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THESIS

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dissertation entitled

EFFECTS OF SAME—SEX AND COEDUCATIONAL
PHYSICAL EDUCATION ON PERCEPTIONS OF
SELF-CONFIDENCE AND CLASS ENVIRONMENT

presented by

Cathy Dale Lirgg

has been accepted towards fulfillment
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Ph.D. d . Department of Physical
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EFFECTS OF SAME-SEX AND COEDUCATIONAL PHYSICAL EDUCATION ON
' PERCEPTIONS OF SELF-CONFIDENCE AND CLASS ENVIRONMENT

By

Cathy Dale Lirgg

A DISSERTATION

Submitted to
Michigan State University
in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY

Department of Physical Education and Exercise Science

1991

ABSTRACT

EFFECTS OF SAME-SEX AND COEDUCATIONAL PHYSICAL EDUCATION ON
PERCEPTIONS OF SELF-CONFIDEN CE AND CLASS ENVIRONMENT

By
Cathy Dale Lirgg

The advent of Title IX in 1972 brought with it several important ramifications in the
administration of sport and physical education. One outgrowth of Title IX was the
appearance of coeducational physical education classes. However, the effects of
coeducational physical education on students' self-perceptions have not been studied.
Therefore, the purpose of this field experiment was to investigate the effects of attending
either a coeducational or a same-sex physical education class during a basketball unit on
several self-perception variables. Self-perception variables included perceived
self-confidence, perceptions of the usefulness of leaming basketball, perceptions of the
gender-appropriateness of basketball, and perceptions of the environment. Subjects were
203 middle school students and 193 high school students from two middle schools and two
high schools who participated in a 10-day basketball unit in physical education class. In
each school, a male teacher and a female teacher each taught one coeducational class and
one same-sex class. Classes were designated as either coed or same-sex; students in the
coeducational classes were randomly assigned to either the male teacher or the female
teacher. Results of 2 x 2 x 2 (Class Type x Gender x Grade) MANOVAs revealed that
boys in coeducational classes perceived their classes more favorably than boys in same-sex
classes. Boys in coeducational classes were more confident, perceived themselves to be

better-behaved, more affiliative, and more involved than boys in same-sex classes. Girls

generally perceived their same-sex classes more favorably, perceiving better behavior,
more affiliative behavior, more teacher support, and more student involvement than girls in
coeducational classes. Given that Title IX mandates that physical education be
coeducational, the impact of this law on boys and girls should be researched more carefully
to examine how class type affects students not only in terms of performance, but also

psychologically to identify the best physical education setting for students.

Copyright by
Cathy Dale Lirgg
1991

EFFECTS OF SAME-SEX AND COEDUCATIONAL PHYSICAL EDUCATION ON
PERCEPTION S OF SELF-CONFIDENCE AND CLASS ENVIRONMENT

By
Cathy Dale Lirgg

We approve the dissertation of Cathy D. Lirgg.

Date:

7/14/91

fi/A/a/

?//A/7/

"//.2/9/

 

7/Ia/q,

Signature:

mam

Deborah L. Feltz, Ph. D.

Dissertation Advisor, Program Chair

Professor and Chairperson

Department of Physical Education and Exercise Science

0

Martha E. Ewing, Ph. D.
Committee Member, Associate Professor
Department of Physical Education and Exercise Science

 

Linda A. 1min, Ph. D.

Committee Member, Associate Professor
Department of Psychology

@LQM

Penelope L. Peterson, Ph. D.

Committee Member, Professor

Department of Counseling, Educational Psychology, and
Special Education

%4%

Philip L. Reuschlein, Ph. D.
Committee Member, Professor
Department of Physical Education and Exercise Science

 

 

To Mom and Dad

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

First and foremost, I would like to express my deepest appreciation to my advisor,
Dr. Deborah Feltz, for all the time, energy, and encouragement given to me not only
throughout this dissertation, but also during my years as a doctoral student. Her openness
in sharing her knowledge and insight has given me the tools to pursue the high professional
standards and academic excellence that she has attained. I doubt that I could have found a
better role model, both personally and professionally, and I feel very fortunate to have had
the opportunity to know her and work with her.

Next, I would like to thank my committee members: Dr Marty Ewing, for patiently
answering all my questions during the many times I just “dropped in,” even when she was
busy with something else; Dr. Sam Reuschlein, for his willingness to help me find schools
and his thorough editing; and to Dr. Linda Jackson and Dr. Penny Peterson, for their
valuable suggestions that improved the quality of this work.

This dissertation would have been impossible had it not been for the teachers who so
willingly allowed me to transform their classes into a laboratory for several weeks. Special
and very sincere thanks go to Park Baker, Mary Edgar, Dave Kalchik, Merry Lindemann,
Kristen McIntyre, John Rowan, Patty Terres, and Dick Wilt. In addition, appreciation is
also extended to the students in their classes for their willingness to participate.

I would also like to acknowledge several fellow students. A very special thank-you
goes to Melissa Chase who helped me design the lesson plans and who patiently helped me
enter an enormous amount of data into the computer. Thanks, also, to my office-mate,
Steve Walk, for putting up with an office overflowing with questionnaires and my
persistent chatter about my dissertation, and to Rick Busselle, Tom George, Linda Lyman,
and Mary Kimbell, along with Melissa and Steve, for being such good friends these past
few years.

Thank-you also to Bob Neff, Steve Siminski, and Dan Wagman, who, along with
Melissa, Steve, and Tom, helped with data collection.

Finally, I would like to extend my heartfelt appreciation, gratitude, and love to an
anonymous yet very special individual, without whose patience, understanding, genuine
concern, and caring, I never would have even taken the first step in this entire educational
endeavor. Thanks...

TABLE OF CONTENTS

List of Tables ............................................... ix
List of Figures .............................................. x
Chapter I: INTRODUCTION .................................... 1
Nature of the Problem ...................................... 1
Statement of the Problem .................................... 8
Hypotheses ............................................. 9
Effects of Class Type on the Self-perception Variables ........... . 9
Effects of Class Type on Perceptions of the Environment ........... 10
Predictors of Self-confidence ............................. lO
Delimitations ............................................ 10
Definitions .............................................. 10
Basic Assumptions ........................................ 12
Limitations ............................................. 13
Chapter 11: REVIEW OF LITERATURE .............................. 14
The Coeducational Debate .................................... 14
The Case for Coeducation ............................... 15
The Case for Same-sex Education .......................... 18

Charting the Course Toward Coeducational Physical Education
in America .......................................... 21
Pre—Title IX Physical Education ............................ 21
Legal Implications of Title IX .............................. 23
Debate over Coeducation in Physical Education .................. 24
Research from Other Disciplines ............................... 30
Science Education ................................... . 31
Mathematics Education ................................. 33
Confidence and Selfoefficacy Theory ............................ 36
The Conceptualization of Self-efficacy in Education .............. 37
Summary ............................................... 39
Chapter III: METHOD ......................................... 42
Subjects and Design ....................................... 42
Dependent Measures ....................................... 44
Self-perception Variables ................................. 44
Class Environment Variables .............................. 45
Procedure ............................................... 47
Treatment of the Data ....................................... 49
Chapter IV: RESULTS ........................................ . 51
Preliminary Analyses ...................................... 52
Expenm' ental Hypotheses .................................... 53
Effects of Class Type on the Self-perception Variables .............. 5 3
Effects of Class Type on Perceptions of the Environment .......... . 55
Predictors of Self-confidence ............................. . 59
Summary of Experimental Hypotheses ......................... 60

Further Analyses ........................................ 61
Self-perception Variables ................................ 61
Perceptions of Environmental Variables ..................... 63
Post-questionnaire ..................................... 72
Summary of Post Hoe Analyses ........................... 75

Chapter V: DISCUSSION ....................................... 80

Boys’ Perceptions - A Narrative ............................... 81

Girls’ Perceptions - A Narrative ............................... 87

Predictors of Self-confidence ............................... 92

Conclusions and Future Directions .............................. 93

Appendix A: Self-confidence for Learning Basketball Scale,

Usefulness of Basketball Scale, Gender-appropriateness

of Basketball Scale ................................ 98
Appendix B: Overall Class Environment Scale ...................... 102
Appendix C: Gender-specific Class Environment Scale ................. 103
Appendix D: Parent Letter and Parent Consent Form ................... 110
Appendix E: Lesson Plans ..................................... 112
Appendix F: Background Questionnaire ........................... 132
Appendix G: Post-questionnaire ................................. 133
Appendix H: Tables of Correlations .............................. 134
Appendix I: Multivariate and Univariate F’s for Analyses of Pro-treatment

Self-perception Variables by Assigned Class Type ............. 136
Appendix J: Multivariate and Univariate F’s for Analyses of

Post-treatment Self-perception Variables for Students

in Coeducational Classes by Teacher Gender ............. 138
Appendix K: Multivariate and Univariate F’s for Analyses of Perceptions

of the Overall Environmental Variables for Students in

Coeducational Classes by Teacher Gender ................. 140
Appendix L: Multivariate and Univariate F’s for Analyses of

Gender-specific (Own Gender) Environmental Variables

for Students in Coeducational Classes by Teacher Gender ...... . 142
Appendix M: Multivariate and Univariate F’s for Analyses of Gender-specific

(Opposite Gender) Environmental Variables for Students in

Coeducational Classes by Teacher Gender ................. 144
Appendix N: Means and Standard Deviations (in parentheses) for Perceptions

of the Overall Environment .......................... 146
Appendix 0: Means and Standard Deviations (in parentheses) for Perceptions of

the Gender-specific Environment - Own Gender ............ 148

Appendix P: Means and Standard Deviations (in parentheses) for Class
Competitiveness, Affiliation, Teacher Support, and Student
Involvement Comparing Own and Opposite Gender Perceptions . . . 150

 

Appendix Q: Data Coding Sheet ............................... . 151
Appendix R: Data ........................................... 152
List of References ............................................ 179

LIST OF TABLES

Design Summary ........................................ . 43
Summary Table of Self-perception Means and Standard Deviations ......... 54
Means and Standard Deviations (in parentheses) for Student Behavior and

Class Organization by Class Type .......................... . 5 8
Means and Standard Deviations (in parentheses) for Perceptions of

Own and Opposite Gender Perceptions of Student Behavior ....... . 70

@00st

LIST OF FIGURES

Adaptation of the Fennema and Peterson (1985) model that explains gender

differences in the performance of an activity .................... . 7
Means and standard deviations (in parentheses) for boys and girls in each

class type for confidence in learning basketball ................... 55
Means and standard deviations (in parentheses) for boys and girls in each

class type for overall class competitiveness ..................... 56
Class competitiveness means and standard deviations (in parentheses) for

each class type when students answered for their own gender ......... 58
Pre- and post-treatment confidence means of boys and girls in each

class type ........................................... 62
Gender by class type interaction for overall student behavior .......... . 64
Gender by class type interaction for overall affiliative behavior ........... 65
Gender by class type interaction for gender-specific teacher support ....... 66
Gender by class type interaction for gender-specific affiliative behavior ..... 67
Gender by class type interaction for gender-specific student involvement . . . . 68
Gender by grade interaction for gender-specific student behavior ......... 68
Gender by grade interaction for gender-specific student involvement ..... . 69

Grade by gender viewpoint interaction for perceptions of student
behavior (coeducational girls with female teachers) ................ 71

CHAPTERI

Introduction

Namithepmhlem

The debate between coeducation and same-sex education has been long and
passionate (Smith, 1984). Proponents of coeducation point to the more "normal"
environment that coeducation provides (Dale, 1969, 1971, 1974; Schneider & Coutts,
1982). Coeducation critics counter this "normal environment" stance by arguing that it
approximates the real world too closely; that male superiority can be realized in this
"normal" setting, making coeducation less socially and academically desirable for girls
(Mahoney, 1985; Sarah, Scott, & Spender, 1980).

Most of the debate over same-sex versus coeducational schools has occurred outside
the United States in countries such as England and Australia. Schools in the United States
have been predominately coeducational (98%) since the 1900's and same-sex education has
seemed to be a dead issue (Diehl, 1986). Within these coeducational schools, however,
some separate-sex classes (e.g., physical education, industrial arts, and home economics)
were conducted amid relatively little controversy until the early 1970’s.

With the advent of Title IX of the Educational Amendments in 1972, the same-sex/
coeducation debate moved swiftly to the gymnasium. Because the primary purpose of Title
D( was to eliminate overt forms of sex discrimination, its ramifications were largely felt
within athletics. Prior to this time, underfunding, inferior equipment and facilities, and a
general lack of programs had been the norm for girls' physical education. For example, in
1972 only 7% of the high school athletes were female (Miller Lite Report, 1985), and
boys' athletic budgets were five times that of the girls (Coakley, 1986). With the passage

of Title D(, however, the gaps in budget and programs for boys and girls were narrowed.
Besides monetary issues, the question of allowing girls to play on boys' teams when equal
opportunity did not exist for girls, and vice versa, resulted in a reexamination of principles
and attitudes previously unquestioned.

Physical educators were also immediately forced to handle the problems associated
with coeducation. The specific wording of Title D( forbid any exclusion from participation
or denial of benefits in athletics or physical education on the basis of sex. Therefore, one
of its stipulations was that physical education classes were to be sex-integrated. Teachers
found themselves untrained to deal with educating junior and senior high school boys and
girls in a coeducational sport setting and unprepared to handle their own, as well as their
students', gender-role stereotypes (Evans, Lopez, Duncan, & Evans, 1987; Griff'm, 1984,
1985a). The fact that the mandate for coeducation had come from federal and state law,
with little or no advise or consent from teachers, made the situation even more difficult.

Although school district compliance with Title D( was required by 1978,
psuedo-compliance and mixed reactions to coeducational sports and physical education still
abound. Not all school districts provide for complete coeducational physical education.
Many schools schedule boys and girls into the same class but continue to segregate by sex
within the class, with the boys taught by the male instructor and the girls taught by the
female instructor. Participants of school sports, physical education, and recreation
programs also have been divided in their opinions. For example, a survey of one high
school showed 76% of the girls supported coeducational physical education, while only
52% of the boys preferred coeducational instruction (Mikkelson, 1979). However, those
girls who were not good in sport favored same-sex instruction. The Miller Lite Report on
Women in Sports (1985) found that 7 out of 10 women believed sports should be separated
by sex, and 6 out of 10 women under 30 believed in the separation.

Some physical educators believe that coeducational physical education is an

opportunity to eliminate or to test the limits of gender-role stereotypes, thus giving students

the opportunity to enjoy sport and recreational activities together (e.g., Griffin, 1981,
1984; Stamm, 1979). They contend that coeducational programs will succeed if there is
commitment on the part of the staff and administration (Evans et al., 1987; Griffin, 1984),
if there is ongoing inservice training for teachers (Griffin, 1981, 1984), or when teachers
use a mastery approach to learning so that comparison with peers is lessened (Stamm,
1979).

Other physical educators recognize that coeducational sports and physical education
can also be a frustrating experience, especially for lesser skilled students. Griffin (1981,
1984) suggested that some teachers, through the instructional strategies they use, actually
promote the idea that sports are only for the highly skilled and aggressive minority. She
cited non-instructional game play, an emphasis on competitive team sports, lack of action
by the teacher during rude interactions or instances of inequitable participation, and lack of
grouping by size or ability as reasons why coeducational programs fail.

The question of whether coeducational physical education classes actually succeed or
fail may be difficult to answer. In the past, research has focused on performance outcomes
as the dependent measure to answer this question; that is, same-sex classes and
coeducational classes were compared by examining student performance on skill tests or
achievement tests. This research has generally supported coeducation or at least has found
little or no differences in the performances of students taught coeducationally and those
taught in same-sex classes in sports such as basketball (Flanagan, 1980), badminton
(Evaul, 1961; Tallman, 1970; Taylor, 1970), jogging (Vance, 1982), tennis (Brightwell,
1969), and volleyball (Koivala, 1978). However, these results may be due to the fact that
little improvement in performance can be demonstrated in only one instructional unit.

A few researchers have looked beyond performance to the quality of students'
interactions as a measure of the successfulness of coeducational physical education. For
example, Griffin (1983) reported that in a gymnastics unit boys limited the girls' abilities to
learn by hassling them, but girls did not limit the boys' opportunities. In an elementary

school game of newcombe, Solomons (1980) found, among others things, that girls
received fewer passes than boys and passed up scoring Opportunities to a greater degree
than did boys, in spite of the fact that the girls and the boys were equally successful when
they did try to score.

Recent research in other disciplines such as mathematics education has focused on
other variables in measuring the success of coeducation such as confidence, the perception
of math as a male domain, and the perception of the usefulness of math (Fennema &
Sherman, 1977; Hilton & Berglund, 1974; Sherman, 1980, 1981). For example, Rowe
(1988) demonstrated in a study in which he was able to randomly assign students into
either same-sex or coeducational math classes that those in same-sex classes exhibited
higher gains in confidence than those in coeducational classes and that confidence was a
significant predictor of achievement, especially for those in same-sex classes.

Additionally, confidence was a better predictor of enrollment in math classes than was math
achievement.

Confidence has generally been viewed as a global construct indicating a belief in
one's own abilities. Much of the research investigating "confidence" in math abilities has
focused on confidence in one's own ability to perform well in math courses. Bandura
(1986) uses the term "self-efficacy" to refer to people's judgments of their capabilities to
organize and execute courses of action to attain certain performances. Therefore,
self-efficacy is not one's perceptions of personal skills, but is a judgment of one's ability to
use the skills one possesses. Although ability contributes to performance, perceived
self-efficacy operates partially independently of those skills (Bandura, 1986).

According to Bandura (1977, 1986), selfoefficacy judgments will have diverse effects
in any achievement setting. Perceived self-efficacy influences one's choice of activities,
how much effort one chooses to put into the activity, and the amount of persistence
sustained by the individual in the face of failure. Individuals high in self-efficacy in a
particular domain will choose activities that will contribute to the growth of competencies in

that domain. When difficulties arise, those high in self-efficacy will exert greater effort to
overcome the difficulties than those who entertain self-doubts. Furthermore, highly
efficacious individuals will maintain that effort longer, increasing probabilities for success,
and thereby strengthening their beliefs.

Schunk (1984, 1985) asserts that self-efficacy is an important variable in
understanding motivated learning. By this he means that highly efficacious students will be
more motivated to acquire skills and knowledge rather than merely completing activities.
This point is important because students usually enter an area of learning lacking the skills
necessary to complete tasks or activities and must work to develop those skills. One who
is high in self-efficacy may acquire those skills more easily and attain greater success than
one who is low in self-efficacy.

Fennema and Peterson (1985) proposed a model of mathematics achievement that
draws from Bandura's conception of self-efficacy. Specifically, this model was presented
as an explanation for gender differences in mathematics. They hypothesized that in order to
do mathematics, one must engage in autonomous learning behavior. They also
hypothesized that boys participate in more autonomous learning behaviors than girls abd
that this difference leads to achievement differences. Autonomous leaming behavior
includes working independently on high—level tasks, persisting at those tasks, and choosing
to do and achieve success in those tasks. Whether or not one chooses to engage in
autonomous learning behavior is a function of both one's internal motivational beliefs and
external or societal influences. Internal motivational beliefs include confidence in one's
ability to learn, sex-role orientation, the perceived usefulness of mathematics, and
attributional style. In addition, external or societal forces can also influence internal beliefs.
Although there can be many external factors that influence motivation or autonomous
learning, Fennema and Peterson focused on teacher-pupil interactions and classroom
activities in which boys and girls participate, as two of the most important external

influences. These relationships among autonomous learning behavior, internal beliefs, and

external influences are illustrated in Figure 1.

One external factor in physical education that could mediate both internal motivational
beliefs and autonomous learning behavior is the class context; e.g., whether girls and boys
learn separately or together. Schunk (1984) hypothesized that educational practices are an
important contextual influence on students' self-efficacy. Furthermore, boys and girls in
the same context may perceive that environment differently, even if teacher behavior is
similar toward both sexes (Brophy, 1985; Eccles & Blumenfeld, 1985). Boys and girls
may view a coeducational class in physical education differently; that is, boys may find
that coeducation fosters efficacious beliefs, while girls do not. In fact, Eccles and
Blumenfeld (1985) suggest that some environments (possibly coeducation) may facilitate
achievement in boys, while that same context may dampen or have little positive effect on
girls' achievements. Thus, class environment could create differences in the autonomous
learning behavior undertaken by boys and girls.

Coeducational physical education may also affect various age groups differentially.
Elementary school children may not stereotype physical activity or sports as strictly as older
children, although stereotypes are definitely present (Stein & Smithells, 1969). Also, sex
differences in actual physical ability at this age are less apparent than at post pubertal ages.
Middle school students are the most heterogeneous group with respect to maturity and
abilities. While some boys may be physiologically closer to 8-year-olds, some girls may
already be physically mature. The typical middle school student is very self-conscious,
especially about physical characteristics, and acceptance by peers plays a dominant role in
life (Stafford, 1982). By high-school age, males on the average, are superior to females in
terms of physical strength and speed. Also, sex-role stereotypes will likely be well
developed. In view of some of these developmental differences, the same class context in
which children learn and use physical skills may not affect children similarly at each grade

level or for each sex.

In srunmary, past research on same-sex and coeducational physical education has

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produced equivocal findings. In some research, performance on skill tests did not seem to
be affecwd by coeducation. However, whether or not performance on skill tests is
influenced by coeducation may not be as important a question as how coeducation affects
students' perceptions of their abilities and other internal motivators. Some research has
suggested that boys and girls experience different opportunites in coeducational physical
education classes (e.g. Griffin, 1983, 1985a). These differences may contribute to greater
or lesser confidence in learning. Drawing from the research in mathematics education, a
student's confidence in mathematics, as well as perceptions of the usefulness of
mathematics and how mathematics is seen as sex-appropriate, will contribute to the
increased likelihood of continuing in advanced mathematics classes. Given that girls
frequently display less confidence than boys in physical activity (Lirgg, in press), the type
of class in which students learn physical skills may be a key to understanding a difference
in boys' and girls' confidence levels. Because self-confidence ultimately affects
performance, research investigating the effect of coeducation on students' confidence
beliefs should also examine children at different age groups, as the instructional setting may
affect students of various ages differentially.

Statementctthefimblem

The major purpose of this field experiment was to investigate the effects of
participating in either a coeducational or a same-sex physical education class during a
basketball unit on several self-perception and environmental variables. These variables
included perceived self-efficacy (or confidence in learning basketball), perceptions of the
usefulness of basketball for recreational activities in later life, perceptions of basketball as a
sex-typed activity, and perceptions of six aspects of class environment (student
involvement, student affiliation, class competitiveness, teacher support, student behavior,

and class organization). This research considered age differences by examining those

effects at two educational levels: (a) middle school, and (b) high school. Research in
mathematics education has suggested that how one views an acu'vity in terms of its
usefulness and gender-appropriateness will influence confidence in learning that activity.
Additionally, other educational research suggests that class environment may also influence
confidence in learning. Therefore, although several self-perception variables were
hypothesized to be influenced differentially by coeducational versus same-sex classes, a
secondary purpose of this study was to determine the influence of these variables
(usefulness of basketball, basketball as a sex-typed activity, and class environment
variables) upon boys' and girls' self-confidence for learning basketball.

