AN EXPERQMENTAL STUDY AWLWNG NONnARISTOTELIAN PRINCFPLES IN THE MEASUREMENT OF ADJUSTMEN? AN?) MALADJUSTMENT Thesis fat the D39». of Ph. 0. MICHiGAN STATE COLLEGE Thomas M. Weiss 1954 . r'r ,--z:ny_s\ -; . ‘ K ”flew-r ‘ .u-ul',‘ ‘finEa‘w W \l \\\\\\W\W W “31/ X 321293 00697 4210 W \\\ w/ This is to certify that the thesis entitled AN EXELE:1§~«;:.I\'I‘2=.L STULY lite-FLYING hilt—IIJLISTCTQLIAN PELE‘TLJIPL'NS IN THE. EphhlelmeN'F 9F J'LDJUEJT..ZLLI£T A1211 llutlfilUJULJTHEIJT presented by Thomas ‘vie is s has been accepted towards fulfillment of the requirements for _ EELD degree inMn (Guidance) WW KM... Major prolgssor Date Jail 8L 195).; O~169 h ._, __- ___..——. .1 I H L . .~..--'-a - .. “‘3 . a. ‘39 .V I -. m.«.-t._ 5“}: = C5 -... .‘5. PLACE IN RETURN BOX to remove this checkout from your record. TO AVOID FINES return on or before date due. DATE DUE DATE DUE DATE DUE MSU Is An Affirmative AotiorVEquel Opportunity Institution omens ‘1’. ._ W." .F‘vtiv—w .rlnr-r-nz- L llnltln ill Copyright by Thomas Michael Weiss 1951i __ Vm— v- ’ AN EXPERIMENTAL STUDY APPLYING NON-ARISTOTELIAN PRINCIPLES IN THE MEASUREMENT OF ADJUSTMENT AND MALADJUSTMENT By Thomas M Weiss AN ABSTRACT Submitted to the School of Graduate Studies of Michigan State College of Agriculture and Applied Science in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Department of Guidance and Counselor Training Year 1954 Approvedr WM ¥IW {THESIS //’¢:",'SU, / THOMAS M. WEISS ABSTRACT Objectives The objectives of the study were as follows: To deveIOp a test which would discriminate between socially well-adjusted individ- uals and those poorly adjusted socially on the basis of the extent to which the "IS of identity" was used. The "15 of identity" was de- fined as any form of the verb "to be" used in such a way as to imply false-to-fact identity between class names and individual mem- bers of such classes. A one-hundred-item test was developed through three pilot studies, the reliability of which was found to be above 0.90 in each of the studies, and the test was found to discriminate consistently at the 0.01 probability level between high and low scorers. It was further shown in the pilot studies that students scoring high on the "IS of identity" test tended to receive high teacher ratings, and conversely, those scoring low on the test received low teacher rat- ingS. The pilot studies showed also that persons in institutions, as a group, scored considerably lower on the "IS of identity test" than did those not in institutions. Approximately two hundred persons were compared in the pilot studies. 341044 THOMAS M. WEISS ABSTRACT Proceding on the assumption that a valid, reliable instrument had been developed, the following objectives were attempted in the larger study: A. To determine whether persons in correctional institutions such as Boys Vocational School or Ionia State Reformatory differed significantly in the degree to which they used the "IS of identity," as compared with persons not institution- alized. B. To determine whether persons in secondary schools dif- fered in the extent to which they used the "15 of identity" and whether such variation could be associated with social adjustment as measured by teacher ratings. C. To determine whether age level, sex, church attendance or affiliation, and intelligence were factors which influenced the use of the "IS of identity." Sele ction of Sample A sample of 236 persons was randomly selected from the Larising High School pOpulation, and a sample of 280 persons was Selected at Boys Vocational School and Ionia State Reformatory. The 516 persons were tested with the "IS of identity" instrument. FOI‘ each of those tested both in and out of institutions, the follow- ing information was recorded: intelligence quotients, age, sex, re- ligious affiliation and church attendance, and self-rating. For A -5“ — ”A. _ -‘ '~‘ —_—_ 1* XLA> THC Lansing & corded. the mean: {allowing THOMAS M. WEISS ABSTRACT persons in Boys vocational School, Mooney Problem Check List scores and prognostic and diagnostic ratings were also recorded. For the Lansing High School population, composite teacher-ratings were re- corded. Me thodology To test whether or not there were significant differences in the means of the test scores for the various categories, the method of analysis of variance was used. The analysis was applied to the following categories: (1) age, (2) sex, (3) religious affiliation, (4) Church attendance, (5) self-ratings (the rating each testee gives him- Self with reSpect to his attitude toward people), (6) teacher-ratings (a composite rating given to each noninstitutional testee by two or more teachers with reSpect to social adjustment of the testee), (7) institutionalized versus noninstitutionalized. A correlation between test scores and intelligence quotients indicated that allowance should be made for the influence of the VaI‘iable I.Q. Therefore, for those cases where the analysis showed Significance, covariance adjustment was employed to‘eliminate the iI'lfluence of 1.0. A .‘ fig-“ ,_. .—,_i v # _—-—‘ ""v- t I“{\‘\‘~ .aLA‘-n THOMAS M. WEISS ABSTRACT Findings tween the means of the "IS of identity" test scores for the following categories: (1) age, (2) sex, (3) church attendance, (4) diagnostic or prognostic ratings (a composite rating assigned to each enrollee at B.V.S. by B.V.S. officials, indicating probable adjustment at the insti- tution), (5) self-ratings 102 (I am very careful in choosing my friends), 104 (I make no friends until they prove worthy of my friendship), 105 (I like and dislike about the same number of people). The analysis of variance showed giggificant differences between the means of the ”18 of identity" test scores for the following cate- gories: (1) church affiliation, (2) self-rating categories 101 (I like almost everyone) and 103 (I like more people than I dislike), (3) lie ac he r- rating 5 . When covariance adjustment was applied to self-rating 103 and religious affiliation categories, both showed nonsignificance. Self- rating category 101 and teacher-ratings remained highly significant. Analysis of variance with covariance adjustment showed highly iigpjfigari differencesbetween the means of the "IS of identity" test Scores for the category institutionalized versus noninstitutionalized. AN EXPERIMENTAL STUDY APPLYING NON-ARISTOTELIAN PRINCIPLES IN THE MEASUREMENT OF ADJUSTMENT AND MA LADJUSTMENT By THOMAS M. WEISS A THESIS Submitted to the School of Graduate Studies of Michigan State College of Agriculture and Applied Science in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Department of Guidance and Counselor Training 1954 ACKNOW LEDG MENTS The author wishes to express his sincere appreciation to Dr. Walter F. Johnson, under whose supervision this research was ini- tiated and completed, and whose constant assistance and encourage- ment will long be remembered. The writer is also greatly indebted to Doctors Harry Sundwall, Carl Gross, C. V. Millard, and Harry Scales for reading and criti- cizing the thesis in its several stages. Grateful acknowledgment is also due to Dr. Milton Rokeach, who, from the beginning, encouraged a continuation of the study; to Dr, Chester Lawson for his critical comments and suggestions; and to Doctors Harold Dahnke and William Baten for their invaluable assistance in the statistical t'reatrnent of the data. Many thanks are due Dr. Ernest Shelly for making available the data from the Boys Vocational School and for permitting the te Sting of the school's population. The author wishes also to thank the principalsat Eastern High School, Sexton High School, and Walter French Junior High School for permitting the testing of their schools' Populations, and eSpecially Miss Mildred Toogood, Mrs. Helen Cleveland, ii and Mr. Gary Fisher, for their persistant efforts in obtaining teacher ratings for each of the schools' testees. iii '— 5—. __ _.~_..—,_‘,_—-f—=, V N. 1.; B: W . ‘35 cpz. EXPQ TIE! Hlfiflh—‘D—‘A ii .Han‘De .- C C 3‘ S A r 3 Thomas M. Weiss Candidate for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy Date of Examination, July 8, 1954, 3:00 p.m., Conference Room, Department of Guidance and Counselor Training. Dissertation: An Experimental Study Applying Non-Aristotelian Prin- ciples in the Measurement of Adjustment and Maladjust- ment. Outline of Studie 5: Major subject: Guidance and Counseling. Minor subject: Educational Psychology, Administration. Biographical Items: Born, April 8, 1916, Georgetown, Colorado. Undergraduate studies: Denver University, Denver, Colorado. Michigan State College, East Lansing. Graduate Studies: Michigan State College, 1949-1954. Experience: Weather Observer, 1937-1939; Meteorologist, 1939-1941; Climatologist, 1941-1942; U. 5. Navy, Flight Forecaster, 1942- 1943; Theatre Manager, 1943-1945; Night Club Manager, 1945- 1947; Meteorologist, 1947-1948; Science teacher, 1949-1950; Graduate Assistant, 1950-1951; Guidance Director, 1951-1952; Graduate Assistant, 1952—1953; Instructor of Natural Science, 1953-1954, Member of Kappa Delta Pi, American Personnel and Guidance Asso- ciation, National Vocational Guidance Association, American College Personnel Association, Michigan Education Association, National Education Association, International Society for General Semantics, American Association of University Professors, American Association for the Advancement of Science, and National Research Science Teachers Association. iv To the honorable Ed C. Johnson, who made it possible AUTHOR'S NOTE When Galileo challenged Aristotle's law that heavy and light objects fell at the same rates, he was severely criticized by leading authorities. The fact that Galileo empirically demonstrated the fallacy of the "master" was denounced by many at that time. The moral is that while an authority may hold sway for great lengths of time, en- forcing Opinions which may be not in conformity with process reality, the soundest approach to "empirical truth" is founded in critical observation of natural phenomena. If one were writing a doctoral thesis in the Galilean days, a bibliographical item referring the reader to Aristotle would have had the effect of substantiating the statement included, whether or not it Conformed with processes in the real world. In pre-Einstein days a thesis writer could refer the reader t$0 Newton's laws or Euclid's axioms to validate his argument. But We now know that these laws and axioms hold strictly only for a hYpothetical "Euclidian Space," and it has been found that reality In addition, Can be described more exactly by non-Euclidian geometry. the writer might refer the reader to Dalton and his concept of vi indestructible atoms, yet today atoms are being destroyed, and this concept has been proved incorrect. Thus, the concepts that Aristotle, Newton, Euclid, or any au- thority prOposes are only tentative and subject to revision when empirical testing demonstrates such a need. For this reason, the present work relies much more heavily upon empirical evidence than it does upon authoritative statements. Chapter II, in particular, is deve10ped on this basis. The reader is presented a discussion of non-Aristotelian principles which is not solely dependent upon what some authority has said, but on the empirical evidence available to every human who uses language, and who is his own authority so far as evaluation is concerned. It is hoped that appeal to the individual's own exPeriences will make the material presented more meaningful, less cumbersome, albeit somewhat unorthodox. vii TABLE OF CONTENTS CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTION TO THE PROBLEM .......... Statement of the Problem ................ Assumptions of the Study ................ Null Hypotheses to be Tested by Analysis of Variance (with Covariance Adjustment as Required) ......................... Definition of Terms .................... Importance of the Study ................. Limitations of the Study ................. Plan of the Study ...................... II. A DISCUSSION OF NON-ARISTOTELIAN PRINCIPLES ........................... Previous Application of Non-Aristotelian Principles ........................... Other Related Research Not Based on Non-Aristotelian Principles ............... III. STATISTICAL DESIGN OF THE STUDY ........ Development of the Test Instrument Through Pilot Studies ................... Selection of the Sample .................. viii CHAPTER Collection of the Data ................... Procedures Used ...................... Reliability ......................... Validity ........................... Analysis of variance .................. Analysis of variance with covariance adjustment ......................... Correlational procedures ............... IV. ANALYSIS OF THE DATA .................. V. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS .............. The General Research Objective ........... Statement of the Problem--Specific Objectives . . Methodology .......................... Findings ............................ Conclusions .......................... Implications Arising from the Study ......... General implications .................. Specific implications .................. Suggestions for Further Research .......... APPENDIXES ................................ ix 42 42 43 43 43 45 72 72 73 74 75 76 78 78 78 80 TABLE II. III. IV. VI. VII. VIII. IX, XII, LIST OF TABLES Analysis of Variance--General Case ........... Eastern, Sexton, Walter French "IS of Identity" Test Scores--Classes (male and female) ....... Boys Vocational School "IS of Identity" Test Scores- -Classe 5 (age levels) ................ Ionia "15 of Identity" Test Scores-—Classes (age levels) ........................... Eastern "IS of Identity" Test Scores-- Classes (age levels) ...................... Sexton "IS of Identity" Test Scores-- Cla sse 3 (age levels) ...................... Walter French "IS of Identity" Test Scores - - Classe 3 (age levels) .................... Boys Vocational School "IS of Identity" Test Scores- -Classes (diagnostic ratings) ........... Boys Vocational School "18 of Identity" Test Scores--Classe s (prognostic ratings) .......... All Schools "IS of Identity" Test Scores-- Classes (Catholic, non-Catholic) ............. i. All Schools "18 of Identity" Test Scores-- Classes (church attendance, nonattendance) ...... All Schools Test Scores-~Classes (self- ratings, 101, 102, 103, 104, and 105) .......... Page 49 50 50 51 51 52 52 53 53 54 54 55 '1er ‘lss XVIII XIX. xx, ‘! XXII; TABLE Page XIII. "IS of Identity" Test Scores for Category 101 (classes ins and outs) .................. 56 XIV. "IS of Identity" Test Scores for Category 102 (classes ins and outS) .................. 56 XV. "15 of Identity" Test Scores for Category 103 (classes ins and outs) .................. 56 XVI. "IS of Identity" Test Scores for Category 104 (classes ins and outs) .................. 57 XVII. "15 of Identity" Test Scores for Category 105 (classes ins and outs) .................. 5'7 XVIII. Eastern High School "IS of Identity" Test Scores--Classes (teacher-ratings l, 2, 3, and 4) ................................ 58 XIX. Sexton High School "IS of Identity" Test Scores--Classes (teacher-ratings 1, 2, 3, and 4) ................................ 58 XX. Walter French Junior High School "IS of Identity" Test Scores--Classes (teacher- ratings 1, 2, 3, and 4) .................... 58 XXI. Three Schools, Composite "IS of Identity" Test Scores--Classes (teacher-ratings 1, 2, 3, and 4) ............................ 59 XXII. Correlation Between "IS of Identity" Test Scores and Teacher-Ratings at Eastern, Sexton, and Walter French Schools ........... 60 XXIII. Correlation Between 1.0. and "15 of Identity" Test Scores, All Groups ............ 61 xi TABLE Page XXIV. Correlation Between "IS of Identity" Test Scores and Mooney Scores at Boys Vocational School .................... 62 XXV. I.Q.--Classes (ins, .outS) ................... 63 XXVI. Setup for Analysis of Variance with Covariance Adjustment .................... 65 XXVII. Analysis of Variance (with covariance adjustment) and Test of Significance (Eastern) "IS of Identity" Test Scores --Classes (male, female) .................. 66 XXVIII. Analysis of Variance (with covariance adjustment) and Test of Significance. "IS of Identity" Test Scores--Classes (Catholic, non-Catholic) .................... 67 XXIX. Analysis of Variance (with covariance adjustment) and Test of Significance for Self-Rating Category 101. "18 of Identity" Test Scores--Classes (ins, outs) ...... 68 XXX. Analysis of Variance (with covariance adjustment) and Test of Significance for Self-Rating Category 103. Classes (ins, outs) ............................. 69 XXXI. Analysis of Variance (with covariance adjustment) and Test of Significance. "18 of Identity" Test Scores--Classes (teacher-ratings) ........................ 70 Xx)(II. Analysis of Variance (with covariance adjustment) and Test of Significance. "15 of Identity" Test Scores--Classes (ins, outS) ............................. 71 xii CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION TO THE PROBLEM Through the medium of language, an attempt is made to con- vey the thought of the scientist, the educator, the psychologist, the theologian, as well as the thought of the man in the street. If one is to learn about those things which he cannot experience at first hand, he must do so through the medium of language. Without this invention of the human Species future generations could not profit from the experiences of the past, nor present generations communi- cate through vast distances. Language is not the Special province 0f any one area of knowledge; it is utilized by every area. For this reason, research dealing with language itself must draw from many, Il’lany areas. Examples cannot be gleaned from dictionaries nor from te xts dealing with rhetoric, logic, or grammar alone; the reason for this being that the importance of language is not in the language but in what human beings do with it. When one deals with behavior of human beings, one is involved in the sciences which deal with that a5pect of nature and in the rec- c>gnized provinces of many Specialized sciences. Language, whether it be spoken or written, involves an organism utilizing certain organs. The organism uses muscles, nerves, and other tissues in the process. The nervous system can be divided for convenience into two chief parts, the higher and the lower. The higher nerve centers are those assigned by neurologists to the cortex of the brain. Since muscle and nerve tissue are involved in language it is a province of anatomy, and neurology. But reSponses to stimuli do not just happen, and do not move by an unknown means. The nerve current appears as an electrical impulse, and as such is related to the work of the physicist. That the ability to learn a language is inheritable only in the human Species relates it to the work of the geneticist. Man's ability through 1finguage to utilize the nervous system of other men relates it to the fields of administration and government. Certain "mental ills" including war-making and war-mongering are peculiar to the human Species, as are schizophrenia and paranoia, all of which indicate a rTlaladaptive use of language and which relate language to the work of the psychologist, the educator, the social worker, and others. It would seem, on the basis of empirical evidence, that those 111.5 which beset mankind, those which are peculiar to mankind, might be causally related to man's distinguishing characteristic--his ability to symbolize and reSpond to his symbols, namely his language ability (35:268). Many authors, including Malinowski (61), Mead (63), and Whorf (94), to name but a few, have shown that the way in which man inter- pre ts his world (reality) is a function of his language. "The language which man uses is determined for him by his culture and because in- dividuals within that culture talk fluently from early childhood each man believes himself to be an authority on the process." (95:230) Obviously, language is the chief media for communication among humans. This language and the structure of it has been handed down through the ages, incorporating the ideas of men about the Structure of their environment, both inside and outside their skins. Some of these ideas were correct; much was incorrect due to the 1ifl'lited knowledge early man had of his world. Through empirical testing much of the erroneous information has been corrected, but the Structure of the language has not changed greatly, and it is that struczture which does not correspond to empirical reality (35:115). Not knowing the part man's nervous system played when he observed s‘ornething in the real world, early man ascribed a property to a thing. He Saw a leaf and the physiological reaction which he experienced (col-Or) was given a label. He therefore, on the basis of his limited inf()I‘I'nation, and unaware of the part his eye, his optic nerve, and his brain played in the process (35:121-122), said, "The leaf i__s_green," describing the green as a property "possessed" by the leaf, The greenness, however, was a joint phenomena between that which