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A DESCRIPTIVE STUDY
OF PRESERVICE TEACHERS' CONCEPTUAL CHANGE
DURING READING METHODS INSTRUCTION

BY

Sandra Sue Michelsen

A DISSERTATION

Submitted to
Michigan State University
in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY

College of Education

1985

Copyright by
SANDRA SUE MICHELSEN
1985

DEDICATED TO

Mark

My Son

iii

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The writer is indebted to many persons who gave of
themselves during the many phases of her doctoral pro-
gram.

Gratitude is extended to my guidance committee:
Dr. Henrietta Barnes, Dr. James Costar and
Dr. Perry Lanier.

The author also acknowledges the cooperation and
support of Dr. Joyce Putnam, director of the Multiple
Perspectives Teacher Education Program at Michigan State
University, and the staff and students associated with
Cohort III of that program.

Particular thanks is awarded to Dr. Gerald Duffy.
my advisor and chair of my guidance committee, for his
steadfast confidence. support, and encouragement during
my professional endeavors.

Deep appreciation is offered to Elaine Johnson,
Twila Weaner, and Edgar Weaner for their technical
assistance in the production of this dissertation.

Very special praise and thanksgiving is given to
my friends and family for their unyielding personal

support and their unwavering belief in me.

iv

ABSTRACT
A DESCRIPTIVE STUDY

OF PRESERVICE TEACHERS' CONCEPTUAL CHANGE
DURING READING METHODS INSTRUCTION

By

Sandra Sue Michelsen

The purpose of this descriptive and exploratory study was
to investigate teacher candidates' preconceptions, inter-
actions. and conceptual change about reading instruction
during reading methodology instruction. The sample for
this study was drawn from the population of teacher can-
didates in the Multiple Perspectives Teacher Education
Program at Michigan State University. Qualitative re-
search techniques were used to report the findings of
four subjects in the study. The data sources used were
the following: (1) Primary Source —- semantic maps,

(2) Secondary Sources -- Proposition Inventory, reading
session debriefing sessions, and reading definitions.
Data were collected in three phases: (1) pre-instruc-
tional. (2) instructional. (3) Post instructional. Data
were presented and analyzed in individual subject reports
and in a summarized report. Findings of the study were:
(1) Teacher candidates haVe preconceptions when entering

reading methods instruction. (2) Teacher candidates'

Sandra Sue Michelsen
conceptual framework of reading instruction did change.
The change occurred in stages during instruction. (3)
Teacher candidates' conceptualization of a change in
reading instruction is affected by their view toward
the role of the teacher and the role of the student in
the instructional process. (4) The teacher candidates'
conceptual development of reading instruction is re-
lated to aspects found in the novice-expert body of

knowledge.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Chapter Page
LIST OF TABLES ..................................... viii
LIST OF FIGURES .................................... ix
I. INTRODUCTION .................................

Background of the Problem ....................
Teacher Candidates' Prior Knowledge
OfTeaChing 0.0..............OOOOOCOIOOOI...
Conceptual Change...........................

The Problem ..................................

Research Questions ...........................

Significance of the Problem ..................

Definition of the Terms ......................

Design of the Study ..........................
Sample Selection ...........................
Data Collection ............................
Data Analysis ..............................
Assumptions and Limitations ................

Organization of the Remainder of the Study ... l

O\OCDO\O\U\U\«F’F'UUN H l-‘

II. LITERATURE REVIEWIIOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO00......00000 12

Introduction ................................. 12
Teacher Education Theories ................... 13
Introduction ............................... 13
Technical Training.......................... 14
Socialization .............................. 15
Cognitive Developmentalist ................. 17
Summary .................................... l9
Cognitive Change ............................. 20
Introduction ............................... 20
Expert-Novice .............................. 21
Acquisition of Knowledge ................... 26
Knowledge Structure and Organization ....... 32
Schema Theory and the Learner .............. 36
Summary .................................... no
Summary of Literature Review ................. 40

Chapter Page
III. METHOD 0000000000000. ooooooo 0.0000000000000000. “2

Introduction .................................. 42
Procedures .................................... 42
Population and Sampling ..................... 42
Data Sources .............. ..... ............. 45
Data Collection ............................... 52
Pre-instructional Phase ..................... 52
Instructional Phase ......................... 52
Post Instructional Phase .................... 55
Data Analysis ................................. 55
Instructional Sources ....................... 56
Primary Data Source ......................... 58
Secondary Data Sources ...................... 61
Data Analysis Summary ....................... 66
Interpretation of the Findings ................ 67
Summary of Methods ............................ 70

IV. FINDINGS CocoOOooooooooooooiooooooooooooooooooo 72

Introduction .................................. 72
Teacher Education Instruction ................. 74
Introduction ................................ 74
Reading Methods Instruction Overview ........ 74
Reading Methods Instruction -- Segment One .. 76
Reading Methods Instruction -- Segment Two .. 83
Reading Methods Instruction -- Segment Three. 87
Summary of Reading Methods Instruction ...... 88
Reading Teacher Educator's Semantic Map ..... 89
Proposition Inventory ....................... 92
Educational Psychology Instruction .......... 96
Classroom Organization and Management Class . 97
Summary of Teacher Education Instruction ...... 99
Subject Summaries ............................. 100
Introduction ................................ 100
Summary of Subject A ........................ 103
Summary of Subject B ........................ 106
Summary of Subject C ........................ 109
Summary of Subject D ........................ 111
Summary ................. ...... .............. 113
Findings .............. ......... ............... 113
Introduction ...... ..... ..................... 113
Finding One ......... ...... .................. 113
Finding Two ..........................;...... 114
Finding Three ............................... 116
Finding Four ................................ 119
Summary ..................................... 122
Research Questions ............................ 123
Summary ....................................... 125

vi

Chapter Page
V. SUMMARY. SIGNIFICANCE, AND RECOMMENDATIONS ... 126

Summary of the Study ......................... 126
Summary of the Findings ...................... 128
Significance .............. ..... .............. 131
Recommendations .............................. 137
Summary .......... ..... . ......... ............. 142

REFERENCES CITED 000......O............OOOOOOOOOOOOC 144

APPENDIXA subjeCt AOOIOOOOOOOIOOOIOOOOOO0.0.0... 150

APPENDIXB SUbjeCtB......o..........oo......... 177

APPENDIXC subjeCtC .00............I...O...OO... 205

APPEXDIX D subjeCt D ooooooooooooooooooooooococo. 233

APPENDIX E Propositions About Reading Instruction

may, 1978 oooooooooooooooooooooooooo 257

vii

Table
Table
Table

Table

Table
Table
Table
Table

A1
B1
C1
D1

LIST OF TABLES

Proposition Inventory Rating Sheet .....

Proposition Inventory Sample ...........

Reading Teacher Educator Proposition
Inventory ......OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOI.O...

Subject A Proposition Inventories
Subject B Proposition Inventories
Subject C Proposition Inventories

Subject D Proposition Inventories

viii

Page

63
64

93
154
181
210

237

Figure
Figure
Figure
Figure

Figure

Figure
Figure
Figure
Figure
Figure
Figure
Figure
Figure
Figure
Figure
Figure
Figure
Figure

Al
A2
A3
A4
Bl
B2
133
B4
Cl
C2
03
cu

LIST OF FIGURES

Page
semantic map OfaDog ......OOOOOOOOOOO 37
Definers used for Semantic Maps ....... 47

Semantic Mapping InStructions
to Students ......‘................... Ll'8

Definers used in Instruction
(Segment One)

.....OOOOOOOOIOOOOOOOOO 57

Reading Teacher Educator Semantic Map . 90

Subject A - September Semantic Map .... 152
Subject A — November Semantic Map ..... 158
Subject A - February Semantic Map ..... 163
Subject A - March Semantic Map ........ 170
Subject B - September Semantic Map .... 179
Subject B - November Semantic Map ..... 186
Subject B - February Semantic Map ..... 190
Subject B - March Semantic Map ........ 197
Subject C - September Semantic Map .... 207
Subject C - November Semantic Map ..... 215
Subject C - February Semantic Map ..... 219
Subject C - March Semantic Map ........ 223

ix

Figure
Figure
Figure
Figure
Figure

D1
D2
D3
D4

Subject D
Subject D
Subject D
Subject D

September Semantic Map ....
November Semantic Map .....
February Semantic Map .....

March Semantic Map ........

Page
235
241
245
252

CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION

Teacher preparation programs do not operate on the
assumption that "teachers are born. not made." To the
contrary, teacher educators assume the existence of knowl-
edge about how teachers become teachers. However, there
is little research on how prospective teachers acquire an
understanding for this body of knowledge in teacher prep-
aration programs. What does the learner already know upon
entering a teacher education program? How is the learn-
er's previous knowledge affected when the learner comes
into contact with new knowledge in teacher education in-
struction? Such questions need to be answered if teacher
education programs are to improve. This study attempted
to answer such questions by investigating: (1) teacher can-
didates' preconceptions (2) how these conceptions changed
during teacher education instruction.

Background of the Problem

Two aspects about preservice teachers provide back-
ground knowledge to bring focus to the problem investi-
gated in this study: (1) the teacher candidates' prior
knowledge of teaching (2) the cognitive change in the

development of the teacher candidates.

2
Teacher Candidates' Prior Knowledge of Teaching

Teacher preparation really begins during elementary
schooling and not in college. Teacher candidates do have
prior knowledge of teaching since they have attended el—
ementary and secondary schools. Hanson and Herrington
(1976) note that "students entering college already know
what teaching is." Students have more exposure to teach-
ing than to any other occupation.

All children occasionally see policemen, firemen,
and doctors but none see these professionals nearly as
much as they see teachers. Students watch teachers for
years. They acquire a kind of familiarity with the posi-
tion and role of a teacher that is unparalleled in their
experience with any other occupation. Lortie (1975) re-
fers to this experience as the "apprenticeship of obser-
vation" For example, after being in reading groups for
years, teacher candidates already have knowledge about
reading and reading instruction.

Book, Byers, and Freeman (1983) substantiate that
prior knowledge of teaching exists. They found that pre-
service teachers believed they knew enough about teach-
ing that:

1. About 24% of them felt they were highly or com-
pletely confident in their ability to teach im-
mediately.

2. Another two—thirds felt they had moderate con-

fidence in their general teaching ability.

Conceptual Change

Despite the initial confidence which candidates
bring to the teaching profession, change does occur.
Floden and Feiman (1981) addressed the factor of profes-
sional change in teachers. They argue that the "individ-
ual is an active agent in both the motivation and direc-
tion of change, and the environment provides situations
that support some changes and inhibit others." Change is
not simply imposed from the outside. "The change that
occurs is determined by the individual, not by the en-
vironment."

As Stephens (1969) states, "The prospective teacher
does not come to us as an inert, empty memory drum, wait-
ing to be programmed in any manner that we see fit.”
Preconceptions interact with instruction and other envi-
ronmental factors which lead to conceptual change. Since
both preconceptions and their interaction with instruc-
tion are predictable, the factor to be examined is con-
ceptual change.

In summary, teacher candidates' prior knowledge of
teaching and the cognitive change in the development of
a teacher is the focus of this study.

The Prdblqm
The purpose of this descriptive study is to investi-

gate the conceptual change of teacher candidates during

)4.

teacher education instruction. The over-arching question
is:

In what ways do teacher candidates' understanding

of reading instruction change during a course in

reading methodology?

Research Questions

Two major questions were posed:

1. How do teacher candidates' understanding of read-
ing instruction change during a reading methods
course?

a. What is the teacher candidates' initial con-
ception of reading instruction?

b. What is the nature of the teacher candi-
dates' conceptual change?

c. What is the extent of the teacher candi-
dates' conceptual change at the termination
of instruction?

2. What factors influence and inhibit conceptual
change?

Significance of the Problem
The identification of teacher candidates‘ conceptual
change and the description of the factors that influence
the change can contribute to teacher educational research
in three ways. This study:

1. provides a beginning into a new field of inquiry

where little or no research has investigated con-

ceptual change of teacher candidates:

5
2. is of value to future experimental studies be-
cause it presents additional insights into con-
ceptual change: and

3. offers descriptive information about the continu-

um of conceptual change (that is, this change can
be traced, analyzed, and comprehended as it de-
velops and is more helpful to teacher educators
than mere knowledge of pre-course and post-course
conceptual understanding.)

The ultimate long-range question beyond this study
is this: If the student is not an "empty drum" to be pro-
grammed, how can teacher education best deal with a "full
drum" to produce an effective classroom teacher?

Definition of the Terms

The following terms are relevant to the study:

1. Preconception-~entry level understandings teacher

candidates possess regarding reading instruction,

2. Semantic mapping (cognitive mapping)-- a graphic

representation used to illustrate concepts and
relationships between concepts such as classes,
properties, and examples. (Johnson and Pearson,
1978)

Design of the Study

This descriptive study used qualitative research
techniques. Field notes, semantic maps, and debriefing
transcripts were the major data sources. Preservice

teacher candidates were the subjects in this study.

Sample Selection

The subjects in this study were four randomly se-
lected sophomore or junior elementary teacher education
candidates in the Multiple PerSpectives Teacher Education
Program at Michigan State University. Multiple Perspec-
tives is an alternative teacher education program that
emphasizes teacher decision-making. Emphasis is given to
teacher decisions about instructional design, instruction,
individual differences and group development. The teacher
candidates are guided to understand the pressures and con-
straints of decision-making and to realize the conse-
quences of them.

During this study the subjects took the first two of
a sequence of three reading methods courses. They also
participated in an associated field experience.
Data Collectign

Data for the study were collected in three phases:
(1) the pre-instructional phase, (2) the instructional
phase, and (3) the post instructional phase. The pre-
instructional phase took place during the first two days
of the fall term in September 1983 before instruction be-
gan. The instructional phase occurred from the first day
of actual instruction in September to the last week of
the winter term in March, 1984. This was a total of
twenty weeks of instruction. The post instructional

phase occurred during examination week in March.

7 .

Three bodies of data were collected. First, data
were compiled on the teachers' conceptions of reading
instruction before instruction began, at two interim
points, and at the termination of instruction. Second,
data were collected on what the teacher candidates were
thinking while implementing lessons during reading lesson
debriefing sessions. Third, course information from
reading methods classes and other teacher education in-
struction was compiled for this study.

Pre-instructional Phase. Two measurements were ad-
ministered to the four subjects during the pre—instruc-
tional phase to obtain information regarding their concept
of reading instruction. First, each subject constructed
a semantic map of reading instruction. A semantic map was
used as a graphic representation to illustrate the sub-
ject's concept of reading instruction. The reading teach-
er educator also completed a semantic map. Secondly, each
subject completed a Proposition Inventory (Duffy and
Metheny, 1978). This Likert scale instrument surveys five
conceptual dimensions of reading. This measurement also
was used for additional information about the subjects'
conception of reading instruction.

Instructional Phase. The researcher attended read-
ing methods class sessions to collect data on the reading
methods instruction and took notes on the content of the
instruction similar to the notes that a teacher candidate

would take. Also, during the field experience the

8
researcher observed the implementation of reading lessons
taught by each of the four subjects and conducted a de-
briefing session with the subject after each lesson.
Third, each subject constructed two more semantic mapscni
reading instruction. One was produced during the eighth
week and another during the fourteenth week of instruc-
tion. Fourth, the subjects wrote definitions for the
terms "reading" and "reading instruction" in November and
March.

Post Instructional Phase. The subjects completed
another Proposition Inventory and constructed a fourth
semantic map after twenty weeks of instruction.

In an effort to combat the possibility that the sub-
jects might answer in a way that the researcher wanted and
not according to the subjects' real beliefs (Borg and Gall
1983), the researcher explicitly stated that the answers
were for research and not for grading or other evaluative
purposes. A
Data Analysis

This descriptive study used qualitative research
techniques. The semantic maps and the other data for
each teacher candidate were analyzed by noting how the
maps changed in reference to the reading educator's se-
mantic map, the content of the reading methods instruc-
tion and the debriefing sessions of the teacher candi-
dates' reading lessons. Findings were then integrated

and examined in two ways:

9

1. the findings for each subject were presented in
a separate report,

2. the findings from each subject were combined into
a composite summary.

The results were analyzed in terms of the study's

research questions.
Assumptions and Limitations

There are several assumptions and limitations which

influenced the study.

Four assumptions were made in this study:

1. It was assumed that the data collected from the
semantic maps and other measurements gave an ac-
curate indication of teacher candidates’ concep-
tions of reading instruction.

2. It was assumed that the field notes taken by the
researcher during the reading methods instruction
class correctly portrayed the major conceptual
themes taught.

3. It was assumed that "debriefing” discussions be-
tween the researcher and the subjects and the man-
ner in which they were conceptually organizing
their experiences provided accurate information of
what the subjects were experiencing.

There are five limitations in this study:

1. Since this is a descriptive study, the data ob-
tained are qualitative and are not appropriate

for statistical quantitative treatment.

10

2. Due to the small number of subjects studied, the
generalizability of the results are limited to
the teacher candidates involved. Borg and Call
(1983) defend the use of limited numbers of sub-
jects by saying, "A study that probes deeply into
the characteristics of a small sample often pro-
vides more knowledge than a study that attacks
the same problem by collecting only shallow in-
formation on a large sample."

3. Individual human aspects, personality variables
and learning styles were not accounted for in this
study, and information was not gathered or con-
sidered regarding the personal, physical and
emotional conditions of the subjects.

4. The semantic maps were analyzed and interpreted
by the researcher. It is recognized that the re-
searcher's judgments may not necessarily be the
judgments of all teacher educators.

5. The researcher attempted to maintain a comparable
instructional and personal relationship with all
four subjects. It is recognized that her role as
a field instructor may have created differential
kinds of influences on the subjects.

Organization of the Remainder ofythe Study

Chapter II includes a literature review related to

this research study of teacher education, cognition, and

cognitive change. The procedures for data collection and

ll
analysis are described in Chapter III. The findings of
the study are reported and discussed in Chapter IV.
Chapter V summarizes the study and the major findings,

discusses its significance, and states recommendations.

CHAPTER II
LITERATURE REVIEW

Introduction

The purpose of this chapter is to establish the con-
text for this study. It contains two sections. The
first reports on literature regarding three theories of
teacher education. The second section discusses liter-
ature on cognition and cognitive change. One teacher ed-
ucation theory and cognitive change becomes the subject
of this research.

The first section is based on the assumption that
teacher education is designed to teach teachers about
teaching. To that end, three major theories of teacher
education are presented: technical training, socializa-
tion, and cognitive developmentalist. Since this study
investigates cognition and cognitive change which the
cognitive theory emphasizes, the cognitive development-
alist theory appears to be particularly appropriate for
more intensive investigation. Consequently, three
theories are presented with major emphasis on the cog-
nitive developmentalist theory.

The conclusion is reached that if the way to im-

prove teacher education is to help teacher candidates make

12

13
connections through the developmentalist theory in order
to attain a higher cognitive level, the monitoring and
assessing of this development must be achieved by exam-
ining the teacher candidates' cognitive framework and its
subsequent change.
Teacher Education Theories

Introductign

Three major theories of teacher development are dis-
cussed in this section. Leaders of the technical train-
ing theory emphasize a process-product mode. From this
theory, teachers should be trained to perform tasks (pro-
cess) in order to enhance student achievement (product).
Theorists in teacher socialization contend that a teach-
er's major source of development is from the environment
and stress the perpetuation of classroom customs. The
cognitive developmentalist proponents view the teacher as
an active learner and conceptualization develops about
teaching as an interaction between the learner and the en-
vironment. Recently, a concern for connecting theory with
practice has emphasized the need for creating connections
or linkages, which has in turn caused teacher education '
to focus more on the cognitive developmentalist view.

While the developmentalist theory is emphasized in
this study because of its close relationship with the con-
nection-making rationale, the other two theories need to

be explained.

14

Technical Training

In the technical training mode, a teacher is trained.
The teacher trainee follows specific rules set forth by
someone else. The future teacher assumes a passive role
in the training and implements what another figure -- that
of the trainer -- has practiced. The beginning teacher is
seen as someone who obtains skills from someone else and
then puts the skills into practice. This is the process-
product mode. .To illustrate an example of the training
point of view, Gage (1978) said:

The improvement of teaching -- which is tanta-

mount to the improvement of our children's lives --

will come in large part from the continued search
for a scientific basis for the art of teaching.

(p.41)

He felt that educators should not be as much concerned
"with the teacher's 'knowing that‘ as much as with his
or her 'knowing how.'"

Rosenshine and Meyers (1978) described a model of
teacher training. This model provided very specific de-
tails for direct instruction. The teacher is told what
to say, how to say it, and when to say it. A teacher is
trained to learn how to perform skills such as, training
attention, using signals, teaching to a criterion, individ-
ual turn-taking, pacing, correcting incorrect responses,
monitoring student progress, and providing individual re-
mediation. A robot or a microcomputer could theoret-

ically replace the teacher under this model.

15

The inherent educational goal within technical train-
ing theory is to equip teachers with specific skills.

This training is accomplished through a prescriptive mode.
Socialization

A second theory proposed for the development of teach-
ers is socialization. This theory can be seen as an in-
ternationalization of bureaucratic organization processes.
It emphasizes the absorption of the new teacher into the
institution. The teacher is molded by the external forces
and influences within that institution. Something out-
side the teacher influences the change.

In 1932, Waller held "that teaching makes the teacher.
Teaching does something to those who teach." Referring to
the new recruits into the profession of teaching, Waller
said: .

They do not know how to teach, although they may

know everything that is in innumerable books tell-

ing them how to teach. They will not know how to

teach until they get the knack of certain personal
adjustments which adapt them to their profession,

and the period of learning may be either long or

short. (p.380) '

Lortie (1975) discussed this socialization of learn-
ing to teaching with the term "apprenticeship of observa-
tion." This behavior does not allow new teachers to be
analytical. Throughout their lives, preservice teachers
had teachers to observe. Lortie describes how new teach-
ers go out and teach the way they were taught in K-12 ed-

ucation. This trend keeps a conservative status quo in

the profession. Teachers continue to learn to teach

16
during their first year through trial and error and sub-
sequently from their experiences. Teacher education pro-
gram goals are seen as being too high for new teachers
who have no means to carry out the lofty ideals on the
job.

As Roy and Rees (1977) set forth in their socializa-
tion theory, "Teachers are expected to adopt an orienta-
tion consistent with a bureaucratic orientation." This
orientation or socialization is the organization's attempt
to achieve consensus between the newcomers and the organ-
ization. The bureaucratic organization -- the schools --
try to mold ideology and role performance of personnel
through a variety of procedures and mechanisms designed to
make individual beliefs, values and mores correspond to
those of the organization. Regardless of the talk of
change and innovation which occurs in education courses,
it appears that K-12 schools begin immediately to mold and
change neophytes into roles devised to maintain stability.
Roy and Rees reiterate that,"The forces of bureaucratic
socialization in schools seem strong and effective."
Lortie lamented that the pattern of teacher socialization:

...1eaves no room for the emergence and reinforce-

ment of idiosyncratic experience and personal syn-

thesis. In neither structure nor content is it well
suited to inculcating commonly held empirically de-

rived and vigorously grounded practices and princi—
ples of pedagogy. (p.79)

In essence, socialization theorists emphasize the

norming process of the environment and de-emphasize

17

teacher education.
Cognitive Developmentalist

The third major theory of how teachers learn to
teach is the cognitive developmentalist perspective.
According to this theory, the teacher is an active learn-
er. The teacher is viewed as "unfolding" in the process
of becoming a teacher. These changes are noted over a
period of time.

The developmental theorist employs a cognitive de-
velopmental perspective in teacher education. The cog-
nitive developmental theory presumes:

1. A11 human beings process experience through cog-
nitive structures called stages -- (Piaget's con-
cept of schemata).

2. Such cognitive structures are organized in a
hierarchical sequence of stages from less com-
plex to more complex.

3. Growth occurs first within a particular stage and
then only to the next stage in the sequence.

4. Growth is not automatic nor unilateral but occurs
only with appropriate interaction between the
human being and the environment.

5. Behavior can be determined and predicted by an
individual's particular state of development.
(Sprinthall and Thies-Sprinthall, 1980, p.279).

Studies of adult performance have found that persons

who function at higher, more complex, stages are shown to

18
function more successfully. Traditional measures of ac-
ademic scholastic aptitude did not predict success but
estimates of cognitive development did. Thies-Sprinthall
(1980) reports that several teacher education studies have
reached similar findings. The studies indicate that there
was a strong positive relationship between judgment level
and role-taking. Studies have pointed out that teachers
at higher stages of moral reasoning can think and act at
a more complex role-taking level. The developmental
theorists believe that the quality of how a person func-
tions is determined by the complexity of one's own cog-
nitive structure.

Oja (1981) recommends that teacher education programs
use the developmental theory to strive for increased con-
ceptual complexity in preservice teachers. She suggests
that, "Teacher educators may utilize their knowledge of
the developmental needs of the teachers with whom they
work to plan programs geared to promote development." She
also strongly urges that.”the explicit goal of teacher ed-
ucation is to address teachers' cognitive structures..."

Floden and Feiman (1981) postulate that the develop-
mentalist theory will enable teacher educators to view
prospective teachers at the lower stages of development
in a different way. Rather than looking at teachers' char-
acteristics in terms of their present worth, they can be
seen as merely steps towards an end. The early or lower

stages of development have value on their own, because of

19
the relationship to the higher level stages. They feel
that the developmentalist theory can be used to assure
that the success of a teacher education program should not
be measured against that of the finished product.

In the developmental theorists' view, teacher educa-.
tion should create differentiated curriculum and in-
struction to provide for varied levels of developmental
concepts. Developmental stages then could be matched with
particular instructional procedures. In essence, cogni-
tive developmental theorists suggest that it would be wise
to find out at what conceptual developmental stage a pro-
spective teacher is before instruction begins and then in-
struction can be provided at that level. At this time,
however, methods or techniques to assess conceptual stages
are not readily available.

Summary

The cognitive developmentalist theory is emphasized
in this study, even though the technical training and so-
cialization theories need to be acknowledged, understood,
and accounted for in teacher education. A teacher educa—
tion program based on the technical training theory will
only produce a technician and not a professional. Pro-
grams emphasizing the socialization theory are designed to
change the individual through mediating the environmen-
tal influences. The environment is essentially the de-
termining factor. It would appear, however, that teacher

education programs need to be designed to match the levels

20
of prospective teachers' cognitive development. Progress

can be monitored and assessed towards these ends in the
form of examining the teacher candidates' cognitive frame-
work, their developmental level and subsequent change.

If a goal of teacher educators is to reconstruct stu-
dent cognitive framework, then teacher education can be
improved by planning instructional programs that further
the cognitive development of teacher education students.
Thus, if cognitive development is accepted as a neces-
sary component in teacher education planning, the second
section in this chapter presents a discussion of cognitive
change.

Cognitive Change
Introduction

A recent predominant belief of teacher educators is.
that cognitive change grounded in the developmentalist
theory of teacher education is a vehicle for improving
teacher education programs. In this view, the goal of
teacher education is to change the cognitive framework of
the teacher education students. This change can be viewed
from the prospect of the teacher candidate entering in-
struction as a novice and aspiring to be an expert. Nov-
ice-expert research is discussed first in this section.
Then the novice-to-expert change is examined from the per-
spective of the acquisition of knowledge, knowledge struc-

ture and organization, and schema theory.

21

Expert-Novice

Expert-novice research is relatively recent. DeGroot
(1965) is considered to be one of the leaders in the field.
A novice knows very little about certain subject matter
(referred to as low-knowledge) while an expert knows a
great deal (referred to as high-knowledge). The novice-
expert concept can be seen as a continuum. It is not
realistic to consider anyone an absolute novice or an ab-
solute expert. The range between a novice and an expert
is wide. While the expert status is not achieved quickly,
the novice-expert state is relative. One can be a novice
in some areas of knowledge and an expert in others. One
can be an expert while associating with one group of in-
dividuals but become a novice in a different group.

DeGroot's (1965) studies in chess are considered to
be the classic in the field. He hypothesized that experts
learn to think in terms of various frameworks. An indi-
vidual who has high-knowledge is found to possess a better
internal context (framework) for adding pertinent knowl—
edge. An individual who has lowaknowledge does not pos-
sess an appropriate framework to compile information. Ex-
pert-novice reports can be related to instructional sets
tings.

According to Cazden (1976) , the knowledge of novices
is not simply an incomplete version of the knowledge of
the expert or mature learner, but it is also qualitatively

different. After a series of experiments, Voss (1977)

22
concluded that domain-related concepts of a high-knowledge
individual are more differentiated than the concepts of
the low-knowledge individual. If one assumes that the
meaning of a concept consists of the relationships of that
concept with other concepts, then the conceptual struc-
ture of a high-knowledge individual (expert) may be as-
sumed to have more concepts and more interrelationships
among them.

This hypothesized difference has three implications:
(1) the highly knowledgeable person is able to identify
knowledge-related material more accurately and more quick-
ly than the less-knowledgeable individual (a difference
that produces a more precise encoding and storage of in-
formation): (2) because of the superiority in storage pre-
cision, the deciphering is made easier for the high-
knowledgeable person: and (3) the differences between the
high—and low-knowledge person suggests that depth, or -
level of processing differences exist at a semantic level.
These differences are characterized by encoding unique-
ness according to Lockhart, Craik and Jacob, (1976).

A second conclusion from Voss involves the role of
context. The high-knowledge individual not only has a
much greater knowledge of contingent relations but is also
more adept at using this knowledge. In low-knowledge in-
dividuals, context can provide barriers in acquiring new
information. This suggests that providing more informa-

tion successively in a classroom about a particular

23
subject could present increasing difficulty for persons
with relatively poor understanding of the information.
In other words, giving more information does not nec-
essarily produce greater understanding.

Also, high-knowledge individuals recall information
more readily than low—knowledge individuals. They are
able to make more appropriate predictions regarding events
that would occur under a given set of circumstances. This
indicates that knowledge of a given domain builds up an
internal context that the individual is able to use when
domain-related information is presented. Low-knowledge
individuals lack the appropriate internal framework for
understanding external events due to their knowledge
structure.

The idea of making a-connection between old and new
knowledge relates to the findings of Bransford, Nitsch,
and Franks (1977). They concluded that experts learn to
think in terms of various frameworks. With a sufficient
framework, experts no longer need explicit, specific, and
contextual support to understand something. This frame-
work is referred to as decontextualization. The expert
may eliminate the need to perform certain previously nec-
essary activities. Intermediate steps simply drop out.

Of course, these may return under conditions when one
again confronts something especially difficult. The auto-
matization that accompanies increasing expertise is there-

fore assumed not simply to involve the process of

24

performing the same activities faster and faster. Lewis'
(1981) studies in math substantiated this. He concluded
that people do not necessarily get better just by doing
something repetitiously. Appropriate conceptual frame-
works, more than rapidity, enhance "expertiseness."

Larkin (1981) came to a similar conclusion. She does
not think that the ability to generate more information
automatically captures everything important in expertise.
Experts clearly do more clever things such as planning or
using alternative problem representations. The expert is
capable of being more insightful or of "seeing" more than
the novice. Experts automatically generate a great deal
of qualitative knowledge about the problem. She hypoth-
esized that novice problem solvers assess, along with a
principle, some general statements of the condition for
applicability and they explicitly match these against the
current problem representation. In contrast, expert prob-
lem solvers assess these conditions automatically as part
of the conditional sides of their specific productions.
These statements are consistent with the fact that novice
subjects spend more time trying to determine whether a
particular principle is applicable than do the expert
solvers. The experts have a framework from which to draw
and novices do not.