Hypotheses

The hypotheses are grouped into three categories for examination: (a) effects of class
type (same-sex or coeducation) on self-perception variables, (b) effects of class type on
perceived class environment differences between boys and girls, and (c) predictors of
self-confidence.

1. Boys at both grade levels will exhibit greater self-confidence for learning
basketball, view basketball more strongly as a male activity, and perceive basketball as
more useful to future recreational activities than will girls.

2. Girls in same-sex classes will exhibit greater self-confidence for learning
basketball, perceive basketball as less of a male activity, and perceive basketball as more
useful than will girls in coeducational classes, whereas boys in coeducational classes will
exhibit higher confidence scores and perceive basketball as less of a masculine activity than

will boys in same-sex classes.

10

E 31 E C] I E . E l E .

3. Boys in same-sex classes will view their class environment as more competitive
than boys in coeducational classes, whereas girls in coeducational classes will view their
environment as more competitive than girls in same-sex classes.

4. Girls in coeducational classes will view their class environment as more
competitive than would boys in coeducational classes.

5. Students in same-sex classes will perceive their classes as having better student

behavior and class organization than will students in coeducational classes.

Wm

6. How useful one considers basketball to be, how masculine one considers
basketball to be, and the amount of competitiveness in the class will be significant
predictors of self-confidence for learning basketball.

D]...

This study is limited to middle class children attending public middle schools and
high schools. Generalizations to younger and older grade levels and to activities other than
basketball should not be made.

Dfi”

Terms and operational definitions which apply to this study are listed below:

Wale -- a subscale adapted from the Classroom
Environment Scale (Moos & Trickett, 1973) regarding the level of friendship students feel
for each other, expressed by getting to know each other, helping each other, and enjoyment

in working together.

11

WW - a subscale adapted from the Classroom

Environment Scale regarding how much students compete with each other for recognition,
play hard, and how important it is to play well.

W - measured by an adaptation of the Classroom Environment
Scale. This scale includes 6 subscales: (a) student involvement, (b) student affiliation, (c)
teacher support, (d) class competition, (e) student behavior, and (f) class organization.

We - a subscale adapted from the Classroon Environment
Scale regarding the overall organiration of assignments and class activities.

Cmdueafienalflasses - these classes are composed of both boys and girls and may
be taught by a teacher of either sex.

Cenfideneejnleamingflaskethallfieale - an adaptation of Fennema and Sherman’s
(1976) Confidence in Learning Mathematics Scale that measures confidence in one's ability
to learn and perform well in basketball.

W31: -- adapted from Fennema and Sherman's
(1976) Math as a Male Domain Scale. This scale measures the degree to which a student
perceives basketball as a masculine sport; i.e., more appropriate for males.

WWW - six subscales adapted from the
Classoom Environment Scale that measured perceptions of the environment as they impact
only one's gender or the opposite gender.

W - high school subjects were selected only from those in
Grade 9.

MiddleSehmlfinbjeejs - middle school subjects were comprised of students in
Grade 6 and Grade 7.

WWW - developed by the author to measure
perceptions of the environment when students are taking into consideration all the students

in the class (i.e., both genders).

12

W -- these classes are composed of either all boys or all girls and are
taught by a same-sex teacher.

WW - a subscale adapted from the Classroom Environment
Scale regarding the emphasis on students behaving in an orderly and polite manner.

SmdenthzelxemenLSubsQale - a subscale adapted from the Classroom Environment
Scale regarding the extent to which students are attentive and interested in class activities
and do additional work on their own.

W - a subscale adapted from the Classroom Environment
Scale regarding the amount of help and friendship the teacher manifests toward students;
how much the teacher talls openly with students, trusts them, and is interested in their
ideas.

Wham - adapted from Fennema and Sherman's (1976)
Usefulness of Mathematics Scale. This scale measures the degree to which students feel
that learning basketball will be useful for recreation activities in later life.

E'! .

1. Because teachers were given daily lesson plans and objectives, students in both
coeducational and same-sex classes were presented basically the same material for each
lesson.

2. Students answered the self-report measures honestly.

3. Because the classes to which students were randomly assigned were essentially
new classes (i.e., not composed of the same students), past history of the classes was not a

confounding variable.

13

1. Teacher behavior could not be directly controlled and therefore may have varied
from the same-sex class to the coeducational class.

2. There were some days when teachers were absent during the unit and
substitutes conducted the class. In every instance of teacher absence, however, substitutes
taught lessons from the lesson plans. Students were told to answer questionnaires relative
to their own teacher when appropriate.

3. Coeducational classes were conducted in gymnasiums in which there was no
divider. Consequently, students could observe the other class if they desired. From
observations and teacher interviews; however, students appeared to ignore what was

happening in the other class.

CHAPTERII

Review of Literature

The trend toward coeducational physical education in many ways paralleled the rise of
coeducation in schools world-wide from the predominantly all-male or all-female schools
of the past. The passion of the debate and the arguments used for and against these types
of educational contexts in both school systems and physical education are quite similar.
This charter will (a) present an overview of the coeducational debate in education in
general, (b) trace the history of physical education to its present coeducational context, (c)
examine research from other disciplines that have experimented with a move back to
same-sex classes, and (d) present Bandura’s self-efficacy theory as a theoretical basis for

decision-makin g in an educational context.

We

The formal education of females does not enjoy a long history. Although coeducation
can be traced back as far as Plato (Kolesnik, 1969), the idea of educating girls or of
educating boys and girls together has varied sharply across civilizations. For example, it
was not uncommon for an upper class Roman female to be privately educated, although for
the vast majority of Roman females education was considered unnecessary. However, a
typical ancient Greek Athenian woman would find no opportunity at all for education
available to her. During the early periods of Christianity, formal education existed in the
form of monasteries or nunneries and were available to some boys and girls, but most boys

received education which was informally provided by parents or pastors. Reading and

14

15

writing, however, were not thought to be particularly important for girls.

The Reformation in the 16th century saw the formation of the Grammar school,
which was attended primarily by middle and upper class boys. A few Grammar schools
for girls were established which were taught by women, as women at that time were
prohibited from teaching boys. In certain areas, coeducational classes were taught by men,
although these were the exceptions rather than the rule. Overall, however, the Reformation
era had a significant impact on education for both boys and girls, with the roots of
universal, compulsory education being planted in this period (Kolesnik, 1969).

Nevertheless, the idea of universal education has usually meant separate education for
boys and girls. Most counties outside of the United States provided education in the form
of separate schools and it was not until after the middle 1900's that there was a genuine
move toward coeducation in Europe. Not surprisingly, most of the heated debate has
centered there. Even so, although 98% of the schools in the United States have been
coeducational since the early 1900’s, some recent intellectual debate has taken place in this
country as well. A summary of this world-wide controversy follows.

When

Instead of being dictated by educational concerns, many major policies in education
frequently are economically, politically, and socially motivawd (Astin, 1977; Lee & Bryk,
1986). The appearance of coeducation in Europe certainly followed such a pattern.

Economically, one school was cheaper than two, especially in rural settings where
savings could be realized in funds, schools buildings, and materials (Greenough, 1970).
Woody (1974) emphasized that coeducation was realistic, economically advantageous, and
the best way of providing equal opportunities for girls. As an illustration of the strong
influence of economic factors, Collins (1975) found that parents in Australia ranked the
economic use of plant and facilities higher than psychological or academic reasons for

coeducation.

l6

Politically, proponents pointed to coeducation as the best way of providing equal
opportunities for girls. Especially in the beginning years of the move toward coeducation,
it was argued that if girls were educated with boys, they would have greater access to a
decent education in order to become more independent and autonomous (Lavigueur, 1980).
Also, it was argued that a greater variety of subjects could be offered to students in a
coeducational environment, specifically higher level mathematics and science courses
(Carpenter, 1985; Dale, 1974; Willis & Kenway, 1986). Willis and Kenway (1986)
maintained that women who pushed for same-sex education were endorsing self-imposed
"marginalization". They questioned how girls could be prepared for competition by
removing them from it. Same-sex schools, they said, were not the solution because they
did not focus on changing the attitudes of the boys. Moreover, organizing same-sex
classes would not be sufficient to change the practices and values of teachers and
administrators. Equal opportunity could be fully realized only in coeducational schools.

Another political factor in the argument for coeducation was that boys typically were
the recipients of many of the advantages of this type of educational context (Sarah et al.,
1980). Dale (1974) could find no evidence that coeducational classes had lower academic
standards, a common complaint levied against coeducational schools. In fact, he said, for
boys the academic standards probably increased. He offered the cautious summary that the
progress of boys was probably increased in coeducational classes while that of the girls
was not harmed. Fisher and Waetjen (1966) noted in their research that mixed classes
realized higher achievement in English. This would not be surprising because girls usually
received higher marks than boys in language, and the presence of girls in these classes
could have upgraded the boys' achievement. Unfortunately, the same type of reciprocity
for girls has not been found in coeducational math or science classes (Firm, 1980; Lee &
Bryk, 1986; Rowe, 1988; Sherman, 1980; Vockell & Lobonc, 1980; Wood &
Ferguson, 1974). The Australian Education Council summed up this political argument
declaring rather succinctly, "The fact that it is the girls and not the boys who appear to be

l7

disadvantaged in coeducational classes should not be a reason for delaying the taking of
action" (cited in Carpenter & Hayden, 1987, p. 165).

Possibly the greatest push toward coeducation was socially motivated, as exemplified
by the following quote: "The case for coeducation is built upon the conviction that the task
of education is the development of social human beings dedicated to constructive social
purposes..." (Hyde, 1971, p. 24). Dale (1969, 1971, 1974) consistently pointed to
coeducational contexts as the more natural environment in which to prepare adolescents to
take their place in a society that included both men and women. He claimed that the
average coeducational community was happier for both staff and students. Furthermore,
coeducation more closely approximated the real world of competition between males and
females.

Nowhere did the social argument for coeducation loom larger than in the United
States. While coeducation was a much newer concept in other countries, Americans
generally regarded coeducation as natural, normal, and inevitable. In fact, some felt that
education in the United States had as its primary developmental task, the nurturing of
positive social relations (Powell & Powell, 1983). The absence of either sex would be
unthinkable. Because it has been viewed as a"natura1" educational context, only recently
have researchers strongly questioned coeducation in America (e.g., Hawley, 1991; Lee &
Bryk, 1986; Lee & Marks, 1990).

Specific research that has supported coeducation has focused on academic, social,
and psychological advantages. Dale (1969, 1974) meticulously noted that the social and
affective advantages of coeducation were not at the expense of academics. He found that in
coeducational schools, boys had increased interest in math and science, and girls in
language and literacy. Moreover, he concluded that anxiety was lower for boys and girls in
coeducational schools than in same-sex schools, and that neuroticism was lower for boys.
Boys attending coeducational grammar schools had higher levels of overall achievement
(especially mathematics achievement), although this finding was not true of girls.

18

Generally, the academic advantages seemed to be weighted more heavily in favor of the
boys.

A Canadian study by Schneider and Coutts (1982) found that coeducational schools
were perceived by students as being more gregarious, group-centered, friendly, enjoyable,
tolerant of non-compliance, spontaneous, and conducive to self-confidence and self-respect
than were same-sex schools. They also found no support for the premise that
coeducational schools placed less emphasis on scholarship and achievement. Payne and
Newton (1990) found that both Barbadian teachers and students saw coeducation as
advantageous in preparing students for future occupational and interpersonal roles, with
male students expressing more positive views on coeducation than did females. Feather
(1974) found that boys in coeducational schools were more satisfied with their classmates
and teachers than were boys in same-sex schools. Harris (1986) reported that college
students indicated a preference for coeducational high schools, especially if they had
attended coeducational high schools. Lastly, Jones and Thompson (1981) noted that the
conduct of boys was better in coeducational classes than in same-sex ones.

Marsh, Smith, Marsh, and Owens (1988) were able to monitor the progress of
students during the transition years of the reorganization of two neighborhood same-sex
high schools into one coeducational school and noted an increase in student self-concept
from pre-transition to post-transition. However, there was a small decrease in self-concept
for students who attended the coeducational high school only during the transition year.
They also concluded that the benefits of coeducation to self-concept were not at the expense
of academic achievement. In addition, they reported that previously existing sex

differences were unaffected by the transition.

Weldon
As adamant as the supporters of coeducation appeared, the proponents of same-sex

education were equally, if not more, passionate. Proponents of same-sex education have

l9

typically questioned the effect of coeducation on girls, citing academic, social, and
psychological disadvantages. For example, Spender (1982) asserted that, in the United
Kingdom, coeducational institutions are nothing more than boys' schools with girls
present. Mahoney (1985) concluded her book "Schools for the Boys" by arguing that
"coeducation, as things stand, is not more socially desirable for girls because it is more
normal. Rather, because it is more normal it is, for girls, highly undesirable" (p.93).
Sarah et a1. (1980) saw coeducation as too much of an approximation of the real world,
where male superiority could be realized in this "normal" setting. They also pointed out
that same-sex education has not always been viewed as undesirable, that coeducation has
been a relatively recent phenomenon. Deem (1986) commented that the move to
coeducational schools may not have hindered girls' achievements, but it certainly has not
improved them. Coleman (1961), in his seminal work investigating the adolescent
subculttue, suggested that coeducation may be inirnical to both academic achievement and
social adjustment, a claim which spurred research that has provided equivocal results (e.g.,
Dale, 1974; Feather, 1974; Jones, Shallcrass, & Dennis, 1972; Marsh, Owens, Myers,
& Smith, 1989; Schneider & Coutts, 1982).

Some researchers have been concerned about girls being overshadowed by boys if .
they are educated together. McRobbie ( 1980) contended that if girls were more involved
with all-girl subcultures, they might gain some much-needed collective confidence.
Therefore, she urged the creation of same-sex facilities and programs for girls. Powell
and Powell (1983) noted that as girls grow up they learn to give up certain attitudes toward
learning such as questioning, challenging, and risk-taking as well as leadership positions.
Taylor (1989) also felt that collectivity among girls needed to be fostered, and recognized '
the importance of organizing time for critical reflection in all-girl groups.

Research has found same-sex classes for boys and girls to have less distractions,
freedom to focus intellectual energy, improved working conditions, a decrease in student

attentiomdemanding behavior, fewer discipline problems, and greater time-on-task

20

(Kemkamp & Price, 1971; Lyles, 1966; Powell & Powell, 1983; Rowe, 1988; Trickett,
Castro, Trickett, & Schaffner, 1982). Girls and boys in same-sex schools have been
found to view themselves as better problem solvers and as having greater confidence and
self-esteem than those in coeducational schools (Cairns, 1990; Fisher & Waetjin, 1966;
Lyles, 1966). Same-sex schools have also been found to foster greater competition among
students than coeducational schools (Trickett etal., 1982). For proponents of all-female
classes, this type of competition is desirable: interestingly, competition with boys, such as
that found in coeducational schools, is not viewed as desirable. Furthermore, some
research has linked female fear of success with coeducation, competition with males, and
male dominance in certain academic areas (Homer, 1972; J anda, O'Grady, & Capps,
1978; Winchel, Fenner, & Shaver, 1974).

Same-sex students have been purported to have a higher academic attitude. Lee and
Bryk (1986) found consistent and positive effects of same-sex education on students'
attitudes toward academics, especially for girls. Carpenter (1985 ) also found that girls in
same-sex schools had higher academic self-concepts. Jones et a1. (1972) found that
same-sex schools fostered a more academic environment than did coeducational schools
and noted that boys and girls from same-sex schools ranked scholarship higher than did
their coeducational counterparts. Hawley (1991) recently extolled the praises of all-boy
schools citing evidence of a higher striving for achievement among the boys than is
normally seen in a typical school. Therefore, while proponents of coeducation have
highlighted the fact that actual achievement does not appear to suffer when students are
educated together, and have shown that boys' achievements may increase, proponents of
same-sex education have uncovered differences between coeducationally and same-sex
educated students in percepn'ons and attitudes about achievement. This topic will be
explored later in the chapter.

21

:l'lCIICI'l
El'lEl"E'

The brief history of coeducational physical education in some ways parallels that of
the recent formation of coeducational school systems outside the United States. As
same-sex schools were the norm in European countries, so too were segregated physical
education classes in America, existing peacefully amid school systems where boys and
girls were naturally educated together. Just as a strong movement toward coeducation in
Europe shook an entire educational system, physical education would find its previous

gymnasium arrangement rudely interrupted by the passage of Title IX in 197 2.

E {.1 IKE] . IE1 .

Early physical education in the United States (pre- 1900) had its roots in medicine
which generated a concern for fitness, efficiency, and health rather than social motives
(Ziegler, 1988). Before the turn of the century, most physical education programs
consiswd of several different types of gymnastics training, adapted from types of European
gymnastics, and were available to males and females. German and Swedish systems of
gymnastics were very pOpular. While the German system featured vaulting horses, rope
climbing, and parallel bars, the Swedish system featured light exercise, flexibility, and
grace of movement. In the mid 1800's, Dio Lewis formulated his own system of
gymnastics that focused on the development of the upper body and which could be
applicable to men, women, and children (Freeman, 1977).

Two changes octurred in physical education after the turn of the century. The first
was the introduction of various sports into the cuniculum. The entry of sport was partly
due to the problems that out-of-school sports had created for the schools and partly because
of the widespread interest in sport among students (Freeman, 1977). Sports in the

curriculum, especially basketball, were just as popular among girls as they were among

22

boys (Kennard, 1977).

A second change was a move away from the medical prescription of physical
education. The "progressive movement" in education was led by Thomas Dewey and his
concept of teaching the whole child, both mentally and physically, led to a general shift in
the aim of physical education away from a health-centered program. His views of the
school as a social institution also led physical educators to focus on the social values of the
discipline (Freeman, 1977). With this philosophy, the inclusion of various sports within
the curriculum fit nicely.

During this time, women's physical education developed in ways similar to that of the
men. But, although sport was a major ingredient in both men's and women's cunicula, the
women developed their own versions of the games, such as divided courts and shortened
games. Women physical educators were also leery of the problems of competition that had
developed in some of the men's programs. Therefore, after an initial period of embracing
sport, opportunities for formal competition among women were curtailed, although sport
remained an important part of the cuniculum (Kennard, 1977; Boutilier & SanGiovanni,
1983). Early in the century, women also developed dance and, later, movement education,
as part of their curriculum. Men's programs, while focusing on sport, also saw a rise in
the popularity of dance, particularly folk dancing early in the century (Freeman, 1977).

The World Wars had profound effects on physical education. During World War 1,
military drilling replaced the regular cuniculum. The nation was shocked to find so many
people unfit for military duty and directed money not into an improved sports and games
cuniculum, but into one which featured military drills and calisthenics. However, the
Depression era found physical education being dropped in many schools as it was seen as
a nonessential subject (Zeigler, 1988).

After World War II, the physical education cuniculum again emphasized physical
fitness. This trend was aided somewhat by President Dwight Eisenhower's Council on

Youth Fitness and received additional momentum when President John Kennedy

23

established the President's Council on Physical Fitness. The Space Age, however, also
brought with it the tendency to view the mind and the body as separate, with the emphasis
placed on educating students more strongly in science and mathematics than ever before
(Freeman, 1977). At the end of the 1960's, the general school systems were allowing
students to choose their courses from a wider selection to give students not only more
selection, but also greater autonomy. Physical education, it was felt, should also be a
choice activity for students. The result was that many required physical education
programs disappeared during this time.

In the pre-Title IX period, men's and women's programs contained both similarities
and dissimilarities. While there was some similarity between the two in cmriculum in the
early years of physcial education in the schools, the two programs gradually emphasized
different activities and had different expectation and performance levels for each gender
(Geadelmann, 1981). Physical education could be characterized by a polarity of gender
roles. There were women's programs and there were men's programs, each separately
administered. For example, women's physical education and athletics were both developed
within an educational context; men's athletics and men's physical education were clearly
separate (Kennard, 1977). The difference in budgets and facilities between boys and girls
in both sport and physical education widened as the years went on (Boutilier &
SanGiovanni, 1983). Because of the gap in practice and philosophies between men's and
women's programs, there was little, if any, opportunity for coeducational physical
education except in the elementary schools. Although Mabel Lee (1978) documented an
"interesting development" that arose in the 1930's - co-recreation, coeducational physical

education is not mentioned in the history books.

I l I l' . [I' 1 IX
Perhaps nowhere in the history of physical education has there been change that has

caused as much controversy as Title IX. This act, formally called Title IX of the Education

24

Amendments of 1972, sought to eliminate sex discrimination among students and had
important implications for physical education. It stated:
"No person in the United States shall, on the basis of sex, be

excluded from participation in, or be denied the benefits of) or be

subjected to discrimination under any educational program or

activity receiving federal financial assistance. "

Schools were forwd to examine, among other things, their instructional
opportunities, intramural and interscholastic programs, hiring practices, budgets,
and use of facilities. In addition, this law prohibited the offering of single-sex
courses and programs, such as all-girl home economics, all-boy industrial arts, and
girls' and boys' physical education (Dunkle & Sandler, 1975).

Under the provisions of Title D(, physical education classes were to be
available to all students, allowing both boys and girls the opportunity to participate
in all physical education activities. Classes in which contact sports were taught
(boxing, wrestling, ice hockey, football, basketball, and rugby) could be
segregated for class competition, but had to be integrated for instruction. Either
male or female teachers could teach the classes, provided some provision was made
regarding supervision of the locker rooms. Locker rooms and facilities were to be
similar for both boys and girls. Title D( also stipulated that standards of individual
performance (i.e., grading policies) should be developed and applied without
regard to sex. Many of the other stipulations of Title IX concerned athletics, but
those are beyond the scope of this chapter. In short, what was once separate and
unequal was now integrated for the purposes of equality.

D] Cl"El'lEl'
Although school district compliance with Title D{ was mandated to take effect

by 1978, pseudo-compliance to coeducational physical education still exists today.

25

Not all school districts provide for complete coeducational physical education.
Many schools schedule boys and girls into the same class, but continue to segregate
by sex within the class, with the boys being taught by the male instructor and the
girls taught by the female instructor. Some schools allow their students to choose
between a coeducational class or a same-sex class. Additionally, there has been
some movement totally away from coeducational physical education because
schools believed that Title D( was no longer monitored and therefore not important
(Reid, 1985).

