4; 275m ?“ U. S. State Department Fact Sheets . Cover Letter to Chairman of the Board. Cover Letter to School Board Members . Cover Letter to Chief Administrator. Cover Letter from Dr. Lewis A. Grell . Postcard Acknowledging Receipt of Questionnaire. School Board Member's Questionnaire. . . . Chief Administrator's Questionnaire. Interview Consent Form . . . In- -Depth Interview Schedule for School Board Members and Chief Administrators. School Board Member's Vignettes. xi Page 237 237 238 239 239 241 242 242 246 248 249 253 255 255 257 258 258 260 262 267 272 277 279 279 286 289 291 293 295 296 297 310 322 323 327 Chapter Page L. In—Depth Interview Schedule for Professional Staff Members and Parents . . . 330 M. Letter of Approval from University Committee on Research Involving Human Subjects. . . . . . . . . 333 N. Participating American- -Sponsored Overseas and. International Schools grouped According to Student Enrollment Size for 1988- 89 . . . . . . . 334 0. School Board Members' and Chief Administrators' Statements. . . . . . . . . . . 336 P. Professional Staff Members' and Parent' Statements . . . 342 Q. Percentage of Elements That Contributed To Conflict as Reported by School Board Members . . . . . 350 R. Percentage of Elements That Contributed To Conflict as Reported by Chief Administrators . . . . . . . . 353 BIBLIOGRAPHY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 355 xii Number 10 ll 12 l3 14 LIST OF TABLES The Five Conflict Handling Modes. Uses of the Five Conflict Modes, as Reported by a Group of Chief Executives . . . . . . Number and Percentage of Respondents Returned by School Board Members and Chief Administrators. Number and Percentage of In-depth Interviews Completed for School Board Members, Chief Administrators, Professional Teaching Staff Members and Parents . Number of American-Sponsored and International Schools Located in Europe That Participated in the Study. . . . . . . . . . . . Percentage of Personal Characteristics Profile for School Board Members and Chief Administrators. Personal Characteristics Profile for School Board Members . Professional Experience Profile for Chief Administrators. . . . . . . . . . . Percentage of Chief Administrators Who Left School Involuntarily. . . . . . . . Percentage of the Number of Years Served as a School Board Member . Percentage of School Board Members Appointed or Elected to School Board During Most Recent Elections . . Percentage of Incumbent School Board Members Who were Defeated or Did Not Seek Re-election . Percentage of Reasons for School Board Members Seeking Board Membership. Percentage of Sources of Encouragement for School Board.Members to Seek Election to the School Board. . . . . . . xiii Page 48 50 126 127 128 129 132 134 135 136 137 138 139 140 Number Page 15 Percentage of Participation in Public Affairs by School Board Members Prior to Board Membership. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141 16 Percentage of Perceptions About School Governance by School Board Members Compared to Other Candidates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142 17 Percentage of Positions Taken by School Board Members at the Time of Campaign Elections . . . . . . . 143 18 Percentage of the Degree of Concern/Importance About Issues That Are Confronted by School Board Members and Chief Administrators According to School Board Members . . . . . . . . . . . 146 19 Percentage of the Degree of Concern/Importance About Issues That Are Confronted by School Board Members and Chief Administrators Accord- ing to Chief Administrators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148 20 The Mean, Standard Deviation, and Rank of the Conflict Issues Identified by School Board Members and Chief Administrators. . . . . . . . . . . . 150 21 Number and Percentage of Statements Made by School Board Members During the In-depth Interview Regarding Conflict Issues . . . . . . . . . . 154 22 Number and Percentage of Statements Made by Chief Administrators During the In-depth Interview Regarding Conflict Issues . . . . . . . . . . 156 23 Percentage of Agreement About “Other“ Elements Contributing to Conflict Between School Board Members and Chief Administrators as Reported by School Board Members . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161 24 Percentage of Agreement About “Other” Elements Contributing to Conflict Between School Board Members and Chief Administrators as Reported by Chief Administrators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162 25 The Mean, Standard Deviation and Rank of "Other" Elements Identified by School Board Members and Chief Administrators. . . . . . . . . . . . 164 26 Percentage of Elements That Contributed to Conflict as Reported by School Board Members. . . . . . 168 xiv Number Page 27 Percentage of Elements That Contributed to Conflict as Reported by Chief Administrators. . . . . . 170 28 Percentage of Responses Concerning The Management of Difference Modes According to School Board Members. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173 29 Percentage of Responses Concerning The Management of Differences Modes According to Chief Administrators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177 30 Presentation of Responses to Individual Questions by School Board Members' Concerning the Five Conflict Modes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181 31 Presentation of Responses to Individual Questions by Chief Administrators Concerning the Five Conflict Modes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183 32 Summary of Conflict Mode Scores for School Board Members . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186 33 Summary of Conflict Mode Scores for Chief Administrators. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187 34 Situation 1: The Challenger. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193 35 Situation 2: Parent's Complaint. . . . . . . . . . . . 194 36 Situation 3: Split Board . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196 37 Percentage of Responses of School Board Members Concerning Methods Employed to Create Non-Conflict Patterns Between School Board Members and Chief Administrators. . . . . . . . . . . . 198 38 Percentage of Responses of Chief Administrator Concerning Methods Employed to Create Non- Conflict Patterns Between School Board Members and Chief Administrators. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201 39 The Mean, Standard Deviation, and Rank for Methods Employed to Create Non-Conflict Patterns Between school Board Members and ChiefAdministrators.......... 206 XV Number Page 40 The Mean, Standard Deviation, and Rank of Responses by School Board Members to Issues That are Confronted by School Board Members and Chief Administrators by Size of Student Enrollment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220 41 The Mean, Standard Deviation, and Rank of Responses by Chief Administrators to Issues That are Confronted by School Board Members and Chief Administrators by Size of Student Enrollment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224 42 The Mean, Standard Deviation, and Rank for Other Elements That Contribute to Conflict Between School Board Members and Chief Administrators Compared by Student Enrollment Size as Reported by School Board Members. . . . . . . . . . . . 228 43 The Mean, Standard Deviation, and Rank for Other Elements That Contribute to Conflict Between School Board Members and Chief Administrators Compared by Student Enrollment Size as Reported by Chief Administrators. . . . . . . . 229 44 Number of Responses by School Board Members Regarding Conflict Issues by School Enroll- ment Size . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232 45 Number of Responses by Chief Administrators Regarding Conflict Issues by School Enroll- ment Size . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234 xvi LIST OF FIGURES Number Page 1 Thomas-Kilmann Two-Dimensional Model of Conflict. . . . 46 2 The Three Basic Assumptions Towards Intergroup Disagreement and Their Management . . . . . . . . . . . 60 xvii CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION The researcher's purpose in completing this study was to examine the arenas of conflict existing between school boards and chief ad- ministrators in American-sponsored overseas schools and international schools located in Europe. The researcher also examined the per- ceived elements that contributed to these conflicts and how they were resolved/managed. How such conflicts affect both the professional teaching staff members and parents of these schools was another area of focus. Finally, the size of the student enrollment was examined to determine if this had an influence on the different types of con- flict existing between school boards and chief administrators. It is widely acknowledged, within the field of education, that an effective relationship between the school board and chief administra- tor is imperative to the efficient operation of a school district (Bennett, 1984; Cistone, 1975; Dykes, 1965; Goldhammer, 1964; Gross, 1958; Jongward, 1982). When the school board and chief administrator have similar goals and can communicate openly with one another about difficult issues, the school community benefits greatly (Johnson, 1980). However, if the members of a school board and a chief adminis- trator have difficulties in managing their conflicts in a profes- sional and timely manner, the educational program of a school can suffer (Fowler, 1977). As educational researcher Menzies (1986) noted, “Development of acceptable conflict resolution alternatives in critical decision-making situations may do much to improve long-term board-superintendent relations'I (p. 7). One of the important areas in which school boards and chief ad- ministrators must have a clear understanding is that of their unique roles (Gross, Mason, & McEachern, 1958). In an attempt to clarify the role of each group, the National School Board Association and the American Association of School Administrators (1980), as cited in .Martinez (1987/1988), jointly published a statement expressing their views concerning this sometimes problematic area. School boards are primarily concerned with es- tablishing policy and representing the educa- tional interests of district constituents. Superintendents are charged with translating policies into administrative practice and with providing professional expertise to the dis- trict. (p. 1) Other areas having disharmony between school boards and chief ad- ministrators were outlined by Fultz (1976). He completed a survey under the auspices of the Michigan Department of Education and cited eight conditions that directly affect the relationship between school boards and chief administrators. The data were collected over a 10 year period and include interviews with 384 school board members and 60 chief administrators. Fultz reported: 1. Weak rapport with the board poses the biggest threat. 2. Lack of staff respect bodes ill for the superintendent. 3. Poor communications up and down the line present problems. 4. Annual written evaluations make a difference. 5. Hiring practices typically dictate firing practices. 6. Enrollment size makes it a numbers game sometimes. 7. It helps to be a recognized leader in education. 8. It also helps to be a good negotiator for management. (pp. 42-43) Fultz, along with a number of others (cuban, 1976; Dykes, 1965; Garmon, 1982; Goldhammer, 1964; Gross, 1958; Martinez, 1987/1988; Zeigler, Jennings and Peak, 1974;), substantiated that conflict does exist between school boards and chief administrators in public schools within the United States. In general, American-sponsored overseas schools and international schools are organized similarly to public schools in the 0.8., having both an elected school board and a chief administrator to initiate and administer the school's policies (U.S. Department of State, 1988). Therefore, by successfully completing this study, the re- searcher intended to assist overseas school board members and chief administrators to identify their arenas of conflict, determine the contributing elements, and resolve/manage it in their schools. Overseas schools are in a unique setting which can help foster a creative and challenging educational environment for their students. Pupils have an ideal opportunity to learn firsthand about other cul- tures and countries existing around the world (Orr, 1985). Overseas school boards and chief administrators can contribute to this unpar- alleled learning experience for their students if they can identify and resolve/manage those issues causing conflict. It should be noted that throughout this study individual school board members, chief administrators, professional teaching staff mem- bers and parents will all be referred to as “he," although the par- ticipants were both males and females. The names of the individuals who participated in this study will not be identified. All materials and personal comments have been treated confidentially. W Conflict has been a part of human society since the dawn of man- kind. Throughout history, one man or group of men reacting to con- flict has determined the very survival of each and every cultural group located around the world today. The crucial question is how were disagreements between these people resolved or managed? In the past, like today, men fought battles or wars to settle disagreements. Conversely, men also met together peacefully and discussed the vari- ous aspects of an issue before making a final decision about which all or nearly all would be in accordance. No matter what the mode of settling disagreements, man has always been faced with resolving or managing conflict. Conflict has been a necessary component in the development of all societies and their institutions. Pugh (1985) believes without some form of conflict, an institution would stagnate and fail to develop into a viable and productive entity. 0n the other hand, too much conflict within an institution can impair its operation. He further emphasizes that managers of these institutions must be cognizant of the positive and negative role that conflict has in an institution. Blake, Mouton, and Williams (1981) contend that conflict will occur in a setting where people approach problems differently and are encouraged to express their opinions. They emphasize: The effects of conflict can be either disrup- tive and destructive or creative and construc- tive, depending upon whether the persons in- volved can work toward a mutual understanding or simply an agreement to differ without dis- respect. (p. 5) Boulding (1964) states, ”Conflict is a phenomenon so omnipresent in social life that we tend too easily to take it for granted, almost like speaking prose.