THE UTILIZATION OF MENTAL PRACTICE IN
THE LEARNING 0F SELECTED
TENNIS SKILLS

Dissertation for the Degree of Ph. D.
MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY
ADA LETIT IA LOVELESS
1977

LIBRARY

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This is to certify that the

thesis entitled

THE UTILIZATION OF MENTAL PRACTICE IN
THE LEARNING OF SELECTED

TENNIS SKILLS
presented by

Ada Letitia Loveless

has been accepted towards fulfillment
of the requirements for

Ph.D. Department of Health,

degree in

 

 

Physical Education,
and Recreation

   

Major professor

Date May 10, 1977

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ABSTRACT

THE UTILIZATION OF MENTAL PRACTICE IN
THE LEARNING OF SELECTED
TENNIS SKILLS

BY

Ada Letitia Loveless

The purpose of this study was to investigate the
effects of mental practice as a method to facilitate
physical skill learning. The skills were the forehand
and service for tennis. All treatments were in addition
to the learning experiences in the classes and instruc-
tional procedures were the same for all classes. The
mental practice was provided through audio tapes made
by the author. Skill was measured in two ways: on per-
formance and on form.

The purpose of the study was twofold:

(1) to assess the effect of step-by-step guided
mental practice for beginners on the learning

of two complex tennis skills;

(2) to determine the relative effects of two types

of mental practice information on learning skills.

Ada Letitia Loveless

The subjects were fifty-four undergraduate male
and female students enrolled in three beginning tennis
classes at Kalamazoo College, Kalamazoo, Michigan, during
the ten-week winter term, 1977. The students were pre-
tested on form and performance. Verbal SAT scores were
obtained, the median determined, and students classified
as high (above the median) verbal ability or low (below
the median) verbal ability. Students were then randomly
assigned to one of four treatment groups by high/low verbal
ability. .

MPP--Mental Practice Positive

MPEIEE--Mental Practice, Error Information,

Experience, and Elimination

APP--Added Physical Practice

PMP--Placebo Mental Practice

The MPP tape content reiterated and emphasized
the material presented through class instruction. The
MPEIEE tape added error information, experience, and
instruction for correction of errors. Mental practice
was controlled by placing the audio tapes on closed
reserve in the college library. Lists of students by
tape group assignment were given to the library. This
facilitated control of proper tape listening.

Video tapes were made during the pre- and post-

performance tests. The tapes were randomized to keep

Ada Letitia Loveless

the raters blind to treatment conditions and time of obser-
vation. Forehand and service data were analyzed separately.

The pretest scores functioned as covariables. The
data were analyzed on the Finn Program of multivariate and
univariate analysis of covariance and regression at
Michigan State University.

The results of the study were as follows:

1. There was no significant difference in treatments
on either performance or form for the forehand

and the service.

2. There was no significant interaction between verbal
ability and treatment on either performance or

form for the forehand and the service.

3. All treatments resulted in significant improve-
ment on form and performance of the forehand

stroke.

4. All treatments resulted in significant improve-

ment in service form but not service performance.

5. Study results support earlier research which
found that a combination of physical and mental
practice was as effective for learning physical

skills as physical practice alone.

- m
L..--

 

 

THE UTILIZATION OF MENTAL PRACTICE IN
THE LEARNING OF SELECTED

TENNIS SKILLS

BY

Ada Letitia Loveless

A DISSERTATION

Submitted to
Michigan State University
in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY

Department of Health, Physical Education,
and Recreation

1977

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The writer expresses her appreciation to several
individuals whose support and encouragement made the com-
pletion of this study possible. A particular debt of
gratitude is expressed to Dr. Janet Wessel and Dr. Andrew
Porter. Their professional example, the quality of their
guidance and continuing interest in the writer's profes-
sional deve10pment were prime motivators in continuing
this educational program and research.

Other members of the doctoral committee provided
help and encouragement--Dr. John Haubenstricker and
Dr. Claudia Knowles. Each member of the committee demon-
strated high professional standards in the tradition of
academic excellence.

A special note of deep appreciation is expressed
to the faculty and administration of Kalamazoo College.
The continuing support of the Faculty Development Com-
mittee is recognized and appreciated.

Many individuals contributed in a variety of ways
to the research. While it is impossible to name all the
individual contributions, some must be mentioned. My

long-time friend and colleague, Marilyn Hinkle, assisted

ii

in many ways. Her many contributions were invaluable
and made the accomplishment of the doctoral program a
reality. Also, Drs. Linda Delene, Yvonne Denomme, and
Antoinette Ruedisueli contributed both encouragement and
labor.

Other individuals contributed directly to the
research: Marjorie Snyder assisted with testing and
video tape randomizing; Karla Atkinson and Kathy
Schlukabir served as raters; and the staffs of the
Library and Instructional Services at Kalamazoo College
provided resource materials in an effective and timely

manner 0

iii

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

Chapter
I. INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY . . . . . .
Rationale for the Research . . . .
Purpose and Scope of the Research. .

Initial Limitations of the Research .
Basic Assumptions and Null Hypotheses

II. REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE . . . . .

Historical Update: Development of
Interest in Mental Practice of
Physical Skills . . . . . . . .

Review of Research. . . . . . . .

Types of Mental Practice--Unstructured
Types of Mental Practice--Structured .
Types of Tasks Used in Mental Practice

Research. . . . . . . . . .

Theories on Mental Practice Effectiveness
Summary of Review of Research . . . .

I I I O METHODOLOGY I O O O O O O O O O 0

Review of Performance Tests. . . . .
PilOt Study 0 O I O O O O O 0

Subjects .
Tests . .
Schedule .
Treatment .

Changes Resulting from the Pilot Study .
Revision of Performance Tests . . .

Procedural Changes . . . . . . .
Additional Measurement. . . . . .

iv

amour-0 I-‘

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Chapter

Methodology . . . . . . . . . .

Subjects . . . . . .
Schedule and Class Treatment
Procedure . . . . . .

Pre-Study Data . . .
Collection of Data . .
Treatment . . . . .
Statistical Treatment .

IV. ANALYSIS OF THE DATA. . . . . . . .
Subject Attrition . . . . . . . .
The Research Design . . . . . . .
Presentation of Results . . . . . .
Summary of Results. . . . . . . .
V. RESULTS, LIMITATIONS, CONCLUSIONS, AND
RECOMMENDATIONS . . . . . . . .
Results of the Research . . . . . .
Limitations of the Research. . . . .
Conclusions . . . . . . . . . .
Recommendations for Future Research . .
APPENDICES
APPENDIX
A. [ACHIEVEMENT TESTS, TEST INSTRUCTIONS, AND
SCORE SHEETS O O O O O O O O O O
B. TRANSCRIPTIONS OF AUDIO TAPES. . . . .
C. COMPOSITE SCORE SHEET . . . . . . .
D. MENTAL PRACTICE SCHEDULE . . . . . .
E O RATING SHEETS O O O O I O O O O I
F. SCHEDULE OF CLASSES FOR DATA COLLECTION .
G. INSTRUCTIONS TO LIBRARIAN . . . . . .
H. TAPE LISTENING RECORD . . . . . . .

SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY. . . . . . . . . .

67
68
70

72
73

74

87
180
181
183
187
188
189
190

Table
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2.

8.
9.
10.
11.
12.

13.

LIST OF TABLES

RANDOMIZED DESIGN . . . . . . . . . .

F-RATIO FOR MULTIVARIATE ANALYSIS OF
COVARIANCE--FOREHAND o o o o o o o o

F‘RATIO FOR MULTIVARIATE ANALYSIS OF
COVARIANCE-‘SERVICE o o o o o o o o o

OBSERVED COMBINED MEANS--FOREHAND PERFORMANCE,
SMLE I O O O O O O O O I O C O

OBSERVED COMBINED MEANS”'FOREHAND FORM,
SAMPLE I o o o o o o o o o o o o

OBSERVED COMBINED MEANS-'3ERVICE FORM,
SAMPLE I o o o o o c o o o o o o

OBSERVED COMBINED MEANS--SERVICE PERFORMANCE,
SAMPLE I C O C O C O O O O O O O

SAMPLE CORRELATION MATRIX--FOREHAND SAMPLE I .
SAMPLE CORRELATION MATRIX--SERVICE SAMPLE I .
SAMPLE CORRELATION MATRIX-~FOREHAND SAMPLE R .
SAMPLE CORRELATION MATRIX--SERVICE SAMPLE R .

NUMBER OF POSTTEST RATINGS MARKED AS
PRETESTS--FOREHAND o o o o I o o o 0

NUMBER OF POSTTEST RATINGS MARKED AS
PRETESTS--SERVICE o o o o o o o o 0

vi

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58

58

59

59

60

60
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64
64

65

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It

CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY

Early learning theories contributed little to
the concept of approaching motor skill learning with
concentrated mental activity or practice. Later learning
theories, recognizing the learner's intellect and aware-
ness which initiate learning through the cognitive pro-
cesses, are an important approach in motor skill learning.
This study utilized the cognitive processes through

mental practice in motor skill learning.

Rationale for the Research

The significant involvement of cognitive processes
in the initial stages of learning motor skills is now
generally accepted by motor learning theorists (Fitts,
1962; Adams, 1971: Cratty, 1972). It has been proposed
by Fitts (1962) that three stages can be identified in
learning motor skills: cognitive, fixative, and autono-
mic. Gagné (1952) suggests four phases of a learning
sequence: apprehending, acquisition, storage (short- and

long-term), and retrieval. Once the task is understood,

in the first stage or phase, repetition is required to

fix or stabilize the skill. At the end of this stage, the
skill becomes automatic and can be retrieved from storage
quickly. It can then be executed without conscious thought.
In the autonomic stage of a skill, cognitive processes of
the learner are then free to receive new information and
attend to other stimuli in the environmental context of
the skill application. The cognitive process is present
in complex human learning and performance, regardless of
the stage of learning or performance. It never disappears
or becomes unnecessary; rather, it shifts in focus as
learning progresses. It is this cognitive learning pro-
cess to which this research is addressed.

Few studies have been completed in the past forty
years to determine the effect of mental practice upon the
learning and retention of motor skills. Although most of
this research has shown statistically significant benefits
from mental practice, little systematic effort at prac-
tical application has been evidenced. If cognitive
ability is an ongoing process along the learning-performing
continuum, it is reasonable to assume that learners can
benefit from access to, and internalization of, additional
information related to particular skills. Further inves-
tigation is needed to determine the role of mental practice
in providing stimulation to the conceptualization of

skills. Sequential difficulty of mental practice content

 

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(I

O

is needed to accommodate different levels of skill develop-
ment. Different media for providing mental practice
information need to be explored. The significance, if

any, of better acquisition with mental practice should

be further investigated.

Purpose and Scope of the Research

The purpose of this study was twofold:

(l) to assess the effect of step-by-step guided
mental practice for beginners on the learning

of two complex tennis skills;

(2) to determine the relative effects of two types
of mental practice information on learning motor

skills.

This study examined the effects of two distinct
types of planned mental practice content in combination
with physical practice. The procedure for mental practice

was limited to the listening of audio tapes.

Initial Limitations of the Research
The subjects in this study were enrolled in
beginning tennis classes which were offered as an elec-
tive activity thrOugh which students could partially
complete the graduation requirement in physical education
at Kalamazoo College, Kalamazoo, Michigan. Opportunity
for uncontrolled physical practice was essentially non-

existent during the winter months in which this study

was conducted. The indoor tennis courts received maximum
use by other groups for a variety of sports activities
and were therefore inaccessible to the subjects in this
study.

Control and monitoring of planned mental practice
was achieved through placing the audio tapes on closed
reserve in the college library. Lists of students in
each tape listening group were supplied to the library
staff to ensure that each student received the correct
type tape. There was no way to control unplanned mental
practice either for those in the mental practice or the

physical practice groups.

Basic Assumptions and Null Hypotheses

The first assumption was that the MPEIEE treatment
(mental practice with error identification, error exper-
ience, and error elimination) would result in more
improvement in both stroke form and stroke performance
than the MPP treatment (mental practice positive) which
was designed to repeat only the information concerning
the stroke patterns practiced in class. The rationale
for this assumption was that the identification of common
errors and mental practice on error elimination would
prevent learning typical errors and the consequent need
to unlearn. It was also believed that this approach to
error identification and elimination would strengthen

subject interest in learning these skills.

The second assumption was that the MPEIEE group
would achieve both stroke performance and stroke form
commensurate with the group receiving additional physical
practice (APP). The rationale for this assumption was
based on the premise that the group which received addi-
tional physical practice would show the most improvement.

The third assumption was that the MPP group would
achieve better stroke performance and stroke form than

the control group with placebo mental practice (PMP).
The rationale for this assumption was that valid content
in the tapes of the MPP group would have greater impact
on the learning of the two skills than placebo content
for the PMP group.

These three assumptions formed the basis for the

first null hypothesis:

Null Hypothesis 1:

There will be no significant difference between
treatment groups on improvement in performance
and form on the forehand and service.

The fourth assumption was that the subjects with
high verbal ability would benefit more from mental
practice than subjects with low verbal ability. The
rationale for this assumption was that the subjects with
high verbal skills would learn more as a consequence of
mental practice. This fourth assumption formed the

basis for the second null hypothesis:

Null Hypothesis 2:

There will be no significant difference between
treatment groups by high/low verbal ability
interaction.

These four assumptions and the two null hypotheses
were subsequently tested in this research study. The
review of the literature indicated that there has been
a persistent interest in the study of mental practice
and its role in motor skill learning. However, research
on this subject has been sparse and has had limited
results. This study was undertaken to ascertain the
role of mental practice and its effect on the learning
of tennis skills, primarily to determine whether mental
practice could have a more productive role in expediting

the learning of various physical skills.

CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

Historical Update: Development of Interest
in Mental Practice of Physical Skills

 

 

Interest and research into the possible manifes-
tations of mentally rehearsing or conceptualizing physical
skills apparently began as a result of Jacobson's work
in electrophysiology (Jacobson, 1932). His study revealed
that when subjects were lying relaxed, with eyelids closed,
imagining or recollecting an activity, there was slight
and fleeting contraction only of the muscle fibers which
would perform the action. He also discovered that the
body cannot relax unless the mind is free of activity.

Possibly American education was more receptive
at this time to investigations dealing with conceptualiz-
ing physical skills. For example, by the 1930s, Koffka's

book, The Growth of the Mind, had greatly influenced

 

American learning theory with its criticism of both
Thorndike's trial-and-error learning and behaviorism
(Hilgard, 1966). The concept of organization applying
to learning, as well as to perception, opened up the

possibility of insightful learning.

Despite Jacobson's discovery and changes in the
comprehensiveness of learning theories, research concern-
ing mental involvement in learning and performing physical
skills remained scarce. During the first twenty-eight
years after Jacobson's findings, only eight additional
studies had been reported. Since 1960, another twenty-
seven additional studies haVe been reported, more than
half of which utilized gross motor tasks representative
of sports skills.

Cratty (1973b) briefly mentioned some ongoing
research in Eastern Europe to improve tactical ability
by flashing "game situation” pictures to athletes who
then responded to various questions. Other studies
employing mental practice by skilled athletes just prior
to performing were referred to by Cratty (1973b). He
indicated, however, that much of the statistical treat-
ment was unsophisticated and interpretation of data
remained difficult.

Although the volume of research is not large
and the methodology is sometimes inadequate, there
appears to be a continuing interest in investigating the
potential role of mental practice in motor skill learning

and performance.

Review of Research

 

This review of research is organized according

to those factors which the present study is designed to

investigate: types of mental practice--structured rather
than unstructured, with different content orientations;
and type of criterion skill--complex-gross rather than
complex-fine. The subsequent discussions define and
describe each factor and its related research in detail.

Types of Mental Practice--
UnstructurédD

 

 

This section includes those studies in which
mental practice was left to the imagination of the sub-
ject. The research conducted utilizing unstructured
mental practice involved few, if any, specific instruc-
tions to the subjects. In a variety of research efforts
in the area of unstructured mental practice, subjects
were requested to imagine or visualize a task or physical
activity. These subjects were subsequently tested to
determine the effect on learning resulting from
unstructured mental practice. The following studies
are related to specific research conducted and the
results achieved in this area.

Ammons (1951) used ocular, blind-fold manual,
and imaginary pre-practice on a rotary pursuit performance
test and found that neither imaginary nor physical prac-
tice had an appreciable effect. He did, however, suggest
that imaginary practice may have had an appreciable
effect not detected by his statistics. His imaginary

group's recovery from temporary work decrement was less

10

by one-third and from warmup decrement by almost one—half.
He also suggested that the component pre-practice probably
needed to be longer than in his study to have any effect.

There were no instructions except to imagine the movement.

In G. Gilmore's study (1972) to determine which
of five different practice conditions were most effective
(controlled mental, uncontrolled mental, physical, con-
trolled mental and physical combined, and placebo con~
trol), three groups--the uncontrolled mental practice
group, the physical practice group, and a combination of
physical practice and controlled mental practice-~were all
significantly better than the controlled mental practice
group and the placebo control. The task was a modified
kip. Gilmore also investigated the interaction of sex
and experience and found that males were more effective
under all practice conditions and that experience was not
a factor. It is possible that there was a motivation
problem as the females varied little under all practice
conditions.

Jones (1965) investigated two conditions of mental
practice, directed and undirected. This two-week study
led him to conclude that the undirected group scored
better, possibly because the directed practice inhibited
completion of the cognitive pattern. Neither group had
physical practice. The task was to perform a hock—swing

upstart to criterion, pass or fail, in two trials. The

11

treatment of the two groups was not very discriminatory
in that the undirected group received the same practice
on four of the seven practice days as did the directed
practice group.

Rapp (1973) conducted a rope-skipping task with
children in which the mental practice was undirected.
The mental practice group was instructed to imagine rope
skipping with their eyes closed. The mental practice
group and the physical practice group increased in pro-
ficiency significantly over the control group after nine
days of practice, twenty minutes daily.

Rawlings, Rawlings, and Chen (1972) conducted a
rotary pursuit tracking study in which the mental practice
group was instructed only by being asked to visualize
the task. The other group had an interference task.
Both groups had physical practice alternated with their
experimental treatment. The daily mean time on target
was higher for the mental plus physical practice group
than for the physical practice plus nonrelated reading
task group.

Another example of unstructured mental practice
occurred in a study by Shick (1970). In three different
studies, the mental practice was done on the students'
own time and consisted of mentally rehearsing by imagin-
ing the task, with no instructional media. Shick found

no conclusive results. The tasks were the wall volley

12

and serve in volleyball. In two studies, Shick com-
bined physical practice with mental practice; in the
third study, she treated mental practice and no practice.
In the case of the first two studies, one group practiced
only one minute each time (to avoid the Hawthorne effect)
and the second group, three minutes. There was no indi-
cation how frequently the mental practice periods occurred.
Twining (1949) used unstructured mental practice
in a ring-tossing task. Of the three groups--no practice,
physical practice, and mental practice--the physical
practice and mental practice groups improved significantly
while the physical practice group was best.

Types of Mental Practice--
Structured’

 

 

Research studies involving structured mental
practice generally required the subjects to mentally
rehearse skills according to a set of specific directions.
More research using this approach to mental practice has
been conducted than research utilizing the unstructured
type of mental practice. The results of structured mental
practice have also been more pronounced as the following
summary reports.

An early study by Gagné and Foster (1949), which
was not strictly a mental practice study, deserves to be
mentioned. In this study, subjects were given paper

and pencil pre-practice on a simple hand-arm response to

13

controls. The number of practices ranged from zero to
forty-eight in increments of eight. No significant dif-
ferences on response time between the groups were found
on the first ten trials on the motor task. By the
thirtieth trial, the learning increased in direct pro-
portion to the number of preliminary paper trials. The
increase was greatest through sixteen paper trials and
less after that. There was also a reduction in errors.
Gagné and Foster theorized that the pictured represen-
tation was effective due to a pre-differentiating of
stimuli by the preliminary task. _This study is signifi-
cant and similar in theory to a recent study by Thiffault
(1974)..

Thiffault (1974) studied tachistoscopic training
and its effect upon visual perceptual speed of ice hockey
players. He found that the experimental groups improved
significantly more than the control groups in performance
during the training period according to pretests and
posttests of visual discrimination and visual perception.
This well-controlled study has significance for visual
mental practice related to game situations.

Smith and Harrison (1962) conducted a study on
visual, mental, motor, and guided (kinesthetic) practice
of a stylus-type three-hole punchboard task. The final
test was for speed and accuracy. Visual and mental

practice improved both speed and accuracy, while

14

accuracy was greater with motor or guided practice.

In terms of total performance on speed and accuracy, the
order from best to least was motor, mental, visual,
reversed-visual, control, and guided.

Whitehead's study (1974) on types of feedback on
performance and the subject's perception of performance
during early learning included visual feedback by means
of video tape. Other feedback groups were video/
conventional, conventional, and mental. The task was
a diving forward roll, jump full turn. No significant
difference was found between treatment groups on per-
ception of performance or performance itself.

Several studies have used written materials for
mental practice. In some studies, the material is read
by the subjects, in some it is read by the experimenter
to the subjects, and in some cases both techniques were
used. Corbin (1967a), Egstrom (1964), and Clark (1960)
all used written materials to be read for mental practice.
In Corbin's study (1967a), a wand-juggling task was used.
He used a mental practice group, a physical practice
group, and a control group. The mental practice group
practiced by reading an instruction sheet every practice
day. He wanted to test the idea that mental practice
facilitates learning when the subjects have had exper-
ience with the skill. Each of the groups had five days

of physical practice after an initial test to determine

15

skill level. After thirteen days of practice as pre-
scribed, a posttest was given. Corbin found the physical
practice group superior to the mental practice group and
the mental practice group better than the control group.

Egstrom (1964) utilized a novel task, but he also
used written directions for mental practice. His study
was directed primarily at varying sequences of manual
and conceptualizing practice. Subjects held a paddle
in their nonpreferred hand and had to strike a rubber
ball which was ejected from a tube every twenty seconds.
In striking the ball, they redirected it 90° to a target
twenty feet away. Egstrom conducted a pilot study to
design a task which could be learned in four weeks. He
concluded that manual practice was more effective but
that conceptual practice was also effective. A signifi-
cant finding was that the group which alternated manual
and conceptual practice daily gained as much as the group
with only manual practice, having practiced manually
with 60 percent less frequency.

The third study which specified written instruc-
tions for mental practice was by Clark (1960). This study
used high school boys, and the task was the one-hand foul
shot. The primary question investigated was the substi-
tution of mental for physical practice. The study covered
a period of fourteen consecutive days. Prior to this

two-week period, each group received a careful introduction

16

to the experiment consisting of instructions on the tech-
nique of foul shooting, mimetic drill, practice, and
pretest. The mental practice group read the written
instructions each practice day. There were significant
gain scores for both physical and mental practice groups
with the physical practice group higher.

Smyth's study (1975) with pursuit rotor and mirror
tracing indicated closely controlled mental practice but
did not specify the type. In the mirror-drawing task
(six-pointed, double-lined star) and the pursuit rotor,
she found mental practice ineffective for initial skill
learning. She did not follow any active trial for the
mental practice group on the mirror drawing prior to the
final test. On the pursuit rotor, all groups who had
active practice of any duration or sequence were equal to
or better than those with none.