Thus, the road to compliance with Title IX has not been smooth. When Title
IX first came into effect, there was much confusion about what the law stipulated
(Arnold, 1977; Cole, 1976; Hogan, 1977). Many educators also resented the fact
that there had been federal intervention without local and state input (Cole, 1976).
Some teachers immediately found themselves untrained to handle teaching not only
the opposite sex, but teaching a class in which both boys and girls were
participating together. They felt unprepared to handle their own, as well as their
students', gender-role stereotypes (Evans et al., 1987; Griffin, 1984, 1985a:
Reid, 1985).

The forum had been opened for debate. Some physical educators pointed to
coeducation as a prime opportunity to test the limits of or, ideally, to eliminate
gender-role stereotypes, thus giving students the chance to learn and enjoy
recreational activities together (Griffin, 1984; Stamm, 1979). In cases where
participant size and strength inequalities might exist, it was argued that rules could
be altered for fairness (Griffin, 1985b; Hoppe, 1987). Of crucial importance for
success, though, would be a commitment on the part of the administration and
staff, as well as on-going inservice programming for teachers (Evans et al., 1987;
Griffin, 1984). Also, Starnm (1979) stressed the use of a mastery approach toward

learning so that comparisons with peers would not be emphasized.

26

At the other end of the spectrum was the observation that girls were impeding
the level of skill development of boys because the instruction had to be geared
down, or that girls were reluctant to participate (Tobin, 1980). Coeducational
physical education could too easily become non-instructional game play with no
action taken by the teacher for inequitable participation or rude interactions (Griffin,
1984). Griffin (1984) commented that "at worst, coed sport is a frustrating
experience and a confirmation that sport is only for the highly skilled or aggressive
minority" (p. 37). While grouping by ability or size was proposed as one way that
coeducational programs could be made fairer, this practice was subsequently
attacked as de facto segregation, with the possibility that the boys would qualify for
one group and the girls for another (Solomons, 1980). Even changing rules for
fairness (e.g., a girl must hit the ball at least one time before it is sent over the net)
was seen as a questionable tactic, especially if the rule was stated in a way that
singled out one gender (Griffin, 1985b). Because boys in Grades 7-12 generally
exceeded girls on most tasks of running speed, jumping ability, throwing, and
strength (Hall & Lee, 1984), it was felt that injuries would be more common. Of
course, the argument that having boys and girls in the same physical education class
would lead to problems due to social distractions arose as well (Griffin, 1985b).

The question of whether coeducational physical education classes actually are
good or bad for students may be difficult to answer. In the past, research has
focused on performance outcomes as the dependent measure to answer this
question; students in coeducational and same-sex physical education classes have
been compared on skill tests or achievement tests. Most of this research has shown
little or no differences between the two types of classes in such activities as
basketball (Flanagan, 1980), badminton (Evaul, 1961; Tallman, 1970; Taylor,
1970), jogging (Vance, 1982), tennis (Brightwell, 1969), and volleyball (Koivala,

1982). However, these results may be due to the fact that little improvement in skill

27

can be demonsn'ated in one instructional unit.

Only a small amount of research has been conducted at the junior or senior
high school levels. Neal (1984) found that there was no significant difference
between coeducational and same-sex groups in the performance of a novel task - the
stabilometer - by junior high students. In another study, ninth graders,
participating in an 8-week jogging unit, made greater cardiorespiratory gains on the
Harvard Step Test in coeducational classes than in same—sex classes. However,
this gain was greater for boys than it was for girls. At the high school level,
Flanagan (1980) found that there was no difference between coeducation students
and same-sex students in the learning of' offensive basketball skills. Finally,
Musgrove (1986), in a study during units of volleyball and table tennis, noted that
while same-sex classes provided more on-task time, coeducational classes provided
more motor-appropriate time, indicating more active participation.

Several less recent studies have examined coeducational and same-sex classes
at the college level. Tallrnan (1970) found no significant skill differences between
men and women in badminton and archery classes. Other studies utilizing
badminton as the activity have also produced non-significant results (Bracken,
1964; Taylor, 1970). However, Evaul (1961) found that women in a
coeducational badminton class had higher skill test scores than women in a
same-sex class, but that men scored better in the same-sex class. In another study,
Brightwell (1969), while noting that both men and women significantly improved
their tennis performance, found no differences due to class type. As can readliy be
seen, the results of these studies show no clear pattern of results.

Some researchers have simply asked subjects about their participation
preferences. One recent large-scale study of 7,000 women was concerned, among
other things, about the attitudes of women toward coed sports (Miller Lite, 1985).
This study showed that, overall, 7 out of 10 women agreed or strongly agreed that

28

women’s sports should be kept separate from men's sports. However, younger
women were somewhat less likely than older women to agree with that premise.
Sixty-three percent of the women under 30 agreed that women's programs should
be kept separate from men's compared to 71% of women 31-38 and 76% of
women 39 and older. Even so, 80% indicated that they preferred to play sports
with others of the same skill level, regardless of sex. About half of the
respondents, 52%, indicated a general willingness to engage in sport with members
of the opposite sex. Aerobics, calisthenics, jogging, and softball were popular
activities that were preferred by the women in a same-sex setting. This study also
noted that while coed sport is becoming more commonplace, the women believed
that the major obstacle was an apparent male discomfort with women as successful
athletes.

Other researchers have also asked subjects about their instructional
mecrences. A survey in one high school showed that 76% of the girls and 52% of
the boys supported coeducational physical education classes (Mikkelson, 1979).
However, those girls who were not good in sport favored same-sex instruction.
Taylor (1970) found a decided preference among the college women in her study
toward coeducational physical education classes, but found that men were divided
on this issue.

A few researchers have looked beyond performance and preferences to the
quality of students' interactions as a measure of the successfulness of coeducational
PhYSical education. Griffin (1983) investigated participation patterns in a
coeducational gynmastics unit and found that boys and girls participated seriously
in gyrnnastics only in events that they perceived as gender-appropriate (e.g.,
ba-lar'rce beam for girls and still rings for boys). She also noted that boys limited

351‘ 18' opportunities to learn by hassling them. However, girls did not limit boys'
°PPOrtunities. Lever (1976) noted that on playgrounds, boys controlled 10 times as p

29

much space as girls and invaded girls' games and scenes of play more often than
girls invaded the boys'. Griffin (1985a) found through interviews that teachers’
gender-role stereotypes appeared, even when they were sincerely trying to be fair.
One teacher explained that she sex-segregated her coed class in basketball because
she felt that the girls were not skillful in handling the ball; consequently, they were
not getting to handle the ball and therefore could not learn.

Solomons (1980) conducted an extensive study that examined both high and
10w ability boys and girls in an elementary physical education unit as well as teacher
feedback to those students. In a unit of newcombe, she found that, in general, girls
had no contact with the ball other than to serve; therefore, they had relatively few
decisions on whether to pass or try to score. Overall, the girls received only about
one-third as many passes as the boys. Even girls who were successful in their tries
to score did not continue to receive passes, while boys who failed in their attempts
were still supplied with opportunities to pass and score. Both the girls and the boys
perceived the boys as more highly skilled, even when actual performance did not
support this assumption.

A second experiment involved a competitive throwing and catching game that
guided the participants into passing to teammates perceived as high in ability
(Solomons, 1980). Findings showed that boys of high ability were more active in
class and received more passes than girls of high ability, while girls with high
ability gave away twice as many passes rather than try to score than did boys of
high ability. Boys of high-ability encouraged and helped low-ability boys but girls
did not receive this encouragement. However, very low-ability boys were the most
viciously attacked verbally, especially by the girls.

In regard to teacher feedback, Solomons (1980) also noticed gender
differences. Teachers would provide extra practice for low-ability boys but not for

low-ability girls. Girls were congratulated for doing something not nearly as well

30

as a boy was expected to do. Moreover, when a girl performed poorly, it was
ignored or patronized (e.g., "nice try"); boys who were performing poorly were
criticized and corrected. Solomons noted, however, that one teacher who did not
follow this procedure with the girls obtained better results. Overall, Solomons
concluded that those who were already skilled seemed to benefit more from
coeducational classes.

Research has shown that boys are more likely to be put into a high-ability
group than girls, with girls being misassigned more often than boys (Hallinan &.
Sorensen, 1987). Martinek and Johnson (1979) found that physical education
teachers approached high physical achievers more often, giving them more
opportunity to interact with the teacher. Teachers were more accepting of ideas
from high-physical ability students than low-physical ability students and used
those ideas more frequently. High-physical ability students were also given more
precise and supportive encouragement. If boys are more often classified as high in
physical ability, these findings provide serious implications for ability grouping in
coeducational physical education classes.

B It 0111”].

Researchers in some subject areas have been concerned that not only do girls
exhibit lower performances in their classes, but also that girls do not seem to be
enrolling in higher level classes. Intuitively, the second worry (that girls are not
enrolling in advanced classes) should have an impact on performance differences
between boys and girls. Two subject areas that have explored reasons for these
differences and for why girls may less frequently elect higher level classes are
science and mathematics education. Research from these disciplines, especially

research examining coeducational and same-sex classes, is examined next

31

S . E l .

There is much evidence to support the assertion that females underachieve in
science in relation to males (Bateson &. Parsons-Chatman, 1989). In the United
States, Sweden, and England, males have more positive attitudes toward science
(Firm, 1980), with differences in interest starting to appear by the seventh or eighth
grade (Hardin & Dede, 1975). Preferences for science have been found to be
related to success in science (Peterson & Carlson, 1979), which may explain some
of the achievement differences.

Another explanation for females underachieving in science has focused on
teacher expectancies. It is possible that teachers expect boys to perform better in
science and this expectation serves as a pygrnalian effect for both boys and girls,
with boys subsequently performing better (Ornerod, 1975 ; Rowell, 1971). A third
explanation, related to the second, is that girls see science as a male-oriented subject
and therefore do not strive to achieve in science by electing not to take science
courses, especially the physical science courses (V ockell & Lobonc, 1980). A
fourth, and similarly related, explanation is that coeducational science courses may
foster the sex-typed belief that science is only for boys. If boys in coeducational
science classes are more involved in class than girls or if there are more boys in the
class than girls, both boys and girls may conclude that scinece is masculine or that it
is more appropriate for boys to learn, especially if the teacher is male.

Research generally supports the position that girls in same-sex classes or
schools will perform better in science than girls in coeducational settings. Lee and
Bryk ( 1986) found that attendance at a girls' school increased science achievement
of girls by approximately one year. Firm (1980) noticed a deceleration by English
coeducational girls in science and an acceleration by English girls in same-sex
schools. Hamilton (1985) found that both boys and girls in same-sex Jamaican

schools showed greater achievement in science than those in coeducational schools.

32

She also found that girls in same-sex classes took more science subjects than girls
in coeducational classes. One of the purported advantages of coeducational schools
was that more science courses could be offered. However, even when more
courses were available, compared to girls in same-sex schools, fewer coeducational
girls seemed to be taking advantage of them (Branson & Miller, 1979: Carpenter,
1985; Hamilton, 1985). This contradiction has been explored and the results point
somewhat to girls sex-typing science as a masculine subject.

Some researchers have found that girls in coeducational classes viewed
science as more masculine than those in all-female classes (Omerod, 1975 ; Vockell
& Lobonc, 1980). Vockell and Lobonc (1980) reasoned that because there is an
over-representation of males in the physical sciences, girls who study science may
be perceived as "deviant." If girls indeed perceive themselves as a "deviant"
minority, their performance and preference for science may be reduced, especially
in coeducational classes where there would be direct competition and comparison
with males, leading the girls to not try as hard as the boys. Therefore, Vockell and
Lobonc thought that by placing girls and boys together in the same class, rather
than decreasing the stereotype of science as being male-oriented, the opposite
would actually occur; there would be more stereotyping of science as masculine in
coeducational classes, a view shared by Wood and Ferguson (1974).

At same-sex schools, students were more likely to have same-sex teachers.
Students, especially girls, who have same-sex teacher models were more likely to
have a greater commitment toward a career in science (V ockell & Lobonc, 1980).
Firm (1980), likewise, pointed to the importance of successful female teachers and
peers in facilitating learning in science. Female science teachers should be less
likely to convey the feeling that science is only for boys or that boys should do

better in science.

33

I l l . E l .

Research in math education has followed similar research paths as that taken
by science education. As in science, girls are seen as less-achieving in mathematics
(Heller & Parsons, 1981; Maccoby & Jacklin, 1974; Sherman, 1980) and less
willing to take higher level math courses (Sherman & Fennema, 1977). In fact,
Maccoby and Jacklin (1974) contended that mathematics ability was one of the
strongest supported sex differences in the literature. However, other research has
since contradicted this assertion. Girls in elementary school have been found to
display mathematics achievement equal to that of elementary school boys (Hallinan
& Sorensen, 1987: Hilton & Berglund, 1974; Meece, Parsons, Kaczala, Goff, &
Futterman, 1982). Likewise, girls who had similar backgrounds in mathematics as
boys also did not display lower achievement (Fennema & Sherman, 1977),
although Sherman (1982a) later presented evidence that even with similar
matheman'cs backgrounds, girls may not achieve as high as boys. In addition,
Sherman and Fennema (1977) found no evidence that girls were intrinsically less
interested in mathematics problem-solving.

Some of the reasons for the achievement differences in mathematics that do
exist paralleled those suggested by science educators. These reasons included
fewer role models or other factors related to teachers such as expectancy effects
(Brophy & Goode, 1974; Hallinan & Sorensen, 1987; Leinheardt, Seewald, &
Engel, 1979; Meece et al., 1982; Rowe, 1988), the perception of math as a
male-oriented subject (Hallinan & Sorensen, 1987 ; Sherman, 1980; Stein &
Smithells, 1969; Wood & Ferguson, 1974), and the avoidance of higher level math
classes (Hallinan & Sorensen, 1987; Sherman, 1982a). Interestingly, some
research has also shown that girls sex-typed mathematics as less masculine than did
boys, but still did not elect to take higher level math courses (Sherman & Fennema,

1977; Sherman, 1982a). In addition, some research in mathematics education has

34

also examined same-sex and coeducational instruction as an important factor in the
choice of classes one takes and in achievement level (e.g., Rowe, 1988).

However, researchers in mathematics have gone one step further and
examined other self-perception variables that may influence achievement. One
important self-perception variable that researchers have found to influence
achievement is confidence in learning, especially the confidence of girls. Fennema
and Sherman (1977) found that girls were less confident than boys in learning
mathematics, even those girls with the same ability as boys. The impact that this
lack of confidence has on achievement is well-documented. Confidence has been
shown to be significantly related to enrollment behavior (Fennema & Sherman,
1977; Sherman, 1981, 1982b), interest in mathematics (Sherman, 1982b), and
mathematics achievement (Bandura & Schunk, 1981; Rowe, 1988).

Confidence may be influenced by other variables as well The perception of
mathematics as a male domain has been shown to have its effect primarily as a
mediator of confidence. Those girls who sex-typed math as less masculine had
higher confidence in their ability to learn math. Interestingly, the extent to which
mathematics is considered a male domain has been found to be relawd more to girls'
than to boys' achievement (Rowe, 1988; Sherman & Fennema, 1977).

A second area that mathematics educators have examined has been the
perceived usefulness of mathematics. Perceived usefulness similarly has been
shown to be related to confidence; those who perceive math as more useful will be
more confident in their ability to learn math (Rowe, 1988; Sherman, 1981, 1982b).
Because boys have generally perceived math to be more useful than have girls
(Fennema & Sherman, 1977; Hilton & Berglund, 1974), boys would, therefore,
tend to display more confidence. Meece et al., ( 1982) have focused on confidence
and perceived usefulness as two separate and necessary entities for achievement.

Their model linked academic choice (e.g., electing to take higher level math

35

courses) to expectations of success and the subjective value of the course. In order
for one to choose higher level math courses, one would have to not only possess
confidence in one's ability to learn, but also would have to view the course as one
of value. While the relationships between confidence and other variables have not
been definitively established, it is quite clear that achievement of girls in areas that
have been male-dominated may be affected differentially by several self-perception
variables.

Although research examining same-sex and coeducational schools in general
has investigated achievement of students in various subjects (including mathematics
achievement), only recently has specific research been undertaken to examine the
effect of class type on mathematics' achievement and variables affecting that
achievement. Rowe (1988) was able to randomly assign junior high school
students into either same-sex or coeducational classes for math instruction over the
course of two years. Random assignment was important because one of the
foremost criticisms of research examining same-sex and coeducational schools had
been the contention that the self-selection of students into same-sex schools had
confounded the findings (Marsh, 1989). Unfortunately, due to scheduling
problems, some of the students in Rowe’s study were forced to switch to the
opposite class in the second year. However, this switch afforded the opportunity to
examine a possible shift in attitudes and achievement from coeducational classes to
same-sex classes or vice versa. Rowe found a strong relationship between
achievement and confidence, especially for students in same-sex classes. In
addition, students in the same-sex classes increased in confidence over time.
Confidence also was a significant predictor of enrollment in an upper level math
course the following year. Finally, he found that boys who were switched to the
same-sex class increased in confidence while girls who were switched to the
coeducational classes decreased in confidence.

36

Examples from these two disciplines have demonstrated that differences in
students' perceptions may not only be related to achievement differences, but might
also be a function of the type of class in which one learns. Examining confidence
and the factors that may influence it may provide insights into existing educational
practices. The role of self-confidence (or self-efficacy) and its impact on learning is
discussed next.

ConfidenceandSelfsfficataLThm

Confidence has been viewed generally as a global term indicating a belief in
one's own abilities. Bandura (1986) used the term "self-efficacy" to refer to
people’s judgments of their capabilities to organize and execute courses of action to
attain certain performances. Therefore, self-efficacy is not one's perceptions of
personal skills but is a judgment of one's ability to use the skills one possesses.
Although ability contributes to performance, perceived self-efficacy operates
partially independently of those abilities (Bandura, 1986). Furthermore, in order
for self-efficacy beliefs to influence actions, one must possess the requisite skills as
well as proper incentives or motivations.

According to Bandura (1977, 1986), self-efficacy judgments will have
diverse effects in any achievement setting. Perceived self-efficacy will influence
one's choice of activities, how much effort one chooses to put into the activity, and
the amount of persistence sustained by the individual who experiences failure.
Individuals high in self-efficacy in a particular domain will choose activities that
will contribute to the growth of competencies in that domain, with each new
success fostering an incentive to attempt more difficult skills. When difficulties
arise, those high in self-efficacy will exert greater effort to overcome those

difficulties than those who entertain self-doubts. Furthermore, highly efficacious

37

individuals will maintain that effort longer, thus increasing probabilities for
success, and thereby strengthening their efficacy beliefs.

People gain knowledge about their skills or about their ability to acquire skills
from four principle sources of information. The most influential source of efficacy
information is through performance accomplishments because they are based on
actual mastery experiences. Secondly, people may increase or decrease their own
efficacy by watching similar others succeed or fail. A third source of efficacy is
through verbal persuasion, either by another person or through one’s own self-talk.
A fourth source of information is gained through one’s physiological state; reading
one's own somatic arousal level may give clues as to how efficacious one really

feels.

Ill: 1.. [Slfim 'El'
Schunk (1984, 1985) used Bandura's theory of self-efficacy to provide an

understanding of what he called "motivated learning." Motivated learners are
driven to acquire skills and knowledge during activities rather than to simply
complete the activities (Brophy, 1983). However, Schunk (1985) also stressed the
importance of possessing necessary incentives to perform. Students low in
self-efficacy may work only halflreartedly on a task because they doubt their ability
to perform well. On the other hand, highly efficacious students might work only
halflreartedly not because they doubt their ability but because completing the task
may not be important to them.

Fermema and Peterson (1985) proposed a model of mathematics achievement
that also draws from Bandura's theory of self-efficacy (see Figure 1). They
hypothesized that in order to do mathematics, one must engage in autonomous
learning behavior. This behavior included working independently on high-level

tasks, persisting at those tasks, and choosing to do and achieve success in those

38

tasks. Whether or not one chooses to engage in autonomous learning behavior is a
function of both one's internal motivational beliefs and external or societal
influences. Internal motivational beliefs include confidence in one's ability to learn,
gender-role orientation, the perceived usefulness of the task, and attributional style.
In addition, external or societal forces can also influence internal beliefs. Although
there can be many external factors that influence either motivation or directly
influence autonomous learning behavior, Fennema and Peterson focused on two of
the most important external influences: teacher-pupil interactions and classroom
activities in which boys and girls participate.

An important external factor that may play a role in increasing or undermining
students' efficacy beliefs is class context (Schunk, 1984). Two factions of class
context deserve mention. The first is the teacher's behavior. Male and female
teachers have been shown to be more similar than different, both in their general
approaches to insn'uction and in their interactions with male and female students
(Brophy, 1985). However, teachers may not react to male and female students
similarly. Probably the most common difference in teaching behavior toward boys
and girls is that boys get more attention from teachers, which may or may not be
positive (French & French, 1984). Part of this is due to the fact that boys engage in
more attention-getting techniques. Also, teachers have been found to have higher
educational expectancies for boys, especially during the adolescent years (Good,
Sikes, & Brophy, 1973). Overall, though, these differences are relatively minor
and are usually situationally determined rather than planned and systematic
(BrOphy, 1985).

On the other hand, there is evidence that boys and girls in the same learning
context may perceive that environment differently (Brophy, 1985: Eccles &
Blumenthal, 1985). For example, boys and girls in a coeducational physical
education class may view what is happening in the class differently from one

39

another, with boys finding that coeducation fosters efficacious beliefs while girls do
not. In fact, Eccles and Blumenthal (1985) agree with research presented earlier
that some environments (possibly coeducation) may facilitate achievement in boys,
while the same context may dampen or have little positive effect on girls’
achievements. In some classrooms, they felt that the brightest girls were not being
nurtured to the same extent as were the boys. Powell and Powell (1983) echoed
this sentiment, as they felt that high schools often posed a problem for female
adolescents because the culture of the high school does not sufficiently maintain the
zest that girls often display in earlier grades. In addition, classroom climate may
even play a role in reinforcing sex differences in attitudes, beliefs, and

performances.

Summary
The coeducation/same-sex debate has had a long and controversial history.

Proponents and opponents alike have been able to produce research that supports
their stance. Although this research has certainly been equivocal, two clear trends,
one in education in general and one in physical education, can be cited.

The first obvious trend is that boys seem to benefit from coeducation. Even
pmponents of same-sex education do not deny this observation. However, the
effect of coeducation or same-sex education on girls has not been shown as clearly.
Quantitative research is somewhat divided, but observational research, especially in
physical education, has identified a somewhat dimmer view of coeducation for
girls. Unfortunately, there has not been enough research of this type to arrive at
any firm conclusions concerning girls.