was being observed and the observer. It is easier to understand this if one considers two persons describing caviar. One of them says, "Caviar Egood"; the other, "Caviar is bad"; and while both are talking about caviar, they are also talking about themselves. This ' 'is" which identifies the thing with the label or the property ("bad") with the object ("caviar") is called by general semanticists the "IS of identity." The discipline called general semantics (a discipline based on Scientific, non-Aristotelian principlesunot to be confused with seman- tics) is based on the premise that the structure of a language in which men eXpect to deal with and describe the "real world" around them should be similar to the structure of that "real world." Or, if that similarity of structure is lacking, the men who use the lan- guage should be aware of its limitations which can lead them into Pitfalls of misunderstanding and misevaluation. General semanticists POint to the "IS of identity" as one of these limitations. If its un- thiIlking use can lead to misevaluation and misunderstanding, then it may be both a precursor and a symptom of maladjustment. The problem may be one of structure, and if this be the case, the "IS of identity" may be one of the culprits. The question arose, however, as to how this hypothesis could be tested. The idea of preparing a paper-and-pencil test to attempt a measurement of the subject's use of the "18 of identity" and of comparing that measurement with the subject's social adjustment gradually advanced in the mind of this investigator. No paper-and- pencil test based on general semantics had been reported prior to the suggestion of this doctoral candidate (49) during his first com- mittee meeting, February, 1952. To date there is but one other. In March, 1952, Dr. Henry Peters, Chief Clinical Psychologist, Veterans Administration HOSpital, Little Rock, Arkansas, presented the results of a test designed to measure the degree of supraordi- nality and subordinality in the testee's thinldng (71). This he believed would indicate adjustment or maladjustment. The results of his test indicate that there is a definite positive correlation between supra- 0rdil’lal thinking and maladjustment. Although Dr. Peters' test at- ternPts to separate adjusted. and. maladjusted persons on the basis of Ianguage behavior, the test itself differs greatly from that which will be deveIOped and presented in this study. Both tests, however, are based on the principles suggested by Alfred Korzybski, as outlined in _S_cience and Sanity (41), and both attempt to measure the relation of an individual's language behavior to his social adjustment by paper- and-pencil means. This involves the physiological reSponse of the organism previously measurable only by chemico-electro-physical means. Statement of the Problem The purpose of this study is: £233, to attempt the construction of a paper-and-pencil test which will discriminate between those who habitually use the "15 of identity" and those who do not. S3219, to determine by comparing institutional and noninsti- tutional groups whether those institutionalized use the "IS of identity" ’0 a greater degree than do those not institutionalized. 1m, to determine whether among the noninstitutionalized Sample, differences in social adjustment are associated with differ- enCes in the degree to which they use the "IS of identity." Fourth, to determine whether age, sex, religion, or intelligence are * associated with differences in the extent to which the use of ”IS of identity" is employed. iillll‘l-li Assumptions of the Study 1. In reality there is no identity, no absolute sameness. 2. The "15 of identity" language pattern exists and is mea- surable. 3. Persons vary in the extent to which they use the "IS of identity." 4. A paper-and-pencil test can be constructed to measure the extent to which the "15 of identity" is employed. 5. Structure of reality as inferred from language differs from the structure in "reality." Null Hypotheses to be Tested by Analysis of Variance (with Covariance Adjustment as Required) 1. Different age groups do not differ in the use of the "15 0f identity." 2. Males and females do not differ in the use of the "IS of identity," 3. Persons of different intelligence levels do not differ in the use of the "IS of identity." 4. Persons with different social adjustment do not differ in the use of the "IS of identity." 5. Church attenders and nonattenders do not differ in the use of the "IS of identity." 6. Catholic and non-Catholic students do not differ in the use of the "IS of identity." 7. Students who rate themselves differently with reSpect to attitude toward people do not differ in the use of the "IS of identity." Definition of Te rms If he contend, as sometimes he will contend, that he has defined all his terms and proved all his propositions, then either he is a performer of logical miracles or he is an ass; and as you know logical miracles are impossible. [39:252.] The pilot study: "The pilot study" refers to the preliminary re Search, the results of which are not included in the analysis of the data, but which suggested the type of items and type of instrument l"UOSt promosing for the larger study. Adjusted individuals: "Adjusted individuals" are those whose behavior is sufficiently acceptable to others so that society has taken no aCtion to remove them from the "normal population." Of course, the re are degrees of adjustment within this group. 'Maladjusted individuals: Extreme cases are those whose be- havior has caused society to take action by separating them from the '1 rIt’l‘rnal population"; those in institutionS. Institution: "Institution" refers to corrective or penal estab~ li shments; namely, Boys Vocational School (B.V.S.) and Ionia State Reformatory. Testees from these institutions were called the in- group. Ijormal ROPulatign: The "normal population" consisted of the boys and girls attending public schools in Lansing, Michigan--the enrollees at Eastern and Sexton High Schools and at Walter French Junior High School--also called the out-group. Abstraiting: The process of selecting certain characteristics 0f "reality" and ignoring others is termed "abstracting." Fiction: "Fiction" refers to imaginings, occurrences in men's minds and not external to men’s minds. Verbalizations which cannot be verified in reality are "fiction." Laggliage: "Language" is the chief form of communication in hutrians; the symbolic process whereby one may talk about and think about an object whether it be present or not, once a symbol has been assigned to the object. Structure of lang_uage: "Structure of language" is described in tZel‘ms of its organization or the relationship among its parts; the nu”Tiber of its parts, which governs the degree of differentiation among things it affords the user; and its fluidity or rate of change in line with new knOwledge. :0 W in x: exists among entire ., , 1. g, on .1: CURVE! l «5 ter agree tiOns aflEr lest.. etfitu of V, .J l I I Set, 10 Reality: "Reality" refers to objects and processes in "nature" to which all organisms must adjust in order to survive; that which exists irreSpective of what man says about it. Structure of reality: "Structure of reality" is the relationship among the infinite variety of facts, events, objects, et cetera, in man's environment and within man himself, including facts, events, et cetera, on submicroscopic levels, characterized by continuous change. Communication: The attempt on the part of one person to convey some of the products of his own abstracting to another person i s termed "communication. " Defined terms: "Defined terms" are definitions by common a g reeme nt. Undefined termg: "Undefined terms" are unconscious assump- tions implicit in our language structure; terms that are still undefined after all other words in a definition have been defined. Self—rating: "Self—rating" is the testee's own appraisal of his attitude toward people. (The last five items in the "IS of identity" test--testees are asked to select the one which best describes their attitudes about pe0ple-) Semantic reactign: The physiological reSponse to the stimuli of Words, either Spoken by another or thought by the individual him- se If. is termed. "semantic reaction." Vi *"". ' 'bv‘F" ‘ "1.19 :1" i‘ 7:." --_—‘.-’ {Talk 11 Teacher ratirlg: A composite rating of several teachers of H“_ ‘—u— the social adjustment of an individual testee constitutes a "teacher rating." Diagnostic and prognostic rating: This term refers to a rating made by officials of B.V.S., of social adjustment of each enrollee. I_S of identity: The term "IS of identity" refers to any form of the verb "to be" which is used to ascribe a prOperty to a thing, process, or event, with lack of recognition that in so doing the part of the observer is ignored (34:121). Importance of the Study The whole task of psychotherapy is the task of dealing with a failure in communication. The emotionally maladjusted person, the "neurotic" is in difficulty first because communi- cation within himself has broken down, and second because as a result of this, communication with others has been damaged. [77:83] If this be true, then any and all techniques which have been or can be deve10ped to indicate the cause of such communication fali111-.re should afford a basis on which educators can build a com- 1”nu-I'lixation system less subject to such failure. Great efforts have been made in this direction, and with notable success. The whole area of group dynamics involves communication between people, but ’ if as Rogers says, "the maladjusted is in difficulty first because _ fi CORSET prove nize: i : half and -. 12 communication within himself has broken down," the need is for im— proved communication individually, first. Counselors and psychotherapists as well as psychiatrists at- tempt to do this, attempt to establish communication with those who ' 'are out of contact with reality." Each of these Specialists recog— nizes the language peculiarities of Special mentally disturbed persons, but in none of the literature outside the field of general semantics is there reference to the'possibility that confusion of levels of abstrac- tion or the habitual use of the "IS of identity" may be causative factors, although Katz (37) has evidenced interest in the problem and invites research. Here, then, is the chief importance of this study. DeSpite the faCt that since 1933 a wealth of literature has been written about the Subject of general semantics, no attempt has been made to objectively test its assumptions. In science, assumptions must be treated as assumptions until verified. The general semanticists have assumed the "IS of identity" to be a contributive factor toward maladjustment. This study is a beginning toward establishing the truth or falsity of that assumption. It is important, for if no evidence can be found to support this basic assumption, the remaining theoretical structure need 8 amending . 