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This is to certify that the
thesis entitled

The Role of Sports as a Social
Status Determinant for Children

presented by

Melissa Ann Chase

has been accepted towards fulfillment
of the requirements for

Masters degree in Curriculum

gag/MW

Major professor

Date 5 7714M /72/
/

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JAN 0 67003 i

125 mu fi 3n Afl‘irm‘ive AdiorVEquel Opportunity Inflation

 

THE ROLE OF SPORTS AS A SOCIAL STATUS
DETERMINAN T FOR CHILDREN
By
Melissa Ann Chase

A THESIS

Submitted to
Michigan State University
in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of

MASTER OF ARTS

Department of Physical Education and Exercise Science
1 99 1

ABSTRACT

THE ROLE OF SPORTS AS A SOCIAL STATUS
DETERNflNANT FOR CHILDREN

By
Melissa Ann Chase

This study was designed to examine children’s attitudes toward the role of sports in
determining social status. A total of 227 girls and 251 boys in Grades 4, 5, and 6
completed a questionnaire to determine which criteria were most important in determining
personal, female, and male popularity. Results revealed the most important criterion for
determining male popularity was success in sports, while sports were of less importance in
determining female popularity. The most important determinant for female popularity was
appearance. Chi-square analyses revealed significant gender differences in the criteria used
by girls and boys to determine personal, female, and male popularity. Significant grade-
level differences were found in the criteria used by girls to determine personal popularity,

female popularity, and male popularity. For boys, significant grade-level differences were
found only in the criterion used to determine personal popularity.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

I would like to thank Dr. Gail Dummer for her advice and exemplary organization not
only with my Thesis but my entire Master’s program. I truly appreciate her efforts.

I would like to thank Dr. Feltz and Dr. Smith for their guidance throughout this
project. Thanks to Cathy Lirgg for sharing her expertise in statistics and her friendship.
Thanks to my Mom and Dad for being excellent role models in the education field and
always having positive words of encouragement.

To Rick, thanks for proof-reading all chapters of my Thesis and other research papers
and being supportive through all the revisions. Most of all thanks for your wonderful
sense of humor and making graduate life enjoyable.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

List of Tables ............................................... v
List of Figures ............................................. . vii

Chapter One: Introduction

Need for the Study ..........................................
Statement of the Problem .....................................
Hypotheses ..............................................
The Research Plan .........................................
Design ...............................................
Subjects ..............................................
Instrumentation .........................................
Data Collection .........................................
Data Analysis ..........................................
Delimitations ..............................................
Limitations ...............................................
Assumptions ..............................................
Pilot Study ...............................................

\IQQQUIUIM-b-kkkNNi—s

Definitions ...............................................

Chapter Two: Review of Literature
Peer Relationships and Social Development .........................
Determinants of Social Status ................................... 9
Comparative Studies ..................................... 10
Social Status Criteria Studies ................................ 14

Conclusion ............................................... 23

ii.

Chapter Three: Method

Research Design ............................................
Subjects .................................................
Instrumentation ................................
Procedures for Data Collection ..................................
Pilot Study ...................................
Data Analysis .............................................
Hypotheses 1, 2, 5, 6, 9, and 10 ..............................
Hypotheses 3, 4, 7, 8, 11, and 12 ............................
Hypotheses 13, 14, 15, and 16 ...............................
Hypotheses 17, 18, 19, and 20 ...............................
Hypotheses 21, 22, 23, and 24 ...............................

Chapter Four: Results

Determinants of Personal Popularity ..............................
Determinants of Male Popularity ................................
Determinants of Female Popularity ...............................
Activities in Which Children Prefer to Participate at School . .

Activities in Which Children Prefer to Fail at School ......

Chapter Five: Discussion

Determinants of Social Status ..................................
Determinants of Personal Popularity ...........................
Determinants of Male Popularity .............................

Determinants of Female Popularity ............................

........... O

........... O

000000000000 0

0000000000000

Activities in Which Children Prefer to Participate and Succeed at School ..... .

Activities in Which Children Prefer to Participate at School ............

Activities in Which Children Prefer to Fail at School . .

iii.

0000000000000

25
25
29
33
34
34
35
35
35
35
35

36
42
46
50
54
58

63
63
67
67
68
68
71
71

Conclusions . . . .

OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO

Recommendations ..........................................
Appendices
Appendix A: Questionnaire .................................
Appendix B: Letter to Parents ..............................
Appendix C: Parental Consent Form ........................ .
Appendix D: Script for Questionnaire Administration .............. .

List of References

00000000000000000000000000000000000000000

iv.

72
73

77
80
81
83

89

Table 1:
Table 2:
Table 3:
Table 4:
Table 5:
Table 6:
Table 7:

Table 8:

Table 9:

Table 10:

Table 11:
Table 12:
Table 13:
Table 14:
Table 15:
Table 16:
Table 17:
Table 18:
Table 19:
Table 20:
Table 21:
Table 22:

LIST OF TABLES

Relationship Between Physical Ability and Social Status

Determinants of Social Status From Previous Research Studies ......

Description of the Age of the Subjects in the Sample

Representation of Racial Backgrounds by Girls in the Sample .......
Representation of Racial Backgrounds by Boys in the Sample .......
Students’ Ranking of Personal Grades Compared to Most Classmates . .

Students’ Ranking of Personal Sport Ability Compared to Most
Classmates
Students’ Ranking of Personal Popularity Compared to Classmates
of the Same Gender

Average Number of Days per Week Students Play Some Kind of

Sport .............................................

Average Number of Sports Students Play More Than One Day
per Week

Characteristics of the School Districts and Communities in the Sample . .

Summary of Results for Each Hypothesis

Determinants of Personal Popularity

Determinants of Male Popularity ...........................

Determinants of Female Popularity

School Activities in Which Boys Prefer to Fail
School Activities in Which Girls Prefer to Fail

OOOOOOOOOOOOO

OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO

OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO

OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO

OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO

OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO

Preferred School Activities of Boys and Girls ..................
Preferred School Activities of Boys in Grades 4, 5, and 6 ..........
Preferred School Activities of Girls in Grades 4, 5, and 6 ......... .
School Activities in Which Children Prefer to Fail ...............

OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO

13
22
26
27
27
28

28

30

30

31
32
37
39
43
47
51
53
55
55
57
57
59

Table 23:
Table 24:
Table 25:

Table 26:

Table 27:
Table 28:
Table 29:
Table 30:
Table 31:

Table 32:

School Activities in Which Boys Prefer Not to Fail ..............
School Activities in Which Girls Prefer Not to Fail ............. .
Determinants of Personal Popularity as Reported by Buchanan,
Blankenbaker, and Cotten (1976) and Chase (1991) ..............
Activities in Which Children Prefer to Participate at School as Reported
by Buchanan, Blankenbaker, and Cotten (1976) and Chase (1991) . . . .
Pilot Study Results for Determinants of Personal Popularity .........

Pilot Study Results for Determinants of Female Popularity .........

Pilot Study Results for Determinants of Male Popularity ......... .

Pilot Study Results for Preferred School Activities of Boys and Girls . . .

Pilot Study Results for School Activities in Which
Children Prefer to Fail ................................ .
Pilot Study Results for School Activities in Which
Children Prefer Not to Fail ............................. .

vi.

61
61

69
85

85
86
86

86

88

Figure 1:
Figure 2:
Figure 3:
Figure 4:
Figure 5:
Figure 6:
Figure 7:
Figure 8:
Figure 9:

Figure 10:
Figure 11:
Figure 12:
Figure 13:
Figure 14:
Figure 15:
Figure 16:
Figure 17:
Figure 18:

LIST OF FIGURES

Determinants of Personal Popularity as Rated by Boys and Girls ..... . 4O
Determinants of Personal Popularity as Rated by Boys ............ 41
Determinants of Personal Popularity as Rated by Girls ............ 42
Determinants of Male Popularity as Rated by Boys and Girls ......... 44
Determinants of Male Popularity as Rated by Boys ............. . 45
Determinants of Male Popularity as Rated by Girls .............. . 46
Determinants of Female Popularity as Rated by Boys and Girls ....... 48
Determinants of Female Popularity as Rated by Boys .............. 49
Determinants of Female Popularity as Rated by Girls .............. 50
Preferred School Activities of Boys and Girls ................... 52
Preferred School Activities of Boys in Grades 4, 5, and 6 ........... 52
Preferred School Activities of Girls in Grades 4, 5, and 6 .......... 54
School Activities in Which Boys and Girls Prefer to Fail ........... 56
School Activities in Which Boys Prefer to Fail .................. 56
School Activities in Which Girls Prefer to Fail .................. 58
School Activities in Which Boys and Girls Prefer Not to Fail ....... . 60
School Activities in Which Boys Prefer Not to Fail ............... 62
School Activities in Which Girls Prefer Not to Fail ............... 62

vii.

Chapter One
Introduction

Adolescence is a time in which being popular and accepted by peers is very important
(Williams & White,1983). Social status and peer acceptance are often gained by being
good at something that other children value (Asher, Oden & Gottrnan, 1977; Kay, Felker,
& Varoz, 1972; Veroff, 1969). Coleman (1961) suggests that social status is earned in
activities that are conspicuous and bring credit to the school, such as participation in
athletics. Sport participation is often thought of as one of the dominant values in American
society. However, the value of participation in sports as a determinant of social status may
vary among females and males.

Previous research in the social status system of adolescents has shown that gender
differences occur in the criteria used by children to determine social status (Coleman, 1961;
Eitzen, 1975 ; Feltz, 1978; Goldberg & Chandler, 1989; Kane, 1988; Thirer & Wright,
1985; Williams & White, 1983). Studies with high school males found that "being a good
athlete" was the most important criterion for determining male social status among peers
(Coleman, 1961; Eitzen, 1975; Goldberg & Chandler, 1989; Kane, 1988; Thirer & Wright,
1985; Williams & White, 1983). Studies with high school females found that "being a
leader in activities" was the most important criterion for determining female social status
among peers (Coleman, 1961; Feltz, 1978; Kane, 1988; Thirer & Wright, 1985 ; Williams
& White, 1983). "Being a good athlete" was not an important criterion for female social
status.

Very few studies have been completed on the social status systems of middle and
elementary school children. Buchanan, Blankenbaker, and Cotten (1976) examined the
criteria used by children in Grades 4, 5, and 6 to determine social status. Their results
were similar to those found for high school students. They found that "being a good
athlete" was the most important criterion in determining social status for boys. "Getting
good grades" was the most important criterion in determining social status for girls.
"Being a good athlete" was the second most important criterion for females.
W

Research to date has primarily examined the determinants of social status for high
school students. The criteria used by elementary and middle school children to determine

social status are unclear and inconclusive. The reason that this area of research is important

1

is two-fold First, an investigation which examines the criteria used by children to
determine social status would provide educators with more information about the
developmental aspects of determining social status. To date educators can study the criteria
used by high school students but do not have research evidence as to when social status
criteria develop, or changes that may occur prior to high school. A current assessment of
the criteria used by children in Grades 4, 5, and 6 to determine social status might help to
explain the foundation from which older adolescents determine social status.

Secondly, a comparison between the current findings in 1991 and the findings from
the Buchanan et. a1 study in 1976 would allow an evaluation of changes over time that
might have occurred in the criteria used by children to determine social status. Given the
results of the comparison, it may be possible that new areas of future research would be
exposed that would contribute to the knowledge of the social status system of children.
Also, it is important that the literature report an accurate, timely, assessment of the criteria
used by children to determine social status.

W

This study is a partial replication of the Buchanan et al. (1976) study. The purpose is
to examine the role of sports and other determinants in the social status of children in
Grades 4, 5, and 6. Specifically, this study investigates gender and grade level differences
in the criteria used by children to determine social status, the activities in which children
prefer to participate at school, and the activities in which they prefer or do not prefer to fail.
metlrcses

Based on the results of the Buchanan et al. (1976) study, and other related social
status studies with high school adolescents, the following hypotheses were made:

The determinants of social status will be different for boys and girls ("making good
grades," "having lots of money," "being good at sports," or "being handsome or pretty'").

Personal popularity:

1. Boys determining personal popularity will choose "being good at sports."

2. Girls determining personal popularity will choose "being pretty."

3. Boys' responses about personal popularity will not differ in Grades 4, 5 ,
and 6. All boys will choose "being good at sports."

4. Girls' responses about personal popularity will not differ in Grades 4, 5,
and 6. All girls will choose "being pretty."
Male popularity:
Boys determining male popularity will choose "being good at sports."
6. Girls determining male popularity will choose "being good at sports."
Boys' responses about male popularity will not differ in Grades 4, 5, and
6. All boys will choose "being good at sports."
8. Girls' responses about male popularity will not differ in Grades 4, All
girls will choose "being good at sports."
Female popularity:
9. Boys determining female p0pularity will choose "being pretty."
10. Girls determining female popularity will choose "being pretty."
11. Boys' responses about female popularity will not differ in Grades 4, 5,
and 6. All boys will choose "being pretty."
12. Girls' responses about female popularity will not differ in Grades 4, 5,
and 6. All girls will choose "being pretty."
There will be a gender difference in what boys and girls prefer to do at school ("make
good grades," "be popular," or "be good at sports").
13. Boys will prefer to "be good at sports."
14. Girls will prefer to "make good grades."
There will not be a grade difference in what boys and girls prefer to do at school
("make good grades," "be popular," or "be good at sports").
15. Boys' responses about what they prefer to do at school will not differ in
Grades 4, 5, and 6. All boys will prefer to "be good at sports."
16. Girls' responses about what they prefer to do at school will not differ in
Grades 4, 5, and 6. All girls will prefer to "make good grades."
There will not be a gender difference in what boys and girls prefer to fail at in school
("make good grades," "be popular," or "be good at sports").
17. Boys will prefer to fail at "being popular."
18. Girls will prefer to fail at "being popular. "

4

There will not be a grade difference in what boys and girls prefer to fail at in school

("make good grades," "be popular," or "be good at sports").

19. Boys' responses about what they prefer to fail at in school will not differ
in Grades 4, 5, and 6. All boys will prefer to fail at "being popular."

20. Girls' responses about what they prefer to fail at in school will not differ
in Grades 4, 5, and 6. All girls will prefer to fail at "being popular."

There will not be a gender difference in what boys and girls prefer not to fail at in

school ("make good grades," "be popular," or "be good at sports").

21. Boys will prefer not to fail at "getting good grades."

22. Girls will prefer not to fail at " getting good grades."

There will not be a grade difference in what boys and girls prefer not to fail at in

school ("make good grades," "be popular," or "be good at sports").

23. Boys' responses about what they prefer not to fail at in school will not
differ in Grades 4, 5, and 6. All boys will prefer not to fail at " getting
good grades."

24. Girls' responses about what they prefer not to fail at in school will not
differ in Grades 4, 5, and 6. All girls will prefer not to fail at " getting
good grades."

Wan

mm. This study was conducted as survey research. The subjects completed a
written questionnaire. The dependent variables are the scores obtained from the
questionnaire investigating social status determinants, preference of activities, and
preferences of activities in which subjects prefer and do not prefer to fail. The independent
variables are the gender and grade level of the subjects.