The second trend is that research comparing performances of students in
coeducational and same-sex physical education classes has shown little or no

performance differences. Most of the coeducation/same-sex research in physical

40

education has been outcome-oriented; that is, the question has been "who will
perform best after a physical education instructional unit - students in coeducational
classes or students in same-sex classes?" However, this type of research does not
look at the antecedents of performance. Like earlier research in mathematics and
science education, examining perceptions that students have about themselves and
their physical education activities as well as their class environments may provide
results that are not only more informative but are also more useful to physical
educators.

The role that self-confidence or self-efficacy has in achievement was
discussed in relation to class context. Research in disciplines other than physical
education has shown that confidence plays a role in future course choices and in
achievement, and that confidence may also be mediated by class context (i.e.,
coeducational or same-sex). In addition, how useful one considers a class to be or
how one sex-types a class may influence self-confidence in that class.
Furthermore, some research has found more sex-typing of activities or courses in
coeducational contexts than in same-sex ones. Physical educators may be able to
monitor their students' perceptions of their abilities and of the activities, and
subsequently structure activities where all students can be successful. For example,
if findings suggest that girls are less confident in coeducational classes, instructors
in those classes should be particularly aware of that situation and try to increase
their chances for success. In addition, if research finds that gender-role stereotypes
toward various activities are occurring more in coeducational classes than in
same-sex ones, teachers should be especially cognizant of students' perceptions in
those classes and work to change them.

The present experiment examined perceptions that students in physical
education had about their abilities, the activity (basketball), and their class

environment. Of prime importance in this investigation was the effect that attending

41

either a coeducational physical education class or a same-sex class had on the
self-confidence of the students in those classes. Additionally, students' perceptions

of their class environments were examined.

CHAPTERIII
Method
5]. I]: .

Subjects for this experiment were 204 middle school students (108 boys and 96 girls)
and 194 high school students (100 boys and 94 girls) who attended four middle class,
suburban schools in the mid-Michigan area. Permission was obtained from school
administrators, physical education teachers, parents, and the students themselves for
participation in this experiment. Subjects were students who attended required
coeducational physical education classes which were taught by either a male or a female
teacher. Four physical education classes in each of the four schools participated in the
experiment. In two of the classes, students were split according to gender with the male
instructor teaching the boys and the female insn'uctor teaching the girls. In the
coeducational classes, students were randomly assigned to either the male teacher or the
female teacher, with boys and girls evenly divided between the two classes. Therefore,
essentially four new classes were created at each school. All eight of the high school
classes were composed of ninth graders, whereas the eight middle school classes were
composed of both sixth and seventh graders. All middle school same-sex classes and two
middle school coeducational classes consisted of seventh graders while two coeducational
classes consisted of sixth graders. Originally the intent was to use the same grade at each
level, but difficulty in obtaining schools for the experiment resulted in the use of the two
sixth grade classes at one of the middle schools. Table 1 provides a summary of the design
and assignment to groups.

The instructors who implemented the treatment in this study were experienced

42

43

teachers. The number of years of experience ranged from 6 to 26 years. Male teachers
(11 = 4) averaged 22.5 (SD = 6.35) years of experience and female teachers (11 = 4)
averaged 11 years (SD = 6.48). Middle school teachers had been teaching for a slightly
longer period of time (M = 18.75, SD = 9.22) than had high school teachers (M = 14.75,
SD = 8.66). In addition, the teachers had been in their respective school systems an
average of 7.75 years (SD = 4.86) for the female teachers and 18 years (SD = 10.10) for
the male teachers. Middle school teachers averaged 14.5 years (SD = 10.47) in their
respective schools while high school teachers averaged 11.25 years (SD = 8.88).

 

 

Table 1
W
Ma1e_n* remaren" SubIctal
Cmducaticnalflasses:
Middle School 54 43 97
High School 44 40 84
SubTotal 98 83 181
SamcesexfilasseaClasses:
Middle School 61 53 1 14
High School 5 6 57 113
SubTotal 1 17 110 227
Total 215 193 408

*n's reflect the total number of students in the classes. Due to missing data, not all subjects
were included in the MANOVAs.

 

44

For the purpose of this experiment, each teacher taught one coeducational class and one
same-sex class for 10 lessons of basketball. Male teachers taught all-boy classes while
female teachers taught all-girl classes. The teachers were required to keep attendance,
follow the supplied lesson plans, and participate in an interview after the instructional unit.

As compensation, all teachers were offered $40.

DependentMeasures

W. This scale was adapted from Fennema
and Sherman's (1976) Confidence in Learning Mathematics Scale to reflect confidence in
learning basketball. The adapted scale consisted of five positively and five negatively stated
items, with responses on a scale of 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). The
negatively worded items were reverse scored. A student's confidence in learning basketball
score was the mean of the 10 questions employed in the scale, with the higher scores
indicating greater confidence. This scale measured a student's overall confidence in learning
basketball skills and is included in Appendix A. Fennema and Sherman reported a split-half
reliability of .93 in their original scale of 12 items. Split-half reliability for subjects in the
present study was .78.

W. The perception of basketball as masculine
(i.e., more appropriate for males) was measured by an adaptation of Fennema and
Sherman's (1976) Math as a Male Domain Scale. This adapted scale was also a 10-item
questionnaire which used the same 5-point Likert Scale as the Confidence in Leaming
Basketball Scale (see Appendix A). Positive items were reverse scored so that the higher
scores would reflect a greater perception of basketball as a masculine activity. Split-half
reliability for the Fennema and Sherman's original scale of 12 items was .87. Split-half
reliability for the subjects in this study was .82.

45

WW. Students' perceptions of the usefulness of learning
basketball for their future leisure time was assessed by a revision of the Usefulness of

Mathematics Scale (Fennema & Sherman, 1976) which is also included in Appendix A. As
in the previous two scales, this questionnaire had five positively and five negatively worded
items and employed a 5-point Likert scale, with negatively stated items being reverse
scored. Fennema and Sherman reported a split-half reliability of .88 for the 12 items on
their scale. Split-half reliability for the subjects in this study was .77.

Although all of the original scales of Fennema and Sherman (1976) each contained 12
items, the scales for this study were limited to 10 statements each in order to limit the
number of questions that subjects would be answering. Results of the split-half reliability
tests on the adapted scales supported the internal consistency within each scale.

ClasaEnldmnment

Perceptions of the class environment were examined by three questionnaires. Students
first stated their perceptions of the overall class environment. Next, they answered a
gender- specific questionnaire that asked them to answer in relation to their own gender. The
third questionnaire was identical to the second except that students answered in relation to
the opposite gender.

W The first questionnaire dealt with
students' perceptions of the overall class environment, taking into consideration the class as
a whole. This questionnaire, designed by the author, consisted of one statement for each of
six environmental variables rated on a 10-point Likert scale. Students rated perceptions of
the overall class environment in relation to student behavior, class competitiveness, teacher
support, student affiliative and helping behavior, student involvement in the class, and class
enjoyment (see Appendix B). These environmental variables (with the exception of class
enjoyment) were chosen to parallel the subscales of the gender-specific perceptions of the

environment questionnaire that is discussed next.

' . In addition to the overall

 

perceptions of the environment, perceptions were examined with respect to gender of the
subject. The scale chosen to measure these perceptions was adapted from the Classroom
Environment Questionnaire (Moos & Trickett, 1973) to make them applicable to physical
education and basketball. Moos and Trickett's original scale consisted of nine subscales that
measured students' perceptions of their class and teacher. For this study, adaptations of
only five of the subscales were used: (a) class order and organization, (b) competition, (c)
teacher support, ((1) affiliation, and (e) involvement. The subscales of teacher innovation,
task orientation, teacher control, and rule clarity were not included. Moos and Trickett
reported an internal consistency for their five subscales, ranging from r = .67 (competition)
to r = .85 (student involvement). Six-week test-retest reliability ratings ranged from r = .73
(affiliation) to r = .89 (teacher support).

Four of the subscales for this study consisted of 10 items, each rated on a 5-point Likert
scale. - However, the class order and organization subscale was broken down into two
subscales of five questions each: student behavior and class organization. An examination
of the questions which made up the order and organization subscale showed that five
questions were specific to the student (behavior) and five were specific to the teacher
(organization). Therefore, this environmental questionnaire contained six subscales. A
student's score was calculated by finding the mean of all the items for each individual
subscale. Internal consistency (coefficient alpha) for each subscale in this study was as
follows: (a) student behavior -- r = .74, (b) class organization -- r = .61, (c) class
competitiveness -- r a .60, (d) teacher support - r, = .76, (e) affiliative and helping
behavior -- r = .75, and (f) student involvement -- r = .79. Deleting items individually did
not result in higher coefficients for any of the subscales. A sample of the entire

gender-specific environment questionnaire, referring only to girls, is located in Appendix C.

 

v-u . e . The gender-specific

questionnaire was used for two different purposes. As previously discussed, subjects

47

answered the questionnaire in relation to their own gender, thus providing more information
than could be obtained by the earlier questionnaire which examined overall perceptions of
the environment. However, subjects were also given a similar questionnaire that asked
them to answer in relation to the opposite gender. In this questionnaire, the class
organization subscale was omitted because this scale did not refer specifically to students
and the information obtained would have been redundant.

Procedure

Permission was obtained from all school districts to conduct this study in physical
education classes. A letter explaining the study was sent to the parents of the students
involved and parental permission was obtained before the child was included in the data
collection (see Appendix D). In addition, permission was granted by the Human Subjects
Committee at Michigan State University. Students who did not receive permission to be
included in the study, or who chose not to participate, continued as members of the class but
did not complete any self-report forms. Confidentiality on questionnaires was maintained
by the use of a code number. This code number consisted of a student's first and last
initials and birthdate (for example, 052878) and was used on all questionnaires except the
postoquestionnaire. The post-questionnaire was completed by students anonymously.

Physical education teachers from the four schools were enlisted to implement the
treatment that consisted of a 10-lesson unit of basketball. Identical lesson plans were given
to each middle school and to each high school (see Appendix E). The middle school and
high school lesson plans varied somewhat due to the skill level of the students. Teachers
were also given a schedule of events, a set of instructions (both verbally and in writing)
concerning class management, and also received a packet of basketball instructional
materials and a notebook.

Approximately a week before the experiment, subjects completed a background

48

questiormaire. This questionnaire asked subjects to state their age, gender, grade, and
school, and to identify the sports in which they were members of a team, and also the sports
in which they simply participated. In addition, they were asked to mark on a 5-point Likert
scale how important it was for them to learn skills in basketball class (see Appendix F).

In the class period prior to beginning the basketball unit, students completed the
Confidence in Learning Basketball Scale, the Usefulness of Basketball Scale, and the
Gender-appropriateness of Basketball Scale. As suggested by Fennema and Sherman
(1976), items in these scales were distributed throughout one instrument. This scale was
completed while students were still in their regular physical education classes (that is, before
they knew that they would be attending different classes) and was administered by the
experimenter and an assistant.

After classes had been assigned as either coeducational or same-sex, students in the
coeducational classes were randomly assigned to either the male teacher or the female
teacher. Subjects then received instruction in basketball skills for 10 lessons. As stated
earlier, teachers were given lesson plans in order to keep lesson content consistent from
school to school and from class to class. Lessons were specific to appropriate objectives at
each grade level and were to be identical across classes within each grade. From
observations by the experimenter and from interviews with the teachers, classes were not
identical in the amount of time spent on specific skills, although they were identical in
content. Because every class is inherently unique, some of the material in the lesson plans
was accomplished faster in some classes than others. Essentially, the lessons were, if not
identical, very similar in coeducational and same-sex classes.

On the last day of the unit, students were first asked to complete the overall environment
scale. They then completed the gender-specific environment scale in which they answered
for their own gender. Next, they completed the questionnaire containing the pretest
subscales: the Confidence in Learning Basketball Scale, the Usefulness of Basketball
Scale, and the Gender-apprOpriateness of Basketball Scale. Finally, students completed the

49

gender-specific environment questionnaire again, this time in relation to the opposite gender.

In the physical education class following their basketball unit, students completed a
post-questionnaire concerning their class type preferences and their general perceptions of
coeducational physical education classes, and also rated their basketball ability (i.e., did they
perceive themselves to be better, worse or about the same as others of the same gender in
their basketball class). To maximize honest answers on this questionnaire, no student
identification was recorded. The post-questionnaire is contained in Appendix G.

Throughout the experiment, the researcher visited each of the classes three times to
insure that procedures were being implemented. In addition, interviews were conducted
with each teacher after the basketball unit to obtain background information and to verify
that the classes were conducted properly throughout the unit. Teachers were also free to talk
about how they felt the classes progressed and their own preferences for class type.

IreannentcttheData

The data were analyzed using MAN OVAs and regression analyses. Initially, Pearson
product moment conelations were obtained for all pre- and post-instruction dependent
variables to determine the appropriateness of analyzing them in a MAN OVA.

To examine possible differences on all post-instruction dependent variables between
boys taught by the male instructor in a coeducational class and boys taught by the female
instructor in a coeducational class (or girls taught by a male instructor and girls taught by a
female instructor), multivariate tests on gender of instructor were conducted on boys and
girls at each grade level. If the multivariate E was significant, the univariate E's were
examined. If no differences existed, scores from these classes were combined for all further
analyses. If there were differences, only comparisons between same gender students and
teachers would be made.

To examine whether the girls in the coeducational classes differed from the girls in the

50

single-sex classes and boys in the coeducational classes differed from boys in single-sex
classes on the pre-instruction self-perception variables, preliminary multivariate tests on
class type were conducted at each grade level, with the pre-instruction confidence,
usefulness, and gender-appropriateness scales as the dependent variables. If differences
existed, the pre-instruction scores would be used as covariates in the subsequent analyses.
Hypotheses 1 through 5 were tested a priori using multivariate unique contrasts. A
combination of forced entry and stepwise solution regression analyses were conducted to
test Hypothesis 6. Separate post hoc analyses examining the self-perception variables,
perceptions of the overall environment, and gender-specific perceptions of the environment
in which students were answering for their own gender were conducted using 2 x 2 x 2
(Class Type x Gender x Grade) MANOVAs. All tests of simple effects were compared
using Tukey post hoc tests. Also, a 2 x 2 x 2 (Gender x Grade x Gender Viewpoint) mixed
factorial design with gender viewpoint as the within-subjects factor was utilized to compare
gender-specific perceptions of the environment between own gender and opposite gender.
Lastly, students' class type preferences were analyzed by chi square tests and student
answers to open-ended questions concerning likes and dislikes of coeducational classes

were tallied, grouped, and presented as percentages and modal responses.

CHAPTERIV

Results

This chapter is divided into two major sections. In the first section, the results of a
priori tests on the individual hypotheses are reported as categorized in Chapter 1. The
second section reports all post hoc analyses. Included under the post hoc analyses section
are those multivariate analyses that were not stated as a priori hypotheses. Because a great
portion of this study was exploratory, the post hoc analyses comprise the bulk of the
results section. The post hoc analyses are further subdivided into (a) analyses that examine
the self-perception variables, (b) analyses that examine perceptions of the environment, and
(c) analyses conducted on the post-questionnaire. The alpha level for all analyses was set
at .05; however, actual p values are given when available so that significance levels can be
reported more accurately. To test for simple effects, Tukey post hoc pairwise comparisons
were utilized throughout the analyses. Also, because of unequal n’s in each cell, the
regression approach to MAN OVA was utilized. Using this method, all effects were
assessed simultaneously, with each effect adjusted for all other effects in the model.
Correlations for the variables involved in each MAN OVA are reported in Appendix H. For
each multivariate test that was significant, the Wilks' Lambda E is reported. Also, within
each MANOVA, discriminant analyses were conducted Standardized discriminant

function coefficients (DEC) are reported for each significant variable as well as effect
sizes (ES).

51

52

2].. El

Initially, several preliminary analyses were conducted. In the first analysis,
pretreatment self-perception variables (confidence, usefulness, and gender-appropriateness
of basketball) were analyzed to check for preexisting differences between same-sex and
coeducational classes. Separate analyses were conducted for each gender and grade level.
No class type differences were found in any of the analyses; therefore, pretreatment
variables were not used as covariates for the post hoc analyses.

The second analysis was conducted to ascertain whether gender of the teacher in the
coeducational classes influenced self-perception variables. For each gender and grade
level, a one-way MANOVA was conducted with the Confidence in Leaming Basketball
Scale, the Usefulness of Basketball Scale, and the Basketball Gender-appropriateness Scale
as dependent variables and teacher gender as the independent variable. None of the four
analyses resulted in significant findings. Therefore, for purposes of analyzing the
self-perception variables, students in coeducational classes taught by the male teacher were
combined with those taught by the female teacher. Summary tables for these analyses are
contained in Appendices I and J.

Further preliminary analyses were conducted to determine if gender of

teacher had an effect on students' perceptions of environmental variables in the
coeducational classes. Two one-way AN OVAs were conducted for teacher gender: one
using perceptions of the overall environment as dependent variables and one using
perceptions of students when they answered for their own gender. Neither of these two
analyses resulted in any significant differences. Therefore, subjects in coeducational
classes were combined for the next two analyses. Summary tables for these analyses are
contained in Appendices K and L.

Finally, one-way MANOVAs were conducted for each gender at each grade level

using teacher gender as the independent variable and the gender-specific environmental

53

variables (opposite gender) as the dependent variables. Only students in coeducational
classes were included in these analyses because they were the only students to answer
opposite-gender questionnaires. These analyses revealed a significant teacher gender effect
for middle school girls, E (5, 37) = 2.48, p < .05. Univariate tests showed that student
behavior was the only variable that reached significance, E (l, 41) = 6.83, p = .01. The
perceptions of middle school girls who had a female teacher were higher (M = 3.264,

312 = .744) than the perceptions of girls who had a male teacher CM = 2.724, SD = .598)
regarding the behavior of boys in their classes. Because of this finding, student behavior
was analyzed separately from the other environmental variables, with separate analyses for
girls taught by female teachers and for girls taught by male teachers. Because there was no
significant difference in student behavior when the influence of teacher gender was
examined for boys, all boys were combined into one analysis. Summary tables for these
analyses are contained in Appendix M.

Banenmentalflrmtheses

BEE [:1 I l SlE- . I! 'll
Hypothesis 1 stated that boys at all levels would exhibit greater self-confidence for
learning basketball, view basketball more strongly as a male activity, and perceive
basketball as more useful to future recreational activities than would girls. Results of a
multivariate a priori analysis, examining gender differences for all the self-perception
variables together, showed partial support for this hypothesis. The hypothesis that boys
would be more confident than girls was not supported, E(1,392) = 3.35, p = .068.
However, boys perceived basketball as being more masculine than did girls,
E (1,392) = 170.78, p < .001 (E5 = 1.34), and they also considered basketball as being
more useful, E (1,392) = 6.02, p = .015 (E3 = 0.24). A breakdown of all means and
standard deviations for the self-perception variables are reported in Table 2.

54

 

 

Tabch
HH«§ ou'o ‘-I.’r‘-iOOtU’-_t cu .-H-.rt Dr‘s-H °..._‘-.,..- a,
Gender;
11 Confidence Usefulness appropriateness
MALES
MiddlsaSchml
Coed 54 3.66 (.49) 3.90 (.70) 2.40 (.76)
Same-sex 54 3.47 (.58) 3.75 (.90) 2.54 (.75)
Hiahfichcol
Coed 44 3.55‘ (.39) 3.59 (.82) 2.35 (.77)
Same-sex 56 3.35 (.48) 3.36 (.98) 2.48 (.74)
Iota], 208 3.50 (.49) 3.65 (.83) 2.45 (.75)
FEMALES
MiddleSchml
Coed 42 3.41 (.56) 3.41 (1.04) 1.71 (.54)
Same—sex 53 3.56 (.48) 3.65 (.88) 1.59 (.49)
Highjchml
Coed 40 3.27 (.63) 3.37 (.85) 1.56 (.50)
Same-sex 53 3.41 (.45) 3.34 (.72) 1.52 (.44)
Ietal 188 3.42 (.52) 3.45 (.86) 1.59 (.49)

 

Hypothesis 2 stated that girls in same-sex classes would exhibit greater
self-confidence, perceive basketball as less of a masculine activity, and perceive basketball
as more useful than girls in coeducational class, whereas boys in coeducational classes
would exhibit higher confidence scores and perceive basketball as less of a masculine
activity than would boys in same-sex classes. Again, partial support for this hypothesis

was received. A multivariate a priori analysis comparing the confidence levels of girls in

55

coeducational classes with girls in same-sex classes did not quite reach significance,

E (1,392) = 3.28, p = .071. There were also no class type differences in girls' perceptions
of basketball as a masculine activity or how useful they perceived basketball to be.
However, when boys in coeducational classes were contrasted with boys in same-sex
classes, results showed that boys were more confident in coeducational classes than in
same-sex ones, E (1,392) = 7.86, p = .005 (ES = 0.29), thus lending partial support to the
hypothesis. Also, boys in coeducational and same-sex classes did not differ on how
gender-appropriate they perceived basketball to be. Confidence means (with standard
deviations in parentheses) for boys and girls in coeducational and same-sex classes are
graphically depicted in Figure 2.

 

   

     
   
   

  

 
 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

3.7 -
‘ 3.61(.45)
3.6 " I I I
' . '1'2'2'2
{‘1‘}; 3.41(.53)
II \ \ .
3'5 555:3 3.48(.46) ' a 0"“
I Same-sex
. 3 4 q 215:1:
g 23:15:
1 ;,;.;,;,
8 3-3' 2w:
. ,,;.;,;.
3 2 b\’\’\’\
M. Means and standard deviations (in parentheses) for boys and girls in each

class type for confidence in learning basketball (5-point scale).

 

Hypothesis 3 stated that boys in same-sex classes would view their classes as more
competitive than boys in coeducational classes, whereas girls in coeducational classes

would view their classes as more competitive than girls in same-sex classes. To examine

56

this hypothesis, two a priori analyses were conducted. The first analysis dealt with
students' perceptions of the overall environment, taking into consideration all students in
the class, while the second analysis examined perceptions of the environment in which
subjects were concerned only with their own gender. Again, an a priori analyses,
contrasting boys in coeducational classes with boys in same-sex classes and girls in
coeducational classes with girls in same-sex classes, was conducted. For overall
environment, boys viewed same-sex classes as more competitive than coeducational ones,
E (1,393) = 10.37, p = .001 GS = 0.45), supporting the first part of the hypothesis.
However, there was no difference between girls in coeducational classes and girls in

same-sex classes in perceptions of class competitiveness, E (1,393) = .072, p > .05

 

         

   
  

 

 

 

 

 

 

(see Figure 3).
7.1 -
g . - 5.95
2 ,,1 //E
o - r
6.5
6 3 - v é I Same-sex
8 . /§ 3;: 5.90
6.1 .. /§. ( ' ) (1.58)
5'9 - ‘ /E: K’\ s s
o 5.7 'l ‘_ I I ///;§: Kit/2:1
Male Female
Eiguml. Means and standard deviations (in parentheses) for boys and girls in each

class type for overall class competitiveness (IO-point scale).