Oxendine (1969) conducted three separate experi-
ments in which oral instruction was used for mental
practice. All subjects were junior high school boys.

All studies were conducted in essentially the same way,
with different tasks: pursuit rotor, soccer kick, and
jump shot. In each study there were four groups with

the following combinations of practice: 100 percent
physical, 75 percent physical-~25 percent mental, 50 per-
cent physical--50 percent mental, and 25 percent

physical--75 percent mental.

17

Oxendine found no significant difference between
groups on various mental practice and physical practice
combinations for the soccer kick and jump shot but did
for the pursuit rotor. On the pursuit rotor, the first
and second groups were significantly higher than group
four, and group three was almost at a level to be sig-
nificant over four. This study utilized a seven-day
training program. He concluded that up to 50 percent of
practice time on mental practice can be as effective as
100 percent physical practice, provided the task is
within the motor capacity of the learner. He also
concluded that the proportion of time spent on mental
practice seems to be dependent upon the complexity of
the task, the familiarity of the task, and the physical
ability of the learner to perform the activity.

Another study which controlled the mental practice
group closely was a study by Wilson (1960) to investigate
the effects of three different combinations of mental
practice and physical practice on learning the tennis
forehand and backhand. An analysis of variance revealed
no significant difference in the mean gains for the
three groups. Each group consisted of college women who
had taken at least one course in tennis. Each group also
included subjects classified by skill rating as low
intermediate, high intermediate, and advanced. After

taking a pretest, all groups repeated the test every

18

other day for twelve days. The mental practice and
physical practice groups each practiced as prescribed
on alternate days while the control group did nothing
on alternate days. The physical practice group practiced
twenty-eight strokes against the wall, and the mental
practice group repeated the test in the classroom. As
sub-problems, Wilson compared performance errors for the
three groups and also sought to determine the relation-
ship, if any, between selected aptitude tests and change
in proficiency. The aptitudes measured were space
relations, mechanical reasoning, and abstract reasoning.
None of these factors were significant to increased pro-
ficiency according to rank difference correlations. On
the performance curves, the highest skill-rated subjects
maintained their superiority throughout the test, and
there was no marked change in the difference between the
highly skilled and lesser skilled. This study was con-
ducted in twelve days.

Start (1964b) conducted a study in which the
mental practice was structured as follows: practice
sheets contained a detailed analysis of the skill; sub-
jects read and paused where indicated to imagine; sub-
jects imagined as instructor read aloud: subjects read
as instructor read aloud; and subjects imagined without
cuing. The single leg upstart was the task. The sub-

jects were males, eighteen to twenty-one, naive to the

l9

task. Performance was rated by three judges (r.=.9),
mean ratings T-scaled. Conclusion: The kinesthesia
formula scores and the skill scores after mental practice
were not significantly related.

In their study of controlled or directed mental
practice, R. Gilmore and Stolurow (1951) found inter-
ference of skill learning with the directed mental
practice group as compared to the motor trained and rest
groups. This is an atypical finding and persisted
through three replications. The task was a ball and
socket task.

The results of these twelve research studies
were mixed. For example, Thiffault's study (1974) had
positive results for visual mental practice; Whitehead
(1974) found no difference; Corbin (1967a) found that
both the physical and mental practice groups performed
better than the control group; Egstrom (1964) concluded
that manual practice was more effective; Oxendine's three
studies (1968, 1969, 1972) had differing results; and
Wilson's research (1960) revealed no difference in the
mean gains for the three groups. The variation of
reported results suggests that additional research with
structured mental practice on the effect of learning
skills could be productive-~at least in ascertaining
whether this is a field of research which could have

significant impact on the learning of physical skills.

20

Types of Tasks Used in Mental
Practice Research

 

 

Another set of factors considered in the literature
review involved the type of criterion skill used in the
research, i.e., whether fine or gross skill was utilized.
Most of the research reported in this section involved
complex skill learning which occurred in a variety of

settings.

Complex-Fine Motor Skills

Ulrich (1967) investigated several commercial type
motor skills in separate studies including finger dex-
terity, typing, and riveting. These studies included
males and females except for the riveting study in which
all subjects were male. The typing test was for fourteen-
to sixteen-year-old males and females who had one year of
typing. Some conclusions were: motor skills can be
learned by active, observative, or mental training;
mental training is superior to observative training;
mental training was nearly as successful as active train-
ing in a number of cases; and alternating active and
mental training was more successful in most groups than
only active training.

In an early study involving mental practice,
Perry (1939) used five fine motor tasks: peg board,
symbol digit substitution, card sorting, mirror tracing,

and three—hole tapping. The subjects were school

21

children, and the major question was the relative effi-
ciency of imaginary and actual practice in performing
these five tasks. The results showed that card sorting,
peg board, and the symbol digit task were better adapted
to imaginary practice than mirror tracing and three-hole
tapping. Perry concluded that this was because these
tasks contained facts which could be learned by obser—
vation. His reasoning was that these three tasks required
designated associations and some motor coordination while
mirror tracing and three-hole tapping required a high
degree of motor coordination. This study revealed little
in relation to the superiority of one type of practice
over the other, but it did raise questions about the
variability of tasks or conditions which might be further
investigated.

The pursuit rotor has been used in many studies
involving mental practice. Some of these have already
been discussed. Singer and Witkin (1970) used pursuit
rotor to study point of introduction of mental practice
within the physical practice schedule. No significant
differences were found between the groups when mental
practice was variously introduced at the beginning,
middle, and end, for two days in an eight-day period.

All physical practice groups and combination groups proved
to be equally effective. This study used college women

as subjects.

22

Surburg (1976) used pursuit rotor in a recent
study with elderly people ranging in age from sixty-five
to one hundred. He found the combination of mental and
physical practice superior to the control group. There
was, however, no significant difference between the
physical practice groups and the combination groups.
Neither did he find any superiority of practice condition

in the retention phase.

Complex-Gross Motor Skills

Gymnastics skills have been used as tasks in six
of the studies reviewed. Three of these were investi-
gating the effectiveness of mental practice per se. Jones
(1965) used unstructured mental practice and found it
effective with the hock-swing upstart. Gilmore (1972)
found uncontrolled mental practice, physical practice,
and a combination of controlled mental practice with
physical practice more effective than controlled mental
practice and placebo control using the modified kip as
the task. Whitehead (1974) used mental practice as one
of four forms of feedback and found no significant dif-
ference between the four forms on the subject's perception
of performance and their rating on performance. The
skill was a diving forward roll jump turn.

The study on the tennis forehand and backhand by
Wilson (1960), in which mental practice was controlled,

showed no significant difference in type of practice on

23

improved performance. In other words, the mental practice
was as effective as the physical, and the group with less
physical practice was as effective in improved performance
as the mental-physical and the physical-physical.

Thiffault's study (1974) with young boys in an
organized ice hockey program showed effectiveness in
improving visual perception and visual discrimination.

The other gross motor tasks studied were: throw-
ing at a target (Stebbins, 1968), rope skipping (Rapp,
1973), ring toss (Twining, 1949), and a novel paddle/
ball/target task (Egstrom, 1964). The results of all of
these revealed significant positive effects on skill per-
formance after mental practice. Oxendine's study (1969)
with the soccer kick, jump shot, and pursuit rotor also
demonstrated significant positive effects from mental
practice. The effectiveness of utilizing mental practice
shows no clear trend in these studies with complex-gross

and complex-fine motor skills.

Other Research

The potential influence of practice sequence
and individual abilities cannot be ignored in mental
practice research. The results of research related to

these factors are reported in the paragraphs below.

Sequences and combinations of practice. ~Stebbins

 

(1968) conducted a study primarily to determine sequences

24

of mental and physical practice. He tried different
combinations of mental, mental-physical, and physical-
mental, along with control and physical practice groups.
The task was throwing rubber balls at a target, and the
subjects were college males. The only significant
improvements were in the combination treatments. Either
mental or physical practice was effective during the
first half of skill development. The familiarity of the
task may have contributed to the "no difference" of the
combination practice from the physical practice.

Welsh (1971) studied the effects of interpolating
mental practice on learning and retention of ring tossing.
His results showed no advantage of physical-mental-physical
sequenced groups over physical-physical-mental or mental-
physical-physical. Thus, in these two studies, combi-
nation treatment was effective but no combination was

more effective than another.

Ability factors and mental practice. Start (1960,

 

1962, 1964a, 1964b) has conducted several studies to
determine the relationship between various ability
factors and improvement in motor skills by utilizing
mental practice. Two of these studies (1964a, 1960)
looked at the possible relationship between intelligence
and mental practice. The first of these (1960) used

the underhand basketball free throw as the task with

twelve-year-old English boys as the subjects. The

25

mean IQ was 103.8--those not testing high enough for
secondary grammar school in England. The study consisted
of a pretest and a posttest with nine sessions of five
minutes each of mental practice. Start concluded that
there was significant improvement in the mean final
score, that the improvement was not related to the
initial score or intelligence, and that the test did not
have a discriminating scoring procedure. The test con—
sisted of ten free throws and only the baskets made
counted.

In the second study (1964a), concerning intel-
ligence as a factor in mental practice, Start again
failed to find a significant correlation between the two.
This study spanned just six days with college male sub-
jects on a simple gymnastic skill, the single leg upstart.
The mental practice took place five minutes per day for
six days. Oxendine's study (1969) showed no relationship
between intelligence and ability to benefit from mental
practice. The subjects were junior high school boys and
the mean IQ was 113.8.

Start (1962) conducted a study to look at games
ability and gain on a motor performance task after mental
practice. The group which was rated high (one rater used)
on games ability in four different sports had a signifi-
cant difference in means of initial and final scores on

a basketball free throw test. The mental practice

26

sessions were five minutes daily for nine days. The
average and low rated group means (on games ability)
showed no significant difference.

Start and Richardson (1964) used the single leg
upstart to look at the relationship between imagery and
mental practice. Vividness and autonomy of imagery were
tested according to an image inventory. It appeared
that Vividness of imagery was associated with low cri-
terion scores.

Richardson (1967a, 1967b) submitted a two-part
review and discussion of mental practice research cover-
ing the first thirty years of investigation into this
area of study. In summarizing individual variables which
have been studied, he cited: abstract reasoning, games
ability, imagery, intelligence, kinesthesia, mechanical
reasoning, motor ability, selective attention, sex, and
spatial relations. Of these, he suggests that the find—'
ings for motor ability and games ability are difficult
to interpret. In addition, further study is needed to
investigate the possible interrelationship among selective
attention, imagery (position memory), and spatial
relations, since these were the only variables which
showed a significant relationship to gain from mental
practice.

Since Richardson's review in 1965, Wilson (1960)

investigated spatial relations, abstract reasoning, and

27

mechanical reasoning as abilities which might affect
success with mental practice. She concluded that these
factors did not contribute to improvement in skill with
any of the practice combinations.

In studies of referenced measures external to
the practice task (e.g., spatial relations, verbal
ability, perceptual ability, etc.), Fleishman (1972)
found that as practice continues, changes occur in the
particular combinations of abilities which contribute
to performance. One of the changes noted was that the
contribution of nonmotor abilities (e.g., spatial, verbal),
which play a role in early learning, decreases with
practice relative to motor abilities.

In summary, research on ability factors and their
affect on mental practice success has been performed in a
variety of settings. Typically, complex skill learning
has been involved. Start's several studies (1960, 1962,
1964a, 1964b) concluded that while there was significant
improvement, the improvement was not related to intel-
ligence. Oxendine (1968, 1969, 1972) likewise concluded
that there was no relationship between intelligence and
the ability to benefit from mental practice. Richardson,
in his study of the first thirty years of mental practice
research (1967a, 1967b), reported that the findings for
motor and games ability are difficult to interpret. He

also stressed the need for additional study to investigate

11‘

D

t

uh.

a~5
Us

28

possible relationships among other factors, e.g., selec-
tive attention, imagery, and spatial relationships. Some
of the investigations recommended by Richardson subse-
quently were done by Wilson (1960) with the conclusion
that these factors did not contribute to skill improve-
ment.

Thus, there is no evidence at this time that
individual abilities, including intelligence, are sig-
nificant in mental practice research. However, it is an
area of research in mental practice which remains open
to more substantive research and investigation.

Theories on Mental Practice
Effectiveness

 

 

Several reasons for the apparent effectiveness of
mental practice of physical skills have been suggested.
Sage (1971) offers the following possibilities: moti-
vation is increased, at least temporarily; a gain in
perceptual insights occurs; there may be an effect due
to slight action potential in the muscles (neuromuscular
theory): and many of the neural components in the brain
which direct actual movements are activated in mental
practice (neurophysiological theory).

In Part II of his review of mental practice
research, Richardson (1967b) discusses possible hypotheses
to account for the apparent effectiveness of mental

practice. He suggests that there could be a motivational

29

effect of mental practice rather than a learning effect
which has not been ruled out, nor has the possibility of
task sophistication (comparable to test sophistication).
He then offers what he calls a psychoneuromuscular
explanation based upon the action currents produced in
appropriate muscle groups as one imagines himself through
a particular movement, experiences kinesthetic feedback,
and makes corrections. Several studies are cited which
provide some support for this attempt to explain the

positive results of mental practice (Ulrich, 1967).

Summary of Review of Research

 

The approaches to the study of mental practice as
it relates to learning and performance of motor skills
were numerous. Variety was evident in experimental
situations, sequencing of mental practice with physical
practice, duration of mental practice sessions, length
of the studies, measurement of performance, analysis of
learning curves, types of skill tasks used (fine, gross,
simple, complex, open, closed, discrete, continuous),
skill level of subjects, and the statistical treatment
of data.

It is difficult to find trends in the relatively
few studies which have been reported. There is one con-
clusion that appears to be valid. Mental practice or
conceptualizing of the task does result in improved

performance. Early studies involving structured mental

30

practice and, in particular, the studies of Thiffault
(1974), Egstrom (1964), and Oxendine (the pursuit rotor
study, 1969) are important. Egstrom and Oxendine both
found that a combination of physical and mental practice
produced gains equal to or better than other groups with
less physical practice time. Ulrich's study (1967)
reported that the alternation of active (physical) and
mental training was more successful in most groups than
only active training.

In situations where subjects have had some pre-
task experience and no further physical practice before
the criterion task (Corbin, 1967a), scores were improved.
The reasons for the effects are not, however, clear. Nor
are the studies conducted thus far clear about retention.

A variety of types of skills seems to be amenable
to mental practice. However, the more complex skills may
be more of a challenge and, therefore, more interesting
to practice mentally.

The studies summarized earlier indicated that
structured mental practice was superior to unstructured
mental practice. The amount and content of structure
varied.

This review of the research literature has not
indicated that individual ability, skill level of learner,
or age are important discriminating factors in mental
practice. The research which has investigated these

factors remains inconclusive.

CHAPTER III

METHODOLOGY

This study was concerned with the effect of mental
practice on both performance and form in learning two
complex tennis skills: the forehand and the service.

The term "performance" used in this study referred to
accuracy measured by objective skill tests. The term
"form" used in this study referred to the rating of sub-
jects on criteria selected for acceptable stroke patterns.

Prior to the formal collection of data, a pilot
study was conducted in two beginning tennis classes
during the fall term of 1976. The purpose of the pilot
study was to determine appropriate performance criterion
tests and to develop procedural techniques for the use
of prepared audio tapes.

This chapter will discuss the selection of tests,

the pilot study, and the methodology for the final study.

Review of Performance Tests

 

Hewitt's Tennis Achievement Test (1966) was

initially favored for testing the forehand and the

31

32

service. His forehand test measured accuracy; his service
test measured both speed and accuracy (Appendix A,
Exhibits A and C).

Hewitt's forehand test required the student to
stand at the baseline and drive balls over the net into
zoned areas to score points. The balls were delivered
by the instructor who stood at the service line across
the net. The student needed to move into proper position
for the forehand. Stroked balls landing nearer the
opposite baseline and inside the court were scored higher
than those clearing but landing nearer the net. Stroked
balls going over a seven-foot restraining rope, placed
above the net, received one-half the value of the zone
in which they landed. Netted balls were scored zero and
let balls were repeated. Ten trials were given after a
ten-minute warmup and five practice trials.

Hewitt's service test required the student to
serve ten balls into the right service court from behind
the baseline. The serve was scored on both placement and
speed. For placement, the far inside corner of the right
service court, six feet deep and three feet wide, was
divided equally into the four highest scoring areas.

The deep area to the left of this square, six feet deep
and ten feet six inches wide, was given the next highest
value. The entire forecourt of the service area, fifteen

feet by thirteen feet six inches, had the lowest value.

33

To score on speed, the ball first had to land somewhere
in the service court. Speed was then measured by the
distance of the second bounce. Four zones were marked,
beginning with the backcourt area of the playing court
and extending to three scoring zones beyond the baseline.
The area farthest beyond the baseline scored highest.
Zero points were given for a serve going over the seven-
foot restraining rope.

Hewitt's test was selected for the pilot study

for the following reasons:

(1) Objective measurement of forehand and service

performance;

(2) Reliability and validity (the reliability of the
Hewitt tests for ninety-one beginners, thirty-
six advanced, and sixteen varsity/junior varsity
players combined was .75 on the forehand, .94
on the service placement, and .84 on service
speed based on the "test-retest" method. The
validity coefficient based on a comparison with
rank order of playing ability of ninety-one
beginners was .67 for the forehand, .72 for
service placement, and .89 for service speed)

(Hewitt, 1966):

(3) Realistic game application (the test required

ball tracking, positioning, and stroking in a

34

physical space which provided gamelike per-

spective);

(4) Reasonable administrative time (could be completed

in one class period);
(5) Ease of administration.

For the forehand, an objective test which would
measure controlled, accurate stroking, and which was
sbmilar to the game situation was sought. Hewitt's test
met the criteria selected for this study. Hewitt's
service test measured the two factors important for a
beginner's serve, speed and accuracy, and was less time
consuming than DiGennaro's test (1969).

The other tennis skill tests reviewed for con-
sideration were Dyer's revision of her original Backboard
Test of Tennis Ability (1938), Hewitt's Revision of
Dyer's Backboard Test (1965), DiGennaro's Construction
of Forehand Drive, Backhand Drive, and Service Tests
(1969), and the Broer-Miller Achievement Tests for
Beginning and Intermediate Tennis (1950).

Both Dyer (1938) and Hewitt (1965) (Hewitt's
revision of Dyer's test) measured the number of hits
against a backboard in a given amount of time. The
forehand and the backhand could be used. There were
limitations in terms of the height at which the ball

had to hit the wall, and a restraining line behind which

35

the stroke had to be initiated. Neither of these tests
was appr0priate for this study since backboard practice
was not a formal part of the forehand practice mode
planned for the classes nor was speed of stroking a major
emphasis (Safrit, 1973). Fox (1953) conducted a study
which indicated that a combination of the Dyer revised
test and the Broer-Miller test had acceptable validity
for beginners, but only if backboard practice had been
included in the instruction.

The Broer-Miller test (1950) utilized a self-
tossed ball which was stroked with the forehand after
one bounce. While useful in the initial stages of ground
stroke (forehand and backhand) learning, this task would
not accommodate discriminate assessment of the control
_and form emphasized in the present study. Except for
slow learners, self-toss drills for the forehand would
not be used beyond the second lesson in college classes.

The tests considered for assessing performance
on the service were Hewitt's test (1966) and DiGennaro's
test of the forehand, backhand, and service (1969).
DiGennaro's test was not practical because of lengthy

administration time.

Pilot Study

 

Subjects
The subjects were thirty-one undergraduate

college men and women who were enrolled in two classes

36

in beginning tennis during the fall term, 1976, at
Kalamazoo College. These students elected tennis from
twenty-one different activities offered during this term

to meet the requirement in physical education.

tests.

The Hewitt forehand test (1966) was administered
during the second class period of the term to collect
pretest scores on performance (accuracy) of the forehand.
The same test was given during the sixth class period for
immediate posttest scores. During the tenth and four-
teenth class periods, Hewitt's service test was adminis-
tered to obtain pretest and immediate posttest service

performance scores.

Schedule

Each class met twice weekly for fifty minutes
in the ten-week term. During the three days between the
pretest and immediate posttest on both the forehand and
service, instruction was given for each skill. Instruc—
tion in both classes was the same for all students.
Hewitt's tests for both skills were again administered
during the last two class periods of the term as final
posttests. Backhand instruction was given in the seventh,
eighth, and ninth lessons, as normal beginning tennis
class content, but this skill was not included in the
study. Lessons fifteen through eighteen included all

three strokes.

37

Treatment

One class was selected to receive additional
practice, in the form of mental practice, to supplement
the three lessons on each of the two skills. Mental
practice was directed through the medium of audio tapes
placed on closed reserve in the college library. All
students in one class were assigned to listen to Tape 1
on the forehand after lesson one and before lesson two;
Tape 2 after lesson two and before lesson three; and
Tape 3 after lesson three and before the immediate post-
test.

The procedure for the service tape listening was
the same. The control class received no additional
assigned practice. No further tape listening was
assigned.

The tape content for both the forehand and the
service was essentially the same as the content for the
MPP (mental practice positive) group in the final study
(Appendix B, Exhibit A). This content included all
instructional cues and sequences for stroke patterning
and ball tracking, as presented in class.

In the pilot study, skill acquisition was
measured only by performance (accuracy) scores. These
data were obtained through use of Hewitt's objective
tests of the forehand and the service (1966). Prepared

audio tapes were used to direct mental practice as a

38

supplemental treatment to class instruction. Lessons in
both classes were the same for all students. A total

of forty-five minutes of mental practice, for each of
the two skills, was expected of all students in the
treatment groups. The control group received no addi-
tional assigned practice.

Changes Resulting from the
Pilot Study

 

 

The pilot study was useful in determining neces-
sary modifications of the objective performance tests
and in clarifying the procedure for using audio tapes as
the mental practice mode. A third value of the pilot
study was the realization that assessment of skill
acquisition could not be adequately measured solely by
objective tests. It was apparent, by observation of
skill patterns during the final posttest performance
tests, that positive changes in patterning were occurring.
These changes needed to be evaluated to more fully assess

learning.

Revision of Performance Tests
Hewitt's test for the forehand (1966) was revised

for the final study as follows:

1. The height of the rope stretched across the net
was changed from seven feet to nine feet six

inches. Students in beginning tennis were

39

instructed to stroke the ball so that it cleared
the top of the net by three feet to six feet.
Since the net itself was three feet high, an
additional six feet were believed necessary to

be consistent with instruction.

Rather than giving one-half point for balls going
over the rope and full points for those going
between the rope and the net, full points were
given for any ball which went over the rope, and
double the value for any ball which went between
the rope and net into a scoring area. This change
was made to be consistent with the change in rope
height and to reward or encourage the student.

The scoring change was made to avoid fractions.

To remain consistent with instruction without
penalizing the subject, the markings in the
backcourt and forecourt were changed (Appendix A,
Exhibit B). A scoring area was added beyond the
baseline. It was important to recognize and
encourage depth in ground stroke production.

If beginners being tested feared stroking the
ball too long and getting a zero on an otherwise
good stroke, they might alter their pattern to

avoid such penalty.

were as

1.

40

The ten-minute warmup period for the forehand was

eliminated and the five trials retained.

Ball machines were used to provide more consistent

ball speed, flight, and bounce.