“ He adds, '...unmanaged conflict which gets out of hand can become bad for all parties” (pp. 75-76). Thomas (1976) believes that many view conflict negatively. Spe- cifically, he notes: Until recently, social scientists have been mostly aware of conflict's destructive capa- bility - epitomized by strikes, wars, interra- cial hostility, and so on. This awareness seems to have given conflict an overwhelming connotation of danger and to have created a bias toward harmony and peacemaking in the social sciences. (p. 889) Today a more balanced view of conflict is appearing in the liter- ature. Thomas concludes, “More and more social scientists are coming to realize - and to demonstrate - conflict itself is not evil, but rather a phenomenon which can have constructive or destructive ef- fects depending upon its management” (p- 339)- Deutsch (1973) reviews the works of Simmel 1955 and Coser 1956 and postulates, “Conflict has many positive functions." He elabo- rates further: It prevents stagnation; it stimulates interest and curiosity; it is the medium through which problems can be aired and solutions arrived at; it is the root of personal and social change. Conflict is often part of the process of testing and assessing oneself and, as such, may be highly enjoyable as one experiences the pleasures of the full and active use of one's capacities. (PP. 8-9) Deutsch did not limit his discussion primarily to conflict among individuals but also examined how conflict affects groups. He sug- gests: ...conf1ict demarcates groups from one another and thus helps establish group and personal identities; external conflict often fosters internal cohesiveness. ...In addition, con- flict within a group frequently helps to revi- talize existent norms; or it contributes to the emergence of new norms. (p. 9) For Deutsch and a number of other social scientists, this sense of ”...social conflict is a mechanism for adjustment of norms ade- quate to new conditions.“ They believe society as a whole "...bene- fits from conflict because such behavior, by helping to create and modify norms, assures its continuance under changed conditions” (p. 9). Wynn (1972) takes a different perspective. He believes, "Con- flict should be viewed in neutral terms rather than hostile terms" (p. 4). ...It may be good or bad” (p. 1). To better illustrate his point, the author then discusses a definition offered by Mary Parker Follett. She defined conflict “...neatly and dispassionately as ‘a moment of interacting desires" (p. 4). Wynn interprets this defini- tion of conflict as not connoting ‘good' or ‘bad.’ He views it: ...only as a consequence of the level of civi- lization which people bring with their inter- acting desires and the statesmanship of admin- istration and others who attempt to mediate these interacting desires. (p. 4) Wynn then stresses, “...the administrator who views conflict as inherently pathological, something to be avoided or muted, is in trouble right from the start” (p. 4). "...Effective administrators can accept conflict and capitalize on it to move the organization forward more rapidly” (p. 1). He concludes: To the extent that conflict is intelligently approached and fairly resolved, it may remove irritants, reduce misunderstandings, reinforce goals, quicken commitment, establish individ- ual and organizational integrity, and other- wise refine the attributes of wholesome orga- nizational climate. So it is not conflict itself which should be alarming but rather its mismanagement. (p. 6) Finally, Boulding (1984) and others believe conflict in itself should not be the only concern for individuals and organizations. They emphasize that conflict management must be the primary focus of attention. If conflict is inevitable, then: The objective of conflict management is to see that conflicts remain on the creative and useful side of an invisible but critically im- portant barrier that divides the ‘good' con- flict from the ‘bad.’ (p. 76) “Fortunately, no one has to face the prospect of a conflict-free existence. Conflict can neither be eliminated nor even suppressed for long" (Deutsch, 1964, p. 10). Wished: For centuries, overseas schools have provided education for expa- triate children in a variety of locations throughout the world (McPherson, 1982). This organizational system of schooling has de- veloped in order to permit the children of expatriates living in overseas locations an opportunity to pursue their formal education in the indigenous language. Six types of overseas schools have been established to serve the needs of individual expatriates throughout the world. They are mis- sionary, proprietary, company, international, U.S. Department of De- fense Overseas Dependents Schools (DODDS), and American-Sponsored Overseas Schools (ASOS) (Orr, 1974). A further description of each of the schools is presented in Chapter II. Because it was beyond the interest and financial resources of the researcher to have included sample schools from each of the six cate- gories, previously described in this study, the researcher focused on 24 A808 and six international schools following an American-type curriculum. Further details concerning the selected individual A508 and international schools are discussed in Chapter II. The chief administrator of an overseas school may be referred to by a variety of different titles, i.e., superintendent, director, headmaster, and principal (Bale, 1984/1985). Generally, within the United States, the superintendent is the chief administrator and may have a number of subordinate administrators assisting him with the management of the school district. This also may be the case in an owerseas schools with student enrollments larger than 250. This of course depends entirely on the community and the student enrollment of a particular school. The schools that participated in this study had student enroll- ments between 50 and 600 students. In the smaller schools (enroll- ments of less than 150), the chief administrator generally did not have any subordinate administrators to assist him with the operation of the school. In fact, because of budgetary constraints in many schools, the chief administrator had teaching responsibilities in ad- dition to managing the affairs of the school. Conversely, in schools with a student enrollment larger than 150, the chief administrator may have had one to three subordinate admin- istrators assisting him with the managing of the school. In general, the term superintendent is rarely used as a title to refer to the chief administrator of an overseas school. In order not to confuse the reader and to maintain continuity throughout this research project, the term superintendent will not be used. Instead, ”chief administrator” will be substituted and will refer to individual ad- ministrators who participated in this study. However, the term su- perintendent will be used when referring to research literature com- pleted within the U.S. WW Conflict among groups or between individuals is an accepted con- dition of any institution. When people and resources are brought to- gether to accomplish an established goal, conflict is bound to result (Perrow, 1986). Schools are no exception to this generally accepted 10 fact (Nebgen, 1978). “Conflict is an inevitable part of the process by which we make cooperative efforts; one person suggesting action usually hears from another who thinks otherwise" (James, 1967, p. 5). "It is a premise...conflict is an inherent aspect of school gover- nance, and that learning to cope with and manage conflict is an im- portant area for school board development" (Garmon, 1982, p. 1). Public schools within the U.S. today face many problems in pro- viding quality education for the nation's youth. When schools at- tempt to resolve these dilemmas, school boards and chief administra- tors may be confronted with a variety of different types of conflicts and a vast array of elements that contribute to these conflicts. Conflict can be either healthy or unhealthy for a school system. The manner in which a school board and its chief administrator re- solve/manage these conflicts often directly affects the quality of education within that school system. American-sponsored overseas schools and international schools lo- cated in Europe are organized and managed similarly to good private schools in the U.S.. Therefore, it might be assumed that similar conflict situations may or may not exist in these schools. It was the intention of the researcher in carrying out this study to deter- mine the arenas of conflict, the elements that may contribute to con- flict, and the methods employed to resolve/manage conflict between school boards and their chief administrators in overseas schools. Other focus areas examined were how these conflicts affected the pro- fessional teaching staff and parents and if the student enrollment 11 size had an influence on the types of conflicts that exist between school boards and chief administrators. W The researcher's purpose in completing this study was to learn more about the arenas of conflict, the elements that contribute to conflict, and the methods employed to resolve/manage conflict between school boards and chief administrators in American-sponsored overseas schools and international schools located in Europe. The researcher also examined how these conflicts affected the professional teaching staff and parents and if the size of the student enrollment had an influence on the different types of conflict that exist between school boards and their chief administrators. Therefore, the re- search questions for this study were as follows: 1. What are the perceived arenas of conflict between the school board and its chief ad- ministrator? 2. What are the perceived elements that con- tribute to conflict between the school board and its chief administrator? 3. How are conflicts between the school board and its chief administrator re- solved/managed - not resolved/managed? 4. How are the professional teaching staff and parents affected by conflict between the school board and its chief administra- tor? 5. Does the size of the student enrollment have an influence on the different types of conflict that exist between the school board and its chief administrator? 12 The results of this study should give school boards and chief ad- ministrators a better understanding of the different types of con- flicts, the reasons for these conflicts and some possible methods for resolving/managing their conflicts effectively. Furthermore, it is assumed that the results of this study may also be beneficial to other school boards and chief administrators in American-sponsored overseas schools and international schools in other geographical re- gions around the world. MW Historically, conflict has always played a major role in the de- velopment of any healthy institution. Without some degree of con- flict, an institution would stagnate and fail to develop into a viable and productive entity. On the other hand, too much conflict within an institution can immobilize its operations. Managers of these institutions must be cognizant of the positive and negative role that conflict has in an institution (Pugh, 1985, p. 314). Public administrators have been caught in the crossfire of social conflict since before the assassination of Caesar. Although its inten- sity wanes the time and place, conflict is ubiquitous in public affairs, and right now, it is certainly not waning in the beleaguered world of the school administrator. (Wynn, 1972, p. 5) During this century, the school administrator has had to deal with many different types of conflicts in schools. Each decade has brought a variety of challenges and changes. These situations have also brought with them a certain amount of conflict that needed to be resolved or managed effectively. Wynn (1972) demonstrates this point 13 by disclosing the problems superintendents had during the beginning of this century. The following quotation is from the June, 1913 issue of WWI. No recent year has seen wholesale changes in the superintendencies and other high school positions as the present year...There has been a perfect storm of unrest culminating in wholesale resignations, dismissals, and new appointments. (p. 5) With so many changes and conflicts occurring in society, social scientists and other researchers have been eager to understand the dynamics behind these changes and how they affect the operations of private and public institutions. Although some research concerning private institutions has been conducted, little investigation was completed for public schools. Gross (1956) as cited in Bidwell (1965), illustrated this fact when he reviewed ”...the sociological literature on education from 1945 to 1955...“ and concluded, ”...that a systematic study of the school as an organization had yet to be made" (p. 972). However, within two years, Gross (1958) and Gross et a1. (1958) had completed several studies concerning public school boards and their relationships with their superintendents. Gross (1958), summa- rized: If an executive and his board of directors hold similar ideas about who should do what, and if they agree on policies and programs for their organizations, then one crucial ingredi- ent is present for relatively smooth working relationships. If they have different ideas about these things, then the stage is set for confusion, tension, frustration, and conflict. (p. 113) 14 Bidwell (1965) reviewed the research literature from the time that Gross and his colleagues completed their work until 1965 and commented: Few students of organizations have turned their attention to schools, and few students of schools have been sensitive to their orga- nizational attributes. To understand what schools are like as organizations - what char- acteristic structures, processes, and func- tional problems are - we must rely on empiri- cal work, much of which either was not explic- itly directed toward these questions or was narrowly focussed on some sub-system, process, or activity within the school, without being informed by a general conception of the school organization. As a result, this empirical literature is fragmentary and discontinuous. The need to order the existing research findings and to set a systematic, coherent frame for new in- quiry gives the development of such a concep- tion paramount importance. (p. 972) Bidwell continued his discussion and stressed that more research was needed with regard to the relationship between the school board and superintendent: Evidence concerning the most significant aspect of relations among school officers and boards, their actual patterns of interaction, is presently lacking. ...For example, there is nothing concerning the frequency or nature of observed conflicts or strategies employed to resolve them, such as attempts by superin- tendents or board members to mobilize power resources within the school system or in its environment. (p. 996) In conclusion, Bidwell stated that new research was needed in the field of educational organizations to investigate a host of areas that had not been previously researched. Specifically, he wanted nwre studies that would: 15 ...systematically investigate the interaction of variables subsumed under organizational re- cruitment, structural context, and board and superintendent attitude and action. Such studies should attend to those situations in which boards and superintendents differ in their attitudes towards the responsibilities of their positions, since situations may not only characterize significant numbers of school systems, but also reveal important sources of strain and conflict inherent in school-system structures. (p. 1001) However, nearly 10 years after Bidwell