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thesis entitled ‘
THE EFFECT OF AN ATHLETE_ MENTOR PROGRAM

0N STUDENT— ATHLETES
MAKING THE TRANSITION FROM HIGH SCHOOL TO COLLEGE

presented by

CHRISTINA LYNN HESTER

has been accepted towards fulfillment
of the requirements for

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MA degree in

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MAY 30 , 1990

 

Date

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MSU Is An Affirmative Action/Equal Opportunity Infiitution
cMchmS—pd

THE EFFECT OF AN ATHLETE-MENTOR PROGRAM
ON STUDENT—ATHLETES

SMAKING THE TRANSITION FROM HIGH SCHOOL TO COLLEGE

By

Christina L. Hester

A THESIS

Submitted to
Michigan State University
in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of

MASTER OF ARTS

School of Health Education, Counseling Psychology
and Human Performance

1990

ABSTRACT
THE EFFECT OF AN ATHLETE—MENTOR PROGRAM

ON'STUDENT-ATHLETES
MAKING THE TRANSITION FROM HIGH SCHOOL TO COLLEGE

BY

Christina L. Hester

The present study investigated the effects of an athlete-mentor
intervention program for freshmen student—athletes participating
in intercollegiate sports on the effectiveness of their transition
from high school to college. The hypotheses for this study were
that the subjects who had a mentor would show greater adjustment
to college life than those freshmen student—athletes that did not
have a mentor, as measured by the POMS and the superior adjustment
and mastery of the external world subscales of Offer's OSIQ. The
subjects were 28 freshmen student—athletes at a Division I midwestern
university who were participating in men's and women's basketball,
menLS and women's gymnastics, men's and women's swimming, wrestling,
and men's indoor track. The eight teams were randomly assigned to
either an experimental group (those receiving a mentor) or a control
group (those not receiving a mentor). Pretests and post—tests were
completed by the two groups at the beginning and end of the 5 week
intervention program. Statistical analysis failed to support the
hypotheses. However, trends toward the effectiveness of the program

were recorded.

DEDICATION

This thesis is dedicated to my Lord Jesus Christ, my parents,
Mack and Gloria Hester, my sisters, Cynthia Hester and Carol Hester—
McKinney and my brother-in—law, Dwight Hester—McKinney for their

support and prayers.

ii

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

I would like to sincerely thank Dr. Martha Ewing for her
encouragement, support, and valuable suggestions in the preparation
of this thesis. I would also like to thank the other members of
my committee, Dr. Deborah Feltz and Dr. Tom Reischal, for their
helpful comments and suggestions. Another individual I would like
to thank is Kathy Lindahl, Assistant Athletic Director for allowing
me to use the athletes in the athletic department. I sincerely thank
Mr. Jud Heathcote, Ms. Karen Langeland, Mr. Jim Bibbs, Mr. Phil
Parker, Ms. Corrin Convis, Mr. Richard Bader, Mrs. Jill Hough, and
Mr. Rick Atkins for allowing their teams to participate in the study.
Finally, I would like to express my deepest gratitude to Cathy Lirgg
for her help in analyzing the data and to Martha Ludwig for assisting
me in the administration of the study. I would also like to thank
the members of Graduate Intervarsity Christian Fellowship for their

support. Gail thanks for being a "true friend."

iii

THE EFFECT OF AN ATHLETE—MENTOR PROGRAM

ON STUDENT—ATHLETES

MAKING THE TRANSITION FROM HIGH SCHOOL T0 COLLEGE

BY

Christina L. Hester

We approve the thesis of Christina L. Hester

Date of Signature

2734/92

db, Q9./¢A4f¢a(7

 

5/30 /—%

p

iT/CBO xflic)

Martha E. Ewing, Ph.D.

Thesis Advisor, Committee Ch ir
Associate Professor of

Physical Education

at L a. 1D,

Deborah L. Feltz, Ph.D. 0
Professor of Physical Education

77. A a. z. c

 

 

Thomas M. Reischl, Ph.D.
Assistant Professor of Psychology

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page
LIST OF TABLES vi
CHAPTER ONE .................................................. 1
INTRODUCTION ............................................ .. 1
Statement of the Problem ................................ lO
Hypotheses .............................................. 11
Corollary Questions ..................................... 12
Definitions ....................................... ...... 12
Delimitations and Assumptions ......................... .. 13
Limitations ............................................. 13
Implications of the Study .................. . ............ 14
CHAPTER TWO .................................................. 15
REVIEW OF LITERATURE ...................................... 15
Transition... ........................................... 15
Coping .................................................. 18
Counseling .............................................. 22
Mentors ................................................. 24
Offer Self-Image Questionnaire .......................... 26
Profile of Mood States .................................. 30
CHAPTER THREE ................................................ 32
METHOD .................................................... 32
Subjects ................................................ 32
Design .................................................. 32
Athlete-Mentor Program ..................... . ............ 33
Questionnaires .......................................... 33
Procedures .............................................. 34
Treatment of Data ....................................... 37
CHAPTER FOUR ................................................. 38
RESULTS ................ . .................................. 38
Age of Participants ..................................... 38
Mastery of the External World and Superior Adjustment... 39
Profile of Mood States .................................. 42
Corollary Questions ..................................... 43
Activity Logs ........................................... 46
Summary ................................................. 49

iv

CHAPTER FIVE .................................................
DISCUSSION ................................................
Methodological Explanations .............................
Conceptual Explanations .................................
Recommendations .........................................
REFERENCES ...................................................
APPENDICES
Appendix A: Offer Self—Image Questionnaire ...............
Appendix B: Profile of Mood States .......................
Appendix C: Background Questionnaire .....................
Appendix D: Social Interaction Form ......................
Appendix E: Activity Matrix for Freshmen
Student-Athletes .............................
Appendix F: Coaches Summer Letter for Experimental
Group ........................................
Appendix G: Coaches Summer Letter for Control
Group ........................................
Appendix H: Athlete—Mentor Matches .......................
Appendix I: Introduction and Administration of
Study to Subjects ............................
Appendix J: Human Subjects Consent Form ..................
Appendix K: Education of Mentors and
Experimental Freshmen ........................
Appendix L: Code Sheet and Raw Data ......................

Page
51

51
53
55
56

59
65
68
7O
72
74
76

78
8O

82
85

87
90

Table

LIST OF TABLES

Page
Means and Standard Deviations on Pretest Scores
for Mastery of the External World and Superior
Adjustment............. .............................. 40
Summary Table for MANOVA for Mastery of the
External World and Superior Adjustment...... ......... 41

Means and Standard Deviations on the Pretest and
Post-test Scores for Mastery of the External World... 41

Means and Standard Deviations on the Pretest and
Post—test Scores for Superior Adjustment. ............ 42

Means and Standard Deviations on Pretest and Post-Test
Scores for Profile of Mood States...... .............. 43

Means and Standard Deviations of Gender for Pretest
and Post—Test Scores of Mastery of the External
World ..... . ........................... ...... .......... 44

Means and Standard Deviations of Gender for Pretest
and Post—Test Scores of Superior Adjustment.. ........ 45

Means and Standard Deviations by Class for Mastery
of the External World, Superior Adjustment, and
Profile of Mood States................ ........... .... 46

Activities Freshmen and Mentors Participated in
and Percentages of Those Who Participated ............ 48

vi

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

The first day on a college campus is an exciting time for all
students who are entering college for the first time. Finding out
where the buildings are located and who your roommate is are only
a small part of getting acquainted with college life. One of the
foremost questions facing all entering students is whether they will
be successful academically at the college level. While all students
experience concerns about the transition from high school to college,
additional concerns may be felt by the student—athlete who has come
to compete in an intercollegiate sport. Competition at the collegiate
level represents a new phase in an athlete's life.

What additional problems do freshmen athletes experience during
their first year in college? Hester (1988) interviewed several
freshmen athletes regarding their experiences as student—athletes
at a major midwestern university. One freshman student—athlete from
a small town explained her experience as the feeling of being "back

I

on the bottom of the totem pole.' Athletically, she was the best
in her hometown and everyone looked up to her, but once at the big
midwestern university, she was no longer considered the best. It
was a new beginning all the way around. The result of this transition

was poor performance on the court and not being prepared in the

classroom. As a second year student, she made adjustments from her

first year experience to become more successful in the classroom
and on the court. These adjustments were made by her without the
help of an older peer. This example represents one view of the
transition process experienced by student—athletes.

A second student-athlete did not find the geographical change
a problem. The biggest problem for her was adjusting in the
classroom. Because of the difficulty in the classroom, she did not
perform well athletically. The way she handled the stress in the
classroom was to talk to one of her coaches (Hester, 1988).

The last student—athlete did not experience any trouble in
adjustment to a new geographical location or adjustment to college
academically. Her major adjustment came in athletics especially
when she was not playing. As she explained there was no communication
between her and the head coach which resulted in her not knowing
what was expected from her. This experience resulted in poor
performances occasionally (Hester, 1988).

All three student—athletes experienced transition problems but
reacted to the problems in three different ways. What if all three
of these student—athletes had someone to consult who had already
been through the transition? Would their performance on the court
and in the classroom have been improved? Could the transition have
been made easier?

Transition is a change or passing from one condition to another
(Barnhart & Thorndike, 1941). Transition in life is an ongoing
process for each of us. One of the major transitions some people

make is from high school to college. Likewise, during this time

adolescents are making the adjustment toward becoming adults.

The research that addresses the issue of transition from high
school to college has dealt with the regular student. A regular
student is someone who enters college and carries twelve or more
credits per term (MSU, 1988). The student may or may not participate
in extracurricular activities. The issue of whether a student's
involvement in extracurricular activities, including athletics,
affects the transition from high school to college has not been
investigated.

Transitions involve periods of change, loss, or disruption of
a prior structure or order in an individual's life (Compas, Wagner,
Slavin, & Vannatta, 1986). Transition is something every human being
experiences regardless of age. For example, we experience the
transitions of going to elementary school for the first time,
graduating from high school, and going into the work force or going
to college. The transition period of interest in this study is
leaving high school and going to college.

The transition from high school to college is a time of "growing
up." This is the time adolescents become adults. This is the time
college—bound high school seniors must step out on their own into
an unknown and different environment and face adult decision—making
responsibilities (Gibbs, 1988). Not only are they faced with adult
decisions, they are leaving family and friends and managing (or
mis-managing) their own finances. Students may experience
homesickness as a part of the transition and adjustment to college

life. The time has arrived for them to decide what they want to

 

do with their life. The freshman year at college is often a student's
first taste of sustained independence. Equally important, it is
a time of challenge for the parent (Kutner, 1988).

During the transitional period from high school to college,
parents must relinquish control of certain responsibilities to their
17 or 18 year old daughter or son. Parents are no longer available
to take care of their child's every need.. Parents experience changes
in their relationship with their child which can lead to‘some
struggles that, if not appropriately understood, can lead to possible
psychological or other problems. Likewise, transition and change,
as a part of life, are likely to result in stress for the student
which sometimes causes psychological and physical disturbances (Fisher
& Hood, 1988). The transition is suppose to be positive, but
sometimes a negative response or outcome is realized by the student,
such as homesickness and absent—mindedness.

Fisher and Hood (1987, 1988) conducted two studies looking at
transition. Both studies dealt with psychological disturbances,
absent—mindedness and vulnerability to homesickness. Homesickness
has been defined as a complex cognitive—motivational-emotional state
concerned with grieving for, yearning for, and being preoccupied
with, thoughts of home (Fisher & Hood, 1988). Vulnerability to
homesickness is critical and the most common time of vulnerability
for students is soon after college entrance (Compas, et a1. 1986),
thus making entering college an adjustment period.

Transition is experienced by all students, including

student-athletes. In fact, athletes going through this transition

 

may experience a different adjustment than the regular student.
Student—athletes must learn to adapt athletically to a new environment
and a new level of challenge as well as to the other changes facing
the regular student population, i.e., expanded social, emotional,
and academic experiences. College presents the first taste of life
as an adult, 3 period for facing a higher level of decision-making
situations, while still in a structured environment. The areas
mentioned above can be characterized as areas of adjustment.
These areas are pertinent to an adolescent's development into
adulthood, a part of which takes place in college. The
student-athlete goes to college for at least two reasons: to get
an education and to play sports. Like the regular student, the
student—athlete is obligated to his/her education. However, the
student athlete does have a second obligation and that is to play
sports for his/her institution. This is an obligation for
student—athletes because they have signed a contract that says they
will participate in intercollegiate athletics upon their arrival
at the university in return for payment of their tuition and fees.
Now the student has added an extra area of adjustment to the list.
How will the student athlete handle this? Researchers suggest how
this adjustment may be facilitated and how specific needs can be
met through counseling (Wittmer, Phillips, Waters, & Bostic, 1981;
Lanning, I982).