This was shown when Champagne, Klapfer and Gunstone
(1982) and Chi, Glaser, and Rees (1981) investigated stu-

dents' knowledge of physics. It appeared that both the

25

experts and the novices use some of the major physical
laws as frameworks to form their knowledge schemata. Un-
like the novice, the expert's schemata of physical prin-
ciples include statements of the major physical laws which
are highly abstract and express relationships of great
generality. Included with each principle are statements
of the conditions under which the principle applies. Each
principle has an associated schema, which is oriented by
the content and applicability conditions of the principles.

Spiro (1979) paralleled the expert-novice studies of
good and poor readers. He reported that the novice--the
less able reader--tends to focus on decoding of letter
sounds, thereby decreasing comprehension. He attributed
this tendency to an insufficient amount of prior knowledge
regarding the text and a misconception about the nature
of reading comprehension in general. The better reader--
- the expert--possesses more refined or complete cognitive
frameworks in both areas. Flower and Hayes' (1981)
Matsuhasi’s (1981) and Perl's (1979) studies in writing
produced similar results. Novices unable to conceptual-
ize a total structure for the entire writing task focused
on writing individual sentences.

These novice-expert studies strongly suggest the
need to attend to the learners' cognitive framework.
Glaser, Pellegrino, and Lesgold (1978) feel that the prob-
lem of instruction is to characterize the knowledge struc-

tures of the expert as compared with the knowledge

26
conceptualization of the novice. The novice then can be
brought closer to the expert by means of some instruc-
tional form.

Briefly, the group of recent studies in the expert-
novice area yield findings that directly relate to educa-
tion. Studies show that an expert has an internal struc-
ture in which new knowledge can "fit into" the old.
Novices lack this framework. Instructional planning needs
to attend to the learner's internal cognitive framework.
In light of this research, there is a strong linkage be-
tween the cognitive developmentalist theory of teacher
education and the expert-novice conceptual framework.
Acquisition of Knowledge

From the expert-novice research there is evidence to
substantiate that knowledge develops within a conceptual
framework. The acquiSition of knowledge is a complex phe-
nomenon. This study examines information pertaining to
the acquisition of knowledge from a historical aspect and
from the knowledge theories of Piaget, Vygotsky, Nelson,
and Norman.

Knowledge has been a standard topic of diScussion
for centuries. From Plato's theory of recollection to
Aristotle's theory of cognitive function, philosophers
have contributed their theories on the origin and develop-
ment of knowledge. Broudy (1977) believes it is the educa-
tor's task to unite the pupil with the knowledge.

What is the basic process of acquiring knowledge?

27
This problem has been a central focus of theories for
over a century. Schools of psychology--Structura1ism.
Functionalism, Behaviorism, Gestalt, Non-Behaviorism, and
Information Processing--have attempted answers to this
problem.

One of the oldest known processes of acquiring knowl-
edge is the Socratic method. Collins (1977) described
this method as a student learning three kinds of things:
(1) specific information about a variety of cases, (2)
causal dependencies or principles about these cases and,
(3) a variety of reasoning skills. This method is not
limited to any specific body of knowledge but is a method
to force students to reason for themselves.

Piaget (1928) contended that young children are less
conscious of their own thought processes and less able to
introspect and evaluate such processes than the older
child or adult.It is logical to conclude that the younger
the human being, the more poorly organized, incomplete,
and inconsistent knowledge is in comparison to the infer-
ential complex reasoning system attributed to adults. To
expand further, it would seem logical to think that the
response to knowledge from childhood to adulthood would
be a purely natural outcome of maturation. Osherson and
Markham (1975) offered evidence that this is not the case
and substantiated the belief that this more complex pro-
cessing of knowledge is dependent upon formal school in-

tervention.

28

According to Vygotsky (1962), who discussed the de-
velopment of knowledge in his classic work Thought and
Language, there are two phases in the process: (1) auto-
matic conscious acquisition and (2) a gradual increase in
conscious control over that knowledge. Although he ac-
knowledged the necessary role of Piaget's internal mat-
uration in development, he believed that formal and in-
formal education strongly influences knowledge develop-
ment.

Voss (1977) believed that the acquisition of knowl-
edge should be looked at as the interaction of the knowl-
edge and skills the individual brings into and uses to-
gether with the information and demands of the particular
situation. Assuming that knowledge is acquired from ex-
perience and that new information is assimilated into an
already existing conceptual structure, the problem of how
we obtain new knowledge is not a simple one. A simple
answer cannot be given.

Nelson (1977) felt that the basic process is the same
throughout development for all age groups. Knowledge ac-
quisition involves the construction of a functional core
meaning and its relation of the novel event to other pre-
viously known events within a conceptual system. Iden-
tifying attributes are added which distinguish it from
similar concepts. Then this new knowledge is given a
name. Concepts are thus organized and interpreted in

terms of larger event structures which have been called

29
scripts or frameworks. These enable human beings to make
predictions about recurrent events. Human beings possess
the framework within which concepts can be understood.

Brown (1977) agreed that there is a fundamental con-
tinuity to human conceptual development. As previously
noted, the basic way knowledge is acquired is through the
formation of increasingly rich event structures and
scripts which allows interpretation of the new and pre-
diction in light of the familiar, to form an organiza-
tional structure for a personal universe. The ability to
manipulate this knowledge may be determined in modern so-
ciety by the traditional school settings. Without the
intervention of formal schooling, differences between
adults and children would reflect the increasing richness
and diversity of human experience across the life span,
rather than different styles of thought promoted through
formal schooling.

The current view of cognitive theory may be best
characterized as the information processing approach which
has been the psychologists' theory for the last decade.
This approach offers the analogy of man-machine, or brain-
computer. Even though we can accept this analogy as an
improvement over the simplistic processing models offered
by stimulus-response theory of the preceding decade, it
should be remembered that the computer scientists' sys-
tems are artificially contrived, while our systems are

evolved naturally. While their systems are passive, ours

30
are active. The role of emotion, personality and social
factors in determining the questions appropriate to human
beings are not defined in artificial systems (Shaw and
Bransford, 1977).

Norman (1978), using cognitive theory, suggested that
there are three ways to acquire new knowledge. In sub-
stance, he expanded Piaget's theory, and gave different
"names" to the processes. First, new knowledge can be
added to the framework provided by existing knowledge mod-
ules. This mode of acquisition can be called "accre-
tion." Second, new knowledge modules can be formed, re-
conceptualizing knowledge about a topic. This can be
called "restructuring." Third, existing knowledge mod-
ules can be made more efficient by specializing the in-
formation contained within them for the particular task
required of them. This mode can be called "tuning."

In general, accretion is necessary to provide a data
base upon which appropriate knowledge modules can grow.
It is a straightforward addition of knowledge and it is
the type most studied. Accretion is tested by a conven-
tional recall and recognition technique. The restructur-
ing load is characterized by new insights into the struc-
ture of a topic. It is illustrated by the Eureka princi-
ple, and the phrase, "0h, now I understand." It is pos-
sible for restructuring to take place in the complete ab-
sence of new information. In the tuning mode, the re-

peated use of the knowledge seems to be required. Tuning

31
can occur over the lifetime. The individual adjusts the
information acquired and eliminates unnecessary variables.
Tuning requires continuous activity. The individual or
student cannot be passive but must actively seek to ac-
quire knowledge.

The findings of knowledge acquisition which are ap-
plicable to teacher education are offered by Wyer (1977).
He found little evidence to support the hypothesis that
persons tend to seek and attend only to information that
supports their preconceived attitude towards an issue.

He and Schwartz (1969) did find that when a person re-
ceives verbal information with which he is already famil-
iar, he may ignore interpretations that are inconsistent
with the information previously acquired. Also, if the
recipient of information sees the person imparting the
'knowledge as one who is credible, a greater degree of
knowledge will be received.‘

In summary, theories regarding the acquisition of
knowledge can be traced historically from Plato's theory
of recollection, to Piaget's human internal maturation, to
the Vygotsky's automatic and conscious process to Nelson's
event structures, to Norman's accretion, restructuring and
tuning. The acquisition of knowledge is a complex phe-
nomenon without simple or complete answers. Since struc-
turing knowledge within a framework leads to a greater de-
gree of expertise, more information concerning knowledge

structure and organization is provided in the following

32

section.
Knowledge Structure and Organization

A unit of knowledge is known as a "schema." This
term is prominently used in discussions of knowledge.
Simply stated, a schema is a representative concept stored
for memory. More recently, other terms like "script" or
"frame" have been used. Bartlett, in the 1930's used the
term, Piaget used it in 1952, Kagan in 1971, and Rumelhart
in 1975. Even though Bartlett is acknowledged as the
father of the term schemata, Kant used the idea of sche-
mata in similar ways in Critique of Pure Reason'in_1787.

Basically, Piaget defined schema as a regular struc-
ture of action or an organized sequence of operations
such as found in a computer program or routine. He also
noted that schemata may be connected to each other in
hierarchical systems. Eckbald (1981) described this one
unit - schema - as having smaller structural units which,
in turn, constitutes a more superordinate structure.
Piaget's theory of knowledge acquisition comprised two
central ideas: .(1) knowledge as assimilation into struc-
tures and (2) self-regulation or equilibrium. Gallagher
and Reid (1981) described this as when one assimilates or
incorporates elements of their environment into their cur-
rent physical or psychological structures, while at the
same time, the individual accommodates this information
into their cognitive framework and thus equilibrium is

attained.

33

Bartlett (1932), in his classic book entitled
Remembering, believed that when people learn, what they
learn must fit into some kind of abstract system or
"schema." New knowledge is not a mere discursive list-
ing of simple instances. More recent research supports
Bartlett's views that new knowledge can be classified in
terms of a highly integrated system of abstract relations.
Knowledge is a conceptual system rather than a classifi-
cation of individual memory patterns.

Other major investigators such as Anderson and Bower
(1973), Kintsch (1974), and Norman (1975) also used such
a representation to characterize organization of knowl-
edge. Although Minsky (1975) referred to "frames" and
Shank and Abelson (1977) used the terms "script" and
"plan," all of these terms connote similar concepts.

By whatever name, researchers agree on how informa-
tion is organized. There are four essential characteris-
tics of schema which combine to make a powerful represen-
tation of knowledge and memory: (l)schemata have var-
iables: (2) schemata can mesh with one another: (3) sche-
mata represent generic concepts which taken altogether
vary in their levels of abstraction: and (4) schemata
represent knowledge rather than definition (Rumelhart and
Ortony, 1977)-

The term "schema" has brought attention to the fact
that our brains contain higher order units and capacities.

This cognitive structure can be considered the framework

34
or network in which our world is seen and interpreted.
One aspect of this network is that it can be "unpacked"
(Greeno, 1976) when necessary.

Norman, Gentner, and Stevens (1976) refer to the
structure of schemata as: (1) providing a framework on
which to interrelate different elements of information
about a topic into one conceptual unit: (2) consisting
of statements about important features of the unit: the
functions of the unit, the rules for selection, and rules
for use: and (3) containing conditional statements and
sets of events that are to be performed according to the
status of the conditional state. (pp-183-l84)

A number of schemata may be combined into a single
higher level schema which in turn can be applied to a more
complex situation. The use of old schemata constitutes
an efficient way to introduce new information about a com-
plex and unfamiliar area.

What are the implications for education? The purpose
of instruction is to provide the kind of knowledge that
will prove useful to a person in processing new informa-
tion and dealing with new situations. The function of
schemata is to match new inputs in terms that can be com-
prehended. The generation of new knowledge structures and
the application of these structures are regarded as the
principal goals of instruction. Whatever the instruc-

tional device, existing knowledge is used in and required

35

for the acquisition of new knowledge. The fitting into
preexisting schemata or the decontextualization of the
old with the new is defined as assimilation (Anderson,
1977).

However, it is impossible for human beings to store
a schema for every conceivable scene, event, and message.
Few episodes are identical. People are different and
changeable. Everyone comes to similar situations with
different perspectives and different intentions. They
play different roles. People do not function by select-
ing the "right template" from the great mental warehouse
of templates of prior experiences. The process is dynamic.

The conclusion is that the assimilative use of sche-
mata must involve constructing interpretations. Every
situation contains at least some novel characteristics.
The broader the range of situations a schema can cover,
the more it will fit into any one situation. A concept
may have many different meanings for a number of settings.
As the preexisting schemata interrelate with the new,
there is growth and change of schemata. This process is
referred to as accommodation.

A semantic structure of a particular subject, i.e.,
reading instruction, can be graphically constructed using
a tool known as semantic networking or mapping. Very
simply, a semantic map illustrates a set of linking repre-
sentative relationships between concepts. Johnson and

Pearson (1978) identified four relationships represented

36
in a schema: (1) class, (2) example, (3).attribute (prop-
erties), and (4) related concepts. Figure 1 illustrates
an example of a semantic map of a dog (Johnson and
Pearson, 1978, p.36). This semantic mapping structure pro-
vides a way to illustrate how one conceives of a certain
subject or body of knowledge. The mapping techniques em-
phasizes modification and individual capabilities which
provide positive features and techniques for assessing
students' individual instructional preconceptions and sub—
sequent change.

In summary, schema theory is a dynamic constructive
process. Schema formulations emphasize the patterning of
elements, rather than the elements themselves. Schema
change can be seen as the acquisition of knowledge and not
the aggregation of information. The recent attention to
schema as the basic structure of knowledge not only pro-
vides a powerful theory to explain information processing
during instruction,‘but is a method to assess student con-
ceptual change.

Schema Theory and the Learner

Schema theory has developed into a specific field to
explain the acquisition of knowledge in Spoken and written
language comprehension. This psychological phenomenon
plays a prominent role in the field of education. The
schema-theoretic approach provides a direction for the in-
quiry into how a learner uses acquired knowledge to con-

struct meaning from written or spoken language.

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38

A basic assumption of the schema-theoretic approach,
according to Adams and Collins (1977), is that spoken or
written text does not alone carry meaning. The text pro-
vides direction for the learner to retrieve or construct
its meaning from the learner's prior knowledge. The terms
"reader" and "text" need to be considered in the broader
sense of "learner" and "instruction." The function of
schema theory is to "specify how the reader's knowledge
interacts and shapes the information on the page and to
specify how that knowledge must be organized to support
the interaction." The hierarchical structure of concepts
and schema theory account for the process of the inter-
pretation principle. Every input must be mapped against
some schema and all aspects of that schema must be com-
patible with the input information.

This results in two basic modes of information pro-
cessing (Rumelhart, 1976). The first mode is "bottom up"
processing. Data information enters the cognitive struc-
ture through the best fitting bottom level schemata. As
these schemata converge into higher level schemata, they
are activated. In this way, information is led upwards
through increasingly high levels of interpretation. The
other mode, "top down" processing, works in the opposite
direction. This occurs when the cognitive structure seeks
information that fits satisfactorily into the higher order
schemata. In the language comprehension schema theoretic

account, both "top down" and "bottom up" processing are

39

occurring simultaneously. Data needed to fill out the
schemata become available through "bottom up" processing.
"Top down" processing resolves ambiguities and allows one
to select between alternative interpretations of incoming
data. It is a critical point in the schema theoretic
account of language comprehension that a coordinated ac-
tivity of "top doWn" and "bottom up" processing should
occur at the same time. As Adams and Collins (1977) say,
"As 'top down' and 'bottom up' processes operate simul-
taneously at different levels of analysis, they work to
pull the various fragments of knowledge and information
into a coherent whole."

Therefore, comprehension depends upon the ability to
interrelate knowledge and incoming data information both
within and between levels of analysis. The schema-theo-
retic approach supports these interactions through a
single stratified knowledge structure and the basic "top
down" and "bottom up" processing mechanisms.

In the discussion of schemata pertinent to comprehen-
sion, Anderson, Pichert, and Shirey (April, 1979) refer
to two general kinds of schemata -- the textual and the
content. Textual schemata refers to discourse, written
or spoken. Content schemata refers to existing knowledge.
Their findings indicated that content schemata is more
important to comprehension than textual schemata. They
also report two findings which emerge from the research:

(1) inferences are made consistent with present schemata;

40

and (2) more contextual information is recalled if it is
seen as important to present schemata.

Even though shortcomings of schema theory for in-
dividual differences and the assessment of knowledge
_structures have been pointed out by Spiro (1980), schema
theory continues to offer substantial evidence to provide
a vehicle towards future instructional improvement.
Summary

This section on cognitive change suggests that there
is a qualitative difference between the knowledge of an
expert and the knowledge of a novice. An expert's knowl-
edge frameworks are different than a novice's and is not
just a matter of having more knowledge. Knowledge acqui-
sition was discussed with respect to cognitive theory by
accretion, restructuring and tuning. This led to the
schema structure and organization of knowledge. Schema-
theoretic approaches were then discussed to illustrate the
relationship between learner and instruction.

Summary of Literature Review

This chapter contained two areas of research liter-
ature: (l) theories of teacher education and (2) cogni-
tive change. Teacher educators were assumed to teach
teachers to teach. Three major theories about how this
teaching should proceed were presented. They included the
theories of (1) technical training, (2) socialization, and
(3) cognitive developmentalist. Since the cognitive de-

velopmentalist theory and this study both focus upon

41
cognition, this theory was emphasized in the research
discussed.

Section two of the chapter presented information
about cognitive change. This field of research was ap-
proached from the aspect of the teacher candidate begin-
ning as a novice and aspiring to be an expert. The novice
to expert change was investigated from the perspectives
of the acquisition of knowledge, knowledge structure and

organization, and schema theory.

CHAPTER III
METHOD

Introduction

The purpose of Chapter III is to present the method,
procedures, and data collected in the study. This de-
scriptive study investigates teacher candidates' precon-
ceptions of reading instruction and their subsequent
cognitive change in response to reading methods instruc-
tion.

Procedures

The procedures include information pertaining to
the population, the selection of the subjects, and the
assessment measures.

Population and Sampling

Progga . The subjects of the study were enrolled
in the Multiple Perspectives Teacher Education Program
at Michigan State University. This alternative program
stresses teacher decision-making. Emphasis is given to
teacher decisions about instructional design, instruction,
individual differences and group development in light of
realistic professional pressures and constraints.

The Multiple Perspective Program was chosen for the

following reasons:

42

43

1. The enrolled teacher candidates recently had made
a serious commitment to become teachers as evi-
denced by their decision to enroll in the pro-
gram.

2. The structure and format of the Multiple Per-
spectives Program made it possible for all the
following to occur on the same day:

a. observation of the reading methods instruc-
tion:

b. observation of the teacher candidate teach-
ing reading: and

c. a "reflective" debriefing session with the
teacher candidate after the implementation
of the reading lesson.

3. The teacher candidates received collaboratively
planned teacher education instruction. When read-
ing methods and educational psychology were
taught, both courses stressed teacher decision,
making. The teacher educators planned their in-
struction together in order to effect this syn-
thesis. Assignments were interrelated and termi-
nology was consistent in both classes. For in-
stance, a pupil's background assignment for edu-
cational psychology and a pupil's diagnostic
assignment for reading methods were combined into
one assignment. Professors in both reading and

psychology reviewed terms such as "goal" and

44
"objective" and formulated common definitions.
The process of planning lessons and the lesson
plan format were the same for both classes. The
professors met with the field staff and communi-
cated detailed information regarding the focus of
classroom instruction. The field staff then
planned field experiences to relate college class-
work with public school field experiences. Direct
teacher explanation of instruction was stressed
in the program. The teacher candidates were
taught to have their students become metacogni-
tively aware of their own learning processes.
This instruction provided linkage or the "connec-
tions" between the teacher education instruction
and practice in the field. The cohesive and col-
laborative nature of the program presented an
ideal place in which to study the conceptual
change of teacher candidates.

4. Some teacher candidates involved in this study may
have had a previous introductory course in educa-
tion with classroom observations and/or some ex-
perience with children. However, none of the sub-
jects had previously enrolled in courses in read-
ing methods instruction.

Subjects. Thirty teacher candidates began the pro-

gram in September, 1983. All 30 agreed to be studied.

During orientation sessions, 10 students were arbitrarily

45

assigned to the researcher for field experience instruc-
tion and supervision. Four of these 10 students were
then randomly selected as subjects. Then the students
were identified with the letters A through D to protect
their anonymity. Four other students were randomly se-
1ected to be alternates in case one or more of the first
four subjects left the program during the study. The sec-
ond set of four received the numbers five through eight.
Five would become a subject if A, B, C, or D, left the
program, six would become a subject if a second original
subject did not continue the program, and so on.

Data Sougces

Primary and secondary data were collected in this
study.

Primary Data Source. The primary data source for
this study was a set of semantic maps of reading instruc-
tion constructed by each subject. A semantic.map is a
graphic representation used to illustrate concepts and re-
lationships between classes, properties, and examples of
concepts (Johnson and Pearson, 1978). The maps became the
primary data source because they reflected mental frame-
work more accurately than other measures. In order to
complete a semantic map, each subject arranged 44 cards
of word definers in any manner she deemed appropriate.

The definers were chosen from lists of words associated
with reading and instruction generated by a graduate class

in reading methods. The definers were meant only to

46
stimulate conceptualization and contained no Special the-

oretical or methodological significance. Examples of the
definers are "sight words," "motivation," and "phonics"
(see Figure 2).

The researcher trained two other staff members to ad-
minister the construction of the maps. The researcher
spent 30 minutes two days prior to the construction ac-
quainting the staff with semantic mapping and the instruc-
tions for administering it (see Figure 3). The staff mem-
bers arrived early on the day of the mapping in order to
become familiar with the environment and to ask questions.
They also observed from across the room as the researcher
administered the map to the first teacher candidate.

Thirty minutes were allotted for each administra-
tion. Each subject sat at a table with a large piece of
paper on it. The administrator told the teacher candi-
date the directions. Then the teacher candidate took the
cards out of the envelope and proceeded according to the
directions. Each subject was told that the 44 cards were
to be arranged in a manner that seemed logical. There was
no right nor wrong arrangement. Any of the original 44
cards could be eliminated and/or additional cards could be
created by the subject. Each participant was asked to
think aloud for purposes of tape recording the discussion
while the subject constructed the map. Each subject was
asked to explain orally her completed semantic map of

reading instruction.

Education
Professional
School
Learning
Language arts
Teacher

Prior knowledge
Readability
Expectation
Strategy
Organization
Goal

Task
Objective

Classroom

47
Curriculum
Teaching
Management

Motivation

_Explain

Activity
Seatwork
Concept

Basal text
Vocabulary
Phonics

Sight words
Word analysis
Context

Content area text

Direct instruction
Fluency
Content
Instruct
Practice

Free reading
Skill
Comprehension
Apply

Success
Effectiveness
Monitor
Assess

Diagnosis

Figure 2 Definers used for Semantic Maps

1.

2.

3.

5.
6.

7.

48
This inventory is for research and program
development ONLY as described in the consent
form.
The objective is to find out how you think about

reading instruction.

Procedure:
a. look through the word cards
b. spread out the word cards
c. arrange the words in the arrangement
or structure that makes sense to you
about your thinking of reading instruction
d. talk aloud as you do it to explain your
thinking
e. make arrows or lines between the words to
indicate your thinking as you are doing the
arrangement or after you have completed it.
You do not need to use ALL the cards. Use ONLY

the ones you need. Ask for others if you want.
There is NOTHING right and/or wrong in what you do.
This has NOTHING to do with your grade for the class.

Thank you VERY much for your time.

Figure 3 Semantic Mapping Instructions to Students

49

Secondary Data Source. To support and explain con—
ceptions found in the subjects' semantic maps, three data
sources served as secondary data sources. They were:
(1) the Proposition Inventory, (2) reading lesson debrief-
ing sessions, and (3) reading definitions. These sources
were used to triangulate data from the primary source of
the semantic maps. Triangulation is a process based on
an ethnographic principle in which findings from one source
are considered to be more reputable when they can be con-
firmed or justified by reference to other sources.

1. The Proposition Inventory (Duffy and Metheny 1978)
is a Likert scale instrument used to measure teach-
ers' reading beliefs. This 45 item inventory sur-
veys five conceptual dimensions of reading. The
five general categories of beliefs about reading
are as follows: basal textbook, linear skills,
interest based, natural language, and integrated
whole (see Appendix E). Since the Proposition In-
ventory measured beliefs, it was hypothesized that
it would reflect and support the concepts shown
on the subject's semantic maps. The subjects re-
ceived the following information and directions
regarding the inventory: (a) This is an inventory
to survey your beliefs about reading: (b) Read
each item and decide how you feel about the state-

ment: (c) If you strongly agree with the statement,

5O
circle the letter "a." If you agree, circle the
letter "b." If you are neutral, circle the let-
ter "c." If you disagree, circle the letter "d."
If you strongly disagree, circle the letter "e:"
(d) Do not spend any longer than about 30 seconds
thinking about your answer. Leave the statement
blank if you cannot decide: (e) If you do not
understand a term or word used in the statement,
circle it and do not answer it: (f) Be as honest
as possible with your answers: and (g) The com-
pletion of this inventory in no way influences
your grade in this class.
The reading lesson debriefing sessions took place
after the researcher observed the subject teach-
ing a reading lesson. Since the debriefings
probed the subject's thoughts, it was hypothesized
that data concerning the subject's conceptualiza-
tion of reading instruction while in direct con-
tact with children would be an additional data
source. Each subject taught a reading lesson
every Tuesday and Thursday. During the first 10
week term of instruction, each subject taught one
below grade-level reader. The second 10 week term
each subject taught a reading group using the pub-
lic school system's mandated basal text series.
The researcher observed each subject three times

the first term and four times the second term.

 

 

 

51
After the researcher observed the implementa-
tion of each subject's reading lesson, the re-
searcher debriefed the subject regarding the
lesson. Each debriefing session focused upon the
information processed by the subject and the de-
cisions she made during the lesson. Two ques-
tions were part of each debriefing session.

a. What information were you processing during
the lesson?

b. What decisions (interactive) were you aware
of that you were making while you were teach-
ing?

3. For the third secondary data source, the subjects
wrote definitions of reading and of reading in-
struction in November and in March. The main
concepts in the two sets of the subjects' defini-
tions were compared with each other. The defini-
tions were examined to answer questions such as:
(a) Were there more concepts in the second defi-
nitions than the first? (b) Were they elaborated
upon? (c) Were examples given? It was hypothe-
sized that this analysis process would offer the
researcher further insight into the subjects' con-
ceptual change regarding reading instruction.

In summary, the subjects of this study were selected

from a population of teacher candidates in the Multiple

Perspectives Program at Michigan State University. The

52
primary data source was the subjects' semantic maps of
reading instruction. The secondary data sources were the
Proposition Inventory, reading lesson debriefing sessions
and reading definitions. The secondary data sources pro-
vided additional support to primary data source.
Data Collection

Data collection occurred in three phases:

1. pre-instructional

2. instructional

3. post instructional
Pre-instructional Phase

Information from two data sources was gathered dur-
ing this phase. The first was the Proposition Inventory:
the second was the semantic map. During an orientation
session of the Multiple Perspectives Program, all 30 stu—
dents were given the Proposition Inventory. At the con-
clusion of this session, all students made appointments
for the individual construction of the semantic maps.
All maps were constructed before instruction began.
Instructional Phase

Five sets of data were collected during the instruc-
tional phase of this study. The first data collected fo-
cused on the reading methods instruction. The researcher
observed the reading methods instruction, assumed the role
of a teacher candidate, and took notes on the contents of
the presentations. This data was gathered in order to re-

cord the main points of emphasis and the particular

53

definers discussed during instruction. The researcher
met with the reading teacher educator to validate the
notes she took in methods class.

This set of data also included the semantic map and
the Proposition Inventory of the reading teacher educator.
The results were used to assist in analyzing the sub-
jects' data. Questions such as the following were asked:
Were the subjects' conceptions similar to the reading
teacher educator's? Did they become more like his dur-
ing subsequent mappings? Were the subjects' ratings on
the Proposition Inventory like the reading teacher ed-
ucator's? Did the ratings come closer to his on the sec—
ond inventory? The assumption was made that the read-
ing teacher educator's instruction in reading methods
would reflect what he had described on his semantic map
and on his Proposition Inventory. Thus, the subjects
would tend to change their previous concepts and begin
to think about reading instruction somewhat as he did.

The second set of data in the instructional phase
was the subjects' debriefing sessions. This phase was
accomplished in order to note the subjects' perceptions
of reading instruction after they began to teach children
reading. Each subject tutored one student in reading
during the first ten weeks and instructed a small group
of students in reading during the second ten weeks. The
researcher observed the subjects teaching these lessons

three times during the first term and four times during

54
the second term. After each observation, the researcher
debriefed the subject for 15-20 minutes. The lessons and
debriefing sessions were audio-taped and transcribed.
The debriefing sessions offered data on how the sub-
jects were thinking about reading instruction in actual
teaching situations.

For the third data set, the subjects constructed two
interim semantic maps. These sessions took place in late
November and early February. The procedures for adminis-
tration were the same as in September. However, two ad-
ditional questions were asked:

1. Can you remember if your map changed from the last

time? If so, how?

2. What was the reason for the change?

These questions were asked to see if the subjects were
aware of any change and if so, how they described it.

The fourth set of data contained the subjects' writ-
ten definitions for reading and reading instruction
(November and March) to assess change and/or elaborations
in their thinking during the instructional phase.

The researcher gathered information about the other
teacher education instruction for the fifth set of data.
During the study, the subjects took an educational psy-
chology class for the first ten weeks and a classroom or-
ganization and management class for the last ten weeks.
Course objectives and major instructional emphases were

collected from course outlines and class observations.

55

In addition, the researcher compiled a list of the de-
finers used on the semantic maps that were presented in
these classes. This information was gathered to deter-
mine whether the subjects related other teacher education
instruction to their thinking about reading instruction.

In summary, the following data were collected dur-
ing the instructional phase: (1) taking notes in the
reading methods class: (2) the researcher observing the
subjects' reading lessons and holding debriefing ses-
sions: (3) administering two interim semantic maps: (4)
collecting definitions about reading: and (5) gathering
information about other teacher education instruction.
Post Instructional Phase

During the last week of the second term of the read-
ing methods instruction, the subjects completed the Prop-
osition Inventory again and constructed a fourth semantic
map. The procedures followed in the fall were used again.

Data Analysig

All the data sources were used to determine the sub-
jects' preconceptions and their subsequent conceptual
change. Data were analyzed from the following sources:

Instructional Sources

1. Reading Methods Class

2. Other Teacher Education Classes

Primary Source

1. Semantic Map

56

Secondary Sources

1. Proposition Inventory

2. Reading Lesson Debriefing Sessions

3. Reading Definitions
Instructional Sources

Reading Methods Class. The researcher analyzed her
notes taken during the twenty weeks of the reading meth-
ods class instruction in two ways. First, each definer
was noted when it occurred in the notes (see Figure 4).
For example, the definer "concept" was part of the in-
structional presentation five times and the definer
"strategy” was part of the instruction four times. This
information was grouped together in relationship to when
each semantic map was administered. For instance, between
the construction of Maps #1 and #2, 29 definers were part
of the reading methods class instruction. Then this in-.
formation was related to the subjects' maps. Were the 29
definers included on the subjects' second map? Did the
subjects arrange and discuss the definers consistent with
methods instruction? Second, the researcher established
main instructional themes (”1 major points from empha-
sized topics in the notes and discussions with the reading
teacher educator. This information was related to each
data source. Did the subject show evidence of instruc-
tional incorporation?