made his recommendations, few research studies investigating the relationship between school boards and superintendents had been completed. Zeigler et a1. (1974) completed a research study that investi- gated "...the school board as the authoritative and representative political body in the school system” (p. 18). They concluded: ...the governmental aspects of school systems have been only incidental to those investiga- tion. ...Yet, when the content of the charges and countercharges are examined, the fact is that no one has systematically analyzed the governing of American schools. (p. 1) Salisbury (1980), in a study concerning citizen participation in education, noted that while he was conducting his interviews, the topic of conflict continued to be a concern for many of his partici- Pants. He summarized: School activists dislike conflict...They are uneasy about changes within their communities or in their school program, in part it seems, because change represents the possibility of disagreement. They are, with some exceptions, uneasy in the presence of heterogeneity, of race or class, because this too means poten- tial conflict over what values ought to pre- vail... Our data are not remotely sufficient to explore thoroughly this issue, but the matter of American attitudes toward political l6 and social conflict is thoroughly deserving of a prominent place in the research agenda. (pp. 198-199) Zeigler, Kehoe, Reisman, and Polito (1981) completed another study in which school superintendents and city managers were compared to one another to determine which group could effectively re- solve/manage conflict in their individual organizations. They dis- covered 'Conflict as an area of inquiry is still novel to education research” (p. 6). Despite the theoretical and practical significance of the school board and superintendent relationship phenomenon, it remains a virtu- ally unresearched domain. A review of the literature and a systematic search in Disserta- ‘tion Abstracts International located only two dissertations directly r121ated to conflict between school boards and superintendents within the U.S.: Cummins (1980/1981) and Martinez (1987/1988). Eight other researchers explored specific topics regarding the relationship be- tween school boards and superintendents: communication and trust (Aleshire, 1980/1981); role conflicts (Barger, 1981); 6: Littleton, 1983/1984); behavior expectations (Beam, 1981/1982); power, partici- Pation, and control (Hentges, 1984); school superintendent-school board president (McEwan, 1983); role expectation and role behaviors (Smith, 1983/1984); and superintendent turnover (Thies, 1980). Cummins' research study (1980/1981) specifically looked at the: ...goals and resources; roles, responsibili- ties, and relationships; operating procedures; decision making and leadership in school dis- tricts to clarify how they contributed to board-superintendent relationships and whether they related to a continuum of conflict in those relationships. 17 His study disclosed: . . .only “352 of those surveyed, answered the questionnaire. Because few responses were diffused among 11 districts and they were so varied, it was difficult to generalize. Major themes tended to be inconclusive. (p. 4225A) Martinez (1987/1988, pp. 4-5) reviewed several previous studies and noted in the following: Hentges (1984) ". . .that tensions between superintendents and their boards appeared to be mounting in recent years. This was evidenced through unfamiliar demands, expectations, conflicts over valued resources, and critical public acclaim" (p. 11). Berger (1981), "...a need has existed to provide empirical data to identify conflict perceived by school board members and superin- tendents...” (pp. 8-9). Thies (1980), ”...1ittle information is available concerning the inability of superintendents to avoid seri- ous conflicts with individual board members” (p. 5). Martinez (1987/1988) noted that even with the educational re- search studies concerning conflict completed to-date, "The character Of conflict between school boards and superintendents is a matter of continuing concern among everyone who interacts in school systems” (P - 6). A second search was conducted for studies that have been com- Pleted in reference to overseas schools and conflict management fol- lowed the researcher's search for studies on conflict between school boards and chief administrators within the U.S. Sixty-nine studies were identified which explored some aspect of Ametitan-sponsored overseas or international schools. Many of these 18 studies completed were in reference to bi-lingual and bi-cultural programs. However, 19 of these studies focused on either the subject of school boards or chief administrators: Bale (1984/1985); Benz (1971); Bergman (1986/1987); Breton (1984/1985); Cope (1988/1989); Domidion (1964/1965); Droppert (1984/1985); Farr (1985/1986); Gonzalez (1987/1988); Halley (1984); Hansen (1984/1985); Harvey (1976); Kemple (1981); Mandrell (1980); Perez (1981); Roth (1972); Vest (1971); Walters (1983/1984); and Wendling (1986/1987). Further investigation revealed that only Farr's study (1985/1986) examined the relationship between school boards and superintendents. It did not specifically investigate the issue of conflict between school boards and superintendents. The purpose of his study was: . to describe overseas schools board members who were perceived as powerful by the board presidents and superintendents who were work- ing with them at the time this study was com- pleted. A secondary purpose was to determine if there was a significant difference in the perceptions of the board presidents and super- intendents. (p. 2869A) Attempting to fill the void concerning research about overseas schools, Orr (1974) completed an extensive search for those disserta- tions and other research studies that had been completed about over- seas schools. He organized the research he found into six major cat- eSOI'ies: (a) school setting, (b) school institutionalization, (‘3) school organization and administration, (d) school program, (e) school personnel, and (f) school pupils. A model was developed to classify the research completed and to idel'ttify those areas that needed further investigation. With regard to Behool administration. Orr (1974) stated: 19 The administrative mode in the A808 varies significantly as a function of the background and beliefs of the superintendent and the board, and combined with the dynamic nature of the A808 and high turnover rates, results in styles and patterns of administration which vary substantially according to people rather than precepts of administrative roles related to position. (p. 46) After completing a review of the relevant literature concerning conflict between school boards and superintendents within the U.S. and abroad, the researcher has concluded that this study would be a welcomed addition to the educational research that has been completed to-date. Moreover, Orr's research matrix regarding overseas schools demonstrated that studies concerning conflict between school boards and superintendents were nonexistent when he completed his work, and that the need for such a study existed. In sum, the lack of research concerning conflict between school boards and chief administrators in American-sponsored overseas schools and international schools demonstrated the need for the com- pletion of this study. It is hoped that the results of this study will increase the existing knowledge base in this arena. mm It is imperative to any research study that a theoretical frame- work be employed to interpret those observations which may coalesce into a set of possible generalizations which either broaden the howledge base or provide questions for established theories. zeigler (1974) notes, ”That which links the unique event to a much 20 larger class of events is the abstract theory which is used to order and to categorize the various observations” (p. 146). It is beyond the scope of this research to attempt to make ex- plicit the conceptual framework underlying the assumptions regarding the major social, organizational, and managerial theories with regard to conflict, i.e., social, bureaucracy, power, and others. Further- more, it is understood all of these theories are interrelated and in- clude conflict in one description or another. In general, ”The con- cept of conflict has been treated as a general social phenomenon, with implications for the understanding of conflict within and be- tween organizations” (Pondy, 1967, p. 296). For the purpose of this study, the researcher has structured his research in part on Boulding's (1964) theory of conflict as applied to organizations. Also included as part of the theoretical framework are Deutsch's (1973) variables affecting conflict, Bailey's (1971) typology of conflict levels, and Thomas and Kilmann's (1974) conflict behavior mode. The theoretical framework established enables the researcher to analyze those data regarding the arenas of conflict, the elements contributing to conflict, and the methods utilized to resolve/manage conflict between school board members and chief administrators in Alllet'i.can-sponsored overseas schools and international schools located in Europe. The theory of conflict applied to organizations, as described by B(Adding (1964), has four basic components: the parties to the con- flict. the field of conflict, the dynamics of the conflict situation, 21 and the management and control of conflict. Boulding asserts that with an understanding of these concepts it might be possible to de- termine why some conflict management methods are effective while others fail to benefit the parties involved. In addition to these four concepts, Deutsch (1973) describes seven variables which he believes have a direct affect on conflict. Through his research and analysis of conflict he concludes that indi- viduals involved in conflict should consider several pertinent ideas regarding conflict management. Specifically, he suggests individuals consider the following: the characteristics of the parties in con- flict, their prior relationship to one another, the nature of the issue giving rise to the conflict, the social environment within tflhich the conflict occurs; the interested audiences to the conflict; time strategy and tactics employed by the parties in the conflict; and the consequences of the conflict to each of the participants and to other interested parties. After reviewing Deutsch's variables affecting conflict, the re- searcher examined Bailey's (1971) typology of conflict types to as- certain the different levels of conflict existing in overseas inter- national schools. Bailey suggests there are three types or levels of conflict within any given organization. He isolates: l. subordinate conflicts (conflicts between administrators and those over whom they have authority). 2. Lateral conflicts (conflicts between ad- ministrators and a person or group with equal authority) ; and 22 3. Superordinate conflicts (conflicts between an administrator and a person or group which has authority over him or her). (p. 234) Following an analysis of Bailey's levels of conflict, the re- searcher determined it would be both beneficial and valuable to this research to examine the various behavior modes exhibited by individu- als when they resolve/manage conflict. Therefore, the Thomas-Kilmann (1974) two-dimensional conflict model was selected in order to de- scribe the various modes used to manage conflict. Thomas and Kilmann suggest when individuals manage conflict, they exhibit one or a com- bination of two behaviors: (a) assertiveness (the extent to which the individual attempts to satisfy his own concerns) and (b) coopera- tiveness (the extent to which the individual attempts to satisfy the other person's concerns). Using these two behaviors, the authors were able to define five specific methods of handling conflict: com- peting, accommodating, avoiding, collaborating, and compromising. This brief review of the theoretical framework is elaborated further in Chapter II. Mien: Five sets of assumptions and beliefs guided the research design of this study. First, it is appropriate to believe that conflict exists within sch0013, specifically between school boards and their chief adminis- trator-s . 23 Second, there is a variety of reasons why conflict exists between school boards and their chief administrators. Third, conflict between school boards and their chief administra- tors may directly affect the professional teaching staff and parents of the educational community. Fourth, there are methods that can be employed to assist school boards and their chief administrators to manage conflict effectively. Fifth, the size of the student enrollment may affect the types of conflict that exist between school boards and their chief administra- tors . ta 5 One limitation of the research was the number of schools se- ZLected. Thirty schools were requested to participate in this study. TTmese schools were not randomly selected. They were chosen because of their student enrollment size and geographical location within Ehaxaope. A second limitation was that not all of the schools participating 1111 ‘the study were ASOS schools. Six of the schools were interna- tT-IIJDrial ones. However, these schools were selected on the basis of ttheir American-type curricula. .A third limitation was that not all school board members and chief administrators who completed the questionnaires were involved in the in-depth interview. Financial restraints and time limitations OT L" ‘s *v .1 ‘e., ‘v‘ ,I s 24 prevented the researcher from personally interviewing all of the par- ticipants. A fourth limitation of the study was the method used by the chief administrator to select the professional teaching staff members and the parents who participated in the in-depth interview. Because of their amicable relationship with the chief administrator, these par- ticipants did not always respond objectively. A final limitation was the method employed by the chairman of the board in each school in selecting two other board members to complete the questionnaire. The board members selected shared similar view- points with the chairman of the board. Delimitations. The researcher delimited the study to an analysis of the data cGallected from the questionnaires and in-depth interviews completed by those school board members, chief administrators, teachers, and Parents currently affiliated with the American-Sponsored Overseas S<21'lools or international schools designated in the study. This popu- 1 ation may not be representative of individuals in other Mexican-Sponsored Overseas Schools and international schools located throughout the world. Other types of overseas schools (DODDS, missionary, and company) we re excluded from this study for two reasons. The ownership and gt-7"\?erning policies for each of these school systems are organized differently than those of the A808 and international schools. Sec- ondly, it was beyond the intended scope of this study to include 25 these school systems given the limited time and financial resources of the researcher. The results of this study may well be relevant only to schools included in this study. DODDS, missionary, and company schools may or may not have similar types of conflicts between their policy-making personnel and their chief administrator. It was not the researcher's intention in this study to offer def- inite answers to the research questions. However, the researcher de- sired to present a systematic set of conclusions taken from the find- ings of this study so that some new light may be shed on this rela- tively unresearched area of study. it 0 Conflict: ...is the process which begins when one party perceives that the other has frus- trated, or is about to frustrate, some con- cern of his. (Thomas, 1976, p.891). Wagner: ...manage conflict by reducing or stimulat- ing it, depending upon the situation, in order to develop the highest level of orga- nizational performance (Huse and Cummings, 1985, p. 560). ...means that the parties (involved in a conflict) find ways to continue their work- ing relationship despite their differences (German, 1982, p. 45). 