Subjects. A total of 227 girls and 251 boys in Grades 4, 5, and 6 participated in this
study. The children ranged in age from 8 to 13 years, and were from various racial
backgrounds. All subjects who participated were from elementary and middle schools in
the greater Lansing area. The school districts were in communities that varied in size,
socioeconomic status, and location, rural or suburban settings.

Instrumentation. The instrument used to collect the data was an ll-item

questionnaire designed by the investigator. The questionnaire was developed from

5

questions used in previous social status research (Buchanan et. al., 1976; Coleman, 1961;
Feltz, 1978; Thirer & Wright, 1985; Williams & White, 1983). Prior to use in this study,
the questionnaire was tested in two pilot studies.

W. All data collection procedures were conducted in the same manner
for each subject. The questionnaire was administered to groups of students allowed to
participate. Directions on how to complete the questionnaire and definitions of the terms
"popularity" and "sport" were read to the classroom of students by the investigator. All
students were encouraged to answer each question honestly and assured that their answers
would be confidential. Each of the 11 questions were read to the students by the
investigator and the students gave a written response. Upon completion of the
questionnaire, the questionnaire was collected and a brief explanation of the study was
given.

W. The data analysis methods are similar to the methods used by
Buchanan et a1. (1976) and other social status research studies (Coleman, 1961; Eitzen,
1975; Feltz, 1978; Kane, 1988; Thirer and Wright, 1985; Williams and White, 1983). The
criteria used by the subjects to determine personal, female, and male popularity was
analyzed by gender and grade level by computing a mean ranking for each dependent
variable ("make good grades," "be good at sports," "have lots of money," or "be handsome
or pretty“). The criteria were ranked in ascending order according to importance, "one"
being the most important and "four" being the least important for determining popularity.
Chi-square analyses were conducted to determine if significant gender and grade level
differences occurred in the criteria used by the subjects to determine personal, female, and
male popularity.

The choices of activities in which the subjects preferred to participate at school
("make good grades," "be popular," or "be good at sports") and the activities in which they
preferred to fail or not to fail ("make good grades," "be popular," or "be good at sports")
were analde with frequency statistics. Chi-square analyses were computed for these
three frequency measures to examine if gender and grade level differences were significant.
1: l' . .

The generalizability of this study is limited due to the number of subjects and their

characteristics. Due to limitations in the sample size and failure to obtain permission from

6

some selected school districts, a limited number of subjects with different racial and ethnic
backgrounds participated in the study. Minority students were under represented in this
study.

I . . .

Limitations in time and scope of this study did not permit all aspects of social status
determinants to be investigated at this time. This study is a replication of the Buchanan et
al. study (1976) except for one area. Buchanan et al. (1976) surveyed subjects to discover
how students were classified by their classmates, as "athletes," "students," or "student-
athletes." These three categories were compared with popularity ratings to determine who
was more popular "good students," "good athletes," or "good student-athletes." This
process of classifying students into three categories was not within the scope of this study.
Therefore, the question of which students ("atlrletes," "students," or "student-athletes")
from each class are more popular was not investigated.

Also acting as a limitation is the fact that this study does not investigate the influence
of a "winning tradition" in athletics for each school district and the "sex-appropriateness" of
participation by females in some sports and the "sex-inappropriateness" of participation in
other sports. While these issues could be important influences, the scope of this study
does allow them to be addressed.

The sampling procedures were also a limitation in this study. The recruitment of
subjects allowed only those subjects to participate who had received permission from their
parents and the superintendent of the school district. This selection process did not permit
a stratified or random sampling of subjects. It is recognized that these subjects that
volunteered may not be representative of the general population.

Ammuficns

This study was predicated on some assumptions. First, it was assumed that the
children in this study responded according to their true feelings and not how they thought
their parents or society would like them to respond. Second, it was assumed that the
questionnaire used to collect data was a reliable and valid instrument. Third, it was
assumed that all children have the same understanding of what it means to "be good at" or
"to achieve." Fourth, children in the sixth grade in this study attend middle school.
Buchanan et a1. (1976) did not specify whether children in Grade 6 attended elementary or

middle school in their study. Therefore, it was assumed that children in Grade 6 that were
possibly from different schools, either elementary or middle school, would be comparable.
PM

A pilot study was conducted in two parts to test the use of the questionnaire and data
collection procedures. The first part of the pilot study was an interview project Three
girls and two boys, ages 8 to 13 years, were asked questions that examined the criteria
used by girls and boys to determine popularity among their peers. The questions were
similar to those used on the final questionnaire but they were not a forced choice response.
The subjects were questioned about the definitions of various words used in the
questionnaire to make sure that they had a clear understanding of these terms. The children
had no difficulty answering each question.

The second part of the pilot study was a survey of 17 children, males and females, in
Grades 4, 5, and 6. An ll-item questionnaire was read to the group and they gave a
written response. Each subject was asked to define popularity. The definitions were used
during the final study to describe the meaning of popularity. The children had no difficulty
completing the questionnaire or following the administration procedures. From the results
of both pilot studies, it was determined that the questionnaire and data collection procedures
were appropriate for future use.

11 fi . .

Operational definitions of terms that were used during this study are given below.
The definitions for the terms popularity and sport were explained to the students prior to
completion of the questionnaire.

1. Regularity and Wm are synonymous and are defined as, "to be well

liked by a lot of people." This definition was derived from the pilot study.

2. M is traditionally defined as a competitive activity that involves physical
exertion or the use of physical skill (Coakley, 1990). However, in this study
sport was described to the children as "activities or games in which they
participate during recess, during physical education class, or in after~school
programs." This definition was used because most children of this age group

will not be involved in competitive sports.

Chapter Two
Review of Literature

Physical competence on the school playground or playing field is a highly valued and
powerful attribute for children (Evans & Roberts, 1987). Children with high levels of
physical ability enjoy popularity and success in games. Physically competent children
often are sought after by other children to join games. However, just the opposite can be
true for children of low ability. These children are not encouraged and frequently not
allowed to join play-ground games. They often are ridiculed and unpopular among their
peers. Unfortunately, this pattern becomes a continuous cycle. Popular children with
good physical abilities are the ones who have more opportunities to participate in games
and continue to improve their skills. Children with poor skills have fewer opportunities to
play in games, and therefore fewer opportunities to improve their skills. This situation can
create problems of low self-esteem in children, high attrition rates in sport, and low social
status for children among their peers.

This review examines the role of sports in the development of peer relationships and
social status for children. Evidence is provided that illustrates the importance of the
relationship between social status and physical ability. The results of previous social status
research studies are presented.

Peer relationships are important in many areas of a child's development. Peer
relationships reflect the social status of a child among his/her peers. This section will
illustrate the importance of successful peer relationships in the development of future social
behavior in children.

Some children are popular among their peers, while others are rejected or neglected
by their peers (Rubin, 1983). The causes of a child's popularity or unpopularity are not
fully understood. However, peer popularity is recognized as being important to the
personality development of children (McGraw & Tolbert, 1953). Peer relationships are
important to early childhood development and social adjustment. Childhood social
adjustment can be a predictor of later adulthood social adjustments (Coie & Dodge, 1983).

If a child lacks peer acceptance and popularity, problems may develop. Asher, Oden,
and Gottrnan (1977) state that there are negative consequences associated with having few

friends and low acceptance by peers. An unpopular child may be withdrawn, insecure,

9

lonely, possess low self-esteem, and demonstrate ineffective behavior. Asher (1983)
points out that children who are considered unpopular by their peers may behave in ways
that do not reflect their true abilities. Therefore, the relationship between interaction style
and social status is bi-directional. Several studies have indicated that negative peer status
during childhood predicts social adjustment problems during adolescence (Hartup, 1983;
Rubin, 1983).

Successful peer relationships have a definite impact on a child's social development.
As mentioned earlier, what causes children to be popular or unpopular is not clear. Asher
(1983) states that it is difficult to determine if behavioral differences between high and low
status children were the causes or consequences of status. Friendly behavior may or may
not cause popularity, and popularity may or may not inspire children to be friendly. Since
it is not possible to always identify the causes or consequences of a child's social status
among peers, it may be helpful to examine the determinants of social status.

12 . E S . l 5

Status as defined by Faunce (1984) is a social honor resulting from the possession of
anything that is valued and unequally distributed within some population. Social status
may be determined by a number of activities or variables. It is possible that achievement in
academics or athletics, appearance, or wealth may have an affect on determining a child's
social status. This section of the review will be directed toward examining the various
determinants and exploring two methods of research in this area of social status
determinants.

Children gain peer acceptance by being good at something that other children value
(Asher, Oden & Gottrnan, 1977; Kay, Felker, & Varoz, 1972; Veroff, 1969). Coleman
(1961) states that social status is earned in activities that are conspicuous and bring credit to
the school.

Social status may be improved by achievement in a number of activities. One activity
that can improve social status is academic achievement. Faunce (1984) examined school
achievement and social status of a high school senior class in the state of Michigan. He
found that academic performance was an important criterion for social status, and a
student's GPA affected his/her evaluation of oneself. He concluded that a significant

relationship exists between self-concept, social status, and academic achievement. Studies

10

by Purkey (1970), Rogers, Smith, Coleman (1978), Asher (1983), and Parke and Asher
(1983) also support this conclusion.

The literature reviewed provides evidence that academic achievement is related to
social status for children. However, it is possible that other factors may be more important
in determining social status for different children. As suggested by Faunce (1984), status
results from being good at something that other children value. It is believed that while an
education is important to children, academic achievement is not always valued as a
determinant of social status.

Other variables that contribute to status and popularity must be considered.
Popularity can be associated with characteristics such as ethnicity and social class, birth
position, normalcy of a given name, gender, and physical attractiveness (Evans & Roberts,
1987). Physical attractiveness often correlates with a child's higher status in elementary
school peer groups (Asher, 1983).

For high school students, participation in extracurricular activities (Spady, 1970),
especially athletic participation (Coleman, 1961), is often valued by other students and
contributes to social status. Coleman (1961) states that our high schools and colleges place
an emphasis on athletics. Therefore, athletics become something that is valued by others
and contributes to determining social status. This review will focus on the extent in which
physical ability and sport participation influence the social status of children among their
peers.

Previous research has investigated the role of physical ability and sport participation
in determining social status with two methods of study. The first method of research
typically involved the investigator rating the physical ability level of the subject and
comparing that level with the social status of the subject among peers. This method of
research will be called "comparative studies." The second method of research involved
subjects ranking in order of importance the criteria which would determine social status
among peers. Sports were included as one of the criterion. This method of research will
be called "social status criteria studies."

Wes This type of research process commonly used in the 19508
through the 1970's compared the relationship between the level of physical/athletic ability
of a child and his/her social status among peers. Several studies found a positive
relationship between social status and physical/athletic ability. In a study of seventh,

ll

eighth, and ninth grade boys (McGraw & Tolbert, 1953), a strong relationship was found
between social status and athletic ability. Boys in this study who were selected as being
the best-liked children had higher scores on athletic ability tests. One half of the
"sociometric stars" also were excellent athletes, while three fourths of the "neglectees"
were low in athletic ability. In other studies of high school boys, Biddulph (1954) and
Gordon (1957) found significant relationships between athletic achievement and personal
and social adjustment. A study of junior high boys (Brace, 1954) found the same positive
relationship for boys in Grades 6 through 9. Marks (1954), in a study on leadership and
social status, stated that high motor ability is related to elementary children's leadership and
peer acceptance. Marks also suggested that boys who are higher in athletic ability were
more sociable than boys with lower ability.

The studies just cited provide evidence that a relationship between physical ability and
social status exists for boys, elementary school through high school. Unfortunately, none
of these studies cited included girls in the sample. It wasn't until the 1960's that girls were
the subjects of similar investigations, and that conclusions could be drawn for each gender.
In three studies of elementary boys and girls (Cowell & Ismail, 1962; Cratty, 1967;
Hagberg, 1963), the researchers found a positive relationship between athletic ability and
peer acceptance. As in Mark's (1954) study, Cowell and Ismail (1962) and Cratty (1967)
also found a significant relationship between athletic ability and leadership and status for
girls and boys. Cratty (1967) stated that boys, more than girls, seemed to base their social
status and prestige on their physical ability.

Research in the 1970's continued to support the relationship between physical ability
and social status. Cowell (1970) explained that high motor skill ability, leadership and
peer acceptance are related for elementary children. He believed that social interaction is
often centered around physical skill. This implied that the child with high motor ability
may be accepted to play and the child with low motor ability may not be accepted.

When studies were done in a game situation, physical ability was important to the
development of peer relations (Eifermann, 1971; Glassner, 1976; Lever, 1976; Polgar,
1976). Martens (1974) was able to establish that athletic participation also helps to develop
personality traits which may enhance popularity. In his study of ninth and tenth graders,
athletes scored higher on sociability and self-acceptance than non-athletes. Smoll (1974)

12

found that children with above average physical ability tend to experience and acquire more
social status than children of below average physical ability.

Within the last 10 years, the value our society places on sport and athletics has
increased. Sport celebrities are so idolized that it only makes sense that athletic ability is
socially desired (Lipsky, 1981). If a child shows knowledge or interest in sports, he and
sometimes she may be more socially accepted. Marlowe (1980) demonstrated this
relationship between social status and physical ability with a games intervention study.
The study was done with fifth grade boys and girls considered to be isolated or unpopular
children. Half of the students received games analysis instruction. They were taught
problem-solving skills and game strategies. The other half of the students received the
traditional physical education curriculum, with no games analysis instruction. After 5
weeks of instruction, the unpopular children who received the game analysis achieved
greater peer acceptance than the children who did not receive game analysis. The author
concluded that game analysis improves physical ability and this improvement increases the
social status of unpopular children.

It has been suggested that social status is determined by various activities or
variables. Generally, it is believed that social status is determined by being good at
something that other children value. Therefore, social status may increase or decrease
according to variables that children value, such as academic achievement, physical
attractiveness, or physical ability. This review focuses and is based on the belief that
children value physical ability and success in athletics most. Therefore, a positive
relationship forms between physical ability and social status. "Comparative studies" that
examined the correlations between physical ability and social status have been presented
(see Table 1). These studies provide evidence that demonstrates the importance of physical
ability to achieving social status. However, there are some weaknesses in the methods of
these studies. First, too often the studies used male subjects only. Little is known about
the role of physical ability in determining social status for females. More research is
needed that involves females only or studies with both genders so comparisons can be
made. Secondly, the methods that researchers used to define the social status or physical
ability level of the children are rarely mentioned Whether these measures or methods were
reliable or valid must be questioned. The best method to report the determinants of social
status may be to have children rank the criteria that best determines social status among

Table 1

 

 

AUTHOR

McGraw
& Tolbert
(1953)

Biddulph
(1954)

Brace
(1954)

Marks
(1954)

Gordon
( l 95 7)

Cowell
& Ismail
( 1962)

Cratty
(1967)

Cowell
( 1970)

Martens
(1974)

Marlowe
( 1980)

SUBJECT S

7th, 8th, 9th Grade

Boys
N: 438

High School
Boys
N: 461

6th - 9th Grade
Boys
N = N/A

High School
Boys
N: 730

High School
Boys
N: N /A

Elementary
Boys
N = 203

Elementary
Boys & Girls
N: N/A

Elementary
Boys & Girls
N: N/A

9th, 10th Grade
Boys
N: 161

5th Grade
Boys & Girls
N = 12

PHYSICAL ABILITY

high

high

high

high

high

high

high

high

high

high

SOCIAL STATUS

high

high

high

high

high

high

high

high

high

high

 

l4

peers. This method called "social status criteria studies" was effectively used in several
studies in the following section that examines athletics as a social status determinant for
high school, junior high school, and elementary school students.