Other Teacher Education Classes. The researcher also

determined the major instructional themes and definers

57

 

 

Definer Times Used Definer Times Used
1. Activity 15. Goal
2. Apply 16. Instruct
3. Assess 17. Learn
4. Basal text 18. Motivation
5. Comprehension 19. Objective
6. Concepts 20. Phonics
7. Content 21. Practice
8. Context .22. Prior knowledge

9. Curriculum 23. Professional

10. Diagnosis 24. Sight words

11. Direct instruction 25. Strategy
12. Effectiveness 26. Task

13. Fluency 27. Teacher

:a F‘ be :a c- P‘ U1 :9 \m A) to -q 0\ C:

14. Free reading 28. Teaching

C: to F‘ Ln .p O\ +4 :4 ox kn #- F” :4 t- F4

29. Word analysis

Figure 4 Definers used in Instruction (Segment 1)

58
used in the educational psychology and classroom organ-
ization and management classes from the class objectives,
notes taken in class, and discussions with the instruc-
tors. These were related to the data sources in the same
manner used in reading instruction.
Primary Data Sougge
Semantic Maps. The semantic maps were analyzed to
determine subjects' preconceptions, how they incorporated
reading methods instruction, and their subsequent concep-
tual change. The emphasis was on describing the sub-
jects' conceptual framework qualitatively rather than on
labeling conceptions and/or on labeling changes as pos-
itive or negative.
Three arbitrary decisions were used to analyze the
subjects' preconceptions and their subsequent changes:
1. The general geometric shapes were characterized
as: (a) grouped, (b) connected, (c) hierarchical,
(d) branched, or (e) interrelated. A map was
characterized as "grouped" when the subject cate-
gorized definers in clusters without relationships
between the clusters. When the subject linked de-
finers together with an arrow on the map or when
they associated them together in the discussion,
the map was characterized as "connected." A map
was "hierarchical" when several definers were ver-

tically and singularly chained together with

2.

59
arrows. A map was "branched" when several de-
finers were designated as modifying another de-
finer. A subject's map was "interrelated" when
the subject constructed or discussed complex in-
terrelated connections between or among definers,
as when a subject had definers modifying each
other or used the same definer in more than one
place and/or expressed the desire to have the map
constructed in more than one arrangement. Inter-
related maps were viewed as evidence of concep-
tualization of reading instruction beyond that pre-
sented in class instruction.
Each successive geometric shape of a map was con-
sidered to be a different conceptualization. For
example, if a subject constructed a grouped map
during the first mapping session and then a con-
nected map for her second map, conceptual change
had occurred. If a subject's map went from
branched to grouped, change had occurred.
The subject's discussion of her maps was analyzed
along with the phySical maps themselves. The dis-
cussion offered more information about what the
subject was thinking than what was physically pre-
sented on the map. If the subject did not men-
tion the definers from her map or if she repeated
them in a list, a different conceptualization was

assumed than if she elaborated upon their

1.

2.

3.

6O
meaning, or if she discussed various relation-
ships between the definers. Three criteria de-
termined the extent of incorporation of reading
methods instruction with the subjects' concep-
tual change:
Definers or groups of definers from the subjects'
maps were compared with definers emphasized in .
instruction. If the subject added definers after
they had been presented in class, it was assumed
that conceptual incorporation with reading meth-
ods instruction had occurred. It was assumed that
such conceptual incorporation had not taken place
if the subjects did not add definers presented
during instruction to their maps, or if they con-
tinued to use definers in a manner inconsistent
with instruction.
The subjects' discussions of the maps were ana-
lyzed. If the discussion of the definers was con-
sistent with instructional emphasis, incorpora-
tion had taken place. If definers were ignored
or not explained in a manner consistent with in-
struction, conceptual incorporation had not oc-
curred. If the explanation offered further rela-
tionships or notions beyond instructional presen-
tation, a change in conceptualization was assumed
to have taken place.

The subjects' maps were compared to the reading

61

teacher educator's map. Connections among groups
of definers and general map structure on students'
maps which was similar to the professor's map was
indicative of incorporation of instruction. A
subject's map that is unlike the reading teacher
educator's did not necessarily indicate either a
lack of incorporation of instruction or an incor-
rect conception. Different arrangements may be
constructed and still conform to instructional em-
phasis.

In summary, the subjects' semantic maps were ana-
lyzed using criteria to: (1) identify preconceptions: (2)
describe ensuing conceptual changes: and (3) relate the
extent to which instruction was incorporated into that
conceptual change.

Secondary Data Sources

Three secondary data sources were used in this study
to substantiate or refute findings from the subjects' se-
mantic maps. They were: (1) the Proposition Inventory,
(2) the reading lesson debriefing sessions, and (3) the
reading definitions.

Proposition Inventory. The results from the Propo-
sition Inventory were transferred to a rating sheet. The
nine statements from each-of the five general areas meas-
ured by the instrument were grouped together. The five

areas were basal text, linear skills, interest, natural

62
language, and integrated whole (see Table 1). For in-
stance: statements #1, 6, ll, 16, 24, 27, 32, 36, and 41
pertained to the area of basal text. Thus, those numbers
were grouped together on the rating sheet. Then each re-
sponse was converted to a numerical score. An answer cir-
cled as "strongly agree," received +2: "agree," received
+1; "neutral," received():"disagree," received -1: "strong-
ly disagree," received -2. An undecided statement was
noted with a dash. If a statement had a word or term cir-
cled to indicate that the subject did not understand it,
the word was written on the rating sheet.

The nine ratings from each of the five areas were
added together to yield one score. For instance, if the
basal text area converted numerical scores were +1, +1,

0, +2, +1, 0, —1, +1, -1, the net score for that area was
+4. To illustrate five net scores are plotted on a sample
bar graph (see Table 2). Note that the net scores were
"0" for basal text, +2 for linear skills, "0" for inter-
est, +6 for natural language, and +7 for integrated whole.
Thus, this example shows neutrality of belief in the areas
of basal text and interest, a slight agreement of belief
in linear skills, and very strong agreement in natural
language and integrated whole. No areas showed disagree-
ment. '

The scores from the Proposition Inventory were an-

alyzed in two ways to assess the subjects' preconceptuali-

zation and subsequent change, and the incorporation of

 

 

 

 

 

Table 1
Date . .1.
Student I
Student Code
A 1
laaal 6
text 11 ______
16
26 Total Score
27
32
36
:1. L“
I 2
Linear 7._____
Skills 12‘_____
17 Ibtal Score
21
25
28
37
62

63

Proposition Inventory Rating Sheet

C
Intareat

Natural
Language

Integrated 8

"hole

6
9
16
19
22 fatal
30 Score
36
39
66

 

20 fetal
23 Score

 

13
18 Total
26 Ste:

 

64

Table 2 Proposition Inventory Sample

Degree of 1
Agreement

7——

Neutral

 

 

 

 

 

//'//////o~
/////////

/

x

 

"Q

 

 

 

 

 

 

Degree of
Disagreement‘(

 

moo 00>

Basal Text

Linear Skills
(Content)

Interest

Natural Language

Integrated Whole

'h

D

65
methods instruction with the identified change.

First, to determine preconceptualization, the sub-
jects' beliefs were measured in September. To determine
conceptual change, the differences between the September
and March inventories were noted. Questions were asked
such as: What belief areas changed? Which ones remained
the same? These results were compared to the results of
the semantic maps to determine corroboration or contra-
diction of the findings. If the ratings on the inventory
changed in accordance to the semantic maps and discus-
sions, conceptual change could be substantiated. The
subject's inventories were compared with the reading
teacher educator's to establish the incorporation of in-
struction. The subject's net ratings in each area of the
inventory were compared with the reading teacher educa-
tor's in September and in March. The net ratings between
each subject's two inventories were compared with the
reading teacher educator's inventory. The researcher
noted whether the subject's ratings were closer to the
reading teacher educator's in March than in September.
The assumption was that the more the subject's ratings be-
came like the teacher educator's the greater the incor-
poration of instruction.

Reading Lesson Debriefing Sessions. Another second-
ary data source was the subject's reading lesson debrief-
ing sessions. The debriefing sessions between the sub-

ject and the researcher were audio-taped and transcribed.

66
Specific statements by the subject and in the dialogue
between the researcher and subject which related to read—
ing methods instruction, reading conceptions, or contin-
uation of previously discussed reading themes were noted
for evidence of incorporation of instruction.

Reading Definitions. The third secondary data source
was the subjects' definitions of reading and of reading
instruction which were written first during the sixth week
and again during the last week of instruction. These def—
initions were assessed for incorporation of instruction
by the number of major themes that related to methods in-
struction. It was also noted if examples or further ex-
planation was given. Conceptual change was assessed by
the addition or elaboration between the first and second
set of definitions of major themes in the definitions
that were consistent with instruction.
Data Analysis Summagy

The data gathered from each subject were described

and analyzed to determine the subjects' preconceptions
of reading instruction, subsequent change, and the incor-
poration of instruction assisting in the change. Each
subject's data were presented as an individual report in
the Appendix (see Appendices A, B, C, D). A summary of
each report is in Chapter IV.

The data sources described and analyzed were: (1)

Primary Source -- Semantic Maps, (2) Secondary Sources --

67
Proposition Inventory, reading lesson debriefing ses-
sions, and reading definitions. The analyses used qual-
itative research techniques. The data were presented as
four individual reports and as a summary report of all
four subjects,
InterpretationIgI the FindIngg

The findings in this study were subjectively inter-
preted by the researcher. The researcher used the three
lines of research reported in Chapter II of this disser-
tation to interpret the findings: (1) the semantic struc-
ture of a map (Johnson and Pearson, 1978), (2) the con-
ceptual change between an active learner and the environ-
ment (Floden and Feiman, 1981), and (3) the expert-novice
body of knowledge (DeGroot, 1965: Cazden, 1976: Larkin,
1981).

The first body of research used for interpreting the
findings was the technique of semantic mapping. Johnson
and Pearson refer to four relationships represented in a
semantic map: (1) class, (2) example, (3) attributes
(properties), (4) related concepts. For the purposes of
this study, two relationships -- class and properties --
were used to analyze the subjects' maps. Class relation—
ship refers to the categories into which an object may be
placed. For example, classes of a dog are pet and animal.
For interpretation purposes in this study, the semantic
map definers used as classes of reading instruction in-

cluded "organization," "education," "school,"

68
"curriculum," ”classroom," and "language arts." A prop-
erty relationship refers to the qualities included in a
concept. For example, properties of a dog include tail,
teeth, hair, and four legs. For interpretative purposes,
the semantic map definers used as properties of reading
instruction included: "phonics," "vocabulary," "sight
words," and "word analysis." Depending upon how a spe-
cific definer was used, some were considered to denote
either a class or a property. Examples of these definers
included "diagnosis," "management," and "assess." The re-
searcher looked at each subject's maps and the accompany-
ing discussions to note: (1) inclusion, exclusion, and
arrangement of properties belonging to reading inStruc-
tion: these were referred to as classes of general educa-
tion, (2) inclusion, exclusion, groupings, and arrange-
ment of properties: these were referred to as properties
of reading instruction, (3) relationships and/or integra-
tion of classes and properties. An increase in the num-
ber of classes and properties, in the number of groups of
properties, in the number of relationships and in the num-
ber of integrations according to instruction were con-
sidered to signal conceptual change.

The second research source the researcher used to
interpret the findings was the relationship and interac-
tion between the learner and the environment (Floden and
Feiman 1981). The hypothesis was made that the way sub—

jects interacted with or thought about their environment

69
would result in different conceptions. The environment
in this study was defined as the subject's tutee and read-
ing group which she was teaching in the field setting.
The manner and extent to which the subject included stu-
dents in her map and discussion, how the subject talked
or thought about the role of teacher and student in the
field setting, and the net ratings in the content and)
student-centered components of the inventory were con-
sidered as evidence of how the learner viewed her en-
.vironment and interacted with it to produce change.

The third area of research used to interpret the
findings involved features from the expert-novice re-
search (DeGroot, 1965: Cazden, 1976: Larkin, 1981). Three
comparisons were made. First, the difference between a
novice and an expert is relative and can be said to exist
on a continuum. The researcher subjectively estimated
each subject's conceptualization at a low (novice) to high
(expert) level four times during the study. A subject
had low knowledge if she appeared to conceptualize "less
knowledge" than what was presented in instruction. A
subject had moderate knowledge if she appeared to possess
the same "quantity of knowledge" presented during instruc-
tion. A subject had high knowledge if she appeared to
possess knowledge that showed her own additional concep-
tualization beyond instructional presentation. Second,
high-knowledge individuals (experts) have qualitatively

different -- not just more complete -- conceptual

70
frameworks than low-knowledge individuals (novices). In
the summary of the four subjects in Chapter IV, the re-
searcher compared the subjects' basic conceptual frame-
works to assess this feature. Third, high-
knowledge individuals (experts) "see" more than low-
knowledge individuals (novices). There is a difference
in the amount of information that an individual assembles
to problem solve and to analyze a situation. The re—
searcher lopked for evidence of each subject's problem
solving skills and situation analysis proficiency. This
evidence included if the subject was able to self-eval-
uate her own reading lessons accurately or if the subject
was able to know how to improve her lessons without in-
structor assistance. Thus, the researcher used the nov-
ice-expert continuum, the qualitatively different frame-
work, and the problem solving and analytical features from
the novice-expert research in the interpretation of this
study.

In summary, this researcher used three lines of re-
search to assist in interpreting the findings from this
study: (1) semantic map structure, (2) the active learner-
environment interaction, and (3) novice-expert studies.

SummaryggI;Methods

This chapter presented the methods used in this de-
scriptive study. The methods included the procedures,
data sources, data collection phases, data description and

analyses, and interpretive method.

71

The sampling for this study was derived from the
population of teacher candidates in the Multiple Per-
spective Teacher Education Program at Michigan State
University. Qualitative research techniques were used
to report the findings. The data sources used in this
study were: (1) Primary Source -- Semantic Maps, (2) Sec-
ondary Sources -- Proposition Inventory, reading session
debriefing sessions, and reading definitions. Data were
collected in three phases: (1) pre-instructional, (2) in-
structional, (3) post instructional. The data were pre-
sented and analyzed in an individual report for each sub-
ject. In a summarative report, all four subjects' data
were interpreted according to the three lines of research
reported in Chapter II of this study: (1) the structure of
a semantic map, (2) the conceptual growth between learner
and environment, (3) expert-novice studies. These data
were gathered, described, analyzed, and interpreted to
generate hypotheses regarding teacher candidates' pre-
conceptions and conceptual change about reading during

reading methods instruction.

CHAPTER IV
FINDINGS

Introduction

The purpose of this study was to investigate and de-
scribe the ways preservice teacher candidates' understand-
ing of reading instruction change during two ten-week
courses in reading methodology. Specifically, the study
is designed to investigate teacher candidates' preconcep-
tions of reading instruction and the conceptual changes
which occur during methods instruction.

This chapter is divided into three sections:

1. Teacher Education Instruction -- The findings of
this study are intricately involved with and em-
anate from the subjects' instructional exposure
during the investigation. First, a major seg-
ment of the instruction was concentrated in a
reading methods class during the twenty weeks
of this study. The content of the course was
divided into three segments. Each segment in-
cluded the instructional content presented be-
tween the subjects' construction of each semantic
map. “Specifically, Segment One included class

presentations between the first and second

72

73
mapping sessions. This information is considered
to be a part of the instructional exposure for the
subjects. As an indication of the reading teach-
er educator's conceptualization of reading, this
section also discusses the professor's semantic
map and Proposition Inventory. The second facet
of the instruction included two other teacher ed-
ucation classes in which all subjects were en-
rolled. The subjects took the educational psy-
chology class during the first ten weeks of the
study and the Classroom organization and manage-
ment class during the second ten weeks. Informa-
tion regarding these two classes provides the
reader with contextual setting before the find-
ings are presented.
Subject Summaries -- Summaries of the individual
subjectHs findings are presented. Each summary
includes findings from the data gathered in the
pre-instructional, instructional, and post in-
structional phases of this study. The complete
reports are in the Appendices.
Findings -— The findings from the four subjects'
data gathered in the study are presented and then
submitted to the research questions. The find-
ings are derived from data analyses and subjec-
tive interpretation by the researcher. Each find-

ing is stated and then discussed.

74
Teacher Education InstrugtIgn
Introduction

After a general informational overview of the read-
ing methods course, the major instructional emphases fol-
low in three segments. Each segment describes the in-
struction that took place between each construction of
the subjects' semantic maps. Segment One reports in-
structional presentations which occurred in the first
eight weeks of the reading methods class (between Maps
One and Two). Segment Two includes information pre-
sented during the next six weeks (between Maps Two and
Three) and Segment Three presents major instructional
points during the last six weeks. Then, a discussion
relates the definers from the semantic maps presented
during each segment to class instruction.

Next, this section presents the reading teacher ed—
ucator's semantic map of reading instruction and the re-
sults of his Proposition Inventory. Brief descriptions
of educational psychology and classroomrnanagement class
instruction complete the section.

Reading Methods Instruction Overview

The reading methods course focused on establishing
a foundation for building an instructional reading pro-
gram particularly as it related to the teaching of atti-
tudes, concepts, and strategies associated with elemen-
tary grade reading. Course instruction occurred at the

field site. This location facilitated the frequent use

75

of public school children in demonstration lessons to

correlate with the teacher candidates' instruction.

Instruction focused on the concept that some teach-

ers produce more reading growth in their students than

other teachers. The intent of instruction for this

course was to maximize the instructional effectiveness.

The effective instructional conditions include:

(1)

(2)

(3)

(1+)

The more effective teacher thinks in terms of out-
comes of reading and assigns tasks that center around
the major outcomes of reading.

The more effective teacher views reading broadly.

It is not a skill or a series of skills, it is not

a subject isolated from other subjects, instead it
is a part of language and reading instruction that
must reflect this language and communicative func-
tion.

The more effective teacher emphasizes cognition,
awareness, and mental processing--not memory or
rote. 'It is not, "Are you correct" but rather

"How do you know that you are correct?"

The more effective teacher assumes that the basal
text cannot provide all of the instruction for all
of the students. Instead the basal text is viewed
as an instructional tool to be modified and adjusted

to the needs of the pupil.

76

(5) The more effective teacher knows that the basal text

(6)

teachers' guide seldom provides explanation. If a
student is to understand how to do a task, the
teacher must explain. Consequently, the teacher must
do task analyses of reading assignments in order ex—
plicitly to explain how to acComplish the assignment.
The more effective teacher is not looking for the
answer to reading instruction. Reading instruction
is complex and the classroom is complex. Reading in-
struction is a developing phenomenon and the answer

to reading is an elusive concept.

(7) The more effective teacher realizes that there is no

perfect way to teach reading. Continual thinking,

changing, modifying, and innovating must take place.

Consequently, effective teachers are in control. They

are professionals who make their own decisions.

Reading Methods Instruction -- Segment One

The first eight weeks of instruction emphasized

word identification. Course objectives included:

(1) The teacher candidate will demonstrate an under-

(2)

(3)

standing of the difference between teaching like

a technician and teaching like a professional.

The teacher candidate will demonstrate an understand-
ing of why we teach reading.

The teacher candidate will demonstrate an understand-

ing of what we teach, when we teach, as well as an

77
understanding of the interrelationships in what is
taught.

(4) The teacher candidate will demonstrate an understand-
ing of the developmental stages of reading growth.

(5) The teacher candidate will demonstrate an ability to
determine a student's state of reading growth and
his or her needs as a teacher, as well as an expla-
nation for the student's rate of growth as a reader.

(6) The teacher candidate will demonstrate an ability to
plan and to conduct indirect instruction designed to
create the positive reading attitude and to build a
concept of reading.

(7) The teacher candidate will demonstrate an ability to
plan and conduct direct instruction designed to create
strategies for sight word recognition, use of con-
text, use of structural analysis and the use of phon-
ics in identifying words unknown in print.

(8) The teacher candidate will demonstrate the ability to
be analytical in thinking about problems of reading.

(9) The teacher candidate will demonstrate the ability to
be an independent decision-maker who bases decisions
on data collected and defends the decisions by ref-
erence to professional knowledge about reading and/or
about instruction.

The first three class sessions concentrated on in-

troducing the reading class and giving the teacher

78

candidates initial preparation to meet with their tutor-
ing students at the field site. Introductory reading
instruction stressed three concepts included in a schema
structure for reading instruction: (1) the difference be-
tween a teacher being a professional decision-maker and
a technician, (2) the concept that reading is holistic, and
(3) the idea that the reader uses background (prior knowl-
edge) to construct inference and meaning.

The introductory reading instruction also focused
on three major outcomes of reading: (1) affective re—
sponse, (2) comprehension (concepts), and (3) strategic
sense-making. Students were taught that these three may
be developed through positive feelings and appreciations
of reading, through comprehending (concepts) reading and
the words in text, and strategies of word identifica-
tion, comprehension, fluency, and study skills. The
reading teacher educator emphasized that the ultimate
outcome of reading is the conscious construction of the
author's printed message in real reading--functiona1 and
recreational.

These initial sessions also included information
about the diagnostic assessment collection procedures
the teacher candidates would be doing with their tutees.
The candidates learned that information was to be col-
lected for diagnostic purposes regarding the students'
vital signs of reading. These included the areas of the

three outcomes of reading--attitudes, concepts, and

 

79

strategies.

The fourth week of instruction (two class periods)
emphasized first, widening the base of knowledge for
reading instruction which included explanation and dis-
cussion about the developmental stages of reading growth:
(1) readiness, (2) initial mastery, (3) expanded funda-
mentals, (4) application, and (5) power. A seond major
emphasis was the development of a diagnostic kit for the
teacher candidates to use with their tutoring students.
This kit included materials such as, appropriate flash-
cards for sight word identification, graded paragraphs
for oral fluency, and graded paragraphs for comprehension.
Students learned how to make the items and how to use them
with young students. The reading teacher educator felt
that the teacher candidates had a difficult time relating
their reading assignments to the class presentations. He
felt that they did not realize that the assigned read-
ing material was the source of class instruction.

The fifth week of instruction involved the reading
teacher educator's presentation of diagnosing a student
during a demonstration lesson. Through the use of diag-
nostic tools, the teacher educator generated from the
young student information regarding the three outcomes
of reading. After the teacher candidates observed the
demonstration lesson, class instruction focused on infor-
mation needed to write a diagnostic report. The teach-

er candidates also viewed a video tape of the reading

80

teacher educator teaching a strategy lesson for word
analysis. In reading instruction a strategy refers to
mental strategies. Students need to be taught to do spe-
cific mental processing through a series of steps to
reach a certain goal. The student uses strategies to
think through a task such as figuring out an unknown word.
Thus, when a student is taught to do this mental process-
ing, a strategy is being taught.

During the sixth week of instruction more discus-
sion centered around the teacher candidates' tutoring
sessions. Each lesson was to be cohesive, and the teach-
er educator suggested that the rule of thirds be estab-
lished. The lesson was to be planned in three ten-minute
segments--sight word instruction, data collection about
the tutee, and USSR (uninterrupted sustained silent read-
ing). Each lesson was to include direct and indirect in-
struction even though reading methods instruction only
would be stressing direct instruction.

The sixth week focused on word identification from
contextual meaning. During the demonstration lesson the
reading teacher educator told a group of third graders
that the "secret" (strategy) was to find out the word by
seeing how that word is used with the other words around
it. A reader needs to: (l) realize that he/she does not
know the word, (2) skip it, (3) look at the rest of the
words, (4) come back to it, and (5) figure out what it

is by using his/her knowledge about the other words

 

81
already known in the sentence. The professor illus-
trated the steps to teach a strategy: (1) modeling it,
(2) using highlighting (underlining), (3) diminishing
of highlighting, (4) incorporating practice, and (5)
applying the strategy of the lesson in "real" reading.

Students also acquired information about the prep-
aration and writing of a lesson plan, including a pre-
active phase, an interactive phase and the general phys-
ical format of a plan. Each lesson was to have: (1) a
preactive phase including an assessment, enabling ob-
jectives, and terminal objectives, (2) an instructional
(interactive) phase which included introduction of the
lesson, the content, the purpoSe, and explanation of how
the material fits into reading, (3) a presentation of
the "secret" for the strategy, (4) the modeling of the
strategy, (5) a practice activity, (6) an application to
real reading, and (7) a summary of the presentation. The
professor emphasized that in teaching contextual mean-
ing, prior experiental background knowledge of the stu-
dents has to be emphasized.

The reading teacher educator felt that this sixth
week was pivotal. He believed that the teacher candi-
dates had enough knowledge about reading instruction and
that they were not operating out of ignorance any longer.
They should know enough to begin long-term planning for
their tutoring students. He felt that most candidates

possessed a comprehensive sense of information about

82
reading instruction.

The seventh and eighth weeks of reading instruction
continued to focus upon word identification. The pro-
fessor introduced contextual meaning through direct ex-
perience, synonym, sentence structure, summary, and mood
clues strategies. The students needed further mediation

of instruction in lesson planning and in sight word iden

tification. Reteaching occurred in both areas. During
this time word identification through phonics was intro-
duced as part of the curriculum. Instruction greatly
stressed that phonics for identifying unknown words is to
be the last resort. Phonics is a very slow process for
word identification. In the place of this slow pro-
cess, a system of reading beyond phonics needs to be
stressed. The teacher candidates also were given extra
help in planning word identification lessons for their
tutees. The subjects constructed their second semantic
map at this time.

In summary, the first segment of reading methods in-
struction (between first and second semantic map) empha-
sized that reading is sense-making and meaning-getting.
The teacher candidates were exposed to a body of knowl-
edge about reading instruction from a research base. Em-
phasis was made on diagnosing, lesson planning, and word

identification through sight words, contextual meaning,

word analysis, and phonics. Subjects learned three major

outcomes of reading: (1) the affect for the student,

83

(2) concepts (comprehension), and (3) strategic sense-
making. The ultimate outcome is for the child to apply
reading in the real world.
QeIIners -- Reading_Instruction. The researcher read her
notes from the first eight weeks of reading instruction.
Each time one of the definers was in her notes she listed
it. For instance, the definer "activity" was found in
her notes three times. A total of 29 definers were dis-
cussed enough in reading methods instruction to be in-
cluded in the researcher's notes. The 15 other definers
used from the semantic map were not used. In some cases
there was an implicit reference to a definer. For in-
stance, the definer "vocabulary" was implicitly discussed
every time the definers "sight words," "phonics," and
"word analysis" were used.
Reading Methods Instruction -- Segment Two

During the next six weeks the major instructional
focus was on the introduction of the basal text for in-
structional purposes with an emphasis on comprehension.
Objectives during this six-week period included:
(1) The teacher candidate will demonstrate the ability

to organize and modify content of a basal reader in

planning a unit of instruction for a reading group.
(2) The teacher candidate will demonstrate the ability

to plan and implement a longitudinal program of in-

struction based on assessed needs which results in

84
documented improvements in specified reading out-
come for her tutee.

(3) The teacher candidate will demonstrate reading in-
structional decisions which are justified by reference
to the nature of reading comprehension, how it works,
and how students can be helped to become metacog-
nitively in control of their own text processing.

The basal text was introduced as not being infal-
1ib1e. The basal text is a series of readers with dif-
ferent readability levels. Usually there are three
materials for the teacher to deal with -- the student's
book, the teacher's guide book, and a student's workbook.
The Stories and skills are not ordered and there is no
cohesive progression involved. Thus, a teacher must re-
organize a basal and establish a logical progression of
instruction. A basal text advises the teacher to have
the students read the selection, then to teach the skill,
and then to enrich or reteach. This arrangement needs
to be changed. The teacher instructs first, the students
practice what has been taught, and then the students ap-
ply what has been taught by reading the selection.

The reading teacher educator also emphasized that
comprehension cannot be taught just by asking questions
from a story. Caution needs to be used so that practice
tasks do not become routine busy-work assignments, em-
phasizing answer-getting. At this time the teacher can-

didates began planning a basal text unit of instruction

85

for a reading group. They were asked to reorder their
basal text to show more cohesion in instruction and to

be aware of the curriculum outcomes that should be taught.
Since a basal text stresses the teaching of skills, atti-
tudinal aspects and concepts needed to be added to make
the unit complete. Teacher candidates were encouraged

to generate creative activities in order to add.these
additional dimensions to their lesson plans.

The next two weeks of instruction emphasized the
planning of a DRL (directed reading lesson). Teacher can-
didates planned the lessons to help the students under-
stand how the system of reading works. Each DRL included:
(1) an introduction relating to the desired outcome, (2)
new vocabulary, (3) reading of the selection, (4) a guided
discussion, and (5) closure. After teaching each lesson
the teacher candidate was asked to reflect upon it. What
data emerged from this lesson that could be used to plan
the next one?

The teacher candidates were told that declarative
knowledge is the knowledge about the basal text story
through the aspects of word meaning, prior knowledge,
author's purpose, text structure, explicit and implicit
meaning in text. New vocabulary should be chosen from
the important words in the selection. Barriers for com-
prehending the story could be from vocabulary, background
experience, author-reader purpose differences, and text

structure. These barriers need to be neutralized. Every

86
question asked should be tied to the analysis of the struc-
ture of the story. What exactly are the crucial events?
Questions should represent a line of important question-
ing and not be isolated unimportant details from the story.
Students need to understand that stories have structure
and that they can predict outcomes of a story. Usually
the lower grades emphasize oral reading and the upper
grades stress silent reading. The teacher candidates
used the directed reading lesson (DRL) lesson plan for-
mat for their reading group instruction.

During the next three class sessions teacher candi-
dates made presentations of assigned journal articles.
These articles included such subjects as: metacognition,
metacomprehension, and developmental reading stages. The
object of this activity was to enable the teacher candi-
date to synthesize and analyze various author's view-
points and to incorporate this knowledge into what they
already knew about comprehension. The ultimate expecta-
tion was that this activity would assist the teacher can-
didates to build their own schema of reading and enable
them to make better instructional decisions. The read-
ing teacher educator recommended that to further build
their schema they needed to devote time just to think
and to accommodate the new information with that which
they already knew.

Thus, during the second segment of instruction (be-

tween construction of the subjects' second and third

8?

semantic maps), reading methods class emphasized compre-
hension which entailed obtaining declarative knowledge
from printed text. The barriers for comprehension can
be vocabulary, student background experience, a mismatch
between author-reader purpose, and text structure. The
teacher candidates planned a unit for a reading group
from the basal text.
Definers -- Reading Instruction. Definers like "basal
text," ”phonics," and "word analysis" were used during
this segment of instruction. No additional definers were
initially introduced in this segment. "Readability" was
mentioned once in the framework of a basal reader's read-
ability. It was not discussed any further or given any
definition as to exactly the meaning of readability. De-
finers like "vocabulary," "learning," and "organization"
were used in assigned material readings but were not spe-
cifically discussed in class.
ReadingyMethods Instruction -- SegmentThggg

During the last six weeks of instruction the major
focus was on explicit and implicit comprehension strate-
gies. Explicit comprehension strategies include: typo-
graphic clues, root word and affixes clues, contextual
clues, and function word clues like cause-effect, com-
pare, and contrast. Implicit clues comprise the reader
classifying like and unlike things together, the reader
using the gist of the text to draw inferences regarding

the author's implied meaning, the author making inferences

88
about relationships in the text when no key words are
available, constructing meaning about conclusions from
textual messages by referring to the reader's past ex-
periences, and by making judgments about the reader's
messages from past experiences and values.