1r -i 5* {.4 lit it just. I. |.7 i f‘ x‘l ah. 13 The study is important further, in that if general semantics principles concerning the "15 of identity" and maladjustment are demonstrable, these may be applied by persons dealing with other human beings in a verbal relationship, It is recognized that these Principles are no "cure-all"; neither is penicillin, but, like penicillin, they can be utilized for those areas in which empirical evidence justifies their use. This study is in a new area of communication technique, little eX1310red except philosophically, and, it seems, at times wishfully. If it can contribute further understanding to the area of human re- 1ations it is important, and if it shows no such promise it is still important to the degree that at least the aSpect dealt with in this Stlldy need consume no other researcher's time or effort. Limitations of the Study The most serious limitation of this research lies in the fact that no instrument is now available against which to validate the test herein developed (492117). The Mooney problem check list was con- sidered as one possibility. However, since Mooney scores were available only at Boys Vocational School, their use as validating 14 criteria was restricted. Moreover, there is some question as to the validity of the Mooney check list itself. The second limitation of this research stems from the fact that the populations studied were restricted to the Lansing area, at least in-so-far as the out—group was concerned. Whatever generalizations may be drawn from the results must be handled with care and with full recognition that they are only indicative, and not to be considered final. in any sense. The in-group is more representative, since stu- dents at Boys Vocational School are admitted from all parts of the Sta te of Michigan. Nonetheless, a larger percentage of these boys are admitted from metropolitan areas, and are not necessarily truly representative of all Michigan areas. A third limitation, which this study shares with all other Pencil—and-paper tests, derives from the possibility of misinterpre- ta tion of instructions for taking the test. Although every effort was made always to administer the test in the same manner, with the Same oral instructions, and under similar environmental conditions, the individual conducting the test is necessarily "different" from one administration to the next, and may have inadvertently affected the results through unintentional differing emphasis from one group to anc)ther. V5133. ti m in" M: 3:6. D‘ 15 A fourth limitation of this research comes from the inequality of _t_e__achers' ratings. The final teacher rating for each testee is a mean of all the teacher ratings made for that testee. But one stu~ dent may have a "mean rating" which reflects ratings from ten or f more teachers, whereas another student may have a "mean rating' from but one teacher. Obviously, the student who is "known" by more teachers will have more ratings and will usually be the stu- dent at one or the other extreme of the adjustment scale. While these extremes are valuable in discriminating extremes, the in-between Students are equally important, and faulty rating of this group may re- duce the correlations found between the test herein developed and teEtcher ratings. A fifth limitation of this research is again concerned with ra ting, this time with the self-rag, that is, the evaluation by the Stlldent of himself with reSpect to his "attitude" toward other people. one cannot be sure that his self-rate actually reflects his attitude. Since he must indicate his name, it is possible that he may choose a I‘Ifiore socially acceptable self-rate rather than his true attitude towa rd peOple because of fear that someone in authority might frown u . . p011 his actual attitude. III-H: ' . ‘i-L‘,‘ r. ‘. - rm: . :L‘ Les: C's: 16 A sixth limitation of the study applies to the in-group. All in-group testees were male, and hence whatever difference may ap- pear between in-group and out-group is valid for males only, unless it is demonstrated that no differences attributable to sex differences exist. A seventh limitation of the study stems from the fact that all Students taking the test were advised that the results earned on this test were not to become a part of their records in the school or institution with which they were connected. This recognition, by the Student, of no personal gain or loss may have affected his approach to the test, and hence his score. An eighth limitation of the study is in the nature of the test itself. The items are extremely simple, deliberately $0.. This was in order to eliminate reading ability as a factor. All items are keyed falgae. The rationale for this is discussed in Chapter III. Care was taken that a pattern of reSponse could not be detected (except in rare cases), and several trial forms were used from eighth grade level to fifth year college level, which verified the fact that an all-false pa. ttern could not be discerned. Nonetheless, in the "rare cases" mentioned (and this has not been definitely established), some detec- t' Ion of the 311-false pattern may have occurred. i‘v all» Ex T. ,1 U DU”: 8 . U 56 17 Finally, the group in mental institutions, the most seriously maladjusted, was not tested. This group, in whOm communication failure is most complete, was left out of this experimental study be- cause of insufficient time, too few cases (of the prOper age group), and because of the obvious difficulties of administering the tests or even of getting permission to administer them. The results of this present research may indicate full justification for a more compre- hensive testing which could then include those in mental hOSpitalS. Plan of the Study The following chapter (11) is devoted to a discussion of general Semantics as a framework within which the test itself was developed. While this chapter cannot be considered a review of the literature, it does, to a degree, fulfill this purpose. As indicated earlier, at the time this research was begun no paper-and~pencil test designed to measure adjustment-maladjustment in terms of misevaluations, pa“rt—icularly through the habitual use of the "18 of identitY“ was availélble, and hence, no literature is available to "review." However, the area of general semantics is relatively new, crystalizing with KorZYbski's §£i_e_nce and Sanity in 1933, and while gaining recognition a . . . nd ITiementum with each passing year, should be rev1ewed in this “it Ti in“: it . a .u T. it , x 6 1% a if C - Q {hf oi 18 chapter to clarify and make meaningful the purpose of the test. In addition to a brief summary of general semantics philosophy, some mention is made of the relation of this philosophy to rigidity as investigated by Rokeach and others. Chapter III involves a discussion of the statistical design, the procedures used, the reasoning employed in justifying these pro- cedures, a discussion of the sample and its representativeness, the development of the instrument, the pilot studies, the collection of the data, the teacher-rating scale, and the reasoning behind a self-rating scale, Chapter IV includes a presentation of the data collected, and the statistical treatment of the data, including item analysis, relia- bility and validity tests, analysis of variance, and analysis of variance With covariance adjustment. Chapter V will be devoted to a discussion of the significance 0f the findings, the conclusions that seem justified, the implications, the Shlggestions for further research, and suggestions for the applica- tion of the findings to educational processes in general. Following Chapter V is a selected bibliography, including only those references which are pertinent to the present work, particularly th Ose needed for the development of Chapter II. CHAPTER II A DISCUSSION OF NON—ARISTOTELIAN PRINCIPLES Whenever general semantics or nonvAristotelian principles are mentioned, there are some who immediately react as if an attack has been made upon the great founder of logic, Aristotle. Actually none, at least insofar as this investigator is aware, of those who uphold general semantics principles attempt to cast any reflection upon AriStotle's contribution to the world's knowledge, or method. It is Perfectly obviouS, however, that the state of science in Aristotle's day was rudimentary, to say the least. The inferences which could be drawn from process reality were limited because of the limited inf-0 rmation man had of his world. All sciences make use of logic, but, logic only guarantees consistency, it does not guarantee accuracy (35 : 317). If the assumptions accepted are ill founded, it matters little how consistent or logical the reasoning; the conclusions may be in Corltradiction to empirically demonstrated "reality." Quite frequently when papers on general semantics are pre- Sented, Aristotelian phiIOSOphers want to "debate" the issues, the Innplication being that by "right reason" (applying Aristotle's laws of 19 20 thought), process reality can be handled in the same manner as words. It would seem that such individuals confuse the laws of Aristotle with the laws of nature: "the world even today is more Aristotelian than we sometimes like to think" (23:65). Johnson illustrates the point when he says: As so many psychiatrists have observed, there is, gener- ally Speaking, nothing illogical about the paranoiac. If you accept the assumptions he accepts, you will have to agree that most of his remarks, and you will grant that most of his actions, follow quite logically, indeed, from these assumptions . . . you cannot argue a paranoiac out of his delusions. By arguing, you stimu- late him to "reason" and by "reasoning" he makes his delusions the more wonderful. Paranoiacs quite often exhibit a verbal brilliance, and thus they illustrate dramatically the danger in- volved in verbal brilliance, as such, wherever it may be found. There is an old saying that it takes brains to go crazy . not everyone could ”think up those things." [35:317-318] Quite frequently, also, the terms “general semantics" and "Semantics" are used as if they were one and the same. The dis- tifie tion is an important one. Semantics