation rates and bulk densities. Bulk samples of each horizon were used for other physical and chemical analyses. The A0 horizon was present in all profiles and in- creased markedly in thickness with decreasing slope. The A2 horizon that occurred in the well drained positions was replaced at the base of the lepe by an A1 horizon. The overall depth of profiles decreased with decreasing percent of slope. In order to estimate net gains and losses within the profiles a modification of the resistant mineral method used by Marshall and Haseman was applied. This study used total silica, instead of zircon as the resistant reference mineral. Results showed that there had been a net gain in weight in the sola of all profiles and that the A2 was the only horizon having a net loss of materials in these soils. Large volume changes had occurred in the A0, A1, and B21 horizons as a result of frost action, organic activity, and organic matter addition. Even the A2, 822, B3,and G horizons had increased considerably in volume. Marked increases in silt had occurred in all horizons of all profiles, whereas net losses in clay had taken place in all the horizons of the zonal soils. The soil in the poorly drained position showed a net gain in clay. All the profiles were acid in reaction. The acidity decreased from the surface of the soil to the parent material and decreased with decreasing slope. The profiles showed marked gains in organic matter content particularly in the A0, A1 and B horizons. In- creases had occurred in all horizons of all profiles ex- cept the A2 of the best drained soil. Aluminum had accumulated in all horizons except the A2 and was distri- buted relatively evenly throughout the profile. All the zonal soils showed a small net gain in iron but without having any definite horizon of accumulation. The exchangeable cations calcium, magnesium, and potassium, were largely concentrated in the surface horizons. The predominant cation was calcium. The ex- changeable base status of the soil increased from the crest to the toe of the slope. CHARACTERISTICS OF A TOPOSEQUENCE OF SOILS, THE CARIBOU CATENA, IN THE PODZOL REGION OF EASTERN CANADA By Reuben Edward Wicklund A THESIS Submitted to the School of Graduate Studies of Michigan State College of Agriculture and Applied Science in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Department of Soil Science Year 1955 Approved x- 7-5 s '3 92?}? ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The author wishes to express his appreciation to Dr. L. M. Turk, Dr. R. L. Cook and Dr. S. G. Bergquist for the inspiring professional instruction received from them in their respective fields. Acknowledgement is especially due to Dr. E. P. Whiteside under whose direction this work was undertaken and who has at all times very kindly given inspiration and assistance. The writer deeply appreciates the financial support of the Canadian Department of Agriculture which made it possible for him to carry on this study during the course of his regular duties. The author also extends his appreciation to his wife who has given her good share of encouragement and support to him during his graduate study. BIOGRAPHY Born: August 3, 1905. Mutrie, Saskatchewan. Undergraduate studies: University of Manitoba, 1930-1935. Graduate studies: University of Minnesota, l939-19h0. EXperience: Michigan State College, 1950-1955. Graduate Assistant, University of Manitoba, l936-19h0. Soil Specialist and Instructor in Soils Nova Scotia Agricultural College, l9hl-l9hd. Officer in charge, Soil Surveys, University of New Brunswick, 1947-1952. Senior Pedologist, Ontario Agricultural College, 1952- . Member of the Agricultural Institute of Canada. TABLE OF CONTENTS 1. INTRODUCTION 2. LITERATURE REVIEW 3. EXPERIMENTAL STUDIES 3.1 Description of Sampling Sites 3.11 3.12 3.13 3.14 Location Vegetation Geology and Physiography Climate 3.2 Method of Sampling 3.3 Description of Soils 4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION h.l Physical Properties h.2 hull 4.12 h.13 4.1L Methods of Analysis Bulk Density and Specific Gravity Percolation Rate and Porosity Particle Size Distribution Chemical Properties b.21 A.22 h-23 h.2h ho25 Analytical Methods Reaction, Exchange Capacity, Exchangeable Bases, Base Saturation and Easily Soluble PhOSphorus Organic Matter and Nitrogen Total Silica and Sesquioxides Total CaO, mgo, K20 and P205 Page 14 1h 1h 1h 16 19 20 23 33 33 33 3h 37 AA 52 52 54 72 78 9O TABLE OF CONTENTS (Continued) Page ESTIMATED NET CHANGES IN THE PROFILES STUDIED 91 CONCLUSIONS: RELATION OF SOIL CHARACTERISTICS 11h TO TOPOGRAPHY BIBLIOGRAPHY 118 FIGUR 10. ll. 12. 13. 1h. 15. 16. .14 LIST OF FIGURES Showing Physiographic Features of the Maritime Provinces and Location of Soil Profiles. Showing Vegetation, Looking Down the Slope at the Sampling Site. Showing Vegetation, Looking Up the Slope at the Sampling Site. Relative Locations of Profiles on the Slope. Principal Characteristics of Profiles. Relation Between Loss on Ignition, Organic Carbon and Bulk Density. Mechanical Composition of Profiles. Compariéon of Acidity, pH, in Profiles as a Function of Depth. Comparison of Percent Base Saturation in Profiles as a Function of Depth. Comparison of Milliequivalents Calcium in Profiles as a Function of Depth on a Volume Basis. Comparison of Milliequivalents Calcium in Profiles as a Function of Depth on a Weight Basis. Comparison of Milliequivalents Exchange Capacity in Profiles as a Function of Depth on a Volume Basis. Comparison of Milliequivalents Exchange Hydrogen in Profiles as a Function of Depth on a Volume Basis. Comparison of Milliequivalents Exchange Magnesium