Revisions of the service test for the final study

follows:

The service court was left intact as one scoring
area. The small scoring area in the deep inside
corner of the service court, which was a part of
Hewitt's test, was deleted. On advice from
tennis professionals, it was agreed that this
was a small target for beginners. Any serve
landing in that small area would be by chance
and should not receive additional weight in

scoring.

The rope above the net was not used. Again, to
be consistent with instruction and to discourage
the beginner's tendency to hit down on top of

the ball, the rope was removed.

Procedural Changes

The immediate posttests after three lessons were

eliminated. Insufficient practice had occurred between

pretests and immediate posttests to develop improved

41

performance. As a result, the mental practice schedule
was extended throughout the ten weeks from pretest to
posttest.

Intact classes were not used as treatment groups,
but students across classes were randomly assigned to
treatments. The MPP (mental practice positive) treatment
was retained, and a different mental practice content was
developed. The new mental practice content was MPEIEE
(mental practice with error identification, error exper-
ience, and error elimination). The development of the
MPEIEE tapes was directed toward reducing trial and error
time when the students were in class. Any error concepts
which could be identified through the tapes and removed
mentally by the learner would allow more physical practice

time in class to repeat correct stroke patterns.

Additional Measurement

 

Class instruction emphasized stroke patterns.
In the pilot study, students were not measured on this.
The decision was made, therefore, to include video tape
ratings (pre and post) on each subject to establish a
rating on form. Thus, skill acquisition was not only
measured on the performance tests, but also on ratings
of stroke patterns. The data for a global analysis from
rater impressions were collected from the raters' judg-
ment on each rating sheet as to whether they were viewing

pretest or posttest film.

42

Methodology

 

Subjects

 

The subjects were fifty-four undergraduate college
men and women who were enrolled in three classes in
beginning tennis during the winter term, 1977, at Kala-
mazoo College. Tennis is one of the many sports in which
instruction is offered to the college students to provide
them with activities through which they can meet the six-

term physical education requirement for graduation.

Schedule and Class Treatment

 

Each class met twice weekly for ten weeks with
forty-five minutes of instruction per meeting. The first
class meeting was devoted to orientation and explanation
of the study. Class periods two and three were used for
pretesting; class periods eighteen and nineteen were
used for posttesting. The last class period was reserved
for testing any subjects who were absent on either post-
test day. The remaining fourteen class periods involved
three days of instruction each on the forehand, service,
and backhand-~in that order--and then instruction on all
of the three strokes on the remaining five days (Appen-
dix F).

Techniques from Murphy (1975), Murphy and Murphy
(1975), and Barnaby (1975) on drills and stroke pattern
concepts were reviewed for task analysis and utilization

of class time. Instruction included demonstrations,

43

explanations, and drill practice on the three strokes.
Students worked at various times alone, in pairs, or in
groups of three or four. Partners and groups were not
assigned.

For the forehand, the drill progression was
mimetic without the racket, mimetic with the racket,
self-toss and stroke the ball into the curtains, self-
toss and stroke the ball over the net, partner-toss and
stroke the ball into the curtains, partner-toss and
stroke the ball over the net, and stroking balls tossed
by the ball machine. For the service, the drill pro-
gression was mimetic with the racket and without the
ball, stroke with the ball toss and hit into the curtains,
and then the full service stroke of the ball over the net.
After the first few trials on each skill, the method of
teaching was individual instruction.

There.was no identification of students with
treatment groups during class instruction except with
the added physical practice group (APP) which stayed for
fifteen minutes after class. During this time, no

instruction was offered.

Procedure

 

The instructional services department at Kala-
mazoo College was consulted one month prior to the
beginning of testing. Schedules for video taping were

confirmed and the location of the cameras for filming

44

determined. The decision not to film at court level was
reached after an examination of the area confirmed that
both cameras could not be placed at similar locations
with respect to the subjects. The circulations librarian
at the college library was consulted and familiarized
with the use of the audio tapes in relation to the study.

Both courts were marked identically with masking
tape (Appendix A, Exhibits B and D). A Prince ball
machine was used on one court and a Lobster ball machine
on the other court. The machines were pretested and
adjusted to eject a ball every five seconds. The speed
and loft of the ball were matched and adjusted to allow
the subject adequate time to assume a ready position
before each stroke. The speed, loft, and frequency were
the same for pretesting and posttesting. New balls were
used for the pretest and the posttest. The balls used
for the pretest were used for class instruction during
the last two and one-half weeks before the posttest.

The reliability of the raters was established on
a rating of ten women junior varsity players. The raters
viewed the subjects' forehand and service strokes from
the window where the camera for video taping was to be
installed for the study. The conditions of the per-
formance test of the study were simulated, and the rating
sheets for the study were used (Appendix E, Exhibits A

and B). The reliability of the raters on the forehand

 

45

was .75; on the service, .69. Reliabilities in the study
would be at least this high given the likely greater
variance in performance for these study data.

During the first class period, the students were
told that a study would be conducted during the term to
investigate effective ways of learning motor skills.

They were told the amount of additional time which would
be required and were given the option of participating
or transferring to another class.

A brief explanation of the study and the students'
involvement was stated. Names of all those who could
stay for fifteen minutes after each class for added
physical practice were requested and obtained. No
further explanation was given, and the pretest for the
second class period was announced.

Each subject was assigned a testing number for
the pretest which was printed on one-half of folded
eightrinch by fifteen-inch poster boards which stood
on edge on the court surface. The number for each sub-
ject, then, was visible to the TV cameras for subject
identification by the raters. Different numbers were
assigned each subject for the posttest.

Two TV cameras were placed in a classroom window,
thirty feet above the courts. The window ran parallel
to the sidelines and was even with the service line on

the Opposite end of the court from the subjects.

46

Both camera operators were familiarized with
the tests and started filming at the beginning of each
subject's trials (not including practice trials). Twelve
fifty-minute video tapes were used. Two students in each
class were assigned to turn the ball machines on and off
at the appropriate times. They also collected balls and
loaded the machine for each subject. Signs were posted
and a student was assigned to the door of the tennis
courts to prevent anyone from entering during testing.
All subjects remained seated on the sidelines throughout
testing.

Upon the completion of pretesting during the
second class meeting, each subject received a prepared
instruction sheet on which had been placed his/her treat-
ment group identification. This sheet included class
requirements for credit and a schedule for audio tape
practice. Each subject in the three mental practice
groups--MPP, MPEIEE, and PMP--was to listen to the tapes
as scheduled. The APP group was assigned an equivalent
time for added physical practice at the end of the
instructional periods (Appendix D).

During the term, students were reminded at the
end of each class period to listen to the appropriate
tape before the next class period, according to the
schedule provided them. Each student was requested to

listen a total of ten times (150 minutes), fifteen

47

minutes at a time. The closed reserve checkout cards
at the library were examined each week, and the listen-
ing times for each student were recorded. Those students

who fell behind in listening were reminded each week.

Pre-Study Data

 

Verbal scores from the Scholastic Aptitude Test
of the College Entrance Examination Board were obtained
for all subjects. The scores were rank ordered and the
median score of 550 was determined with a range from
690 to 280. Those subjects above the median were placed
in the high verbal group and those below the median were
placed in the low verbal group for the study.

The thirteen students required for the APP (added
physical practice) group were randomly selected by high/
low verbal classification from a limited number of stu-
dents in each class who could stay after class. Students
were then randomly assigned within each class and high/
low verbal combination to the three treatment groups

(MPP, MPEIEE, and APP) and one control group (PMP).

Collection of Data

Collection of pretest and posttest data was
identical. Pretest data on the forehand were collected
the second class period, and for the service, the third

class period. Posttest data were collected the

48

eighteenth and nineteenth class periods. The last class
period was arranged to test anyone absent on previous
posttest days (Appendix C). All tests and class instruc-
tion were conducted on the two indoor college tennis
courts which are of a commercial tennis composition
surface. A trained assistant and the experimenter
administered and scored all performance tests. During
the performance tests, each subject was video taped
throughout all trials to secure film data for form
ratings.

The subjects' testing numbers--two for each
subject (pre and post)--were placed in random order
according to a table of random numbers. The original
' pre and post video films were then placed in random order
onto new tapes. The pretest and posttest forehands were
randomized on separate tapes from the pretest and post-
test service. The randomization of pretest and posttest
films kept the raters naive as to which films were pre-
test and which were posttest. These tapes were then
submitted to two outside raters who did not know the
students for~assessment of pretest and posttest form.
The raters were two experienced tennis professionals
and former USTA ranked players. They were asked to rate

the subjects on particular criteria (Appendix E).

49

Treatment

 

Eighteen mental practice audio tapes were pre-
pared by the experimenter. The length of each tape was
from twelve to fifteen minutes (Appendix B). A series
of three audio tapes each for the forehand and the service

was prepared for all mental practice groups as follows:

Forehand Service
MPP 3 3
MPEIEE 3 3
PMP 3 3

The MPP and MPEIEE tapes followed in sequence the instruc-
tional material from classes. For instance, Tape 1 con-
tained material from lesson one; Tape 2, lesson two; and
Tape 3, lesson 3. The tapes were labelled for proper
identification and placed on closed reserve in the col-
lege library. Close control over the signout procedure
assured that the subjects received the correct tapes
(Appendix F).

MPP Tape Content (mental practice positive):

 

All instructional cues and sequences for stroke pattern-
ing and ball tracking, as presented in class, were
reiterated again and practiced on the MPP tapes. Only
correct patterns were described.

MPEIEE Tape Content (mental practice with error
identification, error experience, and error elimination):
The MPEIEE tapes included, in part, the correct pattern

content of the MPP tapes. They emphasized, however,

50

information concerning common errors, the prevailing
causes of these errors, mental trial of errors, and
information and practice time needed to correct these
errors. The correct pattern was always practiced after
the errors were mentally perceived.

PMP Tape Content (placebo mental practice):

 

The content of the placebo tapes contained correct but
useless (for the study criteria) information for beginners
about strokes, strategy, and how to watch tennis matches.

The APP group (added physical practice) received
added physical practice time. This group had no mental
practice.

The three treatment groups were the two mental
practice groups (MPP and MPEIEE) and the added physical
practice group (APP). Placebo mental practice (PMP) was
the control group. All groups had add-on treatment
beyond the class instruction. The class instruction

was the same for all groups.

Statistical Treatment

 

A two-way completely crossed multivariate
analysis of covariance was applied to each of two sets
of data. The data for the forehand and the service were
treated separately.

The purpose of these analyses was to test the

following null hypotheses:

51

Null Hypothesis 1:

 

There will be no significant difference between
treatment groups on improvement in performance
and form on the forehand and service.

Null Hypothesis 2:

 

There will be no significant treatment by high/low
verbal ability interaction.

Multivariate analysis of covariance can be
applied when concomitant variables (covariables) are
added to a model to determine if there are significant
main effects which cannot be attributed to the covariable
(Press, 1972). The pretests in this study were used as
the covariables to control variations which would exist
because of differences in initial skill level of the
subjects and thus to provide more powerful tests of the
hypotheses.

The independent variables were treatment con-
dition, section, and high/low verbal ability (see Table l).
The dependent variables were form and performance on both
the forehand and the service. The covariates were the
same as the dependent variables except that they were
pretests. If the multivariate test of interaction were
significant, separate univariate analyses of covariance
would be of interest to identify the treatment(s) inter-
acting with verbal ability.

A 4 x 2 randomized design was used for statistical

treatment of the data. There were four treatment levels,

52

TABLE 1

RANDOMIZED DESIGN

 

Treatment Conditions

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Class SAT
Sections Verbal Score T1 T2 T3 T4
MPP MPEIEE APP PMP
Section ngh 3 3 2 3
1 Low 2 2 2 1
Section High 2 2 3 2
2 Low 3 3 3 4
Section High 2 2 1 1
3 Low 2 2 2 2

 

Number of Subjects

in Treatment Groups 14 14 13 13

 

53

two verbal ability levels, and three sections of the
class. The section variable was dropped from the design
for analysis because of attrition. The significance
level for hypothesis testing was set at the .05 (p = .05)
level.

A discussion of the analysis of the data, which
was generated from the design shown in Table 1, will
follow in Chapter IV. The data were analyzed at
Michigan State University using the FINN computer program

of multivariate analysis of covariance on the CDC 6500.

CHAPTER IV

ANALYSIS OF THE DATA

The purpose of this study was to determine the
effect of two types of mental practice on the learning
of two complex tennis skills: the forehand and the
service. This chapter will discuss subject attrition,
the research design, presentation of the data, and

summary of the results.

Subject Attrition

 

The original sample in three beginning tennis
classes consisted of fifty—four subjects. Two of these
subjects withdrew from their classes after four weeks
and were dropped from the study. All data were collected
on the remaining fifty-two subjects. Of these fifty-two
subjects, forty-four fulfilled the minimum mental practice
treatment time. The minimum treatment time was set at
six tape sessions which included listening to each of
six tapes at least once. All subject attrition occurred
in two treatment groups: one experimental group (MPP)

and the control group (PMP). Since subject attrition

54

55

occurred in one experimental group, resulting in a 50 per-
cent attrition in this group (MPP), the data were analyzed
both for the initial sample (Sample I, N = 52) and the
retained sample (Sample R, N = 44). Subject attrition
also resulted in the removal of sections as an independent

variable (see Table 1, page 52).

The Research Design

 

The choice of the multivariate analysis of
covariance design for this study is appropriate. The
experiment contained an extraneous source of variation,
initial skill level, which might have affected the depen-
dent variables but was not relevant to the objectives of
the study. It was possible to obtain a measure of this
source of variation by pretesting both the forehand and
the service on performance and form. The pretest scores
functioned as the covariables. The design thus provided
statistical control over this source of variation which
could not be controlled experimentally. For the complete
sample the covariables should improve statistical power.
For the reduced sample the covariables help to control
confounding introduced by attrition.

Differences in ability to benefit from learning
through mental practice were hypothesized to be related
to verbal ability. Verbal ability was, therefore, con-
sidered a possible intervening variable and was tested

for interaction with treatment effects.

The assumptions of multivariate analysis of
covariance were not tested in any formal sense. Multi-
variate analysis of covariance is robust to violations
of the assumption of normality and equal variance for
balanced or near balanced designs. While the complete
sample design was near balanced and made for robust
tests of hypotheses, the reduced sample was not. Never-
theless, the results of analysis of the reduced sample
mirrored those of the complete sample and were, therefore,
not suspect. Meeting the assumption of independence was
facilitated by random assignment and by the individualized
nature of the treatments. Meeting the assumption of paral-
lel regression lines was facilitated by including in the
design the variable believed most likely to interact
with treatment. Furthermore, analysis of covariance
has been shown to be quite robust with respect to the

parallel regression lines assumption.

Presentation of Results

 

The data will be presented and discussed relative
to the multivariate analysis of covariance test of sig-
nificance and then the gain scores on the observed
combined means will be presented. Correlations between
the variables and a discussion of the analysis of raters'
impressions will conclude the presentation.

Two separate multivariate analysis of covariance

tests were conducted, one for the forehand and one for

57

the service. The data analysis revealed that the first
null hypothesis, that there would be no significant dif-
ference in treatment groups on improvement in motor skill
learning, was not rejected at a = .05. These data also
show that verbal ability was not a significant factor

in utilizing mental practice. Thus, the second null
hypothesis of no treatment-verbal ability interaction

was not rejected (Tables 2 and 3).

Some observations on the slight mean differences
between treatment groups should be noted. These dif-
ferences were considered using gain scores. ANCOVA
using pretests as covariates and posttests as dependent
variables is identical with ANCOVA using gain scores as
dependent variables and pretests as covariables. Thus,
the results for gains are as given in Tables 2 and 3.
The added physical practice group (APP) is slightly
better on forehand performance (Table 4). Their gain
is better than the other three groups. The APP group
was also affected less by change on service performance
(Table 7). It should be noted, however, that both the
pretest and posttest mean scores for this group were
the lowest. On service form, the APP group and the
MPEIEE group were slightly better than the other two
groups in gain (Table 6). Their posttest mean scores

are comparable with the other two groups even though

58

TABLE 2

F-RATIO FOR MULTIVARIATE ANALYSIS OF COVARIANCE--FOREHAND

 

Sample I Sample R

 

Hypotheses Sample I Sample R r r
Treatment .51 .38 <.80 <.89
Verbal Ability .03 .03 <.97 <.97
Verbal-Treatment

Interaction .76 .58 <.60 <.74

 

d.f. = 24

TABLE 3

F-RATIO FOR MULTIVARIATE ANALYSIS OF COVARIANCE--SERVICE

 

Hypotheses Sample I Sample R Sample I Sample R

 

r r

Treatment .64 1.07 <.69 <.39

Verbal .05 .09 <.95 <.92
Verbal-Treatment

Interaction .78 .85 <.58 <.53

 

d.f. = 24

59

 

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61

their pretest mean scores were slightly less. All dif-
ferences in treatment group means are slight for each
dependent variable. While overall gain was not tested
with the original design and data; since there were no
effects for any independent variable in the original
design, a quick and conservative test for overall group
mean gain was used as an independent estimate of overall
gain. A one-sample t-test of gain with four observations
tests this hypothesis.
Significant gains resulted from improvement in

forehand performance (9.09). ‘See Table 4, page 59.
Gains on form for both the forehand and the service were
significant and positive (8.86--forehand; 10.18--service).
See Tables 5 and 6, pages 59 and 60. Service performance
for all treatments was not significantly different from
zero (Table 7, page 60). While this may merely reflect
the conservative nature of the test, it was nevertheless
the case that sample gains for service performance were
substantially smaller than gains for the other three
dependent variables.

~ Correlations between the variables showed little
relationship between pretest and posttest scores. The
highest correlation (.538) was between preaccuracy and
postaccuracy (performance) on the forehand (Table 8).
The next highest correlation was between preaccuracy
(performance) and postform on the forehand (.385,

Table 8). The highest correlation between variables

62

TABLE 8

SAMPLE CORRELATION MATRIX--FOREHAND SAMPLE I

 

 

 

l 2 3 4
PreF PostF PreA PostA
l PreF 1.000
2 PostF .281 1.000
3 PreA .385 .228 1.000
4 PostA .296 .203 .538 1.000
TABLE 9

SAMPLE CORRELATION MATRIX-~SERVICE SAMPLE I

 

 

l 2 3 4
PreF PostF PreA PostA
l PreF 1.000
2 PostF .333 1.000
3 PreA .130 .316 1.000
4 PostA .139 .198 .372 1.000

 

63

on the service was between preaccuracy and postaccuracy
(.372, Table 9). Changes in these correlations on the
analysis of the remaining sample (Sample R) were slight
and mixed (Tables 10 and 11). The conclusion is that
there is little relationship between pretest and posttest
scores in this study. Future studies of this type would
be advised to search for better covariates.

The global analysis of raters' impressions was
of interest. The raters viewed and rated 208 tests of
form. The pretest and posttest skill presentations on
video tapes were randomized 30 that the raters did not
know if they were rating pretest or posttest form. On
each rating, in addition to rating the subject, they were
asked to indicate if the film was pretest or posttest.
In the analysis of their impressions each posttest film
which they indicated was pretest was noted as an error.
The data used for the analysis, therefore, represent
104 responses. The mean of the raters' wrong selection
of posttests as pretests was then calculated. The
percentage of error on the forehand was 22.1 and on
the service, 13.5. In looking at the possible effects
of treatment differences on the raters' impressions
(Tables 12 and 13), it is apparent that the raters had
the greatest number of errors (33%) on the forehand in
the MPP group. Their lowest number of errors was on

the control group (PMP) on the service. The greatest

64

TABLE 10

SAMPLE CORRELATION MATRIX--FOREHAND SAMPLE R

 

 

 

l 2 3 4
PreF PostF PreA PostA
1 PreF 1.000
2 PostF .187 1.000
3 PreA .261 .112 1.000
4 PostA .194 .131 .441 1.000
TABLE 11

SAMPLE CORRELATION MATRIX--SERVICE SAMPLE R

 

 

l 2 3 4
PreF PostF PreA PostA
l PreF 1.000
2 PostF .411 1.000
3 PreA .052 .220 1.000
4 PostA .134 .330 .414 1.000

 

65

TABLE 12

NUMBER OF POSTTEST RATINGS MARKED AS PRETESTS--FOREHAND

 

Combined Error

 

 

Trgagflent n Rater 1 Rater 2 of Raters
P (Percentage)
MPP 12 4 4 .33
MPEIEE 14 5 1 -21
Total 52 14 9
TABLE 13

NUMBER OF POSTTEST RATINGS MARKED AS PRETESTS--SERVICE

 

Combined Error

 

Trgggggnt n Rater 1 Rater 2 of Raters
(Percentage)

MPP 12 2 l .125

MPEIEE l4 2 3 '18

APP 13 2 0 .14

pup l4 4 0 .08

Total 52 10 4

 

66

difference between the raters' errors was with the

MPEIEE group on the forehand (35% R 7% R2) and the

13
APP group on the service (28%; 0%). Given the blind
rating situation, the high percentage of correct
impressions indicates that the criteria for rating
form was discriminating in detecting change in form.

The effect of treatment differences on the raters'

impressions appears to be negligible.

Summary of Results

 

1. There was no significant difference in treatments
on either performance or form for the forehand

and the service.

2. There was no significant interaction between
verbal ability and treatment on either performance

or form for the forehand and the service.

3. All treatments resulted in significant improve-
ment on form and performance of the forehand

stroke.

4. All treatments resulted in significant improvement

in service form but not in service performance.

5. Study results support earlier research which
found that a combination of physical and mental
practice was as effective for learning motor

skills as physical practice alone.

CHAPTER V

RESULTS, LIMITATIONS, CONCLUSIONS,

AND RECOMMENDATIONS

The purpose of this study was to investigate the
effect of two types of mental practice on the learning of
two complex tennis skills: the forehand and the service.
The basic hypothesis, based upon a review of the related
research, was that mental practice is an effective way to
supplement physical practice when learning motor skills.

Little of the previous research was concerned with
the use of mental practice in actual class settings.
Further, the possibility for expediting concept forma-
tions, necessary to motor skill learning, appeared worthy
of exploration in a classroom setting.

This chapter will discuss the results of the
research with reference to the summary of reviewed
research in Chapter II, the limitations of the research,

conclusions from the study, and recommendations.

67

68

Results of the Research

The results of the study were modest. They did,
however, support much of the earlier research. Mental
practice did result in improvement in learning. Gains
were significant on all dependent variables except service
performance. This was consistent with the results of
many of the studies which have been reported (Clark,

1960; Wilson, 1960; Twining, 1964; Ulrich, 1967; Stebbins,
1968; Oxendine, 1969; & Rapp, 1973).

No significant difference in improvement was found
between the two mental practice groups, the added physical
practice group, and the control group. Wilson (1960),
Egstrom (1964), and Oxendine (1969) (on the soccer kick
and jump shot) also reported no significant difference in
treatments. These studies found, as did the present
study, that combinations of physical and mental practice
were as effective as all physical practice.

There were results specific to this study which
were of interest in the implications for future research.
All treatments resulted in positive effects on improved
forehand performance and form and service form. The
.effect on service performance, however, was not positive.
The somewhat negative effect on service performance may
have been a function of the task difficulty. Similar
task interference was reported by Gilmore and Stolurow,

1951, and Jones, 1965. In both of these studies, the

69

interference was attributed to directed (structured)
mental practice. Other studies utilizing structured
mental practice, including this one, have, however, found
positive effects (Gagné & Foster, 1949; Smith & Harrison,
1962; Egstrom, 1964; Thiffault, 1974; Whitehead, 1974).
It is possible that the difficulty of the task (Oxendine,
1969; Lindquist, 1971) was the cause for the interference
on service performance.