is the science concerned with E‘j‘eaning; general semantics is concerned with the effect of language on an organism-in-an-environment. Semantics was not new in 1933; general semantics was, Anatol Rapoport (74:13) credits Alfred Korzybski with "crystalizing the work of the semanticists into a ’science’ " which has had "direct impact, at least in this country, on a far wider range of PeOple than the work of the philosopher-semanticists." Such basic 21 ideas as the propositionaljunction, the predictive va_lue as a criterion of truth, and the theory of LXPEE: were proposed and used by semanti- _— “—— cists long before Korzybski, and are evident in the works of Bertrand Russell and Ernst Mach. These ideas are not necessarily non-Aristo— telian, and, while not original with Korzybski, were used by him in conjunction with his non-Aristotelian postulates, or principles. Basically, the three fundamental principles of the non-Aristo- te lian system are: (l) the principle of nonidentity, (2) the principle of nonallness, (3) the principle of self-reflexiveness, The first principle can be simply stated as: "The word is not the thing it represents.H This is often explained by the analogy, "The map is not the territory." This seems so obvious as to be ridiculous until one reflects that a person's mental picture of reality is like a "map" of a "territory." If the person acts as though his PiCture (in his mind) is a complete and true picture of the reality (outside his mind), he is forgetting that there may be many small face‘ls of reality which he is completely overlooking or unaware of, just as many small features must be omitted from the most complete map, Only the large-scale features can be "abstracted" from the territory and recorded on the map. To prepare for a trip with the f . irm COnViction that Chicago is only 18 inches from San FranCISCO 22 would be considered childish at mildest. But is this so different from the student who refuses to attempt the study of mathematics because‘he "knows" mathematics is "too hard" (his "map" of the "territory" of mathematics)? As Rapaport puts it, "to say the word is not the thing it signifies is not just to indicate the obvious. It is to draw attention to a fundamental inadequacy of human behavior and to trace this inadequacy to the interaction of nervous systems with language." (74:19) Korzybski's findings, as well as findings by numerous psycholo- gists and psychiatrists, indicate that peOple do behave a_§___i£ they iden- tified words with things (74:19). By identification one does not neces- sarily mean equated verbally. Most individuals will agree that the words "Catholic" and "Mr. Jones," to whom the labels are attached, are not the same; but many people, in evaluating Mr. Jones, react to the label rather than to Mr. Jones. This also illustrates the Principle of nonallness. When you say that Mr. Jones is a Catholic you haVe not said _a_l_l_ about Mr. Jones. Since Principle (1) and Principle (2) are interconnected, both have been covered in the above discussion. Principle (3), self—reflex- iveness’ in terms of human behavior simply implies that one may r , . eact to the world, then react to his reaction, then to the reactions in' 311‘ {III- ‘I b- 3 - .m « .LJ-H‘L if ‘3‘ '4- 23 of higher order, et cetera. In this relation, the example is given by Rap0port (74:20) of the man who, being rejected for a job, labeled the situation, "I am a failure," and reacted to the label "failure" in ways far removed from an effective remedy of the situation, which was joblessness. Since non-Aristotelian and/or general semantics principles are adequately discussed in many source books, it is unnecessary to enlarge further upon them in the present work. However, non- Aristotelian orientations arising from them are paralleled with the old Aristotelian orientations for the convenience of any who may not be familiar with them (40:xx-xxii): New General Semantic Non- Old A ist t H. O i tati S r o e an r en on Aristotelian Orientations (Circa 350 B.C.) (1941 A.D.) \ subject-predicate methods Relational methods Symmetrical relations, inade- Asymmetrical relations, indiSpen- quate for proper evaluation sable for proper evaluation 931$, "W," "perma- M, ever-changing, etc., nent, ' ' "substance," "solid electronic process orientations matter," etc., orientations H Properties" of "substance, " Relative invariance of function, nattributes H "qualities" of dynamic structure, etc. ”,matter " etc. \ 24 Aristotelian Orientations Two-valued, "either-or," inflex- ible, dogmatic orientations Static, finalistic "allness"; finite number of character- istics attitudes By definition "absolute same- ness in 'all' respects" (' 'identity") Two-valued "ce rtainty, " etc. By definition "absolute empti- ne as," "absolute space," etc. By definiggn "absolute time" By definition "absolute simul- taneity" Additive ("and"), linear (3 + l)-dimensional "Space" and "time" E 11c lidean sy stem ' 'Sense" data predominant Ma. c roscopic and microscopic 1eVels Methods of magic (self- deception) \ Non-A ri stote lian Orienta tions Infinite —valued flexibility, degree orientations Dynamic nonallness; infinite num- ber of characteristics attitudes Empirical nonidentity, a natural law as universal as gravitation Infinite-valued maximum probability Emirical fullness of electromag- netic, gravitational, etc., fields Emji rical space - time Ernpi rical relative simultaneity Functional, nonlinear 4 -dimensional Space - time Non-Euclidean systems Inferential data as fundamental new factors Submicrosc0pic levels ‘— Elimination of self-deception 25 A ri stotelian Orientations Fibers, neurons, etc., "object- ive" orientations Eventual "organism-as-a- whole," disregarding environ- mental factors Elementalistic structure of language and orientations "Emotion" and "intellect," etc. ' 'Body" and "mind," etc. Tendency to Split "person— ality" Influencing toward unsanity Avoiding empirical paradoxes Primitive static "science" (religions) Eonsimilarity of structure be tween language and facts Improper evaluations, resulting in: Impaired predictability E{letltlentalistig verbal, inten- Slonal "meaning," or still w . I orse’ "meaning of meaning" Antichiated \ Non-A ristotelian Orientations Electrocolloidal process orienta - tions Organism-as—a-whole-in- environments, introducing new unavoidable factors Nonelementalistic stiructure of language and orientations Semantic reactions Psychosomatic integration Integrating "pe rsonality" Influencing toward sanity Facing empirical paradoxes Modern dynamic "religions" (science) Similarity of structure between language and facts Proper evaluations, tested by: Maximum predictability Nonelementalistic, extensional, by fact evaluations Modern, 1954 tit): 01‘ 01' .HAEJ‘U‘ . H. i ei 26 As the reader can see, the so-called Non-Aristotelian Orienta- tions do differ markedly, and whether one is in agreement with them or not, they provoke thought. This experimental study was formulated on the basis of gen- eral semantics principles, and was further stimulated by Lee's state- ment (49:11?) that "No validated test--paper and pencil, behavioral or clinical--is now available by which to describe the varieties of misevaluations by statistical or other reliable objective means for either diagnostic or prognostic purposes." Since the publication of this article, only Peters' test (71:37-45) has appeared in the litera- ture. However, in Spite of the fact that only rational (not corrobor- ated by statistical tests) arguments are presented by general seman- ticists, their principles have influenced the work of reSponsible authorities in many fields, including science, education, counseling, PSYChology, and psychiatry. The following references will indicate the extent. Previous Application of Non-Aristotelian Principles In the area of communication, Hayakawa (27, 28, 29, 30), La Brant (44),, Leary (45), McCrimmon (59), Chisholm (20). Murray (65. 66)’ and Johnson (32, 33, 36), show how general semantics principles. rec: €7.51 clie .‘J p“ st 011i CE 27 may be applied. In the area of counseling, Lindgren (522229—233) recommends general semantics "as a counseling tool because it enables the counselor to become a more effective agent to help the ; Camp (13: client to use his own resources in achieving adjustment" 511) concludes, "it is possible to train children in the premises and principles of general semantics and to retrain adolescents and adults once they have developed faulty language attitudes and habits." Murray (66), Spriesterbach (86), and Yorke (97) elaborate on these tOpics. In the area of human relations, MacGowan (60), Berrien (5), and Roethlisberger (75) appraise the value of semantic training. The authors of Naval Leadership (90;3) say in their opening paragraph, ' 'The naval officer, if he will invest the effort necessary to under- stand scientific principles and to learn a few of the scientists' skills, Can become a more effective handler of men"; Cabot and Kuhl (12: 306) note occasions when "one confuses the past situation, the words and the feeling within one. A study in elementary semantics helps to overcome this tendency and aids in viewing the world more Clea-I‘1y." In the area of law, Burrell (ll) argues for a new approach to the problem of "willful and wanton misconduct." Loevinger (53: 51) notes that "a long line of distinguished writers from Arnold to Burnham, have pointed out the need for a discipline of legal semantics 28 . it is time to insist that the garrulous goddess begin to talk sense." Pearson (70:19) says, "it seems to me fair to hold out general semantics as a useful means of orientation in the law, a means calculated to dissipate verbalistic pitfalls and furnish a tech- nique of analysis and solution of legal problems generally." In pSychotherapy, Frohman (26) sees general semantics utilized as an auxiliary to psychotherapy; Campbell (14:129) believes "these meth- ods do not replace other psychotherapeutic procedures as much as they supplement and sharpen them," and continues, "as an educational technique, even in schiZOphrenics, it materially shortens the length of treatment, and, to judge from several years of experience, produces more lasting results in terms of independence, plasticity, etc." Lynn (5 7) discusses the treatment of alcoholism by general semantics teChniques. Campbell treated one hundred cases of verbal obsession- ism and seven thousand cases of traumatic neurosis in soldiers in hospitals in the EurOpean Theatre between 1943 and 1945. Thorne (88:388) writes, "From our vieWpoint, it is possible to regard the Whole process of case handling as an exercise in general semantics. This concept is particularly useful to all the methods which seek to 11hpli'Ove intellectual resOurces. One of the functions of per- sonality counseling is to give the patient a semantic overhauling." 