per 100 grams, in Profiles as a Function of Depth. Comparison of Milliequivalents Exchange Potassium per 100 grams, in Profiles as a Function of Depth. Comparison of Easily Soluble Phosphorus in Profiles as a Function of Depth. TABLE I. II. III. IV. V. VI. VII. VIII. IX. X. XI. XII. LIST OF TABLES Summary of Data on Bulk Density and Specific Gravity in the Four Profiles. Percolation Rate, Pore Space Drained at 60 cm. Tension, Total Pore Space, Non-Capillary Porosity and Capillary Porosity. Particle Size Distribution. Reaction, Exchange Capacity, Exchangeable Bases, Base Saturation, Easily Soluble PhOSphorus. Loss on Ignition, Organic Matter, Nitrogen, Organic Carbon, (as Percentages by Weight of Soil), and Carbon-Nitrogen Ratios of Profiles. Total Chemical Composition of the Profiles. Per- centages by Weight. Ratios of Silica and Sesquioxides for Genetic Horizons in Profiles. VOlume Change Factors for Various Horizons of the PrOfileSe Calculated Original and Present Constituents in the PrOfile e Net Change in Weight of Horizons. Net Change in Volume of Horizons. Original and Present Constituents in the Profile. A1203, Fe203, CaO, mgo, K20. 1. INTRODUCTION Much study has been undertaken to determine the relationships between soil properties and differences in environment. In such studies it is necessary to control the conditions of an experiment in such a way that only one variable exists 75. The groups of environmental factors which govern the conditions under which profile deve10pment takes place are t0pography,organisms and climate. In addition the factor of age and the variables of parent material must be similar in such an experiment. The purpose of the present investigation was two- fold: first to determine the physical and chemical char- acteristics of some Eastern Canadian Podzols, and second to ascertainwhether a quantitative relationship exists between the position on a slope of the land surface or t0pography as a group of soil deve10pment factors, and certain profile characters of the soils. The characteristics of Podzol soils commonly des- cribed have emphasized certain features, as the removal and deposition of sesquioxides, as an essential process in the development of Podzols. In addition many analy- tical data have shown the accumulation of colloidal in- organic material in the B horizon. In the United States Department of Agriculture Yearbook (Soils and Men, 1938) it is stated that Podzols occur most frequently on coarse textured materials. Although the present study does not deal with very fine textured materials, the soils studied lie in a region where Podzols commonly develop on parent materials containing thirty-five to forty percent of clay. In the comprehensive literature that has accumulated on Podzol soils, none of the references present data which are in accord with the characteristics of the Podzol soils occurring in the Maritime regions of Eastern Canada. . The hydromorphic soils of the greater parts of New Brunswick and Nova Scotia are characterized by a thick gray A2 horizon which shows up prominently following cul- tivation. This feature occurs on all varieties and tex- tures of parent materials, being particularly pronounced on clay loam material. The patterns of colors for cul- tivated fields are brown and gray with brown colors being characteristic of the better drained positions. In the Caribou catena of soils the color pattern of cultivated soils is brown and black, in which the hydro- morphic positions are black. The well drained soils possess a continuous bleached horizon typical of Podzol soils and all other characteristics appear identical with the better drained soils found in the other parts of the province. The Caribou soils occur in an area underlain by calcareous sedimentary rocks. Some connection there- fore between the lime status of the parent rock and the absence of gray hydromorphic soils typical for most of the Maritime provinces might become evident on analysis. "3‘: - Sikl' Id. 'uw ‘F I“ (II t': . - e ‘M I.‘ e u... n 1" .‘n D. . 'v 2. LITERATURE REVIEW The Podzols as a group have received a great deal of attention. From the earliest days of Soil Science the processes leading to their development have been studied extensively in Europe as well as in North America. Among the early studies, Aarniol in, Einland and TamingO in Sweden conducted both field and laboratory research and on the basis of their work the Podzols were divided into what was called Humus Podzols and Iron Podzols. These terms are still in use but in much of the subsequent work it has apparently been impossible to differentiate the soils of a particular region on that basis. General as well as specific descriptions of Podzol profiles occurring in the literature agree on certain broad characteristics but differ considerably in many of the details. In the United States Department of Agriculture Yearbook, 1938, Byers 32 a113 considered the process of podzolization to be comprised of two phases, namely, the accumulation of a peaty mat of organic matter on the surface and the eluviation of clays and iron compounds from an upper layer to lower layers with consequent whitening of the soil layer immediately beneath the surface organic matter. The translocated materialsare partly assorted and different ingredients are deposited in different horizons of the profile. The movement and deposition of organic matter together with a considerable quantity of iron and aluminum compounds takes place just below the bleached layer. The iron compounds are deposited next, while clays are carried still deeper by the filtering waters. The number and arrangement of horizons of the Podzol profile consist of an upper horizon, frequently designated as the mor and commonly called A0. Below this comes the top layer of mineral soil. In many cases this mineral horizon is dark in colour and is then designated as Al. In most cases this horizon is absent. 