Verbal ability, as defined in this study, was not
significant in facilitating learning of the motor skills.
The hypothesis that those with high verbal ability would
benefit from mental practice more than those with low
verbal ability was not supported. The range of verbal
scores may have been too restricted to have a discrimi-
nating effect. These results, therefore, support the

null hypotheses:

Null Hypothesis 1:

 

There will be no significant difference between
treatment groups on improvement in performance
and form on the forehand and service.

Null Hypothesis 2:

 

There will be no significant difference between
treatment groups by high/low verbal ability
interaction.

The ability of the raters to identify pretest

and posttest film of the service with greater accuracy

than their impressions of pretest-posttest forehands is

70

of interest. Lindquist's (1971) analysis of the learning
process using the tennis service as the task revealed
that the learner attends to one variable in the pattern
at a time. The learners in this study were attempting

a correct pattern but were also trying to perform well

on the objective test. The complexity of the service

may have affected the performance on the objective skill

test.

Limitations of the Research

 

1. The time of the study may have been too short
to expect significant differences. The refine-
ments of a complex skill occur over time with
practice. All subjects had ninety minutes of
practice per week in class. Three groups were
receiving just one-third again as much extra
practice as the control group. One-third more
practice time at this stage of complex-gross

skill learning might not be enough.

2. The treatment emphasized correct skill pattern-
ing in both the class and the added practice
modes. While correct skill patterning could
potentially result in better performance, this
concentration on form could have lessened sig-
nificant performance differences (Lindquist,

1971).

71

The control over mental practice is always

subject to conjecture. Control in this study

was as effective as possible under the conditions.
Structured mental practice in class was not pos-
sible with the presence of all treatment groups

in each class. Although most students checked the
tapes out on closed reserve in the library, there
is no way to know the extent of effort to con-

ceptualize.

The time of a mental practice session may have

had an effect. Some studies indicated that five
minutes was maximum for concentration. It was

the opinion in this study that the attention level
could be maintained with college students for ten
to fifteen minutes. However, some informal
feedback reflected impatience with the slow
motion rehearsal which was delivered at times on

the tapes.

The time lapse between mental practice sessions
alternating with physical practice sessions, which
were separated by either two or three days, may
have resulted in subjects forgetting mental
practice tape content. A structure of mental
practice or rehearsal followed immediately by
physical practice or response might have had

more effect.

72

6. Another possible limitation of this study has
been noted by Lindquist (1971). The complexity
of the skill tasks may have been too great for
the mental practice to have had a significant
effect on the performance of the service. The
forehand is defined as an open type skill (Poulton,
1957), while the service is defined as a closed
skill (Schmidt, 1975). Closed skills provide the
subject with more control, but with beginners
learning the service, there is considerable un-
certainty and thus the service can be defined as
an Open skill. Therefore, the possibility that
the effect of mental practice on learning the
service would be effective was negated by the

beginner's lack of control.

Conclusions

 

This research extended the findings of earlier
research which indicated that mental practice is an
effective means for learning physical skills. The design
of this research provided for the absence of systematic
error in estimating treatment effects. Unbiased esti-
mates were assumed since the subjects were randomly
assigned to treatment conditions.

The limitations of the research have been dis-
cussed. There is small reason to suggest that the

elimination or reduction of these limitations of the

73

research would have generated different results of the
study. This could only be supported by replication of
the study, and these preliminary findings do not argue

persuasively for such replication.

Recommendations for Future Research

 

It is possible that the area of mental practice
merits further investigation and research. Areas open
to additional research are those assessing the factors
of individual ability, the relationship of motivation to
the effect of mental practice on learning, and a more
precise determination of the time span necessary to learn
a physical skill with and without a mental practice com-
ponent.

The review of the related research for this
study, the design and completion of the research, and the
results were an effective task for learning about the
relationship of mental practice to the learning of physi-
cal skills. This field of study remains one which could,
with further related research, make a contribution to

motor skill learning.

APPENDICES

APPENDIX A

ACHIEVEMENT TESTS, TEST INSTRUCTIONS,

AND SCORE SHEETS

APPENDIX A
EXHIBIT A

HEWITT'S TENNIS ACHIEVEMENT TEST: FOREHAND

The test for forehand--

1.

All groups are given a demonstration of the tests
to be taken.

A 10-minute warm-up period is provided each stu-
dent on another court prior to testing.

Student stands at the intersection of baseline at
X while the instructor with basket of tennis
balls places himself across the net at the inter-
section of the center service line and service
line.

The instructor (using tennis racket) hits five
practice balls to the students just beyond the
service court. The student moves into proper
position for the forehand, and drives the ball
over the net into the zoned areas to score points.
The student tries to drive the ball as near the
baseline as possible to obtain higher points.

Ten trials each are given, and the student

chooses any ten balls to return on the forehand.

74

Scoring

1.

75

Note: It is important that the same instructor
hit all balls to the students in order to stan-
dardize the procedure. (If a school possesses an
automatic ball-throwing machine, this can be used
most effectively.) The machine was not used in
this study because the majority of schools teach-
ing tennis do not own this expensive equipment.
the forehand drives--

A student records all scores in proper places on
the score sheet for each of the ten forehand
drives going over the net and under the restrain-
ing rope. These scores will be for the number
zones marked on the lines for their respective
spaces--5, 4, 3, 2, and 1.

Balls hit over the 7-ft. restraining rope and
into the scoring zones score one-half the regular
value.

Balls hitting into net label N (net) = 0 score.
Balls going over the baseline label 0 (out) =

0 score.

Balls going wide of sidelines label W (wide) =

0 score.

All let balls repeated.

76

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

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FORE HAND SE RVICE

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77

EXHIBIT B
TEST INSTRUCTIONS FOR FOREHAND
PERFORMANCE TEST

These instructions are read to all subjects before
starting the test.

Pretest: "This is a forehand test. When your
name is called, take your number and place it on the floor,
back near the curtain, with the number facing the last
window. Be sure you have your own number."

"This is the test: Take a position, just behind
and in the center of the baseline. The ball machine will
send balls to you. Let the ball bounce once and then hit
it with your racket. Try to hit the ball over the net so
that it lands somewhere inside the court on the other
side." (Indicate double sideline and rear serving area.)
“Do not let the ball bounce more than once. Do not hit
the ball before it bounces once. Position yourself so
that all balls come to your racket side. If you are
right handed, this will be the racket side; vice versa,
if you are left handed. You will receive five balls for
practice and then two trials. The balls will not come
fast.

"If the ball coming from the machine, or the ball
which you hit, touches the rope above the net, it will
not score, and you will receive another ball. Do not

worry about the rope above the net. The machine will

78

stop at the end of your ten trials. Pick up your number
and be seated. Please stay seated while you are not
being tested.

"This test is not related to your status in the
class. Do the best you can and relax.

"Are there any questions?"

Posttest: "This is the same forehand test which

 

we had at the beginning of the term. Let me remind you,
when your name is called, to place your number near the
curtain so that it faces the last window.

"You know that the TV camera is filming your
stroke for data to rate your fOrm. This is a test of
performance and form, only on forehands. You will receive
five practice strokes from balls tossed by the machine
and then ten trials. Position yourself near the baseline
and in the center of the court. When you are finished,
please pick up your number and be seated.

"The scoring is determined by where the ball lands
on the other side of the net. Notice that: Zone 1
receives 1 point; Zone 2 receives 2 points; Zone 3
receives 3 points; Zone 4 receives 4 points; and the
Zone 3' behind the baseline receives 3 points. Any ball
that goes between the rope and the net receives double
the value of the zone in which it lands.

"Any ball that hits the rope will be repeated.

"Do you have any questions? Relax and do your

best."

79

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EXHIBIT C

HEWITT'S TENNIS ACHIEVEMENT TEST: SERVICE
Scoring the serve--

1. Placement of the serve

For every ball hit over the net and under the
7-ft. restraining line, the serve is scored on the basis
of the target area hit. Since the numbers are on the
lines, score all hits for their appropriate lines and
their adjacent spaces to the right of each number.

a. Score as 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, 1 placement for each of
the balls served.
b. Balls hitting out of the service court label as

L (long) = 0 score.

c. Balls served out of the service court wide label

W (wide) = 0 score.

d. Let balls are repeated.
e. Served balls going over the restraining line

label H (high) = 0 score.

2. Speed of serve or distance the served ball bounces
to the second bounce.

For each of the ten good serve placements, score
the distance the served ball bounces into the respective
zones:

a. Zone 1: Backcourt area to baseline--score one

point.

81

Zone 2: Area ten feet beyond the baseline--
score two points.

Zone 3: Area ten to twenty feet beyond the
baseline--score three points.

Zone 4: The area twenty feet beyond the baseline

or the fence in most instances--score four points.

82

EXHIBIT D

TEST INSTRUCTIONS FOR SERVICE
PERFORMANCE TEST

These instructions are read to all subjects
before starting the test.

Pretest: "This is a service test. When your
name is called, take your number and place it on the
floor, back near the curtain, with the number facing the
last window. Be sure you have your own number.

"This is the test: Take a position behind the
baseline and just to the right of the center mark."
(Demonstrate.) "Take a ball, toss it into the air, and
hit it before it bounces. You are trying to hit the
ball over the net into this area, the service court.
The ball must not touch the court on your side of the
net." (Demonstrate service in both elementary and
advanced style.)

"Underhand or sidearm deliveries are not
allowed for this test. You will receive ten service
trials for the test.

"The test will be scored as follows:

1. Serves that land in the service court will

score 1.

2. An additional number of points will be added to
the good serve for the second bounce--l for

Zone 1; 2 for Zone 2; and 3 for Zone 3.

83

3. A serve which touches the top of the net, but is
otherwise good, will be repeated.

"The total possible point total is 40. When
your trials are completed, pick up your number and be
seated. Please stay seated but feel free to converse
while you are not being tested.

"Do you have any questions?"

Posttest: "This is the same service test that we
had at the beginning of the term. You have had your ten-
minute warm-up. For the test, let me remind you to place
your number near the curtain so that it faces the last
window.

"You will again receive ten trials. The pre-
requisite for any score is to first get the ball into
the service court. Additional points will be added
according to the areas marked on the court and determined
by the second bounce of the ball. Let serves will be
repeated.

"You know that the TV camera is filming your
stroke for data to rate your form. This is a test for
form and performance.

"Do you have any questions?

"Please pick up your number when your trials are

completed and then be seated. Relax, and do your best."

84

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85

EXHIBIT E (l)

BEGINNING TENNIS
FOREHAND--FOR PERFORMANCE

Date Class

 

SCORING: 1 point 2 points 3 points 4 points 3 points

FIRST SECOND 3RD 4TH BEYOND
AREA AREA AREA AREA BASELINE

Circle score if ball goes between rope and top
of net.

Balls which touch a line dividing two scoring
areas count the value that is smaller.

Circled scores count double.

REPEAT ANY BALL WHICH HITS THE ROPE

 

Each Subject--5 practice trials and 10 trials

Video
Tape NAME 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Total
Number

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Date

86

EXHIBIT E (2)

BEGINNING TENNIS
SERVICE--FOR PERFORMANCE

Class

 

 

SCORING:

Video
Tape
Number

0 points if the ball does not land in the
service court on the first bounce
1 point for each ball which lands in the
service court
Let serves are taken again.
Record scores as l + next value for each serve.
Additional points
1 point--lst area on second bounce
2 points--2nd area on second bounce
3 points--3rd area on second bounce
Scattered 10-minute warm-up before test

SERVICE

 

NAME 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 TOTAL

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

APPENDIX B

TRANSCRIPTIONS OF AUDIO TAPES

APPENDIX B
TRANSCRIPTIONS OF AUDIO TAPES

EXHIBIT A
MPP TAPES (MENTAL PRACTICE POSITIVE)

A. BEGINNING TENNIS: FOREHAND, TAPE 1, MPP

This is the first in a series of tapes designed
to help you learn the forehand stroke for tennis. In
addition to the physical practice which you have in class,
you may practice mentally.

First, you may rehearse the steps for good stroke
production to become more familiar with them, and second,
you can imagine yourself going through the motion of doing
the forehand to get the "feel" of it.

Mental practice has been defined as the symbolic
rehearsal of a physical activity in the absence of any
gross muscular movements. It is used by experienced
gymnasts, divers, skiers, etc. The question here is:

Can it help beginners to learn a skill such as tennis?
As you practice mentally, you should close your eyes and
concentrate very hard. Attend closely to each step and
then, gradually, as you become familiar with the steps,

feel the entire stroke flowing very smoothly from

87

88

beginning to end. Do not actually make any (overt)
movements. Try hard to feel that you 252 moving. 29
ESE just listen to the information. Move in your
mind . . . pretend . . . imagine.

This first tape will review the material from the
first forehand lesson. Even if you think your skill is
beyond this level, please listen and practice. All
instruction is for right-handed players. The first of
the two drills is without the ball. Therefore, watch
your racket throughout the stroke to become familiar with
its position.

Are you ready? Eyes closed. Now concentrate.
Imagine that you are standing on the court with your
racket in both hands, facing the net. There are three
parts to the stroke: the ready position, the preparation
(of racket and body), and then the stroke.

First, the ready position--facing the net. Your
left hand is on the throat of the racket, holding the
racket in front of you so that the racket head is pointing
toward the net and the grip end is pointing toward you.
The racket head is on edge so that you can see neither
face of the racket.

Put your right hand in front of you, above the
grip, as if to shake hands with someone. Without changing
your hand position, place it on the grip. Close your

fingers and thumb around the grip and "shake hands" with

89

it. The "V" between your forefinger and thumb should be
apparent as you look down on your grip from above.

If you prefer, you may find the prOper grip by
placing the palm of your right hand against the strings
on the right face and then, without turning your hand to
right or left, slide it down onto the grip and again,
close your fingers and thumb around the grip. Be sure
your thumb is 222.0“ top as you look down on your grip.
"Feel" the grip in your fingers. With the proper grip,
your hand and racket will be on edge when stroking so
that the strings are merely an extension of the palm of
your hand, as if you were stroking with your hand.

(Pause.) Now, you have the proper grip and are
facing the net with your racket in both hands (left hand
at the throat) and racket head pointing towards the net.
Place your feet about shoulder width apart; bend your
knee so that your weight is forward over the balls of
your feet. You now have a good "ready position."

Next comes the preparation part of the stroke--
preparation of your body and racket to make the stroke.
(1) First, pivot on both feet to the right so that your
feet are at about a 45° angle to the net and your left
shoulder is pointing toward the net. At the same time
(2) Release your left hand from the racket; bring the

racket straight back along a line parallel to the ground

90

and about waist level until the racket is pointing at the
wall behind you. Follow the racket path with your eyes
so that you can see and feel its position.

(3) Keep the racket on edge and keep your elbow fairly
close to your body.

(4) Look at your racket. It should be on edge, pointing
at the wall behind you, with the racket head not higher
than your wrist.

The preparation is complete. Now for the stroke.

(1) First, step with your left foot toward the net, keep-
ing your foot at about a 45° angle to the net. This will
allow your knee to bend more as your weight shifts in the
direction of the net as you stroke the ball.

(2) After you step, bring your racket forward. (Remember,
we are doing this in slow motion.) After you step, bring
your racket forward, keeping your eyes on the racket and
keeping the racket on edge moving parallel to the floor
until it is almost even with your left foot. Feel your
weight shift to your left foot more and more as your
racket moves forward.

(3) When the racket head is almost opposite or even with
your left foot, start moving it upward and forward, keep-
ing it on edge until

(4) the racket head is high and pointing toward the
opposite wall. In this follow-through position, your
right hand or racket hand will be out in front of and

level with your left shoulder.

91

(5) StOp your stroke with the racket head high and point-
ing at the opposite wall.

At the end of your stroke, your weight will be
almost entirely on your left foot, BEE bgth_feet are
still in contact with the floor. Even though both feet
are in the same position as at the beginning of the for-
ward motion of the racket into the stroke, your shoulders
will have turned, and you are facing the net with the
racket hand well in front of and level with your left
shoulder and your racket head high, on edge, and pointing
at the opposite wall.

Hold this position a moment, then step back with
your left foot to the ready position, and ready for the
next stroke.

(Pause.) All right, now relax from your ready position

for a moment as we review some of the detail and then we'll
stroke through without stopping.

A. Here are some check_points foryyou to remember for

the ready position.

 

1. First, always check your grip for the forehand.
Remember that the racket is an extension of your arm.
The racket face is an extension of the palm of the hand.

2. The left hand is on the racket throat and the
racket head is pointing toward the net.

Get accustomed to the left hand going to the racket

throat after every stroke as this hand will function

92

significantly later when you wish to change your grip
for the backhand.

3. Your feet are about shoulder width apart, your
knees are bent so that your weight is well over the balls
of your feet. (This is very important.)

B. Check points on the preparation of the stroke.

 

1. First, you pivot on both feet until they are
almost at a 45° angle with the net. (This is a fairly
slight pivot.) As you pivot, release your left hand and
bring your racket back along a line about waist level
until it is pointing at the wall behind you. Remember,
in this drill without the ball, watch your racket so that
you may see and feel its position.

2. Keep the racket on edge and not higher than your
wrist.

C. Check points on the stroke itself.

 

l. The first part of the stroke is to step toward
the net with your left foot, keeping it at about a 45°
angle to the net.

2. Start moving your racket forward, keeping it on
edge and at the same time feel your weight shift steadily
toward your left foot.

3. Move the racket parallel to the ground until it
is almost even with your left foot and then start moving

it upward as you continue moving it forward.

93

. 4. At the finish, your racket hand is level with and
out in front of your left shoulder--well in front of your
left shoulder. Your racket head is higher and still on
edge, and your feet are both in contact with the floor
as at the beginning of the stroke. Your upper body would
be then facing the net. (Pause.)

Are you still with me? Don't go to sleep!
Remember, there is no ball to stroke yet so watch your
racket as you move it. Close your eyes now and concen-
trate and try to feel.

Now, let's practice in slow motion with just three
cues. The cues from me will be: ready position, prepar-
ation, and step and stroke.

All right, here we go in slow motion. Ready
position. Preparation. Step . . . and stroke . . . and
hold your follow-through . . . and,

Back to ready position. Preparation. Step . . .
and stroke . . . and hold your follow-through . . .

Back to ready position. Preparation. Step . . .
and stroke . . . hold the follow-through . . . and stOp.

As you do this in slow motion and you start with
the ready position, run through all the check points in
your mind on the ready position--feet shoulder width
apart, proper grip, weight forward on the balls of your
feet, and in order to have your weight forward on the

balls of your feet, your knees will have to be well bent.

94

Run through the preparation-~the pivot, 45° angle of your
feet to the net, and the slow backswing of your racket--
keeping it on edge, keeping it about parallel with the
floor, keeping your racket head no higher than your
wrist--and then step with your left foot, start your
forward swing through with the racket, keeping it on
edge. Watch your racket all this time because we have
no balls to watch. Watch your racket and hold your
follow-through and check to see if your right hand is
well in front of your left shoulder and your racket head
is high, and then stop.

During the one-minute pause on the tape, practice.
Practice this in slow motion--if you still need to practice
it in slow motion--but by all means, practice it up to
normal speed until the steps flow from one to another
into an uninterrupted, smooth, total stroke pattern.
Ready? Begin.

(One minute pause)

All right, now you should have been able to
practice several slow motion and several up-to-speed
strokes in that pause and to get a feeling for it flowing
smoothly from beginning to end without interruption.

The next and last drill on this tape will not
take so long as we are only adding a self-toss of the
ball to the stroke. So while you are relaxing, with
your eyes open now, let's review the checkpoints on the

self toss:

95

1. Your left hand is holding two balls in addition
to holding the racket at the throat.

2. You're in your ready position. Always toss the
ball up with an underhand toss to give yourself more time.

3. And the sequence for the self-toss drill is:

Take your ready position, then take your preparation
(with your racket back and your feet pivoted), then toss
the ball, let it bounce, then step and stroke.

4. Another check point on this drill: toss the ball
up so that it will rebound from the floor somewhere on
a line in the direction your left foot is pointing after
you have pivoted.

5. When you step with your left foot, step so that
your left foot is even with the point at which the ball
rebounded from the floor. In other words, if you draw a
mental line between the point where the ball hit the
floor and where your left foot is after your step, the
line between the two should be parallel to the net. The
line should be parallel to the net, not your foot. The
line between your foot and the point at which the ball hit
the floor on the bounce should be parallel to the net.

6. Unlike the drill without the ball, always watch
the ball from now on. Always watch the ball and not
the racket. You will be able to §32_the ball come off

the strings if you are watching it as closely as you

96

should. This is terribly important. Watch and try to
see the ball actually come off the strings.

All set? Close your eyes and let's do the whole
thing in slow motion. Remember, concentrate hard and
imagine a smooth stroke.

Ready position. Preparation . . . Toss. Let
the ball bounce . . . step and stroke. Hold the end of
the stroke and watch the ball.

Repeat this sequence for yourself, both in slow
motion (if necessary) for you and up to normal speed in
the next one-minute pause on the tape. Remember, you
are going to take ready position, preparation, then the
toss, let the ball bounce, step and stroke, and follow-
through. Begin.

Thank you for your attention. This is the end of Tape 1

on the forehand.

97

B. BEGINNING TENNIS: FOREHAND, TAPE 2, MPP

This mental practice session will consist of only
one drill: the toss of the ball by a classmate to you as
you practice your forehand.

All instructions again are for right-handed
players. Remember, imagine you are moving. Imagine
yourself playing superbly! Close your eyes. Do not make
actual movements. Concentrate. Try to visualize and feel
the stroke with the instructions on the tape.

There are two major variables in this drill to
which your attention must be given: (1) the timing of
your preparation for the stroke and (2) your adjustment
to the ball traveling toward you. Let us first consider
your stroke preparation.

You will recall that in the self-toss drill, you
proceeded in this order:

(1) the ready position

(2) the preparation (namely, pivot and racket back)

(3) you tossed the ball

(4) you watched its contact point on the floor

(5) you stepped to align your left foot with the ball

(6) you stroked from low in behind the ball and
ended up with racket high and pointing to the

net

Your contact area with the ball was somewhere

near a line with your left foot. To say "an area"

98

suggests that your strings have contact with the ball
for more than an instant. This is true! By shifting
your weight to your left foot as you stroke forward, you
will keep the ball in contact with your strings longer.
This will give you better accuracy and consistency.

By starting waist high and finishing higher than
your shoulder, some tOp spin will be placed on the ball
which will cause it to drop and stay in the court better
than a ball with no spin. With this slight top spin, you
can aim three to six feet higher than the net and still
get a deep, backcourt stroke. Result: fewer netted
balls and fewer long balls.

The important part of any stroke, once you have
grooved the proper stroke, is your adjustment to the ball
so that the ball is on a line with your left foot and
about waist level at the moment your racket makes contact
with the ball. If you align yourself correctly, and in
adequate time, your stroke will always be essentially
the same and will not have to be hurried.

If your stroke on the self toss is not consistent,
perhaps you should listen to and practice the self-toss
on the latter part of tape 1 again before listening to
tape 2.