The adjustment the college student—athlete has to make is in
athletics and in how the academic system works at the university

level. This adjustment must be facilitated (Wittmer et al., 1981)

and the athlete must be counseled in a manner that is specific for

the athlete (Lanning, 1982). This type of counseling helps the athlete
make adjustments which are necessary for coping with the new way

of life. Cooker & Caffey (1984) showed in their study that some form
of counseling as well as instructional reading skills for the athlete
is beneficial.

The University of Florida has established a complete course
focusing on self—concept, vocational and academic awareness,
leadership, racial relations, interpersonal communication skills,
and how to meet with the media. In addition, a counseling program
has been established in the athletic dormitory (Wittmer et al., 1981).
A total of 62 studenthathletes successfully completed the two hour
nongraded course (Spring quarter, 1979) at the University of Florida.
The class was considered a success and is now offered twice a year
(Summer and Fall) for three quarter hours of credit and graded on
a pass-fail system. Wittmer et a1. (1981) and the University of
Florida do not feel that they have answered all of the
student-athletes' questions but feel positive progress has been made.
These studies have demonstrated the different needs of the college
athlete and have suggested ways to address these needs.

While these programs may be beneficial in helping the
student-athlete in coping with interpersonal relationship problems
and career choice problems, they do not appear to meet the special
need athletes have of self—image development. Offer, Ostrov, and
Howard (1982b) developed the Offer Self-Image Questionnaire (OSIQ)

to "tap significant areas in the adjustment and the psychology of

the teen-ager." The Offer Self—Image Questionnaire (Offer et al.,
1982b) is made up of five separate aspects of the self-system. These
five scales are (a) the psychological self, (b) the social self,
(c) the family self, (d) the sexual self, and (e) the c0ping self.
Of these five, the coping self is of importance to the transition
of the student-athlete. The coping self looks at the strengths that
an individual possesses to cope with his/her world. "The scales,
constituting this aspect of the self, measure the psychiatric symptoms
the adolescent states he/she has, if any; they also allow the
adolescent to describe how he/she copes with his/her world" (Offer,
1982b, p.4). There are three scales within the coping self aspect:
(1) mastery of the external world, (2) psychopathology, and (3)
superior adjustment. This study will focus on mastery of the external
world which measures how well an adolescent adapts to the immediate
environment and superior adjustment which measures how well the
adolescent copes with him/herself, significant others and his/her
world.

In their study Offer, Ostrov, and Howard (1981) reported that
"As far as we know, almost every researcher who has studied a
representative sample of normal teen-agers has come to the conclusion
that they are characterized by good coping and a smooth transition
into adulthood"(p.91). The OSIQ was psychometrically tested using
adolescents from urban and suburban white lower—middle, middle—middle,
and upper~middle social class. There are a few recent studies that
have included rural, ghetto, and lower class teen—agers (Offer et

al., 1982a). The ages of these subjects ranged from 13—19 years,

with 13-15 year old subjects being the younger group and 16—19 year
old subjects being the older group. Research involving the OSIQ

has shown that typical middle class youths in our society are happy
with themselves and are making the necessary transitional adjustments
(cf. Covey; 1984, Offer et al., 1981). This population excluded
adolescents who had decided to include athletics as a part of their
life. The student-athlete's background is not predictable and does
not always fall into the "typical middle-class" category, thus adding
a new dimension to the test.

Although the OSIQ (Offer et al., 1981) has reported positive
findings for adolescents making the transition into adulthood, it
remains to be seen if student—athletes are making that same positive
transition. Another way to measure whether or not the student—athlete
is making the positive transition reported by Offer is using the
Profile of Mood States (POMS) short form. The Profile of Mood States
short form was developed by Shacham (1983) from the long form
developed by McNair, Lorr, & Doppleman (1971).

The Profile of Mood States was developed "to assess transient,
distinct mood states” (Shacham, 1983, p. 305). The six factors that
are measured are: tension—anxiety, depression—dejection,
anger—hostility, fatigue—inertia, vigor—activity, and
confusion—bewilderment. Shacham (1983) administered the short form
of the POMS to 83 cancer patients to test the reliability of the
short form. The results showed that the short form had a correlation
of .95 with the original POMS. These results show that the short

form can be used without losing any information or internal

consistancy when there are time limits which preclude use of the
long form.

Measuring how a student-athlete handles the transition from
high school to college is important. What if the transition was not
made smoothly and the student-athlete did not adjust? How can the
transition be facilitated? One possible solution could be the
introduction of an older student—athlete to help the freshman
student—athlete make the transition. Having an intervention program
can possibly help in the transition.

Rosenfeld, Richman, & Hardy (1989) conducted a study to find
out who was contributing to the athlete's social support system and
how much. Social support was provided by coaches, teammates, friends,
and parents, and each made a unique contribution to the athletes'
support system.

There are four areas of support given to the athlete that do
not require the person to be an expert. These areas are (a)
listening— listening without giving advice or making judgments; (b)
emotional support- support the individual during an emotionally
difficult time without taking their side; (c) emotional challenge—
someone who challenges the individual to do their best to overcome
obstacles and attain goals; and (d) shared social reality— people
with similar priorities, values and perspectives. There are two
types of support that require the person to be an expert in sports
or a particular sport: (a) technical appreciation— acknowledgment
of a good performance and (b) technical challenge— stretch, challenge,

and encourage the athlete to achieve more.

10

Rosenfeld et a1. (1989) found in their study that the major
(primary) social supporters in an athlete's life are coaches, friends,
parents, teammates, and others (e.g., a relative other than parent).
The teammates provided the technical support secondarily. The coaches
primary support was technical challenge and technical appreciation
secondarily. The athlete's friends provided listening and shared
social reality as primary support and emotional support secondarily.
The parents provided technical appreciation support and emotional
support primarily and listening support secondarily. Rosenfeld et
a1. (1989) found that the social support system is important.
Rosenfeld stated that, "The evidence is strong that there is a
relationship between social support and the overall well—being of
the recipient." (p.32)

This type of research helps and somewhat clarifies whether or
not an intervention program for freshmen student—athletes would help
the student-athlete make the transition from high school to college.
The teammate can be more involved with the transition of the freshman
student—athlete by becoming their friend. The teammate is already
a part of the social support system for the student—athlete.
Therefore, using an intervention program to further involve the
teammate in the freshman student—athlete's transition may help them

make the necessary adjustments.

STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM
Introduction of an older peer as a possible mentor may help

the freshman student—athlete in his/her adjustment to college life.

 

11

By introducing this older peer the student may be able to adapt to
the immediate environment (also known as mastery of the external
world) or cope with her/himself, significant others, and his/her
world (also known as superior adjustment) (cf. Covey, 1984). Thus,
the purpose of this study is to determine if a group of
student—athletes making a transition from high school to college
with a mentor will adjust better than athletes who make the transition
without a mentor.

HYPOTHESIS
The following hypotheses were investigated in this study.
1. There will be no difference between the athlete—mentor group
and the group that does not receive a mentor on the pre—test scores
on the scales of mastery of the external world and superior
adjustment from the OSIQ.
2. The student—athletes participating in the athlete—mentor program
will show greater change from the pretest to the post—test on the
scales of mastery of the external world and superior adjustment from
the OSIQ than those student—athletes not participating in the
athlete—mentor program.
3. There will be no difference between the athlete—mentor group
and the group that does not receive a mentor on the pre—test of the
Profile of Mood States.
4. The student—athletes participating in the athlete-mentor program
will show greater change from the pretest to the post—test of the
POMS than those student—athletes not participating in the

athlete-mentor program.

 

12

Corollary Questions

1. Although gender differences are not anticipated, the question

often arises. Therefore the question of gender differences will

be investigated. A preliminary investigation of male and female

student-athlete's responses to the superior adjustment and mastery

of the external world scales will be performed. No significant
differences are expected.

2. An interesting issue is how divergent entering freshmen are in

their responses to transition. The scores of entering freshmen will

be compared to the scores of the returning members of the team.

Group differences are expected on the pretest with the freshmen

scoring lower than the returning players on both subscales. It is

uncertain how responses of the groups will differ on the post—test.

DEFINITIONS
Definitions of the following variables will aid in understanding

the design of this study.

1. Mentor: A trusted counselor or guide that will educate and guide
(woolf, 1973). For this study a mentor will be operationally
defined as an upperclass student athlete who will befriend and
guide a freshman student-athlete.

2. Normal Student: Minimum academic progress scale defined as 12
or more credits attempted per term (MSU, 1988).

3. Student—Athlete: "An amateur student—athlete is one who engages
in a particular sport for the educational, physical, mental,
and social benefits derived there from and for whom participation

in that sport is an avocation" (Tow, 1989).

13

4. Transition: A change or passing from one condition to another.
DELIMITATIONS AND ASSUMPTIONS

Generalizations of the results can only be made to incoming
male and female intercollegiate freshman-level athletes participating
in men's and women's basketball, men's and women's swimming, men's
and women's gymnastics, wrestling, and men's indoor track between
the ages of 17-19 years of age at a midwestern university. The
results cannot be generalized to freshmen student-athletes that
participate in sports that start practice before the first day of
classes. Those freshmen student—athletes have an opportunity to
adjust to their new athletic environment without the extra added
pressures of academics. They also have an opportunity to get
acquainted with their new teammates without a large number of people
being present. The athletes in this study were assessed by the use
of the OSIQ and Profile of Mood States (POMS). For purposes of this
study, it was assumed that the Offer Self-Image Questionnaire, Profile
of Mood States, and the background questionnaire are valid and
reliable measures of successful transition for student—athletes from
high school to college.
LIMITATIONS

One limitation of this study was the lack of control of how
much the control group will interact with others. There was also
a lack of control by the experimenter over the athlete-mentor

interactions.

14

IMPLICATIONS OF THE STUDY

The research that has examined transition from high school to
university has covered the normal student. It has been shown that
students going through this transition experience different
psychological disturbances. Previous research has not examined the
transition experienced by the student—athlete. This research has
addressed the student—athlete's transition from a counseling
perspective. In general, the counseling takes place after the student
arrives on campus and is done by a professional. There is very little
research, if any, that has examined the effect of a peer mentoring
program on the student—athlete's transition from high school to
university life. Research of this nature is needed because it will
help identify how well freshmen student—athletes are adjusting to
their new environment and how well peer mentoring facilitates this

adjustment.

CHAPTER TWO

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

Transition

 

Transitions involve periods of change, loss, or disruption of
a prior structure or order in an individual's life (Compas, et a1.
1986). Transition is something every human being experiences
regardless of age. For example, we experience the transition of
going to elementary school for the first time, graduating from high
school and going into the work force or going on to college. The
focus of most research in this area is on leaving high school and
going on to college. There is very little, if any, literature that
addresses the transition of the student-athlete leaving high school
and going on to college. The extent to which the transition to
college from high school is accomplished with a minimum of
complications by the student-athlete is unknown. There is, however,
research that addresses the problem of transition for the regular
student. A regular student is someone who enters college and carries
twelve or more credits per term (MSU, 1988). The student may or
may not participate in extra—curricular activities. The issue of
whether a student's involvement in extra-curricular activities,
including athletics, facilitates the transition from high school
to college has not been investigated.

Entering college means it is time for students to decide what

15

16

they want to do with their life and how they are going to live their
life. The freshman year at college is often a student's first taste
of sustained independence. Equally important, the transition is

a time of challenge for the parent (Kutner, 1988).- During the
transitional period from high school to college, parents must
relinquish control of certain responsibilities to their 17 or 18
year old son or daughter. Parents are no longer available to take
care of their child's every need. Parents experience changes in
their relationship with their child which can lead to some struggles
which, if not appropriately understood, can lead to possible
psychological or other problems for the child.