50. pp. 63. On the other hand Nygard gt_a162 stated that in the Pddzol region of Minnesota a thin Al was present in most Podzols. In the state of New York Cline20 indicated that the Al was absent in the well drained and moderately well drained positions but appeared in the imperfectly drained and more poorly drained positions where it may have a thickness of 3 to 6 inches. A similar observation was made by .Lyfordlt8 for the Podzols of north eastern United States. He stated that in this area the Al horizon was rare on well drained Podzols but more common on Podzols that showed the effects of periodic or high water tables. In the soils of New Jersey, Joffe36 showed the Podzol soils to possess an A1 horizon having a depth range from 12 to 21 centimeters with an average of about 1h centimeters. However on the basis of their chemical attributes he did not consider them to be true Podzols. The Podzols occuring in Eastern Canada are typically represented as having no Al horizon (1A, 42, 84). Below the-Al or A0 Comes the light coloured bleached layer or A2, frequently referred to as the "bleicherde". Since this horizon is one of the most prominent horizons in the profile, its presence or absence and its degree of deve10pment is of prime importance in the classification of podzolic soils. Agreement is general that the A2 horizon is present in Podzol soils and that the boundaries between it and the adjoining layers are usually sharp. This horizon varies considerable in thickness. According to Lyford’+9 . the A2 varied from 2 to 5 inches thick. A description by Lundbladh5 showed a typical Iron Podzol in Sweden to have an A2 with 7 centimeter thickness. In England however Davies and Owen22 described a Podzol profile at Goldstone, Newport, Shropshire, as having an A2 of 11 inches. In Eastern Canada, Stobbe and Leahey79 stated that the thickness varied from one to twelve inches. McCool 22,2;57 in studies on soil profiles in Michigan gave a range in thickness of 3 to 24 inches. The chemical characteristics of the A2 horizon indicate that it has been subjected to acid weathering in most cases, and that there has been a considerable removal of organic matter and sesquioxides accompanied by a relative increase in silica. Its high degree of unsaturation and low base exchange capacity as compared with the A1 horizon is typical for most Podzols (33 p. 265). The B horizons of the Podzol have been designated in various ways. Marbut (50 p. 66) referred to the B as an ”orterde" if not cemented. The early literature contains many references in which the first horizon occuring below the A2 is referred to as the B1 which in turn is followed by a B2 and at times a B3 horizon. All are horizons of accumulation and in many cases the B1 contains the maximum accumulation of transported material. As defined at the present time this horizon is now des- ignated as B21 (78). The illuvial nature of this horizon is stressed by all soil workers. Russell (70 p. 518) stated that this horizon is enriched with organic matter, clay, and iron and aluminum hydroxides. He stated further that the zone of their maximum accumulation was often at its top. In addition to these materials some silica removed from the A2 horizon may be deposited in the B horizon. This process is mentioned by Marbut50 who quoted results obtained by Tamm in which a considerable amount of silica was removed in the formation of the gray horizon. The removal of substances from the upper horizons and their subsequent deposition in the B horizons was pointed out further by Mattson53, Joffeho, Lunth7 and others. In this connection the researches of Aarniol as reported by Marbut (50 p. 78) are significant. It was demonstrated by laboratory methods that sols of different kinds of organic matter differed considerably in their protective and precipitating influences on collodial iron hydroxide and aluminum hydroxide. The weight relationships between organic matter and the inorganic colloids necessary for mutual flocculation varied considerably. It was shown that a given weight of aluminum hydroxide prepared by the method used by Aarnio, was precipated with a much greater weight of organic matter than was precipitated with iron hydroxide. It was concluded that the B horizon in soils with a very high percentage of acid organic matter contained under some conditions. a low percentage of iron but a relatively high percentage of alumina if there was alumina available. The concentration of the organic matter in the soil solution will be too high to permit the precip- itation of iron. This process suggests the controlling factor in the deve10pment of the Humus Podzol on the one hand and the Iron Podzol on the other. Aarnio in the same experiment determined the precipitating effect produced by various electrolytes and it was concluded that Humus Podzols developed in regions where the sol contained a high percentage of organic matter and a low percentage of electrolytes. The Iron Podzols developed in soils where lei- the percentage of organic matter was relatively low and that of electrolytes high. A result somewhat contrary to that of Aarnio has more recently been obtained by Deb23. His investigations showed that the ratio of humus to iron was much smaller than that obtained by Aarnio. His conclusions with respect to the effect of electrolytes and divalent bases were also at variance with many