MW Coleman (1961) first examined the social status system
of high school students in the late 1950's. Coleman's study investigated the social status
system for students from 10 rnidwestem high schools. Data was collected through the use
of a questionnaire devised by Coleman. Results indicated that although the communities
were diverse, the responses by the students were similar.

When the boys in the study were asked how they most wanted to be remembered,
they chose "athletic star" first, "brilliant student" second, and "most popular" third When
asked to rank the criterion that best determines popularity for boys among other boys and
girls, "being an athlete" was the first choice. The other criteria chosen, in descending
order, were "being in the leading crowd," "leader in activities," "getting high grades/honor
roll," or "conring from the right family." Coleman's study also examined the social status
system for adolescent females. However, he did not examine athletics as a social status
determinant for females, due largely to the nonexistent opportunities for females to
participate in athletics. Coleman substituted "leader in activities" as a choice for how girls
would like to be remembered instead of "athletic star."

Girls in this study wished to be remembered as a "leader in activities" first, "most
popular" second, and "brilliant student" third. Then the girls were asked to rank six
criteria that would make them more popular among their peers. They chose, in ascending
order, "being in the leading crowd," "leader in activities," "come from the right family,"

"have nice clothes, getting high grades/honor roll," and "be a cheerleader," as the order
in which they would be more popular with other girls. The criteria to be popular with boys
was slightly different. The girls chose, in ascending order, "be in the leading crowd,"

"leader in activities," "have nice clothes," "be a cheerleader, come from the right family, "
and "getting high grades/honor roll." Overall, Coleman (1961) concluded that "being an
athlete" ranked highest for boys in achieving high social status. For girls, "being in the
leading crowd" was most important for achieving high social status.

Coleman's (1961) study of the social system of adolescents is recognized as a
landmark study. In retrospect, it is easy to look back on the study and fault him for not

including athletics as a choice for determining female social status. However, with the few

15

opportunities females had to participate in athletics, his actions were not discriminatory but
practical. Coleman's (1961) study has since been replicated and extended many times.

Eitzen (1975) replicated and extended Coleman's work to determine if the results of
1961 study were still true in the mid-70's. He suggested that student activists, rock
musicians, or scholars had replaced the athlete as a figure of high social status. Eitzen
replicated Coleman's (1961) study using high school male adolescents only. He extended
the study to include under what conditions was sport participation the most important
criterion for determining male social status. Eitzen looked at individual factors that may
cause boys to differ in their enthusiasm for sport, such as family social class, age, college
prep or not, and placement in the school status hierarchy. The results were found to be
similar to the results of the Coleman (1961) study.

Sixteen years later, sport participation was still as important for determining social
status among adolescents males. When given the choice of how they would like to be
remembered, males chose an "athletic star" first. Males in the study would rather be
friends with and be like an "athlete but not scholar." When asked to rank the criteria which
would determine popularity among their peers, the males chose to "be an athlete" first.

Individual factors that may affect results are the education level of the father, grade
level of subject, and the individual's placement in the status hierarchy. Eitzen (1975)
found that sons of under-educated fathers, s0phomores, and males in the center of the
status hierarchy were more likely to be involved in sports. School-related factors which
influenced the findings were school size, success in sports, and authority structure. Small
schools showed a higher enthusiasm for sports by a higher percentage of males wishing to
be remembered as an "athletic star" than males from large schools. The school's success
in sports was omitted from Coleman's study, but Eitzen found that students from
"winning" schools preferred athletics more than students from schools with "average" or
"poor" athletic success. Based on the rating of the authority structure of the school,
students in a school with "tight" authority scored higher on preference toward athletics than
students from "permissive" schools.

Eitzen agreed that the data he collected provides evidence that the trend continues for
sports participation to be an important criterion for adolescent males to achieve social
status. However, he speculated that this trend may be changing in the future due to

16

schools becoming larger and more suburban, generations being better educated, and
schools becoming more permissive.

The extension of Coleman's (1961) study, which included individual factors and
school related factors, provided more detailed information about the social status system
of adolescents. With this additional information Eitzen was able to speculate about a trend
in the criteria male adolescents will use to determine social status. Whether his prediction
of a trend was correct will be examined shortly. One weakness of this study is that once
again females were excluded from the sample. Given the extension of Coleman's study, it
would have been interesting to be able to analyze the responses of females and/or compare
these responses to the males. By the mid-70's adolescent females had begun participating
in athletics, and Eitzen missed the opportunity to examine the impact of athletics as a
determinant of female social status. The research opportunity was not overlooked by Feltz
( 1978).

Feltz (197 8) replicated and extended Coleman's (1961) study but investigated the
social status system of adolescent females. Feltz (1978) surveyed 258 high school girls
from three western New York schools. The three schools were chosen on the basis of
community size, family income, family occupation, school size, and athletic success.
Athletic success was described by the principals of each school according to the win/loss
record in the girls' volleyball and basketball programs over the last 3 years.

Feltz found that when the girls in this study were given three choices of how they
wanted to be remembered "brilliant student," "most popular," or "leader in activities," the
girls chose "leader in activities" first. When a fourth category, "athletic star," was added
then the girls chose "most popular" as their first choice, "leader in activities" second,
"brilliant student" third, and "athletic star" last. It seems that the girls who had chosen
"leader in activities" switched to "athletic star" when that category was added (Feltz,
1978). When asked to rank activities in order of importance for achieving popularity
among girls and boys, the girls in this study chose "in the leading crowd" first for both
groups. "Being an athlete" was ranked fifth as the criterion used to determine female
popularity among girls and boys. It was interesting that when given the choice of how
they would like to spend some extra time in school the girls chose athletics first. Feltz
(1978) suggests that girls enjoy athletic participation but are afraid of the negative labels
that may be associated with sport participation.

17

When the "winning tradition" of the school was examined, no difference was found
between schools that had successful teams and those with unsuccessful teams. Feltz
suggested this may be due to a "winning tradition" not yet being well established in the
girls' athletic programs. It may be possible that the principal's report of the "winning
tradition" was unreliable. A more reliable report may have come from reviewing past win-
loss records.

Feltz's (1978) study was the first in the social status research to look at athletics as
determinant of popularity for females. The results, athletics being chosen last, were not
encouraging. However, the fact that the girls in this study enjoyed participating in athletics
and as Feltz noted, girls' athletic programs were not yet well established, did provide some
evidence that these results may change with time.

Five years later, Williams and White (1983) investigated the social status systems for
males and females at three different age levels. The three levels were junior high school,
high school, and college adolescents. Males and females from the states of Arizona, Iowa,
and New York were chosen for a total of 800-900 subjects. The subjects were given four
choices on how they would like to be remembered, "brilliant student," "leader in
activities," "athletic star," or "most popular." The junior high and high school males in this
study chose "athletic star" as their first choice for how they would like to be remembered.
"Brilliant student" was chosen second, "most popular" third, and "leader in activities" was
the last choice. College males also chose "athletic star" first and "brilliant student" second,
but their third choice was "leader in activities" and the fourth choice was "most popular. "
Females in this study differed at all age levels on how they wanted to be remembered.
Junior high school females chose "most popular" first, "brilliant student" and "athletic star"
tied for second, and "leader in activities" was fourth. High school females chose "leader in
activities" first, "brilliant student" second, "athletic star" third, and "most popular" fourth.
College females chose "leader in activities" first, "athletic star" second, "brilliant student"
third, and "most popular" fourth.

The authors indicated that no change in the importance of athletics for males in the
social status system seems to have occured from the 1970's until 1982. Direct
comparisons to Coleman's (1961) and Eitzen's (1975) study could not be made since these
subjects had four criterion from which to chose, with "leader in activities" added. Across

all age levels, males viewed athletics as more important in determining social status than

18

did the females. The authors suggest this is due to socialization factors in the American
culture. The status of females being a "leader in activites" increased with age levels while
the status for females being "most popular" decreased. "Most popular” was probably more
important for junior high adolescents because early adolescence is a time when being liked
and accepted by peers is very important (Williams & White, 1983).

When the school had a successful athletic program the males' response for "athletic
star" was higher. Female response for "athletic star" was also slightly higher when the
school was successful in athletics, but not significantly. The authors found that 69.1% of
the males and 62.8% of the females in this study had participated in athletics. This
supports Feltz's (1978) conclusion that while more females are participating in athletics
and may enjoy it, the majority of females may not pick "athletic star" as a social status
determinant because of the negative labels associated with women's sports. The authors
state that females may be better off than the males and more sensible to have diverse
choices as criteria for social status rather than being limited to athletics.

This study was the first reviewed that examined an age group lower than high school.
This was helpful in looking at any developmental trends. For instance, the authors report
that only 22% of the female high school students chose "athletic star" and concluded no
change had occured. They failed to note that in junior high school, the females' choice of
"athletic star" was tied for second. It also seems significant that "athletic star" was not
chosen last at any age level. This may indicate an improvement in females' Opinion about
athletics. A weakness of this study was that the authors did not inquire how the subjects in
the three age levels would rank criteria to determine popularity. With just one question,
how they wished to be remembered, it is hard to get a true indication of how the subjects
would use the criteria to determine social status.

Thirer and Wright (1985) replicated Coleman's (1961) study and examined the social
status criteria male and female adolescents used in the mid-1980's. Six hundred high
school students, grades nine through twelve participated in the study.

The results showed that males and females chose "be an athlete" as the best criterion
for determining male popularity. "Being in the leading crowd" was the second choice.
Females and males chose "being in the leading crowd" as the best criterion for determining
female popularity. The choice of "being an athlete" was ranked fifth out of six choices by
females and fourth out of five choices by males for determining female popularity. When

19

asked how they would like to be remembered, the males chose "athletic star" first,
"brilliant student" second, and "most popular" third The females chose "brilliant student"
first, "most popular" second, and "athletic star" third. The authors noted that although
"athletic star" was ranked last, the freshmen and sophomore females tended to rank
"athletic star" higher than the junior and senior females. They suggested this might
indicate a trend toward greater acceptance of athletics for females.

Overall, the results of Thirer and Wright (1985) are similar to earlier studies by
Coleman (1961), Eitzen (1975), and Feltz (1978). The authors suggest that changes in the
value system of groups do not change quickly. Opportunities in athletics for women are
still fairly new, and the role of athletics in the social status system may still be developing.

Kane (1988) extended the social status research to include an examination of the
influence of the specific type of sport in which females participate and the sex-type of the
sport. She sampled 232 students from a mid-western high school. When asked how they
would like to be remembered, the results were similar to previous studies. The males
chose "athletic star" first, "leader in activities" second, "brilliant student" third, and "most
popular" fourth. The females chose "leader in activities" first, "brilliant student" second,
"most popular" third, and "athletic star" fourth.

Using Metheny's (1967) sport typology, a second measure of status was done. Male
subjects were asked which female athlete they would rather date and the female subjects
were asked which female athlete they would rather be friends with, according to the female
athlete's participation in five possible sports. Golf, tennis, and volleyball were typed as
"sex-appropriate." Basketball and softball were typed as "sex-inappropriate." Kane found
that the male subjects preferred to date female athletes involved in "sex-appropriate" sports.
Females preferred to be friends with females that were involved in "sex-appropriate"
sports.

Kane suggested in this study, that the status of the female athlete was dependent upon
the type of sport in which she participated She noted there may be a continuum of
appropriate "feminine" sports at one end and inappropriate "masculine" sports at the other
end. The influence of the sex-type of a sport was a new method with which to study social
status. Kane's results show that there is a difference in status for females according to
which sports they participate. It would be interesting to see if similar results would be
found for males if sports were also sex-typed.

20

The most recent research in the social status system of high school students was
completed by Goldberg and Chandler (1989). A total of 1,255 high school students were
surveyed to assess their perceptions of the current determinants of social status. Unlike
previous research, this study used a 5-point Likert scale to rate the importance of the
criterion "being a star athlete," "being a leader in activities," "being a member of the
leading group," "getting high grades," or "coming from the right family" in determining
social status. This method allowed the students to select more than one criterion as
important in determining social status.

The results indicated that male popularity was determined by "being a star athlete"
first, "being a member of the leading group" second, "being a leader in activities" third,
"getting high grades" fourth, and "coming from the right family" was the last choice.
Female popularity was determined by "being a member of the leading group" first, "being
a leader in activities" second, "getting high grades" third, "being a star athlete" fourth, and
"coming from the right family" was the last choice.

Goldberg and Chandler's (1989) study also examined how students preferred to be
remembered, as an "outstanding student," "leader in activities," "most popular," or
"outstanding athlete." The students were asked to rate each selection on a 5-point Likert
scale. The results indicated that most females (53.1%) preferred to be remembered as an
"outstanding student." "Outstanding athlete" was the second choice (33.5%), followed by
"most popular" (20.1%) and "leader in activities" (11.3%). The males in this study
preferred to be remembered as an "outstanding student" (54.3%) and an "outstanding
athlete" (52.9%), followed by "leader in activities" (37.4%) and "most popular" (28.2%).
Because the scale of measurement was changed from ranking order to a 5-point Likert
scale, comparisons between previous social status research and this study could not be
made. The authors suggest that there are multiple role expectations placed on high school
students as indicated by the increase in the importance of being an "outstanding student"
for males and an increase in the importance of being an "outstanding athlete" for females.

The research reviewed to this point has been with junior high, high school, or college
age subjects. Only one study was found which examined the criteria used by elementary
school children to determine popularity among their peers (Buchanan et al. 1976). In
1976, Buchanan et al. studied 422 boys and 380 girls in Grades 4, 5, and 6. Children in
the study were chosen using stratified sampling from five rural and two city schools.

21

When asked what they would most like to do at school, both the boys and girls in this
study preferred to "make good grades" rather than "be good in sports." However, when a
Chi-square test was run a significantly greater percentage of the boys than girls preferred to
"be good at sports."

Students were classified by their peers as an "athlete," "student," or "student-athlete."
When asked to name the most popular classmates, boys that were "athletes" were more
popular among their peers and girls that were "student-athletes" were more pOpular among
their peers.

The children were asked to rank in order of importance four criteria which they felt
would contribute to making a student popular. The choices were "make good grades,"
"having lots of money," "being good at sports," or "being handsome or pretty." Boys in
this study thought "being good at sports" was the most important criterion for achieving
personal popularity. They ranked "making good grades" second, "being handsome or
pretty" third, and "having lots of money" fourth. The girls in this study felt "making good
grades" was the most important criterion for determining personal popularity. They ranked
"being good at sports" second, "being handsome or pretty" third, and "having lots of
money" fourth. The results were consistent across all three grades.

The criteria used by elementary children to determine popularity were somewhat
similar to the criteria used by high school adolescents, although "being good at sports"
received a higher rank than in previous research as a determinant of female social status.
The authors noted that children may already use athletic participation as a determinant of
popularity among peers before they reach high school, with boys favoring athletics more
than girls. One of the hypothesis was rejected as a result of both boys and girls stating
they would rather "make good grades" than "be good at sports." The authors explained
this finding was possibly caused by parental or societal pressures to achieve good grades.