29 In the area of speech correction, Johnson (34) discusses the stutterer from the point of view of general semantics; Brown (9) presents some of the identifications which occur in the neurosemantic processes of Stutterers and "how they operate to influence those evaluations of which stuttering may be the observable manifestation." Newton (68), in the area of teaching, found in Korzybski's material, a solid basis for a twentieth century attitude toward the creative arts and utilized it in his lectures and discussions in architecture, landscape archi- tecture, and city planning at the Harvard Graduate School of Design. Loomis (55) built a course in embryology at the Massachusetts Insti- tute of Technology along consciously non-Aristotelian lines. McNealy (62:13?) saw general semantics "as an aid. in acquiring the inductive approach" in classroom teaching of medical students; English (25), in describing his course in the University of Missouri School of Jour- naliSm, says, "The formulations of general semantics can serve as the basic structure for understanding and synthesizing the vast amount of communications data which we have already and which will beCOme increasingly complex as more and more information is derived." Roe thlisberger (75:96-101) deals with general semantics principles in his Human Relations program in the Harvard University Graduate School; and says, "the biggest block to personal communications is 3O man's inability to listen intelligently, understandingly, and skillfully to another person. This deficiency in the modern world is wideSpread anti appalling. In our universities as well as elsewhere, too little is being done about it." Hayakawa (28) discusses meaning, symbols, and levels of abstraction in applying general semantics principles in social psychology; RapOport (73), finds general semantics principles 6: ssential in teaching information theory, physics, and mathematical biology, and says of the founder of this empirical science (74:133), "Korzybski was the precursor of an intellectual revolution which is just now beginning and which promises to match that of the Renais- Sance,” Other Related Research Not Based on Non-Aristotelian Principles From another orientation and in less conventional research, the work of Rokeach (79, 80, 31, 32), Tolman (89), and 5010mm“ (85) purport to measure factors which influence behavior. These three have contributed much significant information to personality theory and t0 the understanding of human behavior, especially as it applies to behavior designated by them as authoritarian or democratiC. Whe reas the emphasis in the present study is on the role of lan- guage’ these authors do not suggest that language, per se, eSpecially lEClBE 3f de 31 the "IS of identity," are contributing factors in the development of "personality types." The results of this study might suggest the inclusion of language in further research related to the development of democratic or authoritarian "personalities." CHAPTER III STATISTICAL DESIGN OF THE STUDY Development of the Test Instrument Through Pilot Studies As pointed out previously, scientists develop "theories" on the basis of empirical data. The theory itself is a high-level gen- eralization aimed at explaining and predicting observable phenomena in the "real" world. Obviously, much that a theory includes is based on inference. The inferences, however, are inferred from reality, in other words from happenings "outside" the observer. So it is with the present study. This investigator, since his decision in 1951 to study language as it relates to behavior, has been observing, recording, and analyz- ' l . . lug the language behavior of a variety of people. This has nece551- tated an appraisal of their overt behavior and is necessarily subjective. Ho"""ever, this should not be interpreted as "mere Opinion" since no \ l . . . . . The investlgator has been engaged in teaching, guidance, or s . . . - upeI‘vision continuously since this research began, and has been in a . . . . . p081tion to observe the same 1nd1v1duals over a relatively long Pei-10d of time. 32 33 judgments, as such, were made. The behavior observed was the physiological reaction, such as blushing, trembling, stuttering, fighting, withdrawal (nonparticipation), et cetera, With these as physiological evidence (inferred, of course), a record of the language used by those displaying such bodily responses was kept, along with a similar rec- ord for those persons who, at no time during the relationships with the investigator, diSplayed such reactions. After a year of such ob- Se rvation, a comparison was made between the language used by the Persons who diSplayed overt physiological reactions and that used by those who did not. In the opinion of the investigator, there was a Sound basis for inferring that a difference did exist between the two language behaviors. In the former there seemed to be a much greatter use of the "IS of identity," a much greater degree of "over- gene ralization," a much more frequent confusing of the levels of abstraction. To put it more simply, those who displayed a bodily reaction were, on the basis of empirical evidence, less conscious of the role language was playing in the physiological response of their . orgaI‘lisms. This is not to say that such reactions did not occur in the IEitter group, ’simply that they occurred less noticeably, from whlch one can infer that the internal tensions were less. 34 If the inferences drawn from the happenings outside the skin of this observer were correct--if, in fact, there was a connection between the language and the behavior pattern, it should be measur- able by some type of instrument Specifically developed for such use. The instrument, this investigator believed, again basing his be lief on the types of language behavior used by those individuals Whom he had observed, should be simple, for the reason that the Physiological reactions of the observed seemed to develop as often from simple remarks and statements as from more complex ones. E‘111'ther, since it would be desirable to test several age and intelli- gence groups, the test should not involve "reading ability" nor "intelligence." While, quite probably, the use of the "IS of iden— tit)" ' and confusion of levels of abstraction occur more frequently in more involved language (such as political Speeches, propaganda, and religious literature), from an educator's standpoint it seems more irnpOrtant to determinezl (I) if this habitual tendency is contained in less involved language; (2) if, perhaps, such a reaction to language is itTiplicit in the language itself; and (3) if such a reaction may be deliberately taught. Assuming, on the basis of empirical evidence, that in process reality there is no excluded middle, which is in contrast to Aristotle's 35 law, it is apparent that there is no "true" nor "false" statement, in the absolute sense. "True" and "false" are evaluations or judg- ments, which occur "inside the skin" of the observer. Even scien- tific "truths" are tentative, "true" only to a degree, "true" only so far as is known. For example, "matter cannot be created nor destroyed" was a scientific "truth" which was justified on an em- pirical basis, true only so far as was known in 1900. It is not " true" in 1954, as nuclear physicists have demonstrated (43:667). If, then, no absolute "truth" can be found in reality, on what basis is a. true-false test adOpted for this study? It would seem that measurement of the tendency to operate in an either-or, two-valued manner could be accomplished by forcing the testee to react to an evaluation, judgment, or 133E933 on a true-false instrument, in which a false reSponse was the only empirically sound basis for diSplaying lack of identity, lack of an either-or orientation, and an awareness 0f 1e vels of abstraction, and on which a true reSponse would indicate the Opposite types of language behavior. Whether this reasoning was correct or not is resolved by demonstration rather than argumentation. A fifty-item test (true-false) was therefore developed, with full aWareness of the "pitfalls" as outlined by Adkins (2), but with r I I O ecogl‘lition that the difficulties inherent in thlS type of reSponse on 36 the "usual" test do not apply since the test is aimed at discovering whether the testee is aware that there is no "absolute standard of truth." The instructions required a "false" answer to all items that were NOT ALWAYS true. Since, as has been seen, in process reality there is no "allness" and "no identity" there can be no ' 'always true" reSponse; that is, there cannot be in the world out- side our skins. All fifty items, then, on an empirical, true-to-fact basis, must be marked false. But, an all-false pattern might be discerned by the "intelligent" testee. This, however, is a generali- zation that fits many true-false tests, but which may not fit "all" true -false tests. Whether such a pattern could be discerned needed to be shown rather than forecast. Fifty students were selected "at random" from the Eaton Rapids high school body--twenty-five boys and twenty-five girls. The "social behavior" of each student was rated by three teachers, the Students were administered the test, and a simple correlation bet-"Veen social behavior and rating on the test was run. The corre- lation was +0.47. The correlation between 1.0. and test score showed +0’03. These results seemed to indicate that whatever the test mea- sured, it was more closely related to adjustment to society than it Was to intelligence, and further seemed to indicate that an "all-false 37 pattern" could not be discerned any better by those with high 1.0. than by those with lower I.Q. Obviously, fifty students is too few on which to make a generalization with much certainty. An item analysis was made, and from the original fifty items, the thirty-five which showed highest discriminative value were re- tained and fifteen new items added. The new test was then given to fifty additional students. Approximately the same results were Obtained. On the suggestion of Doctor Harry Sundwall,1 the test was administered to a group of graduate students enrolled in Education 5 10, fall term, 1952. This testing substantiated the fact that an all—false pattern could not be detected by those particular graduate- level students, or at least provided no evidence that such a pattern Was detected. The test was next administered to one hundred enrollees at BOYS Vocational School in Lansing, Michigan. At this institution, in addition to 1.0. scores, Mooney Problem Check List Scores were available, as well as diagnostic and prognostic rating scores. (The 1atiter are composite psychological ratings assigned each boy by psy- chologists, social workers, and teachers at B.V.S.) It was assumed _ A member of the graduate faculty in educational psychology a . t 1VIlchigan State College. 