commonly accepted views. He stated that no evidence could be found to support the view that precipitation of iron from humus-protected sols was effected by exchangeable calcium in the B horizons of Podzols or that the adsorption of iron from complex salts of organic acids was influenced by the pH or amounts of exchangeable bases present in the soil. It was suggested that possibly the process governing the precip- itation was of a microbiological rather than a collodial or chemical nature. The occurrence of strictly Humus Podzols in a given region is emphasized principally in European literature. In the New England region of the United States, Lunt47 stated that when the data for the silica sesquioxide ratio are compared with similar data reported elsewhere it appears that the strongly podzolized soils of New England would be classified as iron-humus profiles, for both iron and organic matter are low in the A2 and high in the D. 10 Clay is one of the materials which accumulates in the B horizon. It has not yet been proven whether it is a transported product or if it has been formed in place. Richard and Chanilerég indicated in their analysis of a well developed Podzol in the eastern part of the province of Quebec that the clay content of the upper part of the B horizon was higher than that of the A2 and the lower part of the B. A review of data from Cann gt all“ shows that the A2 horizons rather than the B horizons have the highest clay content. Data from other parts of Eastern Canada indicate that clay does not accumulate to any appreciable extent in the B horizons. In the Podzol profile described by Nygard SEMELSZ there was a marked accumu- lation of clay in the B21 horizon. On the other hand Byers 22,2;13 stated that clays are moved from an upper layer to a layer below the one containing the concentration of organic matter and of iron. Data with regard to the fate of the clay fraction in the Podzol profile are lacking, although the statement is general that the removal and precipitation of this constituent is charac- teristic of podzolic soils. The influence of relief of the land surface in soil formation is generally accepted as a major factor. This influence is expressed primarily by the effect of drainage, runoff and erosion and secondarily through variations in 11 exposure to the sun and wind and in air drainage (78), Because of runoff, strongly sloping soils take in less water than do level soils and those in depressions receive water from surrounding lepes in addition to the rainfall. It is recognized in all soil survey work that in an area of variable relief a certain sequence of soils will be found varying with the external and internal drainages of the soil and acting independently of other soil forming factors such as parent material or vegetation. Such a sequence of soils in which topography was the only genetic variable has been designated by Jeuny33 as a t0posequence. These sequences can be expected to differ in different regions accompanying the broader changes that take place in soil development. The same variations in sequences may be expected as those which occur in the normal profiles described for different regions. As indicated in the literature the variations in the normal profiles described for the Podzol soils vary considerably from one region to another. The associated imperfectly drained and poorly drained soils are seldom described. Recently Cline19 described the catenary relationship of the Podzol soils occurring in the State of New York. He indicated that the dominant yellowish-brown colours of the Podzol B horizon carry through the well, moderately 12 well and imperfectly drained members. In the poorly drained positions the A0 horizon of the better drained members was replaced by 3 to 6 inches of A1 with gleyed horizons occurring immediately below. This sequence of horizons in poorly drained positions is not characteristic of the majority of soils occuring in the Eastern Canadian Podzol zone. In the latter the A0 horizon is not replaced by an Al and the same sequence of horizons have developed as occur in the better drained positions. In the regions where the Caribou soils occur and in which the present study was carried out, the catenary relation- ships of the soils were more nearly like those described by Cline. Some of the most complete studies carried out on a catenary basis are those reported by Mattson53:54t55 and other Swedish workers3ih3. The physical and chemical characteristics of the soils described showed a considerable range from the dry and to the wet end of the catena. In southern Illinois, Norton and Smith61 reported on the influence of topography on the profile character of certain mature podzolic soils. In this region the depth to the zone of clay accumulation decreased as the lepe and drainage increased. Certain changes in texture, consistency and structure also coincided with changes in l3 topographic position. A different condition was reported by Leg41 in Norway. In the Podzol soils of that region the A2 horizon frequently extended to a depth of 60 centimeters. This layer however does not decrease with increasing grade. The effect of micro-relief was also evident in that the thickness of the A2 horizon increased toward the depressions in the soil surface and decreased toward the slight elevations. Similar observations have been noted in the Podzol zone of Eastern Canada (84). 1h 3. EXPERIMENTAL STUDIES 3.11 Location The area selected for this study was located in the north western part of the province of New Brunswick, at a latitude ofA7° 30' and longtitude 670 30'. The site chosen was adjacent to the Stewart highway which runs diagonally across the north western part of the province joining the towns of St. Leonard and Campbellton. 