26 - o - - W: A508 and International schools are American-type public schools located in for- eign countries throughout the world. They are governed by elected boards and are owned by the parent community. The purpose of these schools is: ...that of insuring that American youth living abroad, for whatever reason, have access to educational programs comparable to what they might expect in their home set- tings (Dafoe, 1976, p. 11). They have ... two common missions; to pro- vide the best possible education for their children: and to enhance the mutual trans- mission and integration of culture between the United States and the host country (Orr, 1985, p. 31). W: The school board (or - as it may variously be called - the school committee, the board of education, school trustees, or board of trustees) ...is an American invention which is necessary because of the decentralized educational system. ...(it was) ... estab- lished for the purpose of managing the af- fairs of the school district. (It) ...is re- sponsible for the making of decisions, the formulations of policies, the development of programs, the employment of personnel, ...the provision of educationally related services, and the management of the use of the physical facilities of the school dis- trict. (Goldhammer, 1964, pp. v, 1, and 4). W: The superintendent functions as executive officer of the board of education and as the regulator or monitor of the decision-making process in the school district (Griffiths, 1966 p. 100). 27 Examine: ...those voluntary temporary migrants, mostly from affluent countries, who reside abroad for one of several...purposes. ...in their ability to return to their home coun- try if they so desire (Cohen 1977, pp. 6, 17). We: ..that is, establishing goals and objectives and determining in broad outline how they are to be achieved (Dykes, 1965, p. 10). ...making rules under which the school will be run (Goldhammer, 1964, p. 40). W The researcher, by successfully completing this study, hoped to ‘be able to contribute to the dearth of existing research literature concerning the field of overseas schools and conflict resolu- tion/management. Specifically, the primary purpose of this study was to increase the present knowledge base in order to enable overseas school boards and superintendents to identify conflict, determine the reasons for conflict and better understand ways in which to re- solve/manage it more successfully. Also, the findings of this study should be of interest and benefit to those who are working in the field of international studies or inter-cultural relations. Furthermore, this study was of great personal interest to the re- searcher and expanded his professional knowledge extensively. His ‘professional career has been devoted exclusively to overseas schools. ‘A.better understanding of the issues that create conflict between SChool boards and chief administrators will eventually assist him in 28 being a more effective administrator in the future. Consequently, it is hoped that this insight will bring about a better form of educa- tion to the students for whom he will be responsible, and more sup- port from the community at large. W The study is organized as follows: Chapter II is devoted to reviewing the related literature con- cerning: (a) the theoretical framework, (b) conflict resolu- tion/management, (c) school board - chief administrator relations, and (d) international schools. The research design is outlined in Chapter III. Included are the: (a) rationale for the methodology, (b) site and population, (c) data to be collected, (d) sampling technique and selection, (e) reliability and validity of the instrument, (f) the data analysis procedure. Chapter IV includes the presentation of the data and the research findings. The implications of the data collected, the summary of the find- ings, and specific conclusions about the data are described in Chap- ter V. Finally, the researcher offers 10 recommendations to school- board members and chief administrators in overseas schools with 7r988rd to conflict in their school. A further three recommendations ‘fOr future research are also included in this chapter. CHAPTER II REVIEW OF THE RELATED LITERATURE 1W Chapter Two includes two sections. In section one is discussed the theoretical framework of the review which is subdivided into four parts: (a) a definition of conflict and its effects, (b) theory of conflict applied to organizations, (c) types of conflict, and (d) conflict behavior. A comparative review and analysis of the prior, major research studies are presented in section two. Materials presented in this section are relevant to conflict resolution/ management, school board/chief administrator relations, and international schools. 0 ew It is beyond the scope of this research to attempt to make exPlicit the conceptual framework that underlies the assumptions regarding the major social, organizational, and managerial theories With regard to conflict, i.e., social, bureaucracy, power, etc. Moreover, it is understood that all of these theories are interrelated and include conflict in one description or another. In general, ”The concept of conflict has been treated as a general 29 30 social phenomenon, with implications for the understanding of conflict within and between organizations" (Pondy, 1967, p. 296). However, for the purpose of this study, the researcher has based his research, in part, on one organizational theory: Boulding's (1964) theory of conflict as applied to organizations. Also included as part of the theoretical framework are Deusch's (1973) variables affecting conflict, Bailey's (1971) typology of conflict levels, and Thomas and Kilmann's (1974) conflict behavior mode. MW Throughout the history of mankind, all societies and their institutions have been confronted with a wide variety of conflicts for a multitude of reasons. Because conflict has been an inevitable part of the development of man, it is has been for the most part something feared and avoided at any cost. Conflict itself has not always been a major focus for all societies, but the manner in which it has been resolved/managed has been. History is full of written accounts describing how individual groups have attempted to resolve/manage their conflicts, both successfully and unsuccessfully. Interestingly, throughout the development of mankind, the manner in Which conflicts have been resolved/managed was, in some instances, the overwhelming factor in determining whether some institutions, societies, or cultures survived or perished. Researchers have viewed conflict through many lenses but have Benerally agreed that it is, in fact, an inevitable part of life. my: my... 31 Pneuman & Bruehl (1982) are two researchers who view conflict as inevitable. They note the following. It (conflict) exists within each of us. It is present in the dealings of any to persons whose interests or relationships are interdependent. It is inherent in the life of every group and every organization, formal or informal. Yet, there persists all around us--in us, our institutions, and our society--a pervasive fear of conflict. This wide-spread [sic] fear engenders an emotional and pseudorational [sic] reaction, which culminates in a collective strategy calling for denial, control, or if possible, elimination. (p. 1) Blake, Mouton, and Williams (1981) also view conflict as inevitable. They contend that conflict will occur in a setting where people approach problems differently and are encouraged to express their opinions openly. They emphasize the following. The effects of conflict can be either disruptive and destructive or creative and constructive, depending upon whether the persons involved can work toward a mutual understanding or simply an agreement to differ without disrespect. Inability to cope with conflict constructively and creatively leads to increased hostility, antagonism, and divisiveness. Clear thinking disintegrates, and prejudice and dogmatism come to prevail. (p. 5) Thomas and Tymon (1985) concur with Blake, Mouton, and Williams that conflict is inevitable among people with different opinions. However, they believe three additional specific conditions should exist to have a conflict situation: 1. two or more people have somewhat different beliefs, needs, or preferences; 2. they are interdependent (that is, decisions need to be made that affect them all); and 3. resources are limited (so that not everyone can be satisfied). (p. 336) 32 With these three conditions, it is quite understandable why conflict is, in fact, a part of all organizations. In general, when people are assigned various responsibilities within an organization, they need to interact with each other to accomplish their tasks. Whatever the task may be, planning a budget, buying needed materials and supplies, or hiring additional staff members, conflict is inevitable because of the interaction between people and the limit and use of organizational resources. Analyzing these three conditions, one can understand why Thomas (1976) believes a majority of the social scientists, until a few years ago, have been preoccupied with ' . . . conflict's destructive capability--epitomized by strikes, wars, interracial hostility, and so on.” Unfortunately, this attention has '. . . given conflict an overwhelming connotation of danger and to have created a bias toward harmony and peacemaking in the social sciences" (p. 889). Thomas notes that today a more balanced view of conflict is appearing in the literature. He concludes, "More and more social scientists are coming to realize--and to demonstrate--that conflict itself is not evil, but rather a phenomenon which can have constructive or destructive effects depending upon its management" (p. 889). Turning now to the origins of the definition of conflict, Pneuman and Bruehl (1982) stress that for many who studied it in the classical interpretation, the work ggnflig; had a ”negative” connotation until recently. They explain the word conflict 33 originates from Latin. Its '. . . roots . . . comprise fligere, meaning ’to strike,’ and com, meaning ’tqgether.'” Therefore, it is understandable why people throughout history have associated the word conflict with ". . . such images as warfare, death. attack, destruction, and other ferns of uncontrollable fury" (pp. 2-3). With this historical definition, Pondy (1967) noted that there has been a considerable amount of controversy regarding the definition of conflict. Further, he indicated that a wide variety of conflict processes have been described and discussed by researchers. Some of these processes are as follows: 1. antecedent conditions (for example, scarcity of resources, policy differences) of conflictful behavior; 2. effective states (e.g., stress, tension, hostility, anxiety), etc.; 3. cognitive states of individuals (i.e., their perception of awareness of conflictual situations); and 4. conflictful behavior, ranging from passive resistance to overt aggression. (p. 298) In conclusion, Pondy believes that it is not necessary to argue about these different perceptions regarding conflict, but suggests that one general definition be used to encompass all of these phenomena. Expanding on Pondy's suggestion, the researcher found a definition which he believes encompasses Pondy's four points and is also appropriate for this research. The definition, as written by Thomas (1976), defines conflict as '. . . the process which begins 34 when one party perceives that the other has frustrated, or is about to frustrate, some concern of his” (p. 891). It might be argued that this is not the best definition of conflict, but it is the most appropriate one for studying conflict in this research. Additionally, Thomas (1979) points out, "Conflict can occur between any units or parties--supervisor and subordinate, companies and unions, between peers, departments or other groups, or between organizations” (p. 152). Having examined several definitions regarding conflict, a brief historical excursus into the development and research of conflict in organizations may be beneficial at this point. After reviewing the philosophies and definitions of conflict, along with an analysis of management theory, Robbins (1974) classified the attitudes towards organizational conflict and its management into three philosophies: traditional, behavioral, and interactionist. Thomas (1979) reviewed these philosophies and summarized them as follows. The traditienal_nh112§22h! dominated the management literature from the late nineteenth century through the middle 1940s, and still survives in some forms. (It) views all conflicts as destructive. Supporters of this view recommend the elimination of all conflict in the organization. The W emerged in the 19403 and continues to be popular in the field of organizational behavior . . . . this viewpoint (was summarized) as acceptance of conflict. Conflict is viewed as inevitable in organizations, and its existence is accepted as serving some organizational goals. However, (it was) pointed out that almost all efforts of the behavioralists have been directed at resolving conflicts. Therefore, (it was) argued that this 35 philosophy has the flavor of rationalizing the existence of conflict in organizations while continuing to seek its resolution. ThemeLiQHimhflmnhxis-~a viewpoint which has only recently begun to gain attention within the field of organizational behavior. Essentially, (it) recognizes appropriate uses of conflict in organizations and takes the logical next step of recommending the stimulation of appropriate conflicts while seeking to prevent or resolve others. (p. 177) Robbins' interactionist philosophy, though relatively new, appears to be the most appropriate one to consider regarding conflict within organizations today. There are, of course, various conflicts that should be prevented, resolved, or suppressed. However, there are many conflicts which, if nurtured and managed effectively, could stimulate creative growth in all organizations. Finally, Thomas and Tymon (1985) conclude from the results of current research studies that ". . . one central consensus has emerged: conflict itself is intrinsically neither bad nor good. Rather, it has the potential for being either.” They further note, ”It is thus unfortunate that the word conflict has negative overtones, for it is as appropriate to see conflict as an opportunity as it is to perceive it as a danger" (p. 337). 