The teacher candidates used adult reading material
to form their own implicit and explicit strategies be-
fore they transferred them to strategies to teach to
their reading groups. Near the end of the term another
series of journal article presentations were part of the
class sessions. The article topics included: schema the—
ory, interactive reading, and basal text questioning.
During the last session of the term the teacher candidates
started planning a content area unit in science.
Definers -- Reading_InstructIgn. Near the end of the
third segment of instruction the definer "content area
text" was introduced and discussed as it pertained to
planning a science unit for the next term.

Summaryyof Reading Methods InstrucIIgn

Briefly, during the first segment (weeks 1 to 8) of
reading methods instruction, the teacher candidates were
introduced to a body of knowledge showing that reading
is a strategic sense-making activity. Three outcomes of
reading: attitudes, concepts, and strategies were empha-
sized. During this time the teacher candidates tutored

a student and emphasized word identification strategies

89
including: sight words, contextual meaning, word analysis,
and phonics.

During the second segment of instruction (weeks 8 to
14) the major instructional emphasis focused upon compre-
hension strategies and basal text unit planning. In-
struction emphasized that a basal text is to be an in-
structional tool. The teacher candidates planned lessons
from a directed reading lesson format.

During the third segment of instruction (weeks 14 to
20) comprehension continued as the focus. During this
segment implicit and explicit strategies were emphasized.
At the end of the segment, a science content unit
plan was introduced.

During the first segment of instruction 29 of the
definers used in the semantic maps were discussed in
class. During the second segment of instruction the de-
finer "readability" could be added. During the third seg-
ment "content area text” was included. Thus, in the twen-
ty weeks of instruction 31 out of the 44 definers used in
the semantic map were discussed in reading methods in—
struction. Some of the definers were implicit in dis-
cussion, i.e., "vocabulary," and others were only dis-
cussed in assigned reading material, i.e., "learning."
Reading Teacher Educator's SemantIc Map

The reading teacher educator constructed his seman-
tic map (see Figure 5) of reading instruction early in

the twenty weeks of reading instruction. He began by

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91
putting as he called it, "large things at the top." These
included: "education," "learning," "school," "classroom,"
"teaching," and "teacher." He then divided most of the
definers into three categories that he named "curriculum,"
"child," and "instruction."

Then focusing on each category individually, he more
fully developed each individual category. The child sec—
tion was constructed between the general education de-
finers on the rest of the map. He developed this cate—
gory from the stages of reading growth divided into cog-
nitive and affective. The curriculum section focused on
the outcomes of reading and the strategies of reading.

In this curriculum section he added definers -- "atti-
tude," "feelings," "appreciation," and "study strategies."
He then divided the instruction category into "organiza-
tion," "management," and added the definer "pedagogy."
Under organization was "content area text," "basal text,"
and "readability." He also added the definers "materi-
als" and "trade books." From "management" was "direct"
and "indirect instruction," "explain," "task," and "ac-
tivity." From the pedagogy section was ”practice," "ap-
plication," "assessment," and "diagnosis."

The reading teacher educator eliminated two defin-
ers -- "free reading" and "skill." Instead of "free read-
ing" he had added the definers "trade books" and "con-
trolled text." In discussing the elimination of the de—

finer "skill" he said, "Last year I would have put skill

92
in....Now I am using strategies because skill implies
something else. Strategy implies thoughtful mental pro-
cessing as I can see." He stated that last year he would
have used the term skill instead of strategy. He felt
that in the future, "It (his semantic map) will probably
be different next time."

The reading teacher educator's map suggests that the
child is the most important element in his conceptualiza-
tion of reading instruction. Although in his discussion
he said he had three large categories of "child," curric-
ulum," and "instruction," he placed the child at a central
location on his map. He developed the categories of "cur-
riculum" and "instruction" from the child. The remainder
of the content area of reading instruction was then gen-
erated. Thus, he conceptualized reading instruction like
a sphere with three layers. The core is the child, the
intermediate layer included "instruction" and "curric-
ulum" and the outside peripheral layer contained content
specifically related to reading instruction.

Proposition Inventory

The reading teacher educator completed the Proposi-
tion Inventory (see Table 3). His net score in the basal
text area was "0" or neutral. He rated three statements
as neutral, three he agreed or strongly agreed with, and
three he disagreed with. He strongly agreed with, "I be-
lieve that an important criteria for grouping pupils is

the level basal textbook each is able to read." His

 

93

Table 3 Reading Teacher Educator Proposition Inventory

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Degree of . 7
Agreement 4 6
+2.
0 F— o
- Neutral t '
A B C D E
- Degree of Y:
Disagreement
Content Centered Student Centeged
A - Basal Text C - Interest
B - Linear Skills D - Natural Language

(Content) E - Integrated Whole

94
strongly disagreed with statement was, "I believe that
the teacher's role in reading is to assign pupils to ap-
propriate basal materials and direct them as they com-
plete the material."

The linear skills area net score was +2. He rated
three statements as neutral, four statements that he
agreed or strongly agreed with, and two statements he
disagreed or strongly disagreed with. He strongly agreed
with the statement, "I believe that teachers should di-
rectly teach the basic skills of reading to those pupils
who need them." He strongly disagreed with the state-
ment, "I believe that primary grade reading should empha-
size decoding skills more than comprehension."

In the nine statements regarding interest his score
was "0" or neutral. He rated one statement as neutral,
he agreed with four, and disagreed with three. He strong-
ly agreed with the statement, "I believe that an impor-
tant indicator of reading growth is how often a pupil vol-
untarily uses reading in his daily life." He strongly
disagreed with, "I believe that reading groups should be
based on the pupil's interests."

He showed strong belief in the natural language area
with a score of +6. He agreed or strongly agreed with
eight statements such as, "I believe that reading instruc-
tion should focus heavily on comprehension, even at the
beginning stages of reading."

His highest net score (+7) was in the integrated

 

95

whole area. He agreed or strongly agreed with seven
statements such as, "I believe that a significant amount
of the instructional time in reading should be spent on
purposeful real-life projects and activities which call
for the use of reading." In this area he strongly dis-
agreed with one statement. It was, "I believe that read-
ing groups should be formed as the need for them arises
and should be disbanded when the need has been met."

In summary, two areas, basal text and interest, re-
ceived a net neutral rating. These two areas had half to
one-third "agree with" ratings and half to one-third "dis-
agree with" statements. Thus, most statements within each
area did not receive a neutral rating. Two of the three
student-centered areas -- language and integrated whole --
received high "agree with" ratings. The content-centered
areas received neutral to mildly agreeable ratings. His
high ratings in the two student-centered areas and his
near neutral and neutral ratings in the content-centered
areas substantiates his student-centered conceptualiza-
tion of reading instruction displayed on his map. The
area of interest was the only area that did not appear to
parallel his stress of positive student attitude and feel-
ings about reading shown on his map. Some interest state-
ments discussed topics such as, grouping for reading by
students' interests rather than ability and the use of.

a student chosen basal text. This was not the manner in

which he viewed the term interest.

96

Educational Psychology Instruction

During the first ten weeks of reading methods in-
struction the subjects along with the other teaching
candidates in their group took an educational psychology
class. As previously stated, both teacher educators had
met to coordinate class assignments and reduce terminology
conflicts. The educational psychology course was designed
to help teacher candidates develop understanding of prin-
ciples and educational psychology dealing with learners
and learning in classrooms, and to become aware of basic
teacher decisions that must be made when planning and im-
plementing instruction.

The three main course objectives were:

(1) Use the principles of learning and development to
state evaluations and improvements of existing ma-
terials or instructional activity.

(2) Use the principles to design parts of or entire in-
structional activity.

(3) Discriminate between examples and non-examples of
basic concepts and between correct and incorrect
applications of principles.

Teacher candidates were instructed in concepts and
principles involved in making basic decisions like what
will be learned, how learning will be assessed, and who
are the learners. Learning focused on principles to make
plans for classroom activities such as, how to motivate

students, how to present information and how to provide

 

97
practice and feedback. Among these principles were in-
formation processing theory and ideas of transfer and
modeling, as well as knowledge related to making deci-
sions about objectives, content, and assessment.

Ten definers were explicitly taught during instruc-
tion: "goal," "task," "organization," "expectation,"
"monitor," "objective," "instruct," "concept," "motiva-
tion," and "assess." Seven of these were also included
in reading. The three new ones were added: "organiza-
tion," "expectation," and "monitor."

Classroom Organization and Management Class

During the second ten weeks the subjects took the
classroom organization and management class. The focus
of the class was on teacher decisions in planning for the
physical and psychological aspects of classrooms that con-
tribute to productive learning and minimize disruptive
and non-productive behavior.

The major objectives for this course were as follows:

(1) The teacher candidate will demonstrate knowledge of
teacher behaviors, teacher attitudes, and environ-
mental factors which contribute to creating class-
room atmospheres in which disruptive problems are
less likely to occur and academic achievement is
likely to occur.

(2) The teacher candidate will demonstrate knowledge of
options available to teachers responding to disrup-

tive behavior and which results in pupils assuming

98
responsibility for their own behavior and academic
achievement.

(3) Teacher candidates will demonstrate ability to
select and articulate rationales for differences
and similarities for appropriate management and or-
ganization strategies.

Instruction emphasized management techniques of
creating, maintaining, and restoring. Creating tech—
niques are used to get the classroom functioning well.
When the classroom is functioning well there is no vis-
ible indication of disorder or potential disorder. When
these techniques are in use the teacher is anticipating
on the basis of what she knows about children, learning,
and school situations that might be needed for control
purposes. Maintaining techniques are also used to keep
a classroom functioning well, but visible clues are pres-
ent in the situation which suggest that trouble will soon
occur unless the teacher acts. Thus, these techniques
are meant to extinguish the signs of potential disorder
before they occur. When these maintaining techniques are
in use, the teacher relies on both her professional knowl-
edge and her observation of the current classroom situa-
tion. Restoring techniques are for restoring the order
once it has been lost. The teacher candidates were told
athat no matter how competent the teacher is, restoring
techniques may be needed.

"Organization," "management," "classroom," and

 

99
"teacher" were the explicit definers used in classroom
management instruction. Implicit ones included: "task,"
"activity," "monitor," and "teaching." All of these de-
finers except "management" and "classroom" had been in-
cluded in instruction.
Summary of Teacher Education Instruction

During the twenty weeks of this study the subjects
along with the other teacher candidates in their group
were exposed to reading methods, educational psychology,
and classroom organization and management classes. The
effective teacher was seen as a professional decision-
maker in all instruction.

In reading methods instruction emphasis was on the
three major outcomes of reading: affect, concepts, and
strategies. During the first weeks word identification
and diagnosis were stressed. During the last weeks com-
prehension-was.the major stress. The subjects tutored a
single student during the beginning weeks and taught a
reading group using a basal text during the second half.
In reading instruction methods 29 definers used in the
mapping were introduced during the first eight weeks of
instruction. Two were added to the list later. Other
general terms of education were implicit in instruction
and discussed in the assigned readings.

The educational psychology class focused on under-
standing the principles of educational psychology as they

relate to learners and learning in the classroom. From

100
this emphasis much time was spent on lesson planning and
implementation. The definers introduced during instruc-
tion included: "task," "organization," "objective," "in-
struct," "concept," and "assess."

The classroom organization and management class
stressed planning for the physical and psychological en-
vironment of the classroom to enhance learning through the
use of creating, maintaining, and restoring techniques.
The major definers used in class were: "organization,"
"management," "classroom," and "teaching."

In essence, all but eight definers specifically were
used in one of the three instructional classes. Some
terms used in instruction denoted similar concepts. "Free
reading" was not usually called free reading in reading
methods, instead it was usually referred to as USSR.

"Seat work" was not specifically referred to as "seat
work" but was referred to as ditto pages or workbook pages.
Definers like "language arts" were not specifically used
during instruction.

SubjecthgmmarIgg
Introduction

Summaries of the individual subjects' findings com-
prise the third section of this chapter. (A complete re-
port for each subject is in the Appendices.) Each sum-
mary includes findings from the data gathered in the pre-
instructional, instructional, and post instructional phases

of this study. The primary data source was the semantic

101
maps of reading instruction. The secondary data sources
included: (1) the Proposition Inventory, (2) the debrief-
ing sessions, and (3) the reading definitions. The find-
ings contain: (1) the description and analysis of the data
and (2) the subjective interpretation of the data by the
researcher.

The objective of the analyses of the data sources
was to determine the subjects' preconceptions and the sub-
sequent conceptual changes regarding reading instruction.
The researcher assumed that methods instruction would
assist in the subjects' changes. Thus, each source also
was viewed to find evidence of the subjects' incorpora-
tion of methods instruction.

The application of three criteria to the semantic
maps determined the subjects' preconceptions and their
subsequent change. The following criteria were used:

(1) geometric shape of maps -- grouped, hierarchical,
connected, branched, interrelated, (2) change in the shape
of a map, and (3) manner in which the subject discussed
her map -- definers not verbalized, listed without ex-
planation, discussed in context. Three different cri-
teria determined the subjects' incorporation of instruc-
tion: (1) definers added to the maps after they were pre-
sented in class, (2) comparison with information from dis-
cussion and class instruction, and (3) similarity with
reading teacher educator's map.

The scores from the Proposition Inventory were

102

analyzed with two criteria to assist in establishing the
subjects' preconceptualization and change. Preconcep-
tualization was assessed by the net score in each of the
five belief areas. Change was assessed by the change in
net scores between the September and March inventories.
To assess the incorporation of instruction the subjects'
inventories were compared with the reading teacher educa-
tor's inventory. Specific dialogue between the researcher
and the subject during the debriefing sessions produced
evidence of change and incorporation of instruction. The
reading definitions were assessed for incorporation of in-
struction by the number of individual concepts relating
to methods instruction, and change was assessed by com-
paring major themes stated in the two sets of definitions.

The objective in the interpretation of the findings
was to gain additional insight into the subjects' concep-
tualization of reading instruction. Three areas of re-
search were used for this purpose: (1) the semantic struc-
ture of a map (Johnson and Pearson, 1978), (2) the concep-
tual change of a learner between the learner and the en-
vironment (Floden and Feiman, 1981), and (3) the expert-
novice body of knowledge (DeGroot, 1965: Cazden, 1976:
Larkin, 1981). First, two relationships were interpreted-—
class and properties--from the semantic maps. Class ree
fers to the categories of reading instruction such as
"education" and "school." Property refers to the qual-

ities of reading instruction such as "sight words" and

103
"phonics." Second, the relationship and interaction be-
tween the learner (subject) and the environment (students)
was interpreted. The interpretation of this factor in-
volved all data sources. Third, each subject's conceptu—
alization was estimated on a novice (low-knowledge) to ex-
pert (high-knowledge) continuum as it relates to change
and evidence of incorporation of instruction.

Thus, each summary includes pre-instructional, in-
structional, and post instructional findings of the sub-
jects' conceptualization of reading instruction from the
data description and analysis determined by specific cri-
teria and subjective interpretation according to three
areas of pertinent research.
ngmary of Subject A

In the pre-instructional data, Subject A exhibited
knowledge in the classes of education in general and two
groups of reading instructional properties. Her initial
map exhibited a cohesively connected and branched hier-
archy. She viewed the teacher as interacting with this
instructional framework rather than with the environment
(student). But her secondary data indicated stronger be-
lief in the child-centered areas of reading instruction
rather than in content. On a novice-expert (low to high
knowledge) continuum, she appeared to possess a moderate-
ly low-knowledge conceptualization of reading instruc-
tion, as evidenced by the ability to show a relationship

between general education classes and large sets of

 

 

 

104
reading properties. Her discussion of the map was void
of elaboration or explanation. Thus, her preconceptuali-
zation was a systematic organization focused on major ob-
jectives from which the reading instructional process
develops.

Early in the instructional phase Subject A's map
showed a rigid dichotomy between definers from educa-
tional psychology and reading methods instruction. Her
secondary data indicated conceptual confusion regarding
instruction. She did not consistently relate instruction
to her environment (student). At this time her concep-
tualization appeared to be confused and without focus.
Later in the instructional phase, her map became connect-
ed and branched with relationships shown between the gen-
eral education classes and reading properties. This map
emphasized the direct instruction properties of the read-
ing instructional process. She saw this framework to be
superimposed, without interaction, upon the environment
(student). Secondary data indicated that she later un-
derstood concepts that she had earlier misunderstood.
Subject A's conceptualization appeared to have developed
to an organized focus on direct instruction in reading
instruction. Evidence of this change was obvious from
the structure of her map and emphasis of direct instruc-
tion strategies in her discussion.

Subject A's post instructional map became hierarchi-

cal in shape again with no integration between general

105

education classes and reading instruction properties.
Branching occurred only in the "strategy" group of read-
ing properties. Her secondary data indicated conceptual
confusion about instruction and a stronger belief in teach-
er-student interaction than reflected in her maps. She
appeared to have changed from moderate-knowledge to a low-
knowledge conceptualization of reading. Thus, Subject
A's terminal conception of reading instruction was a hier-
archical structure and an organized step-by-step approach
to the reading instructional process with a focus on the
strategy properties.

In summary, Subject A's initial semantic map exhibited
a branched and connected hierarchy showing large categories
of reading instructional properties based on teacher-made
objectives. The second map became a rigid dichotomy be-
tween educational psychology and reading methods instruc-
tion with confusion exhibited. The third map was a
branched and connected hierarchy emphasizing direct in-
struction of the strategy properties in reading instruc-
tion. The terminal map was a rigid hierarchy focusing
only on a strategy group of properties. Her secondary
data source contradicted the primary data source regard-
ing the teacher's role with the environment and also re-
vealed conceptional confusion of methods instruction.

Subject A's conceptual development of reading in-
struction did not progress steadily. Although she con-

tinued to have an organized knowledge of the general

 

106
education classes, the relationship of this knowledge to
the properties and sets of properties of reading instruc~
tion was erratic. She appeared to abandon her initial
conceptualization and to begin a new one. Although her
conceptualization initially appeared to develop, it re-
gressed at the termination of instruction. The environ-
ment (student) did not have an actual role in her con-
ceptualization. She imposed her knowledge onto the en-
vironment. On the novice-expert (low to high knowledge)
continuum, she changed from moderately low-knowledge, to
low-knowledge, to moderate-knowledge, and then to low-
knowledge.

Thus, Subject A's conceptualization and subsequent
change was puzzling. Conceptual development was not
stable or easily explained. Evidence indicated that her
greatest progress toward change took place at the second
interim point during instruction rather than at termina-
tion. A real question remains as to her development and
her final conceptualization of reading instruction during
this study.

Summary of Subject B

Subject B's pre-instructional map exhibited knowl-
edge of organized classes of education in general and un-
related categorized groups of reading instructional prop-
erties emphasizing a close interactive role between teach-
er and student. The secondary data emphasized both con-

tent-centered and student-centered beliefs about reading

107
instruction. Subject B appeared to possess a low knowl-
edge of reading instruction initially.

Early in the instructional phase Subject B's map,
the primary data source, became horizontally connected
and branched showing a strong emphasis upon profession-
alism of the teacher, and the interactive process between
the student and teacher in reading instruction. Her sec-
ondary sources indicated conceptual understanding of in-
struction. Later in the phase, Subject B's map became
more connected and cohesive with more stress on instruc-
tion of reading and less emphasis upon teacher-student in-
teraction. At this time, her conceptualization of read-
ing instruction was assessed to be organized and struc-
tured, emphasizing direct instruction and the continua-
tive or additive quality of instruction. She appeared to
possess a moderate knowledge of reading instruction.

In the post instructional phase Subject B's map be-
came complexly integrated and interrelated. All data
sources indicated a strong belief in student-centered in-
struction. Thus, Subject B's terminal conceptualization
was a loosely organized, highly complex integration. Her
map displayed interrelated knowledge of reading instruc-
tion and emphasized the need for direct instruction, the
continuative quality of the reading instructional process,
and teacher-student interaction. All secondary data
sources corroborated conceptual change and understanding

consistent with instruction.

108

In summary, Subject B's semantic maps, the primary
data source, changed from being hierarchical and grouped
stressing the distinct teacher and student roles in read-
ing instruction, to being horizontally connected and
branched emphasizing the interactive role of the teacher
and student, to being more cohesive stressing the con-
tinuative and direct instruction aspects of reading. Her
last map showed complex interrelationships.

Thus, Subject B's conceptual development of reading
instruction changed significantly and progressed through
different levels of conceptualization. Although she in-
itially had an organized and related knowledge of the gen-
eral education classes, the organization became more in-
tegrated. Her knowledge of reading instructional prop-
erties showed significant development. The initial five
sets of unrelated reading properties became a complex and
integrated conceptualization stressing direct instruc-
tion and the continuative quality of instruction. Some
of the structured organization declined as a result of
the complexity. She increasingly showed a strong belief
in the teacher's interaction with the environment (stu-
dent). On a novice-expert continuum (low to high knowl-
edge), she initially had low-knowledge, then displayed
moderate-knowledge, and terminated with high-knowledge.
Subject B's conceptualization and change appeared to be

progressively growing and developing.

109
Summary of Subject C

In the pre-instructional data Subject C's semantic
map was hierarchically shaped, but her discussion denoted
a more contextual conceptualization. She knew several
separate bodies of knowledge about reading instruction --
grouping, goals, and management stressing interaction
with students. A secondary data source corroborated her
strong belief in student-centered reading instruction.
Thus, Subject C's preconceptualization of reading instruc-
tion appeared to be unstructured with a low moderate-knowl-
edge of several reading instruction components emphasiz-
ing teacher-student interaction.

Early in the instructional phase all data sources in-
dicated conceptual understanding of instruction. Her map
became horizontally branched and connected with her con-
ceptualization being a well-organized framework of gen—
eral education classes and groups of reading instruc-
tional properties stressing instruction in reading strat-
egies and de-emphasizing student interaction. Later in
the instructional phase, Subject C concentrated on the
comprehension aspect of reading instruction on her map
with the remainder of her map becoming loosely structured
and organized. The map and a secondary data source of-
fered evidence that she was becoming self-analytical and
able to problem solve about reading instruction.

Her post instructional map was complexly integrated.

Secondary data indicated conceptualization of instruction.

110
Thus, her high-knowledge conceptualization was highly in-
terrelated and integrated between the general education
classes and reading instructional properties stressing
teacher and student interacting with a multi-instructional
approach to reading instruction.

In summary, Subject C's conceptual development in
reading instruction changed significantly and increased
in conceptualization. Her initial organized knowledge of
general education classes became more integrated with the
reading instructional properties. Her knowledge of and
structure in the reading instructional properties in-
creased. At the point where her knowledge structure be-
came integrated and complex, the organization declined.
Her interaction with the environment (student) was con-
.tinuous and active. On a novice-expert (low to high knowl-
edge) continuum, she initially had 1ow moderate-knowledge,
then developed moderate-knowledge, and terminated with
high-knowledge. Subject C's conceptualization of reading
instruction appeared to be growing and developing. Thus,
Subject C's terminal conceptualization of reading in-
struction was loosely organized and structured, but was
a highly knowledgeable, complex, and integrated web which
was attempting to manage the interaction of classes and
properties of the instructional process with strong

teacher-student interaction.

111
Summary of Subject D

Pre-instructional data revealed that Subject D had
a limited knowledge of the classes of education in gen-
eral and reading instructional properties. Her initial
map was a brief hierarchy branched to one group of read-
ing properties. She also believed in a content-centered
rather than student-centered reading instructional pro-
cess. Thus, Subject D appeared to have a low-knowledge
preconceptualization of reading instruction with few gen-
eral education classes related to a set of reading prop-
erties stressing the content-centered approach and contin-

uative aspect of reading instruction. She believed that
the teacher's role was to "impose" instruction upon the
student.

Early in the instructional phase Subject D's map
became a more branched and connected structure, emphasiz-
ing the teacher acting as the director of a specific step-
by-step approach to learning through the use of a basal
text. Conceptual incorporation of reading instruction was
not apparent in secondary data, nor was other instruc-
tional incorporation indicated in her map. Later in the
instructional phase, her map showed evidence of increased
relationships but not of additional knowledge. Also at
this time she appeared to break free from the conceptual
rigidness through thinking about alternative approaches
to the reading instructional process (not just the basal

text). This change was evidenced by the more branched

112
and expanded construction of her map. Her continued
rigidity in lesson implementations and discussion dur-
ing debriefing sessions did not substantiate this con-
ceptual change.

In the post instructional phase Subject D's map
showed some incorporation of instruction. Her conceptu-
alization was very structured and related to general ed-
ucation class with groups of reading properties -- goals,
comprehension, sight words, and seatwork focusing on the
instructional process and stressing continuative aspects
of instruction. The continuative stress was not evident
in her secondary data. Secondary data revealed little
change in her belief of content-centered instruction or
conceptual incorporation of instruction. Thus, her con-
ceptualization appeared to revert to a very structured
and organized knowledge framework stressing a rigid
learning instructional process controlled by the teacher.
Conceptual integration, relatedness, or personal depth of
thought was not evident.

In summary, Subject D's conceptualization of read-
ing instruction began with a sparse and narrow general
knowledge. Through a gradual progression her conceptu-
alization enlarged into a more organized and related
knowledge of general education classes and groups of read-
ing instructional properties. At the termination of in-
struction, her conceptualization was very structured and

did not appear to include any personal interpretation.

113

She appeared to view the teacher's interaction with the
student as rigid and authoritarian. She seemed to see
herself on one side and the student on the other. On the
novice-expert (low to high knowledge) continuum, she be-
gan with very low-knowledge, then progressed to moderately-
1ow, and terminated with a low moderate-knowledge. (Mod-
erately—low is in the median range of low and low—mod-
erate.) Subject D's conceptualization and change appeared
to be very gradual and minimal with a minimum of personal
contribution, as evidenced by the rigid construction of
her last map and her lack of profundity during debrief-
ing sessions.
Summary

This section contains individual summarized find-
ings of the subjects. Each summary includes pre-instruc-
tional, instructional and post instructional data analyses
and interpretations from specified criteria and research.

we

Introduction

The findings from this study are presented in this
section. Qualitative analysis techniques were used to
formulate the findings.
Finding One

TEACHER CANDIDATES HAVE PRECONCEPTIONS WHEN ENTERING

READING METHODS INSTRUCTION.

All the subjects had a preconceptual framework of

reading instruction. Their pre—instructional semantic

114
maps revealed a dichotomy between definers associated
with educational in general and those associated with read-
ing instruction in particular. The subjects arranged the
general education definers in a hierarchical system and
arranged the reading instruction definers in groups or
categories. For example, the subjects placed general
education definers such as, "education" and "school" in
a hierarchical ordering. Reading instruction definers
such as, "sight words" and "phonics" appeared in groups
or categories. Thus, the data revealed that these teach-
er candidates conceive of general education in a hierar-
chical system and conceive of reading instruction in var-
ious categorized groups when they enter reading methods
instruction. Each subject's initial map showed a dif-
ferent number of relationships between the classes of
general education and reading instruction.
Finding Two

TEACHER CANDIDATES' CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORKS OF READ-

ING INSTRUCTION DID CHANGE. THE CHANGE OCCURRED IN

STAGES DURING INSTRUCTION.

The framework of the subjects' semantic maps changed
in stages during instruction. Initially, each pre-instruc-
tional map structure showed a combination of hierarchical
and grouped structures. Subsequent change occurred in
stages consistent with Norman's (1978) three stages of
knowledge acquisition. Each stage is seen gradually to

emerge into another, rather than at specific beginning and

115
ending points. The subjects' first interim maps during
instruction became an extended branched structure. At
this first stage, the subjects appeared to receive in-
struction and to process it by "spreading it out" in their
thinking. This stage corresponds to Norman's stage of
accretion. Accretion is the acquisition of new knowl-
edge upon which a data base develops into a new knowl-
edge framework. Thus, the first stage of these teacher
candidates' change in conceptual framework is accretion.
The new information presented in instruction is added to
the subjects' entry knowledge.

The subjects' second interim maps during instruc-
tion indicated a more cohesively connected framework.
Most new reading instruction knowledge had been presented
in class by this time. The definers on the maps now were
"pulled together" instead of being "spread out" as they
were previously. There were connections and relation-
ships between definers. This compares to Norman's second
stage of restructuring. Restructuring is discovering new
insights into a particular conceptual structure. In es-
sence, it is the reconceptualizing of knowledge. For the
subjects, this stage was evidenced by the "settling in"
of the previously presented knowledge. Restructuring oc-
curred when a subject responded, "Oh, now I see:" Accre-
tion and restructuring did not occur at the same time for
all subjects. For example, Subject B was in the accretion

stage at her first interim mapping and restructuring by

116
her second interim mapping. Subject D appeared to be in
the accretion stage during both the first and second in-
terim maps, and in the restructuring stage at the termi-
nation of instruction.

Norman's third stage is "tuning" and is character-
ized by the decrease in the structure of the conceptual
framework. In the tuning stage, the previously acquired
knowledge is adjusted and some previous conceptual struc-
ture is eliminated. Subjects B and C appeared to be in
this third stage of tuning by the termination of instruc-
tion. The framework in their last map became more loosely
constructed. They de-emphasized previous explicit com-
ponents in reading instruction such as "diagnosis." Sub-
ject A and Subject D did not show evidence of being in the
tuning stage at the termination of instruction.

Thus, the subjects' conceptual framework of read-
ing instruction changed during methods instruction. The
change appeared in definable stages of accretion, re-
structuring, and tuning. The subjects did not progress
through all three stages or at equal rates of develop-
ment.

Finding Three

TEACHER CANDIDATES' CONCEPTUALIZATION OF AND CHANGE

IN READING INSTRUCTION IS AFFECTED BY THEIR VIEW

TOWARD THE ROLE OF THE TEACHER AND THE ROLE OF THE

STUDENT IN THE INSTRUCTIONAL PROCESS.

According to the cognitive developmental theorists,

117
conceptual development and growth occurs when the learn-
er actively interacts with the environment. In this study
the subjects were viewed as learners and the environment
was the subjects' reading students. If a subject did not
consider student needs to be more important than the con-
tent, conceptualization of reading instruction appeared
to be impeded.

For example, Subject D said she would like her stu-
dents to sit with their hands folded, their mouths quiet,
and listen to her. She also referred to her students as
"smart alecks" when the students did not correctly re-
Spond to her questions. Other data suggested that she
valued content-centered instruction more highly than stu-
dent-centered instruction. Her conceptualization of read-
ing instruction appeared to be a rigid, two-sided proce--
dure with the teacher teaching and the student learning.
She did not use knowledge about her students' instruc-
tional needs to plan lessons. During mapping sessions,
she stated the belief that if the student does not learn,
the teacher repeats instruction. During her lesson im-
plementations, she did not demonstrate this avowed con-
cept of reteaching. Her content-centered concern was also
evident in her discussions during debriefing sessions and
her ratings on the Proposition Inventory. She presented
much content in the lessons, but she did not fulfill the
instructional needs of her students. She was not an ac-

tive learner interacting with her students. Her

118
conceptual change and development in reading instruc-
tion were impeded. As she said, "I started the same and,
ended the same."