3.12 Vegetation This area is a rolling till plain covered by virgin and second growth stands of timber. In general the forest vegetation consists of mixed stands of hard- woods and softwoods (3m) with a tendency for the various species to be segregated according to slope and drainage. Most frequently the pure hardwood growth occurs on the hilltops and upper slopes, a mixed growth of hardwoods and softwoods on the middle slopes and the pure softwoods on the lower s10pes and in the valley bottoms (59). In the well drained positions the predominant coniferous species are Pigg§,£2b£§,‘§igga glauca, Abigg balsamea and Pinus strobus. Picea mariana and Thgjg occidentalis are to be found in imperfectly and poorly drained positions. The broad leaved tree species consist of Betula lutea, Betula papyrifera, Acer saccharum, l5 .uoa«uonn Huon no degassed can noonq>onm oEApAnu: on» no noneaeou cannuquthnn mad-onm ..m«h .noauuoum Haon no nodaoooq uUZUd>>H mqm4 040 mamda 80 00.00H mm.a 00.0 00.H H0.0 sa.am HH.N 00.00 00.0 0 00.00 00.H 00.0 H0.H 00.0 00.00 00.H 00.00 s0.a mm 00.00H 00.a 00.0 00.H 00.0 00.00 04.0 ms.00 mm.a mum H0.00H 00.H 00.0 00.H 40.0 00.nm 00.s 00.n0 Hm.m H00 ~0.H0H 00.H 00.0 04.0 00.0 00.0H 40.0 04.00 mm.a ma 00.00 0s.0 04.H 00.0 0H.0 04.; 00.0 00.4H m~.HH 00 m mangoes R R R R R R R R manpmfioz coNfiuom was aspoa omx omo ow: momm MONH< momom Noam oHQOomOLwhm cafimohm Avmscwucoov H> mqm H4119. 8l No.00 ms.a 00.0 Hm.a 00.0 00.00 ma.m 00.00 05.0 0 00.50 sm.a 0.0 50.H 00.0 50.00 so.~ 00.50 50.0 00 00.00 00.H 00.0 00.H 00.0 00.00 00.H 00.00 00.H mm mm.ooa om.a 00.0 mm.a 00.0 mm.sm mm.a 00.00 ma.e Ha 00.00H 04.0 00.0 00.0 00.0 00.0H as.0 00.4H 50.0H as 00.00 mm.o m5.m mm.o oa.o 0m.m 5m.o 00.0 mo.mH oo< . 0 seasons R R R0 R R R R R waspmfloz conwhom cam Hmuoe omx omo ow: momm moma< momma Noam ofldoomopwzm mafimonm Avmficflpcoov Hb mamda 82 ma.mm mm.H Om.o N5.H Ho.o mm.oN mm.a om.m© mm.o 0 00.00 00.0 00.0 .00.H 00.0 00.H0 00.0 00.00 00.0 0 00.000 05.0 00.0 00.H 00.0 0H.s0 00.H 00.00 00.0 0H0 00.00H 00.0 00.0 00.0 HH.0 00.0 Hero 00.0 50.00 00 a mangoes R R R R R R R R R opdpmfloa GONHhom was 00909 000 000 002 0000 00000 00000 0000 0H0oomosm5m mangoes Acmdcfipcoov H> mqmda 83 and A2 horizons contained relatively small amounts of these constituents. Since plants take up little of these compounds it can be expected that there will be little return of them to the A0 layer. Some accumulations of sesquioxides probably occurred in the B horizons of profiles 1 and 2 and in the A1 horizons of profiles 3 and 4. The increase over that occurring in the parent material was not large and was considerably less when compared with that of the sample at 5 foot depth. It is evident from Table VI that of the total sesquioxides occurring in these soils iron oxide makes up a relatively small amount. ‘Within each of the profiles the lowest quantities occur in the A0 and A2 horizons. The B21 horizons of profiles 1 and 2 and the A1 horizons of profile 4 all have higher values for iron than is found in their respective parent materials. If it is assumed that some accumulation has occurred in some of the B horizons it will also be necessary to assume that some losses have taken place in others since they have lower quantities than is found in the parent material. The differences in iron content between horizons may not be significant within the range of the figures presented since it has been shown (73) that the losses of iron during sodium carbonate fusion of silicates 8k and rocks may be considerable. The characteristics of profile 4 are of interest from the standpoint of the proceSs of gleying. Investigation of the literature on this subject reveals that the word is not always used in a very precise sense. In extreme cases notable deposits of hydrated ferric oxide may be formed, represented by bog iron ore formations, whereas in other cases there may be little iron deposition but some impedance is indicated by the greenish grey or bluish grey colours of the various horizons. ' Various theories in regard to the mechanism of gley formation have been reported (9), (2), (13), some of which indicate that the role played by soil micro- organisms may be of great importance in this respect, since it is the creation of an oxygen deficit by some active agent which gives rise to reducing conditions. The effect of reducing conditions in the soil is for the accessible trivalent iron to be reduced to the divalent condition. This change increases its solubility in the soil solution. The iron is therefore mobile while aluminum remains relatively immobile as it cannot be converted to a more soluble form by reduction. The movement of aluminum is therefore considered to be more characteristic of well drained soils than poorly a). 