3W2 The theory of coanict, as discussed by Boulding (1964), attempts to bring together a common set of concepts regarding conflict relations in reference to industry, economic organizations, international relations, race relations, and family life. Moreover, this theory can be applied to any institution or organization which 36 has individuals and/or groups interacting with one another. Furthermore, this model may be used to determine what certain techniques used are able to manage/resolve conflict creatively so that all parties involved are satisfied with the outcome, while other techniques fail to adequately benefit those involved in the conflict. Boulding's theory is based on four basic concepts: the parties, the field of conflict, the dynamics of conflict situations, and conflict management. A brief description of each follows. W There must, of course, be at least two parties to conflict, but there need not be two persons. Conflict also takes place between certain aspects of the personality of a single individual or between factions within an organization. Conflict must, therefore, always be visualized as a relationship between or among two or more parties, but the parties can be persons, groups, or organizations. W The field of conflict may be defined simply . as the whole set of relevant possible states of the social system. (Any state of the social system which either of the parties to a conflict considers relevant is, of course, a relevant state.) In the case of an industrial conflict, relevance might consist, for instance, of all possible labor contracts in the situation. W In the simplest model, we suppose that the field consists merely of the combinations of the positions of the two parties, and we then suppose that each party simply adjusts its own position to what it believes the position of the other party to be. 37 W (This) . . . involves the management, control, or resolution of conflict. A conflict system exhibits control if it has some sort of machinery for avoiding ”pathological” moves. It is not always easy to define what is meant by a pathological move. An 'antitrading' move is clearly pathological . . . . we cannot assume that all moves which cross the system boundary are pathological or that all alternating systems are pathological . In any conflict field, however, it is not unreasonable to suppose that there is some boundary, on the far side of which the system becomes pathological. A conflict system, then, exhibits control, if it has an apparatus somewhere in the system which can "perceive” that the system is approaching the boundary of pathology and can then set forces in motion to reverse the movement of the system and pull it away from the boundary. (pp. 138-143) In sum, Boulding emphasizes the permanentness, expense, and potential threat of conflict in organizations. He stresses that the risk and cost to organizations of unresolved/unmanaged conflict is far too great to ignore and that more research in this area is needed. Boulding concludes that both the field of conflict theory and management of organizations can benefit from the applications of his ideas. Since all organizations consist of individuals and/or groups of individuals working together for the purpose of producing some good or service, it is inevitable that conflict will exist in one form or another. It will continue to exist in organizations because not all individuals or groups have the same goals in mind for the organization, nor do they agree on the methods that should be sued to achieve their goals. Consequently, if an organization does not have 38 the appropriate methods or techniques to resolve/ manage conflict effectively, it risks the possibility of destroying itself. Perrow (1986) agrees with Boulding's observations and finds that theorists and researchers from Weber to Likert have acknowledged conflict does exist among groups within organizations, but they have, for the most part, failed to build intergroup conflict into their models, ”except as evidence of a failure to utilize the model.” Further, he asserts that not even March and Simon's (1958) ". expanded bureaucratic model . . .' included conflict among groups. He concludes the following. While much conflict in organizations is undoubtedly an interpersonal phenomenon—-two people in competition, or with incompatible personalities, or lacking in ability to empathize with one another-~a theory of organizations rather than one of individual interactions, should be able to accommodate group conflict. They should see conflict as an inevitable part of organizational life stemming from organizational characteristics rather than from the characteristics of individuals. (pp. 131-132) Thomas (1976) concurs with Perrow's analysis and notes that the research regarding the theory of organizational conflict still appears to be isolated and disjointed. He emphasizes the following. Although there are several pieces of quality research and many important theoretical insights, the theoretical ties between them are often unclear. Researchers look at different manifestations of conflict, different independent variables, and so on. It is easy to get the impression that conflict is a general label for a number of largely unrelated phenomena--strikes, absenteeism, arguing, budget disputes, religious schisms, tensions, and so forth. (p. 930) 39 Thomas suggests there should be greater emphasis on developing more integrative theory and comprehensive research strategies for the field of organizational conflict. In an effort to bring more clarity to organizational conflict and broaden the research literature, Deutsch (1973) describes seven variables which he believes have a direct effect on resolving/managing conflict. If the conflict '. . . is between union and management, between nations, between a husband and a wife, or between children, it is useful to know something about": 1. The characteristics of the parties in conflict (their values and motivations; their aspirations and objectives; their physical, intellectual, and social resources for waging or resolving conflict; their beliefs about conflict, including their conceptions of strategy and tactics; and so forth). Their prior relationship to one another (their attitudes, beliefs, and expectations about one another, including each one's beliefs about the other's view of him, and particularly the degree of polarization that has occurred on such evaluations as "good-bad,“ 'trustworthy- untrustworthy”). The nature of the issue giving rise to the conflict (its scope, rigidity, motivational significance, formulation, periodicity, etc.). The social environment within which the conflict occurs (the facilities and restraints, the encouragements and deterrents it provides with regard to the different strategies and tactics of waging or resolving conflict, including the nature of the social norms and institutional forms for regulating conflict). 40 5. The interested audiences to the conflict (their relationships to the parties in conflict and to one another, their interests in the conflict and its outcomes, their characteristics). 6. The strategy and tactics employed by the parties in the conflict (in assessing and/or changing one another's utilities, disutilities, and subjective probabilities; and influencing the other's conceptions of one's own utilities and disutilities through tactics that vary along such dimensions as legitimacy-illegitimacy, the relative use of positive and negative incentives such as promises and rewards or threats and punishments, freedom of choice-coercion, the openness and veracity of communication and sharing of information, the degree of credibility, the degree of commitment, the types of motives appealed to, and so on). 7. The consequences of the conflict to each of the participants and to other interested parties (the gains or loses relating to the immediate issue in conflict, the precedents established, the internal changes in the participants resulting from having engaged in conflict, the long-term effect on the relationship between the parties involved, the reputation that each party develops in the eyes of the various interested audiences). (PP. 5-7) In sum, Deutsch views these seven variables as valuable resources when dealing with conflict at any level, whether this be with individuals, groups, or organizations. The more insight one can obtain about a conflict situation, the better the chances will be to resolve/manage it effectively. W Having outlined Boulding's theory of conflict and Deutch's variables affecting conflict, the next task is to identify the 41 different levels of conflict within an organization. Bailey's (1971) typology describes three levels of conflict which occur in an organization like a school district. The levels are as follows: 1. Subordinate conflicts (conflicts between an administrator and those he has direct authority over). 2. Lateral conflicts (conflicts between an administrator and a person or group with equal authority). 3. Superordinate conflicts (conflict between an administrator and a person or group who has authority over him). (p. 234) Subordinate conflicts, according to Ziegler et a1. (1981), are those common daily conflicts which occur within the school and are identified as intraorganizational conflicts. An example of this type of conflict might be where a teacher requests permission to go on a field trip and the request is denied. This, of course, would cause a minor conflict between the administrator and teacher, forcing the teacher to think of an alternative plan for her/his students. Lateral conflicts, on the other hand, might involve the chief administrator and the school board. An example of this might entail a decision regarding the possibility of upgrading several buildings in a school district. If there's not enough money in the budget to ‘complete this project, there is very little that can be done at this point. However, if the funds are available and the school board (lecides not to allocate the money for this project but to spend it for another one, this might cause a conflict between the school board and the chief administrator. 42 Superordinate conflicts occur between legal agencies above the local school district and the school board and/or chief administrator. An example of this type of conflict in the United States might be where a school is named in a law suit or some similar legal action. In overseas schools, this type of conflict might involve the federal government where the school is located and the school board and/or chief administrator. Though rare, an example of this type of conflict might be where the school fails to keep its teachers' working visas up to date. After reviewing Bailey's (1971) typology of conflicts, the researcher concurred with his analysis of the three types of conflicts. However, he concluded that lateral and superordinate conflicts are the primary sources of conflict between school board members and chief administrators in overseas schools. This is due, in part, because most decisions regarding the operation of an international school are made by the school board and its chief administrator with little or no interference from the foreign government where the school is located. Further, if the school board believes the chief administrator is competent and managing the school effectively, it will seldom intervene when there is a subordinate conflict. Wm Having established the levels of conflict as described by Bailey, the various approaches to resolving/managing conflict will 43 now be reviewed. Garmon (1982) reasons that individuals, in dealing with conflict, adopt one or more methods to resolve/manage it. Some individuals are successful with managing conflict while others have difficulties. He asserts that some of this may be due to the backgrounds, education, and experiences of people. He further suggests, “Some of our responses may be innate--part of our biological heritage“ (p. 40). Boulding (1964) and others believe conflict by itself should not be the only concern for individuals and organizations. They emphasize that, if conflict is inevitable, then conflict management must be the primary focus of attention. ”The objective of conflict management is to see that conflicts remain on the creative and useful side of an invisible but critically important barrier that divides the 'good' conflict from the bad" (p. 76). Blake et a1. (1964) postulates that within a group or organization, a certain amount of conflict will exist. The manner in which an organization can handle this conflict will determine how successful or unsuccessful an organization is in dealing with conflict. Hynn (1972) suggests school administrators who view conflict as negative, problematic, and something to be avoided, will have difficulties in becoming creative educational leaders. He says administrators who can accept conflict and utilize it have a better lupportunity to move a school ahead to meet the challenges of the future . He concludes : 44 To the extent that conflict is intelligently approached and fairly resolved, it may remove irritants, reduce misunderstandings, reinforce goals, quicken commitment, establish individual and organizational integrity, and otherwise refine the attributes of wholesome organizational climate. So it is not conflict itself which should be alarming but rather its management. (1). 6) If conflict resolution/management is important to an organization, then the behaviors exhibited by those individuals dealing with conflict must be equally as important. To determine the behaviors used by individuals, the researcher reviewed several models regarding conflict management. The originators of these models are Blake and Mouton (1964), Lawrence and Lorsch (1967), Hall (1969), and Thomas-Kilmann (1974). After a review of the literature, the researcher selected the Thomas-Kilmann Conflict- Mode Instrument as being the most appropriate model for this study. This two-dimensional model was designed to determine the methods of managing conflict utilized by people when they are confronted with conflict issues in organizations. It was based on an early model created by Blake and Mouton (1964) called "The Managerial Grid.” Thomas and Kilmann (1979) departed from the ”Managerial Grid" by emphasizing a person's intentions in a conflict situation rather than the person's personality (i.e., values or styles). They suggest these intentions may or may be related to the '. . . supervisory goals such as production” (p. 155). Therefore, they note, ”Conflict situations are situations in which the concerns of two people appear to be incompatible” (pp. 9-10). The foundation for their argument is based on the following two "dimensions of behavior." 45 l. Assertiveness, the extent to which the individual attempts to satisfy his own concerns. 