In contrast, when a subject regarded herself as an
active learner interacting with her students, her con-
ceptualization changed and developed into a complexly in-
terrelated understanding of reading instruction. Sub-
ject C Spoke in terms of the importance of her students:
(1) being "comfortable in the group (reading)," (2) being
able to have "them (students) decide on their own goals
because if they decide their own goal they are more apt
to reach it." and (3) being "motivated first before in-
struction begins." In contrast, Subject A said that she
did not see "any difference of where motivation comes in
the lesson." Other secondary evidence corroborated Sub-
ject C's low belief in basal text emphasis, and her high
regard for the "integrated whole" aspect of the student
in instruction. Her terminal map of reading instruction
was difficult for her to construct because she "got so
much” from her field experiences and that now "these
(definers) are so closely related." She said she used
to see the classroom with "only a teacher teaching" but
now she sees the classroom "with so much more." This
suggests that since Subject C was an active learner in-
teracting with her environment, her change and develop-
ment in the conceptualization of reading instruction were

significant.

 

119

Similarly, Subject B also exhibited evidence that
she was an active learner learning from her environment.
When she discussed planning, she talked about "planning
for her students" and not planning lessons. She made in-
structional decisions based upon her students' needs.
New instruction was not presented if she assessed that
her students needed "a little more time" on a lesson.
Her maps and discussions emphasized her belief about the
role between teacher and student. Subject B said, "learn-
ing together and from each other." All data sources in-
dicated her strong student-centered orientation. Her
comment regarding her entry conceptualization was, "I had
no framework whatsoever to start...I did not have anything
to build on." Her conceptualization at the termination
of the study was very complex and showed a high level of
knowledge. She referred to her interactive role as,
"they (students) give me...growth." She also said, "It
(instruction) really does not fall into place in your
mind until you interact with children." Thus, the sub-
jects' view toward the role of the teacher and the stu-
dent in instruction affected their conceptual development.
Finding Four

THE TEACHER CANDIDATES' CONCEPTUAL DEVELOPMENT OF

READING INSTRUCTION IS RELATED TO ASPECTS FOUND IN

THE NOVICE-EXPERT BODY OF KNOWLEDGE.

The conceptual development of teacher candidates re-

lates to three aspects from the novice-expert body of

120

knowledge (DeGroot, 1965: Cazden, 1976: Larkin, 1981).
These aspects involve the novice-expert continuum, the
qualitatively different conceptual framework between a
novice and an expert and the degree of insightfulness
between the novice and the expert.

The first aspect is the novice-expert continuum.
An individual who possesses little knowledge or a scant
content framework is known to have low-knowledge and is
considered a novice. An individual who possesses much
knowledge or a more complete framework is known to have
high-knowledge and is considered an expert. The differ-
ence between a novice and an expert can be viewed on a
continuum and not on an absolute measure. In this study,
Subjects B, C, and D exhibited gradual progress along the
continuum toward increased conceptualization. Subjects
B and C progressed at a faster rate along the continuum
than Subject D. Therefore, Subjects B and C are con-
sidered to have high-knowledge or to be more expert than
Subject D. Subject A did not evidence increased concep-
tualization. She did not progress along the continuum.
Indications of regression were evident. Thus, the teach-
er candidates' progressive conceptual development in
reading instruction parallels that of the novice-expert
continuum.

The second novice-expert aspect is the qualitative
difference between conceptualizations. The knowledge of

a novice is not considered to be simply less or an

121
incomplete version of the expert's knowledge. The ex-
pert's knowledge is structured in a way which highlights
the interrelationships between individual concepts
(definers). The subjects' semantic maps and their dis-
cussions exhibited qualitatively different structures of
their knowledge. Subject B's and C's terminal maps looked
like a maze with many interpretations. They indicated
numerous interrelationships in their discussions. Sub-
ject A's and D's maps appeared more organized and less
intricately structured. Their discussions indicated a
definite "answer" about reading instruction without other
alternatives. Subjects B and C were thought to be more
expert than Subjects A and D at the termination of this
study.

The extent of insightfulness is the third novice-
expert characteristic. The manner in which individuals
conceptualize knowledge to analyze and to solve a prob-
lem differs. Experts are thought to "see" more than
novices. For example, Subject C was able to problem
solve and analyze her own lessons. After one lesson, she
was able to "see" that she did not do an appropriate task
analysis when she taught a specific reading strategy.

She also "saw" how she could improve this. In contrast,
Subject D could not "see" when an instructional problem
existed and thus was not able to solve it. When she gave
her students a workbook page that did not match the strat-

egy she taught, she did not "see" that. When students did

122
not follow her instruction because they did not under-
stand, she did not "see" that. Subject D could not an-
alyze her instruction. Subjects B and C possessed more
insight about reading instruction, were able to solve
instructional problems and were analytical about their
teaching.

All three aspects—-the novice-expert continuum, the
qualitatively different conceptualization, and the ex-
tent of insightfulness--are portrayed in the subjects'
conceptual development. Subjects B and C possessed a
more developed conceptual framework, had a more interre-
lated framework of specific knowledge, and were able to
problem solve and to be more self-analytical than Sub-
jects A and D. Subjects B and C were seen as more ex-
pert. Thus, the subjects' conceptual development of read-
ing instruction relates to aspects in the novice-expert
body of knowledge.

Summary

This study resulted in four findings. They are:

(1) Teacher candidates have preconceptions regarding read-
ing instruction when entering reading methods class.

(2) The teacher candidates' conceptions of reading in-
struction changed. This change occurred in the stages
of accretion, restructuring, and tuning.

(3) The teacher candidates' conceptual development is af-
fected by their view toward the role of the teacher

and the students in the instructional process.

123

(4) The teacher candidates' conceptual development of

reading instruction is related to aspects from the

novice-expert body of knowledge.

Research Questions

In this section, the findings are examined in terms

of the research questions asked in this study.

1. How do teacher candidates' understanding of read—

ing instruction change during a reading methods

course?

a.

b.

What is the teacher candidates' initial con-
ception of reading instruction?

The teacher candidates in this study entered
reading methods instruction with the concep-
tualization that the field of education in
general is in a hierarchical organizational
system, and that the reading instructional
process involves various categorized groups
such as, "what the teacher uses,” and "the
methods the teacher uses." They were un-
sure about the relationship between educa-
tion in general and reading instruction.
What is the nature of the teacher candi-
dates' conceptual change?

These teacher candidates' conceptual frame-
works of reading instruction went through
definable stages--accretion, restructuring,

tuning. In accretion, new information from

124
instruction was "spread out" within their
knowledge structures. Next, restructuring
"pulled together" instructional information.
Relationships within the reading instruc-
tional process began to develop. In the
third stage, the cognitive structure was
adjusted or tuned. The structure became
less rigid and explicit. Some cognitive
components that were formerly emphasized
were eliminated or de-emphasized. More
interrelationships and insightful possibil-
ities developed.
What is the extent of the teacher candi-
dates' conceptual change at the termination
of instruction?
These teacher candidates' terminal concep—
tualization of reading instruction compared
to aspects from the novice-expert body of
knowledge. The subjects' conceptualization
was not uniform at the end of the study.
Each candidate developed along the novice-
expert continuum at varying rates. Candi-
dates who became more expert exhibited a
qualitatively different conceptual frame-
work of the reading instructional process,
and a greater ability to problem solve and

to analyze situations than teacher

125
candidates who became less expert.
2. What factors influence and inhibit conceptual
change?
These teacher candidates' single greatest in-
fluence and inhibitor in their conceptual de-
velopment of reading instruction was their role
with students in the instructional process. If
a subject was sensitive to the students' instruc-
tional needs, the teacher candidates' concep-
tualization of reading instruction developed
and became complex. If the teacher candidate
concentrated on teaching content and considered
the teacher and student to be separate juxtaposed
entities, her conceptualization was impeded.
Summary .
This chapter contained three major sections: (1) the
description of the teacher education instruction ex—
perienced by the subjects during the study, (2) summaries
of the data gathered for the subjects, and (3) major

findings derived from data analyses.

CHAPTER V

Summary, Significance, and Recommendations

This chapter summarizes the study and major find-
ings, discusses significance, and states recommendations.
Summary of the Study
This descriptive and exploratory study investi-

gates teacher candidates' preconceptions of reading in-
struction and the changes in their conceptualization
during twenty weeks of reading methodology instruction.

A preconception is defined as the entry level under-
standing teacher candidates possess regarding reading
instruction as measured by: (1) semantic maps, (2) Propo-
sition Inventory, (3) reading lesson debriefing sessions,
and (4) reading definitions. A semantic map is a graphic
representation used to illustrate concepts and the rela-
tionships between concepts. The Proposition Inventory is
a Likert scale instrument which surveys five conceptual
dimensions of reading. Debriefing sessions are the re-
flective discussions the researcher and subject had after-
the subject implemented reading lessons. Definitions are
the subjects' original written meanings of "reading" and
"reading instruction."

The subjects were randomly selected from 30 students

126

127
enrolled in the Multiple Perspectives Teacher Education
Program at Michigan State University during 1983-1984
fall and winter terms.

The subjects conStructed four semantic maps of read-
ing instruction during the twenty weeks of the study:

(1) September -- before instruction began (2) November --
after eight weeks of instruction (3) February -- after
fourteen weeks of instruction and (4) March -- at the com-
pletion of twenty weeks of instruction. The Proposition
Inventory was administered in September and March. Read-
ing lesson debriefing sessions occurred at the field site
three times during the first ten weeks of instruction,

and four times during the second ten weeks of instruction.
The subjects wrote a set of reading definitions in Novem-
ber and March.

The study used qualitative research techniques. The
data were gathered, described, and interpreted. The find-
ings of each subject are given in individual reports and
then combined and presented in composite form. The re-
search questions were answered according to the findings.

Two major questions were investigated in this study:

1. How do teacher candidates' understanding of read-

ing instruction change during a reading methods
course?
a. What are the teacher candidates' initial

conceptions of reading instruction?

128
b. What is the nature of the teacher candi-
dates' conceptual change during instruc-
tion?
c. What is the extent of conceptual change
at the termination of instruction?
2. What influences and inhibits conceptual change?
Summaryof the Findings
Four major findings resulted:
1. Teacher candidates have preconceptions when en-
-tering reading instruction.
All the subjects divided the definers on their
pre-instructional semantic maps between educa-
tion in general and reading instruction. The
subjects arranged the definers in a combination
of a hierarchical and a categorized system.
They placed the general education definers in
a hierarchical ordering and the more specific
reading terms in groups or categories. For ex-
ample, the subjects put general education defin»
ers such as "education" and "school" in a hier-
archical order and definers such as "sight words"
and "phonics" in groups or categories. Thus, as
evidenced in their maps the subjects entered
reading methods instruction with an organiza-

tional knowledge of reading instruction.

2.

129
Teacher candidates' conceptual framework of read-
ingpinstruction did change. The change occurred
in staggs during instruction.
During instruction the subjects' conceptual frame-
works of reading instruction changed. This change
appeared to proceed through the definable stages
of accretion, restructuring and tuning.
Teacher candidates' conceptualization of and change
in reading instruction is affected by their view
toward the role of the teacher and the role of
the student in the instructionalprocess.
According to the cognitive developmental theo-
rists, conceptual development and growth occurs
between an active learner and the environment.
The subjects of this study were the active learn-
ers and the environment was their students. If
the subject interacted with the students and was
sensitive to their instructional needs, the
teacher candidates' conceptualization of reading
instruction developed and became complex. If the
subject was content-centered and considered the
teacher and student to be separate entities, her
conceptualization was impeded.
The teacher candidates' conceptual development
of reading instruction is related to aspects
found in the novice-expert body of knowledge.

Three aspects from the novice-expert body of

130

knowledge offer further understanding into the

conceptual development of teacher candidates.

First, the teacher candidates' conceptual de-
velopment can be plotted along the novice-expert con-
tinuum to indicate progression in conceptualization of
reading instruction. Second, the knowledge framework
of a novice is not just less or an incomplete version
of the knowledge framework of the expert. The knowledge
structure of the expert has more interrelationships shown
between individual concepts (definers) than a novice.
The subjects' semantic maps and discussions exhibit
qualitatively different frameworks. Third, the amount
of information that individuals assemble to solve a prob-
lem and their ability to analyze a situation differs.
Experts are thought to be more insightful than novices.
The experts draw insight from a greater conceptual frame-
work. A subject with a more interrelated framework of
reading instruction is able to problem solve and be more
self-analytical than an individual who has a less de-
veloped conceptual framework.

In summary, the four major findings in this study
are: (1) Teacher candidates in this study had precon-
ceptions about reading instruction when entering read—
ing methods class. (2) The teacher candidates' concep—
tions of reading instruction changed. This change fol-
lowed through the stages of accretion, restructuring,

and tuning. (3) The teacher candidates‘ conceptual

131
development was affected by their view toward the role
of the teacher and the students in the instructional
process. (4) The teacher candidates' conceptual de-
velopment of reading instruction was related to find-
ings from the novice-expert body of knowledge.
Significance

This study's greatest significance was that it pro-
vided an initial thrust into a new field of inquiry--
the investigation of teacher candidates' conceptualiza-
tion of reading instruction. The findings are also im-
portant because: (1) they added to the body of research
in teacher education, with not only pre and post research
data, but also interim data collected during the study
and (2) they related to other growing bodies of knowl-
edge including knowledge acquisition, cognitive develop-
ment, and novice-expert studies.

Over fifteen years ago Stephens (1969) suggested
to educators that a unique quality of the prospective
teacher is that the candidate "does not come to us as
an inert, empty memory drum." This study expands upon
Stephens' concept to reveal that teacher candidates be-
gin education courses with distinctive preconceptions
of both the field of education in general and also of
reading instruction. This study focused specifically
on reading instruction. This research revealed that
teacher candidates exhibit an awareness of a hierarchi-

cal structure in the area of education and more

132

particularly perceive reading instruction to be in cate-
gorical groups or sets. Knowledge and enhanced awareness
of teacher candidates' preconceptions about reading in-
struction is important to reading educators for future
consideration. First, this finding would suggest that ed-
ucators need to identify the diverse preconceptions of
their teacher candidates. Next, reading educators could
then adjust instruction to account for the teacher can-
didates' existing entry beliefs about reading. Subse-
quently, reading educators could develop and modify their
curriculum to accommodate the varying needs of students
as they develop and grow in their conceptualization of
reading instruction. Thus, the distinctive contribution
of this research was that it provided an initial thrust
into a new field of study--the investigation of teacher
candidates' conceptualization of reading instruction.

Another finding in this study revealed that teacher
candidates' conceptions change. This change gradually
emerged through stages during methods instruction. As
the candidates changed from their initial conceptual
framework into the first stage, the concepts presented‘in
instruction appeared to be isolated from one another or
"spread out." During this first phase or stage, the
teacher candidates retained concepts from classroom pre-
sentation, but they were unable to understand relation-
ships among the concepts. Norman (1978) refers to this

stage as accretion. This finding suggests that the

133

teacher educator who recognizes that teacher candidates
cannot yet synthesize the reading instructional concepts
could provide the students with an appropriate structure
and framework upon which to relate their recently ac-
quired information. The assistance provided by the teach-
er educator during this first stage would help the can-
didates to reach the second stage which Norman refers to
as restructuring. This study showed that during this re-
structuring stage, teacher candidates "pull together" in-
formation presented in class. The teacher educator could
continue to provide experiences and instructional activ-
ities to further the restructuring process and develop-
ment toward the third stage. Norman refers to this third
and final stage as tuning. He defines this stage as a
simultaneous decrease in the Specific organized and struc-
tured framework with an increased interrelated conceptu-
alization. This study revealed that in a reading instruc-
tion course not all candidates attain the final stage of
reading conceptualization. This research suggested that
teacher educators' awareness and identification of teach-
er candidate stages could aid candidates to reach the
tuning stage at the culmination of their reading methods
instruction.

Furthermore, this study validated the views of
Floden and Feiman (1981) and other cognitive develop-
mental theorists. This study confirmed their belief that

"trainees" operate under different stages of development.

134
During the twenty weeks of this research the same instruc-
tion was presented to all subjects. At three intervals
throughout the study, the subjects' conceptualization
was monitored and graphically illustrated through seman-
tic maps. These semantic maps revealed that the subjects
organized the same information differently depending up-
on their unique stage of conceptual development. The maps
also indicated that some subjects were never able to syn-
thesize the information in order to internalize the in-
struction. For these students, learning about reading
instruction appeared to be a matter of rote-memory or
acquiring "the answer." The maps of these subjects did
not exhibit evidence of the tuning stage. This finding
would suggest to reading educators the need to take into
consideration the various conceptual stages of the can-
didates not only at the beginning of instruction, but
throughout the course. Curriculum and instruction would
need to be developed and modified to assure that in-
dividual students' conceptualization is enhanced. For
example, if a candidate's semantic map reveals a con-
fusion or difficulty in restructuring a group of re-
lated instructional components, the instructor could
directly assist the student to relate these concepts.
With the map as a diagnostic tool, the instructor would
be able to identify accurately the source of the sub-
ject's confusion.

A third finding of this research indicated that

135
conceptual change is affected by teacher candidates'
views of and interactions with their environment. The
learner must be active and interact with the environ-
ment for conceptual change to occur. Floden and Feiman
(1981) point out that the "individual is an active agent
in both motivation and direction of change." In other
words, the individual's interaction with the environ-
ment is crucial to that individual's conceptual develop-
ment. This finding suggests that to further the candi-
dates' conceptualization teacher educators need to teach
them about the importance of the candidates relating to
and responding to their students' instructional needs.
For example, when a teacher candidate's data reveals
a content-centered rather than a student-centered empha-
sis, the teacher educator would need to intervene direct-
ly and develop instruction to encourage increased inter-
action. The subjects in this study who were sensitive
to their students' instructional needs developed a com-
plexly interrelated, insightful, and flexible conceptu-
alization of reading instruction.

This research also contributed to the body of knowl-
edge needed in the field of teacher education for pre,
interim, and post data collection. As Turner (1975) said,
"The amount of dependable information available compared
to the amount needed to formulate more effective policies
and practices of teacher education is miniscule." This

study offered specific information about teacher

136

candidates' conceptualization of the reading instruc-
tional process. Also Tabachnick, Popkewitz, and Zeichner
(1979-80) contend that much of the research in the field
is limited in its focus when only pre and post data are
studied. They feel that interactions are not evident
and important issues are not addressed. This research
not only studies the teacher candidates' conceptualiza-
tion of reading instruction throughout the twenty weeks
of the reading methods class, but this study also inves-
tigated their interim interactions with the environment.

Next, this study related to other bodies of knowl-
edge including acquisition of knowledge, cognitive de—
velopment, and novice—expert studies. For example, the
findings suggested parallelisms between the teacher can-
didates' conceptual change and the novice-expert line of
research. Teacher candidates' Conceptual development
can be plotted along the novice-expert (low to high knowl-
edge) continuum. Another novice—expert relationship this
study suggested was the qualitatively different conceptu-
alization between a novice and an expert. Experts ex-
hibit more interrelationships within a particular knowl-‘
framework than do novices. Problem solving and analyzing
was a third novice-expert characteristic this study sug-
gested. Experts are thought to be more insightful than
novices. They are able to solve problems and analyze sit-
uations more effectively and efficiently than novices.

Novices have an insufficient conceptual framework from

137
which to draw this higher level of thinking. The re-
lationships to other fields of knowledge suggested in
this study provide valuable information to the field of
teacher education for its ultimate improvement.

In summary, this study's greatest contribution is
that it opened a new area of inquiry--teacher candidates'
conceptualization of reading instruction. Other impor-
tant aspects include: (1) additional research in teacher
education, (2) characteristics of teacher candidates' con-
ceptualization during instruction, (3) relationships
drawn from other bodies of knowledge.

Recommendations

There is a tendency for teacher educators to immedi-
ately use findings from studies such as this to alter
their course outlines and techniques of instruction. Even
though the findings from this study do make such sugges-
tions, this study was not meant for this purpose. It was
designed to ask rather than answer questions. Did the
particular reading methods instruction affect the rate
or stages of conceptual change? Would subjects' concep-
tual change develop in a different manner with another
type of instruction? What personal factors account for
subjects' change? How can teacher educators assess in-
dividual developmental levels? How can these various
levels be accounted for in instruction? Should class
work include specific instruction regarding interaction

with the subjects' environment? Thus, this study was

138

intended to describe and explore. The study was meant

to primarily provide entry information into a new field

of inquiry and to provide suggested avenues upon which

to build future investigations. Consequently, recommen-

dations for research, rather than practice, are discussed.

The following discussion suggests a set of method-

ological revisions and a research agenda:

1. Methodological Revisions--Before any further re-

search is planned, more highly developed semantic

mapping procedures, interview questions and probes,

informal data, technical features, and assessment

measurement scales need to be formulated.

a.

Semantic Mapping--Even though the maps pro-
vided an effective tool for "seeing“ con-
ceptualization, the procedures were cumber-
some. More efficient streamlined ways to
physically handle the definers and to con-
struct the maps need to be developed. A
method should be devised so it is not
necessary to tape the definers on the paper.
The development of a computer program for
semantic mapping appears most desirable.
Interview Questions and Probes--Interview
questions and probes were not routinized.
An interview protocol needs to be constructed
which achieves a balance of formality and

friendliness. Guidelines need to be

139
established about the degree and amount of
probing and length of time a subject is
allowed to get "off the track" or hesitate.
Informal Data--During the study much infor-
mation from the subjects was revealed in-
formally to the researcher. These data
should be included as field notes in the_
design of future studies.
Technical Features-~The physical environ-
ment during the mapping sessions was not
always quiet or private. Plans should be
made for a specified environment, e.g.,
soundproof private room, video taping in
addition to audio taping the sessions is
advisable. Specific arrangements for trans
scribing the audio tapes from the mapping

sessions are essential.

e. Assessment Measurement Scales--The study

produced a large amount of data with no
prescribed method of assessment. Scales,
inventories, and checklists need to be de-
veloped to aid in the assessment and de-
scription of the data. Descriptors need
to be developed to describe, analyze and
interpret a semantic map. Inventories and
scales need to be formulated for analyzing

transcribed data.

140
2. Research Agenda--Research studies need to follow
the improvement of methodological procedures.
a. Descriptive Research--Several small de-
scriptive studies within the confines of
a large one need to be designed. Basically,
the larger study would replicate, as much as
possible, this study using the method-
ological improvements previously described.
Each smaller study would involve a wide-
range population of teacher candidates from
different states, different philosophical
teacher education programs, and/or different
instructional methodologies. Attention
should be given to individual subject back-
ground information such as, age, academic
ability, and experience with children that
may influence conceptualization. The find-
ings of this follow-up study would present
a clear view of the most cogent teacher can-
didates' conceptual features for future
study. Do these study findings substantiate
or contradict the ones in this study? Are
there additional findings? With the find-
ings from this comprehensive study, a series
of smaller studies can be designed under an
"umbrella" study. Each small study would in-

vestigate one of the salient findings from

141
the previous studies, e.g., preconceptions
or stages of conceptual change. The com-
piled data would present findings to set
the circumstances for designing experimental
studies.
Experimental Research--Experimental studies
need to be conducted until enough evidence
is gathered to begin making recommendations
to teacher educators for specific instruc-

tional and program improvement.

c. Development--After the research findings

have been reported, the researcher's task
is not finished. Research findings do not
automatically change or improve instruction.
Findings must be translated into informa-
tion that can be clearly communicated to
teacher educators. Plans should be formu-
lated to translate the findings into teach-
er education practice and instruction.
Lanier and Floden (1978) suggested that
systematic development efforts must be
undertaken to: (l) re-examine, translate
and articulate findings, (2) examine how
best to teach the findings to adults, (3)
give attention to the findings in relation-

ship to the determination of teacher educa-

' tion goals. For instance, if it is found

142
that teacher candidates change conceptually
through stages, this finding must be trans-
lated as to what it really means, how to
communicate this knowledge to teacher ed-
ucators, and how they should account for
the information within a teacher education
program.

Since this is a descriptive study, its recommenda-
tions are for further research and not implications for
immediate instructional change. As noted above, further
research suggestions include: (1) development of sophis-
ticated measurement and assessment procedures, (2) more
descriptive studies, (3) experimental research with strong
emphasis to translate research findings into specific
procedures. The ultimate goal is to improve teacher ed-
ucation.

Summary

This chapter contained three sections. First, the
study and its findings were summarized. This study in-
vestigated teacher candidates' conceptual change of read-
ing instruction during reading methods instruction. The
findings suggest: (1) teacher candidates have precon-
ceptions about reading instruction, (2) teacher candi-
dates' conceptions change individually through stages,
(3) candidates' interaction with the environment affects

conceptual development, and (4) teacher candidates'

143
conceptual development may be paralleled with the
novice-expert body of knowledge. Second, the signifi—
cance of this study was discussed. Its major importance
is that it opens a new field of inquiry in teacher educa-
tion. Third, methodological and research suggestions

were given.

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APPENDICES

APPENDIX A
SUBJECT A

Introduction

Subject A's data are reported in three phases. First,
data from her first semantic map and Proposition Inventory
comprise the pre-instructional phase. Second, the instruc-
tional phase includes data from her second and third se-
mantic maps, debriefing sessions, and two sets of written
reading definitions. This phase is reported in three seg-
ments for greater clarity. Third, the post instructional
phase contains data from her last semantic map and the
second Proposition Inventory. The data are related to the
instruction taking place during the study and to the read-
ing teacher educator's semantic map and Proposition In-
ventory. At each phase the data are analyzed by the cri-
teria specified in Chapter III. Interpretation of the
data is made of Subject A's conceptualization of reading
instruction according to the class and property relation-
ships on a semantic map (Johnson and Pearson), the learn-
er's interaction with the environment (Floden and Feiman)
and expert-novice studies (DeGroot). The data from the
three phases are summarized and discussed in terms of the

research questions.

150

151
Pre-instructional Phase

In the pre-instructional phase Subject A construc-
ted a semantic map and completed the Proposition Inven-
tory.

Semantic Map. Subject A called her initial map (see
Figure A 1)of reading instruction the "Tree of Knowledge."
She began the construction with general education de—
finers such as "education" and "school" at the bottom of
the paper. She worked toward the top of the page and
formed three large branches which she called objectives.
One she called "professional prior knowledge." Within
that branch were the definers "direct instruction," "mon-
itor," and "explain." The second objective was "strat-
egy" and it was divided into two smaller branches. One
was "free reading" and "activity." The other included
"task," "basal text," and "vocabulary." Her third branch
included "objective," "expectation," and "readability."
She eliminated "concept" and "assess" on the map. In her
verbal discussion, she listed definers with little or no
explanation. She used words like "we need" to connect
listings of definers. One listing consisted of ten de-
finers.

Thus, according to the criteria for analyzing seman-
tic maps, Subject A's map was a branched and connected
hierarchy. She included all of the definers in the dis-
cussion in lists with no explanation or elaboration.

Her map was similar to the reading teacher educator's in

152

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153
three ways. First, they were both connected and branch-
ed, although his was more linear and hers was more hier-
archical. Second, they shared some common general edu-
cation definers like "education" and "school." Third,
they agreed on two common areas of the definers "direct
instruction" and "strategy."

Proposition Inventory. On Subject A's first Propo-
sition Inventory (see Table A 1) she had no score for the
basal text section because she did not know the meaning
of basal text. She rated the linear skills statements as
moderate agreement with a net score of +3. She agreed
with five statements and was neutral about two. One agree-
able statement was, "I believe that reading is a diffi-
cult process which must usually be taught in a step-by-
step sequence if we are to develop good readers." The
interest area was rated as high agreement with a score
of +7. She expressed strong agreement with the state—
ment, "I believe that an important indicator of reading
growth is how often a pupil voluntarily uses reading in
his daily life." She did not disagree with any state-
ment in this area. She rated natural language with a
score of +5. She expressed a strong agreement with the
statement, "I believe that reading materials should help
children learn to read in a natural manner similar to the
way they learned to speak." Although she did not disagree

with any statements in this area, she did rate four as

154

Table A1 Subject A Proposition Inventories

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

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e mbe 7 —_T
Degree of “'1‘
Agreement ‘ : 5
Neutral fili— [L
A B C D E
Degree of Y
Disagreement
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basal text
Maggh 9
Degree of "”
Agreement
l 4
.h.
3..
Neutral - 1 - r .
L—I: ‘ LA
A B C D E
Degree of
Disagreement Y
Content Centered tu e e e e
A - Basal Text C - Interest
B - Linear Skills D - Natural Language

 

 

(Content) E - Integrated Whole

155
neutra1.She strongly agreed with the integrated whole area
with a score of +10. One of the seven statements she
strongly agreed with was, "I believe that the goal of de-
veloping comprehension is best achieved by giving pupils
realistic reading problems which they see as meaningful
in their lives."

Thus, Subject A rated all three student-centered
areas with scores of strong agreement. Although she did
agree with the content-centered linear skills area, it
was not as highly rated as any one of the other three
areas.

Summa y. Subject A's data gathered in the pre-
instructional phase exhibited knowledge of education in
general and reading instruction. She constructed a cohe-
sively connected and branched map which was similar to
the reading teacher educator's in three aspects. .Her map
showed a reading organization with three objectives lead-
ing from a general education hierarchy. Although her
discussion included all of the definers, most were men-
tioned in list form. Her Proposition Inventory, a sec-
ondary source, showed stronger agreement in the child-
centered areas of reading instruction rather than in the
content areas. Again, this representation was similar to
the reading teacher educator's.

Tnterpretatien. Subject A's pre-instructional con-
ceptualization of reading instruction was an organized-

knowledge of the class relationship of education in

156

general. She related the classes to two groups of read-
ing instructional properties. She viewed the teacher as
interacting with the instructional framework rather than
with the environment (student). On a novice-expert (low
to high knowledge) continuum, she appeared to possess a
moderately low-knowledge conceptualization of reading in-
struction. Thus, in the judgment of the researcher, Sub-
ject A's preconceptualization of reading instruction was
a systematic organization focused on objectives from
which the reading instructional process developed with-
out significant concern for the student.
Instructional Phase - Segment One

In the first eight weeks of instruction (Segment
One), Subject A attended reading methods and educational
psychology classes, took part in debriefing sessions
after implementing reading lessons with her tutee, wrote
definitions of reading and reading instruction, and con-
structed a second semantic map at the end of the segment.

Debriefing Sessgpns. Early in this segment, the re-
searcher needed to remediate instruction with Subject A.
Subject A exhibited confusion about the concept of con-
textual meaning during a lesson. When the researcher re-
minded her that the purpose was to get contextual mean-
ing rather than to identify a word from a flash card she
said, "No, right. No, I know. Yeah. I was not really
sure." But this confusion remained two weeks later dur-

ing the next debriefing session. This time, Subject A

157
defended her position and felt that her "confusion" was
correct.
Thus, during debriefing sessions there was evidence
that Subject A was resistant to accepting instruction.
Reading Definitions. During this segment she wrote
a set of reading definitions. Her definition for read-
ing was:
Reading -- is fun. It should be enjoyable and yet
instructive. By reading and enjoying it, it should
also make learning easier and overall more enjoy-
able.
This definition contained two major instructional themes
-- enjoyment and instruction. Since both themes were re-
garded as outcomes of reading instruction and not the
meaning of reading, this was not considered a true defi-
nition of the term reading.