85 drained soils. Examination of the data for profile 4, Table VI reveals some increases in percentages of alumina in the B horizons of profiles 1, 2 and 3 and the A1 horizon of profile 4. Iron on the other hand showed a decrease in the G horizon as compared with that occurring in the parent material.' It would appear that in the poorly drained positions in this region some losses of iron do occur. These soils do not remain saturated for the entire year but dry out to some extent during the summer period. It is quite possible that the upper parts of the profile is subject to reducing conditions for only a part of the year and to normal oxidizing conditions for the remainder. These alternating effects may be responsible for the mottled appearance of the G horizon. The derived data in Table VII shows the weight changes in the soil Constituents expressed in the form of ratios of silica-and sesquioxides calculated for the various horizons in the four profiles. This data reveal that the horizons showing the greatest amount of variability in these constituents were the A0 and A2. The composition of the B horizons and the parent material was relatively constant in respect to ratios of these constituents. Following the high ratios which were present in the A2 horizons there was a narrowing of the ratios in the Bgl and 322 followed by a slight increase in the parent material. RATIOS OF SILICA AND SESQUIOXIDES FOR GENETIC HORIZONS IN PROFILES TABLE VII Horizon A120 3102 $102 $102 F6203 ‘fiEfi? AI26§ Fe203 Profile 1 A0 15.8 5.3 5.6 89.8 A2 2h-h 9.2 9.6 23ho3 B21 15.3 2.2 2.3 35.7 B22 16.7 2.5 2.6 44.8 C 14.7 2.9 3.1 47.0 5' depth 11.1 2.5 2.8 31.2 Profile 2 A., 14.8 2.9 3.1 1.7.5 A2 19.6 6.1 6.4 125.7 321 5.3 2.4 2.8 15.3 822 7.1 2.2 2.5 18.5 B3 11.6 2.6 2.8 33.3 C 10.0 2.9 3.2 32.9 86 TABLE VII (Continued) fl Horizon A120 3102 3102 3102 6203 R203 A1553’ Fe203 Profile 3 A00 7.0 2.0 2.3 16.3 A0 24.5 1.3 1.4 34.9 A1 15.5 2.1 2.3 36.0 B2 14.2 2.4 2.6 37.3 B3 7.9 2.8 3.2 25.6 C 9.5 2.9 3.3 31.6 ‘ Profile 4 A0 12.3 2.3 2.5 31.1 Alg 12.8 2.2 2.4 31.5 G 25.0 3.0 3.2 80.4 C 12.9 3.1 3.3 43.8 87 88 The evidence from many investigators with respect to the fate of the sesquioxides in Podzol soils is often conflicting. Deb23 obtained results which fail to support the general assumption that the precipitation of iron in Podzol B horizons is due to flocculation by the divalent cations present in the exchangeable form. The movement of iron from the A horizon and its precipitation in the B horizon is considered to be a fundamental characteristic of Podzol profiles. It has been suggested that iron may move as (a) a negatively charged humus - protected iron-oxide sol, or (b) a complex organic ion. The question as to the amount of humus necessary in the soil solution to peptize the iron oxide has been studied by Aarniol and Deb23. The data given by Aarnio suggests that the amount of humus required for peptization exceeds the amount of ferric oxide 2.5 times. Deb‘on the other hand found that the amount of humus necessary to peptize iron-oxide sol varied considerably with the source of humus and the concentration and pH of the iron-oxide sol, and that over a wide range of concentrations of iron-oxide sol full precipitation occurred with about 7 parts of humus per 100 parts of ferric oxide. Furthermore the amounts of humus required 89 to peptize one half of the coagulated complex of humus and iron oxide was on the average about 10 parts of humus per 100 parts of ferric oxide. These results would seem to indicate that any iron oxide sol formed by weathering in the upper horizons of Podzols will be fully peptized by the humus in soil solution and carried down the profile by percolating water. The effectiveness of calcium in precipitating a humus-protected iron-oxide sol was also investigated by Deb23. On the basis of his experiments he concludes) that "the precipitation of iron in the B horizons of Podzol soils is not due either to colloidal flocculation of a humus-protected iron-oxide sol or to the chemical precipitation of complex salts of iron and organic acids." The losses of silica, sesquioxides and basic com- pounds from the soil have been mentioned by many workers but few data are published to indicate the extent of the losses. Analyses of the water from springs and rivers show that some of the silicon is washed out of the profile altogether and this appears to be true for the iron and aluminum also. Russell72 presents figures from Rode that showed a considerable loss of silicon, iron and aluminum from the A and B horizons of a Podzol 90 soil in Russia, and a net loss of iron and aluminum from the B horizons of a Swedish soil according to O. Tamm. 4.25 Total CaO, MgO, K20 and P205 The content of bases occurring in the profiles of Podzol soils is considered by some workers (46) (47) (36) to coincide to a certain extent with organic matter distribution. Although this tendency appears to hold for the available calcium and magnesium it is not so evident for the total percentage.of these elements. The data in Table VI show the amounts of CaO, MgO, K20 and P205 occurring in the selected profiles. The quantity of calcium found in these soils was small and indicated that the portion which is designated as parent material had suffered considerable removal of bases. The calcium status was much lower than that of magnesium, a condition that was also reported by Lunfih7. The magnesium content increased with depth in the profile whereas no such concomitant increase was evident in the case of calcium. No difference between the various profiles was shown by these constituents. The content of phosphorus was extremely low and no particular trends could be detected in the distribution of this element. The same was true for potassium. 