When boys answered only for their own gender, they still perceived more
competition among themselves in same-sex classes than in coeducational classes,

E (1, 393) = 6.32, p = .012 (E5 = 0.34), again supporting the hypothesis. However,

57

opposite to the hypothesis, girls, like boys, felt that there was more competition among
themselves in same-sex classes than in coeducational classes, E (1,393) = 13.67, p < .001
(E5 = 0.58). The means and standard deviations for this analysis is depicted in Figure 4.
(Note: in each figure depicting gender-specific perceptions of the environment, boys
answering for boys are designated as "male/male", whereas girls answering for girls are
designated "female/female").

Hypothesis 4 stated that girls in coeducational classes would view their class
environment as more competitive than boys in coeducational classes. An a priori analysis
contrasting boys and girls in coeducational classes provided no support for this hypothesis,
as boys M = 5.91, SD = 2.20) and girls (M = 5.99, SD = 2.51) in coeducational classes
did not differ in the amount of competition perceived, E (1, 393) = .054, p > .05.
Contrary to the hypothesis, when students answered for their own gender, boys in
coeducational classes perceived more competition among themselves than girls in
coeducational classes did among themselves, E (l, 393) = 40.20, p < .001 (E5 = 0.88).

Hypothesis 5 stated that students in same-sex classes would perceive their classes as
having better student behavior and more class organization than students in coeducational
classes. Results of the a priori analysis that contrasted students in coeducational classes
with students in same-sex classes showed that students perceived better overall behavior in
same-sex classes, E (1,393) = 5.54, p = .019 (£5 = 0.24), thus providing support for this
part of the hypothesis. However, when students answered only for their own gender,
boys and girls both felt that they were better behaved in coeducational classes than in
same-sex ones, E (1,393) = 16.55, p < .001 (E5 = 0.59). There was no difference in the
perceptions of class organization between students in coeducational classes and students in
same-sex classes, E (1,393) = .01, p > .05. Means and standard deviations for these

comparisons can be found in Table 3.

58

 

3.5 -

     

 
    

3.3 -

   
 
   
     
  

Eleoed

3.1 - ,
Same-sax

   

-.'1\->.-.<-:\

 
 

2.9 -

u

\

  

->'

 

 

III/IIIIIIIIII
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
ll/I/lll/l’ll/
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
III/III/I/IIII
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
III/II/IIIII/l

  
     

 

2.7 -

Male/male Female/female

GENDER-SPECIFIC COMPETITION MEANS

Class competitiveness means and standard deviations (in parentheses) for
each class type when students answered for own gender (5-point scale).

E

 

 

 

 

_ Quid. flatness);
Manables Classes<n= 181) Classes(n=216)
Overall Student Behavior 6.91 (1.83) 7.34 (1.84)
Gender-specific Student Behavior 3.46 (.69) 3.18 (.74)

ClassOrganization 3.74 (.60) 3.75 (.59)

 

59

WW2:

Hypotheses 6 stated that how useful one considered basketball to be, how masculine
one considered basketball to be (gender-appropriate), and how competitive the class was
would be significant predictors of self-confidence for learning basketball. Regression
analyses were conducted separately for boys and girls using both forced entry and stepwise
procedures. Variables entered into the analysis were usefulness of basketball,
gender-appropriateness of basketball, competitiveness of the class, student behavior,
teacher support, student affiliation, student involvement, class type, importance of learning
basketball skills in the class, and number of sports in which the student participated. As
per the hypothesis, the first three variables entered into the analysis were usefulness of
basketball, gender-appropriateness of basketball, and class competitiveness. After those
variables had been entered, the remaining variables were entered into the analysis
simultaneously using stepwise procedures. For boys, usefulness of basketball
(B = .653, t = 12.33, p < .001) and competitiveness of the class
(3 = -.127, t = -2.42, p = .017) were the only significant predictors of self-confidence,
accounting for 46.4% of the variance. Specifically, those who perceived basketball as
more useful and who perceived the class as less competitive were more confident than
those who did not. Sex-appropriateness of basketball was not a significant predictor for
the boys.

For girls, usefulness of basketball was also the best predictor of self-confidence
(fi = .492, t = 7.80, p < .001). As predicted, gender-appmpriateness of basketball was a
predictor (fi = -.207, t = -4.00, p < .001), along with the number of sports in which one
had participated in the last two years (3 = .143, t = 2.75, p = .007), perceived teacher
support given to the class (B = .126, t = 2.42, p = .017), and the importance placed on
learning basketball skills (3 = -.141, t = 2.38, p = .018). Essentially for girls, the more
useful one perceived basketball to be, the less one sex-typed basketball as masculine, the
more sports one participated in, the more perceived teacher support given the class, and the

60

more importance placed upon learning basketball skills in class, the greater the
self-confidence for learning basketball. These five variables accounted for 56.8% of the

variance. Perceived competitiveness of the class was not a significant predictor for girls.

Summoffisncrimcntalflmthm

Hypothesis 1 was partially supported. Overall, boys were not more confident than
girls in their ability to learn basketball. However, they perceived basketball to be more
useful and as more of a masculine activity than did girls. Hypothesis 2 was also partially
supported. Boys in coeducational classes were significantly more confident than boys in
same-sex classes. Although the means were in the hypothesized direction, girls in
same-sex classes were not significantly more confident than girls in coeducational classes.

In partial support of Hypothesis 3, boys perceived the overall class environment in
same-sex classes as more competitive than coeducational classes. However, girls did not
perceive a' class type difference in overall class competitiveness. When students answered
for their own gender, boys and girls both felt that same-sex classes were more competitive
than coeducational ones. Hypothesis 4 was not supported, as there was no difference
between boys' and girls‘ perceptions of overall class competitiveness in coeducational
classes. However, boys in coeducational classes felt that they were more competitive
among themselves than girls in coeducational classes felt about their competitiveness with
each other.

Partial support was found for Hypothesis 5. Students perceived better overall
behavior in same-sex classes; however, when they answered for their own gender, boys
and girls both felt that they were better behaved in coeducational classes. There were no
differences in perceptions of class organization between students in coeducational classes
and students in same-sex classes.

Finally, the sixth hypothesis was also partially supported. The regression analyses

showed that, for boys, usefulness of basketball and overall class competitiveness were

61

significant predictors of confidence for learning basketball. For girls, usefulness of
basketball was the strongest predictor of confidence, but gender-appropriateness of
basketball, sport participation, perceived teacher support given the class, and importance of
learning basketball were also significant predictors.

EnnheLAnalyses

As stated previously, post hoc analyses comprise the bulk of the results section.
Specific tests of the hypotheses are not included in this section. This section is also divided
into three subsections: (a) an examination of the self-perception variables, (b) an
examination of perceptions of the environment, and (c) an examination of the

post-questionnaire.

5 IE- . I! . l 1
Results ofa 2 x 2 x 2 (Class Type x Gender x Grade) MANOVA revealed that the
class type by gender interaction was significant, E (3,386) = 4.04, p = .008. Follow-up
univariate tests revealed a significant interaction for confidence,
E (1,388) = 10.24, p = .001 (DEC = 1.01). Post hoc tests revealed that boys in
coeducational classes M = 3.61, SD = .446) were more confident than girls in
coeducational classes (M = 3.34, SD = .647), with an effect size of 0.52. Boys in
same-sex classes were not more confident than girls in same-sex classes.
To examine who changed their confidence beliefs and in what direction they changed,
a repeated measure MAN OVA on the pretreatment and post-treatment scores for
confidence in learning basketball, usefulness of basketball, and gender-appropriateness of
basketball was conducted. In relation to self-confidence, results showed that, although

boys were more confident in coeducational classes than in same-sex classes, it was the

boys in same-sex classes who changed significantly (Mme = 3.51 to Mpost = 3.39).

62

Confidence scores of boys in coeducational classes increased only slightly (Mpre = 3.51 to

Mpost = 3.61). Results of this analysis suggest that being in a coeducational class did not

result in an increase in the confidence level of boys; rather, being in a same-sex class led to
a decrease in boys' confidence levels. Confidence means of girls in same-sex classes
increased from 3.42 at pretreatment to 3.50 at posttreatrnent, while scores of girls in
coeducational classes dropped from 3.38 at pretest to 3.34 at posttest; however, neither
change was significant (see Figure 5).

 

 

3.7 1
m J
2 ............ .0
at.l 3.6 ~ 0. ------------ .....o.... Boys-Coed
5 . —'&— Boys-SS
3 3 5 --------o Girls-Coed
E ' + Girls-SS
Q
m H
g 3.4 ._ .............
0 """""" o
3.3 . . r ,
Pro Post
Elms. Pre- and post-treatment confidence means of boys and girls in each class
type (5-point scale)

In addition, the 2 x 2 x 2 (Class Type x Gender x Grade) MANOVA also revealed a
multivariate main effect for grade, E (3,386) = 4.12, p = .007. Follow-up univariate tests
were significant for usefulness, E (1,388) = 9.15, p = .003 (DE; = -.698), and for
confidence, E (1,388) = 6.39, p = .012 (DEC = -.319). Tukey post hoc tests revealed that
middle school students perceived basketball to be more useful (M = 3.69, SD = .84)

(ES = 0.33) and also were more confident (M = 3.53, $2 = 53) (ES, = 0.28) than high
school students in learning basketball (usefulness: M = 3.41, SD = .84; confidence: M =
3.39, SD = .48) with usefulness being the stronger discriminator between groups.

63

E . [E . l V . l 1

This section reports the results of analyses conducted on the questionnaire items that
examined perceptions of the environment in three areas: (a) perceptions of the overall
environment (those in which subjects took into consideration all of the students in the
class), (b) perceptions of the environment when students considered only their own
gender, and (c) perceptions of the environment when students considered the opposite
gender.

Wm; To examine perceptions of the overall
environment, a 2 x 2 x 2 (Class Type x Gender x Grade) MANOVA was conducted.
MAN OVA results revealed significant multivariate main effects for class type,

E (5, 385) = 3.93, p = .002, and for gender, E (3,385) = 2.80, p = .017. Means for these
main effects can be seen in Appendix N. These main effects, however, were superseded
by a significant multivariate class type by gender interaction, E (5,385) = 5.73, p < .001.
Univariate tests showed significant interactions for student behavior, -

E (1, 389) = 9.77, p = .002 (DE; = -.293), affiliative and helping behavior,

E (1,389) = 14.99, p < .001 (IE9 = -.361), and competitiveness of the class,

E (1, 389) = 5.58, p = .019 (DEC = .177).

Tukey post hoc tests of simple effects for student behavior revealed that, while there
was no difference between the behavior perceived by boys and girls in the coeducational
classes, girls in same-sex classes perceived their classes to be better behaved than girls in
coeducational classes (ES_= 0.57) and boys in same-sex classes (ES = 0.48). No
difference in behavior was perceived by boys in coeducational classes and boys in

same-sex classes (see Figure 6).

 

8.0
7.82 (1.58)

7.8 -
7.6 -
7.4 -

. —u-— Male

7.01 (1.72) ' Fm“

7.0 -

6.8
T- 6.80 (1.96) 6'86 (2‘08)

6.6 I ' l
Coed Same-sex

 

 

 

OVERAIL STUDENT BEHAVIOR MEANS
‘1
N
I

Baum. Class type by gender interaction for overall student behavior (IO-point scale).

For afi'rliative and helping behavior, a similar pattern was found. Girls in
same-sex classes perceived more affiliation and helping behavior than both girls in
coeducational classes ES = 0.54) and boys in same-sex classes ES = 0.65). There was
no significant difference between boys in coeducational classes and boys in same-sex
classes or between boys and girls in coeducational classes (see Figure 7).

For competition, post hoc tests indicated that boys in same-sex classes perceived
more competition than did girls in same-sex classes ES = 0.47). Other differences in
perceived class competitiveness are reported in the a priori section in conjunction with

Hypotheses 3 and 4 (see Figure 3).

65

 

‘ 7.45 (2.02)

6.59 (1.99) —I— Male
—0— Female

4 6.23 (257)
6.08 (2.20)

5.8 t . I
Coed Same-sex

 

 

OVERALL AFFILIATION MEANS
a: o: g:
A m a:
l l 4 l

 

Emmi. Class type by gender interaction for overall affiliation ( 10-point scale).

WW Resultsofa2x2x2
(Class Type x Gender x Grade) MANOVA, with the gender-specific environment
subscales as the dependent variables, revealed multivariate main effects for class type,

E (6, 384) = 7.56, p < .001, gender, E (6, 384) = 21.93, p , > 001, and grade,

E (6, 384) = 3.07, p = .006. Means for these main effects are found in Appendix 0.
However, these main effects were superseded by a significant class type by gender
interaction, E (5,385) = 2.61, p = .024 and a significant gender by grade interaction,
E (5, 385) = 3.29, p = .006.

Univariate follow-up tests for the class type by gender interaction were significant for
_ teacher support, E(1, 389) = 7.97, p = .005 (DEC = -.654), affiliation and helping
behavior, E (l, 389) = 4.30, p = .039 (DEC = -.387), and involvement of the students,

E (1, 389) = 4.61, p = .032 (DEC = -.300), with teacher support being the strongest
discriminator among groups.

Post hoc tests of simple effects revealed that girls in coeducational and same-sex
classes perceived themselves as receiving more teacher support than did boys in

coeducational and same-sex classes (coed: ES = 0.30; same-sex: ES = 0.84) . In addition,

66

girls in same-sex classes perceived more teacher support for themselves than did girls in

coeducational classes ES a 0.33). There was no difference in perceived teacher support

between boys in same-sex classes and boys in coeducational classes (see Figure 8).

Similarly, post hoc tests revealed that girls in coeducational and same-sex classes

perceived themselves as being more affiliative than boys in coeducational ES = 0.29) and

same-sex ES = 0.69) classes. Girls perceived the same amount of affiliation and helping

behavior offered by girls in same-sex and coeducational classes. Boys, on the other hand,

perceived themselves to be more affiliative in coeducational classes than in same-sex ones

ES = 0.49). This interaction is depicted in Figure 9.

 

 

 

 

m

E 3.7

g 3.6 -

m 3°51 357 (.62)

E 3.4 -'

0 3,3 . 3.37 (.60) “—9—

E ‘ _'_
3.2 -1

U I

E 3.1 "" 3.173(N

a 3.0: 3.06 (.60)

g 2.9 I . l

g Coed Same-sex

U

E

scale).

Male/male
Female/female

Class type by gender interaction for gender-specific teacher support (S-point

67

 

 

 

 

 

to
g a.
Z 3.49 (.57)
o 3.5 " H
F d i.
3.4": 3.33 (53) 3.45 (.57)
3 3 . —-tI--- Male/male
Q - —O-- Female/female
E 3.2 -
a J
33 3.1 e
5 ‘ 3.07 53
E 3.0 I . .( )
{é} Coed Same-sex

W- Class type by gender interaction for gender-specific affiliation (5-point scale).

For involvement of students in the class, post hoc tests revealed that boys perceived
themselves to be much more involved in coeducational classes than did boys in same-sex
classes ES = 0.34). Girls in same-sex classes also perceived themselves to be more
involved than did boys in same-sex classes ES = 0.31). There was no significant
difference in the amount of involvement that girls perceived themselves as having in either
coeducational or same-sex classes (see Figure 10).

Finally, follow-up univariate tests for the gender by grade interaction showed this
interaction to be significant for student behavior, E (1, 389) = 4.35, p = .038
(DEC = -.519), and for student involvement, E (1, 389) = 4.97, p = .026 (DEC = -.950),
with student involvement being the strongest discriminating variable.

Tukey post hoc tests for student behavior showed that high school girls perceived
themselves to be better behaved than middle school girls ES =- 0.43) and high school boys
ES = 0.91). Boys in middle school and boys in high school did not perceive a
difference in their behavior. Likewise, there was no difference in perceptions of student

behavior between boys in middle school and girls in middle school (see Figure 11).

GENDER-SPECIFIC INVOLVEMENT NIEANS

E

GENDER-SPECIFIC SI'UDENT BEHAVIOR MEANS

E

68

 

 

 

 

3.5
. 3.43 (.53) 3.43 (.65)
3.4-
—P—
1 +
3.3. 3.34 (.69)
3.24 (.59)
3.2 I I
Coed Same-sex

Male/male
Female/female

Gender by class type interaction for gender-specific student involvement

 

 

 

(5-point scale).
3.8
35 .1 3.70 (.63)
l
3.4 " —fl—
1 3.40 (.76) _._
3-2 7 3.11 (.73)
3.08 (.73)
‘ :1 w
3.0 .

 

 

Middle School

I
11131: School

Male/male
Female/female

Gender by grade interaction for gender-specific student behavior (5-point

scale).

69

Post hoc tests for involvement revealed that boys perceived themselves to be
significantly more involved in their basketball classes in middle school than in high school.
High school girls also perceived themselves to be more involved in their basketball classes
than did high school boys ES = 0.34). There was no difference between middle school
boys and middle school girls in their perceptions of involvement (see Figure 12).

 

 

 

 

(I)
g 3.6

3.5-
g . 3"“ (54) 3.42 (.66)
u-l 3.41
O . —II—- Male/male
E 3 3 3.36 (.68) —o— Female/female
U - ‘

‘

3.2-
"? l 3.21 (.58)
5 3.1 . . r
g Mlddle School ngh School
0

Figure 12. Gender by grade interaction for gender-specific student involvement (5-point
scale).

01...-.,..- ... ..,.,.' -».. ...... .. . .,- , -...,. . . .A-A. .....
mjmnmem. Because the preliminary analysis revealed that student behavior was
perceived differently by middle school girls, that variable was analyzed separately for each
gender. A 2 x 2 (Grade x Gender Viewpoint) repeated measures MANOVA, with grade as
the between-subjects factor and gender viewpoint (questionnaire for own
gender/questionnaire for opposite gender) the within-subjects factor revealed that, for boys,
there was a significant main effect for gender viewpoint, E (1, 95) = 3.98, p = .049. Boys

70

felt that girls were better behaved in class than boys ES_= 0.23). A similar result was
found for girls who were taught by male instructors, E (l, 39) = 45.17, p < .001. Girls in
male-instructed classes also believed that girls were better behaved than boys ES = 1.37).
Means and standard deviations for these comparisons are included in Table 4.

The analysis for girls who were taught by a female teacher resulted in a grade by
gender viewpoint interaction, E (l, 40) = 45.55, p_< .001. Post hoc tests indicated that
middle school girls in classes taught by a female teacher did not perceive a difference in the
behavior of boys and girls. However, high school girls in classes taught by a female
teacher felt that they were better behaved than high school boys ES = 2.19). This

interaction is depicted in Figure 13.

 

 

Table4

u .. .t. ..-.t- D. 7'...» ' .4»... .-- . 01...... 01.... 't 610061

E . [S 1 El .

Mala ' n Quficnder Wrist
Middle School 54 3.22 (.75) 3.22 (.62)
High School 43 3.31 (.63) 3.64 (.44)

Esmalea
Middle School

MaleTeacher 21 3.79 (.88) 2.72 (.60)

Female Teacher 22 3.47 (.72) 3.26 (.74)
High School

MaleTeacher 20 3.67 (.58) 2.81 (.75)

Female Teacher 20 3.95 (.47) 2.58 (.78)

 

71

 

 

 

 

4.0
E .
g 3.8 - 3.95 (.47)

- 3.47 (.72)

3.6 -
g ' —¢I-— Own Gender
3 3'4 . --0— Opposite Gender
3 3.2 -
t: 3.0.: 3.26 (.74)
“3 2'8'. 2.58 (.78)
E 2.6 -

2.4 T v 1

Middle School High School

E

Grade by gender viewpoint interaction for perceptions of student behavior
for coeducational girls with female teachers (5-point scale) .

A 2 x 2 x 2 (Gender x Grade x Gender Viewpoint) MANOVA with repeated
measures on the last factor was conducted on the remaining environmental variables of
class competitiveness, affiliation and helping behavior, teacher support, and student
involvement. Results of the MAN OVA revealed a main effect for gender viewpoint,

E(4, 173) = 13.10, p < .001, and a gender by gender viewpoint interaction,
E(4, 173) = 67.18, p < .001. Means for the first order interactions and main effects can be
found in Appendix P, in addition to own- and opposite-gender comparisons.

However, the three-way interaction (gender by grade by gender viewpoint)
superseded these effects, E(4, 173) = 4.78, p = .001. This interaction was significant for
class competitiveness, E(1,176) = 7.00, p = .009 (DEC = .216) and for student
involvement, E(1,176) = 13.39, p < .001 (DEC = .946). Post hoc tests for class
competitiveness showed that middle school and high school boys and girls were in
agreement that boys were the more competitive (MS boys: ES = 1.32;

HS boys: ES = 0.91; MS girls: ES = 2.28; HS girls: ES = 1.80). Also, at both grade
levels, girls perceived boys to be higher in competitiveness than did boys (middle school:
ES = 1.02; high school: ES = 0.84). However, boys and girls rated the amount of girls'

72

competitiveness similarly. Although cell means were generally similar between middle and
high school students of the same gender, middle school girls perceived boys as being more
competitive than did high school girls ES = 0.55).

Post hoc tests for student involvement showed that, like competitiveness, boys and
girls at the middle school level perceived boys to be more involved in class (boys:
ES = 1.05; girls: ES = 0.81). However, at the high school level, while boys similarly
perceived boys to be more involved than girls ES = 0.44), girls did not perceive a
difference between the class involvement of boys and girls. Girls gave girls higher
involvement ratings than did boys at both grade levels (MS: ES = 0.60; HS: ES = 0 .48).
Girls at the middle school level gave boys higher involvement ratings than boys gave
themselves ES = 0.52). At the high school level, girls and boys rated boys' involvement
similarly. Finally, girls in middle school perceived boys to be more involved than did high
school girls ES = 0.60).

E . .

This section is divided into two parts. In the first part, chi square analyses of student
preferences for coeducational or same-sex physical education classes and basketball classes
are reported. The second part is descriptive in nature, reporting students' likes and dislikes
of coeducational classes.

W. In the post-questionnaire, students indicated whether they
preferred same-sex or coeducational physical education classes as well as same-sex or
coeducation basketball classes. They also indicated whether they were as good as, better
than, or of the same ability as those of the same gender in their basketball class. Results of
chi square analyses for physical education class preference are reported first. Variables of
interest in these analyses were: gender of student, grade level, treatment condition
(whether they had been in the coeducational or the same-sex basketball class), and ability

level compared to other students of the same gender in their class.