The time of transition from high school to college is a time
of "growing up." Adolescents become adults. College bound high
school seniors must step out on their own into an unknown and
different environment and face adult decision-making responsibilities
(Gibbs, 1988). Not only are these seniors faced with adult decisions,
they are leaving family and friends and managing (or mis-managing)
their own finances. Transition and change are a part of life and
are likely to result in stress which sometimes causes psychological
and physical disturbances (Fisher & Hood, 1987, 1988; Fisher, Murray,
& Frazer, 1985; Compas et al., 1986).

Homesickness and absent-mindedness are two possible psychological
problems for the first year college student. Homesickness has been
defined as a complex cognitive—motivational—emotional state concerned
with grieving for, yearning for and being preoccupied with thoughts

of home (Fisher & Hood, 1987,1988). Vulnerability to homesickness

 

 

17

is critical and the time of greatest vulnerability is soon after
entrance into college (Compas et al., 1986). What constitutes "soon
after"? Fisher et al., (1985, 1988) assessed students during the
sixth week to see if they were experiencing any psychological and/or
physical problems. The results showed that students did exhibit
homesickness as well as other psychological disturbances. The
problems that students had, such as homesickness and
absent-mindedness, could have had an effect on their coping skills
and how they dealt with the transition.

The problem of homesickness can possibly be alleviated partially
through a peer mentor program. The mentor can partially fill the
void the student is feeling once they have arrived on campus. The
problem of absent-mindedness is a problem that does not really pertain
to this study and will not be measured.

One method of coping with such problems as homesickness is
increased mobility. When the student has already experienced time
away from home through travel, the transition from high school to
college may be easier. Mobility can be a factor in how the student
reacts to the transition from high school to college (Fisher & Hood,
1988; cf. Fisher et al., 1988). Stokols, Schumaker & Martinez (cf.
Fisher et al.,1988) conducted research that studied mobility and
its effects. Stokols et al. (1983) found that those subjects who
reported greater mobility experienced difficulty in making adjustments
and poor physical health. However, this finding was not supported
by Fisher et al. (1988) who found that the higher the self—reported

mobility the less homesick the student. In addition, Fisher et al.

 

18

(1988) found that homesick subjects reported higher perceived stress
in association with all residential moves, were less likely to have
left home to live at school, and were less likely to have left for
the holidays without their parents. The non—homesick group on the
other hand reported a higher total number of moves away from home
and parents. Time spent away from parents was greater for the
non—homesick subjects. The findings in this study suggest that
mobility could possibly be a factor in transition by forcing students
to cope with being away from family for short periods of time. There
are some student-athletes who have the mobility history that would
enable them to handle the transition effectively. Student—athletes
may experience mobility by going away to sport camps for one or two
weeks at a time. Mobility may be an indirect method for learning
how to cope with leaving home but it is not the primary focus of
this study. Greater mobility may or may not affect how a
student—athlete makes the transition from being a "star" on a high
school team to being a member of a college team.
Coping

The way people handle transition is just as important as the
transition itself. Cantor, Norem, Niedenthal, Langston and Brower
(1987) looked at transition as a set of current life tasks on which
the individual is working. Cantor et al. (1987) selected students
in the honors college at the University of Michigan as their subjects.
These students were chosen because their basic background factors
were likely to be relatively homogeneous influences on adjustment

and college performance (Cantor et al., 1987). The main purpose

19

was to see how the student handled life—task cognitive strategies.
The two strategies that were chosen were achievement strategies of
defensive-pessimism and optimism.

The defensive—pessimism strategy proposes that individuals set
defensively low expectations, in spite of good past experiences.
Conversely, optimistic individuals set high expectations based on
their successful past experience. The defensive—pessimist did well
because of the low expectation set, therefore, they were able to
deal with their anxiety and capable of moving on to the next task.
The optimists also did well and felt comfortable with themselves
and the task at hand. Both strategies enabled students to handle
the transition which was vital to their success. These may be two
ways that the regular college freshman tries to handle the transition.
Do these same strategies impact the student—athlete's transition
similarly?

The student—athlete could possibly use the same strategies but
apply them to either their athletics or their academic courses.

For example, a freshman student—athlete playing basketball could
approach the situation from a defensive—pessimist perspective and
set the goal of not being a part of the first eight players to play
in a game, although they were a starter all through high school and
an All-State player. Therefore, if they did not make the top eight,
they would be able to handle the stress and work towards the next
task, which may include being a part of the top nine players on the
team. The freshman student—athlete who is an optimist would set

a goal of starting because he/she was a starter all through high

20

school and an All—State player. At this time, support for the
approaches is not found in the literature but may be inferred
anecdotely.

Hester (1988) interviewed several freshmen athletes at a major
midwestern university about their transition from high school to
college. These athletes did not use the same type of coping
strategies that the students did in Cantor's (1987) study . One
athlete had the same type of attitude as a defensive—pessimist but
did not set any type of goals for herself. The second athlete also
did not set any goals for herself once she had entered college.
These student—athletes did not have any type of coping strategy to
handle the transition.

Hester (1988) did interview one freshman student—athlete from
a small town who explained her experience as the feeling of being
back on the bottom of the totem pole. Athletically, at home, she
was the best and everyone looked up to her, but once at the big
midwestern university she was no longer considered the best. It
was a new beginning all the way around. The result of this transition
was poor performance on the floor and not being prepared in the
classroom. As a second year student she has made adjustments from
her first year experience to become more successful in the classroom
and on the playing floor. These adjustments were made by her without
the help of an older peer. This example represents one view of the
transition adjustments experienced by student—athletes.

A second student—athlete did not find the geographical change

a problem. The biggest problem for her was adjusting in the

 

21

classroom. Because of the difficulty in the classroom, she did not
perform well athletically. The way she handled the stress in the
classroom was by talking to one of her coaches (Hester, 1988).

Both of these athletes experienced transition problems but
reacted to the problem in two different ways. What if both of these
student—athletes had had someone with whom to consult that had already
been through the transition? Would their performance on the floor
and in the classroom have been improved? Could the transition have
been made easier?

Transition is experienced by all students, including student—
athletes. In fact, athletes going through this transition may
experience a different adjustment than the regular student.
Student—athletes must learn to adapt athletically to a new environment
as well as to the other changes facing the regular student population,
i.e., expanded social, emotional, and academic experiences. College
presents the first taste of life as an adult. College is a time
for facing a higher level of decision—making situations, while still
in a structured environment. The areas mentioned above can be
characterized as areas of adjustment.

The expanded social area that students experience is an area
where they have to learn how to live with a wide variety of people
from different backgrounds than themselves. They also are
establishing a new group of friends with which to associate.
Emotionally the student deals with separation from home, family and
friends. The academic adjustments that are experienced by the student

can vary depending on the individual student. The amount of work

22

required such as reading assignments and projects are different from
high school to high school. The other academic adjustment is that
the students are responsible for getting themselves to class on time.
These areas are pertinent to an adolescent's development into
adulthood, a part of which takes place in college. The
student—athlete goes to college for at least two reasons: to get
an education and to play sports. Like regular students,
student—athletes are obligated to their education. However,
student—athletes do have a second obligation and that is to play
sports for their institution. This obligation for most
student-athletes results from their having signed a contract that
says they will participate in intercollegiate athletics upon their
arrival at the university in return for payment of their tuition
and fees. Some student—athletes could have successfully auditioned
to be on a team, thus committing to participate like the other
athletes who signed the contract. In this same way students choose
to add an extra area of adjustment to the list. How well does the
student-athlete handle this extra adjustment? Researchers suggest
how it may be facilitated and how specific needs can be met through
counseling (Wittmer et al., 1981; Lanning, 1982).

Counseling

 

The literature that concentrates on the transition from.high
school to college neglects the fact that student—athletes are a part
of the same transition. There was a lack of research addressing
the transition for student-athletes. Wittmer et al., (1981) and

Lanning (1982) examined some possible solutions to helping the

 

 

23

student—athlete, i.e., counseling. The counseling takes place after
the students have arrived on campus and have started school and/or
practice, depending on the sport they are participating in.

The adjustment the college athlete has to make is in athletics
and in how the academic system works at the university level. This
adjustment must be facilitated (Wittmer et al., 1981) and the athlete
must be counseled in a manner that is specific for the athlete
(Lanning, 1982). In 1979, Bostic did research to see if there were
any differences amongst black and white athletes in their adjustment
to college. The results showed there were no differences; however,
the results did show that the athletes differed from the general
population of college students. The areas they specifically differed
in were adjusting to school work, social life, finances—living
conditions, and employment area, as well as the future vocational
and educational problem areas (cf. Wittmer et al., 1981). This type
of counseling helped the athlete make adjustments which were necessary
for coping with the new way of life.

Cooker and Caffey (1984) found that some form of counseling
as well as instructional reading skills for the athlete were
beneficial. The University of Florida has established a complete
course focusing on self-concept, vocational and academic awareness,
leadership, racial relations, interpersonal communication skills,
and how to meet the media. The purpose of the course was to
demonstrate the interrelationships of the listed topics and how they
effect the growth and development of each individual athlete. In

addition, a counseling program was established in the athletic

 

24

dormitory to increase the availability of the counselor to the athlete
(Wittmer et al., 1981). A total of 62 student-athletes successfully
completed the two hour nongraded course (Spring quarter, 1979).
The class was considered a success and is now offered twice a year
(Summer and Fall) for three quarter hours of credit and graded on
a pass—fail system. Wittmer et al. (1981) and the University of
Florida do not feel that they have answered all of the questions
but feel positive progress has been made. They felt that it was
too early to verify the success of the program (Wittmer et al., 1981).
Mentors

There is not a lot, if any, literature or research that focuses
directly on the concept of mentoring. There is, however, some
literature that deals with the social support networks among athletes.
Shumaker and Brownell (cf. Rosenfeld, Richman & Hardy, 1989) defined
social support as "an exchange between at least two individuals
perceived by the provider or the recipient to be intended to enhance
the well being of the recipient" (p. 23). Behaviors that fulfill
support functions include emotional support (e.g., affection),
appraisal support (e.g., performance feedback), giving information
(e.g., advice or role clarification), offering emotionally sustaining
behaviors (e.g., empathy), and listening to the feelings and concerns
of the other person (Rosenfeld et al., 1989). There are four areas
of support given to the athlete that do not require the person to
be an expert. These areas are (a) listening— listening without giving
advice or making judgments; (b) emotional support— support the

individual during an emotionally difficult time without taking his/her

25

side; (c) emotional challenge— someone who challenges the individual
to do his/her best to overcome obstacles and attain goals; and (d)
shared social reality-people with similar priorities, values and
perspectives. Two types of support that may require the person to
be an expert in sports or a particular sport include (a) technical
appreciation—acknowledgment of a good performance and (b) technical
challenge—challenge, stretch, and encourage the athlete to achieve
more.

These behaviors can be satisfied by a teammate, coach, friend,
or parent. Rosenfeld et al. (1989) found in their study that the
major (primary) social supporters in an athlete's life are coaches,
friends, parents, teammates, and others (e.g., a relative other than
parent). The teammates provided the technical support as the primary
support and listening and shared social reality support secondarily.
The coaches primary support was technical challenge and technical
appreciation secondarily. The athletes' friends provided listening
and shared social reality as primary support and emotional support
secondarily. The parents provided technical appreciation support
and emotional support primarily and listening support secondarily.
Others provided listening support primarily and emotional support
secondarily. Rosenfeld et al. found that the social support system
is important. Rosenfeld et al. stated that "The evidence is strong
that there is a relationship between social support and the overall
well-being of the recipient" (p.32).

This type of research helps clarify whether or not an

intervention program for freshman student—athletes would help the

26

student—athlete make the transition from high school to college.
The teammate can be more involved with the transition of the freshman
student-athlete by becoming her/his friend. The teammate is already
a part of the social support system for the student-athlete. Using
an intervention program to further involve the teammate in the
freshmen student—athletes transition can help them make the necessary
adjustments.
Offer Self-Image Questionnaire

While these programs (Wittmer et al., 1981; Lanning, 1982) may
be beneficial in helping the student—athlete in coping with
interpersonal relationship problems and career choice problems, they
do not appear to meet the special need athletes may have of adjusting
to their new environment. In their study Offer, Ostrov, and Howard
(1981) reported that "As far as we know, almost every researcher
who has studied a representative sample of normal teen—agers has
come to the conclusion that they are characterized by good coping
and a smooth transition into adulthood" (p.91). Adulthood can consist
of many different areas but Offer et al. have defined five areas.