2. Cooperativeness, the extent to which the individual attempts to satisfy the other person's concerns. These two dimensions can be used to define the five specific methods of dealing with conflict. These five “conflict-handling modes” are shown in Figure l. 46 W. Thomas-Kilmann two-dimensional model of conflict handling behavior . COM PETING COLLABORATING e o assertive COMPROMISING Assertiveness (attempting to satisfy one's own concerns) unassertive AVOIDING ACCOMMODATING a unc00perative cooperative Cooperativeness (attempting to satisfy the other party's concerns) Me. From "Conflict and Conflict Management” (p. 900) by K. Thomas in Wei 25351191251, edited by M. Dunnette, 1976, Chicago: Rand McNally. Copyright 1976. To better understand the significance of the five modes, Thomas and Kilmann (1974) offer a detailed description of each mode. W is assertive and uncooperative--an individual pursues his own concerns at the other person's expense. This is a power- oriented mode in which one uses whatever power seems 47 appropriate to win one's own position-- one's ability to argue, one's rank, economic sanctions. Competing might mean “standing up for your rights,“ defending a position which you believe is correct, or simply trying to win. Acconnooccing is unassertive and cooperative-- the opposite of competing. When accommodating, an individual neglects his own concerns to satisfy the concerns of the other person; there is an element of self-sacrifice in this mode. Accommodating might take the form of selfless generosity or charity, obeying another person's order when one would prefer not to, or yielding to another's point of view. AXQIQLDE is unassertive and uncooperative-- the individual does not immediately pursue his own concerns or those of the other person. He does not address the conflict. Avoiding might take the form of diplomatically sidestepping an issue, postponing an issue until a better time, or simply withdrawing from a threatening situation. gollcoozocing is both assertive and cooperative--the opposite of avoiding. Collaborating involves an attempt to work with the other person to find some solution which fully satisfies the concerns of both persons. It means digging into an issue to identify the underlying concerns of the two individuals and to find an alternative which meets both sets of concerns. Collaborating between two persons might take the form of exploring a disagreement to learn from each other's insights, concluding to resolve some condition which would otherwise have them competing for resources, or confronting and trying to find a creative solution to an interpersonal problem. gonoxomicing is intermediate in both assertiveness and cooperativeness. The objective is to find some expedient, mutually acceptable solution which partially satisfies both parties. It falls on a middle ground between competing and accommodating. Compromising gives up more than competing but less than accommodating. Likewise, it addresses an issue more directly than avoiding, but doesn't explore it in as much depth as collaborating. Compromising might mean 48 splitting the differences, exchanging concessions, or seeking a quick middle-ground position. (1:. 10) Table 1 illustrates other terms which can be associated with each of the five modes. Table 1 WW Conflict-Handling Modes Related Terms aProverbs Competing Forcing Put your foot down Conflictful where you mean to Moving against stand. the other Collaborating Problem solving Come let us reason Integrating together. Confronting Compromising Splitting the You have to give some difference to get some. Sharing Horse-trading Avoiding Moving away from Let sleeping dogs lie. the other Losing-leaving Withdrawing Accommodating Yielding-losing It is better to give Friendly helping than to receive. Moving toward the other ,Hocc. From "Organizational Conflict" (p. 157) by K.W. Thomas in ngonizccionol_flchoxior edited by S. Kerr, 1979, Columbus, Ohio: Grid. Copyright 1979. E 8Source: Lawrence and Lorsch, 1967 (Thomas, 1979, p. 157) 49 Thomas (1979) notes that a number of two-dimensional models include "collaboration” or "problem-solving” as a major element in managing conflict effectively. The essential steps in utilizing collaboration include the following. 1. 2. Confronting the conflict. Identifying the underlying concerns of the two parties. Posing the conflict as a problem: namely, is there a way that both parties' concerns can be satisfied?. Problem solving to find alternatives which would satisfy both parties. Selecting the most jointly satisfactory alternative. (p. 157) Finally, Thomas indicates that although the collaboration technique for managing conflict is viewed as an attractive alternative, the other four methods can also be used in certain situations to manage conflict. An individual needs to decide with each conflict situation which method or methods to employ to resolve/manage conflict successfully. The situations, shown in Table 2, illustrate the conflict-handling modes used by chief executives in managing conflict. Table 2 9; V 09 50 Conflict-handling Modes Appropriate Situations Competing When quick, decisive action is vita1--e.g., emergencies. On important issues where unpopular actions need implementing--e.g., cost cutting, enforcing unpopular rules, discipline. 0n issues vital to company welfare when you know you're right. Against people who take advantage of noncompetitive behavior. Collaborating WM To find an integrative solution with both sets of concerns are too important to be compromised. When your objective is to learn. To merge insights from people with different perspectives. To gain commitment by incorporating concerns into a consensus. To work through feelings which have interfered with a relationship. Compromise When goals are important, but not worth the effort or potential disruption of more assertive modes. When Opponents with equal power are committed to mutually exclusive goals. To achieve temporary settlements to complex issues. To arrive at expedient solutions under time pressure. As a backup when collaboration or competition is unsuccessful. Avoiding When an issue is trivial, or more important issues are pressing. When you perceive no chance of satisfying your concerns. 51 Table 2 , cont' d 3. When potential disruption outweighs the benefits of resolution. 4. To let people cool down and regain perspective. 5. When gathering information supersedes immediate decision. 6. When others can resolve the conflict more effectively. 7. When issues seem tangential or symptomatic of other issues. Accommodating 1. When you find you are wrong--to allow a better position to be heard, to learn, and to show your reasonableness. 2. When issues are more important to others than yourself--to satisfy others and maintain cooperation. 3. To build social credits for later issues. 4. To minimize loss when you are outmatched and losing. 5. When harmony and stability are especially important. 6. To allow subordinates to develop by learning from mistakes. Eocc. From "Towards Multi-Dimensional Values in Teaching: The Examples of Conflict Behaviors" by K.W. Thomas, 1977, MW. 2. p- 487- Copyright 1977- In summary, the theoretical framework for this research was based on a review of the pertinent literature regarding the theory of organizational conflict, its various components, and conflict behaviors. This framework presents the researcher with an analysis grid through which the data collected can be sifted and compared for corollary evidence suggesting school board members and their chief administrators in American-sponsored overseas and international 52 European schools experience conflict similar to noneducational organizations. W Much has been written about conflict in the field of industrial relations. However, past research in the field of education regarding conflict resolution/management has been relative scant. Bailey (1971) suggests that even though school administrators are cognizant of the fact that conflict exists within schools, little has been done in the way of research to assist them in dealing with it. Interestingly enough, most school personnel believe it is one of the major responsibilities of the administrator to resolve/manage conflict effectively. Bailey (1971) postulates that since conflict has been a part of man's evolutionary history, he should have, by now, been able to learn how to resolve/manage it effectively. Unfortunately, this has not been the situation. The literature is full of examples recording man's attempt to first understand conflict and, secondly, how to resolve/manage it. Initially, researchers and theorists believed conflict was negative and something that had to be eliminated. More recently, others suggest conflict is a positive phenomenon which can stimulate the growth and development of an organization. Thomas and Tymon (1985) concur with Bailey's observations and think it is unfortunate that conflict, in the eyes of many, has a ‘negative connotation. They are fully aware that conflict can be S3 perceived as something dangerous, but stress it also should be understood as an “opportunity” for individuals and organizations. To illustrate this dichotomy, Thomas and Tymon (1985) offer the following four points. 1. Quality of decisions. Conflict can immobilize decision making and can result in unworkable compromises. 0n the other hand, it often aids decision making by causing problems to surface and bringing different perspectives to bear upon an issue. Research shows, for example, that open conflict increases the potential creativity of group decision making (Hall, 1971) and can be used to produce high-quality decisions on complex or unstructured problems (Mason, 1969; Mitroff & Emshoff, 1979). Werking relationships. Conflict can create mistrust and antagonisms that scar relationships and reduce the ability of people to work together. However, it can also be an opportunity to work through misunderstandings and improve or deepen relationships. Individual satisfaction. Frustrations and stress from unresolved conflicts can reduce satisfaction and thus impair the ability to work and reduce an individual's commitment to an organization. At the same time, conflict provides a means for people to voice their frustrations and to change or improve things that dissatisfy them. Time and energy. Conflicts can consume large amounts of time and energy, creating significant opportunity costs for an organization in terms of other tasks and decisions that are neglected. 0n the other hand, conflicts and competition can sometimes energize individuals and groups to work harder at organizational tasks (for example, see Deutsch, 1971; Blake & Mouton, 1961). (pp. 337-338) 54 Blake et a1. (1964) view conflict similarly to Thomas and Tymon and theorize that within a group or organization a certain amount of conflict will exist. They believe the manner in which an organization handles this conflict reveals how successful or unsuccessful an organization is in dealing with conflict. Boulding (1964) and others support this view and further suggest conflict alone should not be the only concern for individuals and organizations. If, they emphasize, conflict is inevitable, its management should be the primary focus of attention. "The objective of conflict management is to see that conflicts remain on the creative and useful side of an invisible but critically important barrier that divides the 'good' conflict from the 'bad'" (p. 76). In general, the researcher can conclude from the literature that since conflict is inevitable, resolution/management should be the primary focus of all organizations, whether private or public. Before continuing with the discussion, the researcher would like to clarify his use of the terms ssnflist_reselutien and confilicg monogomcnc. The terms, to this point, have been used concurrently for a specific reason. Most researchers write about one or the other concept but rarely integrate the two, leading to some confusion about their meanings and relationship. It is for this specific reason why the researcher has decided to include both concepts in this study. Furthermore, the researcher acknowledges the terms do have different definitions and addresses this issue below. The literature abounds with a variety of interpretations regarding the differences between conflict resolution and conflict 55 management. Boulding (1964) views conflict resolution and conflict management in terms of a situation having an ”end" versus a situation that remains creative. The very term ”conflict management” expresses our objectives perhaps better even than “conflict resolution.“ ”Resolution" has an air of finality which we do not particularly mean to convey . . The object of conflict management is to see that conflicts remain on the creative and useful side of an invisible but critically important barrier that divides the 'good' conflict from the “bad.” (p. 75) Pneuman et a1. (1982) interpreting Robbins' (1974) ”integrationist' philosophy, concur with Boulding and suggest conflict be managed to achieve "balance” and ”tension" within the organization. Conflict management and conflict resolution are not equated. Resolution is one strategy among others employed in conflict management. The task of the manager is to manage conflict in order to maintain an optimum balance and tension between efficiency and creativity within the system. (p. 6) Thomas (1979) expands on Robbins' (1974) ”interactionist" philosophy and interprets the dissimilarities between conflict resolution and conflict management somewhat differently. Some conflicts are seen as beneficial, suggesting their encouragement or stimulation. Other conflicts are considered best handled through prevention, resolution, suppression, etc. For this reason, managerial interventions have been labeled conflict management rather than conflict resolution. The term conflict management more accurately reflects both the acceptance of conflicts as an organizational reality and the idea of purposeful intervention to achieve a set of goals. (p. 177) 56 German (1982), in his study regarding school administrators and conflict, notes that '. . . monogcmcnc of conflict is often a more realistic approach than resolution. He asserts that resolution, for some, . means making it ”go away.’I In order to truly resolve conflict, the root causes must be identified and changed. This is often beyond the power and the capability of those who are parties to the conflict. Management of conflict, on the other hand, means that the parties find ways to continue their working relationship despite their differences. (p. 45) Cross (1964), writing about cooperation, conflict, and conflict resolution, argues that "The term 'conflict resolution'-- like ‘problem solving'--is subject to various interpretations." He views it as an ongoing process and not something that is considered final. . it tends to suggest a certain finality that is inconsistent with a process concept of organizational and administrative behavior. It also suggests a purely intellectual operation which, like the solution of a mathematical equation, can be confined to what one does in one's head, on a piece of paper, or through operation of a computer . . . . conflict resolution is used to refer to the ongoing process of making certain changes in the multifaceted conflict-cooperation nexus. In this sense, no resolution or solution need be final. It may, indeed, be merely a prelude to new and sharper conflicts. (p. 274) From this discussion, the researcher would caution administrators to