73

An initial chi square analysis revealed that class type preference was not dependent
upon gender, X 2 (df = l, n = 322) = 3.67, p > .05. However, a second analysis showed
that class type preference was dependent upon grade of student,

X 2 (df = 1, n = 323) = 27.04, p < .001. High school students preferred coeducational
classes while middle school students preferred same-sex ones. This finding was true for
boys,X 2 (df= l, n = 159) = 13.73, p < .001, and girls,

X 2 (df = 1, n = 163) = 15.08, p < .001. Also, there was a relationship between type of
basketball class that the student had participated in and class type preference,

X 2 (df = 1, n = 323) = 8.72, p = .003. Those who had been in the coeducational
basketball class preferred coeducational physical education classes while those who had
been in the same-sex basketball classes preferred same-sex classes. In addition, high
school boys who were in the coeducational basketball classes overwhelmingly favored
coeducational physical education classes but those who were in the same-sex basketball
classes were more evenly divided in their preferences,

X 2 (df = 1, n = 72) = 9.80, p = .002. Middle school girls who perceived their ability to
be below that of other girls preferred same-sex physical education classes,

X 2 (d1 = 1, n = 75) = 7.15, p = .028. Other than middle school girls who perceived
themselves as having less ability, ability was not a factor in class preference.

Preferences for basketball class type were generally parallel to those reported for
physical education class preference. Again, class preference was not dependent upon
gender, X 2 (df = 1, n = 348) = .367, p > .05. Middle school students preferred same-sex
basketball classes while high school students preferred coeducational ones,

X 2 (df = 1, n = 350) = 10.34, p = .001. This relationship was significant for boys,

X 2 (fit = 1, n = 182) = 7.42, p = .006, but did not reach significance for girls,

X 2 (df = 1, n = 166) = 3.45, n > .05, although the percentages in each cell for girls were
similar to those of boys. Basketball class preference was also dependent upon the type of

74

basketball class attended, X 2 (d1 = 1, n = 350) = 28.40, p < .001. Those who attended
the same-sex basketball classes preferred same-sex basketball classes while the Opposite
was true for those who attended the coeducational classes. A break-down of this analysis
by grade and gender showed that middle school boys and high school girls preferred
coeducational basketball classes only if they had been in the coeducational basketball class.
If they had participated in basketball in a same-sex class, they preferred to learn basketball
in same-sex classes. High school boys who had been in the coeducational basketball
classes overwhelmingly preferred coeducational basketball, whereas those who had been in
same-sex classes were equally divided in their preference.

WW. Besides stating their preferences for
either coeducational or same-sex physical education and basketball classes, subjects were
asked to comment on what they thought was good and bad about having boys and girls in
the same physical education class. A wide range of reasons were identified, but only the
ones with large responses are reported here.

Middle and high school girls identified learning from each other and working
together as a positive feature of coeducational classes more frequently than any other
response (22%). Although this response was also frequent among middle and high school
boys (14%), their modal response was making new friends and meeting new people
(22%). This response was also among the top reSponses for the girls (10%). The only
other frequent response given by boys was that coeducational classes gave them the
opportunity to socialize and to look at the girls (21%). Other top responses among the girls
were that there was more competition in coeducational classes (13%), that coeducational
classes provided the opportunity to see and interact with students of differing abilities
(9%), and that the boys could teach the girls (11%).

When asked what was bad about coeducational classes, the overwhelming response
from both high school and middle school girls was that boys took over games, made fun of
inferior play, or picked on the girls (49%). This response was also a topresponse among

 

75

high school boys (17%). Girls also listed boys being rougher (12%) as a negative aspect,
along with being embarrassed by how they played or looked (12%). Boys, especially
middle school boys, thought that other negative aspects of coeducational classes were that
skill was unequal, that is, boys were better (25%), and that girls too often complained or
did not try hard in class (14%). Middle school boys also noted that students often did not
like each other in coeducational classes (14%). The number one response by high school
boys (21%) and the number two response by high school girls (13%) was that there was

nothing wrong with coeducational classes.

SummmffiostflmAnalrscs
Confidence in Leaming Basketball:

1. Boys in coeducational classes were more confident than were girls in
coeducational classes.
2. Middle school students were more confident than were high school students.
Usefulness of Basketball:
1. Middle school students perceived basketball as more useful to learn for their
future recreational activities than did high school students.
Class Competitiveness:
j 1. Boys in same-sex classes perceived more overall competition than did girls in
same-sex classes.
2. Girls, regardless of class type, perceived less competitiveness among
3“ themselves than boys did among themselves.
3. Both genders and grade levels felt that boys were more competitive in
coeducational classes than were girls.
4. Girls in coeducational classes rated boys' competitive behavior higher than did
boys.

76

5. Boys and girls in coeducational classes rated the competitiveness of girls
similarly.

6. Middle school girls in coeducational classes rated boys as more competitive than
did high school girls.

Student Behavior:

1. There was no difference in overall class behavior perceived by boys and girls in

coeducational classes.
9.: 2 Girls in same-sex classes perceived their classes to be better behaved than did

girls in coeducational classes and boys in same-sex classes.

3. There was no difference in perceived class behavior between boys in
coeducational classes and boys in same-sex classes.

4. Girls, regardless of class type, perceived themselves to be better behaved than
boys perceived themselves to be.

5. Boys and girls in coeducational classes perceived their own gender to be better
behaved than did boys and girls in same-sex classes.

6. High school girls perceived themselves to be better behaved than did middle
school girls and high school boys.

7. Boys and girls in middle school did not perceive a gender difference in student
behavior.

8. Boys in middle school and boys in high school did not perceive a\difference in
student behavior.

9. Middle school girls in coeducational classes who had a female teacher perceived
boys' behavior better than did girls who had a male teacher.

10. Boys in coeducational classes and girls in coeducational classes who had a male
teacher felt that girls were better behaved than boys.

11. Middle school girls in coeducational classes taught by a female teacher did not

perceive a difference in the behavior of boys and girls.

77

12. High school girls in coeducational classes who had a female teacher felt that

they were better behaved than high school boys.

Class Organization:

1.

Girls, regardless of class type, thought that the classes were more organized

than did boys.
Affiliative and Helping Behavior:
1. Girls in same-sex classes perceived more overall affiliation and helping
X behavior than did girls in coeducational classes and boys in same-sex

classes.

2. Boys in coeducational classes, boys in same-sex classes, and girls in
coeducational classes did not differ in their overall perceptions of affiliation.

3. Girls in both coeducational and same-sex classes perceived themselves as more

3r affiliative than boys in both coeducational and same-sex classes perceived

themselves to be.

4. Girls in coeducational and same-sex classes.did not differ in perceptions of their
affiliative behavior.

5. Boys perceived themselves to be more affiliative in coeducational classes than in
same-sex ones.

6. Girls in coeducational classes felt that girls were more affiliative and helping
than were boys.

7. Boys in coeducational classes did not perceive a gender difference in affiliation.

8. Girls in coeducational classes rated themselves higher in affiliation than did
boys.

9. Boys in coeducational classes rated boys higher in affiliation than did girls.

Teacher Support:
1. There were no differences among students in perceptions of teacher

support given to the class overall.

78

2. Girls in coeducational and same-sex classes perceived themselves as receiving
>3: more teacher support than boys in coeducational and same-sex classes perceived
themselves as receiving.
3. Girls in same-sex classes perceived themselves as receiving more teacher
Y support than did girls in coeducational classes.
4. Boys' perceptions of teacher support given to boys did not differ from girls'
perceptions of teacher support given to boys.
5. Boys and girls in coeducational classes both felt that girls received more teacher
support than boys.
6. Girls in coeducational classes rated teacher support given to girls higher than
did boys.
7. The amount of teacher support given to boys in coeducational classes was rated
similarly by boys and girls.
Student Involvement:
1. Girls perceived more overall student involvement than did boys.
2. Students in same-sex classes perceived more overall student involvement than
2; did students in coeducational classes.
3. Boys perceived themselves to be more involved in coeducational classes than
did those in same-sex classes.
4. Girls in same-sex classes perceived themselves to be more involved than did
it] boys in same-sex classes.
5. Girls did not perceive a difference between their involvement in coeducational
classes and in same-sex ones.
6. Boys perceived themselves to be more involved in their classes in middle school
than in high school.
7. High school girls perceived themselves to be more involved in their classes than

high school boys perceived themselves to be.

10.

ll.

12.
13.

79

Middle school boys and girls did not perceive a gender difference in student
involvement.

Boys and girls in coeducational middle school classes and boys in high school
coeducational classes perceived boys to be more involved than girls.

High school girls in coeducational classes did not perceive a gender difference
in student involvement.

Girls in middle school gave boys higher involvement rating than boys gave
themselves, while boys and girls in high school gave boys similar involvement
ratings.

Girls at both grade levels gave girls higher involvement ratings than did boys.
Girls in middle school perceived boys to be more involved than did high school

girls.

CHAPTERV

Discussion

The primary purpose of this study was to examine the effects of class type
(coeducau’onal or same-sex) on students’ perceptions of (a) their self-confidence in learning
basketball as well as perceptions of the usefulness and gender-appropriateness of
basketball, and (b) perceptions of their physical education class environment. Based on an
extensive review of the literature examining same-sex and coeducational schools and, more
specifically, same-sex and coeducational classes in disciplines such as mathematics and
science, it was hypothesized that girls would fare better in same-sex classes and boys in
coeducational classes. Specifically, girls' self-perceptions of their confidence in learning
basketball, how they sex-typed basketball and how useful they felt basketball was to learn,
as well as their perceptions of the environment in which they learned basketball, would be
more positive in same-sex basketball classes. Boys, however, would be more confident
and perceive a more positive environment in coeducational basketball classes.

To illustrate and summarize the results (especially the class type differences), two
narratives follow. Each narrative presents fictitious students constructed to represent the
significant findings of the present study. The first narrative concerns boys' feelings about
and perceptions of coeducational and same-sex classes; the second highlights girls'
feelings about and perceptions of those two kinds of classes. Within each narrative,
possible reasons for students' perceptions are considered. Because there were so few
grade level differences, the narratives were constructed to represent high school students.
When grade level differences arise, comparisons to perceptions of fictitious middle school

students are presented. After the narratives, results of the regression analyses are

80

81

discussed. Finally, conclusions and directions for future research are provided.

E , P. . _ E I 1 .

Curt is a ninth grader in a suburban middle class school attending a required
coeducational physical education basketball class taught by Mr. Brown. His friend, Seth,
attends the same school and has the same teacher, but participates in a required same-sex
(all-boy) physical education class for basketball. Both boys have had similar out-of-school
basketball experiences and have just finished participating in a unit of basketball in their
respective classes. The boys were asked several questions after the 10-day unit and their
answers are summarized below.

Compared to Seth, Curt felt more confident in his ability to learn basketball. In fact,
he also felt more confident than his next door neighbor, Carla, who was in the same
coeducational basketball class. In physical education, the gender make-up of the class may
have a profound influence on students' social comparisons, their. self-confidence and,
ultimately, their performance. Bandura (1990) contends that people partly judge their
capabilities through social comparison and these comparisons exert an important influence
on self-confidence. Curt very likely perceived that he had more ability than about half of the
students in his coeducational class and perhaps translated that perception into higher
self-confidence beliefs than Seth. For Seth, the social comparison process became much
more difficult in the all-boy class because the skill level of that class in an activity such as
basketball was probably higher than in the coeducational class. In addition, because
overall boys perceived basketball to be more useful than girls, and perceived usefulness
was found to be a significant predictor of students' self-confidence, the number of students
who perceived basketball as being more useful also was higher in the Seth's class than in
Curt's. Given these situations, it is no wonder that the Seth found a much tougher social
comparison situation on which to base his confidence beliefs than did Curt.

Curt's younger brother, Jason, a seventh grader, also was participating in a

82

basketball unit. When questioned about his confidence in learning basketball, he and his
entire seventh grade class, rated their confidence higher than Curt, Seth, or Carla. This
grade level difference supports research that has suggested that younger individuals often
report higher self-perceptions of their abilities than older individuals (Lee, Hall, & Carter,
1983; Sanguinetti, Lee, & Nelson, 1985; Ulrich, 1987). One reason for this difference
could be that Curt, Seth, and Carla were able to make more realistic appraisals of their
abilities than Jason and his classmates.

Both Curt and Seth felt that basketball was more useful for them to learn than did the
girls who were participating in either a coeducational or a same-sex basketball class,
supporting research in other disciplines that has found boys to perceive masculine activities
as being more useful than girls perceive them to be (Fennema & Sherman, 1977; Hilton &
Berglund, 1974). Similar to the findings for selfoconfidence, Jason and his classmates
thought that basketball would be more useful to them than did Curt, Seth, or Carla.
Perhaps high school students have a more realistic view of what activities they will be able
to pursue in the future in relation to their abilities. In addition, Curt, Seth, and Carla may
be more involved in a number of different activities than middle school students. To them,
basketball may not seem as useful or as important as it once did.

In addition, compared to the girls in these classes, Curt and Seth felt that basketball
was more appropriate for boys than did Carla and the other girls in her ninth grade class.
In fact, Curt and Seth perceived basketball to be more masculine after the unit than before
the unit. However, neither Curt nor Seth really believed that basketball was entirely a
boys' sport, rating it less than three on a 5-point scale.

Curt didn't feel that his class was very competitive. Seth, on the other hand, rated his
overall class environment as much more competitive than did Curt. Perhaps Seth felt more
pressure to play well in same-sex classes and interpreted this as competitive. Alternatively,
Seth could also have seen his classes as being more challenging due to the greater number
of skilled players than in coeducational classes and interpreted that as competitive. From

83

the single statement on the overall environment questionnaire concerning competition, one
cannot tell how the Seth and Curt interpreted "competition." However, when answering
for his own gender, Seth also felt that boys in same-sex classes displayed more competitive
behaviors than boys in coeducational classes. Curt, though, felt that the boys in his
coeducational class displayed more more competitive behavior than did the girls in his
class.

The question of whether competitive behavior is good or bad in physical education
class is debatable. If competition is judged as undesirable in a physical education class,
then both boys and girls would find coeducational classes more conducive to learning than
same-sex ones. Most physical educators and coaches realize the importance of not placing
students or athletes in a competitive situation while learning (Wankel, 1984). Accordingly,
competition in physical education classes could be counterproductive. Physical education
classes that are low in competition (in this study, coeducational classes) might foster the
better learning environment. If, on the other hand, competitive behavior is interpreted as
trying harder in class, same-sex classes might be considered more beneficial.

Curt and Seth perceived their overall class environment equally in terms of how
well-behaved their classes were. However, Curt felt that the boys in his coeducational
class were much better behaved than Seth felt about the boys' behavior in his same-sex
class. After the unit, Mr. Brown also stated that the boys in his coeducational class were
better behaved than the boys in his same-sex class. Perhaps Curt felt that the boys in his
class were more well-behaved because the presence of girls had a calming effect on the
boys, as some research has suggested (Jones & Thompson, 1980; Schneider & Coutts,
1982). However, Curt and his neighbor, Carla, agreed that girls were better behaved in the
coeducational class than were boys.

Curt and Seth also perceived their classes similarly in two other ways. First, they
were in agreement about the amount of support that Mr. Brown gave them. This similarity

was maintained whether they were asked about the class as a whole or about teacher

84

support given to just boys in the class. However, Curt felt, as did Carla, that the girls in
his coeducational class received more support than he received. This finding contradicts
research that generally does not find gender differences in teacher treatment of students in
regular classrooms (Eccles &. Blumenfeld, 1985). However, Bank, Biddle, and Good
(1980) suggested that because boys and girls behave differently, teachers may differentially
respond to this behavior. Therefore, the difference in teacher support toward boys and
girls, as perceived by Curt and Carla in their coeducational class, may not have been totally
unexpected.

Another reason that Curt may have perceived that Carla and the other girls in the
coeducational class received more teacher support could have been that girls were given
more help in those classes than boys because their skill level was comparatively lower.
Horn (1982), in a study examining coaching behavior in softball, found that
low-expectancy players (those who the coach perceived as lesser skilled) received more
feedback in learning situations (practices) than did high-expectancy players. If Carla and
the majority of her female coeducational classmates were lesser skilled, a view that teacher
interviews suggested was true, then they may indeed have been given more instruction and
thus were seen as receiving more teacher support in relation to the boys. Only future
research can determine if this speculation is correct.

Second, Curt and Seth rated the affiliative and helping behavior of their class
environments similarly. This attribute is, of course, a desirable one and classes in which
students help each other certainly should foster a better learning environment. However,
Curt perceived himself as being more affiliative and as giving more help in his class than
did Seth in his class. Curt additionally rated his affiliative behavior higher than Carla rated
hers in their coeducational class. Two explanations of this finding are possible. First, Curt
may have been willing to help other boys in the class. For example, Solomons (1980)
noted that coeducational boys in her study gave lesser skilled boys a lot of support and

encouragement but did not provide the same encouragement for girls. Because Seth

85

perceived his same-sex class to be more competitive than Curt perceived his coeducational
class to be, the boys in Curt's class may have been more willing to help one another than
the boys in Seth's class.

A more likely scenario, though, is that boys perceived girls as needing more help.
Therefore, boys (i.e., Curt) rated their helpfulness as higher when girls were present than
when they were not (i.e., Seth). The fact that boys probably helped the girls can be
supported by the comments in the post-questionnaire. Carla noted on her
post-questionnaire that coeducational classes were good because the boys could help the
girls learn skills. Furthermore, Curt seemed to enjoy the affiliatlve aspect of coeducational
classes, and he identified making new friends and meeting new people as very important.
Future research may benefit from observing student interactions that occur in same-sex and
coeducational physical education to see who is helping whom.

Looking at the class as a whole, Seth rated his class as being more involved than Curt
rated his class. Interestingly, though, Curt saw himself as much more involved in his class
than did Seth. This finding is significant because the amount of involvement one has in a
class may be crucial for learning to take place. Interestingly, the findings for student
involvement for boys paralleled the findings for self-confidence. Both involvement and
self-confidence were lower for Seth than for Curt. Perhaps the lower confidence of Seth
and his same-sex counterparts was reflected in their lower perceived involvement. Another
explanation could be that Curt was "over-involved" in his class; that is, he participated in
the class more than what would have been expected from the percentage (50%) of the boys
in his class. This "over participation" could have been a result of Curt's greater confidence
than the girls in his class. He may have felt more skilled and found more opportunities to
participate. Answers to the open-ended question concerning what was bad about boys and
girls participating in the same physical education class showed that Carla's, as well as
about half of the girls', responses reflected this perception of over-involvement (e.g., "the

boys took over the class").

86

Curt's younger brother, Jason, felt that he and his classmates participated more in
their classes than did both Curt and Seth. The grade level differences in self-confidence
and perceived usefulness may have contributed to more perceived class involvement by
middle school boys.

Curt, Seth, and Jason were all asked about their preferences for physical education
classes and, specifically, for basketball classes. Curt was extremely positive in his feelings
about coeducational basketball classes and especially for coeducational physical education
classes. This finding was not surprising in view of the social nature of teenagers. Seth,
who had been in a same-sex class, was undecided in his preference, especially about
basketball class. If he was forced to pick, he said he would choose coeducational physical
education, but would choose same-sex basketball classes.

Why was Seth somewhat unsure, then, about his basketball class preference? Curt
and Seth were familiar with coeducational physical education classes, as most of their
classes previously had been taught coeducationally. Curt, who remained in a coeducational
class, may have been influenced in his preference by his past history of coeducation.
However, when Seth was given the chance to be in a same-sex class, he preferred
same-sex instruction for basketball. Given this new opportunity, he was able to compare
that class to the coeducational class with which he was familiar. In this case, for
basketball, he preferred same-sex classes.

The preferences of Curt and Seth were almost opposite of Jason, the seventh grader
who had attended a coeducational basketball class, and his twin brother, Jeremy, who
attended a same-sex class. Jason preferred same-sex physical education classes, but was
undecided about basketball classes. Jason's twin brother, Jeremy, attended a same-sex
basketball class, and he preferred both same-sex physical education and same-sex
basketball classes. This grade level difference is somewhat surprising given the small
amount of grade differences found throughout the study. It may suggest, however, that

Jason and Jeremy were more sensitive to the gender make-up of their physical education

87

classes than are Curt and Seth. Early adolescence is a time when boys' and girls' bodies
are changing physically and perhaps the inclusion of the opposite sex in a class where these
changes are most noticeable is awkward. The movement toward coeducational physical
education was motivated by a desire for equal opportunity and driven by the idea that boys
and girls should be able to participate together. Coeducation may arguably be able to
minimize differences in participation; it cannot, however, minimize or hide differences in
physical changes. Nowhere are these differences illuminated more than in a physical
education class at the middle school level The fact that Jason and Jeremy generally
preferred same-sex classes should not be ignored.

Overall, results suggest that boys felt more confident and perceived a more positive
environment in coeducational classes. This finding was similar for boys regardless of
grade level. However, although perceiving coeducational classes favorably, boys in
middle school generally preferred same-sex classes. Results, then, in support of much of
the educational literature, strongly suggest that boys will likely benefit from coeducational
classes.

This nan'ative presents perceptions of fictitious students whose perceptions represent
the average girl's feelings about coeducational and same-sex physical education classes.
The two primary subjects in this narrative are Carla, Curt's coeducational counterpart, and
Sally, who participated in a same-sex (all-girl) basketball class. Like Curt and Seth, they
are ninth graders from similar middle class backgrounds and have had similar basketball
experience. Carla's teacher is Mr. Brown, while Sally's teacher is Ms. Bilsing.

When questioned about their self-confidence for learning basketball, Sally was
somewhat more confident than Carla. However, the difference in confidence between
Sally and Carla was not as great as the difference between Curt and Seth. One can only
speculate as to why there were only small differences in the confidence levels of girls in

88

same-sex and coeducational classes. Perhaps Carla and Sally simply did not care as much
about basketball as Curt and Seth and, therefore, the effects of class type on girls were not
as strong as the effects on boys. However, about the same percentage of boys (74%) as
girls (73%) rated basketball at least somewhat important to learn in class, suggesting the
importance one placed on learning basketball was not a primary factor for the differences.

Ewing (1981) found that, for boys, success was defined in terms of skill; for girls,
trying one's best signified success. Perhaps girls in both types of classes were trying their
best. Because girls may judge success by effort, the self-confidence of Carla and Sally
may have been built upon similar effort and, consequently, confidence levels of the two
girls were not much different from each other.

As stated previously when discussing boys' perceptions, Carla felt much less
confident than Curt who was participating in the same basketball class. Perhaps Carla
defined success differently from Curt and, therefore, may have based her confidence
beliefs on a different sense of performance accomplishment. Attribution researchers have
found that girls often attribute successes to luck while boys attribute their successes to skill
(McHugh, Duquin, & Frieze, 1978). If Carla was successful in her coeducational class,
she may have attributed that success to luck. This reasoning may explain the gender
difference in self-confidence between boys and girls in coeducational classes. Another
reason could simply be that the ability difference between boys and girls was apparent in
coeducational classes. Curt may have felt more confident than Carla because he could see
that he was more skilled in basketball. However, in the same-sex classes, Sally's
self-confidence score was slightly higher than Seth's score. If girls attribute success to
luck, and use those attributions to form confidence beliefs, Sally should also have been less
confident than Seth. This was not the case, suggesting that comparison with other students
in the same class has a powerful influence on self-confidence beliefs. In future research,
the question of how boys and girls determine their confidence beliefs should be examined.