91 5. ESTIMATED NET CHANGES IN THE PROFILES STUDIED The use of reference minerals as a means of evaluating net changes in soils brought about by soil development processes has been described by Marshall and Haseman5l, Although these investigators used Zircon as the index mineral they pointed out that the coarser soil fractions might be useful as indicators in soil genetic studies. Recently Cann15 studied the genesis of a Gray Brown Podzolic - Podzol Intergrade soil profile in Michigan using quartz as the resistant reference mineral. He showed the possibilities of using this mineral as a basis of calculating the gains or losses in the profile under the environmental conditions found in that region. It is intended in this section to apply a similar method of calculation as that used by Marshall and Haseman50 to the profiles used in this study in order to assess the formation and movement of materials, using silica as the standard reference material. A few basic assumptions will be necessary, namely, (1) that the SiOg contents of the mineral layers have not been altered by soil formation and development and 92 (2) that the profiles have developed from material similar to that now regarded as the C horizon. That the first assumption may not be entirely valid has been mentioned with reference to data quoted by RUS861172. The loss of silica from the A and B horizons of these profiles would therefore affect the calculations particularly of the original weights of various constituents in the profile. These weights would be somewhat greater than that calculated in Table II. The selection of the C horizon as representing the true parent material may be questioned since it is acid in reaction and may therefore have lost some of its original carbonate content. This loss can not be great since the sample occurring at a depth of 5 feet had much the same chemical characteristics as that of the various C horizons. In this study the total amount of Si02 found in each of the soil horizons was used as a basis of calculating the gains or losses in the profile. The profile changes due to soil deve10pment were calculated as grams of constituent gained Or lost from a column one square centimeter in cross section to the depth of the solum. This involved the calculation of: (l) a volume change factor, (2) the original weight in grams of each con- stituent, (3) the present weight of each constituent and \r 93 (4) the difference between (2) and (3) to give the net gain or loss. The volume change factor represents the number of cubic centimeters of parent material required to produce one cubic centimeter of the present horizon. This was obtained by multiplying the percentage of silica (by weight) in each horizon by the bulk density of the layer timesone hundred and dividing each figure thus obtained by that of the C horizon. The original weight of each horizon was found by multiplying the volume of each horizon (= depth in centimeters) by the volume change factor and by the bulk density of the C horizon. This weight multiplied by the decimal fraction (is. %/100) of each constituent in the C horizon gave the original weight of each constituent. The present weights were calculated from the present weight and the decimal fractions of constituents in each horizon. The volume change factors for the various horizons are given in Table VIII and the calculated net changes in weight of organic matter and of the soil separates are shown in Table IX. The grams of $102 per 100 cubic centimeters (Table VIII) show a greater variation within each profile than when expressed as percent by weight. This variation is due to volume changes in the TABLE VIII VOLUME CHANGE FACTORS FOR PROFILE HORIZONS Profile SiOZ $102 per 100 cc Volume change and Horizon % Grams factor Profile 1 A2 86.89 85.15 .73 B21 60.48 45.96 .39 B22 65.87 69.82 .60 C 70.60 115.78 1.00 Profile 2 42 80.46 79.65 .66 B22 63.48 51.59 .15 B3 65033 79070 065 C 69.55 121.02 1.00 'Profile 3 A1 56.95 33.03 .25 82 63.05 71.25 .55 B3 67.62 114.28 .87 C 68.93 130.28 1.00 Profile 4 Alg 59.36 51.05 .37 C 69.20 112.80 .81 C 69.26 139.21 1.00 94 95 50. + 50. cm. 05. + cm.H mu. .0o.H+_ .00.H 7 H0.. IsHom 50. e 00. H0. 0H. e 54. H0. 50. + 00. 00. 00 so. 1 0H. HH. 00. e 0e. 5H. 00. 4 H0. no. 000 N0. + NH. 0H. m4. + mm. ad. 54. w Hm. 40. Hum 00. u 00. 00. 00. u «0. 0H. 0H. 0 H0. 00. 04 H0. + H0. - . o4 .N oaamonm we. 3 00.H 05.H 04.0 I 05.4 H0.5 ea.m+ no.0 Hm.. ‘ssHom 5H. u 00.H m0.H 0H.Hu 0H.e 00.0 0m.H+ 00.H 00. 00m 5H. . HH. 00. 05. u 04. o0.H 0H.H+ e0.H 00. H00 0H. s 00. 5H. 00. 1 0H. 05. no. 00. 04 04. + we. 04 H mHHmonm .msmnm madam nasaw msmuw madam madam madam madam madam omsmao unmaos cameos owsmno uanms panoz. omssno pnmaoz. unmaoz poz anomoum Addendum amz. psommnm. Hasemaso poz psomohm. Hangmamo nonpmz.om¢wmwo was» common wwsu ouumoo knob nouanom mAHhomm was 2H maszBHamzoo Hzmmmmm nz<.A .4.noppmz camwwuo somehow Avmsaapcoov NH mum Hmsamfimo poz psomoam, Hmsfiwwuo comm osHm ooz psmmoum Hsswwfiuo some 850062 seawaom Aumdnapcoov NH mAm I: FEL— ‘-~ lll ddH.+ awn. >4. Noo.+ «mm. mm. asaom no.» 5:. 04. Ho.- m4. a:. o 40.» HH. no. Ho.+ oa. mo. ma< :oo.h doo. moo.h moo. 04 4 maflmoum a~o.w ¢m¢. o¢. Mmo.p [hmmw mm. saHom mo.+ om. 4m. mo.u mm. 0m. mm ma. ma. Ho.- Nu. mm. am no. mo. 40. #o. H< moo.» moo. :00.» 400. o< Hoo.w Hoo. Hoo.h Hoo. oo< m «Hamoum mawpm mamnw mampw madam nawpw msmpw awnmgo pgmfimz pnwfioa ownmno pnmflaz pnwfimz poz pcmmwlum chamfino pmz pcmmmum ngwaho 0mm mg coufiuom Avcfinaunoov HHN mqmde needed to clarify the situation. The changes in the weight of iron were less sig- nificant than in the case of aluminum. A very slight net gain was obtained in profiles 1, 2 and 3 and a net loss in profile A. Although losses are indicated in the A2 horizons of profiles 1 and 2 there are also losses in other horizons of the other profiles. It would appear that there has been little change in this con- stituent within the various profiles but they indicate different general trends in Zonal and Hydromorphic soils of the area. The other cations namely calcium, magnesium and potassium are present in very small amounts. However all profiles show a small gain in calcium and a net loss of magnesium. As suggested for aluminum and iron the vegetation might affect the distribution of these cations to different degrees relative to the leaching effect of percolating waters. The C horizons, assumed as parent material, of each profile studied was acid in re- action and very low in total calcium and magnesium, even though the soils are believed to be formed from slightly calcareous rocks. Sufficient weathering must therefore have taken place in the horizons designated as "C horizon" to have reduced the calcium and mag- nesium to their present small quantities. 