This method of research, "social status criteria studies," ranks in order of importance
the criteria that adolescents use to determine social status among peers (see Table 2). The
literature reviewed states that male adolescents want to be remember as an "athletic star"
most often. Male popularity among male and female peers was determined by participation
in athletics. These findings were consistent across diverse grade levels of subjects.

Research in the social status of female adolescents was not initiated until the late
1970's (Feltz, 1978). The literature concludes that female adolescents want to be

22

 

 

AUTHOR

Coleman
(1961)

Eitzen
(1975)

Buchanan
Blankenbaker
& Cotten

( 1976)

Feltz
(1978)

Thirer
& Wright
(1985)

SUBJECTS MOST IMPORTANT
CRITERIA BOYS

High School Athletics
Boys & Girls
N = N/A

High School Athletics
Boys
N = N/A

4th, 5th, 6th Athletics
Grade

Boys & Girls

N = 802

High School
Girls
N =258

High School Athletics
Boys & Girls
N=600

MOST IMPORTANT
CRITERIA GIRLS

Leader in
Activities

Grades

In Leading

Crowd

In Leading
Crowd

 

23

remembered as a "leader in activities" (Feltz, 1978; Kane, 1988; Thirer & Wright, 1985;
Williams and White, 1983) or "outstanding student" (Goldberg & Chandler, 1989).
Female popularity among male and female peers was determined by "being in the leading
crowd" (Goldberg & Chandler, 1989; Feltz, 1978; Kane, 1988; Thirer & Wright, 1985;
Williams and White, 1983). "Being an athlete" was ranked last or near last in most of the
studies.

Extensions of some studies have been made which included the "winning tradition"
of the athletic programs, the sex-type of the sport, and the age of the subjects. The
"winning tradition" was found to have some influence on the findings but not always
significant (Feltz, 1978). Kane (1988) found that involvement in sports which were "sex-
appropriate" created higher status for females than involvement in "sex-inappropriate"
sports. Elementary children reported results similar to those of the high school adolescents
for criteria which determines female and male popularity among peers (Buchanan et al.,

1 976).
Ccmlusicn

The literature reviewed indicates there is a relationship between the social status of a
child and her or his physical ability. It was suggested that social status is determined by
being good at something that other children value. This review suggests that evidence
exists which indicates that children value physical ability and success in sports most,
although results may vary somewhat with gender and grade level.

The research in the social status system of adolescents has provided information
regarding how females and males determine popularity. This review focused on the role of
sports in deterrrrining social status. It appears that sports are the most important
determinant of social status for males of all grade levels. However, sports was not chosen
as an important determinant of female social status. The influence of sports on female
social status was further examined to include the "winning tradition" of the school or "sex—
type" of the sport. No significant differences were found in the importance of sports as a
social status determinant between schools that had successful teams and those with
unsuccessful teams (Feltz, 1978). Kane ( 1988) found that the male subjects preferred to
date female athletes involved in "sex-appropriate" sports. Females preferred to be friends
with females that were involved in "sex-appropriate" sports. This may indicate that

24

participation in some sports are considered "inappropriate" for females and therefore an
"inappropriate" social status determinant (Feltz, 1978; Kane, 1988).

It is possible that the relationship between athletic ability and social status is
developed during early adolescence. The literature states that this relationship is important
to a child's development of peer relationships. At the present time, the role of sports in
determining social status among peers, means different things to male and female
adolescents (Kane, 1988; Williams & White, 1983). It is necessary for educators to be
aware of this relationship so that programs could be developed that would meet the needs
of all children. With this intervention, educators, especially physical educators, could
possibly help to reverse this trend of social status determinants which does not support a

diverse choice of activities for boys and discourages girls from participation in sports.

Chapter Three
Method

Researchmsian

In this survey design, subjects completed one ll-item written response questionnaire.
The dependent variables were the scores obtained from the questionnaire investigating
social status determinants, preference of activities, and preferences of activities in which
subjects prefer and do not prefer to fail. independent variables were the gender and
grade level of the subjects.

Subjects

A total of 478 children in Grades 4, 5, and 6 participated in this study. The
distribution of subjects by gender, grade, and age is given in Table 3. The number of
subjects who participated were from a potential sample of 203 children in Grade 4, 242
children in Grade 5, and 520 children in Grade 6. It is believed that attrition was due to
lack of parental permission to participate in the study, or failure of the subjects to deliver the
permission forms to their parents and back to the teacher.

The subjects ranged in age from 8 to 13 years. The mean age for the children is given
in Table 3. The children in this sample were from various racial backgrounds, although
minority groups were not well represented in the sample. The percentage of the sample
with different racial backgrounds was 92.5% white, 1.7% African-American, 0.6%
American-Indian, 0.8% Oriental, 0.6% Hispanic, 1.0% Interracial, and 2.7% other racial
backgrounds. The distribution of various racial backgrounds for girls are given in Table 4
and boys in Table 5.

Subjects' responses to items 1 through 5 from the questionnaire were used to help
describe the sample. Subjects were asked to rate personal academic ability, athletic ability,
and popularity among peers, the average number of days in which they participate in
sports, and the number of sports in which they participate. MANOVA analyses were
conducted to test for statistically significant gender and grade level differences. As shown
in Table 6, the girls in this study ranked their grades higher in comparison to their
classmates than the boys (13(1) = 4.19, p < .05). No significant grade level differences
were found. The data in Table 7 revealed that the boys in this study ranked their sport
ability compared to classmates significantly higher than the girls (E (1) = 16.08, p < .001).
Significant grade level differences for boys and girls (E (2) = 4.8, p < .01) were found.

25

26

 

Table 3
E . . E l E E l S l . . l S 1
Subjects Number Mean Standard Minimum Maximum
Age Deviation Age Age
4th Boys 54 9.26 0.48 9 11
4th Girls 65 9.09 0.42 8 10
5th Boys 86 10.38 0.56 9 12
5th Girls 90 10.31 0.53 9 12
6th Boys 87 11.46 0.57 11 13
6th Girls 96 11.18 0.41 11 13
Total Boys 227 10.53 1.01 9 13
Total Girls 251 10.33 0.94 8 13

 

Table 4

E 'EBilEl lEG'l'lSl

 

 

 

 

Subjects White African Hispanic Oriental American Interracial Other
American Indian

4th Grade 93.8% 3.1% - - - 1.5% 1.5%

5th Grade 93.3% - - 2.2% - 2.2% 2.2%

6th Grade 91.7% 1.0% 1.0% - 1.0% - 5.2%

Total 92.8% 1.2% 0.4% 0.8% 0.4% 1.2% 3.2%

Table 5

Subjects White African Hispanic Oriental American Interracial Other
American Indian

4th Grade 94.4% 1.9% 1.9% - - - 1.9%

5th Grade 88.4% 3.5% - 1.2% 2.3% 1.2% 3.5%

6thGrade 94.3% 1.1% 1.1% 1.1% - 1.1% 1.1%

Total 92.1% 2.2% 0.9% 0.9% 0.9% 0.9% 2.2%

 

Table 6

tr. kits... _' 00-.

ONO-L}. 0 U.

-
.' .

 

 

 

Grade 4 Grade 5 Grade 6 Total
Girls M 4.19 4.07 4.18 4.14
SD .68 .78 .63 .70
Boys M 4.07 3.93 4.07 3.99
SD .75 .75 .92 .82
*Likert scale, 1 = "very poor" to 5 = "very good"
Table 7
l.!‘_t.'etr_!‘0 ." .11. nu ‘ Orr-«.110, ”a.
Grade 4 Grade 5 Grade 6 Total
Girls M 3.94 3.78 3.62 3.76
SD .86 1.05 .85 .93
Boys M 4.29 4.15 3.94 4.11
SD .92 .94 .99 .96

 

*Likert scale, 1 = "very poor" to 5 = "very good"

29

Student's rankings of personal sport ability compared to classmates decreased with each
higher grade level. Table 8 provides data on the way in which subjects ranked personal
popularity compared to classmates of the same gender. No significant gender or grade level
differences were found among the subjects.

The subjects were asked to report the average number of days in which they played
some kind of sport (see Table 9). Boys reported playing some kind of sport more often,
5.2 days per week (SD = 1.92), than the girls, 4.4 days per week (SD = 2.03), (E (1) =
17.78, p < .001). Significant grade level differences were also reported (E (2) = 7.28, p <
.001). Students reported playing sports fewer number of days per week as they increased
grade levels. Subjects were asked to report the average number of sports in which they
participate more than one day per week. As shown in Table 10, the boys reported playing
more sports at least one day per week, 3.8 sports (SD = 2.02), more than girls, 3.4 sports
(SD = 2.10), (13(1) = 4.61, n < .05). No significant grade level differences were found.

All subjects who participated were volunteers from elementary and middle schools in
the greater Lansing area. Superintendents from three of the 12 school districts who were
contacted agreed to participate in the study. These school districts were in communities that
varied in size, socioeconomic status, and location, rural or suburban settings (see Table
11). School District A was the largest district in the sample. District A has approximately
4,009 students in Grades K-12, in 7 schools and draws from a community of 16,130
people. District A is the wealthiest in the sample with the mean family income of $40,867
and fewer than 4.9% of the students below poverty level. School District B is the second
largest in the sample. It has approximately 3,183 students in Grades K-12, in 9 schools.
The community has approximately 9,376 people within the school district. The average
family income from school district B is $23,761, with 5.0%-24.9% of the students below
poverty level. School District C is the smallest district in the sample. The district has
approximately 1,510 students in Grades K-12, in 3 schools. Approximately 2,972 people
live in school district C. The mean family income is $25,794, with 5.0%-24.9% of the
students below poverty level. Information about family income was obtained from the
1980 Census report.
lnstmmentaticn

The ll-item questionnaire was designed by the investigator (see Appendix A). It was
based on questions used in the Buchanan et al. study (1976) and other social status

30

 

Table 8
r,n‘i.'t....1_.,-,-,o _'- 'lg._..!.lg.!\ out-.- o l 1.3 o - rr
Grade 4 Grade 5 Grade 6 Total
Girls M 2.19 2.14 2.07 2.13
SD .63 .74 .55 .64
Boys M 2.19 2.13 2.05 2.10
SD .63 .67 .63 .64

 

*Likert scale, 1 = "less popular" to 3 = "more p0pular"

 

 

Grade 4 Grade 5 Grade 6 Total

Girls M 4.91 4.58 4.00 4.44
SD 2.00 2.12 1.89 2.03

Boys M 5.70 5.22 4.87 5.20
SD 1.90 1.88 1.92 1.92

 

31

 

Table 10
A _ m.- 0 nor .ar 3.. _ o - l 1.1 011- D. -.-er-;
Grade 4 Grade 5 Grade 6 Total
Girls M 3.52 3.59 3.17 3.41
SD 2.06 2.25 1.97 2.10
Boys M 3.98 3.91 3.63 3.82
SD 1.89 2.28 1.82 2.02

 

Table 11

 

 

r«. a ti. 0f h hlmJ r. 0. 1 n h mol
School
District A B C
Community 16,130 9,376 2,972
Size
Mean Family $40,867 $23,761 $25,794
Income
Percent of 0.0-4.9% 5.0-24.9% 5 .0-24.9%
Students Below
Poverty Level
School Size 4,009 3,183 1,510
Number of 7 9 3
Schools in
District

 

Information from 1980 Census

33

research studies (Coleman, 1961; Feltz, 1978; Thirer & Wright, 1985; Williams & White,
1983). The subjects were asked to complete questions regarding their gender, grade level,
age, race, and the school they attended The first two questions addressed the academic
achievement and athletic ability of the subject compared to most of the students in his/her
class. A 5-point Likert scale ranging from 1, "very poor," to 5, "very good," was used.
The third question involved a comparison of the popularity of the subject to the popularity
of peers of the same gender. A 3-point Likert scale ranging from 1, "less popular than
most," to 3, "more popular than most," was used. Questions 4 and 5 inquired about
number of days the subject participated in some kind of sport and how many different
sports he/she played more than one day per week. Questions 6, 7, and 8 asked the subjects
to rank in order of importance four criterion ("making good grades," "being good at
sports," "having lots of money," or "being handsome or pretty") which they believed
would improve personal, female, and male popularity among peers. The remaining three
questions addressed the preference for participation in activities at school, and activities in
which they prefer to fail or not to fail. These questions required the selection of one
answer from three choices ("make good grades," "be popular," or "be good at sports").
WW

Permission to conduct the study was obtained from the superintendent or principal of
the school district and the parents/guardians of the subjects. The initial contact was made
by phone to the superintendent or principal explaining the purpose of the study, criteria for
subject selection, and anticipated schedule of the study. Upon obtaining permission to
conduct the study, the teachers from each school district were contacted and asked to
distribute to each student a letter explaining the study (see Appendix B) and a parental
consent form (see Appendix C) to be taken home to the parents/guardian. The teachers
distributed and collected all parental consent forms. Each teacher then scheduled a time for
the questionnaire to be administered to all students who had returned the parental consent
form.

The procedures to complete the questionnaire were the same for each subject. The
questionnaire was group administered, in a classroom or gymnasium to those students
allowed to participate . Any student not allowed to participate was asked to leave the room
with the teacher. Directions regarding completion of the questionnaire and the definition of
the terms "popularity" and "sport" were read to the students by the investigator (see

34

Appendix D). All students were encouraged to answer each question honestly, and were
assured that their answers would be confidential. Each of the eleven questions were read to
the students by the investigator and students responded with written responses. Upon
completion, the questionnaires were collected and a brief explanation of the study was
given.

To control extraneous variables that may influence the outcome of the study, the
following procedures were followed The questionnaire was administered by the
investigator only. The classroom or physical education teacher left the room while the
subjects completed the questionnaire. This was done so that the subjects did not feel
pressure to answer in a way the teacher might consider appropriate. Subjects were
reminded that their names were not to be written on the questionnaire. This was to
encourage the students to respond honestly to each question to control for any perceived
parental or societal pressures. The terms "popularity" and "sport" were defined so that all
subjects would operate with the same definition. All questions were read aloud to the
subjects to account for differences in reading abilities among subjects. The questionnaire
was not administered until late October or November of the school year to allow students to
form judgments about personal popularity and peer popularity. Subjects were asked not to
discuss the questionnaire with students from other classes so that no other subjects would
be influenced by the response of another student The administration of the questionnaire
was completed within a four-week time frame so that threats to internal validity such as
history, maturation, and instrumentation could be controlled.

21121.8.de

A pilot study was conducted in two parts to test the use of the questionnaire and data
collection procedures. The children had no difficulty completing the questionnaire or
following the administration procedures. From the results of the pilot studies, it was
determined that the questionnaire and data collection procedures were appropriate for use in
this study (see Appendix E).

W

The data analysis methods are similar to the methods used by Buchanan et al. (1976)
and other social status research studies (Coleman, 1961; Eitzen, 1975; Feltz, 1978; Kane,
1988; Thirer and Wright, 1985 ; Williams and White, 1983). Analyses procedures for each
hypothesis are outlined All tests of statistical significance were conducted at the .05 level.

35

WW. Chi-square analyses examining gender differences
in the determinants of personal, female, and male popularity revealed whether statistically

significant differences occurred The mean rankings of the four criterion used to determine
popularity were used to list the choices in order of importance for determining personal,
female, and male popularity, with the lowest rank being the most important choice.