be aware of the difference between conflict resolution and conflict management. In this study, the researcher 'has used the terms together because he believes that even though conflict resolution can be thought of as one aspect of conflict nmnagement, it should be used in conjunction with conflict management S7 to demonstrate its importance in the overall process of managing conflict. The two terms should be used together and not thought of as two separate conditions for dealing with conflict. The researcher would now like to turn briefly to a discussion relating the ways in which conflict has been resolved/managed in the past and contrast these with current methodologies utilized today. Blake and Mouton (Jandt, 1973) suggest there have been four classical solutions for resolving conflict: (a) scientific method, (b) politics, (c) law with its associated police powers, and (d) organizational hierarchy. However, because of their research findings, they propose yet an additional method for the resolution of conflict, the ”fifth achievement.” (It) is in the establishment of a problem-solving society where differences among men are subject to resolution through insights that permit protagonists themselves to identify and implement solutions to their differences upon the basis of committed agreement. That men ultimately will b able to work cut, face to face, their differences is a hoped-for achievement of the future. (p. 91) Nebgen (1977-78) argues that these four solutions all represent, in one form or another, a type of "authority” recognizing traditionally there have been only two ways to manage conflict: "the authoritarian (albeit kind of just), method and the method of withdrawal from the conflict situation" (pp. 2-3). She notes that research during the sixties expanded upon this traditional view an included four separate categories: Avoidance techniques . . . . for conflict management include non-response or withdrawal, isolation, procrastination, smoothing, and the 58 bringing about of a deadlock situation. Behind the technique of withdrawal or non-response is the belief that silence is golden. Use of force. Conflict management techniques which involve the use of force include coercion, suppression, domination, and forcing or imposition. Implied in the use of force is the assumption that one party is in a superordinate position to the other. Use of a third party. Arbitration and mediation are common uses of a third party in conflict management. Generally, the conflict is between subordinate and superordinate, often over rewards (salaries, benefits, etc.) given out by the superordinate. Rational approaches . . . . to conflict management are persuasion, compromise or bargaining and confrontation or problem solving. (pp. 2-3) Cross (1964), although agreeing with Nebgen's categories, suggests they should be divided into five ”outcomes“ with regard to conflict resolution. ”Analytically, these may take the form of avoidance, deadlock, domination-defeat, compromise, and integration" (p. 274). More importantly, he suggest that the actual outcome of conflict is generally a combination of two or more of these forms. This discussion only includes the problems concerning conflict within organizations. The researcher concludes that categorizing the various methods of resolving and managing conflict may be helpful. Still categorization should not be the complete focus of attention. The real issue here for any organization should be the "how” conflict is resolved/managed effectively, not simply the classification of conflict methodologies. 59 This point is made by Pneuman et a1. (1982) who, through their research drawn from both practical experiences and studies based on the behavioral sciences, conclude that '. . . this inevitable conflict can and should be searched out, watched over, respected, encouraged, and managed for the well-being of the organization.” Their philosophy supports assisting individuals -- to identify conflict, -- to collect data about it, -- to analyze that information, -- to decide how to deal with it, -- to make strategic choices as to the how and when of conflict management, and -- to invervene [sic] into the situation to achieve the desired organizational ends. (p. 1) Following this line of discussion, the reader should understand that before any individual or organization can embrace Pneuman and Bruehl's philosophy, he or it should be acquainted with Blake et al.’s (1964) three basic assumptions about intergroup disagreement (see Figure 2). 60 W. The three basic assumptions towards intergroup disagreement and their management. Conflict Not Although There Conflict Inevitable Inevitable ,Yet ls Conflict , High Active Agreement Impossible Agreement Not Possible Agreement Is Possible 5““: Win - Lose Power Struggle Withdrawal Problem - Solving Spfitflng The Third-Party Isolation Difference- Moderate Judgement (Compromise , Stakes Bargaining ,etc.) Fate Indifference Or PsacetuICoexistepce Li: Passive ignorance ( Smoothing Over ) Stakes flocc. From "Managing Intergroup Conflict in In Industry" (p. 13) by R. Blake, H.A. Shepard 6: J.S. Mouton, 1964, Houston: Gulf. Copyright 1964. Reproduced by permission. With a clear understanding of these assumptions, an individual and/or organization can begin to comprehend the complexities of conflict resolution/management. The three basic assumptions are described in detail as follows. 61 Disagreement is inevitable and permanent One identifiable basic assumption is that disagreement is inevitable and permanent. When A and 8 disagree, the assumption is that the disagreement must be resolved in favor or A or in favor of B, one way or the other. Under this assumption there seems to be no alternative. If two points of view are seen to be mutually exclusive, and if neither party is prepared to capitulate, then any of three major mechanisms of resolution may be used: a. win-lose power struggle to the point of capitulation by one group; b. resolution through a third-party decision; or c. agreement not to determine the outcome, namely, fate arbitration. Conflict can be avoided since interdependence between groups is unnecessary A second orientation to intergroup relations rests on the assumptions that while intergroup disagreement is not inevitable, neither is intergroup agreement possible. If these assumptions can be made, then interdependence is not necessary. Hence, when points of conflict arise between groups, they can be resolved by reducing the interdependence between the parties. This reduction of interdependence may be achieved in three ways. a. one group withdrawing from the scene of action; b. maintaining, or substituting indifference, when it appears there is a conflict of interest; or c. isolating the parties from each other or the parties isolating themselves. All of these (a, b, and c) share in common the maintenance of independence, rather than any attempt to achieve interdependence. 62 3. Agreement and maintaining interdependence is possible The third orientation to intergroup disagreement is that agreement is possible and that means of resolving it must be found. Resolving conflict in this way is achieved by smoothing over the conflict while retaining interdependence. For example, visible though trivial reference may be made to overall organizational goals to which both parties are in some degree committed. Then attention is shifted away from real issues with surface harmony maintained. Alternatively, agreement may be achieved by bargaining, trading, or compromising. In a general sense, this is splitting the differences that separate the parties while at the same time retaining their interdependence. Finally, an effort may be made to resolve the disagreement by a genuine problem solving approach. Here an effort is not devoted to determining who is right and who is wrong. Nor is it devoted to yielding something to gain something. Rather, a genuine effort is made to discover a creative resolution of fundamental points of difference. (pp. 10-12) With this understanding of Blake et al.'s model, the reader is better prepared to comprehend the research discussed in the following section concerning conflict resolution/management. Likert and Likert (1976), as do many researchers, see conflict management as a social science problem. However, they have observed through their work on conflict management that the social sciences receive very little funding for research. They assert most new studies involving conflict are a byproduct of other types of research. They note that between 1945 and 1970 less than two percent of the total funds allocated for research were devoted to the social sciences. They find it ironic that such an important area of study 63 take a back seat to technical research. They do not condemn this type of research, but believe there has been a certain amount of inequity regarding the funds available for research in the social sciences. They note large amounts of funds are spent on ”. water supply, the energy crisis, overpopulation, food supply, and pollution but virtually nothing spent on finding ways of overcoming resistance to change, of gaining acceptance of the soundest technical solutions, and of putting them into practice” (p. 6). Although the authors do acknowledge the lack of funding for the social sciences, they note new research has produced some promising approaches to conflict resolution/management. Thomas and Schmidt (1976) concur with Likert and Likert. However, they believe conflict management has now become a more popular topic and note how many more journal articles and books have been devoted to this subject than in past years. In their own research project they discovered . that managers from middle to tOp levels have a lively and growing interest in learning more about the prevention and management of conflict. Within this broad subject area, moreover, managerial interests are clearly focused upon some topics more than others, and this focus varies somewhat according to the manager's level of responsibility in the organization--facts which may be of significant relevance for those who plan management education programs. (p. 318) Thomas (1976), after reviewing the literature, concludes that the research concerning industrial and organizational conflict is in need of integration. He asserts that, for the most part, the 64 literature has been very specialized. He further suggests this lack of integration makes it difficult for students, theorists, and practitioners to understand the differences between the concepts and models presented in the various areas of research. Moreover, there is a great deal of research outside the boundaries of organizations which has yielded concepts and insights of great potential relevance to the study of conflict in organizational settings. This research, from experimental gaming, small group research, social conflict, international relations, etc., is also largely specialized and unintegrated. (p. 890) Thomas' observations are also applicable to the research completed in the field of education, specifically with reference to those studies devoted to conflict and superintendents. Few research studies have been completed in this area. Furthermore, even those studies completed focus only on individual issues. They have not been integrated to provide for a theoretical base for future reference. Obviously, there is a need to integrate the results of these studies in order to assist individuals in drawing conclusions concerning new findings in the future. It should be noted the researcher's intent is not to attempt to complete such a task. He only seeks to review research pertinent to this study. The researcher has previously described several of these studies in Chapter One. Those essential to this work will now be discussed in detail. Zeigler et a1. (1981), comparing public school superintendents and city managers in their study, concluded the following. 65 The superintendent relied upon professional advice and was not able to cope with political information, or bargain with hostile groups. Thus his behavior escalated the conflict. He could have avoided the expansion of conflict at a number of points in its development, but that would have involved a sacrifice of professional values. Thus he lost control of events. Conflict management behavior The superintendent was, obviously, engulfed and destroyed by conflict, in part because of his reluctance to treat conflict as normal. Like most superintendents . He was buffered by a staff and less able to anticipate conflict. His consistent inability to gauge the seriousness and scope of the conflict can be attributed to his insularity. He did not use the board to gather political intelligence and was, on several occasions, unable to anticipate conflict. Conflict orientation The superintendent relied heavily on deferences to his expertise as a resource in conflict resolution. Preferring, as do most superintendents, a rational strategy for resolving disputes, he was regularly frustrated when such deference was not forthcoming. Conflict management style . the superintendent's style was characterized by avoidance or competition. Ironically, the superintendent's behavior contradicted the rational, step-by-step approach to conflict that he favored. He did not allow a rational path because he was too committed to professional ideals. Public involvement The superintendent regarded interest groups as a threat to his professional autonomy and would not traffic with them. He was 66 emphatic in his insistence that his professional integrity would be compromised by regular interaction with organized groups. 5. Professional status The superintendent was far more professionally committed, in terms of education, professional activity, and attitude. It was our hypothesis that this professionalism negatively affected conflict management behavior. The hypothesis is supported by the in-depth analysis as well as the larger sample. The more professionally committed administrators become, the less able they are to manage conflict, especially lateral conflict. (PP. 43-46) In another study, Menzies (1986) concluded that superintendents and school board presidents perceive conflict differently. He notes the "power base preferences often are quite diverse in specific conflict levels.