112 113 A net loss of potassium was shown in profile 1 with small net increases in the other three profiles. The loss of potassium may be eXpected in these well drained acid soils. 114 6. CONCLUSIONS: RELATION OF SOIL CHARACTERISTICS TO TOPOGRAPHY This investigation of a toposequence of soils in an upland region in the province of New Brunswick revealed that the characteristics of Podzol soils occurring in this region are considerably different from those reported in many other parts of the country. vThe soils studied were considered to belong to the Caribou catena, a group of soils also occurring in the State of Maine. The area was heavily wooded and much of the soil was still in a virgin state. In cultivated soils striking differences were seen in the colours of the soils in the well drained positions as compared with those in the poorly drained positions. These colour characteristics were associated with horizon differences in the various profiles occurring on any given slope. The A0 horizon increased in thickness with decreasing slepe and reached its maximum in the poorly drained position. The A2 horizon was replaced by an Al horizon near the foot of the lepe and this layer became gleyed at a still lower position. The influence of 510pe on profile deve10pment was further revealed in the depth of profile. The deepest profiles occurred at the crest of the slope and became progressively shallower towards the foot. Accom- panying the decrease in depth of profile deve10pment 115 were certain physical changes in the soil. This study showed that the percolation rate decreased with depth for each of the individual profiles and that the less permeable horizons came closer to the surface towards the foot of the lepe. The mechanical analysis data showed that the silt fraction made up fifty percent of the soil material in all profiles. A net gain in silt had taken place in all horizons as a result of soil deve10pment processes. A net loss of clay had occurred in profiles 1, 2 and 3, indicating a feature that may be characteristic of all zonal soils in that region. A net increase in clay had occurred in profile h which may have been the result of clay formation or alluvial deposition. Only the A2 horizons showed a consistent net loss of materials in these soils. All the profiles in this study were acid in reaction. A decrease in acidity from the surface to the parent material was noted in each profile, a difference of about one pH unit. _The soils became less acid as the lepe decreased and in profile 3 the surface A00 horizon had the same pH as the parent material of profile 1. In the poorly drained position this increase in pH was confined to the mineral horizons of the profile as the relatively thick A0 horizon was strongly acid. The exchangeable bases occurred in largest quantities 116 in the surface organic horizons and in the parent materials. Calcium was the predominant cation and showed much the same relation to the slope as the . soil reaction, that is an increase in calcium accompanying a decrease in lepe. No particular trend could be discerned between the various profiles with regard to the exchangeable cations, magnesium and potassium. The soluble phosphorus on the other hand indicated a relationship with slope since there was an increase in the lower horizons from profile 1 to profile A. The analyses for total organic matter showed that in addition to the A0 and Al horizons there was a marked accumulation in the fighorizons. A net increase in organic matter was obtained for all horizons of all profiles except the A2 of profile 1 which showed no change. The net gains in the sola of the various profiles showed that organic matter did not change in relation to lepe. The carbon-nitrogen ratios of the A0 horizons ranged from 22.4 to 26.8 and of the B2 horizons from 12. l to 18.8. The higher values in the B horizons occurred in the profiles with the deepest deve10pment and the best drainage near the t0p of the slopes. The data for silica and sesquioxides revealed a net gain in aluminum in all horizons of all profiles excepting the A2 horizons which showed a net loss. The gains in the other horizons were relatively uniform and no particular zone of accumulation could be detected. 117 Iron was present in very small amounts and slight gains were obtained for all profiles excepting profile A which showed a net loss. It would appear therefore that small increases in iron content have taken place in the zonal soils of this region but does not seem to be confined to any one particular horizon in the profile. .The analysis of the data used in this study reveals certain possible sources of error that need further study. Within the region in which these soils occur there are other locations where the till deposits may be as much as fifteen to twenty feet in depth. These soils should reveal whether anyunweathered parent material is present and how it compares with that used in the present study. 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Soil Analyses. Ed. 2. Thomas Murby & Co. London. 1939. 126 b- . . , I -.~~r (H! 3.14;; But. Date Due '1— Demco-293 HICHIGAN STTIE UNIV, LIBRARIES lllll"mlWW”IIlWll“llWNW‘lMIlllllHllllNHl 31293006921005