WW. Chi-square analyses examining grade level
differences by males and females in the deterrrrinants of personal, female and male
popularity revealed whether statistically significant differences occurred. The mean ranking
of the criteria was used to list the choices in order of importance for determining personal,
female, and male popularity by grade level and gender.

W. Chi-square analyses were used to test for statistically
significant gender differences and for statistically significant grade level differences among
males and females in the activities children prefer to participate at school.

MW. Chi—square analyses were used to tested for
statistically significant gender differences and statistically significant grade level differences
among males and females in the activities children prefer to fail at in school.

WM. Chi-square analyses were used to test for statistically
significant gender differences and statistically significant grade level differences among
males and females in the activities they prefer not to fail at in school.

Subjects responses to questions 1 through 5 were not used to test hypotheses, but
were analyzed to help describe the sample. For each question descriptive statistics were
conducted to compute a mean score. Then MANOVA analyses were conducted to test for
statistically significant gender and grade level differences.

Chapter Four
Results

This study was designed as a partial replication of the Buchanan et al. (1976) study.
The purpose was to examine the role of sports in determining the social status of children in
Grades 4, 5, and 6. Specifically, this study investigated gender and grade level differences
in the criteria used by children to determine social status, the activities in which children
prefer to participate at school, and the activities in which they prefer or did not prefer to
fail. These results are presented in the order of social status determinants for personal,
female and male popularity, activities in which children prefer to participate at school,
activities in which children prefer to fail, and activities in which children prefer not to fail.
Table 12 provides a summary of results which indicates support or non-support for each
Hypothesis.
Determinantsctllersonalflnularitx

Subjects were asked to rank, in order of importance, four criteria ("make good
grades," "being good at sports," "having lots of money," "being handsome or pretty") that
may determine personal popularity. Table 13 gives the results related to determinant of
personal popularity for males and females. Boys in this study chose "being good at sports"
as the most important criterion, "being handsome" second, " getting good grades" third, and
"having lots of money" fourth. The girls in this study chose "being pretty" first, "being
good at sports" second, "getting good grades" third, and "having lots of money" fourth.
Chi-square analyses revealed that significant gender differences occurred in the
determinants of personal social status, X2 (3) =100.63, p < .001. Boys found sports the
most important determinant. Girls found appearance the most important determinant (see
Figure 1). These results support Hypothesis 1, "being good at sports" was the most
important determinant of personal popularity for boys. Hypothesis 2 was also supported,

girls chose "being pretty" as the most important determinant for personal popularity.

36

37

 

 

Table 12
WW
Hypothesis Results

Personal Popularity:

1. Boys determining personal popularity will Supported
choose "being good at sports."

2. Girls determining personal popularity will Supported
choose "being pretty."

3. Boys' responses about personal popularity will Supported
not differ in Grades 4, 5, and 6. All boys will choose
"being good at sports."

4. Girls' responses about personal popularity will Supported
not differ in Grades 4, 5, and 6. All girls will choose
"being pretty."

Male POpularity:

5. Boys determining male popularity will Supported
choose "being good at sports."

6. Girls determining male popularity will choose Not Supported
"being good at sports."

7. Boys' responses about male popularity will not Supported
differ in Grades 4, 5, and 6. All boys will choose
"being good at sports."

8. Girls' responses about male popularity will not Not Supported
differ in Grades 4, 5, and 6. All girls will choose
"being good at sports."

Female Popularity:

9. Boys determining female popularity will Supported
choose "being pretty."

10. Girls determining female popularity will choose Supported
timing pmtty. H

11. Boys' responses about female popularity will Supported
not differ in Grades 4, 5, and 6. All boys will
choose "being pretty."

12. Girls' responses about female popularity will Supported

not differ in Grades 4, 5, and 6. All girls will
choose "being pretty."

 

38

Table 12, continued

 

 

Hypothesis Results
School activities in which children prefer to particpate:
13. Boys will prefer to "be good at sports." Not Supported
14. Girls will prefer to "make good grades." Supported
15. Boys' responses about what they prefer to Not Supported
do at school will not differ in Grades 4, 5, and 6.
All boys will prefer to "be good at sports."
16. Girls' responses about what they prefer to Supported
do at school will not differ in Grades 4, 5, and 6.
All girls will prefer to "make good grades."
School activities in which children prefer to fail:
17. Boys will prefer to fail at "being popular." Supported
18. Girls will prefer to fail at "being popular." Not Supported
19. Boys' responses about what they prefer to Supported
fail at in school will not differ in Grades 4, 5, and 6.
All boys will prefer to fail at "being popular."
20. Girls' responses about what they prefer to fail Not Supported
at in school will not differ in Grades 4, 5, and 6.
All girls will prefer to fail at "being popular."
School activities in which children prefer not to fail:
21. Boys will prefer not to fail at " getting good grades." Supported
22. Girls will prefer not to fail at "getting good grades." Supported
23. Boys' responses about what they prefer not to fail Supported
at in school will not differ in Grades 4, 5, and 6.
All boys will prefer not to fail at "getting good grades."
24. Girls' responses about what they prefer not to fail Supported

at in school will not differ in Grades 4, 5, and 6.

All girls will prefer not to fail at "getting good grades."

 

39

 

Table 13
n P r n l '
Grade 4 Grade 5 Grade 6 Total

Girls Boys Girls Boys Girls Boys Girls Boys
Grades M 2.26 2.46 2.34 2.48 3.03 2.94 2.59 2.65
E 1.11 1.04 1.03 1.01 1.04 1.04 1.11 1.05
Sports M 2.54 1.94 2.50 1.63 2.41 1.51 2.47 1.66
SD 0.92 1.00 0.97 0.88 0.89 0.70 0.93 0.86
Looks M 1.91 2.70 1.86 2.60 1.50 2.29 1.73 2.51
SD 0.98 1.08 1.03 1.07 0.88 0.96 0.96 1.04
Money M 3.29 2.89 3.30 3.29 3.06 3.26 3.21 3.19
312 1.00 1.16 0.94 0.84 0.94 0.86 0.96 0.94

 

*Lowest mean ranking indicates first choice

Percent

' """ ' Girls

 

 

........

    

 

 

Grades Money Sports Looks

Figure l. Determinants of Personal Popularity as Rated by Boys and Girls

Table 13 also gives the mean rankings of personal popularity determinants for boys
and girls in different grade levels. Boys in Grade 4, 5, and 6 chose "being good at sports"
first, "making good grades" second, "being handsome" third, and "having lots of money"
fourth. Chi-square analyses revealed significant grade level differences in the determinants
of personal social status for boys in Grades 4, 5, and 6, X2 (6) =16.14, p < .02. Sports
and appearance become more important for boys at each increasing grade level (see Figure
2). Chi-square analyses computed between two grades found significant differences for
boys in Grades 4 and 5, X2 (3) = 9.94, p < .05, and boys in Grades 4 and 6, X2 (3) =
10.90, p < .05. Although significant grade differences were found among boys, most
boys chose the same criterion, "being good at sports" as the most important in determining

personal popularity. These results support Hypothesis 3.

41

I 4th Grade Boys
I 5th Grade Boys
6th Grade Boys

Percent

 

 

 

Grades Money Sports Looks
Figure 2. Determinants of Personal Popularity as Rated by Boys

For girls in Grades 4, 5, and 6 the mean ranking for each criterion is given in Table
13. Girls in Grade 4 and 5 chose "being pretty" first, " getting good grades" second,
"being good at sports" third, and "having lots of money" fourth. Girls in Grade 6 chose
"being pretty" first, "being good at sports" second, "getting good grades" third, and
"having lots of money" fourth. These results support Hypothesis 4; all girls chose "being
pretty" as the most important determinant of personal popularity. Chi-square analyses
revealed significant grade level differences in the determinants of personal social status for
girls in Grades 4, 5, and 6, X2 (6) =13.03, p < .05. Although most girls in this study
chose appearance as the most important determinant, grade level differences occurred in the
importance of the criteria. Appearance and sports seem to become more important in
determining personal popularity as girls increase grade levels (see Figure 3). Chi-square
analyses between two grade levels revealed significant differences between girls in Grades

4 and 6,296) = 11.95,p< .05.

42

I 4th Grade Girls
I 5th Grade Girls
6th Grade Girls

Percent
8

    

 

 

.........

Grades Money Sports Looks
Figure 3. Determinants of Personal Popularity as Rated by Girls

L . [I I l E l .

Subjects were asked to rank in order of importance four criteria ("make good grades,"
"being good at sports," "having lots of money," "being handsome or pretty") which may
determine male popularity. Boys in this study chose "being good at sports" as the most
important criterion for determining male popularity, "being handsome" second, "getting
good grades" third, and "having lots of money" fourth. The girls in this study chose
"being handsome" first, "being good at sports" second, "getting good grades" third, and
"having lots of money" fourth. These results for determinants of male popularity are given
in Table 14. These results provide support for Hypothesis 5. All boys chose "being good
at sports" as the most important determinant of male popularity. Hypothesis 6 was not
supported. It was stated that all girls would chose "being good at sports" as the most
important determinant of male popularity; however, girls in this study chose "being
handsome." Chi-square analyses revealed that significant gender differences occurred in
the determinants of male social status, X2 (3) = 32.32, p < .001. Boys found sports the

most important determinant. Girls found appearance the most important determinant (see

Figure 4).

43

Table 14

 

Grade 5 Grade 6 Total

Grade 4

Boys Girls Boys

Boys Girls

Boys Girls

Girls

2.85
0.97

M
52

Grades

Sports

Looks

3.38
0.86

Money

 

*Lowest mean ranking indicates first choice

100 -
gel
80 5
7o -
6O - .
so -' 1133:": ......... I Boys
40 .‘ Girls
30 -
20 a

o .‘

.................
.........

........
..........

Percent

     

..........................

..................

 

 

 

Grades Money Sports Looks
Figure 4. Determinants of Male Popularity as Rated by Boys and Girls

A mean score was computed for each criterion used to determine male popularity for
each grade level for boys and girls. For boys in Grades 4, 5, and 6 the mean ranking of
each criterion is given in Table 14. Boys in Grade 4 chose "being good at sports" first,
"making good grades" second, "being handsome" third, and "having lots of money"
fourth. Boys in Grade 5 and 6 chose "being good at sports" first, "being handsome"
second, "making good grades" third, and "having lots of money" fourth. Chi-square
analyses revealed no significant differences in the determinants of male social status for
boys in Grades 4, 5, and 6 (see Figure 5). These results support Hypothesis 7. Boys in
Grades 4, 5, and 6 chose "being good at sports" as the most important determinant of male
popularity.

45

1001

3:31;; I 4th Grade Boys
3'55 I 5th Grade Boys
6th Grade Boys

Percent
0'1
0
a l n

........

.......
.....

     

 

 

   

.i. ‘, ‘. -'-.‘ .............

Grades Money Sports Looks
Figure 5. Determinants of Male Popularity as Rated by Boys

For girls in Grades 4, 5, and 6 the mean ranking of each criterion used to determine
male popularity is given in Table 14. Girls in Grade 4 and 5 chose "being good at sports"
first, "being handsome" second, "getting good grades" third, and "having lots of money"
fourth. Girls in Grade 6 chose "being handsome" first, "being good at sports" second,
"getting good grades" third, and "having lots of money" fourth. Chi-square analyses
revealed significant differences in the determinants of male social status for girls in Grades
4, 5, and 6, X2 (6) = 15.63, p < .02. Appearance becomes more important in determining
male popularity as girls increase grade levels (see Figure 6). Sports appear to become more
important from Grade 4 to 5 and less important from Grade 5 to 6 (see figure 6).

Chi-square analyses between two grade levels revealed significant differences between girls
in Grades 5 and 6, X2 (3) = 13.69, p < .05. Hypothesis 8 was not supported by these
results. Girls in Grades 4 and 5 chose "being good at sports" as the most important

determinant of male popularity; however, girls in Grade 6 chose "being handsome."

46

I 4th Grade Girls
I 5th Grade Girls
6th Grade Girls

Percent
01
O
l

   
   

 

 

Grades Money Sports Looks
Figure 6. Determinants of Male Popularity as Rated by Girls

11 . [E l E l .
Subjects were asked to rank in order of importance four criteria ("make good grades,"
"being good at sports," "having lots of money," "being handsome or pretty") which would
determine female popularity (see Table 15). Boys in this study chose "being pretty" as the
most important criterion for determining female popularity, " getting good grades" second,
"being good at sports" third, and "having lots of money" fourth. The girls in this study
chose "being pretty" first, "being good at sports" and "getting good grades" second, and
"having lots of money" fourth. These results provide support for Hypotheses 9 and 10.
Boys and girls chose "being pretty" as the most important determinant of female popularity.
Determinants of female popularity are given in Table 15. Chi-square analyses revealed
significant gender differences in the determinants of female social status, X2 (3) = 11.33, p
< .05. Boys and girls found appearance the most important determinant of female social
status (see Figure 7). However, differences occurred in the importance of "having lots of

money," girls chose this criterion more often than the boys (see Figure 7).

47

Table 15

 

Total

Grade 5 Grade 6

Grade 4

Girls Boys

Boys

Boys Girls Boys Girls

Girls

2.56
0.95

2.71
0.97

3.02 2.7
0.95 0.9

2.35
0.96

2.46
0.96

2.60
0.90

m

M

Grades

Sports

Looks

3.12 3.19
0.98 0.82

3.22
0.83

Money

 

*Lowest mean ranking indicates first choice

48

I Boys
Girls

Percent

 

 

 

Grades Money Sports Looks
Figure 7. Determinants of Female Popularity as Rated by Boys and Girls

Table 15 also gives the mean rankings of personal popularity determinants for boys
and girls in different grade levels. Boys in Grade 4, and 5 chose "being pretty" first,
"making good grades" second, "being good at sports" third, and "having lots of money"
fourth. Boys in Grade 6 chose "being pretty" first, "being good at sports" second,
"making good grades" third, and "having lots of money" fourth. Chi-square analyses
revealed no significant differences in the determinants of female social status for boys in
Grades 4, 5, and 6, although appearance seems to become more important in determining
female social status as boys increase grade level (see Figure 8). Boys chose "being pretty"

as the most important determinant of female popularity, a finding which supports
Hypothesis 11.

49

100%1
90-

.....

80 ': 1:35:75:

70 -
so i
so 1
40 '1
30 -l
20 : iii-":-

0 .

I 4th Grade Boys
I 5th Grade Boys
6th Grade Boys

Percent

   
     

 

 

......
----

.....
.....

Looks
Figure 8. Determinants of Female Popularity as Rated by Boys

Grades Money Sports

For girls in Grades 4, 5, and 6 the mean ranking of each criterion used to determine
female social status is given in Table 15. Girls in Grade 4 and 5 chose "being pretty" first,
"getting good grades" second, "being good at sports" third, and "having lots of money"
fourth. Girls in Grade 6 chose "being pretty" first, "being good at sports" second, " getting
good grades" third, and "having lots of money" fourth. Chi-square analyses revealed
significant differences in the determinants of female social status for girls in Grades 4, 5,
and 6, X2 (6) = 12.63, p < .05. Appearance becomes increasingly more important in
determining female popularity as girls increase grade levels. Girls in Grade 6 indicated that
"being good at sports" was more important in determining popularity than girls in Grades 4
and 5 (see Figure 9). Chi-square analyses between two grade levels revealed significant
differences between girls in Grades 4 and 6, X2 (3) = 8.47, p < .05. Hypothesis 12 was

supported by these results. Most girls chose "being pretty" as the most important
determinant of female popularity.