Her definition for reading instruction was:

Reading instruction -- is teaching sight words and
comprehension through context.

This definition alludes to the major instructional stress
in this segment of word identification. Subject A did

not specifically state this but mentioned two types of
word identification through teaching for contextual mean-
ing and sight words. Thus, neither meaning in her defini-
tions was a true representation of instruction.

. Semantic Map. Subject A then constructed her sec-
ond map. From the branched and connected shape of the
"Tree of Knowledge" in Subject A's first map, her sec-

ond map (see Figure A 2) became very hierarchical. She

158

 

 

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159
began again at the bottom of the paper with general edu-
cation definers like "education," "school," and "class-
room," and continued to the top of the paper. She then
went across and then down on the paper. She said the de-
finers from "education" through "organization" were re-
ordered in her mind according to her educational psychol-
ogy class. (The definer "readability" included in this
list was not from instruction.) She said that section of
definers was the "what" of education. From the definers
"direct instruction" through the remainder of the map was
the "how" of reading instruction.

She eliminated four definers -- "content," "in-
struct," "vocabulary," and "content area text." "Con-
tent” and "instruct" were both presented in methods class
during this phase. Two of the definers that she had elim-
inated in her first map "concept" and "assess" were in-
cluded in the "what" section on this map. This discussion
included connective phases between definers that denoted
sequence such as "first they will need to...," "and then
they...," and "after that they...." She said she knew
"more about the subject now than the first time."

Subject A's second map was not similar to the read-
ing teacher educator's in shape and groupings of definers
except both maps began with the general definers of "edu-
cation," "school," and "classroom." Thus, Subject A's
second map was a different shape from her first one. She

discussed the definers as they had been introduced in

160
educational psychology and reading instruction.

Summary. Subject A's secondary data gathered dur-
ing Segment One indicated confusion regarding instruc-
tion during debriefing sessions and reading definitions
that did not reflect instruction. The map, the primary
data source, showed a long hierarchy of educational psy-
chology definers in the first half and reading instruc-
tion definers in the second half.

Interpretation. After eight weeks of instruction
Subject A's conceptualization of reading instruction was
very structured and organized with a distinct non-inte-
grated separation between classes and properties. She ap-
peared to totally abandon her initial framework and
began to construct a new one. At this time she had dif-
ficulty relating this new developing structure to her en-
vironment (tutee). On a novice-expert (low to high knowl-
edge) continuum, she appeared to have regressed to have
a low-knowledge conceptualization of reading instruction.
Thus, in the judgment of the researcher Subject A's first
interim conceptualization of reading instruction was an
entirely new unfocused organization showing experimenta-
tion and confusion.

Instructional Phase - Segment Two

In the next six weeks of instruction Subject A con-
tinued to participate in reading methods class, completed
the educational psychology class and began the classroom

organization and management class, continued to take part

161

in debriefing sessions, and constructed a third semantic
map at the end of the segment.

Debriefing Sessions. During one debriefing session
in this segment the researcher and Subject A discussed
motivation. Subject A saw no reason to provide motiva-
tion at the beginning of a lesson as taught in reading
methods. Subject A said, "Why? What difference does
that make, whether I say it (a motivational reference)
at the beginning or at the end?" A second debriefing
session focused on contextual meaning. The researcher
told Subject A that she now exhibited a clearer under-
standing of contextual meaning than her previous les-
sons indicated. A third debriefing session focused up-
on Subject A introducing a story with vocabulary words
to a reading group. This introduction of vocabulary was
part of a Directed Reading Lesson (DRL) which was dem-
onstrated in the reading methods class. Subject A in-
troduced the vocabulary, but she neglected to assess the
group's understanding of what she had introduced. The
researcher talked with her about this.

Researcher: What evidence do you have that they did
understand your words today that you were
teaching?

Subject A: That's hard because I just could feel
that they knew. I could feel that they
were -- that they...

Researcher: But feeling is not evidence. Every time

you brought up a new word, you discussed
it, you said OK, and you continued g01ng.

162

Subject A: I should have asked them.

Researcher: At that point there should have been
some sort of interaction using examples,
non-examples, or background experience.
Do you ever use yarn at home? Has your
mother ever used yarn? What is yarn?

Subject A: I see. Yeah, I should have asked them
more questions.

Researcher: Do not assume...find out, do not feel--
get hard evidence.

Subject A: OK--yeah, that is where I really messed
up. I did not even think about that.

Thus, during this segment Subject A showed evidence
of understanding the concept of contextual meaning that
she had not in Segment One. Twice during the debriefing
sessions she exhibited evidence that she had not incor-
porated reading instruction.

'Semantic Map. Subject A began her third map (see '
Figure A 3) in February in the same hierarchical order as
she had done in November except it began at the top of the
paper instead of at the bottom. At three points this
hierarchy showed single connections with other definers.
The second half of her hierarchy from November composed
of reading definers became branched and connected. In her
discussion, she listed the strategies of "sight words,"
"phonics," "word analysis," "context," and "comprehen-
sion" from reading instruction but did not explain them.
She talked about how much more important she felt "com-
prehension" and "prior knowledge" were this time than they

had been before, and how "motivation" was "a driving

163

Professiona
choo lassroom-‘M

    

El iminated

 

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Figure A3 Subject A-February Semantic Map

164

force" or "some kind of purpose...to want to learn." She
also discussed the definers "practice" and "application"
more in this discussion. She used "application" in her
lesson implementations with activities like USSR and
"language arts." She added the definer "evaluation."

She said,

I think evaluation is very important. You need to

realize even if you are teaching it they might not

get it and if they have not gotten it then you have
to know if they have or have not. So whether you
should go back and reteach or apply some other strat-
egy to their learning.

The referred to the student from the aspect of the
teacher "doing it" to the student -- ”assessing," and
"setting expectations for." The student was not put in
an interactive role with the teacher. She eliminated
three definers -- "content area text," "content," and
"seat work." She said that she felt "seat work" needed
to be included but it just did not fit into her map. _In
her discussion regarding the maps she said, "I think this.
is getting harder each time I do it. It seems the more
I know, the less I know." She and the reading teacher
educator each began their map with a hierarchy of general
education definers.

Spnnggy. In Segment Two Subject A showed evidence
of understanding the concept of contextual meaning that
she misunderstood in Segment One. On her map, the pri-

mary data source, she displayed a branched and connected

structure in the reading instruction area. She also

165
offered more explanation of specific definers.

Interpretation. After fourteen weeks of instruc-
tion Subject A's conceptualization of reading instruc-
tion had developed to include relationships among the
general education classes, among the reading instruction
properties and also between the classes and properties.
She saw this framework to be superimposed, without inter-
acting, upon the environment (student). On a novice-
expert (low to high knowledge) continuum she progressed
significantly to the middle range. Thus, in the judg-
ment of the researcher Subject A's second interim con-
ceptualization of reading instruction was an organiza-
tion focused on the necessity of a direct instructional
process of reading instruction with its many components.
Instructional Phase - Segment Three

In the last instructional phase Subject A continued
to participate in reading methods class, the classroom
organization and management class, and the debriefing
sessions. She also wrote a second set of reading defini-
tions.

Debriefing Sessions. During a debriefing session
in this segment Subject A showed evidence of recognition
of the major instructional theme to have the process
rather than the product drive the lesson.

Subject A: You see they (the students) just doing

it but not realizing 22! they were doing
it. So then when they got to the harder

ones, you know, then they kinda applied
the strategy. And so I was trying to

166

emphasize the strategy. And I felt they
were going too fast and not concerning
themselves with how to do it, but by just
getting it (the answer).
At this session the researcher also discussed with Sub-
ject A her understanding of the difference between prac-
tice and application as they had been taught in reading
class. She discovered that Subject A did realize the dif-
ference but did not relate this knowledge to her lesson
implementation.
Thus, during the third segment of debriefing ses-
sions Subject A showed evidence of conceptually under-

standing what had been presented in reading even though

she was not consistent in applying it.

Reading Definitions. During this segment Subject A
wrote a second set of reading definitions.

Her definition for reading follows:

Reading -— is picking up any book, sitting down, say-
ing the words on the page and extracting meaning from
them. The last point is very crucial because to me
if you can just say the words but not obtain meaning
from them you are not reading.

This definition contains one major theme and elabora-

tion from reading methods -- the meaning-getting aspect

of reading.

Her definition for reading instruction was as follows:

Reading instruction -- is learning how to read. It
is testing specific strategies to teach or help a
student be a better reader. It is functions that
are taught for the individual to further his own
reading without the help of the instructor. Any-
one can be told the word you do not know but reading
instruction is when you say this is how you figure
out the word you do not know and you can do it with

167

other words that you do not know.

This definition contains two main themes and elab-
oration from reading instruction: (1) teaching strate-
gies, and (2) metacognative awareness.

Summary. During the last segment of instruction
Subject A exhibited conceptual incorporation of instruc-
tion during debriefing sessions and stated three major
themes from instruction in her second set of reading
definitions.

Post Instructional Phase

In March, after twenty weeks of instruction, Sub-
ject A took the Proposition Inventory again and construc-
ted a fourth semantic map. ‘

Proposition Inventory. On the Proposition Inventory
(see Table A l, p.154) she rated the basal text area that
she did not in September with a score of -2. She dis-
agreed with or was neutral in seven out of nine state-
ments. She disagreed with statements like, "I believe
that I should spend an equal amount of time with the low,
middle, and high basal text groups."

She mildly agreed with the linear skills area with
a net score of +2. She agreed or was neutral with seven
out of nine statements. An agreeable statement was, "I
believe that reading is a difficult process which must
usually be taught in a step-by-step sequence if we are to
develop good readers." Subject A was in mild agreement

with the interest area (+4). She rated seven out of nine

168
statements from strong agreement to neutral. One of the
strongly agreed with statements was, "I believe that
children should be allowed to choose the stories and books
they want to read during the regular reading period."
The natural language area had a net score of -2. She dis-
agreed with a majority of the statements like, "I be-
lieve that the teacher's role is to emphasize the com-
munication aspects of reading more than the skills." She
rated the integrated whole area as strongly agreeable
(+9). Seven out of nine statements were rated as strongly
agreeable or agreeable. One strongly agreeable statement
was, "I believe that the teacher's role is to involve pu-
pils in realistic reading tasks which illustrate the func-
tional utility of reading."

Thus, the content-centered areas, basal text and
linear skills, were rated as -2 and +2. She rated two of
the student-centered areas, interest and integrated whole,
with +4 and +9. Natural language received a -2 rating
which indicated confusion and/or contradiction since the
other two student-centered areas received high ratings.

There were two basic differences between her Septem-
ber and March inventories. First, she rated the basal
text area since she had learned the meaning of the term.
Second, the natural language statements changed from +5
to -2. This rating did not reflect instruction and did

not agree with the other two high student-centered rat-

ings.

169

In March three out of five areas (basal text, linear
skills, and integrated language) were within two points
of the reading teacher educator. In the interest area
her score was four points higher than his. Her ratings
were closer to his in March than in September except in
natural language where her score was eight points lower
than his. This indicated that she incorporated reading
instruction and conceptual change occurred.

Semantic Map. The structure of Subject A's fourth
map (see Figure A 4) was like the beginning of the others
in the area she called the "what" -- general education
definers. The "how" section (reading definers) of this
map unlike her previous map which became branched and
connected, was in a hierarchy.

The shape and general arrangement of the definers
were in a hierarchical order. The only location that
branching or connections occurred, other than single con-
nections, was around "strategy." "Strategy" was a major
instructional theme. Her map was not similar to the read-
ing teacher educator's except at the beginning of the gen-
eral education hierarchy and the cluster of definers around
"strategy."

Summa y. Subject A's data during the post instruc-
tional phase included a hierarchical arranged map and the
Proposition Inventory indicated confusion and/or contra-

diction in the natural language area.

170

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171

Interpretation. After twenty weeks of instruction
Subject A's conceptualization of reading instruction was
very structured and organized with a non-integrated sep-
aration between general education classes and reading in-
struction properties with one set of related properties.
Again, it appeared that she had regressed in her concep-
tual development. Her present framework was less related
than the previous one. She continued to think of her con-
ceptualization as not including interaction with the en-
vironment (student). On a novice-expert (low to high
knowledge) continuum, she appeared to have regressed to
have a low—knowledge conceptualization of reading instruc-
tion. Thus, in the judgment of the researcher Subject A's
terminal conceptualization of reading instruction was a
very structured and organized step-by-step approach to
the reading instructional process with only a rigid cog-
nitive concern for the student.

Summary qT;Data

Subject A's first map was a branched and connected
hierarchy showing reading instruction in large categor-
ies branched from general education. Her second map was
a strict hierarchy separating educational psychology and
reading instruction. The third map was again a branched
and connected hierarchy emphasizing the direct instruc-
tion of strategies. The last map was a hierarchy again
with some emphasis on strategies. The ratings changed

between Subject A's first and second Proposition

172

Inventories. The second inventory showed more similarity
in ratings with the reading teacher educator's except
in natural language. Her teaching did not corroborate
this. She emphasized Language Experience Activities with
her tutee which are based upon using a student's own lan—
guage in reading. The sets of reading definitions indi-
cated some incorporation of instruction. The debriefing
sessions gave evidence that Subject A misconceived in-
struction and needed remediation at least once before
change occurred.
Summary of Interpretation

Subject A's conceptual development of reading
instruction did not progress steadily. 'Although she con-
tinued to have an organized knowledge of the general edu-
cation classes, their relationship to the properties and
sets of properties of reading instruction were erratic.
She appeared to abandon her initial conceptualization and
to begin a new one. This appeared to progress but then
regressed at the termination of instruction. She never
included the environment (student) in her conceptualiza-
tion. She imposed her knowledge onto the environment.
On the novice-expert (low to high knowledge) continuum,
she went from moderately low-knowledge, to low-knowledge,
to middle-knowledge, to low-knowledge.

Thus, Subject A's conceptualization and change sub-
sequently was puzzling. Progress was not stable or easily

explained. Evidence indicated that her greatest movement

173

toward change took place at the second interim point

rather than at termination. A real question remains as

to her development and her final conceptualization of

reading instruction during this study.

Research Questions

1. How do teacher candidates' understanding of read-

ing instruction change during a reading methods

course?

a. What is the teacher candidate's initial con-

ception of reading instruction?

Subject A's data indicated that she con-
ceptualized reading instruction in large
areas -- general education, instruction,
and knowledge needed by the teacher. She
espoused to believe in student-centered read-
ing instruction emphasizing the student's
interest, natural language, and reading as
an integrated whole. Other evidence did
.not substantiate this.

In the judgment of the researcher Subject
A's preconceptualization of reading in-
struction was a systematic organization
focused on objectives from which the read-
ing instructional process developed without
significant concern for the student.

What is the nature of the student's con-

ceptual change?

174
Subject A's data indicated that her extent
of conceptual change went from: (1) an entry
level of general education classes and set
of reading instructional properties, (2) to
a dichotomy between the instruction in edu-
cational psychology and reading methods in-
struction, (3) to a branched and connected
hierarchy emphasizing strategies within read-
ing instruction, and (4) to a hierarchical
structure of reading instruction without
branching or connections. Her belief in
student-centered reading instruction dimin-
ished, especially in the area of natural lan-
guage. This was contrary to reading instruc-
tion.
In the judgment of the researcher, Subject
A's first interim conceptualization of read-
ing instruction was the beginning of an en-
tirely new organization without focus show-
ing experimentation and confusion. Her sec-
ond interim conceptualization of reading
instruction was an organization focused on
the necessity of a direct instructional pro-
cess of reading instruction with its many
components. This appeared to be the time of
her greatest change.

c. What was the extent of conceptual change at

175

the termination of instruction?
Subject A's terminal conceptualization of
reading instruction was a very structured
and organized step-by-step approach to the
reading instructional process with only a
rigid cognitive concern for the student.
There is evidence to indicate that her great-
est change of conceptualization did not oc-
cur at the end of instruction. Subject A's
true extent of conceptual change is ques-
tionable.
2. What factors influence and inhibit conceptual
change?
Subject A said educational Psychology class and
reading instruction influenced her thinking the
most. Working with students in the field was a1-
so an added positive dimension for her.
Subject A felt her increased knowledge of read-
ing instruction was inhibited due to not enough
student demonstrations in reading methods class.
During one of the debriefing sessions she com-
mented that she thought it was hard because there
had not been a demonstration. The researcher sug-
gested that she review her notes from class. She
said,
I wrote it down but it was still really
hard. I thought it was hard for me not

to have something to look at or to re-
member it by.

176

Subject A also thought her progress was impeded
because she did not receive the same information
to clarify confusions. She attempted to go to
more than one person to get answers -- a field
instructor and a reading instructor. She would
get varying answers, not conceptually different,
but not specifically alike word for word. Sub-
ject A's personal intensity for getting "the an-
swer" rather than conceptualization appeared to

impede her development.

Summary
This appendix presented the data gathered in this

study for Subject A. The primary data source was the
set of Subject A's semantic maps of reading instruction.
The secondary data sources included: (1) Proposition
Inventory (September and March), (2) reading debrief-
ing sessions, and (3) reading definitions for reading
and reading instruction (November and March). The data
were reported in three phases: (1) pre-instructional,
(2) instructional, and (3) post instructional. The data
were analyzed according to the three bodies of research
reported in Chapter II to answer the research questions
posed in this study.

In essence, Subject A's preconceptualization of
reading instruction and her subsequent conceptual change

was investigated during this reading study.

APPENDIX B
SUBJECT B

Introduction

Subject B's data are reported in three phases.
First, data from her first semantic map and Proposition
Inventory comprise the pre-instructional phase. Second,
the instructional phase includes data from her second
and third semantic maps, debriefing sessions, and two
sets of written reading definitions. This phase is re-
ported in three segments for greater clarity. Third, the
post instructional phase contains data from her last se-
mantic map and the second Proposition Inventory. The
data are related to the instruction taking place during
the study and to the reading teacher educator's semantic
map and Proposition Inventory. At each phase the data
are analyzed by the criteria specified in Chapter III.
Interpretation of the data is made of Subject B's con-
ceptualization of reading instruction according to the
class and property relationships on a semantic map
(Johnson and Pearson), the learner's interaction with the
environment (Floden and Feiman) and expert—novice stud-
ies (DeGroot). The data from the three phases are sum-

marized and discussed in terms of the research questions.

177

178
Pre-instructional Phase

During the instructional phase Subject 8 construc—
ted a semantic map and took the Proposition Inventory.

Semantic Map. Subject B's semantic map of reading
instruction (see Figure B l) was a hierarchical listing
of general educational terms such as "education,"
"school," "classroom," and then other definers were
grouped in five categories. The categories were: (1)
what the teacher could look at to see if the student is
learning -- definers were "success," "effectiveness,"
"skill," "fluency," and "readability:" (2) what they
learn -- definers were "learning," "concept," "content,"
and "context:" (3) how the student learns -- definers
were "practice," "apply," "comprehension," and "activ-
ity:" (4) what the teacher uses to teach —- definers were
"vocabulary," "language arts," "phonics," "sight words,"'
"content area text," and "basal text," (this was the only
category connected to the hierarchical listing--the con-
nection was from "task" to "prior knowledge" to "teach-
ing"); (5) methods the teacher uses -- definers were
"free reading," "seat work," "direct instruction," "in-
struct," "explain," and "monitor."

Two definers were eliminated -- "professional" and
"word analysis." Subject B added the definer of "stu-
dent" near the top of her hierarchical listing of general
education definers. During the discussion of the map she

recited the categories and 18 definers but she did not

 

 

179
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Figure Bl

18O
explain them. The discussion contained fragmented sen-
tences such as "I would think...," "I wonder...," a

(long pause) ”it is not exactly...," "very hard for me to

to."

Thus, according to the criteria for analyzing the se-
mantic maps, Subject B's map was hierarchical and grouped
in nature. The discussion was an oral listing of about
one-third of the definers from her map. Subject B's map
was similar to the reading teacher educator's only that
both noted some of the same general education definers in
a hierarchy.

Proposition Inventqry. On Subject B's first Propo-
sition Inventory in September (see Table Bil) she did not
rate her beliefs of the basal text. She indicated she
did not know what a basal text was. She held her strong-
est belief in the category of linear skills. She agreed
with all nine statements (net score +9) concerning linear
skills such as, “I believe the teachers should directly
teach the basic skills of reading to those pupils who
need them."

The areas of interest and natural language had al-
most neutral ratings of +2 and +1. She agreed with state-
ments like,"I believe that contextual clues are the most
important word recognition aids and should receive more
instructional emphasis than sight words or phonics."

She disagreed with statements like, "I believe that the

teacher's role is to emphasize the communication aspects

181

Table Bl Subject B Proposition Inventories

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

mm 9 ....3.
Degree of
Agreement ‘
l 1
Neutral 12§4 I A I- I
A B C D E
Degree of I
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basal text
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Degree of ' 8
Agreement ‘ 1]
. 2 }
"" 1
Neutral T._1 r
A B C D E
Degree of
Disagreement Y
Content Centered §tudent gentepeg
A - Basal Text ‘ C - Interest
B - Linear Skills D - Natural Language

(Content) E - Integrated Whole

182
of reading more than the skills."

In the category of the integrated whole (net score
+8) her belief was almost equal to linear skills (net
score +9). She showed general agreement in all but one
'of the nine statements concerning the integrated whole.
She agreed with statements like, "I believe that the
goal of developing comprehension is best achieved by giv-
ing pupils realistic reading problems which they see as
meaningful in their lives." Thus, her September Propo-
sition Inventory showed that Subject B held her strong-
est belief in linear skills and the integrated whole of
reading instruction.

Summary. Subject B's data gathered on her map in
the pre-instructional phase exhibited evidence of knowl-
edge of categories included in reading instruction. Sub-
ject B did not explain the definers or discuss relation-
ships. On the Proposition Inventory, a secondary source,
the two areas of strong belief (linear skills and inte-
grated whole) could be seen as a contradiction and/or con-
fusing concept.

Interpretation. Subject B's pre-instructional con-
ceptualization of reading instruction was an organized
knowledge of the general education classes with the teach-
er in close interaction with the environment. Classes
were unrelated to five groups of reading instructional
properties. On a novice-expert (low to high knowledge)

continuum, she appeared to possess a low knowledge of

183

reading instruction. Thus, in the judgment of the re-
searcher Subject B's preconceptualization of reading in-
struction was a loosely structured but organized knowl-
edge of significant reading instructional categories em-
phasizing mutual student and teacher roles.
Instructional Phase - Segment One

In the first eight weeks of instruction (Segment One)
Subject B attended reading methods and educational psy-
chology classes, took part in debriefing sessions after
implementing reading lessons with her tutees. wrote def—
initions of reading and reading instruction, and construc-
ted a second semantic map at the end of the segment.

Debriefing Seseions. During debriefing sessions in
Segment One Subject B exhibited understanding of major
concepts emphasized in reading instruction. For instance,
she exhibited that she conceptually knew the difference
between teaching for contextual meaning and teaching for
sight word recognition, two important concepts taught in
reading. She also showed concern for her tutee's atti—
tude about reading by making sure her student liked the
books she chose for him. The affective aspect of read-
ing instruction was one of the reading outcomes taught in
reading methods class.

In one debriefing session the researcher discussed
with Subject B the need to make a stronger connection be-
tween her lesson and her concern about the affective out-

come of her student's reading. Subject B divided the

184

substance of what she was teaching in one part of the
lesson and then concentrated on her student's enjoyment
of reading in the other. The researcher suggested that
she should attempt to connect the two. Subject B's next
lesson implementation reflected this when she said,
You used our secret to figure it out (the
word). Do you know that worked for you.
It will work when reading in your USSR book
(free reading) too and when you are reading
and having fun? Now I want you to do this
one by yourself and I want you to tell me
what you are doing as you are doing it, okay?
I want you to figure it out.
Thus, Subject B exhibited in reading debriefing sessions
that she incorporated instruction.

‘Reading Definition. In this segment Subject B wrote

a set of reading definitions. She defined reading as:
Reading is meaning-getting, whether it is
a schoolbook, or any other material a per-
son may choose -- magazines, newspapers,
street signs, comics. Reading is commun-
ication, looking at a message and getting
meaning from it.

This definition contains two major points with examples

from reading methods class -- reading involves meaning-

getting and is communication.

Her definition for reading instruction was as follows:
Reading instruction is helping people gain
strategies to help them extract meaning from
words. It is guiding people and showing them
how to use the strategies to read.

This definition reflects two other aspects without elabo-
ration of instructional emphasis -- the teaching of strate-

gies and the guidance to independently use the strategies.

185

Semantic Mep. Subject B's second semantic map changed
(see Figure B 2) from being hierarchical and grouped to
horizontally connected and branched. The hierarchical
placed general education terms on her first map were now
connected and branched. She explained that the top of
this structure had come from her educational psychology
instruction. The middle of the structure became very
branched. She explained how educational psychology and
reading blended together at this point. She named the
middle of her structure "The Teacher Needs To...” and was
branched into six segments. Six main definers came from
this: ”diagnosis," "instruct," "practice," "assess,"
"monitor," and "motivation." This was the area where she
conceived an integration between educational psychology
and reading class. From the definer "instruct," she
branched two categories of "strategy" and "explain."
Strategy included "context," "word analysis," "phonics,"
and "sight words." "Explain" included other definers like
"direct instruction," "indirect instruction," and ”vocab-
ulary." Two unconnected sections of her map were called
"the teacher will be" and "the student will be" with both
resulting in "learning." The application and enjoyment of,
reading in the real world was the overall encompassing mes-
sage she emphasized on her map. She used all but three
definers that had been introduced in class during Seg-
ment One. These definers were "content," "concept," and

"activity." In her discussion of the map she verbalized

186

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all of the definers. Although most definers were men-
tioned in a listing form, there were connectors like
"another part is" and ”the teacher needs to.”

The researcher asked her to compare her first and
second maps:

Subject B: I think it is probably very different.

Researcher: Why?

Subject B: Because my idea of reading was a lot
different.

Researcher: Why?

Subject B: I did not know what sight words were.

I knew what phonics were but not where

they fit in. I do not think I knew what
word analysis was or objective and goal.
I did not have any idea what those were.

Researcher: Where did you learn them?

Subject B: Through educational psychology and read-
ing both. Through working with my focus
student (tutee) and by making up my own
lessons.

The horizontally connected and branched shape of her
second map and the reading teacher educator's were quite
similar in shape. The definers were grouped differently.
A major difference involved Subject B's incorporation of
management and organization in the beginning general ed-
ucation hierarchical order. The reading teacher educa-

tor included these concepts nearer to definers associated

188
more closely to reading. Two other major similarities
were the definers that each had located under "strategy"
on their maps and the area including the definers "prac-
tice," "assess," "seatwork," "monitor."

Summary. Subject B's map had changed from hierar-
chical and grouped in nature to horizontally connected
and branched. She included most of the definers on her
map that had been introduced in reading instruction and
from educational psychology. She also included more of
the definers now in her verbal discussion. Thus, incor-
poration of instruction and conceptual change had occurred.
The debriefing sessions and the reading definitions, sec-
ondary data sources, added corroborating evidence of this
too.

Interpretation. After eight weeks of instruction
Subject B's conceptualization was an organized and re-
lated knowledge of general education classes and read-
ing instruction properties. Her conceptualization con-
tinued to include an active involvement with the environ-
ment (student). On a novice-expert (low to high knowl-
edge) continuum she appeared to possess a moderate knowl-
edge of reading instruction. Thus, in the judgment of
the researcher Subject B's first interim conceptualiza-
tion of reading instruction was organized and structured
with a strong emphasis for the professionalism of the
teacher and the interactive process between the student

and teacher.

189
Instructional Phase - Segment Two

In the next six weeks of instruction (Segment Two)
Subject B continued to participate in reading methods
class, ended the educational psychology class and began
the classroom organization and management class, continued
to take part in debriefing sessions after implementing
reading lessons with a reading group, and constructed a
third semantic map at the end of the segment.

Debriefing Sessions. During one debriefing session
Subject B displayed evidence of incorporating a major in-
structional theme in reading methods of not allowing the
lesson to become answer-driven. The researcher asked,
"While you were teaching this lesson, what were you think-
ing of?f Her response was,"I was thinking of listening
to the kind of answers they (the students) were giving
me...I knew they needed a little bit longer just from what
they were saying to me." By not being "answer-driven" she
was willing to spend time in reteaching instead of push-
ing on to get the correct answers when there was evidence
of student misunderstanding.

Semantic Mep. At the end of the segment Subject B
constructed a third map (see Figure B 3). Like her sec-
ond map, it was horizontally connected and branched. In
her discussion the definers were not merely listed as be-
fore. The discussion was in sentence structure, had se-
quence, and the definers were put into context. A lis-

tener could make sense from the discussion without seeing

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191
the map. This map began the same as her second one with
general education terms at the top. She eliminated two
definers, "content area text" and "readability." Neither
had been introduced in reading class. There were more
connections among the definers to produce a more cohe-
sive map. For example, the previous branch of "practice,"
"assess," "monitor," and "motivation" was now integrated
with "instruction," "diagnosis," and "prior knowledge"
which also came under the main part of the map. Several
definers like "modeling," "implicit," and "explicit" (com-
prehension) were added. These reflected her reading
methods instruction. She did make a provision to go back
to "diagnosis" and "assess" if instruction had not been
successful.

In comparing this map with the other two she said:

The first time I did this (September) I did not

have a clue. The second time I had some idea from

educational psychology like objective but now it is

starting to fall into place. I did not have any idea
of what management was until this term and how it

fit into this. Especially, the reading started fall-

ing into place. Now I know where comprehension is

going and the objectives and all the decisions you
make about instruction, practice, and applying...
that is where I am.

Summary. During the second segment of instruction
Subject B exhibited evidence of continued conceptual change.
The same key similarities and differences between the read-
ing teacher educator and Subject B continued in this map.

In the discussion the definers were put into a more con-

textual setting. The eliminated definers had not been

192
introduced in reading methods class. Subject B showed
evidence during the debriefing sessions that she under-
stood the major areas of emphasis. Thus. at this interim
point incorporation of instruction and conceptual change
continued to occur.

Interpretation. After fourteen weeks of instruction
Subject B's conceptualization of reading instruction was
again an organized and related knowledge of the general
education classes with some integration of the reading
instruction properties. The teacher's active involvement
with the environment (student) was not emphasized at this
time. On a novice-expert (low to high knowledge) contin-
uum, Subject B continued to possess a moderate knowledge
of reading instruction. Thus, in the judgment of the re-
searcher Subject B's second interim conceptualization of
reading instruction was an organized and structured
knowledge emphasizing the need for direct instruction and
the continuative quality of instruction.

Instructional Phase - Segment Three

In the last instructional phase (Segment Three) Sub-
ject B continued to participate in reading methods class,
the classroom organization and management class, and the
debriefing sessions. She also wrote the reading defini-
tions again.