The five aspects that Offer et al. (1981) are using to judge
whether or not normal adolescents are making a smooth transition
into adulthood are as follows: psychological self includes the scales
of impulse control, emotional tone, and body and self—image; social
self includes the scales of social relationships, morals, and
vocational educational goals; sexual attitude includes the scale
of sexual attitudes; familial self includes the scale of family

relationships; coping self includes the scales of mastery of the

 

 

27

external world, psychopathology, and superior adjustment. Of these
five aspects, the coping self is of importance to the transition

of the student—athlete. The coping self looks at the strengths that
an individual possesses. The scales constituting this aspect of

the self measure the psychiatric symptoms the adolescent states he/she
has, if any; it also allows the adolescent to describe how he/she
copes with his/her world (Offer et al., 1982b). This study will

focus on mastery of the external world which measures how well an
adolescent adapts to the immediate environment and superior adjustment
which measures how well the adolescent copes with him/herself, and
significant others. Superior adjustment and mastery of the external
world are of particular importance to this study. The scale of
psychopathology will not be used because it identifies overt or severe
psychopathy and there are no indications that there are sufficient
numbers of athletes that fall into this category.

Scales of measurement. Offer, Ostrov, and Howard (1981, 1982a,

 

1982b) developed the Offer Self—Image Questionnaire (OSIQ) to "tap
significant areas in the adjustment and the psychology of the
teen—ager." (Offer & Howard, 1972, p. 529). The OSIQ measures the
personality adjustment of children ages 13—19 years, with adjustment
being defined as "the effectiveness of the child's efforts to adjust
to his environment" (cf. Covey, 1984 p. 68). A large number of
adolescents have been used to see how children are adjusting to their
environment. The groups of adolescents that have been used in studies
are normal, delinquent, physically ill, older (16-19 years), younger

(13-15 years), females, males, urban, rural, suburban, and teen—agers

28

from the United States, Australia, Israel, and Ireland. These
adolescents came primarily from the middle class.

The population sample excluded the adolescent who has decided
to include athletics as part of their life. The student—athlete's
background is not predictable and does not always fall into the
"typical middle-class" category. This may present some problems
for this study as entering student—athletes come from diverse
backgrounds. The OSIQ has evaluated many adolescents from different
cultures as well as different types of environments. This type of
diversity in the instrument suggests that the OSIQ is appropiate
for assessing student-athletes' adjustments to college life.

The OSIQ contains 11 scales which are grouped into five separate
aspects of the self system. These 5 areas are (a) the psychological
self, (b) the social self, (c) the family self, (d) the sexual self,
and (e) the coping self (Offer et al., 1982b). The 11 areas of an
adolescents life that are believed to be important to the
psychological life of the adolescent are based on theory, clinical
experience, and a review of empirical findings (Offer et al., 1982b).
The 11 areas are impulse control, emotional tone, body and self image,
social relationships, morals, vocational-educational goals, sexual
self, family relationships, mastery of the external world,
psychopathology, and superior adjustment.

Reliability and validity. Offer et al. (1982b) used a

 

statistical method called alpha to support internal consistency.
When applied to OSIQ data it was shown that the scales were internally

consistent. In 1979 stability data were collected on a sample of

 

29

normal teen-agers from the suburbs in the Chicago area. There was
a six month time period between the first collection of data and
the second collection of data. The scale scores were almost as stable
as they were internally consistent. The range for the stability
coefficient was from .48 to .84 for the scales and .73 for the total
scores (Offer et al., 1982b). There have been other studies that
have reported comparable results (cf. Offer et al., 1982b). Offer
(1982b) conducted a longitudinal study in the 1960's that provided
evidence of the stability of the construct underlying these scores.
There were significant differences between males and females
on all scales except two, emotional tone and superior adjustment.
The older group, to which this study is aimed, showed no significant
difference in any of the scales. The scores for male versus female
subjects (13-19 years of age) were significantly different at the
.05 level for mastery of the external world and not significant for
superior adjustment. There was, however, no significant difference
between older males and older females (16—19 years) in the mastery
of the external world or in superior adjustment. There was a
significant difference at the .05 level between the older group (16-19
years) and younger group (13-15 years) in mastery of the external
world and no significant difference in superior adjustment.
Offer and Howard (1972) used analyses of variance and 5 tests
to evaluate how much each scale differed for various samples. The
reasoning used to show validity for the OSIQ was that there were
significant differences between the younger group and the older group

on all the scales except four: impulse control, body and self-image,

 

 

30

psychopathology, and superior adjustment. Based on age the older
group is expected to be healthier and better adjusted on the whole.

The alpha levels for the OSIQ for the two scales of interest
to this study were .65 and .66 for mastery of the external world
and superior adjustment, respectively, for normal older males. For
older normal females, the alphas were .71 and .67 for mastery of
the external world and superior adjustment respectively. These
numbers are acceptable but they are low. Although the OSIQ (Offer
et al., 1981) has reported positive findings for adolescents making
the transition into adulthood, it remains to be seen if
student—athletes are making that same transition.

Profile of Mood States

Profile of Mood States also known as POMS was developed by
McNair, Lorr, & Doppleman (1971) with 65 items. The purpose of POMS
was "to assess transient, distinct mood states" (Shacham, 1983, p.
305). There are six factors that are assessed on a five point scale.
These factors are tension-anxiety, depression-dejection,
anger-hostility, fatigue-inertia, vigor-activity, and
confusion-bewilderment.

Shacham (1983) developed a shortened form of the POMS with 37
items instead of 65. The short form was formulated by using the
Reliability program from Statistical Package for Social Sciences
(cf. Shacham, 1983). The shortened version was developed to shorten
the time needed to administer the POMS for patients that were under
stress, pain, or under a time restraint. Items were eliminated by

using two criteria: (a) "the contribution to internal consistency

(coefficient alpha) of the scale, and (b) the face validity of the
items in the scales" (p.305).

The long form of the POMS was compared to the short form of
the POMS by Shacham (1983). The POMS was given to 83 cancer patients.
The results showed that the factors from the short form of the POMS
had a high correlation to the factors from the long form of the POMS
(all above r=.95). This type of result shows that the POMS can be
shortened without it losing information or internal consistency.

The POMS can help tap into what the student-athlete is feeling and
facilitate the results from the OSIQ.

Measuring how a student-athlete handles the transition is of
importance. What if the transition was not made smoothly and the
student-athlete did not adjust? How can the transition be
facilitated? One possible solution could be the introduction of
an older student-athlete to help the freshman student—athlete make
the transition. Having a peer-mentoring intervention program could

possibly help in the transition.

CHAPTER THREE

METHOD

Subjects

The subjects were 28 freshmen student—athletes who volunteered
to participate in the study. One subject did not take the pre— and
post—test of the OSIQ, which is why there is a discrepancy in the
cells for the OSIQ and the POMS. The subjects represented eight
winter intercollegiate sport teams at a midwestern university. The
sports included men's and women's basketball, men's and women's
gymnastics, men's and women's swimming, wrestling, and men's indoor
track. The total sample was limited by the number of entering
freshmen athletes on each team. Only entering freshmen athletes
were chosen because they were experiencing the transition from high
school to college.

Design

The design for this study was a 2x2 (Group x Testing period)
factorial design. The athletic teams were randomly assigned to one
of two groups, i.e., the Athlete—Mentor program group or the control

group. Pre— and post—tests were administered to both groups.

32

 

 

33

 

 

Athlete-Mentor Control
Pretest 18 10
Post—test 18 10

 

 

 

 

Athlete—Mentor Program

 

The Athlete-Mentor program paired freshmen athletes with either
senior or junior athletes from the same team. The upperclassmen
(mentor) were instructed to spend one hour per week for 5 weeks with
their assigned freshman athlete. During this time the mentor did
such activities as shopping, studying, going to the movies and going
to parties with the freshman athlete.

Questionnaires

 

Two scales of the Offer Self—Image Questionnaire (See Appendix
A) were used, namely, mastery of the external world and superior
adjustment. The OSIQ was a 24 item questionnaire scored on a 6 point
Likert scale with one extreme score, "describes me very well"
receiving a score of l and the other extreme, "does not describe
me at all" receiving a score of 6. The total raw scores for each
scale were then converted to standardized scores using the norms
presented by Offer et al. (1982b). The POMS short form was used
also (See Appendix B). The POMS was a 37 item form scored on a 5
point Likert scale with the low extreme score, "not at all," receiving
a score of O and the other extreme , "extremely," receiving a score
of 4. Responses to the 37 items were summed to create a total score.

A background questionnaire (See Appendix C) was used to describe

 

34

the sample and to enrich the statistical treatment of the collected
data. A social interactions form was developed to monitor the number
of activities that the mentor actually engaged in with the athlete
(See Appendix D). The social interaction form was a methods
questionnaire adapted from a study that dealt with the coping
responses and adjustment among 32 college freshmen on academic
probation (Reischl & Hirsch, 1989). The freshmen student-athletes
were required to complete a social interaction form that had spaces
for all of the team member's names to be listed plus a list of
activities (See Appendix E).
Procedures

A presentation explaining the Athlete—Mentor program was given
to each head coach having team members targeted for inclusion in
the program. The head coaches were asked permission to involve their
respective teams in this particular study. The coaches were told that
if their team was chosen for the experimental group, a certain number
of their upperclassmen would be asked to serve as mentors and each
would be assigned to a freshman athlete.

Selection of Mentors. After the coaches approved of their team's

 

involvement, each team was randomly assigned to either the control
group or the experimental group. During the second week of August

a reminder letter was sent to each head coach (See Appendix F and
Appendix G). The mentors were selected from a list of seniors, fifth
year seniors, and juniors, if needed, which was provided by the head
coach on a form attached to the summer letter (See Appendix H).

Implementation of Program. The presentation of the consent

 

 

 

35

forms, the background questionnaires, the POMS, and the OSIQ were
given to each team during the first 2 weeks of the Fall term (See
Appendix I) at a time that had been prearranged with the head coach.
All subjects were asked to read and sign a Human Subjects Release

form to verify informed consent (See Appendix J). At that time,

the athletes were assured of anonymity through the use of their
uniform number and were asked to enter this number on each pretest.
They were assured that the numbers would be cut off the questionnaires
to assure that no athlete's response could be identified.

The control group was required to take the tests at the beginning
and at the end of the 5 weeks. They were not required to do anything
else. This distinguished them from the experimental group. Although
athletes from the control group were able to seek guidance from a
coach or other outside sources, it was not expected that they would
be establishing the same type of peer relationship that the
experimental group would establish.

The freshmen experimental group and the mentors were asked to
stay after the pretests had been given. The investigator and a
trained assistant instructed the freshmen in the experimental group
and the mentors in separate rooms (See Appendix K). The freshmen
in the experimental group were told that they would be paired with
aan upperclassmen for 5 weeks and that the upperclassmen would act
éas their guide and provide them with help getting acquainted with
t:heir new environment. They would help them buy books, find
Cilassrooms and buildings, and take them to social gatherings on

Céunpus. The freshmen student—athletes were encouraged to do these

36

outside activities with their mentors.

The mentors were told that because they had made a successful
adjustment to the large campus, they were being asked to help freshmen
athletes adjust to their new environment. The main idea was to
establish a relationship with the athletes and to make them feel
comfortable with their new environment. The upperclassmen were also
informed that they would be paired with a freshman on their own team
for 5 weeks. The mentors were paired with the freshmen according
to recommendations made by the head coach. The mentors were required
to spend at least one hour a week with the freshman athlete doing
some informal activity. The social interaction form was used to
generate activity ideas (See Appendix D). The mentor was asked to
fill out the social interaction form at the end of each week and to
record the amount of time spent with the athlete during the week.
They were also asked to make additional comments on the form if they
did an activity not included on the form. A total of five forms
were used as an activity log book. The log book was distributed
during the instructional meeting.

An activity matrix (See Appendix E) was taken around to each
freshman participant in the study during the third and fifth week.
The investigator asked the freshmen to indicate on the matrix what
activities were done the previous week and with whom.