50

1 oo
90
so 22:23:43:
70
so
so
40
so
20
1 o

o

I 4th Grade Girls
I 5th Grade Girls
6th Grade Girls

Percent

     

 

Grades Money Sports Looks
Figure 9. Determinants of Female Popularity as Rated by Girls

 

Subjects were asked to select one activity in which they would prefer to participate at
school from three selections ("make good grades," "be popular," "be good at sports").
Table 16 provides a frequency distribution of these data. Boys in this study chose "make
good grades" as the first-ranked activity, "be good at sports" second, and "be popular"
third. The girls chose "make good grades" first, "be popular" second, and "be good at
sports" third. Chi-square analyses revealed significant gender differences for the activities
in which boys and girls prefer to participate at school, X2 (2) = 21.45, p <.001. As
illustrated in Figure 10, both boys and girls prefer to "make good grades," however,
differences occurred in boys' and girls' selection of "be popular" and "be good at sports."
These results indicate that Hypothesis 13 was not supported. It was hypothesized that
boys would select "being good at sports" instead of "make good grades." Hypothesis 14
was supported Girls indicated they would prefer to "make good grades."

51

 

 

Table 16
Ef 1511!... [E ”1.1
Make Good Grades Be Popular Be Good at Sports
a % n % n %
Girls 130 51.8 91 36.3 30 11.9

Boys 117 51.5 50 22.0 60 26.4

 

52

1 00
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
1 0

O

I Boys
Girls

Percent

      

 

 

Make Good Grades Be Popular Be Good at Sports
Figure 10. Preferred School Activities of Boys and Girls

Chi-square analyses revealed no significant grade level differences in the activities in
which children would like to participate for boys in Grades 4, 5, and 6. As indicated in
Table 17, boys in Grade 4 would rather "make good grades" first, "be popular" second,
and "be good at sports" third. Boys in Grade 5 and 6 would rather "make good grades"
first, "be good at sports" second, and "be popular" third (see Figure 11). The results

indicate that Hypothesis 15 was not supported. It was hypothesized that all boys would
prefer to "be good at sports."

70 . I 4th Grade Boys
I 5th Grade Boys
61h Grade Boys

Percent

     

 

 

Be Popular Be Good at Sports

Figure 11. Preferred School Activities for Boys in Grades 4, 5, and 6

53

Table 17

PE 1511!... [E 'Qlli 15

 

 

Grade Make Good Grades Be Popular Be Good at Sports
n % n % n %

4th 29 53.7 13 24.1 12 22.2

5111 43 50.0 19 22.1 24 27.9

6th 45 51.7 18 20.7 24 27.6

 

54

Chi-square analyses revealed no significant differences in the activities in which
children would like to participate for girls in Grades 4, 5, and 6 (see Figure 12). As
indicated in Table 18, girls in Grade 4, 5, and 6 would rather "make good grades" first, "be
popular" second, and "be good at sports" third. Hypothesis 16 was supported by these
results. Most girls would prefer to "make good grades."

70 1 I 4th Grade Girls
60 . I 51h Grade Girls
6th Grade Girls

Percent
01
O
l

  

   

................
.......

 

 

'.:. ._. .......

 

l - I - ‘, "
,' u.
t- e' i
.‘ .'
0

Make Good Grades Be Popular Be Good at Sports

Figure 12. Preferred School Activites for Girls in Grades 4, 5, and 6

Children were asked to select from three choices ("make good grades," "be popular,"
"be good at sports") one activity in which they would prefer to fail at school. Table 19
provides a summary of the responses of boys and girls. Boys in this study chose "be
popular" as the activity in which they would prefer to fail, "be good at sports" second, and
"make good grades" third. The girls chose "be good at sports" first, "be popular" second,
and "make good grades" third. These results indicate that Hypothesis 17 was supported;
boys did chose "be popular" most often. However Hypothesis 18 was not supported; girls
chose "be good at sports" more often than "be popular" as the activity in which they would

prefer to fail at school. Chi-square analyses revealed significant gender differences for the

55

 

 

 

 

 

Table 18
P f 1 ' i i ' 1 ' 4
Grade Make Good Grades Be Popular Be Good at Sports
n % n % n %
4th 43 52.3 18 27.7 13 20.0
5th 45 50.0 36 40.0 9 10.0
6th 51 53.1 37 38.5 8 8.3
Table 19
SI 15 'WI'ICHI RE 13.1
Make Good Grades Be Popular Be Good at Sports
11 % n % n %
Girls 12 4.8 106 42.2 133 53.0

Boys 28 12.3 138 60.8 61 26.9

 

56

activities in which boys and girls prefer to fail at school, X2 (2) = 36.20, p <.001. Boys

prefer to fail at being popular. Girls prefer to fail at being good at sports (see Figure 13).

Percent

50 - """" 1:; I Boys
‘ " Girls

  

 

 

 

   

o q ,.--, ............ _. .
Make Good Grades Be Popular

Be Good at Sports

Figure 13. School Activities in Which Boys and Girls Prefer to Fail

Chi-square analyses revealed no significant differences in the activities in which

children would prefer to fail for boys in Grades 4, 5, and 6 (see Figure 14). As indicated

in Table 20, boys in Grade 4, 5, and 6 chose "be popular" first, "be good at sports"

second, and "make good grades" third. These results support Hypothesis 19.

Percent

100-

1

90d
80"

. :isgsgsgs I 4th Grade Boys

I 51h Grade BOY$
6th Grade Boys

      

...........
................
.............

 

 

o q :33; . . .3...
Make Good Grades Be Popular Be Good at Sports

Figure 14. School Activities in Which Boys Prefer to Fail

57

 

 

 

 

 

Table 20
1 1v ' W ' 1
Grade Make Good Grades Be Popular Be Good at Sports
n % n % n %
4th 6 11.1 37 68.5 11 20.4
5th 8 9.3 48 55.8 30 34.9
6th 14 16.1 53 60.9 20 23.0
Table 21
5115”"W1'IE'IEE B]
Grade Make Good Grades Be Popular Be Good at Sports
11 % n % n %
4th 4 6.2 35 53.9 26 40.0
5th 3 3.3 32 35.6 55 61.1

6th 5 5.2 39 40.6 52 54.2

 

58

Results for the activities in which girls would prefer to fail at school are given in
Table 21. Girls in Grade 4 chose "be popular" first, "be good at sports" second, and
"make good grades" third. Girls in Grade 5 and 6 chose "be good at sports" first, "be
popular" second, and "make good grades" third. These results do not support Hypothesis
20. It was suggested that all girls would select "be popular" as the activity in which they
would prefer to fail. However, girls in Grade 5 and 6 chose "be good at sports" most
often. Chi—square analyses revealed significant differences in the choice "be good at

sports" for girls in Grades 4, 5, and 6, X2 (2) =6.84, p < .03. "Being good at sports" was
selected more often as an activity in which girls preferred to fail at each increasing grade

level (see Figure 15).

1001
90‘

80'.
70-

6° 1 I 4th Grade Girls

......

50 j I 5th Grade Girls

.....
.....

Percent

40 j 2:222:53: 6th Grade Girls
30 - '3‘”:

201

     

 

Make Good Grades Be Popular Be Good at Sports
Figure 15. School Activities in Which Girls Prefer to Fail

 

 

Children were asked to select from three choices ("make good grades," "be popular,"
"be good at sports") one activity in which they would prefer not to fail at school. Table 22
provides a summary of the responses of boys and girls. Boys in this study chose "make
good grades" as the activity in which they would prefer not to fail, "be good at sports"
second, and "be popular" third. The girls chose "make good grades" first, "be popular"
second, and "be good at sports" third These results indicate that Hypotheses 21 and 22
were supported; boys and girls preferred not to fail at "getting good grades." Chi-square

59

 

 

Table 22
h ' W i 1
Make Good Grades Be Popular Be Good at Sports
11 % n % n %
Girls 212 84.5 26 10.4 13 5.2

Boys 152 67.0 20 8.8 55 24.2

 

60

analyses revealed significant gender differences for some activities in which boys and girls

prefer not to fail at school, X2 (2) = 35.51, p <.001. Differences occurred in the boys and

girls second and third choices (see Figure 16). Boys chose "be good at sports" and girls

chose "be popular."

Percent

 

.......

.......

.....................
.............

 

 

........
............

0 _ ............. ...................
Make Good Grades Be Popular

  

................

, ...........
.............

I Boys
Girls

Figure 16. School Activities in Which Boys and Girls Prefer Not to Fail

Chi-square analyses revealed no significant grade differences in the activities in which

children preferred not to fail. As indicated in Table 23, the boys in this study in Grade 4,

5, and 6 chose "make good grades" as the activity in which they would prefer not to fail,

"be good at sports" second, and "be popular" third (see Figure 17). These results indicate

that Hypothesis 23 was supported.

61

 

 

 

 

 

Table 23
' Whi
Grade Make Good Grades Be Popular Be Good at Sports
11 % n % n %
4th 34 63.0 5 9.3 15 27.78
5th 58 67.4 9 10.5 19 35.2
6th 60 68.9 6 6.9 21 24.2
Table 24
S] l! 'WI'IGIEEH Ei]
Grade Make Good Grades Be Popular Be Good at Sports
11 % n % n %
4th 57 87.7 5 7.7 3 4.6
5th 75 83.3 10 11.1 5 5.5
6th 80 83.3 11 11.5 5 5.2

 

62

100
90 3
so -
70 -
so 3
50 -
4O '2
30 .-
20 -
10 1 5,33,;

0 _ ~:::.:::.: g _ , _._._.

Make Good Grades Be Popular Be Good at Sports

Figure 17. School Activities in Which Boys Prefer Not to Fail

I 4th Grade BOYS
I 5th Grade BOYs
6th Grade Boys

Percent

    

 

...............
..............

 

 

Results for the activities in which girls would prefer to fail at school are given in
Table 24. Girls in Grade 4, 5, and 6 chose "make good grades" first, "be popular" second,
and "be good at sports" third. Hypothesis 24 was supported by these results. Chi-square
analyses revealed no significant grade differences in the activities in which girls preferred
not to fail (see Figure 18).

1 00
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
2O
1 O

O

I 4th Grade Girls
I 5th Grade Girls
6th Grade Girls

Percent

 

 

 

Make Good Grades Be Popular Be Good at Sports
Figure 18. School Activities in Which Girls Prefer Not to Fail

Chapter Five
Discussion

One purpose of this study was to partially replicate the Buchanan et al. (1976) study
which examined the criteria used by children to determine personal popularity and the
activities in which children prefer to participate at school. A second purpose was to
examine gender and grade level differences in the role of sports in determining the social
status of children in Grades 4, 5, and 6 and provide a current assessment of which criteria
are used by children to determine personal, male, and female popularity. The third purpose
of this study was to examine gender and grade level differences in the activities in which
children prefer to participate at school, and the activities in which they prefer to fail or not
to fail. The results from this study are discussed in comparison to the Buchanan et a1.
(1976) results. and other social status research. Recommendations for future research are
outlined.

W

W. Buchanan et a1. (1976) did not conduct
statistical tests examining gender or grade level differences for the determinants of personal
popularity. They also failed to report the standard deviations in the results of the mean
ranking. Without this information on variance, tests of statistical differences between the
selection of popularity determinants from the Buchanan et al. (1976) study and the present
study could not be conducted. Therefore, the comparisons that are reported are merely
differences in the order of mean ranking.

A comparison of results from the Buchanan et al. (1976) and the present study
indicate that there has been a shift in the importance of particular social status determinants
in the last 15 years. As shown in Table 25, a comparison of the rank order of these results
to those of the present study suggested that appearance has become more important and
academic achievement less important in determining personal popularity for girls. The first
choice for determining personal popularity has shifted from " getting good grades" to "being
pretty," while the third choice has shifted from "being pretty" to "getting good grades,"
according to the comparison.

A similar conclusion can be made from the comparison of the results for the boys in

each study. As indicated in Table 25, a comparison of the rank order of these results with

63

Table 25

 

 

 

 

 

 

Buchanan et a1. Chase Differences in
(1976) (1991) Results
Mean Rank Mean Rank
Girls 1.94 lst 2.59 3rd Decrease in
importance
Grades
Boys 2.09 2nd 2.65 3rd Decrease in
importance
Girls 2.28 2nd 2.47 2nd No difference
in importance
Sports
Boys 1.97 lst 1.66 lst No difference
in importance
Girls 2.57 3rd 1.73 1st Increase in
importance
Looks
Boys 2.68 3rd 2.5 1 2nd Increase in
importance
Girls 3.33 4th 3 .21 4th No difference
in importance
Money
Boys 3.08 4th 3.19 4th No difference

in importance

 

those of the present study suggested that ampearance has become more important and
academic achievement less important in determining personal popularity for boys. "Being
handsome" shifted from the third to the second most important determinant of personal
popularity, while " getting good grades" dropped from the second to the third most
important determinant.

These results suggested that in 15 years, appearance has become more important and
academic achievement less important as determinants of social status for girls and boys.
The finding that appearance has become more important to this age group was expected.
Research by Asher (1983) found that physical attractiveness was highly correlated with a
child's higher status in elementary school peer groups. Possibly, the differences were due
to differences in the two samples. Buchanan et al. (1976) did not describe the sample in
their study beyond the name of the school districts and the location.

An alternative explanation of the increased importance of appearance is an increase in
the value of physical fitness and media influences. In recent years, people of all ages are
getting more involved in physical fitness activities. The increased interest in physical
activity could be motivated by a desire to improve appearance by losing weight and
developing a more muscular body. Emphasis placed on improving the physical shape of
the body may influence children to associate appearance with status. The media tends to
emphasize the importance of appearance through advertisement and promotion of beautiful,

well-built men and women.

The decrease in the importance of academic achievement as a social status determinant

was unexpected. Buchanan et al. (1976) suggested that children were influenced by
perceived parental or societal pressure to succeed academically, and results from their study
indicated that " getting good grades" was chosen first among girls and second among boys
as an important determinant of social status. Possibly negative labels associated with
academic achievement have developed since 1976. Children may believe that the "popular"
students are not the ones that only achieve in academics. This conclusion can be supported
by the results of the Goldberg and Chandler (1989) study. These authors reported that
multiple role expectations are placed upon the youths of today. Their research findings
indicated that more emphasis was placed on being a student-athlete than on the single roles

65

7 "‘fi
_ . _.r't

of student or athlete. This suggests that academic achievement alone will not increase
popularity among peers and that good students must also be good athletes.

Results indicated that the determinants of personal popularity differed between males
and females. Boys choose "being good at sports" and girls choose "being pretty" as the
most important determinants. These results were expected based on previous social status
research and the perceived value placed on athletics for men and on appearance for women.

In the present study, significant grade-level differences were found which indicated
that sports seem to become more important in determining social status as girls increase
grade levels. This finding differs from previous social status research of high school girls
which found that younger females rated being an athlete higher than did older females
(Thirer & Wright, 1985). Why is there a difference in athletic participation as a social
status determinant for girls in Grades 4, 5, and 6 and those in high school? One
possibility may be that perceptions of athletics as a social status determinant change as girls
begin competing on athletic teams in high school. The girls in Grades 4, 5, and 6 that were
surveyed in this study probably had fewer athletic participation experiences than did high
school girls. Therefore, the definition of "sports" may vary among the grades sampled.