Now, to get to today's drill. The major differ-
ence between the self-toss and the toss by another person
is in the directional flight of the ball. The stroke is

the same.

99

In the self-toss, the ball is traveling up and
down in a vertical plane. In other words, you know that
the ball will rebound straight up from the point at which
it contacted the floor. For this reason, you were
instructed to wait for the ball to bounce and then place
your left foot in line with the point from which the ball
would rebound straight up. This gave you the proper
alignment of the left foot to the ball for proper racket
contact. You only needed to time your stroke so that
you also contacted the ball when it was about waist level
in its flight.

In the toss of the ball by another person, the
adjustment and timing are somewhat different as the ball
is not only traveling in a vertical plane but also in a
horizontal plane coming toward you. Because it is travel-
ing in a horizontal plane, you cannot wait for it to bounce
and then place your left foot in line with that point.

The ball would be past you before it reached waist level
on the rebound. This is exactly what happens if the ball
is traveling faster than you judge it is.

You must, therefore, anticipate where the ball
is going to bounce and make your preparation for the
stroke. You move up if it is short, back if it is deep, or
make any sideways adjustment. If you wait until the ball
bounces to move or to prepare for it, you will be late

and rushed, getting a poor stroke at best. In other

100

words, you must make a judgment about the speed, loft,
and distance of the ball flight as soon as it leaves the
tosser's hand, or the ball machine, or the wall, or your
opponent's racket. This judgment must be made in an
instant. As you are making this judgment, you are pre-
paring your racket by taking the backswing as you move
to the area you have estimated to be correct in order to
be properly aligned with the ball.

In the toss by a classmate-—if the toss is good--
you will need to move very little. But none of us can
toss exactly to the same spot every time; therefore, you
will have to make some adjustment.

Your sequence of response should be as follows:

1. Prepare your racket by taking the backswing as
soon as the ball leaves the tosser's hand or the ball
machine. Take your racket all the way to the wall imme-
diately. Later, with more experience, your backswing
will be timed with the speed of the ball. Watch the ball.

2. Make your initial judgment about the path of the
ball, the loft, and the speed of the ball as you move
to the proper alignment. Continue to watch the ball.

3. Make your last second adjustment of alignment as
you see the ball rebound from the court and then step to
align your left foot with the point at which you think
it will be waist level. Watch the ball, and

4. Stroke, watch the ball leave the strings.

101

To simplify all of these variables, you will first
want to prepare for your stroke (to prepare means that you
pivot and take your backswing right away) so that once
you have moved to the general area of contact, all that
remains is your final judgment, step, and stroke. By
doing this, you will leave your stroke unhurried and,
therefore, more accurate.

All of the judgments about the ball flight and
proper placement of the racket on the ball require that
you focus closely on the ball from the time it leaves the
tosser's hand until it leaves your racket.

You are not watching the ball closely enough if
you do not see it come off your strings as you stroke.

Open your eyes now--blink twice--stretch--and
then close your eyes again so that we can try all of
this mentally.

Are you with me? All right. Place yourself on
the court in the ready position facing the net.

Everything is slow motion including the ball.

1. The ball is leaving the tosser's hand. Watch it
go up slowly and come down slowly.
2. As you're watching, turn and prepare your racket.
3. The ball hits the court and rebounds up while
you have moved to a position just back of and to the side

of where it will reach waist level.

102

4. It's coming to waist level; step with your left
foot, even with where you think it will be at waist level,
and

5. Stroke through as your weight shifts toward your
left foot.

6. And finish racket high.

How did it go? Let's try again, in slow motion.

Ready position

Partner tosses

Track the ball in the air and prepare with pivot

and backswing

Move toward the ball

Stay behind and to the side of it

Watch it bounce and come up

Step before it reaches waist level

And stroke as it reaches waist level.

Watch the ball come off the strings.

Feel your weight shift forward and finish high.

Once more in slow motion--now try to stay with
me. This time your cues will be shorter.

Ready position

Toss leaves tosser's hand

Track and prepare

Move and track

Step and track and stroke

Track and follow through

Now it's time for you to take several strokes
during the pause on the tape. Take them in slow motion
if you feel it's necessary, but, by all means, take many
at normal speed.

Remember that the key to control is to prepare
early, track the ball continuously, move to the ball
quickly, and take your time on the stroke. Begin.

(Pause for one minute.)

103

I hope that went well. I hope you made some
superb strokes and feel the smoothness of the stroke.
Thank you for your attention. This is the end of tape 2

on the forehand.

104

C. BEGINNING TENNIS: FOREHAND, TAPE 3, MPP

This is the last in a series of three tapes
designed to help you mentally practice the forehand. On
these tapes, we have reviewed material given in class and
have given you some additional practice to help provide
insight into the skill. The first two tapes covered the
grip, ready position, stroke pattern, moving to the ball,
and positioning for the stroke.

This tape will be concerned with ball tracking,
or reading and reacting to various ball flights. Some
of you are experienced in ball tracking sports; others
are not. Even the experienced students need to learn to
react appropriately in tennis by way of preparation and
visual discipline.

Learning the stroke pattern was easy. The diffi-
culties began when you tried to coordinate the stroke with
the moving ball.

The self-toss was relatively easy as you had
control over all variables within the range of your
tossing and stroking abilities. When the toss of the
ball by another player was added, the variables became
more numerous. The better, more careful, and sympathetic
the tosser, the easier it was to move into position for

a good stroke.

105

The ball machine is a more consistent tosser, but
even it is not without variation. Balls themselves--even
new balls--have a slightly different response after a
little use. Balls coming off the wall will vary in direct
relation to the variance in your stroke which determines
how fast, how high, and in what direction the ball comes
off the wall.

Up to this point, we have tried to control as
many of these variables as possible so that you could
attend to the stroke pattern and concern yourself very
little with having to move any appreciable amount to get
to the ball. We will continue to try to control the
variables in ball flight and bounce, but, ultimately,
the fun in tennis is to play with and against a friendly
opponent. In the latter situation, your opponent will
send many varieties of ball flights to you, both by acci-
dent and intent. You need to become prepared to anticipate
and adjust to all kinds of ball flights (and opponents,
although we'll not concern ourselves with that).

From now on, when we are working on the forehand
in class, you will have the opportunity to practice with
the ball machine part of the time and with a tosser send-
ing balls to you from the other side of the net part of
the time. All of this is to help you groove your stroke.
However, you will be required to be alert and anticipate

a variety of ball flights coming to you.

106

What we have emphasized up to this point-—the
alert ready position with knees well bent, the preparation
(that is, moving to the ball with your racket back and
turning)--should be well on the way to becoming automatic
for you. If this is true, if your ready position--your
good ready position with knees well bent and your automatic
preparation--are really a part of you at this point, then
you can give all your attention to tracking, interpreting,
and adjusting to the ball flight. If you learn to position
yourself in this way, and track the ball into and out of
your strings, your stroke will be good an increasing num-
ber of times. Remember that the loft on the ball before
it bounces will give you a clue to the height of its
rebound. The higher the loft, the higher the rebound.

The lower the loft, the lower the rebound and the less
time you have.

So--let's practice! Close your eyes and visualize.

This is slow motion for now.

Place yourself on the court just back of the base-
line--2 or 3 feet back of the baseline. Take your ready
position. Here comes a high ball (at least 20 feet above
the net). It's moving very slowly. It looks as if it
will land in the backcourt near the baseline. So, move
back a few steps as you bring your racket back and get
your left shoulder to the net. It's coming . . . it hits

the court and rebounds much higher than your reach, but

107

. . . it starts to drop. . . . Now you know where to take
your final step with your left foot. Watch the ball come
off the strings. Follow through. Watch the ball go deep
into the other backcourt. A superb stroke if I do say so
myself! Yes, that's what's fun about mental practice.

. . . You can make yourself just as good as you can
imagine!

Ready position again . . . hang in there. Here
comes another high ball, but this one looks as if it will
bounce somewhere near the service line instead of deep.
Move up a little as you bring your racket back. Turn your
left shoulder to the net. Watch the ball bounce and go
up. Now you know where to take your final step with your
left foot. Watch the ball . . . step . . . stroke and
watch the ball come into and go out of the strings as you
shift your weight into the stroke. Follow through . . .
and watch another good deep shot!

This is easy! No matter how high it bounces--if
you're ready--watching and waiting and moving, the stroke
is the same.

Now, during the next pause, practice each of these
two high bouncing strokes up to normal speed--the high
deep ball which forces you back so that you can turn and
step into the stroke with your weight, and the short high
bounce which forces you to move up, turn, and stroke.

Go ahead and try it!

108

(Pause one minute.)

All right, let's try something different--still
in slow motion.

Ready position. (Be sure your knees are well bent
and your weight is forward over the balls of your feet.)
Here comes a ball traveling low over the net (not more
than three feet above it), and it's fairly well paced.

It looks as if you won't have to move up or back much,
but, prepare. Turn and get your racket back. Move your
feet in small steps. Watch the ball bounce. It will
rebound at about the same angle as it is coming into the
bounce. Stay back and stay alert. Keep your feet ready.
The ball comes up above waist level a little . . . now
you can step and wait for it to drOp below its peak to
your waist level. Step . . . watch it . . . stroke.

It comes into your strings . . . you see it move off
your strings as you shift your weight forward and follow
through. Another good stroke!

Ready position! Here comes another low ball,
but it will dr0p inside the service line. Run up . . .
turn your left shoulder to the net and get your racket
back . . . watch the ball. It will not bounce very high--
not as high as your waist. So, get your knees bent more,
get low. Step . . . watch the ball . . . stroke. Watch
the ball go into the strings and come out. Follow

through. Terrific!

109

Once again, during the next pause, try stroking
both of these ball flights--the low, deep, well-paced
ball, and the low, short ball. Do this again in slow
motion if necessary, but be sure to do several up to
normal speed. On the deep ball traveling low, prepare
early or it will get behind you. Go ahead and try several.
(Pause one minute.)

We won't concern ourselves with various spins on
the ball and what they do to rebounds. That will come
later in your tennis development.

Other flight variations will be from side to side.
The principle is the same. ‘Track your ball carefully
with your eyes, watch the loft and speed to give you a
cue to the rebound and height and distance, but remember--
always, always--prepare your racket and your positioning
right away, as soon as you see the ball coming.

The speed of the ball is something which you will
have to adjust to in terms of anticipation. However, if
you get your racket back right away, you will only have
to learn to adjust the timing of your forward swing of
the racket. For instance, the faster the ball is com-
ing--as you experience faster balls coming toward you--
you will have to change your timing somewhat on when to
begin the forward swing. You can spend the next two
minutes practicing and adjusting to the various ball

flights given--the high deep, high short, low deep, low

110

short, and various speeds of those flights, and remember
that the speed of the ball--the increased speed of the
ball--will simply mean a change in timing. You won't be
able to adjust to that immediately, but it will come very
quickly. Begin, and take one and a half minutes to prac-
tice on these ball flights.
(Pause.)

Thank you for your attention. This is the end

of Tape 3 on the forehand.

111

D. BEGINNING TENNIS: SERVICE, TAPE 1, MPP

The service is different from all other tennis
techniques in that you, the player, have complete control
over all the variables related to the skill. Wind and
sun are the only uncontrollable factors to which a player
must adjust, and for indoor play, even these do not exist.
You control the placement of the ball and the placement
of the racket on the ball. With this in mind, given the
motivation and opportunity for practice, you should be
able to develop a reliable service.

As mentioned in class, the primary purpose of the
service is to put the ball into play to start the point.
The secondary purpose is to place the ball into the ser-
vice court in such a way that your opponent cannot return
the ball for an outright winner.

The service has two essential parts: the place-
ment of the ball and the swing of the racket to meet the
ball. We will practice these two parts separately, first
concentrating on the ball placement. All instructions
are for right-handed players.

Close your eyes and imagine yourself behind the
baseline, facing the curtain. Your left foot is at a
45° angle to the baseline and your right foot is com-
fortably back. You have 22 racket in your hand. Take

a ball in your left hand and cradle it gently on slightly

112

bent, almost relaxed fingers, securing it with your
thumb slightly. Stand with your weight mostly on your
back foot (your right foot). Hold the ball about waist
level directly above your left foot.

To place the ball, bring your left hand down
toward the front of your left thigh and then push it
straight up until your arm is fully extended, up over
your left foot. Release the ball as late as possible.
The palm of your left hand is facing up as if you were
holding a glass of water on it. The ball should go
about as high as your racket reaches or slightly higher.
Then, let it drop back into your hand. Let's try that
much again.

‘Stand with your left foot at a 45° angle to the
baseline, and you're facing the curtain rather than the
court right at the moment. Cradle the ball in your left
hand so that it rests out toward the end of your fingers
and your thumb is resting lightly on top of it. To place
the ball, bring your left hand down toward the front of
your left thigh and then push it straight up until your
arm is fully extended up over your left foot. As you
extend, you release the ball, trying to hold onto the
ball just as late as possible. At the finish, your arm
is fully extended and the palm of your left hand is
facing up as if you were holding a glass of water or a
glass of liquid on it. And then, let the ball drop back

into your hand.

113

You will recall that you want to place the ball
at such a height that your racket will make contact with
it just at the point at which the ball reaches its peak
and just before it starts to come down. In other words,
you want to try to contact the ball with your racket
when the ball is momentarily motionless. Placing the
ball consistently in the right place, at the right height,
requires considerable practice. Let's try the toss again,
in slow motion.

Place yourself behind the baseline, left foot
at a 45° angle to the line and your right foot comfortably
back. You have no racket. I

Take a ball and cradle it gently in your left
hand, out toward the end of your fingers and secure it
lightly with your thumb. Hold the ball about waist level
above your left foot.

Bring your left hand down now, toward the front
of your left thigh, and then up, straight up over your
left foot to a full extension upwards. Just before you
reach full extension, release the ball so that it goes
into the air straight up over your left foot about 18
inches or so above your outstretched hand. Keep the
palm of your hand facing upward toward the ceiling, as
if holding a glass of water on it. Watch the ball care-

fully and let it drop back into your hand and repeat.

114

Down . . . up . . . release . . . reach. And
then catch the ball. In the next pause on the tape,
would you practice your toss in slow motion. You have
one minute.

(Pause one minute.)

All right, that's very good. Now let's take the
swing pattern of the racket and coordinate it with the
ball placement. However, for now, we will not actually
toss the ball. Simply go through the tossing motion
without a ball.

For the beginner's serve, we will use a forehand
grip.

Place yourself at the baseline as before for the
ball toss. Pretend you have a ball in your left hand.
Now try to imagine this. Hold your racket in both hands
so that the head of the racket is pointing toward the
curtain. Your left hand is holding the racket at the
throat, and as for the ball toss, your left hand is
also above your left foot and about waist level.

In other words, your left hand is holding the
ball (which we won't use now) and also holding the throat
of the racket, or pressing the ball against the strings
of the racket. Your weight is on your back (or your
right) foot. Both hands will begin together.

Now, in slow motion . . . very slowly. As your

left hand comes down toward the front of your left thigh,

115

your racket comes down past your right knee. As your
left hand comes up to full extension, your racket con-
tinues past your right knee and comes up in back of you
to point at the wall behind you.

As the ball goes into the air and your left hand
is reaching up, your racket head comes into your back and
then your racket arm reaches up, fully extended, and
forward to meet the ball in front of and above your
right shoulder. Your racket meets the ball with the
face flat and pointing in the direction you want the
ball to go and continues on through to finish on your
left side. I

Your sequence of the racket swing from the begin-
ning to the end is:

Knee--wall--back--ball

In other words, having started by pointing the
racket head at the curtain, your racket head moves to
these check points: knee (right knee), wall, to the
back, and to the ball. The coordination of the ball
placement hand and the racket hand is this:

1. The racket hand goes to the knee as the left
hand goes to the thigh.

2. The racket hand goes to the wall as the left
hand goes up.

3. The racket hand goes to the back as the left

hand reaches up.

116

4. The racket hand goes to the ball as the left hand
falls away. (You forget about your left hand

at that point.)

Now, in slow motion again, so that you can see
and feel the continuous racket action and the coordination
of both arms and hand, try several serving motions using
both hands but no ball. Say to yourself: "Knee--wall--
back--ball."

As the left hand goes down, the right hand goes
down. As the left hand goes up, the right hand goes up.
As the left hand reaches, the right hand comes into the
back and then up to the ball and through to the left side.
Try it several times during the next pause on the tape.
(Pause.)

We're going to do this again in slow motion, but
here are some points for you to remember. Start with
your weight on the back foot. That back foot should be
back enough so that you can shift your weight from it to
the forward foot or, rather, in the direction of your
serve as you come through with your racket. Your racket
starts in both hands, pointing at the curtain. When you
toss the ball, watch the ball and try to meet the ball
while it is "standing still." Point the face of the
racket in the direction of the serve and follow through.

Take several serves during the next pause and concentrate

117

on a continuous racket swing from start to finish. You
should be trying this in slow motion and up to normal
speed.

If you think you have the feel of it and have it
coordinated in slow motion, then move up to normal speed
and take several practice swings during the next pause
on the tape .

(Pause.)

Be sure to watch the ball. Watch it come off the
racket. Don't go to sleep. Try to get a smooth, flowing,
fully coordinated serve.

You can practice this any time. Go through it
mentally and see if you can get it coordinated and worked
out. This is the end of Tape 1 on the service. Thank

you for your attention.

118

E. BEGINNING TENNIS: SERVICE, TAPE 2, MPP

On the first tape, we practiced as we had in
class, standing behind the baseline and facing the curtain.
We worked on getting a consistent ball placement and then
on coordinating the toss and the swing of the racket so
that the swing would be continuous and the racket would
meet the ball when the ball was "standing still."

On this tape, we will start on the other side of
the baseline, facing the net. We will continue to work
for good ball placement and a continuous full swing but
also work toward putting the ball into the service court.
Close your eyes and position yourself just to the right
or left of the center mark on the baseline. If you are
to the right of the mark, you will be aiming into the
right service court, and if you are to the left of the
mark, you will aim into the left service court. You
will recall that the left foot is at a 45° angle to the
baseline and your right foot is comfortably back.

We need to be more specific on this now. Place
your right foot or back foot so that if you draw an
imaginary line between the toes of your feet, the line
will point toward the court into which you intend to
serve. Also, place your right foot far enough away from
the left to get good weight shift into the serve.

It is terribly important that you line yourself

up properly for each service court. Your left foot will

119

always be pointing toward the right net post regardless
of which court you're serving into. Draw that imaginary
line between your toes as you line up for the serve and
see if the line is pointing toward the court into which
you plan to serve. Do not rush into your serve without
lining yourself up properly or without looking at the
area into which you intend to serve. Let's do this in
slow motion.

Take your position at the baseline. Hold your

racket and ball in both hands--racket pointing toward

 

the net with weight back. Start the motion with both
hands slowly. Down with both hands, up with both hands.
Release the ball and watch it. Reach with left hand
(palm up) and into the back with the racket. As your
racket goes down your back, bend your back knee some,
then reach for the ball. Meet it right on the "nose"
with your racket face pointing toward the service court
and racket arm fully extended. Finish through on your
left side.

Very Good.

As you reach up for the ball with your racket,
you should push up with your back foot. Get full exten—
sion as you meet the ball and shift your weight into the
serve.

As your racket face meets the ball "on the nose,"

your wrist should flex forward on the follow through.

120

This will help bring the ball down into the service
court after it crosses the net. You should be thinking
"out and down" as you make contact with the ball. Do
not stop your follow through in order to gain accuracy
as this will result in a weak and "pushy" serve.

Keep your shoulder, elbow, and wrist quite flexible

 

on the serve. Get full range of movement in each joint.
You may, if you have a good overhand throwing motion,
simply think of the serve as placing the ball up in front
of your right shoulder, slightly higher than your reach
and then "throwing" your racket at it. If you draw an
imaginary face on the back of the ball, your racket con-
tact is on the "nose."

The speed of your serve is, of course, determined
by the speed of the racket head. That is the reason for
the long preparation of the racket prior to ball contact.
This motion allows you to build up speed in the racket
head. Remember, however, that Speed which sacrifices
accuracy is pointless. Practice the full service, a
free swinging motion of the racket, well timed with the
toss, with good weight shift, and you will realize a
consistent, well-paced serve.

At normal speed, I would like you to practice
twenty serves into the right service court and twenty
serves into the left service court. Be careful to place

your feet in proper alignment for each service court.

121

Take your time before each serve. Get a full range of
motion and a weight shift.

Close your eyes now and visualize yourself serv-
ing these serves. I'll give you four minutes.

(Pause for four minutes.)

Let me interrupt for just a moment. You are
about halfway through with your practice time. Since you
have control over all the variables on the serve, you can
learn a great deal by experimenting. Try to keep your
serves deep into the service court. Try aiming for the
outside of the service court and then try aiming for the
inside of the service court. Remember that you have two
chances or two balls on each serve to get the point into
play. You should learn from your first serve if the
first serve does not go in, and then make your adjustment
on the second serve accordingly.

If you are having difficulty getting speed on
the ball, remember that the speed of the racket head
controls that, and the weight shift controls it somewhat.
So simply swing your racket head through faster. Shift
your weight all the way through the stroke. Some of you
may even end up crossing the baseline at the end of your
serve, which is legal after you've made ball contact.

Keep testing yourself. Keep trying to go deep

in the service court or to the outside, or to the inside.

122

This is the end of Tape 2 on the service. The
more you serve, the better it will feel. See if the
practice in your head helps as long as you can't get
onto the court for any length of time to practice your

serve.

Thank you for your attention.

123
F. BEGINNING TENNIS: SERVICE, TAPE 3, MPP

On the previous two tapes, we have worked on the
beginner's serve which would give you a full serving
motion with which to start the point in a game. This
serving motion is essentially the same for all serves
regardless of how advanced you may become. There are
differences, however, which result in different types
of serves.

On this tape, I should like to give you the
details on executing a simple spin serve. This serve
should be of interest to those of you who can consis-
tently control your serve--say you are able to get six
or seven out of ten consistently into either service
court. Then you should be ready to experiment with and
learn a simple spin serve. I would suggest you do not
practice this unless your other serve is reliable.

There are only two differences between this
serve and the one you have already learned. The two
differences are the grip and the action of the racket
on the ball.

Instead of using the forehand grip, you will
turn the racket clockwise, so that the knuckle at the
base of your forefinger is almost on the top of the
grip where the V was before on the forehand. When we
get to the backhand, we will turn the racket clockwise

so that the knuckle i§_on the top plate of the grip

124

where the V was on the forehand. On this service grip,
the knuckle is not quite that far on top but sort of
halfway between being on top and being around in back
where it is on the forehand.

This grip will cause the racket face to meet the
ball at a slight angle rather than straight in behind.
As you meet the ball on the nose (that is, the imaginary
nose on the face of the ball) and flex your wrist, the
racket strings will scoot up off the nose and over the
"left eye" on the face of the ball. This will give the
ball some side—top spin.

Take care not to meet the ball on the nose and go
off over the left ear as this will give you too much side
spin. Your toss is the same and the swing is the same.

Let's try it in slow motion.

Position your feet at the baseline. Hold the
racket in both hands, pointing toward the net. Look at
the service court. Put your weight on the back foot.
Now, start both hands down . . . then up. Release the
ball and watch it. Reach with the left hand and bring
the racket to your back. Now go up to meet the ball
with your racket. Place the strings on the nose of the
ball and slide up over the left eye and follow through
to the left side of your body.