At the end of the 5 week experimental period the OSIQ and the
POMS were again given to all of the subjects in the experimental
and control groups. The log book of each mentor was collected at the

end of the 5 weeks. Both groups were thanked for their cooperation

37

and then dismissed. There was a willingness expressed by the
investigator to the head coach to implement the program with the teams
that were in the control group, if there was a desire for the program.
TREATMENT OF DATA

To test the hypothesis that there would be no differences between
the experimental group (mentor group) and the control group (no
mentors) on the pretest scores of mastery of the external world and
superior adjustment, a multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA)
was performed. A 2x2 (groups x pre—post) MANOVA with repeated
measures was performed to test the hypothesis that the post-test
scores of the group receiving mentoring would score higher than the
group that did not receive mentoring on the mastery of the external
world and superior adjustment. A third hypothesis stated that there
would be no difference between the group that received mentoring
and the group that did not receive any mentoring on the pretest scores
of the Profile of Mood States. This hypothesis was tested by using
an one way analysis of variance (ANOVA). The hypothesis that the
group receiving mentoring would score higher on the post-test of
the Profile of Mood States than the group that did not receive
mentoring was tested by using a 2x2 (groups x pre—post) MANOVA with

repeated measures.

 

 

CHAPTER FOUR
RESULTS

One of the assumptions of this study was that the transition
from high school to college could be facilitated with some form of
intervention program, specifically, peer mentoring. The purpose
of this study was to determine if a peer mentoring program for
freshmen athletes would help them make a better transition from high
school to college as measured by changes in the POMS and Offer's
mastery of the external world and superior adjustment scales. The
results of this study have been organized in five sections. The
first section presents data from the ages of the participants of
the study. The second and third sections contain results for mastery
of the external world and superior adjustment subscales and the
POMS. The fourth and fifth sections present results from the
corollary questions and the activity log sheets respectively.

Ages of Participants

 

The total number of freshmen participating in the study was
28 ( M; 18.00 years of age, SD; .47). There was a total of 103
upperclassmen that completed the pretest in the study (M; 19.67 years
of age, SD; 1.35). A total of 18 mentors were selected from the
103 upperclassmen ( M; 20.44 years of age, SD; 1.20). Junior and
senior athletes were selected to serve as mentors because it was

assumed that these older athletes would be better adjusted to college

38

  
 

39

life.

Several £_tests were performed to determine if there were any
significant differences between the ages of the upperclassmen,
upperclassmen and freshmen, and mentors and freshmen in the
experimental group. The average age for those upperclassmen who
were not mentors was 19.50 years of age (SD; 1.32) and the average
age for those who were chosen to be mentors was 20.44 years of age
(SD; 1.20). The result of the £_test between the upperclassmen who
were mentors and those who were not mentors showed that there was
a significant difference between the two groups, 5(101) = 2.77, p
< .05. The 5 test performed to investigate the difference between
all upperclassmen and all freshmen revealed a significant age
difference between these two groups, 2(139) = -7.47, RS .05. The
final_£ test showed that there was a significant difference between
the mentors and the freshmen they were mentoring, 5(38) = 8.89,.p<.05.
The results of the £_test's supported the idea that the freshmen
athletes were significantly younger than both their mentors and all
upperclassmen. Interestingly, the mentors were also significantly
older than the other upperclassmen.

Mastery of the External World and Superior Adjustment

To assess the impact of the mentoring program on freshmen
athlete's mastery of the external world and superior adjustment,
it was necessary to determine that the mentored and non—mentored
groups entered college with similar self-image scores. The first
hypothesis stated that there would be no differences between the

experimental group (mentor group) and the control group (no mentors)

40

on the pretest scores from the OSIQ. A MANOVA was performed on the
pretest scores of the mastery of external world and superior
adjustment. The results supported the hypothesis that there was

no significant difference between the two groups, F(2,24) = 1.70,
p_>.05. However the means do show that the experimental group scored
higher than the control group. The lack of significance could be

due to the small sample size. The means and standard deviations

are presented in Table 1.

Table 1

Means and Standard Deviations on Pretest Scores for Mastery of the
External World and Superior Adjustment

 

 

Mastery of the Superior
external world adjustment
M SD M SD
Experimental 58.42 10.13 57.42 11.44
(n=17)
Control 54.40 8.21 51.20 7.13
(n=10)

 

To test the influence of the mentoring after a 5 week period,
a 2x2 (group x prepost) MANOVA with repeated measures on time was
used to test the hypothesis that the post—test scores of the group
receiving mentoring would score higher than the group that did not
receive mentoring on mastery of the external world and superior
adjustment. The results did not support the proposed hypothesis.
Results of the MANOVA are presented in Table 2, with means and

standard deviations presented in Tables 3 and 4.

41

TABLE 2

Summary Table for MANOVA for Mastery of the External World and
Superior Adjustment

 

 

F value d.f. _p value
Group 2.32 2,24 .120
Prepost 0.572 2,24 .572
Group X Prepost 0.014 2,24 .986

 

TABLE 3

Means and Standard Deviations on the Pretest and Post—test Scores
for Mastery of the External World.

 

 

Pretest Post-test Total Group
M SD M SD M SD
Experimental 58.41 10.12 58.88 8.67 58.65 9.40
(n=17)
Control 54.40 8.21 54.70 8.88 54.55 8.55
(n=10)
Total

(n=27) 56.93 9.50 57.33 8.82 56.60 8.98

 

42

TABLE 4

Means and Standard Deviations on the Pretest and Post-test Scores
for Superior Adjustment.

 

 

Pretest Post-test Total Group
M SD M SD M SD
Experimental 57.41 11.44 60.12 11.30 58.77 11.37
(n=17)
Control 51.20 7.13 53.20 7.51 52.20 7.32
(n=10)
Total 55.11 10.37 57.56 10.47 55.49 9.35
(n=27)

 

In summary, no differences were found between the freshmen
student—athletes that were mentored by upperclass student—athletes
and those freshmen student-athletes who did not receive the mentoring.
Thus, it was concluded that 5 weeks was not a sufficient amount of
time to effect the differences in adjustment to college life as
measured by mastery of the external world and superior adjustment
from the OSIQ.

Profile of Mood States

 

The POMS was the last measurement used to test effects of a
mentoring program on the student—athletes' transition to college
from high school. The hypothesis stated that there would be no
difference between the group that received mentoring and the group
that did not receive any mentoring on the pretest scores of the
POMS. An oneway ANOVA was performed to test this hypothesis and
the results showed that there was no significant difference between

the two groups, F(1,26)= .57, p >.05. Means and standard deviations

 

43

are presented in Table 5.
TABLE 5

Means and Standard Deviations on Pretest and Post—Test Scores for
the Profile of Mood States

 

 

Pretest Profile Post-Test Profile
of Mood States of Mood States
M SD M SD
Experimental 44.06 13.81 49.28 22.39
(n=18)
Control 40.10 12.10 46.20 20.07
(n=10)

 

The last hypothesis looked at the effectiveness of the mentoring
program on the post—test of the POMS. The purpose was to determine
if the group that received mentoring would show a greater increase
on the post—test of the POMS than those who did not receive the
mentoring. To test the hypothesis a 2x2 (group x prepost) MANOVA
with repeated measures was performed. The results from the MANOVA
with repeated measures showed that there was no significant difference
between the two groups, F(1,26)= O.46,_p >.05. The means and standard
deviations are presented in Table 5.

In summary, student-athletes who were mentored did not differ
significantly from the student—athletes who were not mentored in
their scores on the Profile of Mood States. Improvement was shown
by both groups from pre— to post-test assessments.

Corollarnguestions

 

In addition to testing the hypotheses presented above, several

corollary questions were investigated. These corollary questions

44

were not part of the hypotheses but were questions which, could help
facilitate interpretations of the main hypotheses. The first
corollary question investigated gender differences on the OSIQ, both
pre— and post-tests. The results from the MANOVA with repeated
measures on the pre- and post—test of both mastery of the external
world and superior adjustment showed that there was a trend toward
gender differences, E(2,24)= 3.25, p_<.06. No significant differences
were found for gender by prepost,_§(2,24)= .43,_p > .05,.or prepost,
.F(2,24)= .26, p_> .05. The means and standard deviations are
presented in Tables 6 and 7.

TABLE 6

Means and Standard Deviations of Genders for Pre— and Post—Test Scores
Mastery of the External World.

 

 

Pre Mastery of the Post mastery of Total

external world the external world Group

M SD M SD M SD
Male 53.79 9.63 53.86 8.97 53.83 9.30
(n=14)
Female 60.31 8.44 61.08 7.23 60.70 7.84
(n=l3)
Total 56.93 9.50 57.33 8.82 57.13 9.16

(n=27)

 

 

 

45

TABLE 7

Means and Standard Deviations of Genders for Pre— and Post—Test Scores
of Superior Adjustment.

 

 

Pre Superior Post superior Total

adjustment adjustment Group

M SD M SD M SD
Male 52.07 8.71 56.07 11.23 54.07 9.97
(n=14)
Female 58.38 11.32 59.15 9.78 58.77 10.55
(n=l3)
Total 55.11 10.37 57.56 10.47 56.42 10.26
(n=27)

 

In order to interpret the main effect trend for gender,
univariate F—tests were performed on mastery of the external world
and superior adjustment. The results revealed that females were
higher in their responses to mastery of the external world, F(1,25)=
6.47, pfi .05 than the males. Males and females did not differ in
their responses to superior adjustment.

An assumption of this study was that the freshmen would not
score as high as the upperclassmen on the pretest on mastery of the
external world, superior adjustment, and POMS. Conceptually, the
upperclassmen should be better adjusted to their environment and
thus score higher. The results from the MANOVA revealed that there
were no significant differences between the freshmen and the
upperclassmen on all three scales,_F(3,127)= O.194,_p> .05. The

means and standard deviations are shown in Table 8.

46

TABLE 8

Means and Standard Deviations by Class for Mastery of the External
World, Superior Adjustment, and Profile of Mood States.

 

 

Mastery of the Superior Profile of Mood
external world adjustment States
M SD M SD M SD
Freshmen 55.97 10.18 55.38 10.24 43.09 15.30
(n=34)
Upperclassmen 55.82 11.60 56.43 12.58 45.33 21.06
(n=97)

 

In summary, gender differences were not found on superior
adjustment but a trend was found for mastery of the external world.
This trend did not follow the same findings that Offer had reported
(Offer et al., 1981). Offer et al. (1981) found gender differences
on the psychopathology scale which was not used for this study.

The assumption that the upperclassmen would score higher on the POMS
than the freshmen was not supported. This finding implies that the
upperclass athletes may not be as well—adjusted to college life as
one would expect or that the freshmen of class athletes are better
adjusted than one would expect.

ActivityiLogs

 

The effectiveness or ineffectiveness of a peer mentoring program
could be understood more easily if the activities of the athletes
and their mentors were known. Thus, an activity log sheet was kept
by each mentor to monitor activity actually engaged in with each
freshman athlete. In addition, the freshmen athletes were asked

to complete an activity sheet showing their involvement with all

 

47

team members two times during the 5 week period. The activities
recorded by the mentors and the freshmen are contained in Table 9.
The three most popular activities in which the control group engaged
with teammates were doing academic work, going to parties, and
volunteer work. The four most popular activities reported by the
mentored group were going to parties, talking about ideas and personal
issues, talking about team issues and doing academic work. The
mentors' top three activities were talking about team issues, going
to parties, and going to movies and athletic events. The most common
activity engaged in by all three groups was going to parties. The
activity that was engaged in the least by all three groups was going
to church. In addition, the control group (non—mentored freshmen
athletes) reported that they had not talked about team issues with
their teammates during the first 5 weeks of school. The experimental
group had low percentages in the "other" category and the mentors

spent little time in volunteer work and attending nonsport meetings.

TABLE 9

48

Activities Freshmen and Mentors Participated in and Percentages of

Those Who Participated

 

 

Activity Mentors Experimental Control
n Z n Z n %

Doing academic work 6 50.0 15 68.2 9 75.0
Shopping 3 25.0 10 45.5 6 37.5
Going to parties 9 75.0 16 72.7 9 75.0
Going to movies, athletic events 8 66.7 9 40.9 6 50.0
Attending nonsport meetings 1 8.3 9 40.9 2 16.7
Talking about personal issues 5 41.7 16 72.7 6 50.0
Going to church 0 0.0 2 9.1 0 0.0
Talking on the phone 5 41.7 13 59.1 5 41.7
Talking about team issues 10 83.3 15 68.2 0 0.0
Volunteer work 1 8.3 5 22.7 9 75.0
Other 4 33.3 1 4.5 3 25.0

 

n= number of student—athletes that participated in each activity.