Previous research suggests that negative labels are associated with participation in
athletics by high school girls (Feltz, 1978; Kane, 1988), especially when rated by males.
This study and others (Goldberg & Chandler, 1989; Kane, 1988; Thirer & Wright, 1985)
have found that boys do not select athletics as an important criterion for female popularity.
Kane (1988) found that some sports were labeled as "sex-inappropriate" for girls, and that
boys preferred not to date girls involved in those sports. Perhaps girls are more influenced
by the opinions of boys as they increase grade-levels.

Sports and appearance become more important as social status determinants for boys
as they increase in grade—level. The increase in the importance of athletics is supported by
results from other social status research of high school boys (Coleman, 1961; Eitzen, 1975;
Goldberg & Chandler, 1989; Thirer & Wright, 1985). Previous findings indicated that
athletics was the number one determinant of social status for boys in Grades 9, 10, 11, and
12. The rise in the importance of appearance as boys increase grade levels may be
associated with an heightened awareness of such influences as attention from girls, and

media promotions of men that are attractive and physically fit.

66

WW. Eitzen (1975) speculated that a trend was
developing toward less enthusiasm for sports which would diminish the importance of

sport participation as a determinant of male social status. Eitzen's speculation has not been
supported by the results of other research (Goldberg & Chandler, 1989; Thirer & Wright;
Williams & White, 1983) or by this study, at least for males. As expected, when asked to
choose the most important criterion for determining male popularity, most boys chose
"being good at sports." One unexpected finding was the girls' selection of "being
handsome" as the most important determinant of male popularity. Possibly, girls have less
enthusiasm for sports, as Eitzen (1975) speculated. Or, girls place greater importance on
appearance than boys as indicated by the girls' selection of the criterion "being handsome
or pretty" as the most important determinant of personal, male, and female popularity.
Analysis by grade level indicated that girls in Grades 4 and 5 chose "being good at sports"
as the most important determinant of male popularity and "being handsome" second. Girls
in Grade 6 chose "being good at sports" second and "being handsome" first. Perhaps as
girls enter middle school, begin to date and have relationships with boys, they become
more interested in appearance.

Wu. The most important determinant of female
popularity as rated by both boys and girls, as hypothesized, was "being pretty." These
selections are predictable considering that previous research indicated that boys do not
select sports as an important criterion for female popularity (Goldberg & Chandler, 1989;
Kane, 1988; Thirer & Wright, 1985) and that negative labels may be associated with high
school girls' participation in athletics (Feltz, 1978; Kane, 1988). Girls' criteria for female
popularity were the same as the girls' criteria for personal popularity. Significant grade-
level differences indicated that appearance and sports seem to become more important as
girls increase grade levels.

Changes in opportunities do not lead to immediate changes in value systems (Thirer
& Wright, 1985). Previous research often cites Title IX (Riley, 1975) as a possible
influence on the role of sports as a social status determinant for women (Feltz, 1978;
Goldberg & Chandler, 1989; Kane, 1988; Thirer & Wright, 1985; Williams & White,
1983). These authors suggested that increased opportunities for girls to participate in
athletics that occurred with the onset of Title D( in the mid 1970's may influence the

67

development of more positive attitudes toward women's participation in athletics. Previous
social status research of high school students stated that athletics were viewed as
"inappropriate" for females (Kane, 1988) and therefore not a positive determinant of
popularity for females (Feltz, 1978; Goldberg & Chandler, 1989; Thirer & Wright, 1985).
This study has shown that females tend to select "being good at sports” as the second most
important determinant of social status, but that males tend to rank athletics as less important
in determining female popularity. A possible explanation may be that, in many cases, Title
D( still involves only one generation. The women who would have been affected by Title
IX are just reaching the age at which they could be the parents of children in elementary
school. As parents, these women could influence their children to have more favorable
attitudes toward women's participation in athletics and then changes may occur. Previous
research speculated that once adolescents were exposed to more Opportunities for women to
participate in sports, there would be a change in attitude (Feltz, 1978; Goldberg &
Chandler, 1989; Thirer & Wright, 1985; Williams & White, 1983). This author contends
that change will not occur until those who were exposed and/or experienced more

opportunities to participate can socialize their children toward the acceptance of womens'

participation in athletics.

 

 

. Subjects in the
Buchanan et al. (1976) study and the present study were asked to select one activity in
which they would like to participate at school from three choices ("make good grades," "be
popular," "be good at sports"). As Table 26 indicates, girls in the Buchanan et al. (1976)
study chose "make good grades" most often, "be p0pular" second, and "be good at sports"
third. A comparison of results shows that the rank order of activities in which the girls
from both studies preferred to participate at school were identical. Boys in the Buchanan et
al. (1976) study chose "make good grades" first, "be good at sports" second, and "be
popular" third. These results suggests that the rank order of activities in which boys
preferred to participate are similar to the activities they preferred in 1991.

Chi-square analyses, using frequency distribution, instead of rank order, revealed
significant differences between the activities in which girls from the Buchanan et al. (1976)
study and the present study preferred to participate at school, X2 (2) = 59.74, p < .001.

68

Table 26

 

 

 

 

 

 

Buchanan et a1. Chase Differences in
(1976) (1991) Results
11 % Rank 2 % Rank
Girls 295 77.6 lst 130 51.8 lst Decrease
inirnportance
Make Good
Grades
Boys 296 70.1 lst 117 51.5 lst Decrease
inirnportance
Girls 45 11.8 2nd 91 36.3 2nd Increase
inirnportance
Be Popular
Boys 32 7.6 3rd 50 22.0 3rd Increase
inirnportance
Girls 40 10.5 3rd 30 11.9 3rd No difference
inirnportance
Be Good
at Sports
Boys 90 21.3 2nd 60 26.4 2nd Nodifference

in importance

 

m 31"...

There was a significant decrease in the importance of "make good grades" as an activity in
which girls preferred to participate and an increase in the importance of "be popular."
Significant differences were also found between the two studies in the activities in which
boys preferred to participate, X} (2) = 33.95, p < .001. There was a significant decrease in
the importance of "make good grades" and an increase in the importance of "be popular."
There was a slight increase in the percentage of children who selected "be good at sports"
but not a statistically significant difference.

Perhaps these differences in the importance of acadenrics and popularity as activities

I.
‘3
I

in which children prefer to participate are related to the shift in importance of criteria which
determine popularity. "Make good grades" decreased in importance as a popularity

In” “Laud“; rm

determinant for boys and girls. Therefore, academics may not be an activity in which
children prefer to participate because the "popular" students do not "make good grades."
Children that chose not to select "make good grades" could be choosing "be popular"
instead.

Based upon Chi-square analyses, Buchanan et a1. (1976) reported that a significantly
greater percentage of the boys preferred to "be good at sports" than did girls. Chi-square
analyses in the present study also revealed significant gender differences for activities in
which boys and girls preferred to participate at school, X} (2) = 21.45, p <.001. Both
boys and girls preferred to "make good grades," however, differences occurred in the
selection of "be popular" and "be good at sports." More boys preferred to "be good at
sports" then "be popular" and more girls preferred to "be popular" then "be good at
sports." Because of the evidence from previous social status research which suggests the
importance of sports participation for male social status (Coleman, 1961; Eitzen, 1975;
Goldberg & Chandler, 1989; Thirer & Wright, 1985; Williams & White, 1983), it was
hypothesized that males would select "being good at sports" as the activity in which they
preferred to participate. Possibly the wording of the question, "participate at school," was
misleading for boys in Grades 4, 5, and 6, who do not typically participate on school
athletic teams.

Research by Feltz (1978) and Williams and White (1983) suggested that girls liked to
participate in athletics, but that negative labels associated with female participation in
athletics discouraged the selection of athletics as a social status determinant. In this study,

70

sport participation was the least favorite activity in which girls preferred to participate, and
yet it was the second most important determinant of personal and female popularity. This
ranking of sports as the second most important determinant could be misleading unless two
factors are considered. First, being chosen the second most important determinant out of
four criteria may not be all that important. If the list of criteria included a larger selection of
determinants then the second chose could be considered more significant. Second, when
the percentage of criteria selected is examined (Figure 1), sports rank third. The percentage
of girls who chose appearance is much higher than those who chose sports. Appearance
was chosen first close to 60% by the girls as the most important determinant of social
status. The remaining 40% was split between the other three criterion, "make good
grades," "be good at sports ," and "have lot of money." Therefore, if the percentage is
considered, rather than the ranking, it appears that sports may not be that important in
determining social status. More research is needed to investigate why girls in Grades 4, 5,
and 6 do not desire to participate in athletics.

WWW. When asked to select one
activity in which they preferred to fail at school, the boys chose "being popular" and the
girls chose "be good at sports." The hypothesis suggested that boys would select "be
popular" first because they would not want to fail at sports or academics. This was based
on the belief that boys are greatly influenced by parental and societal pressure to succeed in
athletics and academics. Most parents encourage their children to receive good grades in
school. In addition, boys are socialized toward achievement in athletics to develop
masculine characteristics (Williams & White, 1983).

The girls' selection of "be good at sports" as the activity in which they preferred to
fail can be explained by a lack of parental and societal pressure for girls to succeed in
athletics (Williams & White, 1983). Unfortunately, there still may exist the attitude that
sports are "inappropriate" for girls (Kane, 1988). The selection of sport as an activity in
which girls preferred to fail can be partially explained by the previous finding of activities
in which girls preferred to participate. This finding seems logical. If girls prefer not to
participate in sports then they won't care if they fail in sports.

WWW Boys were expected to
prefer to participate in sports, therefore, athletics would be an activity in which boys would

71

prefer not to fail. However, the wording of the question, "prefer not to fail at school,"
might have influenced the selection of activities to be academically related. The selection by
boys of "being good at sports" before "being popular" seems logical since athletic
achievement is the most important criterion for determining male popularity.

The girls in this study also selected "make good grades" as the activity in which they
preferred not to fail. Parental and societal pressure to succeed academically as well as the
biased wording 6f the question could have influenced their selection. As mentioned earlier,
the girls' selection of "be good at sports" last could be attributed to low expectations for
girls to succeed in athletics (Williams & White, 1983) and the attitude that sports are
"inappropriate" for girls (Kane, 1988).

Conclusions

When the overall results are examined, several conclusions can be drawn from the
findings of this study. First, it appears that the role of sports for females has not changed
much in the last 15 years. The girls in this study reported that they did not want to
participate or succeed in sports. Only a small percentage of the girls, less than 15%, in this
study chose sport as an important determinant of social status. The goal is not to have
sports become the most important determinant of social status for girls but to reduce the
negative status associated with female participation in sports. As Williams and White
(1983) suggested, the fact that females exhibit more diverse choices as criteria for social
status is more sensible than the narrower socialization toward social status determined
mainly by sport as shown by males. 8

Second, sports appears to remain the most important determinant of social status for
males. The overemphasis placed on sports as a social status determinant for males is
unfortunate. First of all, young males may perceive a lot of pressure to achieve in sports.
Athletic success is not always possible due to a child’s lack of ability, late maturity, and
limited number of opportunities to participate on school athletic teams. Secondly, the status
enjoyed as a high school athlete is short-lived and does not always prepare male
adolescents for social success after the athletic success is over. As Snyder (1985) stated,
the athletic role has a short term payoff. So while females should be able to participate in
sports without any negative labels associated, boys should also be afforded the opportunity
not to participate in sports without losing popularity.

72

Third, results indicated that although children want to "make good grades," to achieve
popularity among peers they must be attractive and good at sports. This suggests that the
role of the student-athlete may become more desirable for children. This finding has
important implications for educators. If children desire the role of the student-athlete, then
why not use the interest in sports or other social status determinants to motivate children
toward success in the classroom. For example, the importance of passing classes in order
to be eligible to play. Teachers could use the activities that children value as a tool for
learning. When learning to read, allow children to read about activities that they value.

The fourth conclusion is that the increaseing importance of appearance in determining
social status should be examined more closely. This finding should cause some concern
among parents and educators, because appearance is not an attribute that can be easily
changed, if changed at all. Current problems with anorexia nervosa and bulimia nervosa
provide an example of the dangers associated with too much emphasis placed on
appearance. If appearance continues to be an important criterion for social status, then
other criteria may become less important and less desirable. Appearance alone has very
few long-term benefits that would prepare children for future careers and meaningful
contributions to society.

Conclusions about the activities in which children preferred to participate, preferred to
fail or preferred not to fail suggest that academic achievement was the most preferred
activity children in Grades 4, 5, and 6. However, if acadenrics continue to decrease in
importance as a social status determinant, then academic achievement may become less
desired as an activity to participate and/or succeed. Adolescence is a time when popularity
among peers is very important (Williams & White, 1983). If academic achievement can
become more important as a determinant of social status, and more multiple role
expectations continue to develop (Goldberg & Chandler, 1989), then the education of
young children could be greatly enhanced.

Remmmendatiens

The findings in this study provide educators with a current assessment of the criteria
used by children in Grades 4, 5, and 6 to determine social status. While this study helps to
explain the status of the criteria used by young adolescents, it does not provide all the

answers. Future research in several areas is recommended.

73

The first recommendation is to expand the generalizability of the study by sampling
more subjects and improving the subject selection process. In this study, very few racial
groups were represented. Future studies should include more adolescents from minority
backgrounds. Also, this study helps to provide insights as to the criteria used by children
in Grades 4, 5, and 6.

The next step is to investigate the criteria used by children in Grades 7, 8, and 9.
This study provides a current assessment of the social status determinants used by children
in Grades 4, 5, and 6 and the activities in which they prefer to participate and succeed.
Previous research (Coleman, 1961; Eitzen, 1975; Felt, 1978; Goldberg & Chandler, 1989;
Thirer & Wright, 1985; Williams & White, 1983) provides an evaluation of the social
status determinants used by children in Grades 10, 11, and 12 and the activities in which
they prefer to participate. Given this information on children in Grade 7, 8, and 9,
developmental trends could be examined across Grades 4 through 12.

The process by which subjects were selected to participate could be improved.
Participation in this study was dependent upon receiving permission from the
superintendent of schools and the parents of the subjects. Of the 12 school districts that
were contacted only three superintendents decided to participate. This percentage of
participation seems low (25%). Some of the schools indicated that they would not allow
research which involved social status to be conducted in their district. Other schools did
not have any teachers who were interested in participating. It is unclear whether the
schools that participated and those that did not differed, and if so, how they may have
differed The subjects who participated were those that volunteered, not a random
selection. There were 478 children who participated of 965 children contacted (49%). By
observation it is not known whether the students that participated differed from those that
did not. A random sample would provide a more unbiased sample. However, this
recommendation may be difficult to accomplish because parental permission is required.

A second recommendation involves the method used to collect the data. The
questionnaire typically used in social status research is a closed response. The subjects are
given a list of criteria from which to choose. Often the list of criteria was similar to those
used by Coleman in 1961. Perhaps the criteria are out of date and no longer represent an

accurate selection of popularity determinants. An open response format may identify

74

criterion that were not included but are of importance in determining the popularity of
children. For example, the criterion "being a nice or friendly person" was not included but
may be of importance in determining popularity. Also, with the increase in the importance
of appearance, maybe "wear the right clothes" has become important.