You probably noticed that your serve did not

feel as solid nor did the ball go as fast as on your

'..(. ll lull! III II:

125

previous serve. This is as it should be. Any time you
create spin on a ball, you are meeting the ball a glanc-
ing blow, so to Speak. You should be meeting the ball
on the nose as your racket is traveling upward on your
arm extension. As the arm continues to extend fully,
the strings go up and over the top right side of the
ball.

Visualize your racket arm coming up from the
back position, up and over your shoulder. Just before
you reach full extension of the arm, your racket strings
make contact on the nose and then your arm continues to
extend so that your racket strings are traveling up and
over the top right side of the ball, up over the left
eye of the face.

As a result of this, the ball will rise as it
comes off the strings and then begin to drop from the
spin. You are aiming up and out, and the ball should
clear the net higher than on your previous serve. Since
the ball is spinning left somewhat, you will have to aim
more to the right side of the service court into which
you wish to place the ball.

Let's try it again in slow motion.

Position your feet . . . racket and ball hand
ready . . . weight back. Down with both hands . . . up
with both hands . . . release the ball and watch the

ball . . . racket to the back. Go up for the ball.

126

(Momentarily take your eyes off the ball and notice the
angle of your racket.) Meet the ball as you are reaching
up. Continue up and over the top right side of the ball.
The ball takes off slightly upward, sails over the net,
and bounces deep. As it hits the court it jumps slightly
to the left and up. Good serve!

A good serve has pace, spin, and placement.
During the next few minutes of pause on the tape, I
would like you to try twenty serves into each court--
up to normal speed if you are ready, in slow motion if
you'd rather. But certainly try some up to normal speed.
Think it through and make it work.

(Pause for two minutes.)

By way of review--what we've been doing on this
tape is a different kind of serve, the simple spin serve.
It spins as a result of your having shifted the grip on
your racket--shifted from a forehand grip to a grip that
goes in the direction of the backhand, which is between
the backhand and the forehand grip.

The other difference in the serve, in addition
to the grip on the racket, is the fact that the racket
strings make contact on the nose of the ball before your
arm is fully extended. Therefore, your racket is moving
up the back of the ball, so to speak, and over the top

right side which gives the ball side and top spin.

127

Any good serve should have some spin on it—-and
good placement and good pace. There is, of course, the
cannon ball serve which is flat and has no spin. It is
sometimes used as a surprise and as an opportunity to
put the ball into the court so that your opponent cannot
return it at all. It goes so fast that he just simply
can't return it. That is a serve that is used, although
not frequently, because the control on it is less than
on spin serves. So, this is another serve, a simple spin
serve. If your first serve (the flat straight serve we
did first) is fairly reliable, you should start working
on this serve and try to perfect it and make it consistent.

Don't underestimate your mental practice. Take
it with you. That ought to do it for today. This is the

end of Tape 3 on the serve. Thank you for your attention.

128

EXHIBIT B
MPEIEE TAPES (MENTAL PRACTICE, ERROR INFORMATION,
EXPERIENCE, ELIMINATION)

A. BEGINNING TENNIS: FOREHAND, TAPE 1, MPEIEE

This is the first in a series of tapes designed
to help you learn the forehand stroke for tennis.

Mental practice has been defined as the symbolic
rehearsal of a physical activity in the absence of any
gross muscular movements. It is used by experienced
gymnasts, divers, skiers, and others to rehearse just
prior to performing. The question is: Can it help
beginners learn a skill such as tennis? In addition to
the physical practice which you have in class, you may
practice mentally, or by imagining yourself performing
the stroke. We are going to go through the material pre-
sented in the first lesson, recall the correct procedure,
identify and experience some of the errors which normally
occur, and then correct those errors.

If you are aware of causes of common errors and
what kinds of errors you are making, then you should be
more knowledgeable in self-correcting those errors.

This does not mean that you will be left alone in class
to figure everything out for yourself. It does mean that
you will have the understanding to correct some errors

that you may experience while you are learning.

129

On the stroke pattern without the ball, you will
recall that there were three basic steps: the ready
position, preparation (that is, preparing your body and
your racket to make the stroke), and then the actual
stroke. To practice mentally, you should close your eyes
and concentrate by mentally following the procedure. Do
not make any actual movements. Move only in your mind.
Try hard to feel that you are moving. Do not just listen
to the information, but pretend, imagine. All instructions
are for right-handed players. When practicing without
the ball, follow your racket with your eyes to become
more familiar with its position.

Are you ready? Eyes closed? Now concentrate.

First, the ready position. Place yourself on the
court, racket in both hands, facing the net. Your left
hand is on the throat of the racket, holding the racket
in front of you so that the racket head is pointing toward
the net and the grip end is pointing toward you. The
racket head is on edge so that you can see neither face.
Put your right hand in front of you above the grip as if
to shake hands with someone. Without changing your hand
position, place it on the grip and "shake hands" with it.
The V between your forefinger and thumb should be apparent
to you as you look down on your grip from above. Do you
see it? Be sure your thumb is not on t0p as you look down

at your grip. With the prOper grip, your hand and racket

130

will be on edge when stroking so that the strings are
merely an extension of the palm of your hand, as if you
were stroking with your hand.

Now, you have the prOper grip and are facing the
net with your racket in both hands (left hand at the
throat) and racket head pointing toward the net. Place
your feet about shoulder width apart. Bend your knees
so that your weight is forward over the balls of your
feet. Now you have a good ready position.

Next comes the preparation part of the stroke.

First, pivot on both feet to the right so that
your feet are at about a 45° angle to the net, and your
left shoulder is pointing toward the net. And, at the
same time release your left hand from the racket. Bring
the racket straight back along a line parallel to the
ground and about waist level until your racket is pointing
at the wall behind you. Follow the racket path with your
eyes so that you can see and feel its position. Keep
the racket on edge and keep your elbow fairly close to
your body. Look at your racket. It should be on edge
with the racket head no higher than your wrist.

The preparation is now complete, ready for the
stroke.

1. Step with your left foot toward the net, keeping
your foot at about a 45° angle to the net. This will
allow your knee to bend and your weight to shift in the

direction that you intend to stroke the ball.

131

2. After you step, bring your racket forward.
(Remember we are doing this in slow motion.) Keep your
eyes on the racket and keep the racket on edge, moving
parallel to the ground, until it is almost even with your
left foot. Feel your weight shift to your left foot more
and more as your racket moves forward.

3. When the racket head is almost opposite, or even,
with your left foot, start moving it upward and forward,
keeping it on edge, until . . .

4. The racket head is high and pointing toward the
opposite wall. In this follow-through position, your
right hand or racket hand will be out in front of and
level with your left shoulder, and your racket head will
be higher than your hand.

5. Stop your stroke with the racket head high and
pointing at the net, or at the opposite wall.

At the end of your stroke, your weight will be
almost entirely on your left foot, but both feet are
still in contact with the floor. Even though both feet
are in the same position as at the beginning of the
forward motion of the racket into the stroke, your
shoulders have turned and you are facing the net with
the racket hand well in front of and level with your
left shoulder and your racket head high, on edge, and

pointing at the opposite wall.

132

Ready position . . . preparation (that's the pivot and
racket back) . . . step . . . and stroke.

Stop now and open your eyes. The most common error at
this point is not bending the knees enough.

Let's try a stroke now with stiff knees. Ready? Eyes
closed?

Ready position with straight legs, no kneebend. Now
we're practicing an error, so no kneebend. Preparation
. . . step (Keep your knees straight, don't let them
bend.) . . . stroke . . . and hold.

Can you shift your weight into the stroke with
straight legs? No, you cannot! As a matter of fact,
you cannot even pivot without bending your knees.

Now, in slow motion, do the correct stroke with
me and bend your knees more than you have before. Ready
position (knees well bent, body low) . . . preparation
. . . step and stroke and hold the follow through. That
should have felt easy and your weight shift should have
felt better.

Now open your eyes again but listen carefully.
Only one other error is necessary to experience and
correct at this point, and that is the position of your
racket face as it meets the ball and as it leaves the
ball. Right, we have no ball now. That's why you can
try different racket paths on your stroke and watch the
difference in the position of the racket face in the area

where you would be stroking the ball.

133

Close your eyes. Ready position.
Slow motion: preparation (and on this preparation bring
your racket back very high and look at your racket) . . .
then step and stroke down from up high and follow through
high. Watch your racket and see if you know what position
the face is in as it comes to the area for ball contact.
You probably made contact underneath the ball rather than
behind the ball. The face of your racket was open or
slanted toward the ceiling as you made contact with the
ball. You may also vary the position of the racket face
as it meets the ball if you do not grip your racket
firmly, but we'll deal with that when you have the ball
to stroke.
Take a quick breather. Open your eyes. We're
almost finished.
All we're going to do now is add the ball toss.

You toss the ball to yourself. First, with your eyes
open, let's review the check points for the self-toss.

1. Your left hand is holding two balls in addition
to holding the throat of the racket.

2. Always toss underhand to give yourself more time.

3. For practice it will be easier if you follow
this particular sequence: ready position . . . prepar-
ation . . . toss ball . . . let the ball bounce, step

and stroke and follow through.

134

4. Toss the ball so that it will strike the ground
somewhere on a line in the direction your left foot is
pointing after you have pivoted.

5. Step with your left foot so that it is even with
the point at which the ball struck the ground. A mental
line between your left foot and the point where the ball
hits the ground would be almost parallel to the net. Your
foot wouldn't be parallel to the net but the mental line
between your foot and the ball-~where the ball hit the
floor--would be parallel to the net.

6. Always watch the ball, not your racket. You
should see the ball come off the racket strings. You
should see it come into the strings and come off the
strings.

All set? Slow motion! Close your eyes and con-
centrate. We'll do the complete stroke. Ready position
. . . preparation . . . toss . . . bounce . . . step and
stroke and hold. Step back with your left foot to the
ready position and repeat up to tempo. Ready position
. . . preparation . . . toss . . . bounce . . . step and
stroke and hold the follow through.

All right. Open your eyes again and relax.

There is really only one error here in this par-
ticular drill provided your stroking pattern is good.
Your stroke will be consistent as long as you place

yourself properly in relation to the ball so that you

135

meet the ball at about waist level and about even with
your left foot each time. Let's see what happens with
two poor positions which are common. In slow motion—-

First, toss the ball so far ahead that you have
to reach ahead of your left foot to make contact.
Ready position . . . preparation . . . toss (too far
ahead) . . . step . . . stroke (or try to stroke).
You're right. The racket made contact underneath the
ball, if at all, and the ball went high. Now, toss the
ball so that you step ahead of it. In other words, the
ball is back of your left foot as you make contact.
Ready position . . . preparation . . . toss and step
ahead of the ball and stroke. This time the ball
probably did not go over the net, as you did not have
your weight behind it.

It is useless to try to mentally practice with
a loose grip as this fault results in so many varieties
of ball flight. You'll never be sure where the ball is
going as the racket face position presented to the ball
will vary so much if your wrist is loose. Just remember
to keep a firm (not tight) grip.
For the next minute, try several strokes at normal Speed
with the self-toss and feel the smoothness of the stroke
from beginning to end. Try the correct stroke. Ready,
begin . . .

(Pause.) Thank you for your attention.

136

B. BEGINNING TENNIS: FOREHAND, TAPE 2, MPEIEE

During the second lesson on the forehand, all
of the instruction and practice was in trying to position
yourself correctly to stroke forehands when the ball was
tossed to you by a partner or by the machine. There were
two major variables in that drill: (l) the timing of
your preparation for the stroke, and (2) your adjustment
to the ball traveling toward you.

Let's take the errors associated with the first
variable--that of timing and preparation for the stroke.

If you start your preparation too late, say as
late as when the ball bounces, it could cause you to
stroke late. If you contact the ball considerably back
of your left foot alignment, your racket face will, at
this point in the forward swing, be aimed to the right
and your shot may go to the right. Let's try to visualize
that in slow motion.

Close your eyes and concentrate on the ball coming
in slow motion and all of your movements in slow motion.
Ready position. The ball is coming toward you, slowly.
(Don't take your back swing or turn yet.) The ball con-
tinues to come. Don't prepare . . . here it comes . . .
there, it hits the floor. And, after it hits the floor,
take your racket back slowly as the ball bounces past
your left foot alignment. Now start your stroke. Just

as the ball is opposite your right foot, your racket makes

137

contact. Look at the position of your racket face as the
ball meets it. It's slanted toward the right . . . and
there goes the ball . . . and it goes to the right.

Not only does your ball go to the right, but
your weight is not forward over your left foot yet, and
your stroke is weak. In addition to all that, it didn't
feel very good.

The same effect on the ball can occur if you take
a backswing that is too long. You may meet the ball
late, simply by swinging back too far, and then not be
able to get your racket around and through. Just mentally
do that once, without a ball, and watch your racket
position as you swing through. Take your ready position
now, and let's not involve any ball in this. Bring your
racket back, and turn. Then start swinging through
slowly on your stroke. Look at the position that the
racket face is in as it gets opposite your right foot.

It will be slanted so that the racket face is pointing
toward the right, and that will cause you to hit to the
right.

Another effect of waiting too long to prepare
your body and racket is that it rushes your stroke. You
may instinctively speed up your backswing and stroke by
starting late, in which case you have little control over
accuracy. If you wait too long and compensate for having

waited too long by swinging your racket back faster and

138

swinging it forward faster, then you will have less con-
trol, and the result will be less accuracy on your stroke.

Let's try another late preparation in slow motion.
Stay with me now.

Ready position. Here comes the ball from the
tosser's hand. It's in slow motion, but so are you.
Don't prepare. The ball bounces and you realize you
have started late, so hurry your backswing and stroke.
Well, you may have hit the ball, but you didn't stroke
the ball, and there's a difference. A hit on the ball
means just one instant of contact of the strings with
the ball. In tennis you need to stroke the ball through
an area which is nearly opposite your left foot, in
that general area. The ball will literally move across
your strings if you are stroking, as opposed to bounding
off the strings immediately after contact if you hit.
--You didn't have time to step into it, and therefore
you didn't keep it on your strings long enough to stroke
or aim. This is a primary difference between stroking a
tennis ball and hitting a ball with a baseball bat or
hitting a hockey ball. In those two situations you have
an instantaneous, one momentary contact of the implement
with the ball. In tennis, your ball stays on the strings
for a while, relatively speaking.

You see, a late preparation of your racket not

only upsets the contact with the ball in different ways

139

but also gives you too much to do all at once, and you
cannot get your weight shifted into the direction of the
ball flight as it leaves your racket. So, as a result of
that, what you should remember from that experience is
that you want to prepare your racket right away and don't
take too long a backswing.

Now, so that you don't forget the correct way,
take several slow motion strokes, and several strokes up
to normal speed in the next pause on the tape. Remember
to get a good ready position with your weight forward
over the balls of your feet, your knees well bent. Start
your preparation as soon as the ball leaves the tosser's
hand or the ball machine, watch the ball carefully and
judge where it will rebound to waist level while you are
preparing and moving into position, contact it near waist
level and in an area near your left foot alignment, watch
it come into and go out of your strings, and follow
through. Go ahead and stroke some. I'll be back in
a minute.

(Pause.)

Now, when you're practicing mentally a drill such
as that, continue to force yourself to use your imagina-
tion and feel the activity--feel everything that should
be associated with the skill.

Now let's take some errors that are associated

with poor adjustment to the ball. We've talked about

140

errors associated with waiting too long to prepare your
racket. Let's talk about what happens when you don't
adjust correctly to the ball. Some of you have had more
experience with games requiring adjustments to moving
objects or moving balls than other people in the class.
However, even those of you with considerable ball game
experience need to apply that experience specifically to
tennis.

First, let's take a misjudgment on depth. This
is similar to the errors we practiced on the self-toss.
Take your ready position . . . slow motion. Here comes
the ball and it's going to drOp short. You don't recog-
nize this so you don't move up. But you do prepare your
racket and pivot. You step with your left foot, and the
ball is at waist level on the rebound ahead of your left
foot alignment so you go ahead and stroke anyway because
you've taken your step. There it goes, up toward the
ceiling and maybe a little to the left also--or maybe
you didn't even reach the ball. This is what happens if
you misjudge and don't come up on the ball, don't get
even with it, don't align your left foot with the point
at which the ball is in the air when it's waist level.
You're reaching forward, and you open up your racket
face, and the ball goes up. Let's try it again.

Ready position. This time you say to yourself,

"I'll move up." Here comes the ball. You prepare and

141

move up too soon—-but, the tosser sent it deeper that
time. It bounces and rebounds to waist level, but by
the time it reaches waist level, it's behind you. There
goes that shot off to the right again--the same one we
recognize from the self-toss when you stepped ahead of
the ball with your left foot and made racket contact
opposite your right foot instead. That will happen if
you misjudge the ball or you anticipate a particular
kind of toss and that kind of toss doesn't materialize.
So, wait and watch.

Ready position. This time you are saying to
yourself, "I'll prepare in time." Be alert and look at
the ball closely. Here it comes. It's short. You
move up a couple of steps . . . turn . . . step with your
left foot . . . stroke. There it goes-—a good stroke.

Well, this isn't so hard. If the ball is high
and deep you have to move back. If it's high and short,
you have to move up. Also, if it's low and short, you
have to move up, but in addition to that, you have to
bend your knees and get very low as you turn your left
shoulder to the net. Get your waist down lower to get
the racket behind the ball. If it's low and deep be
ready and get your knees well bent. You can predict the
height of the rebound from the height or loft of the ball
as it is coming toward you. But remember, the faster

the ball is coming, the faster it will rebound. Be

142

ready to swing through a little sooner on a faster ball.
Those are two common areas of error on a ball being
tossed to you or a ball being tossed to you by a ball
machine.

What other common error can occur? Let's talk
about your grip for a moment. Let's say that you have
the proper grip but all of your strokes seem to go into
the net. You may be rolling your wrist over as you stroke
so that the top edge of your racket leads and closes the
face of the racket. In other words, the face is pointing
down somewhat as you make contact with the ball, or just
after contact with the ball.) Keep the racket on edge
throughout.

Try the closed racket face now. Ready position.
Here comes the ball. Prepare . . . move into position
. . . step and stroke. There's the ball coming into the
strings. Meet it, then roll your hand over so that the
palm is down on your follow through. There goes the ball--
into the net: By closing your racket face, you put more
top spin on the ball, causing it to drop sooner. You
will recall that with the correct forehand, you have some
top spin which allows you to aim three to six feet higher
than the net and still have your ball drop into the court
boundary. However, if you close the racket face as you
stroke, you will add more top spin and perhaps hit it

into the net. You will get a similar effect if you

143

stroke up the back of the ball without enough forward
force. The latter may occur if you flip your elbow and
bend it extremely on the follow through. It may also
occur if you just simply stroke up the back of the ball
rather than forward, into the direction of the stroke and
up. Added top spin is used to advantage at times by
advanced players, but you should leave it alone until
you have a good deep groundstroke with just some top Spin
on it. The opposite of the closed face can occur if you
do what I call "spooning" the ball. Imagine holding a
spoon as you hold the racket, and spoon some ice cream
out of a container. Your wriSt rotates so that your
palm turns up. This is great for ice cream! But on
the forehand, you'll get an open racket face and a ball
that goes Skyward.

Let's try it. Slow motion. Ready position.
The machine spits out a ball . . . here it comes . . .
prepare . . . move to position . . . step and stroke.
Just as the ball meets the strings you turn your palm
up . . . and up goes the ball.

In both of these cases your grip was correct,
but your wrist was loose. So, the lesson to be learned
here is to keep the wrist firm with a firm grip. In the
next pause on the tape, try both the closed face and open
face errors caused by a turning wrist, and then do the
stroke correctly. Do it both in slow motion and normal

Speed. Go ahead.

144

(Pause.)

The last error on this tape is what I call
"giving up." It really means lack of follow through.

What happens is that the player makes contact with the
ball and then stops the forward motion of the racket.
The result is a weak, slow, and many times short shot.
These shots are easily played by your opponent and they
put you on the defensive.

We needn't practice this error because we've
stressed follow through from the very beginning of learn-
ing the forehand. Just be sure that your racket is point-
ing to the opposite wall, your racket hand is well in
front of and level with your left shoulder, and your
racket head is higher than your shoulder and on edge on
the follow through.

These are some of the most common errors. You may
have some of these, or you may have none of these. You
may have an uncommon error. Try to analyze what you did
wrong when the ball does not respond the way you planned--
a solid deep shot. Better yet, now that you're aware of
some of the causes of these errors, concentrate on the
correct way.

Thank you for your attention. This is the end

of Tape 2.

145

C. BEGINNING TENNIS: FOREHAND, TAPE 3, MPEIEE

This is the last in a series of tapes designed to
help you mentally practice the forehand.

On the last two tapes we have become aware of
some of the more frequent errors associated with the
forehand, mentally gone through the errors to try to
feel them, and then mentally correct them. You have been
asked to stroke the ball with stiff knees, a loose wrist,
two faulty positioning situations (one in which you were
too far back of the ball, and one too far forward of the
ball), late racket preparation, incomplete follow through,
and strokes without looking at the ball. These are the
errors that you have been asked to practice once or twice
and then feel the correction on those errors. After
feeling the error, you were then asked to mentally prac-
tice with the correct stroke--first, without the ball,
then with a self-toss, and then with a partner toss.

The point of all this is to try to help you become aware
of correct and incorrect technique. The assumption is
that if you have more insight into the feelings of
effective and ineffective technique, you can more effec-
tively dispense with the errors and more rapidly improve
your skill level.

By now you are certainly aware that the first
consideration is preparation of the racket. The second

is how you place the racket on the ball. The third is

146

how the racket comes off the ball. The assumption on
this tape is that you can do these three things if you
have time and can get into position. It is not always
easy to get into the proper position to stroke correctly,
and given this, it is not easy to know when to stroke.
When a ball rebounds from the court, it is traveling
fairly fast. You know that it will hit the court,
rebound up and toward the baseline, reach a peak on its
rebound, and momentarily stand still before it starts to
drop again. The task of a beginner is to "wait" for the
ball to stop (as gravity takes over), or to wait even
longer as the ball starts to descend again toward its
second bounce. You have to stroke it before it bounces
again, but if you wait until the second descent, some of
the speed will be off the ball, you will have more time
to aim, and more time to get to the ball.

Now, I hope you have your eyes closed and are
visualizing this as we talk about it, as we talk about
the ball bounce and the timing on when to stroke. Let's
just mentally visualize in slow motion together a ball
coming out of the ball machine. You watch it come and
step to the side of its line. It drops to the court,
rebounds, and jumps toward the baseline as it continues
upward. Then it stOps and seems to hang motionless . . .
and then begins to drop. By now it has slowed consid-

erably. Of course, if you can stroke it as it is

147

suspended motionless, your stroke will be easier to make
as the ball is literally sitting still. If you try to
stroke it as it comes up off the court, not only is it
moving, but it is moving faster than it will be if you
stroke it as it begins to drop to the court for the
second time.

Caution though. If you let it drop too low
toward the court the second time, you will have to stroke
up underneath the ball to get it over the net, as it will
be lower than the net. So don't let it drop below waist
level if you can help it. Ideally, you want to stroke
the ball as it is motionless and waist level. Practically
Speaking, you want to stroke it after it has reached its
peak on the rebound and when it drOps to waist level.