Debriefing Sessions. In a debriefing session after
she constructed her third map she illustrated her cohe-

sive and connected conceptualization when she talked about

193
her planning for the lesson. She said,

I think I planned it very very hard because I was
trying to pull all different stuff together. It

was not just like I sat down with just one thing
and try to plan this, you...I was trying to

figure out, well, here's what I am supposed to be
doing as far as reading goes and I need to plan my
objectives and they fit in with this but it’s not
anything I'm going to get right straight from read-
ing. I mean there is no easy way to sit down and do
this any more. You have to start using other things
(i.e., educational psychology) to help you.

In another debriefing session she illustrated her in-
corporation of instruction that stressed the use of stu-
dent prior knowledge by saying,

I have learned more about taking my time, making
sure that I involve their (students) experiences
rather than just saying, well, here are these words
and you know I am going to tell you what they are.
Here is what they mean and here is how they fit in
the story. It is what can you bring to them. It is
just that there is more to it than just throwing a
bunch of words to the kids. Then it just does not
make much sense, you know, so what? The word "muf-
fin," big deal, so I have learned a lot.

Thus, her debriefing sessions provided evidence of her
incorporation of instruction.
Reading Definition. During this segment she wrote
a second set of reading definitions.
Subject B's definition for reading was as follows:
Reading is a complex process where a person uses
skills to get meaning from an author's message,
whether that message is a trade book, a textbook,
a street sign, or a cereal box. Reading is getting
information from a message and interacting this 1n-
formation with information in the reader's prior ex-
perience background.
This definition contained four major points with ex-

amples from reading methods class. Reading: (1) is

194
complex, (2) involves meaning-getting, (3) has a commun-
icative function, and (4) interacts with reader's prior
knowledge.

Her reading instruction definition was the following
statement:

Reading instruction is teaching skills for word

identification and comprehension. It is modeling

strategies for skills like context, visual discrim-
ination of letters and words, phonics, implicit and
explicit comprehension cues. Reading instruction is
being aware of the experience backgrounds children
need to understand that they are reading. If the
children's backgrounds are not full, a teacher needs
to fill the gaps. The teacher needs to explain new

vocabulary and concepts before the children form a

positive attitude by modeling how enjoyable read-

ing can be through indirect instruction like USSR
and language and reading fun projects.

This definition contained four major points from
reading methods class with additional elaboration. Read-
ing instruction: (1) is teaching skills, (2) is modeling
strategies, (3) is expanding upon prior knowledge, and
(4) is forming a positive attitude.

Summary. During the third instructional phase Sub-
ject B continued to exhibit evidence of incorporation of
instruction and conceptual integration in her debriefing
session and in her written reading definitions.

Post Instructional Phase

In March after twenty weeks of reading methods in-
struction Subject B took the Proposition Inventory again
and constructed a fourth semantic map.

Preposition Inventory. Subject B's Proposition Inven-

tory (see Table Bl, p.181) was rated with almost

195
neutrality of belief in the two content-centered areas --
basal text and linear skills (net scores +2, +1). She
showed agreement in basal skill statements like, "I be-
lieve that basal textbook materials are an important part
of good instructional programs in reading." However, she
disagreed with statements such as, "I believe that com-
prehension should be taught by asking questions about the
basal text story being read." Her linear skill state-
ments were balanced between half in agreement and half in
disagreement, which produced an almost neutral score. She
rated two of the three student-centered areas as highly
agreeable -- natural language and integrated whole (net
scores +7 and +8). The third area, interest, was rated
as agreeable (net score +3).

There were two basic differences between her Septem-
ber and March inventories. First, she rated the basal
text area the second time. The rating for that area was
a net score of +2. She summarized her feeling in the fol-
lowing manner:

Well, it (teacher's guide) does not say to intro-

duce the words before you do the story. It said

to do those while you were reading the story and

talking about the paragraphs. I did not think

that with those kids it was right. That is not

what we have been taught but it is just I do not

see why -- how it would be helpful to do it (in-

troduce vocabulary) after they have already read

it. I would think that it would be more helpful

for them to know what the words mean and to have

some idea before they read the story.

Second, there was a shift in scores between the

linear skills and natural language area. Linear skills

196
were strong (+0) and natural language was about neutral
(+1) in the first inventory. Linear skills now became
almost neutral (+1) and natural language became strong
(+7)-

This indicated that the initial linear skill/inte-
grated whole contradiction was resolved and incorpora-
tion of instruction had occurred. The net ratings of
the five areas now were very similar to the reading
teacher educator's.

Semantic Map. Subject B began to construct her final
map (see Figure B 4) in a horizontal manner. After work-
ing for awhile she decided to change it to a vertical
position. She used all but two definers ("content area
text" and "activity") and added seven of her own ("stu-
dent," "evaluate," ”model," "guided practice," "USSR,"
"declarative," "indirect instruCtion"). The general edu-
cational terms again were arranged hierarchically near
the top. Near the middle were the definers "goal" and
"objective" and then "teaching" with "diagnosis" under
that. From there she divided up "teaching" into "direct"
and "indirect instruction." Under "indirect instruction"
she discussed the affective aspect as being a desired
outcome of reading. Under "direct instruction" she dis-
cussed the "strategies" and "comprehension" aspects as
taught in reading instruction. She explicitly discussed
the "necessity" to "diagnosis" and reteach if the teach-

er assessed "learning" did not take place.

197

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198

This map was very difficult for Subject B to con-
struct. She changed positions of the paper once and then
needed to add an extension onto the paper. Subject B
moved definers around because she saw how they could be
in more than one place. A two-dimensional map was not
really satisfactory to her. Subject B readily admitted
that her third map was much easier than this one.

Thus, Subject B's last map was interrelated and
showed evidence of conceptualization beyond class in-
struction. In her discussion she talked about "putting
it all together" and "seeing how the pieces fit" from
reading class, other teacher education classes, and work-
ing with her students.

Summary. Subject B's post instructional data indi-
cated that incorporation of instruction had occurred be-
cause of the change in ratings in the Proposition Inven-
tory. The net ratings had become similar to the read-
ing teacher educator's. Subject B also exhibited a change
in conceptualization in the interrelated construction of
her map.

Interpretation. After twenty weeks of instruction
Subject B's conceptualization of reading instruction con-
tinued to reflect an organized and related knowledge of
the general education classes. Her conceptualization of
the reading instruction properties became less organ-
ized but more intensely complex and integrated. The in-

teraction between the teacher and the environment

199

(student) was completely intertwined. On a novice-expert
(low to high knowledge) continuum, Subject B appeared to
possess a high knowledge of reading instruction. Thus,
in the judgment of the researcher Subject B's terminal
conceptualization of reading instruction was a loosely
organized, highly complex, integrative and webbed knowl-
edge which emphasized the need for direct instruction,
the continuative quality of the instructional process,
and teacher student interaction.
Summary of Data

Subject B's data showed evidence of incorporation
and conceptualization beyond instruction during twenty
weeks of this study. Her four maps along with the dis-
cussions increased in conceptual complexity: (l) hier-
archical and grouped, (2) horizontally connected and
branched, (3) horizontally connected and branched and,
(4) interrelated. She expressed her growth in this way:

The first time I did it (map construction) I was

very uncomfortable. I sat there -- it took me a

long time to do. It was very hard to do because

I did not feel I had anything to build it on. I

had no...even...no framework whatsoever to start.

I did not feel that I had the self-confidence to

think of myself as a professional person. Now I

am starting to feel that I have knowledge. I am

not perfect, there is a lot I need to learn but

I do know something.

Her March Proposition Inventory indicated that an
initial confusion was resolved and became very parallel

in the five belief areas with the reading teacher edu-

cator's. Both sets of her reading definitions reflected

200

major points of instructional stress. The second set
of definitions also were developed in greater detail and
included more instructional significant concepts than
the first set. During Subject B's debriefing sessions,
she was able to clarify and expand upon her conceptual
interpretation of reading instruction. She exhibited no
confusions and she was able to communicate her conceptu-
al progress quite explicitly. Thus, Subject B's data
showed evidence of conceptual change in reading instruc-
tion beyond information presented in instruction.
Summary of Interpretation

Subject B's conceptual development of reading in—
struction significantly changed and developed into dif-
ferent levels of conceptualization. ,Although she ini-
tially had an organized and related knowledge of the gen-
eral education classes, the organization became more in-
tegrated. Her knowledge of reading instructional proper-
ties showed significant growth. The initial five sets
of unrelated reading properties developed into a complex-
ly integrated conceptualization stressing direct instruc-
tion and the continuative quality of instruction. Some
of the structured organization declined as a result of
the complexity. She increasingly exhibited interaction
with the environment (student). On a novice-expert con-
tinuum (low to high knowledge), she initially had low-
knowledge, then progressed to moderate-knowledge, and

terminated with high-knowledge. Subject B's

201

conceptualization and change appeared to be progressively

growing and developing.

Research Questions

1. How do teacher candidates' understanding of read-

ing instruction change during a reading methods

course?

a.

What is the teacher candidate's initial
conception of reading instruction?

Subject B thought of general education

as a hierarchical order and reading in-
struction in small loosely structured uns
related categorized groups emphasizing the
student and teacher roles in the instruc-
tional process. She strongly believed that
linear skills and the integrated whole
areas were important in reading instruction.
What is the nature of conceptual change?
During the duration of this study, Subject
B's conceptualization of reading instruc-
tion increased in knowledge and structure
stressing the direct instruction, the
continuative quality of reading instruc-
tibn,and the interaction between the teacher
and student in the instructional process.
Her discussion of her maps and debriefing
sessions exhibited an increased integrated

and reflective conceptualization for problem

202
solving and self-analysis.
What is the extent of conceptual change at
the termination of instruction?
At the end of twenty weeks of instruction
Subject B's conceptualization appeared to
develop beyond reading methods instruction.
She had adifficult problem in her fourth map
explicitly displaying the intricacies that
she understood about reading instruction.
She desired to show more integrative inter-
relationships than could be physically dis-
played. However, at the end of the map con-
struction she said, "I feel much more self-
confident than I did last term" (the first
map).
She referred to thinking about lesson plan-
ning when she said, "Now I.am starting to
fit pieces in...," "you just have to sit
down and think about how you do it." She
also emphasized having the students in mind
when planning. At this time the interac-
tion between the teacher and student was
completely intertwined.
Thus, Subject B's terminal conceptualiza-
tion of reading instruction was a loosely-
organized, highly-complex, integrative and

webbed knowledge which emphasized the need

203

for direct instruction, the continuative

quality of the instructional process, and

teacher student interaction.
What factors influence and inhibit conceptual
change?
When the researcher asked Subject B what ac-
counted for her change she enumerated: the read-
ing methods class, the other assigned readings,
talking professionally about these readings with
her classmates, the debriefing sessions, the ed-
ucational psychology class, and the classroom
management class. She said, "they all put it all
together." The strategy she emphasized that
really helped her in teaching was to sit down
and think how she learned as an adult. Then she
was able to transfer that into planning and im-
plementing her lesson. Her personal habit and
ability "to sit down, think about it, and put
it all together" appeared to be most influential
in her conceptual change. Subject B felt the
greatest inhibitor was feeling uncomfortable in
her field experience to practice what she had
learned in reading instruction. She called it
"the frightenness of it" of being around the kids

and having a teacher there.

204

Summary

This appendix presented the data gathered in this
study for Subject B. The primary data source was the
set of Subject B's semantic maps of reading instruction.
The secondary data sources included: (1) Proposition
Inventory (September and March), (2) reading debrief-
ing sessions, and (3) reading definitions for reading
and reading instruction (November and March). The data
were reported in three phases: (1) pre-instructional,
(2) instructional, and (3) post instructional. The data
were analyzed according to the three bodies of research
reported in Chapter II to answer the research questions
posed in this study.

In essence, Subject B's preconceptualization of
reading instruction and her subsequent conceptual change

was investigated during this reading study.

APPENDIX C
SUBJECT C

Introduction

Subject C's data are reported in three phases.
First, data from her first semantic map and Proposition
Inventory comprise the pre-instructional phase. Second,
the instructural phase includes data from her second and
third semantic maps, debriefing sessions, and two sets
of written reading definitions. The instructional phase
is reported in three segments for greater clarity.
Third, the post instructional phase contains data from
her last semantic map and the second Proposition Inven-
tory. The data are related to the instruction taking
place during the study and to the reading teacher educa-
tor's semantic map and Proposition Inventory. The data
are analyzed at each phase by the criteria specified in
Chapter III. Interpretation of the data is made of Sub-
ject C‘s conceptualization of reading instruction accord-
ing to the class and property relationships on a semantic
map (Johnson and Pearson 1978), the learner's interaction
with the environment (Floden and Feiman 1981) and expert-
novice studies (DeGroot,l965; Cazden,l976; Larkin, 1981).

The data from the three phases are summarized and

205

206
discussed in terms of the research questions.
Pre-instructional Phase

During the pre-instructional phase Subject C con-
structed a semantic map and took the Proposition Inven-
tory.

Semantic Map. Subject C's first semantic map (see
Figure C l) was a hierarchical listing of all of the de-
finers. She began at the top with the general education
definers such as "school," "curriculum," and "teacher,”
and continued down to the more specific reading instruc-
tional definers. There were two branches from the de—
finers "teaching" and "direct instruction." She elimi-
nated the definers "readability," "professional," "seat
work," "task," "context," "concept," and "content area
text." .

In her discussion she did not talk about the gen-
eral education definers. She began discussing the de-
finers at the very bottom of her map first -- "free read-
ing" and "activity." The discussion was about broad read-
ing topics -- reading groups, use of reading grouping, use
of a teacher's aide, and the use of motivation. It did
not appear that she attempted to use specific definers
as she talked.

Thus, she explained the definer in the context of
broad reading topics. Twice in her discussion she men-
tioned seat work, but the definer was eliminated on her

map. She discussed the goal of reading was "for them

207

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208

(students) to learn how to read effectively and to have
a success in reading and not feel like a failure.” She
also discussed how she would teach reading. She would
"organize her goals and objectives, organize different
books, know the classroom, and build an expectation for
herself and for the students. This would take manage-
ment."

To group in reading at the beginning of the year,
she said she would, fitry to have all students feel com-
fortable and to listen to them read aloud." In order for
her to know the child's level of reading she would diag—
nose through "using sight words, sounding out vocabulary,
and getting to know their vocabulary knowledge."' She dis-
cussed the use of a teacher's aide to help individual
children. She reiterated the importance of organization
to get reading instruction started and the importance of
"telling the kids and even have them decide on their own
goals because if they decide their own goal then they are
more apt to reach it."

Thus, according to the criteria for analyzing the
semantic maps, Subject C's map was hierarchical in nature
but her discussion denoted a different, more contextual,
conceptualization. She spoke at length about reading
grouping, organization, and goals. Her map was not like
the reading teacher educator's except that both began
with general education definers like "school," "teacher,"

and "education."

liking—‘2,-

209

Proposition Inventory. On Subject C's first Propo-
sition Inventory (see Table C 1) in September she did not
know the meaning of basal text so this area was not
rated. She showed moderate agreement in the linear skills
area (net score +4). She agreed with statements like,
"I believe the teachers should teach directly the basic
skills of reading to those pupils who need them." She
also rated the interest area with moderate agreement (net
score +3). She rated the nine statements as neutral or
with agreement. One neutral statement was, ”I believe that
we should spend less time teaching pupils how to read and
more time in getting him interested in reading." She then
agreed with, "I believe that the teacher's role is to help
children learn to love to read by allowing frequent free
reading and by conducting individual book conferences."
In the area of natural language her net score was "0" or
neutral. 0f the nine items she did not answer three since
she did not know the meaning of the terms "meaning cues"
and "decoding skills." Other statements she rated as
neutral included: "I believe that teachers should spend
more instructional reading time on helping children uSe
language as a communication process." Her highest area
of agreement (net score +9) was in the integrated whole
area. She agreed with eight out of nine statements in
the area. She was in strong agreement with, "I believe
that the goal of developing comprehension is best achieved

by giving pupils realistic reading problems which they can

210

Table Cl Subject C Proposition Inventories

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

_9.
e m e
Degree of
Agreement ‘ 4
2.
. 3y ‘ 0
Neutral 1.;+ III!
A B C D E
Degree of I
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basal text
Mgrgh 9
Degree of _“
Agreement ?
2
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Neutral
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a
Degree of
Dis eement -
agr ‘Y A. B C D E
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A - Basal Text C - Interest
B - Linear Skills D - Natural Language

(Content) E - Integrated Whole

211
see as meaningful in their lives."

Thus, on her September Proposition Inventory Sub-
ject C showed a high degree of agreement in the inte-
grated whole area, moderate agreement in linear skills
and interest, and neutrality in natural language. Her
highest rating (integrated whole) was in the student-
centered component of the inventory.

Summary. Subject C's data gathered in the pre-
instructional phase indicates that she could discuss
reading instruction in large contextual areas like read-
ing groups, organization, goals, and teacher aides. The
physical construction of her map did not indicate this
conceptualization. Her high rating in the integrated
whole area on the Proposition Inventory corroborates her
child-centered stress from her discussion. Her agree-.
ment in linear skills and interest also were verified in
her discussion. She was undecided how natural language
related to reading instruction.

interpretation. Subject C's pre-instructional
conceptualization of reading instruction was an organized
knowledge of the general education classes and an unorgan-
ized structure with much knowledge of five groups of
reading instructional properties. She conceptualized the
environment (student) having much interaction, and even
a prominent role, with the teacher. On a novice-expert
(low to high knowledge) continuum she appeared to possess

a low moderate knowledge of reading instruction. Thus,

212

in the judgment of the researcher Subject C's preconcep-
tualization of reading instruction was unstructured with
knowledge of reading organization and management compo-
nents strongly emphasizing teacher student interaction.
Instructional Phase - Segment One

In the first eight weeks of instruction (Segment
One), Subject C attended reading methods and educational
psychology classes, took part in debriefing sessions after
implementing reading lessons with her tutee, wrote defi-
nitions of reading and reading instruction and construc-
ted a second semantic map at the end of the segment.

Debriefing Sessions. Subject C had difficulty imple-
menting her reading lessons in accordance with methods in-
struction. Her tutee was of Latino origin. She heard
Spanish and little English spoken at home. When Subject
C wished to teach sight words like "well" and "will,"
"our" and "are," as taught in reading methods, the tutee
had difficulty in learning. The tutee did not realize
that each set of configurations were actually different
words, that looked differently, that were pronounced differ-
ently, and that had two different meanings. She always
had pronounced them alike. Subject C became frustrated.
During a debriefing session Subject C said, "I was not
really prepared with a lot of backup. I had not antici-
pated that she would not know the different meanings. I
did not realize that would be a problem, and I can see now

it was."

213

Even when Subject C retaught the words, she dis-
covered her student did not know the meaning of the word
"define." The researcher called this to 0'5 attention.
Each lesson Subject C presented brought forth more def-
icit skills and concepts. This caused her frustration
and confusion regarding reading methods instruction. Re-
ferring to this confusion, she talked about the demonstra-
tion lesson in reading methods for contextual meaning with,
"I know that in the lesson a lot of them (elementary stu-
dents) knew. They (the words being taught) were not
things they had never heard of."

By the seventh week of the segment her lessons em-
phasized Language Experience Activities to relate the
child's personal background to reading. She planned word,
identification strategy lessons teaching her tutee to
read the words that she was familiar with at home. Thus,
although Subject C experienced frustration and confu-
sion during this time, she successfully overcame the
problem using the L.E.A. method.

Reading Definition. Subject C's first definition
for reading was: "Reading is meaning-getting."
Meaning-getting was one major point of instructional
stress from reading methods class.

Her definition for reading instruction was the follow-
ing statement:

Reading instruction is very complex. It is super

difficult to try to show a child how to figure out.
words -- it is hard to transport what is in my bra1n

214

(how I read to explain reading to children). Read-
ing instruction has many levels and dimensions. It
is an individual thing that should be different for
different children with different needs.
This definition included three main points from reading
methods: (1) complexity, (2) levels and dimensions, (3)
individuality. She felt particularly strong about the
complexity of reading because of her difficulties teach-
ing her tutee.

Semantic Map. Subject C completed the first instruc-
tional segment with the construction of the November se-
mantic map (see Figure C 2). From a previous hierarchy
this map was horizontally branched with connections among
the definers. She began the discussion of her map with a
statement that explained the beginning of the structure:
“That within a school education a professional teacher
who shows effectiveness in teaching language arts. pro-
motes learning at a high success rate, and the kids learn."
From this statement the remainder of the map was con-
structed. Two major areas were "teaching" and "strategy
and skill." From "strategy" and "skill" was an entire
body of definers she said was from reading instruction.
From "teaching" she included definers from educational
psychology instruction. She eliminated five definers --
all of them had been eliminated from her first map.

The shape of the map was like the reading teacher ed-
ucator's. Other likenesses of the maps included the de-

finers "organization" and "management" branched from

215

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216

"teacher," a similar listing of definers under "strategy,"
and similar areas under ”how" on Subject C's map and under
"pedagogy" on the reading teacher educator's. Her dis-
cussion of the map focused on explaining, not listing,

the definers. She did not use the broad areas of discus-
sion as she had done in her first map. She said she knew
how "to set up a lesson now."

Summa y. During the first segment of instruction
Subject C exhibited evidence of incorporation of instruc-
tion and conceptual change. Subject C's map had changed
from a hierarchical ordering to a horizontally branched
and connected structure. This indicated that she had a
different conceptualization of reading instruction. She
included all but two definers ("content," "concept") that
were introduced in instruction. Her map was like the
reading teacher educator's in several aspects. Her read-
ing definitions enumerated instructional areas of empha-
sis. Her debriefing sessions established that she was
able to plan lessons which combined the special needs of
the tutee and the present content from the reading methods
class.

Interpretation. After eight weeks of instruction
Subject C's conceptualization of the general education
classes continued to be well organized. The framework be-
gan to relate and integrate with two groups of reading
instructional properties. Her sensitivity to the environ-

ment (student) did not appear as great. At this time her

217
conceptualization seemed concentrated to establish a
framework for reading. On a novice-expert (low to high
knowledge) continuum, Subject C appeared to have a moder-
ate knowledge of reading instruction. Thus, in the judg-
ment of the researcher Subject C's first interim concep-
tualization of reading instruction was a tightly struc-
tured and well organized knowledge emphasizing teacher
planning in the reading instructional process.
Instructional Phase - Segment Two

In the next six weeks of instruction (Segment Two)
Subject C continued to participate in reading methods
class, ended the educational psychology class and began
the classroom organization and management class, contins
ued to take part in debriefing sessions after implementing
reading lessons with her tutee and reading group, and con-
structed a map.

Debriefing Sessions. Subject 0 shared with the re-
searcher what she felt was a turning point for her as a
teacher and her tutee as a learner. The importance of
the incident was that the student was able to tell her
how (strategically) she would be able to remember the
words "window" and "sign."

As Subject C said,

She (tutee) was thinking strategically about

identifying words. I am very pleased with this,

after all, we are supposed to be teaching them

to be strategic. It feels good to know that she

is succeeding. She felt good about it too. I

pointed out to her the learning that had taken
place and the difference in her from the fall.

218

This incident provided data to illustrate that Sub-
ject C not only conceptually incorporated instruction,
but she was able to apply it successfully. She also was
able to understand and analyze what had occurred.

Semantic Map. Subject C's February semantic map (see
Figure C 3) appeared to be much more segmented and dis-
organized than her second one. From the physical appear-
ance of the map few definers were connected, branched, or
interrelated. But her discussion evidenced organization .
and cohesion. She used definers that she previously had
eliminated like "content area text" and "concepts." She
said,"content area text" just had been presented in read—
ing and "concept" had been introduced in educational psy-
chology. As in her first map, she skipped around among
the definers when explaining her map.

She verbalized confusion in the area of compre-
hension (which was the main topic of instruction at that
point in reading methods class). This was the area in
which most branching was seen. She said,

I guess I am supposed to know a little bit more

about comprehension now, a lot more about compre-

hension now but I am still kind of fuzzy with how
these words are fitting under it. We have been
working on that in reading but still...
On this map six definers branched from "comprehension."
On the previous map it was listed as a singular skill.
This map combined the educational psychology and "how"

sections from the previous map. Even though Subject 0

did not physically show connections, the definers were

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220
placed in a way to reveal those connections implicitly.
A comparison of this map with the reading teacher educa-
tor's indicates that her "strategy" area was similar to
his map. His "management" and ”pedagogy" area were com-
bined under her general education area. Generally, terms
from educational psychology and classroom management were
in her general education area. She incorporated them more
directly with specific reading definers.

Summary. Subject C exhibited incorporation of in-
struction by her self-analysis during debriefing sessions.
She expressed confusion about "comprehension" during her
mapping discussion. Her map did not change in conceptu-
alization, instead she concentrated in the "comprehen-
sion" area.

Interpretation. After fourteen weeks of instruction
Subject C's entire conceptualization of reading instruc-
tion appeared to be unchanged except for one reading in-
structional property. The conceptualization developed
in this reading property. She used the interaction with
her environment (student) for her to become self-analyti-
cal. On a novice-expert continuum (low to high knowl-
edge) she continued to have a moderate knowledge of read-
ing instruction. Thus, in the judgment of the researcher,
Subject C's second interim conceptualization of reading
instruction was a less structured and organized knowl-
edge but focused upon the area of the comprehension in-

structional component.

221

Instructional Phase - Segment Three

In the last instructional phase (Segment Three) Sub-
ject C continued to participate in reading methods class,
the classroom organization and management class, and the
debriefing sessions. She also wrote the set of reading
definitions again.

Debriefing Sessions. During this instructional seg—
ment Subject C taught a reading group. The debriefing
sessions were concentrated on management. Subject 0
changed, rearranged, or eliminated parts of her lesson
in order to "survive" during the reading lesson. She
said, "This makes me so angry because see there is so
much I could have done and I just left it out. I want
to go back in there and redo it." Near the end of the
segment Subject C's management improved and each lesson
accomplished more reading instruction. Subject C was
self-analytical during these debriefing sessions. For
instance, one time she said, "My task description and
analysis of how to find the main idea is not very accu-
rate, I do not think." Thus, during this segment Subject
C successfully incorporated classroom management instruc-
tion and became self-analytical during debriefing ses-
sions.

Reading Definitions. Subject C wrote another set
of reading definitions. Her definition for reading was

as follows:

222
Reading is meaning-getting. The reader must

use skills that he has learned in order to de-

cipher the author's message and to gain meaning
from it.

This definition included three main instructional points
without any details: (1) meaning-getting, (2) knowledge
of skills, and (3) communication aspect of author's
message.

Her definition of reading instruction was this
statement:

Reading instruction is the teaching of word

identification skills, as well as comprehen-

sion skills (and fluency skills, although we

have not dealt with this facet of instruction)

plus modeling and all sorts of other affective

things (language experience).
This definition delineated without detail two of the three
major outcomes of reading taught in methods class: (1)
the process of reading (teaching skills) and (2) the
attitudinal (affective) aspect of reading..

' Summary. Subject C exhibited incorporation of class-
room management instruction and the ability to be self-
analytical during debriefing sessions. She included five
major instructional emphases in her reading definitions.
Post Instructional Phase

In March after twenty weeks of reading methods in-
struction Subject C constructed a fourth semantic map
and took the Proposition Inventory again.

Semantic Map. Subject C's general organization of

her March map (see Figure 0 4) was extremely complex.

She began discussing her map but she became entangled in

223

Schoo Education

District
_ . Students
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i .

 

 

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Classroom Teacher ___.,._
dechhulcurrhnflnm

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i

   
  
   
    

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 
 
 
   
    

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

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[Organiza on]
Tenunai ~
0b ti ' 12h!) ‘ I Teacher a
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Free readin

Figure (21,- Subject C-March Semantic Map

 

224
her confusion between language arts and reading. (At this
time language arts had not been explicitly introduced in
reading methods class.) She said,

I guess I am just confused if reading falls

underneath language arts. I do not think it

really does just from what I picked up and

hearing it in class. But I really do not have

an exact...I am not sure where to place it on

this chart.

After she continued to construct the map again she
subdivided the definer "objective" and made two new de-
finers —- "terminal" and "enabling." These terms had
been used in educational psychology and in reading. She
also divided "curriculum" into "mandated-district cur-
riculum" and "classroom teacher-decided curriculum.“
Much of the discussion was short sentence fragments with
phrases such as, "I think I wanna," "I do not know if I
should," "Well, no." There was much hesitation and many
pauses. She said that she had a difficult time "organ-
izing it in my mind, trying to make it really clear."
The researcher attempted to probe into why she felt there
was more of a problem now than before. Subject C's re-
sponse was,

I think it was clear in my mind at one time.

I do not know if that was really how it was

supposed to be or anything but I did think

I had a more clear understanding of it when

I would be doing this before. Now it seems

that they (definers) are all so closely re-
lated.

She saw many more connections and interrelation-

ships than she had before. A goal just was not a goal.

225

Now, there were terminal ones and enabling ones. Cur-
riculum was not just curriculum. Now, there was district-
mandated curriculum and teacher-decided curriculum. All
of these concepts were introduced earlier in instruction.
Subject C began seeing so many interrelationships that
she had a great deal of difficulty in the physical con-
struction of this map. She never became satisfied with
it.

Proposition Inventory. Subject C rated the Propo-
sition Inventory again (see Table C l, p.210). She
rated the basal text area with a net score of -4. She
disagreed with six out of the nine statements. Her
strongest disagreement was in the statement, "I believe
that the teacher's role in reading is to assign pupils to
appropriate basal materials and direct them as they com-
plete the material." She rated the linear skills area
with mild agreement (net score +2). One "agreed with"
statement was, "I believe that a significant part of a
teacher's time should be spent in teaching basic read-
ing skills." The area of interest was rated with a -1.
She disagreed or was neutral with six out of the nine
statements. A "disagreed with" one was, "I believe that
reading is not difficult for most children to learn if
they are provided with stimulating and lively materials
to read." Natural language also received a -1 rating with
six out of nine statements receiving a "disagreed with"

or neutral rating. She scored the integrated whole area

 

 

226

with a strong agreement rating of +9. A "strong agreed
with" statement was, "I believe that word recognition in-
struction should not become more important than involv-
ing pupils in real life reading tasks."

Subject C rated three areas with similar or the same
net scores as the reading teacher educator -- linear
skills, interest, and integrated whole. Her rating was
—4 in the basal text area and his rating was neutral. She
slightly disagreed in natural language (-1) and he agreed
(+6) in that area.

Subject C's September and March inventories changed
in two ways. First, she rated the basal text statements
in March. Second, she rated all areas except integrated
whole with more disagreed with scores than she did in
September. She had rated eight statements as neutral in
September. These were changed to "disagree with" in
March. She rated three areas very similarly to the read-
ing teacher educator.

Summary. Subject C's post instructional data showed
that she was conceptualizing reading instruction as being
so interrelated that it was difficult to construct a phys-
ical map. She disagreed with aspects about reading in-
struction that she felt neutral about in September. She
appeared to be "sorting out" her thinking to become more
discriminating.