3.”. Ell”. E hall-c .' . .. 4“. 1.14.1. lust . in!“ 38 that a check of validity might be made by correlating scores earned on the "IS of identity" test with Mooney check list scores and with diagnostic-prognostic ratings. The correlations obtained again showed a very slight nonsignificant positive correlation (0.013) between 1.0. and "IS of identity" test scores, and a correlation between Mooney and "IS of identity" test scores significant at the 0.10 level. Cor- relation with diagnostic and with prognostic ratings was not signifi— cant. These correlations were not sufficiently high to justify a larger study in and of themselves; however, the obvious difference between in-group means and out-group means plus empirical evidence that. the two groups did in fact use the "IS of identity" in different degrees, suggested the probability that if the sample were increased, the procedure standardized, and the items refined, such a test might Well distinguish between groups who had adjusted differently to society. Selection of the Sample After consultation with the guidance committee, the sample a greed upon was: Approximately 250 individuals in correctional institutions. Approximately 250 individuals in Lansing Public High Schools. 39 Approximately equal numbers of boys and girls in the noninstitutionalized group. Randomness was assured in the out—group by selection of in- dividuals within schools and grades after having assigned each mem- ber of the school a number and then selecting the sample from the 'total population by use of a table of random numbers. At Boys Vocational School the total school population was tested at one time. At Ionia, the representativeness of the sample used in the study could not be established, because the sample was chosen by the warden, on the basis, probably, of that which was most expedient for him. Collection of the Data On the standard IBM scoring sheet the following data were entered by the testee: (1) age, (2) sex, (3) church attendance, (4) church affiliation, (5) self-A-rate.l In addition to this, the test ad- ministrator entered: (l) I.Q. score, (2) score earned on the test (these two items for all schools), (3) Mooney scores, (4) diagnostic 1 As defined in Chapter I. 40 ratings (these latter for testees at Boys Vocational School only), and (5) teacher-rating (for public school testees). The teacher-rating was made in the following manner: Lists of the testees were supplied to each "home room" teacher with the request to rate each student he knew on a scale from 1 to 5. This correSponded to adjective ratings: (1) very well adjusted socially, (2) well adjusted socially, (3) adequately adjusted socially, (4) poorly adjusted socially, and (5) very poorly adjusted socially. (One student was rated 5 by one teacher, so the category 5 was not used in the analysis of the data.) After all ratings were made, a "mean" was determined for each testee. As pointed out earlier, some of these "means" reflect ratings by only one or two teachers, while others reflect ten or more teachers' judgments. In Spite of this, it was felt that the use of a "mean" for the final teacher-rating score would tend to eliminate the possibility of teacher-bias in this subjective rating. Following the one hundred test items on the test sheet are five statements of attitude intended to elicit from the testee his personal judgment of his feelings toward other people. Since adjust- ment is a "getting along with pe0ple," it was felt that attitudes indi- cating a hostility toward or distrust of others should also indicate 41 more or less maladjustment in the individual manifesting these atti- tudes. A comparison between the test score and the attitude evidenced by the testee might then shed some light on whether or not the sub- ject rated by the former as maladjusted reflected that rating in his own judgment of his feelings toward society. Consistency between the two scores would tend to buttre'ss the validity of each of them. However, we are here confronted with the problem common to all tests dealing with attitudes or self-judgment: whether the testee will show his "true" attitude or one (to his mind) more so- cially acceptable. How to eliminate the possibility of conscious "cheating" to produce an impression deemed desirable by the testee has never been satisfactorily determined. Therefore, inconsistency between the two ratings (test score and self-rating) need not imply lack of differentiation by the test. In spite of this objection, it was decided to include the five self-rating statements, not making any distinction between them and the one hundred test items by heading, new numbering, or even a Space. Immediately after testing a group, the papers were scored and all information entered and checked in a table of raw data (see Appendix). 42 Procedure 5 U sed Reliability. Reliability was determined by first making an item analysis. This permitted equating two halves of the test, by including parallel items of equal difficulty in each of the halves. The correlation thus obtained indicated the reliability of a test of fifty items. Reliability on the full-length test was determined by the Spearman Brown prophesy formula. Validity. Validation of the test could only be accomplished by: (a) comparing by correlation and analysis of variance or analysis of variance with covariance adjustment teacher ratings with "IS of iden- tity" test scores for those in the out-group; (b) comparing by analysis of variance "15 of identity" test scores of the total out-group with "IS of identity" test scores of the total in-group; (c) comparing the "IS of identity" test scores of in- and out-groups for individual self-rate categories by analysis of variance and for self-rate cate- gory 101 by analysis of variance with covariance adjustment. That these techniques had to suffice for validation purposes is indicated by the previous statements that "no paper and pencil test designed to measure . . . now exists [etc.]." (49:1-12). 43 Analysis of variance. Analysis of variance was agreed upon as the most desirable method of analyzing the types of data gathered. This method tests whether class means differ significantly among themselves when class variances are taken into account. However, deSpite the fact that two pilot studies showed no significant correla- tion between 1.0. and test score, the larger study indicated that 1.0. might be suSpected of contributing to the relationship. Therefore, certain of the data (those which showed significant relationships be- tween test scores and criteria) were treated by analysis of variance with cova riance adjustment. Analysis of variance with covariance adjustmelt. This statis- tical technique is utilized when it is desirable to control the influence of an additional variable which may contribute to the relationship being tested. That only those data which showed significant relation- ships by analysis of variance need to be treated by covariance adjust- ment, is supported by McNemar (58:329): But, if the within-groups correlation is low and/or there is only small chance difference between the groups on the un- controlled variable, the use of covariance adjustment may not be worth the effort. Correlational procedures. Simple correlation was used for comparing "15 of identity" test scores and 1.0. scores, and test 44 scores and Mooney scores, since these (Mooney and 1.0.) were not divided into categories, or classes. Correlation coefficients were also computed for teacher-rating versus "15 of identity" test scores and for teacher-rating versus 1.0.; the former to show the strength of the test in indicating adjustment, and the latter to determine if there was a relation between them. CHAPTER IV ANALYSIS OF THE DATA For data which are separated into classes, an analysis of variance provides an efficient and accepted method for comparing the class means. To test the significance of the differences between class means, one compares the variance within classes with the variance of the class means. This is done by first analyzing the total sum of squares of the deviations of the test scores from their grand mean, into two parts. The first part is the sum of squares of deviation of the test scores from their class means. The second is the sum of squares of the deviations of the class means from the grand mean. Each of these parts divided by the appropriate degrees of freedom gives a separate estimate of the variance of the parent population. The ratio of these two estimates-—with the larger as the numerator--is the value of F. This value can be compared to a critical table of F values in a standard F table (in any good statistics text). If it exceeds the value in the table, the means of the classes differ significantly at the indicated probability level. In the following tables, arranged as in Table I to Show the steps in 45 46 computation, the usual practice has been followed; i.e., "not Sig." means not significant at the 0.05 probability level, "Sig." means significant at the 0.05 probability level, and "highly Sig." means significant at the 0.01 probability level. The process of the analysis is shown in the symbolic general case in Table I. This analysis presupposes a normal distribution of the class items and equality of the class variances. Tests are available to determine whether or not the data meet these requirements. How- eVer, departures from normality may be quite large before they seriously affect the results of the analysis. For examination scores the distribution is usually assumed to be normal, and that assump- tion will be made here. The test for homogeneity of the class variances which was applied to the data in this study was that given in Dixon and Massey, I_n'troduction to Statistical Analysis, McGraw- Hill, 1951, pp. 90-91. It is summarized as follows: k = number of classes (with normally distributed items) 11, = sample size (number of items in class i) 1 k Zni = N}: total number of items in the k classes 1 Z O S, = var1ance of class 1 1 2 2 M = (N-an Sp-Z[(ni-l)fn 5,] 1 A = l/3(k-l) [2(I/ni-l) - l/N-k] ln = natural logarithm 2 2 s = [2(ni-I)sil/[N-k] £1 = k - 1 2 £2 = (k+l)/A b = fZ/[l-A-(Z/fzfl The significance ratio is then given by: Ff f = sz/[f1(b—M)] l 2 47 If this ratio is found to exceed that in a critical table of F, the hy- pothesis of equal variances is rejected. The data for the example case of Sexton High School for classes of teacher-ratings are given below: . 