Let's try now, in Slow motion, stroking the ball
at the three different times: on the rise (as it's coming
up on its rebound), at the top of the rise (when it's
motionless), and as it drops after it reaches its peak
on the rebound. Ready, here comes the ball. Stroke it
as it's coming up on the rebound. Chances are, if you
made contact, the ball went out-of-bounds. Let's stop
and think about that for just a second. Why did it go
out-of-bounds? It's coming up off the court on its
rebound. That means it's coming into your racket face
at an angle from below. Given no spin at all on the

ball, it's going to rebound from your racket face at

148

that same angle. So obviously, it's going to go up. If
it comes in from below it's going to go up as it goes
off the racket face.

Ready position again. Here comes the ball, very
slowly. It's coming up off the rebound, reaches its peak
and hangs there. Now stroke it. That is easier because
the ball is hanging motionless. So whatever angle that
you meet the ball with your racket face, that's the
direction that it's going to go because it's just sitting
there motionless. It's not coming into the racket face
at an angle as it did before.

Let's try to visualiZe it, taking it after it
reaches its peak, after it's motionless, as it's dropping
down toward its second bounce. Ready position. Now
it's coming very slowly. It hits, rebounds up. You wait.
It reaches its peak and sits there. You wait. It starts
to drop . . . and drops to waist level . . . and you step
and stroke through.

Now, of those three points at which you can take
the ball, the first one is the most advanced way to play
the ball (something you should forget about until you
have more tennis experience). The second way, at the
top of the rise (where it's hanging motionless) is the
best place to play it in terms of not having to worry
about what angle it's approaching the racket face, but

it may not be waist level, and we're trying to groove

149

these strokes so they're waist level. And, it will

rush you a little bit more than it will if you do it

the third way. So, what you want to do is watch the
ball, watch it hit the floor, watch it rebound, watch it
reach its peak, watch it come off its peak and start
down again, then take it and stroke it. That will give
you the most time.

In the next pause, will you try all of those
three ways of taking the ball up to normal speed, assume
a normal speed on the ball coming toward you, and try
taking the ball at all three points. Go ahead.

(Pause.)

Now you've tried the three ways up to normal
speed, and you Should have been able to feel that the
third way to play the ball is the one which you should
give your attention to now as a beginner--at least in the
beginning stages of being a beginner--because it gives
you more time to get into position, get your racket
ready, and it gives you a longer time to look at the
ball.

We talked about too long a backswing on the
previous tape, but we didn't actually experience it.
Close your eyes and follow me. You're in your ready
position at the center of the baseline. The ball is
tossed to you out of the machine, you prepare your racket

by bringing it back beyond pointing at the wall behind

150

you-~much further back than that. It's almost pointing
to the wall on your left, only it's wrapped around your
back. You watch the ball but you do have some trouble
seeing it as you are turned so far to the right. You
bring your racket through. It's difficult to line the
racket up with the ball. You swing forward and catch
the ball just at the bottom edge of the racket--just a
little late. The ball drops into the net. There was
no way to keep the strings on the racket, as you were
already at the bottom of the racket when you made con—
tact with the ball.

Now, that's something that can happen if you take
such a long backswing that it takes you so long to come
through that you're simply late, and the ball drops
lower than you expect it to, and it hits the bottom of
the racket. Your stroke is impossible.

Now the ball comes out of the machine (slow
motion again). You bring your racket back just 90°,
you're standing facing the net, you bring your racket
back just 90° (in other words, it's straight out towards
your side), you turn, you watch the ball and wait.
There it is right there to come into the bottom of the
back side of the ball. Stroke through and up high. If
you do that short backswing, so that you just bring it
90° (so it's pointing your arm and racket right out to

the right side), and then, of course, you're turning

151

your body as you always do. Pivot, and then your racket
will be about pointing at the wall behind you. That's
as much backswing as you will ever need, and sometimes
you will want an even Shorter backswing. If you prepare
and move (if it's necessary to move) immediately, the
stroke will come easy if you watch the ball and wait
for the right time to stroke. Your timing is somewhat
the same as the self-toss except, of course, you don't
put your foot in the same position in relation to the
ball that you did with self-toss, but your timing is
somewhat the same. The ball hits the court, and you call
that the bounce. Then you step and then you stroke.
Even though you're not stepping opposite where the ball
hit, it's that kind of timing. So, it's bounce, step,
stroke.

Let's take another stroke. Ready? Here comes
the ball in slow motion. You prepare . . . you move
. . . you wait . . . and then stroke just from your
wrist down. Don't move anything else. How did it feel?

Try it again and stroke from your elbow and
wrist. How did that feel? Try it again, and stroke
from your shoulder--which is the way you should be
stroking.

You can see that the racket face as it's presented
to the ball is more consistent in the stroke from the

shoulder. Not only that, but you cannot stroke the ball.

152

You can only hit it with the wrist and elbow movement.
And remember, we said "hit" means one instantaneous con—
tact, whereas stroke means that you stay with the ball,
you press through on the ball, the ball rolls across the
strings. You can't get that kind of a stroke if you're
just using your wrist or your elbow and wrist. It's a
sharp hit, and you have less control.

Try all three again, and try to feel the differ-
ence. This is not to say that there isn't any wrist or
elbow movement there. There is. But you're generating
your stroke from your shoulder.

Hold your racket out to your Side and let the
head drop down by loosening your grip. The head of your
racket should drop below your wrist. Try a couple strokes
with your racket head down like this. Try a couple strokes
with a ball. Imagine the ball coming. Let your racket
head drop loose like that and try stroking a couple of
balls. Finish the follow through with the racket head
down instead of up. That should have felt pretty weak.
That's what happens when you put your wrist in a weak
position when you don't have a firm grip on your racket.

Before we leave this tape, just a word about ball
tracking. Don't be anxious to swing through fast when
you get into position to stroke the ball. Be ready,
but "wait" for the ball to be where you want it--either
motionless or on the way down after it has reached the peak

of its bounce.

153

That's enough errors to trouble you with today.
I think that we've covered most of the errors that would
be connected with the forehand. If you feel you need to
listen to any of the tapes again to clarify these things,
feel free to do so.

Now is the time to think positively. Take your
ready position. Take your preparation. Track the ball
and move to the approximate position. Turn, the ball
bounces . . . step . . . wait . . . stroke . . . follow
through. And that's your practice--your proper stroke
practice for the forehand.

Thank you for your attention. This is the end

of Tape 3 on the forehand.

154

D. BEGINNING TENNIS: SERVICE, TAPE 1, MPEIEE

The service is different from all other tennis
techniques in that you, the player, have complete control
over all the variables related to the skill.

Wind and sun are the only uncontrollable factors
to which a player must adjust, and for indoor play, even
these do not exist. You control the placement of the ball
into the air and the placement of the racket on the ball.
With this in mind, given the motivation and opportunity
to practice, you should be able to develop a reliable
service.

The service has two essential parts: the place-
ment of the ball (or the toss) and the swing of the
racket to meet the ball. We will consider and practice
these two separately and then put them together.

Close your eyes and imagine yourself behind the
baseline, facing the curtain. Your left foot is at a
45° angle to the baseline and your right foot is com-
fortably back. The weight is on your back (or your right)

foot. You have no racket in your hand. All instructions

 

are for right-handed_players. Now, take everything in

 

slow motion again, unless otherwise indicated. Take a

 

ball in your left hand, cradle it gently on your
fingers--out toward the ends of your fingers--and secure
it lightly with your thumb. Hold it waist level over

your left foot. Bring your hand down toward the front

155

of your left thigh and then push straight up to a full
arm extension. Release the ball as late as possible,
but keep the palm of your hand facing up toward the
ceiling--as if you were holding a glass of water on it.
Continue to reach upward, and watch the ball go straight
up, about eighteen inches above your reach 93 just
higher than your reach with your racket. Your weight
stays back. Then--catch the ball, or let it drop to the
floor.

There are several errors which you Should be aware
of and experience consciously in order to avoid them.
First, if you toss or flip the ball up without a reach
with your palm up, you will get an erratic placement.

. . . In slow motion again, place yourself at the base-
line again--with your left foot at a 45° angle. Hold

the ball in your left hand, but hold it tightly between
your fingertips and thumb. Now, slowly go down with your
hand toward your left thigh and up--but don't reach. Just
release the ball as you flip your hand up. If you held
onto the ball and flipped rather than pushing straight
up, you flipped the ball back over your head. Try it
again. Flip the ball up. (By "flip," I mean that
there's no arm extension to reach up and guide the ball,
and there's no palm up position but, instead, a palm back
position.) That tosses the ball back up over your head.

Now that's one of the common errors of the toss--not to

156

reach with the palm up and to place the ball up. Many
people toss the ball and flip it without guiding it up.

Second, take the ball again and hold it correctly
(out toward the ends of your fingers) but not tightly.
Now this is the second error that you can make which is
common on the toss. You're going to flip again, but
since you're not holding the ball tightly, flip slowly.
This is slow motion, and let the ball roll off your
fingertips--no arm extension and no reach up. Chances
are that the ball rolled off and out in front of you too
far. For the correct toss, get the concept of pushing
straight up . . . reach up . . . palm up. Place the ball
up rather than tossing or flipping.

During the next pause on the tape, try directing
the ball back over your head and out too far in front.
Do this in slow motion and see what happens. After you
see and feel what happens, practice the placement cor-
rectly several times in Slow motion and then up to normal
speed. You have one minute to practice the two errors--
back over your head and out too far in front--then to
practice up to normal speed with a good push up and a
placement of the ball up over the left foot. Begin . . .

Now that you understand correct and incorrect
ball placement, let's put the ball down and practice the

swing of the racket by itself.

157

You are using the forehand grip. Take your proper
foot position at the line, hold your racket in both hands,
and point it toward the curtain. Your weight is on your
back foot.

Now, slowly, bring the racket down past your
right knee. Continue in that direction until the racket
comes up behind you to point at the wall behind you.
Continue on up and then bring the racket into your back,
and then reach up, pushing up with your back foot. Reach
over your right shoulder to meet an imaginary ball in
front of and above your right Shoulder at full reach.
Continue on through to your left side.

The key checkpoints again are knee--wall--back--
ball. The racket goes to your knee, to the wall behind
you, to your back, and then to the ball. Try the swing
slowly again (but continuously) and as you bring the
racket into your back, be sure your elbow is high.
(Pause.) With the ball placement, in slow motion, take
a ball in your left hand, racket in right hand, weight
on your back foot. Start both hands together, moving
down (your left hand toward the left thigh and right
hand down past your right knee). Then both hands come
up (left hand in front and right hand in back). Reach
with your left hand and release the ball as your right
hand (or your racket hand) comes into your back. Then,

while the ball is motionless in the air (just before it

158

starts to drop), your racket comes through, reaching up
and facing forward to meet the ball on the "nose." As
you bring your racket forward, push with your back foot.
Watch the racket meet the ball up there, above and in
front of your right shoulder, and as you come through,
finish down through your left side. (Pause.) As you
come through on the ball, be sure that you flex your
wrist after you press out on the ball. Right on the nose
of the ball, flex your wrist to bring the ball down into
the court, so you're pushing or pressing out and then
pulling down with your wrist flexing down. I'll pause
for one minute, and I'd like for you to try several
serves up to normal speed. . . .

We talked about and experienced some errors
associated with the toss. But what are some errors on
the service which are unrelated to the toss?

Fortunately, you can groove your swing pattern
by repeatedly practicing the swing of the racket so that
few errors are attributable to the swing. Most faults
on the serve as far as beginners are concerned are
related to a poor ball toss or placement which forces
a poor swing pattern in order to make the racket and
the ball contact. In other words, if your toss is good

and you have grooved your swing, your serve will probably

 

be good.

159

There are, however, two errors to be aware of at
this point. The first is that of "pushing" the ball
rather than swinging freely. Now I mentioned pressing
out on the ball, and as you make contact, you do press
out, but because you're flexing your wrist you're swing-
ing freely. Your wrist is loose and you're swinging
freely. If you push the ball, you will restrict your
swing. Once the racket starts moving, let it move freely
and continue its path through the ball all the way over
to your left side. Keep all joints, shoulder, elbow,
write quite flexible, and flex your wrist as you come
through the ball. Try one or two "pushy" serves now.
That is--without follow-through and with a stiff wrist.
(Pause.) Can you feel the difference--between the stiff
wrist and the wrist that flexes as you press out on the
ball? This is something that you need to be aware of
and need to feel.

The second fault or error that is associated with
the serve is a poor timing of the toss and the swing.
This, of course, is somewhat related to the toss. For
instance, if your toss is placed properly in relation
to your left foot, and in front of your right shoulder,
but tossed too high or too low, it will cause errors.

Try starting your serve prOperly--in Slow motion--
everything correct except that you toss too high. Now you

must wait for the ball, you must wait for it to come down,

160

and this interrupts your swing so that you don't have
a continuous swing.

Now try a proper serve in every respect except
that you toss the ball too low. This will cause you to
rush your swing and contact the ball on top. Pause.

As you face the curtain, try several good serves up to
normal speed--coordinating the toss and the swing. Let
your racket swing freely.

For those who have a good overhand throwing
action, to simplify everything we could Simply say to
put the ball up there with your left hand and then go
get it with your racket. Not everyone has a good over-
hand throwing action. But the serving action of the
racket is very similar to the good overhand throwing
action, provided you're throwing a good distance.

In summary, if your toss is good, your serve
will probably be good.

Now, for the next one-minute pause on the tape,
take several good serves up to normal speed.

There's really only one way to learn any kind of
physical skill and that's to practice it physically.
However, an aid for you in learning the service will be
to go through the service mentally when you don't have
physical practice available; go through it mentally so
that you can coordinate the two arms as they work together.

This is the end of Tape 1 on the service. Thank

you for your attention.

161
E. BEGINNING TENNIS: SERVICE, TAPE 2, MPEIEE

Today, we're still at the baseline but on the
other side of it, and we're facing the net.

On the last tape, we were primarily concerned with
good ball toss and good racket action--and the coordination
or timing of the two. We did not concern ourselves about
accuracy or aiming the serve into the service court.

That is today's task.

As far as the placement of your feet at the base-
line is concerned, we need to be more specific than we
have been before. When you take your foot position prior
to starting your serve (if your left foot is at a 45°
angle to the baseline), it will be pointing at the right
net post. Place your left foot.

Your right foot is comfortably back but, in
addition, if you draw a line between your left toe and
your right toe, the line should point at the service court
into which you intend to serve. In other words, your
right foot will shift slightly when you are serving into
the right service court or the left service court. The
left foot will always point at the right net post. Do
not minimize the importance of care in properly placing
your feet relative to each service court.

Take a position either to the right or left of
the center mark on the baseline. If you are to the right

of the mark, you're serving into the right service court

162

(diagonally opposite). If you are to the left of the
center mark, you are serving into the left service court.
Take a position. Get your weight back on the back foot.

Now, take a few serves at normal speed--and as
you contact the ball, point your racket face at the
service court into which you wish to place the ball.
Remember, you are hitting the ball on the "nose" of
an imaginary face that's drawn on the back of the ball.
Hit with a flat or square racket face which is pointing
at the appropriate service court.

Take a few correct serves during the pause. . . .

Now, just in case you need it, I'll give you
some verbal reminders. As you take your position at the
baseline, point your racket at the net, with both hands
on the racket and with the left hand holding the ball.
Both hands come down, both hands go up. Reach with left
palm up. As you come into the back with your right hand,
look at the ball and swing up and through to the left side.
Continue several good serves.

(Pause.)

What are the possible errors in what we're doing
today? We have, already, hopefully, eliminated any
errors in the toss or in the timing. What are other
possible errors that we encounter when we're trying to

serve into a specific service court?

163

First, the position of your feet at the baseline
can complicate your serve accuracy. Try placing your
left foot parallel to the baseline rather than pointing
it at the right net post. Now serve by tossing or placing
the ball up over your left foot as before. Slowly. . . .
(Pause.)

You should find it difficult to see the service
court in this position and therefore to aim, as you are
sideways to the court. Instead of hitting out and down
on the ball, you will be hitting across the ball with a
twisting motion of your body. Try it again. (Pause.)

It's certainly possible to serve this way, as
you've seen people do this. But it's more difficult to
learn and has no advantage.

A second fault that you can encounter when you
are trying to serve into a particular area is not having
your racket face pointing toward the target as you contact
the ball. Take your proper position again. Slowly--get
a good toss and try a serve with the racket face point-
ing left. (Pause.) What happened? Absolutely. The
ball went to the left.

Try one with the racket face pointing to the
right. (Pause.) Of course, the ball went to the right.
There's nothing particularly mysterious about this, and
if you can feel the position of the racket when it's

pointing to the left and you can feel the position of

164

the racket when it's pointing to the right, you should

be able to identify and learn the correct position of

the flat or square racket face coming through on the ball.
These face variations to the right and the left can result

very easily if you do not have a firm grip on your racket.

 

When you serve, you want your service to go deep
into the service court if possible. Remember, you have
two chances to get the serve in on each point. If you
miss the first one, you should learn from it by noting
where the ball goes and making an adjustment on the
second serve. For instance, if your serve goes into the
net, you did one or a combination of the following:

(1) Your ball toss may have been too low--you may have
contacted the ball on top and you drove it down into the
net, contacted it on the forehead of the face of the ball.
(2) You may have flexed your wrist too soon on contact
with the ball and hit down on top of it. (3) The ball
was too far in front of your right shoulder causing you
to reach forward and hit down. Try each of these men-
tally and in slow motion during the next pause. Toss
too low, flexing your wrist too soon, and tossing too
far in front and flexing your wrist down on top of it.
(Pause.)

Now, suppose your serve goes too long. You
probably did one of the following: (1) The ball toss

or placement of the ball was too high. You could not

165

get it down even though you flexed your wrist as you
came through. Your contact was on the "chin" of the face.
Imagine that imaginary face on the back of the ball.
You're supposed to hit it on the "nose." If your toss
goes too high, you may hit it on the "chin," and your
serve goes too long. (2) Your toss or placement of the
ball may have been too far back and you again contacted
the ball on the "chin" and had no chance to break or
flex your wrist. (3) You may have "pushed" the ball
with a stiff wrist and tried to hit the ball too hard.
There was nothing to bring the ball down. You should try
each of these mentally and in slow motion during the next
pause. Try a toss that is too high so that you hit on
the "chin" of the face of the ball. Try one that's too
far back; you again hit on the "chin" because you can't
get your wrist flexed. Or, try pushing with a stiff
wrist and hitting hard at the same time. (Pause.)

Your serve can go short or it can go long. It
can also go right or left. If your serve goes left,
your racket face was probably pointing left, 95, you may
have turned your racket face with a loose wrist as you
came through on the ball and the ball was too far left
so you came around the right side of the ball and spun
it over to the left. Or sometimes your serve may go to
the right. This is less common. In this case, the face

was pointed right. Or you came across the back of the

166

ball from right to left, which would cause the ball to
spin to the right. Try each one of these in slow motion.
. . . Try your racket face pointing to the left. (Pause.)
Try turning your racket face as you come through on the
ball, coming around the right side of the ball, to cause
it to go left. (Pause.) Try turning your racket face to
the right. (Pause.) Or what's even more fun, try coming
across the back of the ball from right to left--which is
not common but some people do it—-and the ball goes to
the right. Try that. (Pause.)

There are a couple of more things that may cause
you to be inaccurate. If you don't meet the ball in the
middle of the racket, you're probably not watching the
racket make contact with the ball. Or your timing with
the toss is off.

Try now to establish a rhythm in your serve. Do
not rush into your serve but place your feet properly.
Always look at the service court into which you're serv-
ing prior to starting your motion. Place your toss care-
fully. Start both hands moving together. Once your
swing starts, it should be continuous if your toss is
the right height to make contact just as the ball is
"sitting still" between its up and down path. Aim your
service but swing through freely. Remember that accuracy
or placement is of primary importance. You must get it

into the court, but you must swing freely and loosely.

167

Take about twenty serves up to normal speed--twenty
serves into each service court during the next pause
on the tape. (Pause.)

Keep working on the rhythm of your serve.
(Pause.)

Remember that you are the only one that has any
control over your serve and you can learn to control it.
All you need to do is practice. Don't underestimate
your mental practice.

Thank you for your attention. This is the.end

of Tape 2 on the service.

168
F. BEGINNING TENNIS: SERVICE, TAPE 3, MPEIEE

On the previous two tapes, we have worked on the
beginner's serve to give you a full serving motion with
which to start the point in the game. The serving motion
is essentially the same for all serves regardless of how
advanced you may become. There are differences which
result, however, with different types of serves. On
this tape, I should like to give you the details on
executing a simple spin serve. This serve should be of
interest to those of you who can consistently control
your serve-~in other words, get six or seven out of ten
chances on your serves into the service court. Those of
you who can do that--get 75 percent of your serves in--
may be interested in the simple spin serve and should
move on to it. Do not practice this though, unless your
other serve is reliable.

There are only two differences between this serve
and the one you have already learned: the grip and the
action of the racket on the ball. Instead of using
the eastern forehand, you will turn the racket clockwise
as you hold it out in front of you in the ready position.
Loosen your grip and turn the racket clockwise (or to the
right) so that the knuckle at the base of your forefinger
is almost on the top of the grip where the V was before
for the forehand grip. This will cause the racket face

to meet the ball on a slight angle rather than straight

169

in behind as on the other serve. As you meet the ball
on the nose (you're still meeting the ball on the nose),
and as you flex your wrist, the racket strings will scoot

up and off the nose and over the left eye on the face of

 

the ball. This will give the ball some Side and top spin.
Take care not to meet the ball on the nose and go off
over the left ear as this will give you too much side
spin. Your toss is the same and your swing is the same.
Let's try it in slow motion. Position your feet at the
baseline, hold the racket in both hands and point the
racket head toward the net. Look at the service court,
weight on the back foot. Now start both hands down, then
up, then release the ball, reach with the left hand and
bring the racket to your back, now go up to meet the ball
with your racket. Plant the strings on the nose and slide
up over the left eye. Follow through.

You probably noticed that your serve didn't feel
solid or the ball didn't go as fast. This is as it should
be. Any time you are creating spin on the ball, you are
meeting the ball with a glancing blow, so to speak, and
you lose some of the force. You should be meeting the
ball on the nose, your racket traveling upward on your
arm extension. As the arm continues to extend fully,
the strings go up and over the top right side of the ball.
The ball will rise as it comes off the strings and then

begin to drop from the spin. You are aiming up and out,

170

and the ball should clear the net as high as it did on
the previous serve--perhaps even higher.

What are the errors you might encounter on this
serve? The most prominent error in learning this serve is
coming around the "left ear" on the ball face rather than
going up over the "left eye" on the top right side of the
ball. This will result in pronounced side Spin to the
left. Your ball will spin left in the air and it will
spin left after it lands. Side spin is not difficult to
return if it is a consistent pattern and also has little
pace or speed. It's not a bad serve once in awhile as an
element of surprise, but it's certainly not the kind of
serve that you want to rely on. You want top and side
spin.

Try a few serves now, coming around the "left
ear." Do it in slow motion so that you can see. Look
at this in your imagination now and see--the action on
the ball. The ball will be rotating from left to right
on its own axis, as your racket wraps around the right
side of the ball or around the "left ear" on the face
of the ball. Now you're practicing an error, so do it
in slow motion and see if you can see the action on the
ball. (Pause.) Did you see it? Could you see what
happens?