Tnterpretatipn. .After twenty weeks of instruction

Subject C's conceptualization of reading instruction was

227

a highly related and integrated knowledge of the general
education classes and the reading instructional proper-_
ties. This complexity led to some disorganization. She
continued to actively interact with the environment (stu-
dents). On a novice-expert (low to high knowledge) con-
tinuum, Subject C appeared to possess a high knowledge of
reading instruction.
Summary of Data

Subject C's data indicated that she experienced concep-
tual change from the incorporation of reading instruction.
Not only did her maps show different conceptualizations.
but her discussions of the maps were especially evident
of interrelatedness. There were some aspects of
her maps similar to the reading teacher educator's. She
noted two areas (linear skills and interest) more-closely
to the reading teacher educator's in March than in Septem-
ber. A third area, integrated whole, was already sim-
ilar. Subject C included major instructional themes in
her sets of reading definitions. Her reading definition
increased in the number of major themes given from Sep-
tember to March but her reading instruction one did not.
She usually offered no elaboration in the definitions.
Thus, Subject C's data exhibited evidence of incorpora-
tion of instruction to assist in conceptual change dur-

ing this study.

 

228

Summary Interpretation

Subject C's conceptual development in reading in-
struction significantly changed and increased in degree
of conceptualization. Her initial organized knowledge of
general education classes became more integrated into'the
reading instructional properties. Her knowledge of and
structure in the reading instructional properties in-
creased. At the point where her knowledge structure be-
came integrated and complex, organization declined. Her
interaction with the environment (student) was contin-
uous and active. On a novice-expert (low to high knowl-
edge) continuum, she initially had low moderate-knowl-
edge, then progressed to moderate-knowledge, and termi-
nated with high-knowledge. Subject C's conceptualization
of reading instruction appeared to be growing and develop-
ing. Thus, in the judgment of the researcher, Subject C's
terminal conceptualization of reading instruction was
loosely organized and structured, but was a highly knowl-
edgeable, complex, and integrated web attempting to man-
age the interaction of all the instructional components
stressing the teacher student role.

Research Questigns
1. How do teacher candidates' understanding of
reading instruction change during a reading
methods course?
a. What is the teacher candidate's initial

conception of reading instruction?

229
Subject C's initial map of reading in-
struction was in a hierarchical arrange-
ment without branching from very broad de-
finers to specific ones more related to
reading. She was able to discuss these
definers within broad reading instructional
categories. She exhibited a strong belief
in the conception of an integrated whole-
ness of reading instruction although she
had a neutral belief in the natural lan-
guage aspect of reading instruction.
Thus, Subject C's preconceptualization
of reading instruction was unstructured
with knowledge of broad reading components
of organization and management which strongly
emphasized teacher-student interaction.
What is the nature of conceptual change?
Subject C's map changed from a hierarchical
shape to horizontally branched exhibiting
a cohesive and connective structure. Her
conceptualization appeared to be a tightly
structured and well-organized knowledge em—
phasizing the plan the teacher needs to use
in the reading instructional process. Her
conceptualization then became less cohesive
with a focus in the area of the comprehen-

sion.

230
c. What is the extent of conceptual change at
the termination of instruction?
After twenty weeks of instruction she had
difficulty constructing a physical map. Her
conceptualization of reading instruction was
loosely organized and structured, but a high
knowledgeable complex and integrated web
which attempted to manage the interaction of
multi-instructional components and stress
the strong integral role of the teacher.
2. What factors influence and inhibit conceptual
change?
Subject C repeatedly referred to her change of
thinking because of what she had learned in read-
ing methods, educational psychology, classroom
management classes, from her field instruction,
and very importantly her experiences in her field
assignment. She felt that her field experience
had both positive and negative aspects contrib-
uting to her change. One negative factor that
inhibited her to practice reading instruction
was management problems in her reading group.
She said,
Management is so closely related with in-
struction because if you do not have good
management there is no way you can instruct
at all. If you do not have control, there is

no organization. If the management is off,
then instruction will be off.

 

231
She felt an additional impediment in practicing
and/or continuing conceptual change was when
she felt "made" to teach a lesson, a workbook
page, or a certain story. At times she felt the
particular material was out of order and/or in-
appropriate at that time. At one point she said,
"I never would have taught this poem now." She
became quite unhappy and frustrated the more she
learned about reading instruction contrasting
with what she was told she must teach. But at
the same time, she strongly supported the field
experience as a positive influence assisting in
her change.
Summary
This appendix presented the data gathered in this
study for Subject C. The primary data source was the
set of Subject C's semantic maps of reading instruction.
The secondary data sources included: (1) Proposition
Inventory (September and March), (2) reading debrief-
ing sessions, and (3) reading definitions for reading
and reading instruction (November and March). The data
were reported in three phases: (1) pre-instructional,
(2) instructional, and (3) post instructional. The data
were analyzed according to the three bodies of research
reported in Chapter II to answer the research questions

posed in this study.

232
In essence, Subject C's preconceptualization of
reading instruction and her subsequent conceptual change

was investigated during this reading study.

APPENDIX D
SUBJECT D

Introduction

Subject D's data are reported in three phases.
First, data from her first semantic map and Proposition
Inventory comprise the pre-instructional phase. Second,
the instructional phase includes data from her second
and third semantic maps, debriefing sessions, and two
sets of written reading definitions. This phase is re-
ported in three segments for greater clarity. Third,
the post instructional phase contains data from her last
semantic map and the second Proposition Inventory. The
' data are related to the instruction taking place during
the study and to the reading teacher educator's seman-
tic map and Proposition Inventory. At each phase the
data are analyzed by the criteria specified in Chapter
III. 'Interpretation of the data is made of Subject D's
conceptualization of reading instruction according to the
class and property relationships on a semantic map
(Johnson and Pearson, 1978), the learner's interaction
with the environment (Floden and Feiman, 1981), and ex-
pertgnovice studies (DeGroot, 1965: Cazden, 1976: Larkin,

1981). The three phases are summarized and discussed in

233

234
terms of the research questions.
Pre-instructional Phase

During the pre-instructional phase Subject D con-
structed a semantic map and took the Proposition Inven-
tory.

Semantic Map. Subject D's first semantic map in
September (see Figure D l) began with three general ed-
ucational definers -- "school," "classroom," and "our-
riculum." She called those the "large things." In the
middle were the definers "teacher" and "language arts."
”Strategy," "management," "goal," and ”objective" were
branched from "teacher." She emphasized that the teach-
er needs to maintain discipline. "Motivation" and "di-
rect instruction" were branched from "language arts."
Under "direct instruction" she listed seven definers
that she said were part of direct instruction, including
the "basal text" and "seat work." In a separate cate-
gory she included five definers "expectation," "monitor,"
"assess," "effectiveness," and "apply." When she dis-
cussed this group, it in essence became a teacher self-
evaluation category. She referred to those definers as
the "things the teacher needs to go back and look at how
and what she has taught and if it has not been effective."
She eliminated 21 definers (almost half) on the map. She
asked, "Do I have to try to use more of these (definers)?"
When it appeared that she was finished, she said, "I do

not know where to put them."

235

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[531.1013 131°" “Wiedsel m
borehensifl] Recess]
lamgmt] ]Professional] laumclfil
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IEYee readin—:9] Ere-anization] Si ht Words]
'Mfi] Content area ]I::struct]

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Pipure 01

Subject D-September Semantic Hap

236

Of the 23 definers which she used on the map, she
included 14 in her discussion. She talked about the de-
finers in the beginning general education hierarchy and
the teacher self-evaluation group in the context of sen-
tences. Subject D referred to the definers under "direct
instruction" as "different areas that the teacher has to
work in."

Thus, according to the criteria for analyzing seman-
tic maps, the shape of Subject D's initial map was hier-
archical and grouped. She eliminated almost half of the
definers. The map was similar to the reading teacher ed-
ucator's only that both began with a hierarchy of general
education definers.

Proposition Inventory. 0n Subject D's September
Proposition Inventory (see Table D 1) she did not rate
the basal text area. She indicated that she did not un-
derstand the term. Linear skills received a +6 net score.
She agreed with six out of the nine statements and rated
two others as neutral. She agreed with statements like,
"I believe that teachers should directly teach the basic
skills of reading to those pupils who need them." Her
rating of the interest area statements was -1. Six state-
ments received a neutral rating. One statement she did
not rate because she did not understand the term "higher
level comprehension process." The natural language area
received a net score of +1. She did not answer three of

the items because she did not understand the meaning of

237

Table D1 Subject D Proposition Inventories

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

SW
Degree of 6
Agreement ‘ I
l 2
. ‘1 A — ["I
Neutral )K I I
l
A B C D E
Degree of I .
Disagreement * no score: didn't know mean1ng of
basal text
March

Degree of
Agreement

I. I L,

2 1
Neutral , I 1
3
Degree of
Disagreement Y A B C D - E
Content Centered §tudent Centered
A-- Basal Text C - Interest .
B - Linear Skills D - Natural Language

(Content) E - Integrated Whole

238
"decoding skills" and "meaning cues." The remainder of
the items she either agreed with or rated as neutral.
The integrated whole area's net score was +2. She agreed
with four statements and rated three as neutral. She
agreed with statements such as, "I believe that the teachr
er's role is to involve pupils in realistic reading tasks
which illustrate the functional utility of reading."

Thus, Subject D rated the first Proposition Inven-
tory as being almost neutral in the student-centered com-
ponents -- interest (-l). natural language (+1), and the
integrated whole (+2). She agreed strongly in the con-
tent-centered component -- linear skills (+6). In compar-
ison with the reading teacher educator, she rated linear
skills higher and natural language and integrated whole
lower. The interest area ratings were comparable.

Summary. Subject D's pre-instructional map indicated
that she used a limited number of general education and
reading instruction definers. She held a stronger be-
lief in the content-centered component of reading than in
student-centered component on the Proposition Inventory.

Interpretation. Subject D's pre-instructional con-
ceptualization of reading instruction was a narrow and
sparse knowledge of general education classes related to
one group of reading instructional properties. The teach-
er's role was to "impose" upon the environment (student)
rather than to interact with it. On a novice-expert (low

to high knowledge) continuum, Subject D had a very low

239

knowledge of reading instruction. Thus, in the judg—
ment of the researcher, Subject D's preconceptualiza-
tion of reading instruction was a minimal but organized
knowledge structure stressing the teacher with a spe-
cific directive role in the instructional process of
reading.
Instruction Phase - Segment One

In the first eight weeks of instruction (Segment
One) Subject D attended reading methods and educational
psychology classes, took part in debriefing sessions after
implementing reading lessons with her tutee, and construc-
ted a second semantic map at the end of the segment.

Debriefing Sessions. Subject D had difficulty pre-
senting an appropriate balance of new material and pro-
viding enough practice when tutoring her student. This
balance was a major facet in the reading methods class.
During debriefing sessions Subject D made statements re-
garding her tutee,

I do not know, I did not know he would have so much

trouble. I was a little surprised I guess. I do not

know, he never ceases to amaze me I tell you. Be-

cause he never gets anything, he does not seem to.

I want him to do it really good.
Although she said, "We are going to have to stay with it
(referring to her instruction of new material) a little
longer." she proceeded to introduce another new strategy
during the next lesson.

The researcher discussed with Subject D the problem

of presenting too much new material and not providing

240

enough practice. The researcher also reminded her to get
evidence of the student's learning. Subject D exhibited
impatience and frustration and a desire to push on with
new material. When the researcher told her that her stu-
dent was unable to verbalize even one out of the three
strategies she had introduced to him, Subject D's response
was, "I probably should not even kept going. I thought we
had it six times. What am I going to have to do for six
days? Do it six more times?" Thus, incorporation of a
prominent instructional theme was not evidenced in Sub-
ject D's debriefing sessions.

Semantic Map. Subject D's November semantic map
(see Figure D 2) started out like September's but became
more branched and connected. The "teacher" became a focal
point with most other definers branching from or connecting
with "teacher." She used 27 definers compared with 23
the first time. Subject D now included "sight words,"
"strategy," "word analysis," and "prior knowledge." All
had been emphasized in reading class by this time. Other
definers included in reading instruction and in educa-
tional psychology such as,"goal," "task," and "monitor"
remained excluded from her map. Subject D added definers
only from reading methods class. She added closure to
this map by more explicitly showing the branching and
connection between the areas of "direct instruction,"
“management," and "motivation." She added the definer

"indirect instruction" to this map.

21+].

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Figure 02

 

 

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Indirect
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Subject D-November Semantic Map

 

242

The discussion for this map was in sentence form with
sequential connections such as,"the first thing" and "then
after." There was little detail or explanation. Even
though her map showed little physical similarity with the
reading teacher educator's. it was not inconsistent with
instruction.

Summary. During the first instructional phase Sub-
ject D's data showed some evidence of conceptual change
and incorporation of reading instruction in her map but
not in her debriefings. Her map became connected and
branched and included more definers. Incorporation of
educational psychology instruction was not apparent in
Subject D's map.

Interpretation. After eight weeks of instruction
Subject D conceptualized an organized but narrow knowl-
edge of general education classes related to both one
large and to two small groups of reading properties. The
teacher's role continued to be ”in charge" of the environ-
ment (student). On a novice-expert (low to high knowl-
edge) continuum it appeared that Subject D possessed a
moderately low-knowledge of reading instruction. Thus,
in the judgment of the researcher, Subject D's first in-
terim conceptualization of reading instruction increased
in knowledge but remained very structured and organized
with the teacher acting as the director of a specific
step-by-step approach to learning through the use of the

basal textbook.

243
Instructional Phase - Segment Two

In the next six weeks of instruction (Segment Two)
Subject D continued to participate in reading methods
class, ended the educational psychology class, began the
classroom organization and management class, and continued
to participate in debriefing sessions. After implementing
reading lessons with her tutee and with a reading group,
Subject D constructed a third semantic map at the end of
the segment.

Debriefing Sessions. In this segment the debriefing
sessions reflected management difficulties in Subject D's
reading group. During a debriefing session the researcher
asked Subject D what decisions she had made during her
lesson. She said, "I just shortened things. They (stu-
dents) seem to know them (vocabulary words). They knew
them enough to be 'smart alecks' about them." The re-
searcher suggested that perhaps this assessment was not
correct. Subject D had introduced the word "pause." A
student referred to it with the meaning of "paws." Sub-
ject D said. "She is just being a 'smart aleck.‘ I think
that she really knew. She is a smart little kid. I really
think she knew."

During the debriefing Subject D referred to the group
management with the following remark:

It makes me a little angry sometimes. I do not

have much patience at all. I was doing all of

the talking. Part of them were listening and

they probably knew it anyway. And the ones who
were not listening they could not even care.

 

2AA
Shortly before the end of this segment Subject D began
implementing methods presented in classroom management
instruction, and group behavior improved. She accom-
plished more reading instruction during each lesson.

Thus, during the debriefing sessions Subject D did
not exhibit incorporation of reading instruction, but she
did incorporate classroom management instruction.

Semantic Map. Subject D used three more definers
.in her February map (see Figure D 3) than in her previous
one. Most of the definers were listed or mentioned with
little verbalization between them. The connectors be-
tween definers were sequential like "first" and "then."

As on the other maps. she began this map with "classroom"
and "school" near the top. She included the definer "ed-
ucation" for the first time. Instead of having "diagno-
sis" and "direct instruction" as two branches from "teach-
er," she incorporated them along with "management" and
showed a relationship from "diagnosis" down to "direct
instruction." The strategies included in "direct instruc-
tion" related to "seat work" and "practice," then "free
reading," and finally to the areas she felt were included
in "success" -- "learning," "comprehension," and "flu-
ency." She again reiterated, "If you have not been suc-
cessful then you have to return and start over."

She eliminated the definer "basal text" for the first
time. It had been greatly emphasized during this segment

in reading instruction. She continued to eliminate

245

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mrganizatio—nl Readabilifl [Expectation]
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@nCEE' [fistrugfl [Etivityl

Figure D3 Subject D-Pebruary Semantic Map

246

definers stressed in educational psychology such as
"goal." She included definers like "management" which
were introduced in her classroom management class but
eliminated the definer "organization" that had been em-
phasized. The structure of the map did not exhibit in-
struction incorrectly but it omitted definers emphasized
in instruction.

Summary. During Segment Two Subject D did not ex-
hibit incorporation of reading instruction in debriefings.
The construction of her map remained connected and branched
exhibiting a structured organization of reading instruc-
tion.

lnterpretatign. After fourteen weeks of instruction
Subject D's conceptualization of reading instruction in-
creased in the knowledge of general education classes and
in relationships with reading instructional properties.
With more class and property relationships. the proper-
ties became less cohesive and grouped. Her view of the
teacher's interaction with the environment (student) c0n-
tinued to be one of "non-involvement." On a novice-expert
(low to-high knowledge continuum. it appeared that Sub-
ject D possessed a low moderate-knowledge of reading in-
struction. Thus, in the judgment Of the researcher. Sub-
ject D's second interim conceptualization of reading in-
struction increased in the relationships of her knowledge
rather than in the quantity of knowledge. At this time

she appeared to break out of the conceptual rigidity by

2h?
thinking about alternative approaches in the reading in-
structional process.
Instructional Phase - Segment Three

In the last instructional phase Subject D continued
to participate in reading methods class. the classroom
organization and management class. and the debriefing
sessions. She wrote a second set of reading definitions.

Debriefing Sessions. During a debriefing session
Subject D showed evidence of a misconception regarding
matching practice with the skill taught. She presented
the strategy for the sound of a word with double "ee's."
The practice involved words with "ee" and "ea" from the
aspect of a short and long "e" sound. The researcher
brought this to her attention. Subject D responded. "I
do not think there is anything wrong with this page."

The researcher reviewed reading methods instruction about
matching practice to instruction. Subject D offered
no response.

In another debriefing session the researcher reminded
Subject D to provide practice to evaluate whether learning
had taken place before presenting new material. The re-
searcher said, "You gave them (the students) the strategy
and went on immediately, assuming they knew it." Subject
D's response was:

Oh, I really screwed up really bad. This makes

me so mad. Like I spent so much time on that

and I thought everything was fine. Then I thought

practice and I was like racking my brain for a
long time. Oh, my brain was like all fumbled up

 

2u8'

and then today I went practice. practice: You

could do million of things for practice and it was

too late. I was so mad at myself because this is
all just ruined. I wasted all this time just for
nothing and it really makes me angry.

During another debriefing session the researcher
asked Subject D about the decisions she made and infor-
mation she processed during the lesson. Subject D said
she had seven examples prepared but used only four be-
cause they (the students) were ”getting the hang of it
and I did not want to get them bored." Then she said,

"It is bad that I did not make any other decisions."

In the last debriefing session the researcher asked
Subject D what information she processed. She said that
she was going to hand out two sheets of paper she had
prepared but then she thought there would be too much
"fumbling around" so she handed out only one. When asked
if she had processed any more information she said, "I
do not know, it is hard to think."1

Briefly, in this segment Subject D exhibited confu-
sion in presenting new material} providing practice, and
then evaluating in accordance with reading methods instruc—
tion. She also had difficulty matching practice to her in-
struction. She assumed that because of a lack of atten-
tion learning was present.

Reading Definitions. During this segment she wrote
the definitions for reading and reading instruction. Her

reading definition was as follows:

 

2h9

Reading is meaning-getting, first of all. It is

also enjoyable. The meaning-getting concept is

the most important. Children should see reading

everywhere not just in a 30 minute reading group.
This definition included two major reading methods themes.
Reading is: (l) meaning-getting and (2) enjoyable. She
also alluded to the "real-world" aspect of reading. Elab-
. oration, details. or examples were not given. Instead of
a strict definition of reading Subject D produced a para-
graph more closely associated with reading instruction.
Her definition of reading instruction follows:

Reading instruction should be focused on compre-

hension. Comprehension and enjoyment should be '

the goals of‘instruction. Instruction should

also focus on how reading is used in the real

world as well as other school subjects.

This definition included three major points: (1) compre-
hension, (2) enjoyment, and (3) real-world. All three
reflected the incorporation of reading methods.

Summary. In the last segment Subject D showed ev-
idence of confusion about major areas of reading instruc-
tion. She continued to exhibit confusion between instruc-
tion, practice and evaluation. Her definition of read-
ing did not define reading. The definition of reading
instruction contained concepts incorporated from reading
methods.

Post Instructional Phase
In March after twenty weeks of reading instruction

Subject D completed the Proposition Inventory again and

constructed a fourth semantic map.

250

Proposition Inventory. She rated the Proposition
Inventory (see Table D l, p.237) basal text area with a
net score of +2. She agreed with or was neutral in seven
out of nine statements. Linear skills had the highest
score (+5) of any other area. She agreed with seven state-
ments and was undecided in one. She agreed with state-
ments such as,"I believe that a significant part of a
teacher's time should be spent in teaching basic reading
skills." The interest area received the lowest score
(-3). She disagreed with or was neutral in eight out of
nine statements. She disagreed with statements like,"I
believe that reading is not difficult for most children
to learn if they are provided with stimulating and lively
materials to read." The natural language area had a net
score of +1. 'The statements in this area received mixed
ratings: 3 agree. 3 neutral, 2 disagree and l undecided.
The integrated whole rating was +4. She agreed with or
was neutral in eight statements. She agreed with state-
ments such as, "I believe that the teacher's role is to
involve pupils in realistic reading tasks which illus-
trate the functional utility of reading."

In essence. Subject D agreed with all areas but in-
terest. Linear skills received the highest rating. The
area of interest was rated as mildly disagreeable. Be-
tween September and March her ratings were not altered in
any one area by more than two points. Four statements in

March were rated as undecided. Each statement was from

251
a different area. No statements were rated as undecided
in September.

Thus, Subject D's March Proposition Inventory rat-
ing exhibited that change did not occur. The net num-
ber of points from her March inventory towards the read-
ing teacher's rating was three. Since undecided state-
ments appeared in four out of five areas, some general
confusion appeared evident.

Semantic Map. Subject D's last map (see Figure D 4)
included six more definers (36) than the previous one.

It began with a hierarchy with the same three general
terms: "education," "school," and "classroom." _Instead
of using "teaching" as a focus to begin more branching,
she used the definer "instruct" (one that she had elim-
inated on the previous map). "Instruct" was branched to
"diagnosis," "comprehension," "sight words," "seat work"
and then to a column headed "assess." She illustrated a
connection between the teacher "diagnosing" and "instruc-
ting" and then "monitoring." Under both groups of de-
finers headed "comprehension" and "sight words," she re-
ferred to both of the columns as "strategies." Again she
discussed reteaching if "assessing indicated that learning
did not take place." She did not explain the definers.
The major connections between definers were sequential
like "then" and "next."

When the researcher asked her if this last map was

different from the others, she said, "I do not think it

252

 

 

 

 

 

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is 10313 - ' (Comprehensiofl i ht words
[Pr' or Phon cs Eee reading

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V instruction
_"

  

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

A

 

 

 

[Organizatiofl 4

 

[Effectivenesg .

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Eliminated @

[Language Arts] |Expectation|
Eesdabilityi fiasld @eachi—n-gl

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text |

Figure Dd Subject D-March Semantic Map

 

 

 

 

 

 

253
is very much different at all. I know I started the same
way and ended the same way."

Summary. Subject D's post instructional data indi-
cated that on her map she had incorporated some, not all,
instruction. Her Proposition Inventory showed evidence of
little change, little incorporation of instructions, and
also revealed the presence of some confusions.

Interpretation. After twenty weeks of instruction
Subject D's conceptualization of reading instruction was
an organized and related knowledge of general education
classes which were integrated with four groups of read-
ing instructional properties. The teacher's role in the
environment (student) continued to be the assertive di-
rector. On a novice-expert (low to high knowledge) con-
tinuum it appeared that Subject D possessed a low moderate-
knowledge of reading instruction. Thus, in the judgment
of the researchen,Subject D's terminal conceptualization
of reading instruction reverted to a very structured and
organized knowledge framework stressing a rigid learning
instructional process controlled by the teacher. Concep-
tual integration, relatedness, or personal depth of thought
was not evident.

Summary of Data

Subject D's data offer mixed indications in regard
to change and incorporation of instruction. Even though
all four maps had the same basic hierarchical structure,

each successive map became more branched and connected with

 

25h
additional reading definers. This configuration indicat-
ed change and incorporation of instruction. However,
at the same time some definers presented in reading and
other instruction were omitted. Thus, more incorpora-
tion and change Were possible. The Proposition Inventory
did not show that change or incorporation of instruction
had occurred. Her March net ratings in all areas were
just three points closer to the reading teaching educa-
tor's than in September. She included several major in-
structional themes in her reading instruction definition,
but she did not specifically define reading. Her debrief-
ings exhibited confusion about reading methods instruction.
She did exhibit incorporation of classroom management in-
struction.

Thus, there was evidence to indicate that Subject D
changed and incorporated instruction, but there also was
-evidence which pointed to confusion, omission and a lim-
ited extent of change at the termination of the study.
Summary Interpretation

Subject D's conceptualization of reading instruction
began with sparse and narrow knowledge. Through a grad-
ual progression her conceptualization enlarged into a more
organized and related knowledge of general education classes
and groups of reading instructional properties. At the
termination of instruction her conceptualization was very
structured and did not appear to include any personal in-

terpretation. She never allowed the environment (student)

 

255
that assisted to promote improved behavior in
her reading group. Several times Subject D
commented to the researcher that she wished
the students in her reading group would sit
with their hands folded and listen to her. She
continued to say that she realized this attitude
was not realistic or the way it should be. She
appeared to be surprised when she implemented
procedures from classroom management instruc-
tion that they really helped. In the judgment
of the researcher, Subject D's greatest inhibitor
to change seemed to be her own resistance to
change, her attitude regarding the role of the
teacher and student, and her inability to relate
teacher education class instruction to each
other. As she said about her four maps, "I
started the same and ended the same."
Summary
This appendix presented the data gathered in this
study for Subject D. The primary data source was the
set of Subject D's semantic maps of reading instruction.
The secondary data sources included: (1) Proposition
Inventory (September and March), (2) reading debrief-
ing sessions, and (3) reading definitions for reading
and reading instruction (November and March). The data
were reported in three phases: (1) pre-instructional,

(2) instructional, and (3) post instructional. The data

 

256
were analyzed according to the three bodies of research
reported in Chapter II to answer the research questions
posed in this study.
In essence, Subject D's preconceptualization of
reading instruction and her subsequent conceptual change

was investigated during this reading study.

 

APPENDIX E
PROPOSITIONS ABOUT READING INSTRUCTION
MAY, 1978

I believe that pupil success in reading should be
determined by noting progress from easier basal
readers to harder basal readers.

A B C D E»

I believe that teachers should directly teach the
basic skills of reading to those pupils who need
them.

A B C D E
I believe that the best reading materials are those

which help children solve problems of importance to
them.

A B C D E

I believe that an important indicator of reading
growth is how often a pupil voluntarily uses read-
ing in his daily life.

A B C D E

I believe that contextual clues are the most impor-
tant word recognition aids and should receive more
instructional emphasis than sight words or phonics.

A B C D E
I believe that basal textbook materials are an im-
portant part of good instructional programs in read-
ing.

A B C D E

257

 

258

7. I believe that primary grade reading should empha-
51ze decoding skills more than comprehension.

A B C D E

8. I believe that reading success should be measured
primarily by noting how well the pupil uses his
reading ability for other classroom activities.

A B C D E

9. I believe that the teacher's role is to help chil-
dren learn to love reading by allowing frequent free
reading and by conducting individual book confer—
ences.

A B C D E

10. I believe that reading instruction should focus
heavily on comprehension, even at the beginning
stages of reading.

A B C D E

11. I believe that an important criteria for grouping
pupils is the level basal textbook each is able to
read.

A B . C D E

12. I believe that all children should be systematically
- taught to use phonics skills.

A B C D E

13. I believe that the goal of developing comprehension
is best achieved by giving pupils realistic reading
problems which they see as meaningful in their
lives.

A B C D E

1h. I believe that reading instruction should emphasize
the higher-level comprehension processes typically
found in good children's literature.

A B .C D E

15. I believe that a very important measure of reading
success is the degree to which pupils use reading
as a communication process.

A B C D E

 

16.

17.

18.

190

20.

21.

22.

23.

24.

259

I believe that considerable instructional time should
be devoted to conducting guided reading lessons us-

ing selections such as those found in basal text-
books.

A B C D E

I believe that a carefully structured skills guide
should be used when teaching reading to insure that
each separate skill is mastered.

A B C D E

I believe that reading groups should be formed as
the need for them arises and should be disbanded when
the need has been met.

A B C D E

I believe that we should spend less time teaching
pupils how to read and more time in getting him in-
terested in reading.

A B C D E

I believe that reading materials should help chil-
dren learn to read in a natural manner similar to
the way they learned to speak.

A B C D E

Children who have similar skill deficiencies should
be grouped together for instruction.

A B C D E

I believe that reading groups should be based on the
pupils' interests.

A B C D E

I believe that teachers should spend more instruc-
tional reading time on helping children use language
as a communication process.

A . B C D E

I believe that word recognition should emphasize the
new vocabulary words associated with each basal text
story.

A B C D E

 

 

250

26.

270

28.

29.

300

310

32.

33-

260

I believe that a significant part of a teacher's time
should be spent in teaching basic reading skills.

A B C D E

I believe that word recognition instruction should
not become more important than involving pupils in
real-life reading tasks.

A B C D E

I believe that comprehension should be taught by
asking questions about the basal text story being
read.

A B C D E

I believe that one effective way to determine pupil
reading success is to note how many skills he has
learned.

A B C D E

I believe that a significant amount of the instruc-
tional time in reading should be spent on purposeful,
real—life projects and activities which call for the
use of reading.

A B c D ' E
I believe that word recognition instruction is not

as important in reading as providing children with
stimulating, interesting materials to read.

A B C D E

I believe that if grouping is used, pupil assignment
to groups should reflect more emphasis on meaning
cues in reading.

A B C D E

I believe that the teacher's role in reading is to
assign pupils to appropriate basal materials and
direct them as they complete the material.

A B C D E

I believe that fewer children would have difficulty
learning to read if we stopped teaching reading dur-
ing self-contained reading periods, and, instead,
taught it as a part of all subjects.

A B C D E

 

3h.

35-

36.

38.

39.

40.

#1.

42.

261

I believe that children should be allowed to choose
the stories and books they want to read during the
regular reading period.

A B C D E

I believe that the teacher's role is to emphasize the
communication aspects of reading more than the skills.

A B C D E

I believe that a basal text should be used to teach
reading.

A B c D . E

I believe that reading is a difficult process which
must usually be taught in a step-by-step sequence if
we are to develop good readers.

A B C D E

I believe that the teacher's role is to involve pu—
pils in realistic reading tasks which illustrate the
functional utility of reading.

A B C D E

I believe that reading is not difficult for most
children to learn if they are provided with stimu-
lating and lively materials to read.

A ‘ B C D E

I believe that reading instruction should focus more
on the use of meaning cues and less on skill instruc-
tion.

A B C D E

I believe that I should spend equal amounts of time
with the low, middle, and high basal text groups.

A B C D E

I believe that reading is composed of a series of hi-
erarchical skills which must be taught sequentially
and then used in combination if one is to read suc-
cessfully.

t!)

A B C D

 

“'30

A“.

45.

262

I believe that reading instruction should be taught
so that pupils can use reading successfully in all
curricular areas.

A B C D E

I believe that reading would not be such a problem
today if we made greater efforts to interest chil-
dren in the reading of good children's literature.

A B C D E

I believe that too much emphasis is being placed on
skills (especially decoding skills) in reading pro-
grams today.

(I)

A B C D