The activity log sheet, as stated before, was used to check

on the activities that were being participated in by the freshmen

and upperclassmen. It also served as a check on the mentors to find

out if they were actually doing the activities that they reported

having done with the freshmen student—athletes.

There were some

discrepancies in the reported activity by the mentors and the

freshmen. There were several reasons why these discrepancies exist.

First, the freshmen that received mentoring not only participated

in activities with their mentors but also with other team members.

 

 

 

 

49

Second, the mentors did not report all of the activities that they
did with the freshmen student—athletes. Third the freshmen
student—athletes not only reported activity with team members but
also with people outside of the team.

The percentages reported in Table 9 give a clearer picture as
to what kind of activity was participated in and how many people
actually did participate. The percentages should decrease across
the 3 groups for the activities, but they do not for reasons explained
above. The mentors were suppose to be the most active group but
yet they have the lowest percentages in 7 out of the 11 possible
activity categories. The second most active group if not equally
active with mentors should have been the experimental group. They
were not as low as the mentors in number of low percentages, they
only were the lowest in 2 out of the possible 11 activity categories.
The control group faired better than the mentors did in this
comparison also. They had the lowest percentages in only 3 out of
the possible 11 activity categories. It is important to remember
that the log sheet for the mentors indicates only activities done
with the person they were matched up with, whereas the freshmen logged
activities that they did with all their teammates.
Summary

The intervention program using upperclassmen student—athletes
to mentor freshmen student—athletes did not support the hypotheses
that freshmen receiving the mentoring would adjust to college life
better than those student—athletes who did not receive the mentoring.

There were no differences between the mentored group and the

50

non-mentored group on the pretest scores on mastery of the external
world, superior adjustment, and Profile of Mood States. There were
no differences between the mentored group and non—mentored group
after a 5 week intervention program on mastery of the external world,
superior adjustment, and Profile of Mood States. The corollary
questions resulted in a trend with the females scoring higher in
their responses on the mastery of the external world scale of the
Offer Self—Image Questionnaire than the males. Although two of the
primary hypotheses were not supported by statistical testing there
were other findings in the study that opens the door for further

investigation.

 

CHAPTER FIVE

DISCUSSION

Transition from high school to college is an experience that
all college students go through with varying degrees of success.

The student—athlete is a part of the student population going through
the transition from high school to college. Student—athletes are

not only adjusting to regular college life but they are also adjusting
to a new athletic experience at the collegiate level.

The purpose of the athlete—mentor program was to help the
freshmen student—athletes in their transition from high school to
college. The upperclassmen student—athletes served as mentors who
had already experienced this transition and hopefully made the
transition successfully. It was indicated in the results that the
upperclassmen were significantly older than the freshmen. It was
further displayed that the mentors were significantly older than
the freshmen student—athletes that they were to mentor. This age
difference leads to the belief that the mentors were more mature
than the freshmen and thus better adjusted to their environment.
The mentoring program that was implemented did not show any
significant changes in adjustment for freshmen athletes but there
were some trends that were recorded.

The results of this study did not support the hypotheses that

peer mentoring would result in an easier adjustment to college life.

51

52

The first hypothesis stated that the freshmen receiving mentoring
would score significantly higher on mastery of the external world
and superior adjustment from the OSIQ than those freshmen that did
not receive mentoring after a 5 week period. The second hypothesis
stated that the mentored freshmen would show a significant increase
in their scores on the POMS than those freshmen that were not
mentored.

The scores reported by both the freshmen and the upperclass
athletes on the OSIQ were above the norm for adolescents considered
to be adjusted to adulthood. The score that Offer (1982b) reported
as an indication of being average in adjustment is 50_: 1 standard
deviation. The freshmen in both the experimental group and the
control group scored above 50 on the pretest and the post—test on
mastery of the external world and superior adjustment. The average
scores ranged from 54.40 to 58.88 on mastery of the external world
and 51.20 to 60.12 on superior adjustment. Thus, most of the athletes
in this study were better adjusted to adulthood than most entering
freshmen. One explanation for the better adjustment of these student—
athletes may be the increased opportunity to travel and be away from
home as a member of a sport team.

Fisher et al. (1988) found that mobility helped in the students
transition after leaving home. Some student—athletes have a mobility
history that would enable them to handle the transition effectively.
Sport provides opportunities to travel, particularly for the highly
skilled athlete. For example, student-athletes may experience

mobility by going away to sport camps for one or two weeks at a time.

53

Some athletes may attend several camps during a summer. Approximately
92 percent of the athletes in this study said that they had traveled
"some" to "a lot." Thus, these freshmen student-athletes had
experienced mobility before entering college. This mobility may
depend on the gender of the individual.
Although gender differences were not expected, it was found
that females scored higher than males on mastery of the external
world. This result cannot be completely explained but some possible
explanations that could be investigated in future studies are offered.
One possibility is that the females were more mobile than their male
counter parts before entering college. Another possible explanation
is the amount of activity and the kind of activity that was engaged
in by the males and by the females during the intervention program.
Closer attention should be paid to the type of activities provided
by the resident halls as well as team-related activities for male
and female athletes at the start of school. Gender differences are
important and need to be investigated further in future research.
There are different reasons why the mentoring program was not
as effective as had been predicted. These explanations will be dealt
with in two ways, methodological and conceptual.

Methodological Explanations

 

The implementation of this program began with the mentor. Their
education of what being a mentor was and did was of importance.
There were four teams that had mentors. The amount of time that
was taken to instruct the mentors was 10 minutes. This 10 minute

session was conducted at the beginning of practice for three out

54

of the four teams. Because the instruction occurred before practice,
the preoccupation with practice by the mentors could have resulted
in the mentors not fully understanding what to do with the freshmen.
The program may have been more successful if a greater emphasis had
been placed on the education of the mentor and the importance of
their role. For example, role playing how to call an acquaintance
and possible dyadic interaction patterns could be beneficial additions
to the success of the mentoring program. Table 9 showed the amount
of activity that was engaged in by the mentors. The mentors should
have had the highest activity of all three groups, but they did not.
An extended length of education for the mentors would possibly help
the upperclassmen understand why it was important for them to spend
time with the freshmen.

One team experienced trouble in the instructional process.

There was not an extra room available in the building in which the
meeting took place; therefore the instruction meeting took place

out in a hall way where other people were moving about. This extra
added distraction resulted in a lowered attention to the instructor
by the athletes as well as a reduction in the time taken to instruct
the mentors. Thus, these mentors may have lacked sufficient
understanding of what their role was.

Another methodological reason for the apparent lack of success
of the mentoring program is the 5 week time period taken to implement
the study. Five weeks at the beginning seemed to be enough time
for the upperclassmen to set up times to meet with the freshmen but

it was not. The problem is that the amount of activity going on

55

at the beginning of the school year cuts down a student—athlete's
free time. This may seem like a problem but the possibility of this
type of high activity can help deter the student—athlete from
withdrawing and becoming homesick. The student-athlete is practicing,
getting settled into the resident halls, and getting acquainted with
the campus. This type of activity needed to be taken into account
when implementing the study. A longer time period would allow for
better interaction and perhaps quality time being spent with the
freshmen student—athletes.
Conceptual Explanations

The whole premise behind the athlete—mentor program was to help
the freshmen student-athletes adjust to their new environment. The
tools of measurement used were valid and reliable tools and were
thought to be capable of measuring the transition from high school
to college. However, the OSIQ used in this study is a trait measure
rather than a state measure (Offer et al., 1982b). Offer et al.
(1982) showed that after six months the scores of subjects did not
change significantly. This type of result showed the stability of
the instrument and how it was possibly the wrong test to use to assess
transitional changes which might occur within a shorter or longer
time frame. Offer et al. gives the impression that the OSIQ measures
transition whereas it actually does not. Offer et al. showed in
the 1979 study that the instrument was stable and did not change
over a six month period, yet they say that normal teen—agers are
characterized by good coping and smooth transition into adulthood.

Offer et al. misleads with the word transition in their description

56

of what the instrument is actually measuring.

The age of the mentors was a variable that was used to ensure
that the freshmen were working with someone that had made the
transition from high school to college. The significant age
difference was good but the maturity level was not measured;
therefore, it could not be guaranteed that the mentors were better
adjusted than the freshmen. Indeed, it was found that the
upperclassmen did not score significantly higher on mastery of the
external world, superior adjustment, and Profile of Mood States than
the freshmen. This finding suggested that the upperclassmen were
not as adjusted to college life as was thought by the researcher
or the freshmen were better adjusted than anticipated. This finding
was puzzling and suggests that all student—athletes could benefit
from a mentoring program that has already been established. A sports
psychologist or academic counselor might serve as better mentors
in the future but if older student—athletes could be trained to help
those who are entering college this would help both the freshman
student—athlete and the mentor.

Recommendations

 

There are four recommendations that would help improve this
study. The first recommendation would be to conduct the mentoring
program over a longer time period. A 10 to 15 week program would
be recommended. This amount of time would give the mentor more time
to plan out activities, allow for more interaction with the freshmen
student-athlete, and provide a longer period to measure the adjustment

made by the freshmen. Along with an increase in intervention time,

57

perhaps a follow—up with those who participated in the program could
be conducted. A possible time of follow-up would be at the end of
the second term or at the end of the school year. The follow—up
could also lead into a longitudinal study format. The length of

the longitudinal study could go for a five year period.

The second recommendation would be a more comprehensive
education program for the mentors. As stated before the time taken
to instruct the mentors was approximately 10 minutes. Several 30
to 45 minute sessions may be necessary to educate the mentors. This
would result in a better understanding of their role as a mentor.

An opportunity to role play how to contact the freshmen and what

to say would help the upperclassman feel more comfortable in their
initial approach. Other forms of aid could be given also, such as,

a five minute video of the initial contact and other contact periods
or a pamphlet explaining the program and the role of the mentor.

In addition emphasis should be placed on the activity being done
during the intervention program. The seriousness of this study would
be better understood if the mentors understood better their role

and the things they must do to help the freshmen make a better
transition.

The third recommendation would be that there be a possible
screening of the mentors for the program. The screening program
would be an interview process of the junior and senior athletes who
were recommended by the coaches. Questions from the tool of
measurement would be used to screen the applicants to insure that

the mentors were well-adjusted to both the academic and athletic

58

programs. This process would give the researcher a better idea of
the maturity of the mentors and the seriousness with which they
undertook their new role.
The fourth and final recommendation for this study would be
to use a different assessment tools. The Student Adjustment to
College Questionnaire is possibly a better and more accurate tool
of measurement for adjustment to college than the three used for
this study. The reason the instrument was not used in this study
was that it was brought to the attention of the researcher after
the implementation of the intervention program. The Student
Adjustment to College Questionnaire is a self—report tool that
measures the student's perceived adjustment to college. The four
scales that are measured are academic, personal, social, and
institutional adjustment (cf. Schwitzer, Robbins, & McGovern, 1989).
These recommendations would definitely enhance the research
of the effect of an athlete—mentor program on student-athletes making
the transition from high school to college. Although the final result
of this study showed that the intervention program was not effective,

it did open an avenue for further research in this area.

59

REFERENCES

60

REFERENCES

 

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Cantor, N., Norem, J. K., Niedenthal, P. M., Langston, C. A. & Brower,
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Compas, B. E., Wagner, B.M., Slavin, L. A., & Vannatta, K. (1986).
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Cooker, P. G. & Caffey, C. A. (1984). Addressing the cognitive
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Covey, L. (1984). The relationship of physical activity to adolescent
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Fisher, S., Murray, K. & Frazer, N. A. (1985). Homesickness, health
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Fisher, S. & Hood, B. (1987). The stress of the transition to
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Fisher, S. & Hood, B. (1988). Vulnerability factors in the
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Gibbs, N. R. (1988). Hail and beware, freshman: Some hard choices
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Hester, C. L. (1988). The transition from high school to college:
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Kutner, L. (1988). Both freshman and their families face adjustments
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61

REFERENCES (CONT.)