A second error is brushing up the back of the

ball so much that you don't get enough forward motion

171

or you don't get enough racket on the ball or enough force
into the ball. You get top and side spin but sacrifice too
much speed.

Try this in slow motion and watch the action on
the ball. Visualize it, look at it, see what happens as
the ball rotates forward on its own axis. (Pause.)

There's another error that will result. It's
probably not an error; it's more an ineffective action
that will result if you reach full arm extension before
you make ball contact. Then you will be back to your
original beginning serve as there will be no upward
action of the strings on the ball and therefore no top
spin, no side spin.

You must, in order to have an effective serve
which does more than just get the ball into the court,
keep your Shoulders, elbow, and wrist loose and flexible

but keep a firm grip and get your own serving rhythm.

 

This takes practice. Do not try to develop this simple
spin serve if your other serve is not 75 percent accurate.
Now you should try on the next pause on the tape,
twenty serves into the left service court. Don't forget
to change your right foot position--and twenty serves
into the right service court with the simple spin serve.
Now you will find that your point of aim will have to
be slightly more toward the center of the court as you

serve into the right service court and more to the outside

172

of the court as you serve into the left service court,
because your ball will be spinning slightly left in
addition to having top spin. Try twenty serves into
each court during the next pause on the tape. (Pause.)
Now we haven't talked much about how to develop
more speed in the serve, but there are several factors
that enter into that and one of them is your follow-
through. As you follow through, rather than stepping
into the court or thinking that that provides force,
bend forward from the waist as you Swing round with the
racket on your left side and let your buttocks stick out
behind. That will give you (as the trunk is swung down-
ward forcefully) more speed on your serve. As you try to
increase speed in your racket swing, you may have to
adjust your toss and toss lower than you have been as
you were learning the serve. This is the end of Tape 3

on the service. Thank you again for your attention.

173

EXHIBIT C

PLACEBO TAPES: PMP (MENTAL PRACTICE CONTROL)

Six placebo tapes were utilized in this research.

Information and some content in the develOpment of these

tapes was taken from the following sources:

1.

sample

Barnaby, John N. Advantage Tennis. Boston:

 

Allyn and Bacon, Inc., 1975.
Mason, Elaine. Tennis. Boston: Allyn and
Bacon, Inc., 1974.

Murphy, Chet, and Murphy, Bill. Tennis for the

 

Player, Teacher, and Coach. Philadelphia:
W. B. Saunders Company, 1975.

The placebo tape that follows is a representative

of the placebo tapes used.

174

A. BEGINNING TENNIS: SERVICE, TAPE 3, PMP

I am going to deviate from what we have been
doing, to talk about watching tennis. There is, I believe,
a great deal to be gained from watching tennis--probably
as much as there is by mentally practicing.

As thousands of new fans are created by the current
tennis explosion, it is clear from the reactions in the
galleries that many have little idea of what is going on
before their eyes. Not having watched much tennis, they
have confined their attention to the ball and, thereby,
miss many fine points which have a decisive effect on what
occurs.

There are actually a good many different ways to
watch a match, and spectators--particularly those wishing
to learn something for the benefit of their own game--
would do well to vary their manner of watching. What
follows describes a few of the spectating tricks that
can be very rewarding in perceiving what a player is
doing and how he does it. This can apply to technique,
tactics, and strategy.

We have around this campus many opportunities to
watch good tennis. Keep your eye on the server even
after he has played the ball. If he takes the net,
watch how he moves in quickly after serving, then hesi-
tates, crouched, ready to break to either side for the

return. Watch where he puts his first volley and the

175

position that he takes up in anticipation of the second
return--always crouched. Note how he anticipates--
forward, seldom sideways--so as to get on top of the net.
Watch his quick reaction when the opponent lobs. You can
see just how he does this by not watching the ball and
just watching him, all the way. I am using the term
"him" generically, of course!

Take note of where the defender stands to receive
the service. If the service is severe, note his abbre-
viated swing and how he tries to move his weight into the
ball to get solidity into his shot. When he tries a
passing shot in the subsequent exchange, watch his
racket technique. Does he hit it flat and hard, or does
he spin it a lot to make a dipping angle shot? How good
is he at lobbing the second or third shot? Does he do it?
What do you think he is thinking? Does he strike out
daringly on his return of service, playing for lucky
winners, or does he play for the server's feet, trying
to get him into trouble rather than trying for a winner?
What is his plan? How often does he return cross court
rather than down the line? Is his plan the same off his
forehand and backhand, or does he return differently off
the two sides? If you keep watching him alone, you can
often discern a great deal of his thinking in the battle

of wits he wages against the opponent.

176

Tennis is a thinking game. Get with it. The
greatest servers are often confronted by the greatest
defenders. Keep mental track of how often the server
uses his bomb, how often he breaks one out wide to the
forehand in the right court, how often he serves directly
at the receiver, how often he changes the speed and break
of the ball by increasing or decreasing the amount of
Spin, how often he curves on in close to cramp the
receiver. All of these tricks are comparable to the
baseball pitcher who mixes up fast balls, hooks, sliders,
slow balls, etc. A great server doesn't just hit the
ball well, he is a canny thinker who usually manages to
keep his opponent guessing a little and off-balance both
mentally and physically. By concentrating on the service
alone, you can achieve considerable perception into what
each is doing to the other. This makes it all that much
more interesting for you.

There are advantages to watching tennis on a slow
surface. Composition courts are slower than grass, hard
courts, and synthetics. The defender has a much better
chance to achieve respectability with his return, thus
forcing a more lengthy exchange. While the server still
has an advantage, it is no longer as decisive as it was
on a fast surface. This makes for much more interesting
tennis. Instead of the eternal net player against the

baseline defender, we see some baseline rallies, a battle

177

of the backhand, and shots that are just about totally
missing in fast court tennis. Shots such as the drop shot
have now become part of the game again. More varied
techniques and tactics are demanded.

On fast surfaces, all good players are forced
into one type of offense-—to follow serves to the net.

The defender is thus confined to limited choices. Play
for his feet as he comes in, strike out for a winner,

bang it right at him, or lob. On the composition court

he has more options. His opponent is not always at the
net: he can attack one side of his opponent's game and

try to break it down. He can use slices to create a kick-
bounce, hoping to hurt the other fellow's timing. When he
gets a short ball, he can attack all four corners of his
opponent's court, using drop shots as a variation from
hard hitting. His opponent must bear all this in mind
when the crisis occurs. There are many more opportunities
for retrieving and angling and a high deep lob is very
difficult to kill. He can be a counter player using his
opponent's power to his own ends. Agility and court
covering and steadiness pay great dividends.

Altogether, the complete tennis player is the clay
court player, and spectators have far more opportunity to
see all the possibilities of the game on clay than on
fast court. The court surfaces that we have here at the

College are called "all-weather" surfaces. They are

178

hard and fairly fast. They are not as fast as grass,
they are faster than clay courts, but they are slow
enough so that it is not the big serve/volley game that
we see.

When you are watching for technique, it is impor-
tant not to watch the ball. Watch one player. Watch him
prepare his racquet and feet. Watch his racket.leave the
ball as well as come to it. Watch what he does almost
to the total exclusion of the ball. While ordinary spec-
tators are interested in the action and the result of the
exchange, the technical analyst is interested in only
what the player actually does with himself and his racket.
The most difficult thing to do is to watch the racket
leave the ball. The follow-through shows a great deal
of what actually happens to the ball Spin and to the
weight pace. Watch what a player does all of the time.
Notice, for instance, that Billie Jean King always hits
her second service deep. It isn't a winner, but she has
the advantage and wins the percentages.

You should spend half of your time watching the
receiver. Have your eyes on the receiver when the ball
is being served, not on the server. The natural thing
to do is watch the server and follow the ball to the
receiver. By this time, the receiver's racket is playing
the ball. You didn't see at all how he reacted and how

his racket got there. Thus, as a rule, spectators learn

179

little about defensive tricks. Receiving deserves 50 per-
cent of our attention. It takes a little effort, but it
is well worth it.

Doubles is a team sport. Most of those in the
huge tennis audience think tennis is an individual sport.
Actually, doubles is more interesting to watch than singles
because there are many two-shot plays in which one player
creates an opportunity and his partner capitalizes. There
are many planned moves, poaches, half poaches, and even
rotation whereby one team attempts to confuse the other.
There is much going on. The players not playing the ball
move a great deal, anticipate, cut in, retrieve, etc.

All tennis spectators should become familiar with doubles
and, as in singles, should at times purposely avoid
watching the ball and, instead, concentrate on one

player exclusively--the receiver, the receiver's partner
or the server's partner. It is probably a reasonable
prediction that doubles spectating will grow in popu-
larity as the new tennis audience comes to understand

and appreciate it. It is the best game for spectators.

APPENDIX C

COMPOSITE SCORE SHEET

APPENDIX C

 

 

COMPOSITE SCORE SHEET
Sub- Forehand Service Sub- Forehand Service
ggft Form Perf. Form Perf. ggft Form Perf. Form Perf.
Pre Pos Pre Post Pre Post Pre Post Pre Post Pre Post Pre Post Pre Post
1 13 21 41 48 22 30 19 19 27 15 30 35 51 6 24 14 8
2 23 28 38 32 18 16 4 5 28 7 28 17 41 16 29 12 10
3 6 16 16 30 4 23 6 22 29 29 33 30 48 16 27 6 14
4 12 28 26 14 13 23 4 6 30 9 16 23 24 14 30 0 14
5 24 22 32 36 22 25 13 6 31 18 26 4O 47 23 34 14 ll
6 14 26 2 27 25 21 6 1 32 16 30 37 34 7 30 15 8
7 28 27 23 22 32 30 15 16 33 16 29 19 30 21 17 14 5
8 16 29 22 33 14 24 18 14 34 15 28 36 37 1 28 6 5
9 4 23 8 44 17 24 16 12 35 17 25 14 38 16 24 6 10
10 27 24 36 41 3O 33 20 5 36 23 28 23 29 30 31 4 0
11 ll 23 11 9 16 27 5 3 37 15 20 19 13 18 26 9 8
12 27 35 54 47 33 35 29 16 38 16 27 9 54 5 28 6 12
13 1 21 17 18 4 33 6 12 39 16 27 4 23 9 28 8 11
14 ll 24 25 28 1 17 16 4 40 14 21 34 37 29 25 4 8
15 1 16 14 21 4 21 13 7 41 24 34 15 13 28 33 4 10
16 4 31 25 34 18 18 14 17 42 24 35 34‘ 42 28 30 18 9
17 22 28 10 36 17 32 12 12 43 27 29 39 39 26 29 16 8
18 15 26 10 27 14 28 7 8 44 17 ll 40 49 32 35 27 28
19 27 26 24 38 1 35 23 18 45 19 33 26 37 22 27 9 3
20 13 3O 36 30 19 29 18 2 46 19 17 13 36 24 27 5 9
21 2 33 45 40 l 28 17 17 47 7 27 22 32 2 ll 15 12
22 24 28 24 37 23 29 4 0 48 22 15 23 31 29 28 4 16
23 18 19 26 36 33 29 4 18 49 14 15 18 23 29 31 25 ll
24 30 25 40 45 34 35 32 18 50 6 22 13 26 29 29 3 4
25 11 27 14 32 1 28 16 6 51 7 21 12 24 l 29 13 3
26 16 7 22 23 15 33 8 8 52 17 22 37 50 1 32 14 0

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

180

APPENDIX D

MENTAL PRACTICE SCHEDULE

APPENDIX D

MENTAL PRACTICE SCHEDULE

IMPORTANT-~PLEASE READ CAREFULLY AND NOTE

 

To: ALL STUDENTS IN MY BEGINNING TENNIS CLASSES
From: TISH LOVELESS
Re: ASSIGNMENTS AND CLASS REQUIREMENTS

Some of you were not in attendance the first class period
when the procedures and requirements for credit in this
class were explained. They are as follows:

1. Instruction begins on the hour.

2. Class is dismissed fifteen minutes before the hour
(except for those assigned extra practice).

3. The usual limit of three absences in order to receive
credit is in effect.

4. As I explained the first day, there will necessarily
be other requirements for credit as these tennis
classes are providing data for a study concerned with
investigating effective ways of learning motor skills.
The knowledge gained may help you and others. The
additional requirements are:

 

a. Listening to the audio tapes on reserve in the
library when assigned.

b. Listening only to the type of tapes assigned to
you. Ask the person at the circulation desk for
the tape by Type (Type I, Type II, or III) as
assigned to you.

c. Taking the posttest on the forehand and serve,
March 2 through 8th, at the end of the term.

I shall greatly appreciate your cooperation in this class

and hope that you will see significant improvement,
enjoyment, and understanding of tennis.

181

182

The schedule for tape listeners is:

Mon. Jan. 17 to Wed. Jan. 19

or

Tues. Jan. 18 to Thurs. Jan.

Wed. Jan. 19 to Mon. Jan. 24

or

Thurs. Jan. 20 to Tues. Jan.

Mon. Jan. 24 to Wed. Jan. 26

or

Tues. Jan. 25 to Thurs. Jan.

Wed. Jan. 26 to Mon. Jan. 31

or

Thurs. Jan. 27 to Tues. Feb.

Mon. Jan.

or

Tues. Feb. 1 to Thurs. Feb.

Wed. Feb. 2 to Mon. Feb.

or

Thurs. Feb. 3 to Tues. Feb.

NO LISTENING REQUIRED DURING BACKHAND

Mon.

or

Tues. Feb. 22 to Thurs. Feb.

Wed. Feb. 23 to Mon. Feb.
or
Thurs. Feb. 24 to Tues.

Mon. Feb. 28 to Wed. March

or
Tues. March 1 to Thurs.

Wed. March 2 to Mon.

or

Thurs. March 3 to Tues.

Feb. 21 to Wed. Feb. 24 - Listen

28 - Listen

2 - Listen

March 7 - Listen

- Listen
once

to Tape 1 Forehand
(15 min.)

20

- Listen
once

to Tape 2 Forehand
(15 min.)

25

- Listen
once

to Tape 3 Forehand
(15 min.)

27

- Listen to Tape 1 Service
twice (15 min.)

1

31 to Wed. Feb. 2‘- Listen to Tape 2 Service

once (15 min.)

7 - Listen to Tape 3 Service

once (15 min.)

INSTRUCTION
to one tape, FH or S
once (15 min.)
24

to one tape FH or S

once (15 min.)

March 1

to Tape 3 Forehand

once (15 min.)

March 3

to a Service tape

once (15 min.)

March 8

APPENDIX E

RATING SHEETS

APPENDIX E

FOREHAND--RATING SHEET FOR BEGINNERS
EXHIBIT A

Rater NO.

 

Subject No.

 

Instructions: Rate each stroke (10 in all) on each of

 

the
(1)

(2)
(3)

1.

first three items.

For items 1 through 3, cross out (X) the apprOpriate
box if 2 of the 3 criteria are evident.

For item 4, give one overall rating 0 to 5 based on
criteria Iisted in number 4.

Finally--give your Opinion on whether this is a pretest
or posttest.

 

 

 

READY POSITION - A. Racket in both hands--racket head
pointing toward net and on edge.
B. Knees noticeably bent.
C. Weight forward over balls of feet.

 

PREPARATION--(Body & Racket)

A. Turn left shoulder to net.

B. Racketwback soon enough to stop on backswing (or)
small continuous backswing oop.

C. Racket pginting at wall behind (avoid longer or
shorter backSWingYIand racketihead about waist
level (avoid high or largeIloopingIbaCKSWing)

 

 

STROKE

A. Step toward net with left foot just prior to
gtréke, knees—Bent & weight into strOke.

B. RaEket path into the Ball approx. parallel to
ggurt surface or, in line behind the ball (avoid
scooping under), racket head nearly on edg§_
throughout stroke.

C. Follow through_until racket points to opposite wall
(orfibeyond), racket head finishes high in front
of and above left shouIder and’higher than wrist.
(Avoid "eIEow only" stroke.)

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

RATE WHOLE STROKE EXECUTION

A. Good balance--Both feet remain on floor--knee bend
and weight into stroke

B. Smooth "stroke" rather than "hit"

C. Firm Grip

D. No eVidence of "wrist " or " ush " stroke

E. Good racket head speeg and tlmlng

 

 

 

183

184

NUMBER OF STROKES

 

l.

2.

3.

READY
POSITION

PREPARATION

STROKE

TOTAL EACH STROKE

4.

GIVE ONE OVERALL RATING (ZERO TO 5)

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

10

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Total Score
Maximum 35

Rater No.

 

Subject No.

Vertical total 1 through 3 for each

stroke
number .

lus the one value given in

 

Rater's Opinion:

appropriate box:

 

This is a

 

PRE lPOSTJl'est

Cross out

185

SERVICE--RATING SHEET FOR BEGINNERS
EXHIBIT B

Rater No.

Subject No.

Instructions: Rate each stroke (10 in all) on each of the

 

first three items.

(1) For items 1 throggh 3, cross out (x) the appropriate
box if72 of 3 criteria are evident.

For item 4, insert a O to 5 rating as per criteria
listed for No. 4.

Finally--give your opinion on whether this is a pretest
or posttest.

(2)
(3)

l.

 

 

 

STARTING POSITION - A. Left foot pointing at right net

post, right foot back from
baseline.

B. Ball and racket pointing toward
service court.

C. Takes time for correct position
,Looks at service court

INITIAL PHASE

A.
B.

C.

Both hands move down and up together.

Toss is placed high enough and in front of right
shoulder as racket comes through.

Tossing arm fully extended

FINISH PHASE

A.

B.

C.

Racket continues down past right leg, up to reach
toward wall behind, and in to the back with elbow
up.

Press out on ball with flat racket face and wrist
flex.

Follow through to opposite side past left leg
weight shift evident by bend forward at waist (or)
carry of right foot into court

RATE WHOLE STROKE EXECUTION

A.
B.
C.
D.
E.

Fully extended racket reach on ball

Continuous and full racket path

Good timing and coordination of toss and racket
Relaxed or loose joint action

Free follow through

186

NUMBER OF STROKES

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

1. STARTING
POSITION 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 [8 9 l 10
2. INITIAL 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
PHASE
3. FINISH PHASE 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

 

TOTAL EACH STROKE

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

4. GIVE ONE OVERALL RATING (ZERO TO 5)

 

 

Total Score
Maximum 35

Rater No. Rater's Opinion: Cross out
apprOpriate box:

Subject No.

 

This is aIPRE POST Test.

 

 

 

 

APPENDIX F

SCHEDULE OF CLASSES FOR DATA COLLECTION

APPENDIX F
SCHEDULE OF CLASSES FOR DATA COLLECTION

BEGINNING TENNIS
WINTER TERM 1976-77

Section l--ll:00 Mon—Wed. Sections 2 & 3--10:00 & 11:00

 

 

 

2:3

2 3 13 5! IS 312 :3 ‘2 3 23 E! 12 3 21 3:2

ITues:Thurs.
Jan. 3 Orientation T Jan. 4 Orientation
Jan. 5 Pretest Forehand Th Jan. 6 Pretest Forehand
Video Tape (VT) Video Tape
Jan. 10 Pretest Serve T Jan. 11 Pretest Serve
Video Tape Video Tape

Schedule Revised--No Classes Jan. 11 due to Blizzard

Jan. 12 lst Lesson Volley Th Jan. 13 Pretest Serve
Jan. 17 lst Lesson FH T Jan. 18 lst Lesson FH
Listen to Tape 1 once before Lesson 2 15 min.
Jan. 19 2nd Lesson FH Th Jan. 20 2nd Lesson FH
Listen to Tape 2 once before next Lesson 15 min.
Jan. 24 3rd Lesson FH T Jan. 25 3rd Lesson FH
Listen to Tape 3 once before next lesson 15 min.
Jan. 26 lst Lesson Serve Th Jan. 27 lst Lesson Serve
Listen to Tape 1 once before Lesson 2 15 min.
Jan. 31 2nd Lesson Serve T Feb. 1 2nd Lesson Serve
Listen to Tape 2 once before Next Lesson 15 min.
Feb. 2 3rd Lesson Serve Th Feb. 3 3rd Lesson Serve
Listen to Tape 3 once before next Lesson 15 min.
Feb. 7 lst Lesson BH T Feb. 8 lst Lesson BH
No Listening
Feb. 9 2nd Lesson BH Th Feb. 10 2nd Lesson BH
No Listening
Feb. 14 3rd Lesson BH T Feb. 15 3rd Lesson BH
No Listening
Feb. 16 FH-BH-Serve Th Feb. 17 FH-BH-Serve
Feb. 21 FH-BH-Serve T Feb. 22 FH-BH-Serve
Listen to one tape once 15 min.
Feb. 23 FH-BH-Serve Th Feb. 24 FH-BH-Serve
Listen to one tape once 15 min.
Feb. 28 FH-BH-Serve T Mar. 1 FH-BH-Serve
Listen to Tape 3 PH 15 min.
Mar. 2 Posttest FH--VT Th Mar. 3 Posttest FH--VT
Listen to Tape 3 Service 2 tapes
Mar. 7 Posttest Serve--VT T Mar. 8 Posttest Serve—-VT
2 tapes
Mar. 9 Posttest Backup Th Mar. 10 Posttest Backup

187

APPENDIX G

INSTRUCTIONS TO LIBRARIAN

APPENDIX G

INSTRUCTIONS TO LIBRARIAN

 

IMPORTANT

To: Circulations Librarian, Upjohn Library, Kalamazoo
College

From: Tish Loveless, Department of Physical Education

Re: Audio tapes on closed reserve for beginning tennis,

winter term, 1977
THERE ARE THREE TYPES OF TAPES. THERE ARE THREE LISTS OF
STUDENTS.

PLEASE, it is of vital importance to the data collection for
my Doctoral thesis that:

1. Only students on Type 1 (MPP) list are given Type I
(MPP) tapes.

2. Only students on Type II (MPEIEE) list are given
Type II (MPEIEE) tapes.

3. Only students on Type III (PMP) list are given Type III
(PMP)

LISTS OF STUDENTS ARE ATTACHED TO EACH BOX.

 

These students have been asked to listen ONLY to the tapes
assigned to them.

Your help is appreciated in directing the right type tape
to each student.

THANK YOU!

188

APPENDIX H

TAPE LISTENING RECORD

APPENDIX H

TAPE LISTENING RECORD
Minimum Listening Record for Retention in the Study--6

 

 

Verbal Study Number Tape Count
MPP (MENTAL PRACTICE POSITIVE)
High 1 6
Low 2 8
Low 3 0
High 4 10
High 5 11
Low 6 12
Low 7 11
Low 8 0
High 9 8
High 10 3
Low 11 4
Low 12 2

MPEIEE (MENTAL PRACTICE ERROR INFORMATION,
EXPERIENCE, ELIMINATION)

High 13 12
High 14 9
High 15 7
Low 16 11
Low 17 9
High 18 10
High 19 9
Low 20 10
Low 21 8
Low 22 11
High 23 10
High 24 5
Low 25 6
Low 26 6
PMP (MENTAL PRACTICE CONTROL)
High 40 12
High 41 6
High 42 7
Low 43 13
High 44 9
High 45 11
Low 46 11
Low 47 10
Low 48 11
Low 49 10
High 50 0
Low 51 0
Low 52 O

189

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