2 Teacher-Ratmg Si ni 4 257 22 3 157 34 2 94 26 1 662 3 48 M = 9 A = 0.0572 s2 = 176 P. 'r, = 3 £2 = 1105 b = 119.5 Fi105 = 2'8 This is found to be not significant and the hypothesis is accepted that the variances are homogeneous. For the present study, institutional-noninstitutional, self— rating, teacher-rating, age, sex, religion, prognostic and diagnostic rating are subdivided into such classes. The analysis was first applied to the classes of male and female. This was possible only in the out- group since the institutionalized portion of the sample was entirely male. The analysis of variance applied to this out-group is shown in Table II. The analysis shows that the test score variation can not reasonably be associated with sex differences in the testees. TABLE I 49 ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE—-GENERAL CASEl . . Mean Square D1v150r . (estimate of Source of Degrees S f S 1 . Variation of um o quares P0P? atlon Freedom variance): s.s./d.f. Between k - 2 class k " 1 Zn. (X - —_ om . 1 c. X means 1 = l 1 k N i W thin N _ k 2 21 (X 3(- )Z 01:2 classes 1. c, C. = l r=l c 1 1 N - 2 Total N — 1 z (xr _ x) r = l k = nmnber of classes N = total number of scores =. number of items in class i XI NI...” 0 2 class mean for. class i Xr = individual score Xr = individual score in class c c _ Greatest M.S_. i _ 2/ c2 ‘ SmalleSt M.S. 'e" ’ m ‘7 or = a'cz/a'mz = total mean of scores (mean of the class means) (if (rmZ > O'CZ) (if acz > m2) 1 . (981448) 50 TABLE II EASTERN, SEXTON, WALTER FRENCH "IS OF IDENTITY" TEST SCORES--CLASSES (MALE AND FEMALE) d.f. s.s. M.S. Between class means 1 463 463 Within classes 114 34,488 302 F = 1.53 (not Sig.) Total 115 34,951 The analysis was then applied to the classes of age groups. It was applied separately to each school, as shown in Tables III, IV, and VII. The analysis shows that the "IS of identity" test score variation can not reasonably be associated with differences in age of the testees. TABLE III BOYS VOCATIONAL SCHOOL "15 OF IDENTITY" TEST SCORES --CLASSES (ACE LEVELS) d.f. s.s. M.S. Between class means 7 2,616 374 Within classes 185 40,314 218 F = 1.72 (not Sig.) Total 192 42,930 51 TABLE IV IONIA "IS OF IDENTITY" TEST SCORES —-CLASSES (AGE LEVELS) d.f. s.s. M.S. Between class means 5 1,039 260 Within classes 92 23,329 254 F = 1.02 (not Sig.) Total 97 24,368 TABLE V EASTERN "15 OF IDENTITY" TEST SCORES --CLASSES (AGE LEVELS) d.f. s.s. M.S. Between class means 5 1,827 365 Within classes 96 23,966 250 F = 1.46 (1'10t 518-) Total 101 25,793 52 TABLE VI SEXTON "IS OF IDENTITY" TEST SCORES --CLASSES (AGE LEVELS) d.f. s.s. M.S. Between class means 5 2,783 557 Within classes 80 20,498 256 F = 2.18 (not Sig.) Total 85 23,281 TABLE VII WALTER FRENCH "IS OF IDENTITY" TEST SCORES --CLASSES (AGE LEVELS) d.f. 8.3. M.S. Between class means 3 1,037 346 Within classes 44 9,396 214 F = 1.62 (not Sig.) —-—— Total 47 10,433 53 When the analysis was applied to the classes of diagnostic ratings and prognostic ratings at Boys Vocational School (Tables VIII and IX), it showed that the "15 of identity" test score variations can- not reasonably be associated with differences in diagnostic or prog- no stic ratings. TABLE VIII BOYS VOCATIONAL SCHOOL "IS OF IDENTITY" TEST SCORES -—CLASSES (DIAGNOSTIC RATINGS) d.f. s.s. M.S. Between class means 7 1,306 186.6 Within classes 108 21,062 195.0 F = 1.05 (not Sig.) Total 115 22,368 TABLE IX BOYS VOCATIONAL SCHOOL "IS OF IDENTITY" TEST SCORES --CLASSES (PROGNOSTIC RATINGS) d.f. s.s. M.S. .— Between class means 5 972 194.4 Within classes 116 23,426 201.9 F = 1.04 (not Sig.) Total 121 24,398 y 1 DO- I 1 y i . u . I 4 3 awning 431.4111- .. as .. ---1 _. F . 54 The analysis was then applied to the classes of religion; first divided into Catholic and non-Catholic, and second into those who re- corded church attendance and those who did not. These two analyses are shown in Tables X and XI. TABLE X 'ALL SCHOOLS "IS OF IDENTITY" TEST SCORES--CLASSES (CATHOLIC, NON-CATHOLIC) d.f. 5.5. M.S. Between class means 1 1,256 1,256 Within classes 491 136,607 278 F = 4.52 (sig.) Total ' 492 137,863 TABLE XI ALL SCHOOLS "IS OF IDENTITY" TEST SCORES--CLASSES (CHURCH ATTENDANCE, NONATTENDANCE) d.f. s.s. M.S. Between class means 1 0 - Within classes 491 Total 492 137,860 55 The first (Table X) shows significance at the 0.05 probability level and indicates those professing Catholic religious affiliation On the average achieve lower scores on the "IS of identity" test than do those of the non-Catholic affiliation. The analysis in Table XI indicates nonsignificance. Thus "IS of identity" test score differences are not associated with attendance or nonattendance. The analysis was then applied to the classes of self-ratings 101, 102, 103, 104, and 105. This is shown in Table XII. TABLE XII ALL SCHOOLS TEST SCORES--CLASSES (SELF-RATINGS, 101, 102, 103, 104, AND 105) d.f. s.s. M.S. Between class means 4 386 96.5 Within classes 512 142,916 279.1 F = 2.895 (not Sig.) Total 516 143,302 The analysis was also applied to the classes of ins and outs for each of the self-ratings categories 101, 102, 103, 104, and 105. These are shown in Tables XIII, XIV, XV, XVI, and.XVII. 56 TABLE XIII "IS OF IDENTITY" TEST SCORES FOR CATEGORY 101 -#CLASSES (INS AND OUTS) d.f. s.s. M.S. Between class means 1 9,699 9,699 Within classes 219 55,942 255 F = 38.04 (highly Sig.) Total 220 65,641 TABLE XIV "15 OF IDENTITY" TEST SCORES FOR CATEGORY 102 --§-CLASSES (INS AND OUTS) T 1 —-—r i d.f. 8.3. M.S. Between class means 1 201 201 Within classes 72 18,392 255 F = 1.27 (not Sig.) Total 73 18,593 TABLE XV "IS OF IDENTITY" TEST SCORES FOR CATEGORY 103 -4CLASSES (INS AND OUTS) f + —‘ d.f.. s.s. M.S. Between class means 1 1,226 1,226 Within classes 149 37,580 252 F = 4.86 (sig.) Total 150 38,806 *- __—' 57 TABLE XVI "IS OF IDENTITY" TEST SCORES FOR CATEGORY 104 --.CLASSES (INS AND OUTS) d.f. s.s. M.S. Between class means 1 54 54 Within classes 45 13,534 308 F = 5.70 (not Sig.) Total 46 13,588 —a-“_ Fj- TABLE XVII "IS OF IDENTITY" TEST SCORES FOR CATEGORY 105 “LCLASSES (INS AND OUTS) W d.f. s.s. M.S. Between class means 1 660 660 Within classes 21 4,779 228 F = 2.89 (not Sig.) Total 22 5,439 For 102, 104, and 105, no significant differences appear be- tween those in and out; 103 shows significance at the 0.05 probability level, and 101 at the 0.01 level. Finally the analysis was applied to the classes of teacher- ratings 1, 2, 3, and 4 (only outs available), first for each school separately, and second for the composite grouping of all three schools These are shown in Tables XVIII, XIX, XX, and XXI. 58 TABLE XVIII EASTERN HIGH SCHOOL "IS OF IDENTITY" TEST SCORES --CLASSES (TEACHER-RATINGS 1, 2, 3, AND 4) d.f. 5.5. M.S. Between class means 3 11,018 3,673 Within classes 96 13,733 143 F = 25.68 - - (highly Sig.) Total 99 24,751 TABLE XIX SEXTON HIGH SCHOOL "15 OF IDENTITY" TEST SCORES --CLASSES (TEACHER-RATINGS 1, 2, 3, AND 4) d.f. 8.5. M.S. Between class means 3 7,172 2,391 Within classes 81 15,481 191 F = 12.52 — . (highly Sig.) Total 84 22,653 TABLE XX WALTER FRENCH JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOL "15 OF IDENTITY" TEST SCORES--CLASSES (TEACHER-RATINGS 1, 2, 3, AND 4) d.f. 5.5. M.S. Between class means 4 2,774 694 Within classes 43 7,282 169 F = 4.11 * ‘ — (highly Sig.) Total 47 10,056 59 TABLE XXI THREE SCHOOLS, COMPOSITE "15 OF IDENTITY" TEST SCORES --CLASSES (TEACHER-RATINGS l, 2, 3, AND 4) d.f. 5.5. M.S. Between class means 4 17,591 4,398 Within classes 228 42,670 187 F = 23.52 —- (highly Sig.) Total 232 60,261 In each Of these four, differences significant at the 0.01 prob- ability level occur. This indicates a high association between teacher— ratings and the "IS of identity" test scores. A measure of the strength of this association is given by the correlation coefficients for the individual test scores versus the teacher-ratings. The data are summarized in Table XXII. The correlation of "15 of identity" test scores with 1.0. was determined. The data are summarized in Table XXIII. Those for test scores with Mooney scores at Boys Vocational School are sum- marized in Table XXIV. The analysis of variance of 1.0. for the ins and outs is shown in Table XXV. 60 30.0 64.0. ome.m masses mom mead ”2 we cocoa-a 8:63 30.0 $5. 36.2 23.3. mes Sea meN mm oooxom 30.0 3.0. omef. «Sara 3» 31... SN 2: anaom washes“ 964 1.300 muodpounm NAmosoum Newman—mm mouoom swan—om swam C033 mmOsU umeH. Honooofi umoH Hosooofi Z 10.200 .«o Sam mo name .«O Saws «0 Guam HO 85m mAOOTOm mozmmm mus-AS: oz< .22.me ism-ego He. mozasfiaémmoaama ozs mHEOOm Home :wfiszmoa so 2: zmmssmm zoas.m .H Con O #39200 335 um NAmoHoom NAm.on.oom monoom mwumom Co :88 $20 aoos OH 56.3. CH z .3300 .«O gm no game no game mo So no Sam mnHDOMO 44¢. .mmmMOOm HmMH. :VHHHZHQH .mO wH: 92¢. .04 zmmgfimm ZOHH.m 303E muosponnm Amouoom Amouoom mouoom mouoom . #964 .300 O N o Niaosoo mo >280 13m GOES mm AD as H. 2 a H. 2 Z lounoO mo 83m mo Esme .«o game mo 85m mo 8.9m 1.11 AOOmOm A mwom H< mmmOOm VHZOOHZ Q24 deOOm Hmflh :NrHHHZHQH .m0 9: ZMMBHHQ ZOHHHXX ”flamed. 63 TABLE XXV I.0.--CLASSES (INS, OUTS) d.f. 5.5. M.S. Between Class means 1 18,576 18,576 Within classes 514 142,312 2,763 F = 67.2 _ (highly sig.) Total 515 160,888 The results in Table XXIII indicate an association of "IS identity" test. scores with 1.0., and those in Table XXV indicate a significant difference of 1.0. between the ins and outs; therefore, for those cases where significant. relation was indicated between test scores and the factor being studied, covariance adjustment was em- ployed to control the influence of 1.0. In those analyses Of variance which showed no significant relationship between test scores and the“ factors being studied, covariance ad'Lustment was considered unneces- sary. In the application of the covariance adjustment, one may either adjust the means by 1:33-11 ?-i’ la 1 xy60 In an effort to validate this test, ratings of the students Unusually friendly, helpful, and cooperative. Above average in friendliness, helpfulness, and coopera— tiveness. About average in the three qualities mentioned. 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