 

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Offer, D. & Howard, K. I. (1972). An empirical analysis of the
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Offer, D., Ostrov, E. & Howard, K. I. (1981). The adolescent: A
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Offer, D., Ostrov, E. & Howard, K. I. (1982a). Values and
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Offer, D., Ostrov, E. & Howard, K. I. (1982b). The Offer self—image
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Reischl, T. M. & Hirsch, B. J. (1989). Identity commitments and
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Wittmer, J., Phillips, T. D., Waters, W., & Bostic, D. (1981,
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62

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First Edition, 718.

 

63

APPENDICES

64

APPENDIX A

OFFER SELF—IMAGE QUESTIONNAIRE

OSIQ

This questionnaire is used for scientific purposes. There are
no right or wrong answers

After carefully reading each of the statements on the following pages,
please circle the number that indicates how well the item describes
you: The numbers correspond with categories that range from (1)
"Describe me very well" to (6) "Does not describe me at all". Please
circle only one choice for each statement. Please respond to all
items. Thank you.

Use the following values:

1: Describes me very well

2: Describes me well

3= Describes me fairly well

4; Does not quite describe me
5; Does not really describe me

6— Does not describe me at all

1. If I would be separated from all the people I know,

I feel that I would not be able to make a go of it. 1 2 3 4 5 6
2. Most of the time I think that the world is an exciting

place to live in. l 2 3 4 5 6
3. I do not like to put things in order and make sense of

them. 1 2 3 4 5 6
4. If I put my mind to it I can learn anything. 1 2 3 4 5 6

5. I find it difficult to establish new friendships. 1 2 3 4 5 6

6 My work, in general, is at least as good as the work of

the guy next to me. 1 2 3 4 5 6
7. I feel I have no talent whatsoever. 1 2 3 4 5 6
8. I am a superior student in school. 1 2 3 4 5 6
9. I am fearful of growing up. 1 2 3 4 5 6

10. Our society is a competitive one and I am not afraid
of it. 1 2 3 4 5 6

11. When tragedy occurs to one of my friends I feel sad too.
1 2 3 4 5 6

66

1= Describes me very well

2: Describes me well

3: Describes me fairly well

4: Does not quite describe me

5; Does not really describe me
6: Does not describe me at all

12. When I want something I just sit around wishing I could
have it. 1 2

13. Dealing with new intellectual subjects is a challenge
for me. 1 2

14. Working closely with another person never gives me
pleasure. 1 2

15. If I know that I will have to face a new situation I
will try in advance to find out as much as is possible
about it. 1 2

16. I find life an endless series of problems without any
solutions in sight. 1 2

17. Whenever I fail in something I try to find out what I
can do in order to avoid another failure. 1 2

18. I am certain that I will not be able to assume
responsibilities for myself in the future. 1 2

19. When I decide to do something, I do it. 1 2

20. I do not rehearse how I might deal with a real coming
event. 1 2

21. I feel that I am able to make decisions. 1 2
22. I do not enjoy solving difficult problems. 1 2

23. Worrying a little about one's future helps to make it
work out better. 1 2

24. I repeat things continuously to be sure that I am right.
1 2

67

APPENDIX B

PROFILE OF MOOD STATES

68

Team

 

Date
Uniform Number
Below is a list of words that describe feelings people have. Please

read each one carefully. Then circle the answer that best desribes
HOW YOU HAVE BEEN FEELING DURING THE PAST WEEK INCLUDING TODAY.

 

The numbers refer to these phrases.
0= Not at all

1; A little

2= Moderately

3= Quite a bit

4: Extremely

1. Unhappy O 1 2 3 4 19. Uneasy O‘ 1 2 3 4
2. Lively O 1 2 3 4 20. Cheerful O l 2 3 4
3. Confused O l 2 3 4 21. Worthless O 1 2 3 4
4. Tense 0 1 2 3 4 22. Weary O 1 2 3 4
5. Angry O 1 2 3 4 23. Forgetful O 1 2 3 4
6. Worn—out O 1 2 3 4 24. Full of pep O 1 2 3 4
7. Fatigued O 1 2 3 4 25. Uncertain O 1 2 3 4
8. Blue 0 1 2 3 4 about things
9. Peeved O 1 2 3 4 26. Bushed O 1 2 3 4
10. Sad 0 1 2 3 4 27. Hopeless O 1 2 3 4
11. Active 0 1 2 3 4 28. Restless O 1 2 3 4
12. Unable to O 1 2 3 4 29. Resentful O 1 2 3 4
Concentrate 30. Nervous O l 2 3 4
13. On edge 0 1 2 3 4 31. Furious 0 1 2 3 4
14. Energetic 0 1 2 3 4 32. Miserable O 1 2 3 4
15. Grovely O 1 2 3 4 33. Discouraged O 1 2 3 4
16. Exhausted O 1 2 3 4 34. Helpless O 1 2 3 4
17. Bewildered O 1 2 3 4 35. Vigorous O 1 2 3 4
18. Annoyed O 1 2 3 4 36. Anxious O 1 2 3 4

37. Bitter O 1 2 3 4

69

APPENDIX C

BACKGROUND QUESTIONNAIRE

10.

11.

12.

70

Team
Date
Uniform Number

 

 

Background Questionnaire
What sport do you play at MSU?

How many years have you played organized sport (elementary,
junior high, and high school)?

How many students were in your high school graduating class?

Have you traveled with athletic teams prior to college?
very little some alot

In your opinion, how easily do you make friends?
easily __ with some difficulty with alot of difficulty

In how many years do you expect to get your degree?
4 yrs. - 5 yrs 6 yrs or more Don't expect to

get degree

Do you expect to play professional sports after you leave MSU?
Yes No

How many members in your family?
How many brothers? sisters?

Are you the first child to leave home and go to college?
Yes _ No _

What is your gender? male female

How old are you?

71

APPENDIX D

SOCIAL INTERACTION FORM

72

Team
Date
Uniform Number

 

 

SOCIAL INTERACTION FORM

Below is a list of social activities. Please indicate next to the
activity how many times you did the activity with the freshman athlete
during the week.

1. Doing academic work (e.g., going to class, studying together)

2. Shopping

3. Going to parties or other social gatherings

4. Playing music, card games, or board games

 

5. Going to movies, athletic events, plays, or concerts

 

6. Attending organization meetings outside of sport
7. Talking at length about your ideas or personal issues

8. Going to church or religious activities

 

9. Talking on the phone

 

10. Talking about team issues

 

11. Volunteer work

 

12. Other (please describe)

 

73

APPENDIX E

ACTIVITY MATRIX FOR FRESHMAN STUDENT—ATHLETES

74

Activity Matrix For Freshman Student—Athletes

Team
Date
Uniform Number

 

 

Directions: Please check the appropiate activity box underneath
the person's name that you did the activities with during
the last week.

Doing Academic work
(e.g. studying or going to class)

Shopping
Going to parties or
other social gatherings

Going to movies, athletic events
plays, or concerts

Attending organizational
meetings outside of sport

Talking at length about your
ideas or personal issues

Going to church or religious
activities

Talking on the phone
Volunteer work

Discussing team issues

Other (please describe)

75

APPENDIX F

COACHES SUMMER LETTER FOR EXPERIMENTAL GROUP

76

Coaches Summer Letter For Experimental Group

Dear Coach:

I am writing to remind you of the Athlete—Mentor study that you have
agreed to participate in this fall. Your team's paticipation is
critical to this study. Your team has been selected to be a part

of the experimental group.

As you may recall, the purpose of this study is to investigate a

way to help freshman athletes adjust to college life. In order to
help the freshman athlete as much as possible, I would like for you
to give me recommendations of possible athlete—mentor matches. For
the purpose of this study, the mentor is defined as a Jr., Sr., or
5th year athlete who will serve as an educator, guide or counselor
and friend to an entering student—athlete. The criteria that should
be used to match the incoming athletes with their mentors include
compatibility of personalities, ability to meet new people, and easy
to approach. Upon consideration of these attributes please complete
the attached form by listing your incoming freshmen ( first year

in college, no transfers) and the recommended mentor along side each
name. If there are other athletes availible to serve as mentors
please list their names in the event that the original selections
decline to participate. Return your completed form in the envelope
provided by August 16, 1989.

I will be in touch with you 2 weeks prior to the start of school
to discuss appropriate meeting times to administer the pre and post
tests. This study will last 5 weeks.

Thank you for your help and your cooperation.

Sincerely,

Christina L. Hester

Martha E. Ewing, Ph.D.
Associate Professor

77

APPENDIX G

COACHES SUMMER LETTER FOR THE CONTROL GROUP

78

Coaches Summer Letter For The Control Group

Dear Coach:

I am writing to remind you of the Athlete—Mentor study that you have
agreed to participate in this fall. Your team's participation is
critical to this study. Your team has been selected to be a part

of the control group.

Your team's involvement as a control group requires that they take
a preand post-test only. Per our earlier conversation I will be
more than happy to implement the program with your team upon
completion of the study.

I will be in touch with you 2 weeks prior to the start of school
to discuss appropiate meeting times to administer the pre— and
post—tests. This study will last 5 weeks.

Thank you for your help and your cooperation.

Sincerely,

Christina L. Hester

Martha E. Ewing, Ph.D.
Associate Professor

APPENDIX H

ATHLETE-MENTOR MATCHES

80

Form For Athlete—Mentor Matches

Athlete-Mentor Matches

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Coach Sport
Incoming Freshmen lMgpgp; (Jr.,Sr.,5th yr)
1. 1.
2. 2.
3. 3
4. 4
5 5.
6 6.
7. 7
Alternates
1.
2.
3.
4.

 

Thank you for your help!

81

APPENDIX I

INTRODUCTION AND ADMINISTRATION OF STUDY TO SUBJECTS

82

DAY ONE
Consent Form Background Questionnaire POMS OSIQ

Control Group and Experimental Group

 

Introduction— My name is Christina Hester and I am a graduate student

 

studying for a masters degree in Sports Psychology. As a career

I would like to become a collegiate coach. As a student my primary
interest is in the student athlete and what type of experiences and
support they have after they enter college. As master candidates

we have three options to choose from to fulfill'our degree
requirements. I have decided to do a study in an area that is of
interest to me, which is transition for the student—athlete. I am
asking for your help so that I can better understand some of the
experiences and the type of support that the athletes go through
and have when they enter college.

Describe study- The purpose of this study is to gain a better

 

understanding of your thoughts and feelings once you have arrived

on campus. I am interested in how you as a student thinks and feels
as well as you as an athlete thinks and feels. Which is very
important. By agreeing to participate in this study you will be
required to answer three questionnaires at two different time periods.
You will also be asked to complete a short form given at two intervals
during the next 4 to 5 weeks.

Eggms- Human Consent Form: In order to do a study at MSU it is
required to obtain consent from the participant. In addition, you

have the right to know how these data will be used. The rights are

83

explained in the consent form. Will read out loud. Head Coaches
have agreed to participate in this study and they will not be given
any specific results. Are there any questions? I just want you to
know that the success of this study depends on you. To facilitate
the distribution, each questionnaire will be handed out separately.
Once you have completed the questionnaire, turn it over onto the
consent form so that I know you are ready to proceed. If you have
any questions please feel free to ask my assistant or myself. Please
fill out background questionnaire. Hand out POMS. Read directions

to POMS. If you do not understand a word please raise your hand

and I or my assistant, will help you. Are there any questions? Hand
out OSIQ. Read directions to OSIQ and ask for questions.

Control Group— Thank you for your help and I will see them in a couple

 

of weeks.

Experimental Group- This concludes the first part of the study.

 

I would like to thank you for your participation. The second part
requires just a few of you. If I call your name please stay. The

rest of you are free to go.

84

 

APPENDIX J

HUMAN SUBJECTS CONSENT FORM

 

85

HUMAN SUBJECTS CONSENT FORM

I would like to ask for your assistance in a study that I am
conducting to investigate the effects of support systems on college
teams. The study will be conducted during the first five weeks that
you are on campus. You will be asked to answer a questionnaire at
the beginning of the study and at the end of five weeks.

Your answers to the questionnaire will be kept confidential.