There may very well be age differences as well as gender differences in the processes that

89

individuals use to determine their self-confidence in an activity.

Both Carla and Sally have sisters (Brooke and Linda) in middle school. Brooke and
Linda, like Jason, felt more confident than their older siblings. And like Jason, they also
believed that basketball would be more useful to learn for their future recreational
endeavors. All the girls, however, perceived basketball as less of a masculine activity than
did Curt, Seth, and Jason, viewing basketball as definitely apprOpriate for girls. This last
finding supports research in mathematics education where girls have been found to perceive
mathematics as less masculine than boys (Sherman & Sherman, 1977; Sherman, 1982a).

Carla and Sally perceived overall class competitiveness similarly. However, Sally
felt the girls in her same-sex class were more competitive than Carla did about the
competitiveness of the girls in her coeducational class. The presence of higher skilled
performers (in this case, boys) did not affect Carla's perceptions of the competitiveness of
her class. Perhaps the presence of boys and girls in the same class diminished Carla's
perception of the competitive level of the coeducational class because the skill level of
students was so disparate.

Sally perceived her class as more well—behaved than did Carla. Like Curt, though,
Carla rated girls' behavior in her coeducational class higher than Sally rated girls' behavior
in her class. Carla and the girls in her coeducational class may have seen themselves as
better-behaved than Sally's class because they compared their behavior to the boys in the
class and determined that they were better behaved. The fact that Sally perceived better
behavior overall in her same-sex class than did Carla in her coeducational class suggests
that Carla may have believed that the presence of boys in her class eroded student behavior
in that class, at least in comparison to Sally's all-girl class, and that in comparison to boys,
girls were better behaved. In support of this, Carla felt that the girls' behavior in the
coeducational class was better than the boys' behavior in that same class. Curt agreed with
this perception.

In terms of teacher support, Carla and Sally did not differ in their perceptions of the

9O

amount of support that Mr. Brown and Ms. Bilsing gave to their respective classes. Most
likely, these girls judged overall teacher support in coeducational classes by including
teacher support given to boys. Some educational research shows that boys receive more
teacher attention, even though some of that attention may reflect the teacher's response to
boys' negative behavior (Brophy, 1985; French & French, 1984). Carla may have
identified this attention as teacher support. However, when Carla and Sally responded for
their own gender, a discrepancy appeared. Sally felt that Ms. Bilsing offered more support
to the girls in her same-sex class than Carla felt that Mr. Brown gave to the girls in her
coeducational class. Sally's friend, Jane, participated in Ms. Bilsing's coeducational
physical education class. Sally also rated Ms. Bilsing's support to girls in her same-sex
class higher than did Jane in her coeducational class. Unlike perceptions of student
behavior, perceptions of teacher support for one's own gender may be more important than
perceptions of teacher support given for the entire class. In this case, girls seemed to fare
better, at least in terms of perceptions of teacher support, in same-sex classes.

Sally believed that her class was more affiliative and helping than Carla believed her
class to be. However, Carla and Sally did not differ in perceptions of affiliation displayed
by girls. These findings suggest that girls considered themselves as engaging in the same
amount of helping behaviors regardless of the class in which they participated. However,
when boys were present, the perception of class affiliation was not as strong as in
same-sex classes. Sally also felt her same-sex class was much higher in affiliation than
Seth felt about his same-sex class. Both Carla and Sally felt that the girls in their classes
displayed more affiliation and helping behavior than Curt and Seth felt boys did. Although
Curt believed that boys in his coeducational class were more affiliative than the girls, Carla
disagreed. She felt that girls were more helpful than boys in coeducational classes. As
stated previously, these discrepancies could be examined by observational research to
determine what overt behaviors are actually occuning.

Carla and Sally rated overall student involvement in their classes higher than did Curt

91

and Seth. That is, the girls rated student participation higher than did the boys. Carla and
Sally rated involvement of girls in their classes similarly. In other words, girls did not
perceive themselves as participating to a lesser extent in coeducational classes than in
same-sex ones. However, uner the boys, Carla's and Sally's ratings of high school
girls' involvement was similar to Brooke's and Linda's ratings of middle school girls'
involvement. In this case, the higher self-confidence and higher perceived usefulness of
basketball reported by Brooke and Linda did not lead to a difference in perceptions of class
involvement between middle school and high school girls as it did for boys.

When asked her class type preferences, Sally was not sure about her physical
education class preference but hesitatingly decided upon coeducation. For basketball,
however, she strongly preferred same-sex classes. Similar to Seth, having been given the
opportunity to participate in a same-sex class, Sally found that she liked same-sex
instruction. Carla strongly preferred both coeducational physical education classes and
basketball classes. Having been accustomed to a coeducational class, Carla, like Curt, was
not given the opportunity to compare classes, and her preferences may have reflected this
situation. Brooke and Linda preferred same-sex physical education classes, especially
Linda who had been in a same-sex class. Linda also preferred same-sex basketball classes,
while Brooke was unsure. Brooke's and Linda's preferences were similar to Jason and
Jeremy's, probably for similar reasons described earlier.

Overall, for girls, class type differences were apparent when girls considered the
entire class. For example, girls in same-sex classes thought that their classes were more
involved, more affiliative, and better behaved than did girls in coeducational classes.
However, no significant class type differences in perceptions of girls' behavior appeared in
those three areas. Conversely, girls felt that they received more teacher support in
same-sex classes than did girls in coeducational ones. Girls also rated girls as more
competitive in same-sex classes than in coeducational ones. Finally, girls tended to be

more confident in same-sex classes than in coeducational classes. In summary, girls

92

appear to view same-sex classes more favorably than they view coeducational classes.

W

An important purpose of this experiment was to investigate factors that may influence
boys' and girls' perceptions of self-confidence. Not only can the type of class in which
boys and girls learn physical skills influence self-confidence, but so can perceptions about
the type of activity such as usefulness, gender-appropriateness, and competitiveness. How
useful and how masculine one considers basketball to be and how competitive the class
was perceived were hypothesized to be significant predictors of self-confidence for learning
basketball. Results of the regression analyses indicated that perceived usefulness was the
strongest predictor of self-confidence for learning basketball. This finding supports
research in mathematics education that has found self-confidence for mathematics to be
higher in individuals who perceived mathematics as more useful to learn than in individuals
who perceived it as less useful (Rowe, 1988; Sherman, 1981, 1982b). As hypothesized,
class competitiveness was also a predictor of self-confidence. However, this finding was
true only for boys. Boys who perceived a smaller amount of class competitiveness were
more confident than boys who perceived greater amounts. Perhaps highly self-confident
boys perceived less class competitiveness because they were higher in ability.

For girls, several significant predictors of self-confidence for learning basketball
emerged. Like boys, usefulness of basketball was the strongest predictor, accounting for
48% of the variance by itself. The second strongest predictor of self-confidence was
perceived gender-appropriateness of basketball. As hypothesized, girls who thought
basketball was more appropriate for boys were less confident than those who sex-typed it
as less masculine. This result corroborates research in mathematics (Rowe, 1988;
Sherman & Fennema, 1977) and physical education (Lirgg, in press). Another predictor of
self-confidence found only for girls was the number of sports in which one participated.
Girls who participated in more sports were more confident than less frequent participants.

93

Because girls may not take the opportunity to compete in sports in their neighborhoods,
those who were given the opportunity to participate on teams may have used these
opportunities to become more confident. Of course, high confidence may have been the
reason that these girls chose to participate on teams originally. Weaker, but significant,
predictors of self-confidence were the amount of teacher support perceived to be given the
class and the importance one placed on learning basketball. Correlational analyses showed
that importance placed on learning basketball in class was significantly related to how
useful girls thought basketball was (r = .52) but was less strongly related to how girls
sex-typed basketball (r = .26). For girls, then, high confidence in a sport activity such as
basketball may be related to several different influences.

Although this experiment was not designed to test the Fennema and Peterson (1985)
model of mathematics achievement presented in Chapter 1, results of these regression
analyses lend some support to the first part of the model which suggests that external
factors influence internal beliefs about achieving. The external factors of perceived class
competitiveness and teacher support in the present study were significant predictors of
self-confidence for boys and girls respectively. Future research should examine the
influence of external factors, such as class environment, on autonomous leaming behavior
and the influences of external factors on motivational factors as a mediator of autonomous
learning behavior. For example, class type may affect persistence and activity choice
(autonomous learning behaviors) directly or it may exert its influence through

self-confidence as a mediating factor on those autonomous learning behaviors.

Cl'lE11"

In conclusion, the results of this study should be examined in a practical light.
Although boys tended to view coeducational classes more favorably than same-sex ones,
and the opposite might be true for girls, it is simply not possible to have all boys in

coeducational classes and all girls in same-sex classes. However, in view of the fact that

94

some students preferred coeducational classes and some same-sex ones, perhaps giving
students in middle school as well as high school the option of choosing in which class they
prefer to learn would be a fair solution.

For girls, how one sex-typed basketball was related to self-confidence for learning
basketball. Also, for both girls and boys, how useful they perceived basketball to be was
the strongest predictor of self-confidence. Future research should explore the antecedents
and consequences of perceptions of self-confidence, perceived usefulness, and perceived
gender-appropriateness of activities, especially in relation to girls' choices of those
activities in a physical education or sport context.

Researchers should also examine the direct links between the self-perception variables
on achievement in physical education in order to determine where interventions could be
made. For example, is perceiving basketball as useful to learn, or perceiving it as a
masculine sport, a cause or an effect of self-confidence in basketball? Is perceiving
basketball as useful necessary for high self-confidence in basketball? For girls, is
sex-typing basketball as masculine an outgrowth of not being confident in basketball or is it
a cause of lack of confidence? If the latter is the case, steps should be taken to
"demasculinize" basketball or any other sport that may be interpreted as such.

What effect does the environment actually have on students? The present study
highlighted several class type differences in perceptions of the environment, but future
studies should investigate the outcomes of each environment. Some of these outcomes
may be performance-oriented; another outcome examined could be the kinds of activities
in which one chooses to become involved. Because much of sport and physical activity is
undertaken by individual choice, does the learning environment influence future activity
choice? What effect does self-confidence have on activity choice? Bandura (1986)
suggested that self-confidence plays a vital role in choice of activities. Research in the
academic domain (e.g., mathematics education) certainly supports Bandura's claim;

researchers should investigate how strong an influence self-confidence has on activity

95

choices in the physical domain and if the learning environment also mediates activity
choice.

Many of the questions raised in this experiment may need to be examined
qualitatively. Observational research, such as that undertaken by Griffin (1983, 1985a,
1985b) and Solomons (1980) provide a starting point. Also, a collaboration of quantitative
and qualitative researchers may be quite well suited for research in this area Will the
results of qualitative research corroborate the quantitative findings? This type of
collaboration would be especially useful in research on class environment. For example,
will observational or interview research support the findings of the present study that
all-girl classes are more affiliative than coeducational or all-boy classes, that coeducational
classes are less competitive than all-boys classes, or that girls receive more teacher support
in all-girl classes than in coeducational ones?

This study brings to light several other directions for future research. One limitation
of the present study was that it examined only one physical education unit -- basketball.
Boys and girls may view other sport skills differently. Basketball is considered an
interactive sport. Players must combine various sldlls through interdependent action to
achieve the group goal. Different effects might be found in sport activities that are coactive
(e.g., golf or archery) and do not require coordinative action between individuals for
performance success. Perhaps in coactive sports, comparisons with others in the class
may not be as salient as when students are participating in teams or group drills. In
addition, some sports and activities other than basketball require agility, balance, and grace
instead of strength and power. In these activities, peer comparisons of such attributes may
produce different results than those found in the present study. Therefore, this research
should be extended to examine other sport skills, especially those that are individual or
coactive. Similarly, examining how boys feel in an activity that is perceived as more

feminine-appropriate than masculine may provide opposite results to those found in the

present study.

96

One feature that was not examined in the present study was the basketball ability
level of the students. Using random assignment to classes assumed that ability level was
distributed evenly by gender throughout the classes. However, ability probably also
influenced self-confidence and if ability had been included in the regression analysis, the
percentage of the variance explained may have increased. Additionally, how ability
interacts with class type and gender is a topic that should be considered by future research.

If possible, researchers should attempt to set up situations where students are taught
either coeducationally or segregated for an entire school year. The present study found
differences after only 10 days in a unit. Although this fact is significant given that earlier
research examining performance during units of similar length found little class type
difl‘erences, the question remains as to whether the perceptions of the students in the
present experiment would remain over time. Because the students in the present study
were chosen from schools who had coeducational physical education, the novelty of a
same-sex class may have contributed to some of the differences. Experiments conducted
over a longer period of time could examine that premise.

A further direction for research could be to examine actual achievement behavior as
described in the Fennema and Peterson modeL Other aspects of the
coeducational/same-sex environment, such as Opportunities to handle the ball, student
interactions, skill level, and flow of play, should be investigated as to their affects on
achievement. In addition, path analyses or causal model designs could be implemented to
determine the direction and strength of external and motivational influences on achievement
behavior.

Achievement should not necessarily be defined as an immediate outcome (i.e., skill
level attained after one instructional unit). The present study purposely did not examine
skill level differences between students in coeducational and same-sex classes because little
or no differences have been found in the past. However, examining factors that may affect

effort and persistence, such as class environment and self-confidence, should ultimately

97

provide answers to achievement differences between boys and girls. Therefore, while
outcome should not be ignored, achievement should not be limited to such indicators as,
for example, the number of lay-ups a student can make in 30 sec.

An original intent of this study was also to examine perceptions of elementary-aged
students. This intent proved to be difficult to carry out and was eliminated. However, the
importance of learning skills and developing positive attitudes early for sport and physical
activity falls predominantly on the elementary physical education programs. Historically,
elementary physical education has been coeducational. Investigating the effects of
same-sex elementary physical education may be worthwhile. Along this same line, it may
also be worthwhile to investigate the advantages or disadvantages of young children's
participation in coeducational or same-sex recreational sports (e. g., soccer leagues). If
research shows that coeducational teams may not be in the best interest of all children, at
what age should recreational teams be same-sex? Researchers could begin by examining
percentages of participants and drop-outs of boys and girls in coeducational sports at
various age levels.

The results of the present study suggest that educational reform, such as Title IX,
should be monitored by researchers in order to determine its varying effects on children.
Little research was conducted before implementing coeducational classes; the same mistake
should not be made concerning the assessment of coeducational classes. Coeducational
physical education classes may very well be the best type of class for children. However,
without research examining all aspects of same-sex education and coeducation (i.e., how
each class type affects students not only in terms of performance but also psychologically),
the best physical education situation may not be clearly identified

APPENDIX A
Self-confidence for Learning Basketball Scale, Usefulness of Basketball
Scale, and Gender-appropriateness of Basketball Scale
Code number
Circle one: Male Female
Please circle the number that matches how you feel right now about each
question.
(CODE: (2 = Confidence Scale, U. = Usefulness Scale,
(1 = Gender-appropriateness Scale

C 1. Generally, I feel confident about attempting skills in basketball.

I 2 3 4 5
strongly disagree not sure agree strongly
disagree agree

fl 2. It's good to know how to play basketball so that I can play it in my free time.

1 2 3 4 5
strongly disagree not sure agree strongly
disagree agree

G 3. I would have more faith in letting a boy make an important play in basketball than a
girl.

1 2 3 4 5
strongly disagree not sure agree strongly
disagree agree

(2 4. I'm no good in basketball.

I 2 3 4 5
strongly disagree not sure agree strongly
disagree agree

L1 5. Basketball skills will not be important for me to use in my free time.

1 2 3 4 5
strongly disagree not sure agree strongly
disagree agree

G 6. Learning basketball is just as appropriate for girls as it is for boys.

1 2 3 4 5
strongly disagree not sure agree strongly
disagree agree

98

99

7. I have a lot of self-confidence when it comes to basketball.

I 2 3 4
strongly disagree not sure agree
disagree
8. I will probably play basketball many times as I grow up.

1 2 3 4
strongly disagree not sure agree
disagree

9. Girls are certainly coordinated enough to do well in basketball.

I 2 3 4
strongly disagree not sure agree
disagree

10. I don't think I could do harder skills in basketball.

I 2 3 4
strongly disagree not sure agree
disagree

strongly
agree

strongly
3.8799

5
strongly
agree

5
strongly
agree

11. I see basketball as a sporthill rarely play in my free time asIget older.

1 2 3 4
strongly disagree not sure agree
disagree

5
strongly
agree

12. When a girl plays a boy in basketball, it is feminine to let the boy win.

1 2 3 4
strongly disagree not sure agree
disagree
13. I am sure that I can learn basketball skills.

1 2 3 4
strongly disagree not sure agree
disagree

5
strongly
agree

5
strongly
agree

14. I learn basketball now because I know how useful it will be later in life.

1 2 3 4
strongly disagree not sure agree
disagree
15. I would trust a girl just as much as I would trust a boy to make an important play in
basketball.
l 2 3 4
strongly disagree not sure agree
disagree

5
strongly
agree

5
strongly
agree

 

100
16. I'm not the type of person to do well in basketball.

I 2 3 4
strongly disagree not sure agree
disagree
17. Learning basketball is a waste of time.

1 2 3 4
strongly disagree not sure agree
disagree

18. It's hard to believe that a girl could be a great player in basketball.

5
strongly
agree

5
strongly
agree

5
strongly
agree

5
strongly
agree

5
strongly
agree

5
strongly
agree

5
strongly
agree

5
strongly

l 2 3 4
strongly disagree not sure agree
disagree
19. I think I could handle more difficult basketball skills.

1 2 3 4
strongly disagree not sure agree
disagree
20. Knowing basketball will help me enjoy my free time.

1 2 3 4
strongly disagree not sure agree
disagree
21. Basketball is for boys; cheerleading is for girls.

1 2 3 4
strongly disagree not sure agree
disagree
22. For some reason, even though I try, basketball seems really hard for me.

1 2 3 4
strongly disagree not sure agree
disagree
23. When thinking about my adult life, it is not important for me to learn basketball
skills.

1 2 3 4
strongly disagree not sure agree
disagree

24. Girls can do just as well as boys in basketball.

I 2 3 4
strongly disagree not sure agree
disagree

agree

strongly
agree

101

25. I can do well in basketball skill tests.

1 2 3 4 5
strongly disagree not sure agree strongly
disagree agree

26. Basketball is a worthwhile sport to learn.

1 2 3 4 5
strongly disagree not sure agree strongly
disagree agree

27. I would expect a girl basketball player to be a masculine type of person.

1 2 3 4 5
strongly disagree not sure agree strongly
disagree agree

28. Some sports I can handle O.K., but I usually mess up in basketball.

I 2 3 4 5
strongly disagree not sure agree strongly
disagree agree

29. I expect to make little use of my basketball skills when I get out of school

1 2 3 4 5
strongly disagree not sure agree strongly
disagree agree
30. Boys are not actually better than girls in basketball.

I 2 3 4 5
strongly disagree not sure agree strongly

disagree agree

APPENDIX B
Overall Class Environment Scale

Code Number Male Female

A. How well-behaved were the students in your basketball class?

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
not very
behaved well
at all behaved

B. How much competition was there among students in your basketball class?

1 2 3 4 S 6 7 8 9 10
none a lot
C. How much support and help did your teacher give to the students in your basketball
class?

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

none a lot

D. How well did the students in your basketball class get along with and help each other?

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
very very
poorly well

B. How involved were the students in your basketball class? (Did students participate a
lot ?)

l 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 '9 10
not at very
all involved
involved

F. How much did the students in your class enjoy this basketball class?

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
not very
at all much

102

APPENDIX C

Gender-specific Class Environment Scale

Code number
Circle one: MALE FEMALE

Circle the number that matches how you feel right now about your P.E.

class.

(CODE: Q = Class Organization, 2 = Class Competitiveness, I = Teacher
Support, A = Affiliation and Helping Behavior, I = Student Involvement,

S = Student Behavior)

Q 1. Activities in this class are planned so that everyone has an opportunity to try.

4

agree

4

agree

5
strongly

agree

5
strongly
agree

I 3. If the girls want to talk about something in this class, this teacher will find time to

4

agree

1 2 3
strongly disagree not sure
disagree

2 2. The girls don't usually try to "show-off" in this class.

1 2 3
strongly disagree not sure
disagree
do it.

1 2 3
strongly disagree not sure
disagree

A 4. It's easy to get the girls to cooperate on teams in this class.

1 2 3
strongly disagree not sure
disagree

I 5. A lot of the girls seem to be only half awake in this class.

1 2 3
strongly disagree not sure
disagree

.0 6. This class hardly ever starts on time.

1 2 3
strongly disagree not sure
disagree

103

4
agree

4
agree

agree

5
strongly
agree

strongly
agree

strongly
agree

strongly
agree

104

Q 7. During games in this class, many of the girls are upset if their team doesn't win.

1 2 3 4 5
strongly disagree not sure agree strongly
disagree agree

I 8. This teacher does not trust the girls in this class.

1 2 3 4 5
strongly disagree not sure agree strongly
disagree agree

A 9. A lot of the girls in this class don't like other students in this class.

1 2 3 4 5
strongly disagree not sure agree strongly
disagree agree

I 10. The girls in this class really enjoy this class.

1 2 3 4 5
strongly disagree not sure agree strongly
disagree agree

8 ll. Drills and games in this class are usually clear so everyone knows what to do.

1 2 3 4 5
strongly disagree not sure agree strongly
disagree agree

I; 12. Some of the girls try to "hog the ball" in this class.

1 . 2 3 4 5
strongly disagree not sure agree strongly
disagree agree

I 13. This teacher gives extra help to girls in this class who need it.

1 2 3 4 5
strongly disagree not sure agree strongly
disagree agree

A 14. There are groups of the girls who don't get along with other students in this class.

1 2 3 4 5
strongly disagree not sure agree strongly
disagree agree

105

15. The girls sometimes do extra practice on their own in this class.

1 2 3 4
strongly disagree not sure agree
disagree
16. The teacher in this class often has to tell the girls to calm down.

1 2 3 4
strongly disagree not sure agree
disagree
17. The girls can play as hard as they want in this class.