A more qualitative approach to studying the social status system would also allow a
more in—depth investigation into the role of sports in determining popularity. For example,
the present method groups a variety of athletes into one category, "sports." It is possible
that the popularity of football players compared to cross country mum and cheerleaders
compared to softball players would differ. Kane (1988) has already demonstrated that
"sex-appropriate" and "sex-inappropriate" sports exist for females. Her research did not
investigate "sex-appropriate" and "sex-inappropriate" sports for males. Future research in
this area would be interesting to examine.

Another method of data collection, such as that used by Goldberg and Chandler
(1989), should be further tested. They used a 5-point Likert scale instead of a forced
response. This allowed participants to identify more than one activity as important in
determining social status and permitted the emergence of multiple role demands. This
method of study may help to identify the value structure of children, which as mentioned
earlier, would aid teachers in the education of children.

A third recommendation would be to conduct this study while controlling for
variables such as grade point average and participation on athletic teams or in physical
education. The procedures for this study did not control for past athletic experiences or
present opportunities. Some school districts may have after-school, club, or weekend
recreational programs that would allow subjects a better assessment of personal athletic
ability in comparison to their peers. This may influence the students' perceptions of the
role of sports in determining social status. These districts might also value sport
participation more and, therefore, the children would rank sports as more important in
determining social status than children with no recreational or after-school programs.
Opportunities to participate would also influence the selection of preferred activities.
Research in this area could examine if any of these variables correlate with criteria that

determine popularity and/or with preferred activities.

75

A fourth recommendation would be to reword the questions that state "participate at
school" and "fail or do not fail at school." "At school" should be excluded to test whether
this wording creates any bias toward academic achievement.

The final recommendation would be to extend this study to include other variables.
Previous research of high school students has included variables such as the "winning
tradition" of the school's athletic teams (Eitzen, 1975;Fe1tz, 1978; Williams & White,
1983), "sex-appropriateness" of the sport (Kane, 1988), parent's education (Eitzen, 1975),
and school size (Eitzen, 1975). These variables could be examined to provide more insight

into the social status system of elementary and middle school children.

76

APPENDICES

 

77

APPENDIX A
Questionnaire

This questionnaire is being used so that I can learn more about what makes
children popular with their classmates. By answering each question
honestly you will help me get a better understanding of what children in
your grade are thinking.

None of your friends, parents or teachers will see your answers. This is not
a test and will not count in any of your school grades. There are no right or
wrong answers. If there are any words or questions you do not

understand, please raise your hand and ask for help. You have the right
not to participate at all or to stop answering questions at any time. Thank
you for giving your best effort on all of the questions.

Place a check mark ( ‘1 ) by the response which best describes your
answer.

Sex: Girl __ Boy _—
Grade: 4th _ 5th _ 6th __
Age : 8 years __ 9 years __ 10 years __
11 years __ 12 years __ 13 years __
Race: White __ Black _ Hispanic __ Oriental __
American Indian __ Interracial __ Other

CIRCLE THE NUMBER WHICH BEST ANSWERS EACH QUESTION.

1. Compared to most kids in your class, how good are your grades
in school?
1 2 3 4 5

Very Poor Poor Same Good Very Good

78

Compared to most kids in your class, how good are you at
sports?

1 2 3 4 5
Very Poor Poor Same Good Very Good

Compared to most of the kids in your class who are of the same
sex, (if you are a girl, compare yourself to other girls, if you are
a boy, compare yourself to other boys), you are:

1 2 3
Less Popular About the Same More Popular
than most in Popularity than most

How many days during the week do you usually play some
kind of sports?

0 l 2 3 4 5 6 7
days day days days days days days days

Place a check mark by each sport that you play a lot (more
than 1 day per week). You may pick more than 1 sport. Or
check none if you do not play any sports.

 

Basketball Baseball/Softball
Football Swimming
Volleyball Gymnastics
Soccer Tennis
Kick Ball Other

None

What would make 11111 more popular at your school with the
kids in your class? Put a l by the most important thing, a 2 by
your second choice, a 3 by your third choice, and a 4 by your
fourth choice, for what would make you more popular?

A. Make Good Grades

B Having Lots of Money

C. Being Good at Sports

D Being Handsome or Pretty

 

10.

11.

79

What would make GIRLS more popular at your school with the
kids in your class.? Put a 1 by the most important thing, a 2 by
your second choice, a 3 by your third choice, and a 4 by your
fourth choice, for what would make girls more popular?

A. Make Good Grades

B. Having Lots of Money

C. Being Good at Sports

D. Being Handsome or Pretty

What would make MS more popular at your school with the
kids in your class. Put a l by the most important thing, a 2 by
your second choice, a 3 by your third choice, and a 4 by your

fourth choice, for what would make boys more popular?

A. Make Good Grades

B. Having Lots of Money

C. Being Good at Sports

D. Being Handsome or Pretty

What would you most like to do at school? Place a check mark
by only 1 answer.

A. Make Good Grades
B. Be Popular
C. Be Good at Sports

If you had to fail at something, which one would it be ok if you
failed or were not good at? Place a check mark by only 1
answer.

A. Getting Good Grades
B. Being Popular
C. Being Good at Sports

If you had to fail at something, which one would it M be ok if
you failed or were not good at? Place a check mark by only 1
answer.

A. Getting Good Grades
B. Being Popular
C. Being Good at Sports

80

MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY
APPENDIXB

COLLEGE OF EDUCATION EAST LANSING 0 MICHIGAN 0 48824-1034
DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND EXERCISE SCIENCE
I M SPORTS CIRCLE

Dear Parents,

I am a graduate student at Michigan State University pursuing
a Master's degree in Physical Education. This letter is to request
permission for your son or daughter to complete a 11-item
questionnaire as part of a research project.

The purpose of this project is to survey children's opinions and
attitudes about participation in sports and social status ampng peers.
The questionnaire will require about 15-20 minutes and will be
conducted during the school day, at your child's school. The
questionnaire will be administered to your child's whole class at
once. All of your child's answers will be confidential. Participation
in the project is voluntary in that your child may withdraw at any
time or decline to answer any of the questions if he/she chooses.

If you would like a copy of the general results or you would
like any further information, you can call me at the IM Sports Circle
building, Michigan State University, 336-1416.

Sincerely,

Melissa Chase

MSU is an Affirmative Action /Equal Opportunity Institution

81

APPENDIX C
INFORMED CONSENT FORM

MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY
DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH AND PHYSICAL EDUCATION

1, , hereby agree to allow my

son/daughter to participate as a volunteer in a
scientific study as an authorized part of the research program in the
Department of Physical Education at Michigan State University under

the supervision of Wine]: (graduate advisor).

 

 

The purpose of this study is to assess the criterion children use
to determine social status among their peers and the relationship
between athletic participation and social status. The study will
consist of an eleven item questionnaire. Directions and each question
will be read out loud twice, by the investigator. Your child's answers
will remain anonymous.

The study and my child's part in the study have been defined
and fully explained to me and I understand this explanation. I have
been given an opportunity to ask whatever questions and inquiries
have been answered to my satisfaction. I understand that my child's
participation in this study does not guarantee any beneficial results
to me. I understand that any data or answers to questions will
remain confidential with regard to my child's identity. Within these
restrictions, results of the study will be made available to me at my
request. I FURTHER UNDERSTAND THAT I AM FREE TO WITHDRAW
MY CONSENT AND DISCONTINUE MY CHILD'S PARTICIPATION AT
ANY TIME.

 

 

Date Parent's Signature

82

APPENDIX D

 

Hello, my name is Melissa. I am a graduate student at Michigan State University. I
would like to thank you for helping me with this project. What I am going to have you do
is fill out a questionnaire. A questionnaire is a sheet of paper with a few questions written
down for you to answer. All of your answers will be anonymous. That means that no one
will ever know how you answered each question.

If there are any questions you do not want to answer you may skip that question.
You do not have to participate in this project if you do not want to. You may stop
answering questions at any time or you can choose to stop participating at any time. If you
have any questions please raise your hand and ask.

I will read the directions and each question out loud to the class. Please do not
work ahead but stay with the class and read along with me. Some of the questions will ask
you to rank four choices. Ranking means that you put a number by the choices in the order
of importance. For example, if I asked you to rank which of these four foods you would
like to have for lunch: pizza, tacos, hamburgers, or ice cream. You would put a l by your
first choice, a 2 by your second choice, a 3 by your third choice, and a 4 by your last
choice. Right now in your mind, rank which foods you would like to have for lunch.
Does anyone have any questions about ranking?

Some of the questions will ask you about popularity. 1 would like you to think of
popularity meaning "you are well liked by a lot of people." Other questions will ask you
about sports. Think of sports as being "any games or activities that you do in physical
education class, at recess, or during an after-school sports program."

You may turn over the questionnaire and begin reading silently along with me.

83

APPENDIX E

EilQLStlidx

Two pilot studies were conducted to test the questionnaire, the procedure to contact
subjects, the procedures to administer the questionnaire, and the method to analyze the
data. The first pilot study was completed Spring term of 1990, as an interview class
project for HCP 831, Social Aspects of Sports Participation. The purpose of the interview
project was to examine the criteria used by children to determine social status. Five
children from a greater Lansing area swim team were interviewed. The children were in
Grades 4 through 7.

The parents of the subjects were given a letter which explained the purpose of the
interview and the time requirements. Parents were then called to arrange for an interview
time. At the interview session, the child was assured that his/her answers would remain
confidential. He/she was asked permission to tape record the session. All interviews
lasted 35 to 40 minutes.

The subjects were asked some questions from the questionnaire that were used for the
thesis project. Some questions in the interview did not pertain to the thesis topic but were
based on t0pics discussed in the HCP 831 class.

The results of this project were somewhat similar to the results of previous social
status research. Male popularity among males and females was determined by "being good
at sports." All the subjects were in agreement that sports are the most important criterion
for determining male popularity. Female popularity among males and females was not so

easily determined. Some of the criteria mentioned were "attractiveness, wearing the right
clothes," and "hanging out with the popular kids." Two of the girls mentioned "being good
in sports" was important, but this may have been due to the fact that these girls are highly
involved in sports. None of the children mentioned that " getting good grades" was
important for determining female or male popularity.

The second pilot study was very similar to the study that was completed for the thesis
project. The subjects were boys and girls, in Grades 4, 5, and 6. A letter explaining the
purpose of the pilot study and a consent form was mailed to 34 families. Seven girls and
ten boys volunteered to participate in the pilot study.

The questionnaire administration procedures are outlined below. The children

84

listened as the investigator read from a script which explained the procedures they should
follow, their rights as subjects, and how to answer a question which involved ranking
choices. They were encouraged to ask questions at any time. Then a pencil and the
questionnaire was handed out to each subject. They were asked to define popularity on the
back of the questionnaire. After finishing the definition, they were asked to turn over the
questionnaire and read along silently with the investigator. The directions and each
question was read out loud. When the questionnaire was completed, the children were
asked to examine each question and make suggestions about the clarity and wording of
each one. Then the questionnaire was collected by the investigator. The process lasted 20
to 25 minutes.

The children did not have any difficulty completing the questionnaire. They stated
that they understood the questions, the definition of words, and the reading level was not
too difficult. The questions that involved ranking were not difficult to answer. They did
suggest that the investigator should read faster.

A gender comparison of the criteria used by children to determine personal popularity
found that the boys and girls ranked each criterion in the same order (see Table 27). "Being
good at sports" was the most important criterion, "being handsome or pretty" was second,
"making good grades" was third, and "having lots of money"was fourth. A gender
comparison of the criteria used by children to determine female popularity found few
differences (see Table 28). "Being handsome or pretty" was the first choice for
determining female popularity. "Making good grades" was second, "being good at sports"
was third, and "having lots of money" was the fourth choice for boys and girls. A gender
comparison of the criteria used by children to determine male popularity found differences
only in the second and third choices (see Table 29). "Being good at sports" was the first
choice for determining male popularity. The girls chose "being handsome or pretty" second
and "making good grades" third. The boys chose "making good grades" slightly ahead of
"being handsome or pretty." Both boys and girls chose "having lots of money" last.

Table 30 indicates what children prefer to do while at school. The boys in this study
chose "make good grades" more often than "be good in sports" or "be popular." The girls
in the study prefer to "make good grades" or "be popular" rather than "be good at sports."
The next question asked children if they had to fail at something what would they prefer to
fail at in school. As shown in Table 31, all of the girls chose "be popular," while nine boys

Table 27

85

 

 

 

 

 

Grade 4 Grade 5 Grade 6 Total

Girls Boys Girls Boys Girls Boys Girls Boys
Grades 1.67 2.00 2.00 2.67 3.67 3.30 2.45 2.66
Sports 1.33 0.66 1.00 1.33 2.33 1.20 1.55 1.06
Looks 3.00 2.00 3.00 3.00 1.00 2.80 2.33 2.60
Money 4.00 2.00 4.00 3.00 3.00 4.00 3.67 3.00
*lowest mean ranking indicates first choice
Table 28

Grade 4 Grade 5 Grade 6 Total

Girls Boys Girls Boys Girls Boys Girls Boys

Grades 2.30 2.50 1.00 1.67 3.00 3.67 2.10 2.61
Sports 2.67 3.00 2.00 2.00 2.33 3.67 2.30 2.89
Looks 1.33 1.00 3.00 3.00 1.00 3.67 1.78 2.56
Money 3.67 3.50 4.00 3.33 3.67 5.67 3.78 4.17

 

*lowest mean ranking indicates first choice

Table 29

86

E'lSlBlED . ””21.|

 

Grade 4 Grade 5
Girls Boys Girls Boys Girls
Grades 3.00 2.00 2.00 2.67 3.33
Sports 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 2.00
Looks 3.00 2.00 3.00 3.00 1.00
Money 3.00 2.00 4.00 3.33 3.67

Grade 6 Total

Boys Girls Boys

3.00 2.78 2.56
1.80 1.33 1.27
2.80 2.33 2.60
3.60 3.56 3.98

 

*lowest mean ranking indicates first choice

 

 

 

Table 30
,‘o r... i J '1‘f‘r'01101la I' H O... =0 an '1

Make Good Grades Be Popular Be Good at Sports
Girls 3.00 3.00 1.00
Boys 7.00 1.00 2.00
Table 31
'10 1.. 1‘ 0 10.01;. ' H °l ii iu‘l it“ 0_

Make Good Grades Be Popular Be Good at Sports
Girls 0.00 7.00 0.00
Boys 1.00 9.00 0.00

 

87

chose "be popular" and one boy chose "make good grades." Table 32 shows that most of
the boys and girls would prefer not to fail at "making good grades," while one boy and one
girls would prefer not to fail at "being good at sports." A chi-square was not run on the
results because of the small sample size.

Overall, the results of the pilot studies indicated that the questionnaire, the procedures
to contact subjects, the procedures to administer the questionnaire, and the method to
analyze the data were appropriate for future use in this study.

88

 

Table 32
in l. c. -L‘ 1 .o . r m a Ii [If __r Wl' r r-.--_'-il hr .‘ o .0
Make Good Grades Be Popular Be Good at Sports
Girls 6.00 0.00 1.00
Boys 9.00 0.00 1.00

 

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