You will use your uniform number when answering the questionnaire

so that only you and the experimenter know the meaning of the number.
After the questionnaire has been given the second time all records
identifying you will be cut off. Your head coach will not be present
during the time of administration of the questionnaire and the coaches
will not receive any information about your responses.

Your signature below indicates that you agree to participate
in this study and that you have read and understood your rights as
a participant. Your decision to participate will not impact in any
way your position on the team. If you decide to withdraw from this
study, you are free to withdraw your consent form and discontinue
your participation. A copy of this consent form will be available
upon request.

 

Thank you for your cooperation.

 

Participant's signature Date

Experimenter signature Date

 

 

Witness' Signature Date

 

86

APPENDIX K

EDUCATION OF MENTORS AND EXPERIMENTAL FRESHMEN

 

 

87

Mentors- Freshmen learning about how to survive on a large campus
can be a problem. As a student-athlete who has successfully made

the adjustment you have been asked to be a mentor to one of the
freshman on your team. A mentor is someone who guides , teaches,

and befriends another person. Your role will be to help the freshman
with any problems that they may encounter, such as finding buildings,
getting to know teammates, and understanding coaches. I want you

to be a friend for this person. Remember they are new to MSU just

like you were a few years back. I would like for you to spend one

 

hour a week with the freshman you have been assigned outside of

practice. You can do anything that you like within limitations.

 

You can even get together as a group if you want. (Hand out list)

I have provided you with a list of possible activities that you can

 

do. Some can one on one activities and/or group activities. You

are trying to get to know them and they are trying to get to know

you. Try to find out what he/she likes to do and do that with them.
You are not to force them to do anything that they do not desire

to do. Remember that their value system could be different than
yours. This list doubles as a log sheet that you are required to

fill out at the end of each week. I want you to record the activities
that you do with the freshman at the end of the week. I will collect
these five sheets from you at the end of the five week period, which
will be (give date). I would like for you to call the person you
have been assigned to this evening or get in touch with them tomorrow.

Identify yourself as the person who will help them adjust to MSU

 

88

and that they can call if they need help with anything. Make sure

you give them your phone number. If you have any questions, stop

in and see me and call me. My office is 214 Jenison fieldhouse or
call me at 353—1951. Thank you and we will see you in five weeks.
Freshmen Experimental Group— The reason I asked you to stay is because
other athletes have expressed problems adjusting to a large
university. In order to facilitate your becoming better aqainted

with MSU, each of you has been assigned an upper classman athlete

from your team, who will help you learn more about campus life.

I would encourage you to use this person because he/she was once

a freshman. You will receive a call tonight or tomorrow your teammate
who will identify him/herself as the person who has agreed to help

you during this adjustment period to campus life. They may ask you

to do different activities with them and I encourage you to do them
because it will help you learn more about MSU. It is important for
you to use this person to help you learn about MSU. Thank you for

your cooperation and I(Chris) will see you in a couple of weeks.

 

 

89

APPENDIX L

CODE SHEET and RAW DATA

 

Variable Name

 

ID
Team

Prepost

Uniform
Class

Yrsorgs
NGRADCL

Travel

Friends

Degree

Prospor
Family

Brothers
Sisters
College

Gender

Age
POMSl

POMSZ
POMS3
POMS4
POMSS

90

Variable Label
Student ID #
Team Membership

 

Pretest or Posttest

Uniform Number
Grade in school

Years played in

org sport

Number of people in
graduating class
Travel with athletic
team

Make friends
easily

How many years
to get degree

Play pro sport
after MSU

How many members
in family

How many brothers
How many sisters
First to go to
college

Male or Female

How old are you
Unhappy

Lively
Confused
Tense
Angry

 

Value Labels Line
l

1; Mens Basketball

2; Wmns Basketball

3; Mens Gymnastics

4= WGymnastics

5; Wrestling

6: Mens Indoor Track

7= Mens Swimming

8= Wmns Swimming

1: Pretest

2= Posttest

1= Freshmen

2= Others

20; Missing

999: Missing

0:

2:
3:

none
very little

some

alot

missing

easily

some difficulty
alot of difficulty
4 years

5 years

6 years or more

.Qelsua
1—3
4

15

16

don't expect to get degree

yes

"I'IO

= yes

no
Male
Female

- not at all

a little

= moderately

quite a bit
extremely

= missing

17

18-19

20-21
22-23
24

25

26-27
28

29
3O
31
32

 

 

 

POMS6

POMS7

POMS8

POMS9

POMSlO
POMSll
POMS12
POMS13
POMS14
POMS15
POMS16
POMS17
POMS18
POMS19
POMS2O
POMS21
POMS22
POMSZ3
POMS24
POMSZS
POMS26
POMS27
POMS28
POM829
POMS30
POMS31
POMS32
POM833
POMS34
POMS35
POMS36
POMS37
OSIQl

osroz
OSIQ3
OSIQ4

OSIQ5

91

Worn-out

\O-DUJNI-‘O
II II II II

Fatigued
Blue

Peeved

Sad

Active
Unable to concentrate
On edge
Energetic
Grovely
Exhausted
Bewildered
Annoyed
Uneasy
Cheerful
Worthless
Weary
Forgetful
Full of pep
Uncertain about things
Bushed
Hopeless
Restless
Resentful
Nervous
Furious
Miserable
Discouraged
Helpless
Vigorous
Anxious
Bitter

= not at all
_ a little

moderately
quite a bit
extremely

= missing

Separated but not 1=very well

able to make go 2:
3:

n
.—

5:
6:
9:
World exciting place
to live in
Not like to put things
in order
Put mind to it can
learn anything
Difficult to establish
new friend

well

fairly well
not quite me
not really me
not me
missing

33

34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
61
62
63
64

[\J

 

OSIQP4

OSIQPS
OSIQP6
OSIQP7
OSIQPB
OSIQP9
OSIQP10

OSIQPll
OSIQP12

OSIQP13
OSIQP14

OSIQP15

OSIQP16
OSIQP17

OSIQP18
OSIQP19
OSIQP2O
OSIQP21
OSIQP22
OSIQP23
OSIQP24
ACADEM
SHOP
SOCIAL

PLAYCAR
MOVIES

NONSPORG

TALK
CHURCH
PHONE
VOLWORK
TEAMSIS

92

Put mind to it can 1=very well

learn anythingp 2: well
3; fairly well
4: not quite me
5= not really me
6= not me
9: missing

Difficult to establish

new friendsp

Work as good as guy

next to mep

No talent what so everp

Superior student in schoolp

Fearful of growing upp

Competitive society and

not afraidp

Tradgedy to friend feel sad toop

Want something, sit and

wish had itp

New intellectual subjects a challengep

Working with another

gives pleasurep

New situation find out in

advancep

Life endless problems no solutionsp

Fail try to find out how to

avoid itp

Not able to assume

resp in futurep

Decide to do something do itp

Not rehearse real coming eventp

Able to make decisionsp

Not enjoy solving

difficult problemsp

Worrying about future,

works out betterp

Repeat to be sure am rightp

Doing academic work 1; yes

2: no
9: missing

Shopping

Going to parties or

social events

Playing cards,boardgames

Going to the movies

Going to nonsport meetings

Talking about ideas per

Going to church

Talking on phone

Volunteer work

Talking team issues

48

49
50
51
52
53
54

55
56

57
58

59

6O
61

62
63
64
65
66

67

CON

I—'r—‘\OCX)\IO\U'IJ-\

t—‘O

 

 

93

OSIQ6 Work as good as guy 1=very well 2 6
next to me = well
3: fairly well
4: not quite me
5: not really me
6:
9:

 

 

not me
missing
OSIQ7 No talent what so ever 7
OSIQ8 Superior student in school 8
OSIQ9 Fearful of growing up 9
OSIQlO Competitive society and 10
not afraid
OSIQll Tradgedy to friend feel sad too 11
OSIQ12 Want something, sit and 12
wish it
OSIQ13 New intellectual subjects a challenge 13
OSIQ14 Working with another 14
gives pleasure
OSIQ15 New situation find out in 15
advance
OSIQ16 Life endless problems no solutions 16
OSIQ17 Fail try to find out how to 17
avoid it
OSIQ18 Not able to assume 18
resp in future
OSIQ19 Decide to do something do it 19
OSIQ20 Not rehearse real coming event 20
OSIQ21 Able to make decisions 21
OSIQ22 Not enjoy solving 22
difficult problems
OSIQ23 Worrying about future, 23
works out better
OSIQ24 Repeat to be sure am right 24
ID Student ID # 3 1—3
Team Team Membership 1: Mens Basketball 4
2: Wmns Basketball
3: Mens Gymnastics
4: Wmns Gymnastics
5: Wrestling
6: Mens Indoor Track
7: Mens Swimming
8: Wmns Swimming
Prepost Pretest or Posttest l= Pretest 5
2— Posttest
Uniform Uniform Number 6—7
POMSPl Unhappyp 0: not at all 8
= a little
= moderately
= quite a bit
= extremely

9: missing

POMSP2

POMSP3

POMSP4

POMSPS

POMSP6

POMSP7

POMSP8

POMSP9

POMSPlO
POMSPll
POMSP12
POMSP13
POMSP14
POMSPlS
POMSP16
POMSP17
POMSP18
POMSP19
POMSPZO
POMSP21
POMSP22
POMSP23
POMSP24
POMSP25
POMSP26
POMSP27
POMSP28
POMSP29
POMSPBO
POMSP31
POMSP32
POMSP33
POMSP34
POMSP35
POMSP36
POMSP37
OSIQPl

OSIQP2

OSIQP3

94

= not at all
a little
moderately
quite a bit
extremely

= missing

Livelyp

\O-DUJNI—‘O
II II II II

Confusedp
Tensep
Angryp
Worn-outp
Fatiguedp
Bluep
Peevedp
Sadp
Activep
Unable to conCentratep
On edgep
Energeticp
Grovelyp
Exhaustedp
Bewilderedp
Annoyedp
Uneasyp
Cheerfulp
Worthlessp
Wearyp
Forgetfulp
Full of pepp
Uncertain about thingsp
Bushedp
Hopelessp
Restlessp
Resentfulp
Nervousp
Furiousp
Miserablep
Discouragedp
Helplessp
Vigorousp
Anxiousp
Bitterp
Separated but not 1=very well
able to make gop 2: well
3; fairly well
4: not quite me
5: not really me
6; not me
9: missing
World exciting place
to live inp
Not like to put things
in orderp

10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45

46

47

 

 

OTHER

MENTOR
GROUP

MENFRESH

95

Other
Mentor (upperclass only)
Experimental or control

Mentors and Experimental
freshmen

- yes 4
= no
= missing

= experimental

control
mentors

freshmen exp.

12

13
15

16

 

96

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416114634126341666345465
00122422131322232323299322203113301322212213626232624226243616262433

121 21211212 12
0022152106231214208040312181411011001420401011400041004030000140

465164646116161616261642
00222529422143021431403110400243303040000320443166644116261526141444

221 11121212 12
0032143110250215206010222191213044011402204110301120102000000120

415264626126151616111333
00322432233244233433024333101203421222221112526163636116251616262421

121 21122212 12
0042122104246114206020112180212232001302313202300132200020000030

424262634225343429442534
00422221321121020301310110300131101010010020424163634235242626252533

111 12121212 12
0052132110202315106010212181130000001200300000101004001000110001

146162636116262326241353
00522321110000000110311000301322002000000001446262646114264526241454

111 22111212 12
0062133209255215207020222201210000001200200000300020001000000220

332252545325363536362435

2212122222121 11
0072130215327211205020022223213011011212211121200120102021110020

433163645113312635251521

2212222222221 11
0082141207042215205010122202332111221411401311300233100210110411

516251645115161626141512

2222222222221 11
0092134214500114206020112192220022302220302220200232200020000000

546264666326463636331634

2 1
0102131208048215205020022200400100010411410110400140000101010421

625151656116161616161652

1122222222111 11
0112120209440315205020112211223211110200211111201022101011010000

646163633616311336343333

1211121212111 11
0122144208275314208050122180300022000310322211300041004020110130

536155645116461616141334

.2 1
0132123214900314205020212193203011000201200000200020000000000220

266145636224353516132434

2 1
0142140208340315207030122211300012000100200000200020002000000220

516251636116262626331264

2 l
0152124208324315305020222204400100000400300001301131001010000011
326143636216352453342433

2 1

 

97

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105

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