1 2 3 4
strongly disagree not sure agree
disagree

18. This teacher treats the girls in this class as if they were children.

1 2 3 4

strongly disagree not sure agree

disagree

19. The girls don't have much of a chance to get to know other students in this class.
1 2 3 4

strongly disagree not sure agree

disagree

20. The girls in this class work hard in practicing their skills.

strongly
agree

strongly
agree

strongly
agree

5
strongly
agree

5
strongly
agree

5
strongly-
agree

5
strongly

l 2 3 4
strongly disagree not sure agree
disagree
21. The teacher in this class hardly ever has to tell the girls to keep working on the
activity.
1 2 3 4
strongly disagree not sure agree
disagree

22. The girls try hard to win their games in this class.

1 2 3 4
strongly disagree not sure agree
disagree

agree

5
strongly
agree

106

I 23. Sometimes the teacher embarrasses the girls in this class for not being very good or
for making a mistake.

I 2 3 4 5
strongly disagree not sure agree strongly
disagree agree

A 24. The girls in this class enjoy helping other students learn skills.

1 2 3 4 5
strongly disagree not sure agree strongly
disagree agree

I 25. A lot of the girls just stand around in this class.

1 2 3 4 5
strongly disagree not sure agree strongly
disagree agree

Q 26. This class is often in an uproar.

l 2 3 4 5
strongly disagree not sure agree ' strongly
disagree agree

I: 27. The girls in this class don't really care whether the other students in this class are
very good players or not.

1 2 3 4 5
strongly disagree not sure agree strongly
disagree agree

I 28. The teacher goes out of her way to help the girls in this class .

l 2 3 4 5
strongly disagree not sure agree strongly
disagree agree

A 219. The girls in this class enjoy playing with all the other students on teams in this
c ass.

1 2 3 4 5
strongly disagree not sure agree strongly
disagree agree

I 30. Very few of the girls take part enthusiastically in class activities.

1 2 3 4 5
strongly disagree not sure agree strongly
disagree . agree

107

31. The girls fool around a lot in this class.

1 2 3 4 5
strongly disagree not sure agree strongly
disagree agree

32. The girls don't compete with other students to show who's best in this class.

1 2 3 4 5
strongly disagree not sure agree strongly
disagree agree
33. The teacher of this class is more like a friend than an authority.

1 2 3 4 5
strongly disagree not sure agree strongly
disagree agree

34. The girls in this class have a lot in common with the other students in this class. .

l 2 3 4 5
strongly disagree not sure agree strongly
disagree agree

35. Most of the girls in this class really pay attention to what the teacher is saying.

1 2 3 4 5
strongly disagree not sure agree strongly
disagree agree
36. The girls are almost always well-behaved in this class.

1 2 3 4 5
strongly disagree not sure agree strongly
disagree agree

37. The girls in this class try hard to demonstrate the highest skill.

1 2 3 4 5
strongly disagree not sure agree strongly
disagree agree

38. The teacher takes a personal interest in the girls in this class.

1 2 3 4 5
strongly disagree not sure agree strongly
disagree agree
39. The girls m1 very interested in getting to know all the other students in this class.
1 2 3 4 5
strongly disagree not sure agree strongly

disagree agree

108
I 40. The girls in this class often can't wait for this class to end.

1 2 3 4 5
strongly disagree not sure agree strongly
disagree agree

Q 41. This is a well-organized class.

1 2 3 4 5
strongly disagree not sure agree strongly
disagree agree

Q 42. The girls don't feel pressured to do better than other students in this class.

1 2 3 4 5
strongly disagree not sure agree strongly
disagree agree

I 43. This teacher spends very little time just talking with the girls in this class.

1 2 3 4 5
strongly disagree not sure agree strongly
disagree agree

A 44. The girls in this class get to know other students in this class really well.

1 2 3 4 5
strongly disagree not sure agree strongly
disagree agree

I 45. The girls put very little energy into what they do here in this class.

1 2 3 4 5
strongly disagree not sure agree strongly
disagree agree

5 46. The girls in this class often interrupt the teacher when she is talking.

I 2 3 4 5
strongly disagree not sure agree strongly
disagree agree

Q 47. A lot of the girls in this class get upset when teammates don't play well or make a
mistake.

I 2 3 4 5
strongly disagree not sure agree strongly
disagree agree

109

I 48. This teacher in this class likes the girls with more ability better than the girls who
aren't as good.

1 2 3 4 5
strongly disagree not sure agree strongly
disagree agree

A 49. The girls rarely call the other students by their names in this class.

1 2 3 4 5
strongly disagree not sure agree strongly
disagree agree

I 50. Most the girls in this class really pay attention to what the teacher is saying.

1 2 3 4 5

strongly disagree not sure agree strongly

disagree agree

APPENDIX D

Parent Letter and Parent Consent Form

Parent Letter
BASKETBALL STUDY

Dear Parent:

As part of the requirements for my doctoral degree in physical education, I will be
investigating students' perceptions of their physical education classes during a unit of
basketball. Specifically, I am interested in examining factors that may affect their
motivations to learn physical skills.

We would like to ask your child if she/he would be willing to participate in this study.
We are requesting your permission of your child's participation.

Students will be asked to fill out questionnaires about basketball and their physical
education class both before and after a basketball unit taught by their school's physical
education teacher. Code numbers will be used to insure confidentiality. Only the
experimenter will have access to the answers provided by the students. Your child's
physical education instructor will NOT be involved in any way with the data collected.

Enclosed is a parental consent form that we would like you to complete. This form
provides a summary of your child's rights as a participant in the study. Please read the
form carefully and keep in mind that your child will also be informed of his/her rights as a
participant in the study. Your child's performance will be kept strictly confidential and
his/her identity will remain anonymous. There is no penalty if at any time you decide not to
permit your child to participate in the study or if your child decides not to continue
participation in the study. If you approve of this study's objectives, permitting your child
to participate will help us in our efforts tremendously. Please sign the form and send it to
school with your child. If you have any further questions, please feel free to contact us.

We are grateful for your help.
Thank you,
Cathy. D. Lirgg, M.S. Deborah L. Feltz, Ph.D.
Expenmenter Supervisor
353-0892 355-4732

110

111

Parent Consent Form

Department of Physical Education
and Exercise Science

Michigan State University

has my permission, as a
(Student's Name)

legal parent or guardian, to participate in the "Basketball Study" conducted by Cathy Lirgg,
under the supervision of Dr. Deborah Feltz. I have received and understand the following
information concerning the study:

 

l. The study has been explained to me. I understand the explanation that has
been given and what my child's participation will involve.

2. I understand that my child's participau'on is completely voluntary.

3. I understand that my child is free to discontinue her/his participation in the
study at any time without penalty.

4. I understand that the results of the study will be treated in strict confidence
and my child's responses will remain confidential. Within these restrictions,
results of the study will be made available to me at my request.

5. I understand that, at my request, I can receive additional explanation of the
study after my child's participation is completed.

6. I understand that if injury occurs during this research project, any
medical expenses must be paid from my own health insurance.

Parent or Guardian Signature

 

Phone

 

Date

APPENDIX E
LESSON PLANS

 

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APPENDIX F

Background Questionnaire

Code Number:

 

Age:

Sex: (circle one) female male
School:

Grade:

 

 

Circle the sports in which you play on a team or have played on a team in the last 2 years:
Underline the sports that you participate in but have not been on a team:

Baseball Track Tennis Wrestling

Softball Golf Gymnastics Volleyball
Swimming Bowling Skiing Distance running
Basketball Football Soccer

How important is it for you to learn skills in basketball in physical education class?

1 2 3 4 5
extremely fairly somewhat only a not
important important important little at all

important

132

APPENDIX G

Post-questionnaire

MALE FEMALE (circle one)
If you had to pick between a physical education class for a year that was boys and girls

mixed or that had only boys or only girls, which one would you pick? (circle one):
Mixed Boys/Girls

Should basketball be taught in a mixed class or separated for boys and
girls?
What sports do you feel could be taught to both boys and girls together? Please list:

Are there any sports that you feel should definitely be separated by boys and girls? Please
list:

What are some good things about having both boys and girls in the same gym class?

What are some bad things about having both boys and girls in the same gym class?

Compare your basketball ability to other girls in your class if you are a girl and to other
boys in your class if you are a boy. Are you: (Circle one answer)

Better Worse About the same

133

APPENDIX H

Tables of Correlations

Self-perception Variables
Confidence Usefulness Gender-appropriateness
Confidence
Usefulness .68"
Gender-appropriateness -.08 -.03
Overall Environment Variables
Behav Comp TSup Affil Inv
Behavior
Competition .12”
Teacher Support .36" .lo*
Affiliation .55" -.03 .43“
Involvement .45“ .20" .36" .39"

Gender-Specific Environmental Variables (Own Gender)

Behav Org Comp TSup Affil Inv
Behavior
Organization .47”
Competition -.33** -.l4**
Teacher Support .42" .50M -.17**
Affiliation .51” .51" -.27** .45"
Involvement .54" .53” .03 .50" .58"

**p<.01 a"12,>05

134

Gender-Specific Environmental Variables (Opposite Gender)

Behav
Behavior
Competition -.33**
Teacher Support .27“
Adfifiafion .37**
Involvement .21M

**p<.01 a"12,>05

135

Comp TSup
a16*
n14 .17*
.54** .2o**

Affil

Inv

APPENDIX I

U I. .u... .u t -I.' 0 .‘.I- ' 0 '1t-IL-m’vn 1' "ML-sum

 

MIDDLE SCHOOL BOYS:

Wilk's Lambda E (3, 108) = .069, p = .977

Xan'abl: at W W
Confidence 1, 1 10 .080 .778
Usefulness of Basketball 1, 110 .000 .994
Gender-appropriateness of l, 110 .044 .833
Basketball

MIDDLE SCHOOL GIRLS:

Wilk's Lambda E (3, 91) = .702, p = .554

Karim: (If M W
Confidence 1, 93 .582 .447
Usefulness of Basketball 1, 93 1.37 .244
Gender-appropriateness of l, 93 1.63 .205
Basketball

136

HIGH SCHOOL BOYS:

Wilk's Lambda 12(3, 93) = .820, p = .486

Xariahle
Confidence
Usefulness of Basketball

Gender-appropriateness of
Basketball

HIGH SCHOOL GIRLS:

Wilk's lambda E (3, 92) = .016, p = .997

Mariam:
Confidence
Usefulness of Basketball

Gender-appropriateness of
Basketball

:11

1, 95
l, 95
l, 95

df

l, 94
l, 94
1, 94

137

2.27
.641
.509

.022
.049
.006

.135
.425
.477

.883
.824
.938

APPENDIX J

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Madame df Unixariatej W
Confidence 1, 52 .029 .866
Usefulness of Basketball 1, 52 .120 .731
Gender-appropriateness of 1, 52 1.33 .275
Basketball

MIDDLE SCHOOL GIRLS:

Wilk's Lambda E (3, 38) = 2.67, p = .061

Variable df 11"E £111.11
Confidence l, 40 .137 .714
Usefulness of Basketball 1, 40 2.98 .092
Gender-appropriateness of l, 40 2.67 .061
Basketball

138

139

HIGH SCHOOL BOYS:
Wilk's Lambda E (3, 40) = .610, p = .613

W df 11W ' Erratum '
Confidence 1, 42 .737 .395
Usefulness of Basketball 1, 42 1.48 .231
Gender-appropriateness of 1, 42 .774 .384
Basketball

HIGH SCHOOL GIRLS:

Wilk's Lambda E (3, 36) = .102, p = .959

.Yan'able 511 W 31112312111111.9161
Confidence 1, 38 .222 .641
Usefulness of Basketball 1, 38 .267 .608
Gender-appropriateness of 1, 38 .001 .975

Basketball

APPENDIX K

 

u I' .II-.' -.II I' III-W ' I) at. y I 'a stun I l' 0 am.

OIIUHH'H.‘ -I-I‘ I loatko Irv; IIII. 0!- “onI '._ m linI'vj
MIDDLE SCHOOL BOYS:
Wilk's Lambda E (5,47) = .847, n = .524
23113121: df Unixariatd‘: W
Student Behavior 1, 51 .005 .942
Class Competitiveness 1, 51 .029 .866
Teacher Support 1, 51 .009 .923
Affiliation 1, 51 1.79 .187
Student Involvement 1, 51 .003 .953
MIDDLE SCHOOL GIRLS:
Wilk's Lambda E (5,37) = 1.006, p = .428
mm: df W W
Student Behavior 1, 41 .125 .725
Class Competitiveness 1, 41 .561 .458
Teacher Support 1, 41 .836 .366
Affiliation l, 41 1.47 .232
Student Involvement 1, 41 .087 .769

140

141

HIGH SCHOOL BOYS:

Wilk's Lambda E (5, 38) = 2.128, p = .083

31311312]: £11 11 . . E E l 1 .1. I 1
Student Behavior 1, 42 5.49 .024
Class Competitiveness 1, 42 .001 .980
Teacher Support 1, 42 1.66 .205
Affiliation 1, 42 1.15 .290
Student Involvement 1, 42 4.60 .038
HIGH SCHOOL GIRLS:

Wilk's Lambda E (5, 34) = 1.1391, p = .359

Karlahl: df UnixarimE BrnhahinaLLexel
Student Behavior 1, 38 2.71 .108
Class Competitiveness 1, 38 .000 1.00
Teacher Support 1, 38 .105 .748
Affiliation l, 383 .041 .841

Student Involvement 1, 38 .070 .793

APPENDIX L

 

u I .I-.' III I' -I-..‘ ' I él- '-.~ aunt-Ir 'I hm lain-l
”on..." . V..'..- o li-nkt O.'-;O .t... I]. at. In mm
MIDDLE SCHOOL BOYS:
Wilk’s Lambda E (6,47) = 2.248, p, = .055
W df II . . E E 1 l .1. I 1
Student Behavior 1, 52 1.20 .279
Class Organization 1, 52 1.99 .165
Class Competitiveness 1, 52 .038 .846
Teacher Support 1, 52 .266 .608
Affiliation 1, 52 .743 .393
Student Involvement 1, 5 2 .228 .635
MIDDLE SCHOOL GIRLS:
Wilk's Lambda E (6,36) = 1.022, p = .427
Kimble 51f W W
Student Behavior 1, 41 1.67 .203
Class Organization 1, 41 .376 .543
Class Competitiveness 1, 41 1.20 .279
Teacher Support 1, 41 .379 .542
Affiliation 1, 41 .991 .325
Student Involvement 1, 41 .359 .552

142

HIGH SCHOOL BOYS:

Wilk's Lambda E (6, 37) = 1.70, p = .149

Mariam:

Student Behavior
Class Organization
Class Competitiveness
Teacher Support
Affiliation

Student Involvement

HIGH SCHOOL GIRLS:

Wilk's LambdaE (6, 33) = 1.91, p = .109
$11

Mariam:

Student Behavior
Class Organization
Class Competitiveness
Teacher Support
Affiliation

Student Involvement

d1

1, 37
1, 37
1, 37
1, 37
1, 37
1, 37

l, 33
1, 33
1, 33
l, 33
1, 33
1, 33

143

1.97
.096
5.03
.443
.226
1.52

11' . E
2.84
.465
2.45
2.60
.688
1.91

.168
.758
.030
5 10
.637
.225

.100
.500
.126
.115
.412
.176

APPENDIX M

U {Jr-1c 1' ...- o 50!. ‘ - “or-1- o.‘ 0 Cum»; ’1"

 

oiwoum-V-o-t‘ . 10m ' u... .001-U2 ‘. - m 1036!
MIDDLE SCHOOL BOYS:
Wilk’s Lambda E (5,48) = .865, p = ..511
W df W W
Student Behavior 1, 52 1.64 .206
Class Competitiveness 1, 52 .754 .389
Teacher Support 1, 52 .784 .380
Affiliation 1, 52 .058 .810
Student Involvement 1, 52 1.27 .265
MIDDLE SCHOOL GIRLS:
Wilk's Lambda E (5,37) = 2.48, n = .049
Xariahle df 1111123113191 W
Student Behavior 1, 41 6.83 .012
Class Competitiveness 1, 41 .949 .336
Teacher Support 1, 41 .081 .778
Affiliation 1, 41 .294 ' .591
Student Involvement 1, 41 3.02 .090

144

145

HIGH SCHOOL BOYS:

Wilk's lambda E (5, 37) = 2.27, p = .067

mm: :11 II . . E E l l .1. I v 1
Student Behavior 1, 41 4.23 .046
Class Competitiveness 1, 41 8.43 .006
Teacher Support 1, 41 .567 .456
Affiliation 1, 41 .649 .425
Student Involvement 1, 41 3.74 .060
HIGH SCHOOL GIRLS:

Wilk's Lambda E (5, 34) = .621, p = .684

m1: - df W W
Student Behavior 1, 38 .899 .349
Class Competitiveness 1, 38 1.11 .298
Teacher Support . 1, 38 .028 .868
Affiliation l, 38 .739 .395

Student Involvement l, 38 .173 .680

APPENDDI N

 

146

U'-u .1- 1610,4091 pun 10.1'11' '. 0) ”tau-1 o c'har»
Enfimnmem
MALES .
WM (n= 107) W31 W
Student Behavior 6.94 (1.77) 7.06 (2.06)
Class Competitiveness 5.76 (2.21) 7.07 (2.55)
Affiliation 6.43 (2.33) 6.13 (2.18)
Teacher Support 7.45 (2.17) 6.83 (2.29)
Student Involvement 6.94 (2.16) 7.44 (2.18)
Hizhfishml (n = 100)
Student Behavior 7.01 (1.65) 6.68 (2.11)
Class Competitiveness 6.09 (2.20) 6.81 (2.28)
Affiliation 6.77 (1.57) 6.04 (2.22)
Teacher Support 7.14 (1.96) 7.18 (2.02)
Student Involvement 6.30 (1.94) 7.11 (1.52)
FEMALES
W (n= 96)
Student Behavior 6.61 (1.97) 7.45 (1.66)
Class Competitiveness 6.16 (2.60) 5.85 (2.19)
Affiliation 5.77 (2.81) 7.23 (2.02)
Teacher Support 7.93 (2.18) 7.43 (2.07)
Student Involvement 7.05 (2.07) 7.43 (1.86)

147

Coeducational Same-sex
11121155211991 (n = 94) Classes Classes
Student Behavior 7.00 (1.96) 8.19 (1.51)
Class Competitiveness 5.80 (2.41) 5.94 (2.17)
Affiliation 6.73 (2.32) 7.67 (2.02)
Teacher Support 7.23 (2.41) 7.54 (2.38)

Student Involvement 7.13 (1.77) 7.80 (1.43)

 

APPENDIX 0

U'.. ..0 1.0.{0 .A- .qIII .Ia(‘|_|v‘q~' 0 'QI‘--O“ .‘{'II..

 

WW
MALES .
W (n = 108) W 91%
Student Behavior 3.22 (.75) 3.01 (.72)
Class Organization 3.71 (.58) 3.67 (.56)
Class Competitiveness 3.38 (.53) 3.43 (.45)
Affiliation 3.26 (.60) 3.1 l (.48)
Teacher Support 3.14 (.47) 2.96 (.60)
Student Involvement 3.50 (.57) 3.38 (52)
High-91211991 (n = 99)
Student Behavior 3.30 (.63) 2.91 (.81)
Class Organization 3.76 (51) 3.61 (.64)
Class Competitiveness 3.19 (.61) 3.49 (.45)
Affiliation 3.43 (.44) 3.02 (.5 8)
Teacher Support 3.20 (.41) 3.15 (.59)
Student Involvement 3.35 (.48) 3.10 (.66)
FEMALES
W99]. (11 = 96)
Student Behavior 3.63 (.81) 3.21 (.72)
Class Organization 3.80 (.74) 3.87 (.56)
Class Competitiveness 2.83 (.44) 3.18 (.40)
Affiliation 3.41 (.61) 3.44 (.56)
Teacher Support 3.40 (.66) 3.54 (.62)
Student Involvement 3.27 (.73) 3.44 (.65)

148

Hiahichml (n = 94)
Student Behavior
Class Organization
Class Competitiveness
Affiliation
Teacher Support
Student Involvement

149

Coeducational

3.81
3.71
2.86
3.59
3.33
3.42

(.54)
(.55)
(.43)
(.51)
(54)
(.66)

Same-sex

3.61
3.84
3.02
3.46
3.60
3.42

(.69)
(.60)
(.50)
(56)
(.63)
(.66)

 

APPENDIX P

 

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..-., m.»- ... ..—. .. -..-. ......".~01......e,.).,.- 1.1.”,
mentions
MALES .
Middlejrlml 4-54) 833.. 51-91.“
Class Competitiveness 3.38 (.53) 2.70 (.50)
Affiliation 3.26 (.60) 3.09 (.40)
Teacher Support 3.14 (.47) 3.12 (.53)
Student Involvement 3.50 (.57) 2.87 (.63)
W (n = 43)
Class Competitiveness 3.19 (.61) 2.76 (.36)
Affiliation 3.43 (.44) 3.40 (.42)
Teacher Support 3.20 (.41) 3.42 (.31)
Student Involvement 3.35 (.48) 3.10 (.66)
FEMALES
Middlefichml (n = 43)
Class Competitiveness 2.83 (.44) 3.91 (.52)
Affiliation 3.41 (.61) 2.94 (.71)
Teacher Support . 3.40 (.66) 3.17 (.31)
Student Involvement 3.27 (.73) 3.80 (5 9)
12112113211991 (n = 40)
Class Competitiveness 2.86 (.43) 3.65 (.45)
Affiliation 3.59 (.51) 3.28 (.50)
Teacher Support 3.33 (.54) 3.14 (.47)
Student Involvement 3.42 (.66) 3.47 (.53)

150

APPENDIX Q

CODING SHEET

XABIABLE
Subject number

I. D. number
Gender
Grade

Class type
School

Age
Teacher gender

CARDCQLUMHXAHIES

1
l
1

Number of sport teams as a participant 1

Number of sports involved in recreationally 1

Basketball participation

Importance of doing well
in basketball class

Pre self-efficacy
usefulness, gender-
appropriateness scales
Overall environment scale
Post self-efficacy

Post confidence, usefulness, gender-
appropriateness scales

Gender-specific environment scale -
own gender

Gender-specific environment scale -
opposite gender

151

1-3
4-11
12
13
14
15

16-17
18
19-20
21-22
23

24

25-27
30-59
10-21
22-24

30-59

10-59

10-59

1=male,2=female
1=MS,2=HS
l=coed,2=ss

1=B,2=G,3=M,
4=H

1: male, 2 = female

1 = team, 2=recreation,
3 = none

1 = extremely important
2 = fairly important, 3 =
somewhat important, 4 =
only a little important,

5 = not at all important

APPENDIX R
DATA

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060805030805100 551115515131515111551155342145
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51254122245S24252554155152521551511111555452111511

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101010011010100 443224433322433224344224433232
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060408050908050 344434334333444432332334343444
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050809030708090 521155215251515111211155533145
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51432151345553322124251312413121534453335313132154
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038M31230772111122000133080 441324442411542414241224441444
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