“ He recommends that soon after a school board election, the superintendent and president of the school board meet to discuss possible conflict strategies in order to effectively manage conflict when it occurs. Menzies further suggests, "A plan for analyzing conflicts, determining options for recommendations to the entire board, and reaching consensus could be established in a conference between the two individuals holding the highest leadership positions in the educational system hierarchy“ (pp. 8-9). He recommends that when conflict exists, the superintendent and school board president identify, as quickly as possible, the level at which the conflict is occurring. Menzies concludes that lateral conflicts, as opposed to superordinate conflicts, should be managed differently, depending on 67 the extent and nature of the specific situations. Finally, he suggests that before a superintendent presents a plan to the school board president, it would be beneficial for him to discuss his alternatives with other administrators to get their reactions and perceptions. In a third study regarding conflict management in schools, Nebgen (1978) concluded that because conflict is inevitable in all organizations, school administrators in particular should be trained to manage it effectively. The results of her studies show unmanaged or mismanaged conflict can drain needed energy from a school attempting to achieve stated educational goals. She stressed, ”Conflict must be viewed as an on-going [sic], dynamic process in the life of the school administrator, rather than a series of isolated episodes." Lastly, Nebgen stresses the most significant finding in her research is the fact that an administrator needs to have “virtuosity.” She points out, The causes of conflict are innumerable, and managing them is a complex process calling for a variety of interrelated and integrated approaches. Furthermore, school administrators need to realize that, more than likely, no action taken in the management of a conflict will satisfy all concerned. Someone or some group will always be at least somewhat unhappy. Although conflict situations may leave school administrators feeling baffled and vulnerable from all sides, they do provide an opportunity to learn and grow. Proper handling of conflict situations can bring about group cohesiveness and unity and contribute to the overall performance, ability, and effectiveness of the school organization. (p. 4) 68 Boss, Zeigler, Tucker, and Wilson (1976) conclude all superintendents understand that a certain amount of conflict attends their position of leadership. Ironically enough, however, the authors also report the majority of superintendents prefer to minimize conflicts whenever possible. They further discovered those superintendents with little experience and a doctoral degree encounter more decision-making conflict than those administrators with a master's degree and more experience. They argue that the administrators who have doctoral degrees tend to be "ideologues” [sic] because ”only an ideologue [sic] has the commitment to complete such a program.” Conversely, the researchers found, "Superintendents with experience or tenure show a lower incidence of decision-making conflict than superintendents without experiences or tenure" (p. 358-359). Following a review of the literature, the researcher concludes that these few studies, especially those presented here regarding conflict and superintendents, are disjointed and have little relevance to one another. Not only is there a need to integrate the existing studies already completed, there is an even greater urgency for expanded research concerning this area of study. In summary, the researcher has attempted to show that conflict should be viewed as neutral, recognizing it can be both positive and negative depending on how it is resolved/managed. Secondly, a discussion regarding the differences between conflict resolution and conflict management was presented. The rationale for using both of 69 these terms concurrently in this study was also discussed at length. Next, an explanation regarding the categorization of conflict was discussed with the primary focus on the past methods used compared with those currently recognized today. Finally, a number of pertinent research studies were reviewed leading to the conclusion that the current literature regarding conflict and superintendents is both disjointed and in need of integration. More importantly, additional research is needed in this area to provide administrators with applicable strategies to successfully resolve/manage conflict in their schools. We Given the history of school board members and chief administrators' relationships, the researcher would like to preface his observations on those relationships by offering some insights about them in the hope these suggestions will become instrumental in helping boards and administrators resolve/manage conflict in their schools. All school board members and chief administrators should be cognizant of the effect that positive and negative conflict have on schools. They should be willing to understand and accept the inevitable fact that conflict is a normal component in the operations of their schools. The crucial point, here, is not whether conflict exists or not, but how well it is resolved/managed. School board members and chief administrators who look for easy solutions to complicated and controversial situations are more than 7O likely to be disappointed. To prevent possible negative outcomes, each conflict situation needs to be analyzed carefully. Once this has been completed, they can then draw on their repertoire of appropriate strategies which can then be utilized to resolve/manage the conflict effectively. Lastly, it should be noted that encouraging and managing positive conflict helps a school remain alive and creative. The alternative should never be acceptable to school board members and administrators. Those who accept the status quo are doomed at the onset, as are the children whom they educate. Interestingly enough, the way in which schools have been organized historically, as bureaucracies, have lent themselves '. . . to retaining and protecting the status quo either by an unwritten set of traditionalized rules built over time or in the case of a union, by a master contract” (Apker, 1982, p. 15). This bureaucracy that Americans have created, called "public school education," has been the basic foundation for this nation's democratic system. Without this form of education, the United States may have not developed into the world power it is today. Furthermore, the organization and management of these schools is a complicated and difficult responsibility for the individuals who are involved in this process. As Gross (1958) indicated: It is probably correct to assert that no other groups exert more influence on public education than school board members and superintendents: local school boards are charged, under the American political system, with the responsibility of establishing school policies and programs, employing an educational staff, and making other basic decisions affecting the 71 school; and superintendents serve as their advisers and chief executive officers. (p. x) Gross further suggests '. . . that superintendents and school board members, because they run our schools, are at the heart of any educational problem and solution." In conclusion, he observes that some believe the United States '. . . needs more and better scientists, the decision to have them does not bring about the desired results . . . . Someone has to change the curriculum, hire additional teachers of ability and see that pupils conform to certain standards” (pp. 2-3). With responsibilities of this magnitude, it is fundamental to education that school boards and superintendents work effectively together to manage the nation's public schools even as they attempt to accomplish the desired goals of the country and, more importantly, the needs of local schools. "In other words how can they best divide or share the various responsibilities and functions relevant to directing, overseeing, and operating the public schools?” (Boyd, 1975, p. 105). In pursuit of these matters, the researcher will outline the historical relationship between school boards and superintendents and discuss how this relationship has changed during the last century. Next, in light of this relationship, a brief overview will be presented concerning the perceived relationship according to both groups. Finally, on the basis of this overview, the researcher will look at the problems, conflicts, and possible solutions to this important relationship. 72 Goldhammer (1964) views the American school board as a . distinctively indigenous innovation. It has evolved from its initial function of supervising the religious orthodoxy of the locally appointed headmaster to the quasi- legislative and policy-making body for the vast educational enterprises which are found in the larger school districts of the United States. (1:- 1) One might ask how this form of education originated. Dykes (1965) suggests that Americans, after observing centralized education in foreign countries, decided that this type of system was not suited to the needs of a newly forming democracy. "The public has sought protection against domination of the schools by centralized authority from any source, be it government, church, or whatever” (p. 5). Dykes further explains: . the local school board was developed by the people to enable them to direct the educational destiny of their children . . . . The local school board is the people's voice and judgment in educational affairs . . . . The board's function is that of studying possibilities and alternatives, of weighing, evaluating, and deciding. If it is to do these things well, it must not waste its time by getting involved in the actual operation of the schools. (p. 5) Dykes recommends to school boards that they are wise to understand there are certain duties they should perform and certain responsibilities the professionally trained staff should be given. If, on the other hand, the school board becomes involved in administering policies, this then can endanger '. . . the educational programs by substituting lay opinion for technical knowledge and 73 competence” (p. 5). Additionally, the professional relationship between these two groups can be negatively affected. As Jongward (1982) has described, '. . . the fact remains that the basic building block of a school system is the relationship boards enjoy with the administrative staff (superintendent especially) of a school district“ (p. 48). At this point in the discussion, it might be beneficial to look more closely at these individuals controlling public schools in the United States. A recent survey, completed by Virginia Tech, showed the average school board member is . white, in his forties, quite prosperous in appearance. He has a college degree and works in a professional or managerial position, enjoying a family income of between $40,000 and $50,000 a year. He owns his own home and sends his two children to public schools. (American School Board Journal, 1989, p. 21) The survey also revealed nearly all of the board members were elected and not appointed, and 601 were "neophytes," having served on a board for five or fewer years. An additional 251 had served on a board from five to ten years. Goldhammer (1964), Boyd (1975), and Schmidt and Voss (1976) found similar characteristics in their studies. Their findings would suggest that school boards consist of the elite of our society. A number of important questions arise from these statistics. Do these board members represent the general interest of the population at large? Or do they represent an elite who want the public school system to prepare their children to attend only college? 74 If, in fact, these board members make up the majority of the members serving on school boards throughout the United States, one might be led to query whom they may want managing their schools. Gross (1958) found that most school boards logically looked for superintendents who had values similar to their own. Boyd (1975) asserts that school board and superintendent harmony may be at the expense of the community. Minar's (1966) study showed that the higher socioeconomic communities had fewer conflicts than the lower socioeconomic communities. He concludes that individuals from the former group avoid conflict and have a tendency to allow the superintendent a free hand at running the school. Furthermore, these board members encourage others with similar educational backgrounds and values to run for the board, therefore propagating a homogeneous board. Boyd stresses that a ”good" relationship between school board and superintendent is not always necessarily beneficial for the community. ". . . it leads to government which is neither democratic nor necessarily efficient” (p. 108). Similarly, Schmidt and Voss (1976) observe ”. . . despite a rhetoric stressing cooperating, mutual respect, and teamwork as an ideal-type, the attitude which dominates in the literature is how the professional educator might best manipulate the board to maximize his power” (p. 521). However, they don't believe this is a conscious attitude on the part of the writers, but a reaction to how superintendents perceive boards as being more concerned with the community's reaction to a proposal rather than what is best for the school system. 75 With this brief overview of the origins and profile of the American school board completed, the researcher would now like to turn to a discussion regarding the historical relationship which developed between the school board and superintendents during the past two centuries. Early forms of education were the responsibility of parents. As towns began to develop and populations increased, individuals began to look to local governments for assistance with educating their children. Public education was first introduced in Massachusetts. In 1647 the state legislature required all towns to establish and maintain schools. From that time forward, it became the responsibility of individual towns to provide the necessary school for the children of its residents (Goldhammer, 1964). Local town officials took on the responsibility, but over a period of time saw that managing schools was an onerous responsibility. They then decided to appoint individuals who would be responsible for finding adequate facilities for the school and for hiring a headmaster who would oversee the educational aspect of the school. As time progressed and the job became more complicated, permanent committees were set up by individual towns to oversee the general operation of the schools. These early committees not only handled legislative duties but also had administrative and supervisory responsibilities. Again, over a period of time during which student enrollment grew and responsibilities became more complex, the school committees relinquished these responsibilities to the headmaster (Dykes, 1965). 76 During the beginning of the 18th century, rural communities wanted more autonomy from the towns which had had control over their schools. After a considerable amount of conflict, the towns relinquished control over the school affairs of rural areas and allowed them to establish their own school committees. This demand for control regarding the affairs of local schools was very strong in the early development of public schools in America. In fact, it is still very prevalent in smaller communities throughout the United States even today (Goldhammer, 1964). By the end of the 19th century, many school committees in large cities, and a great number in smaller towns, had hired a superintendent to manage their schools for them. Then, in the beginning of this century, school committees became policy-making bodies, while superintendents were seen as chief executive officers (Dykes, 1965). The responsibilities of lay boards and superintendents have changed considerably since the idea of public schools was first conceived in Massachusetts. Through a long evolution of purpose, school boards have moved from hiring teachers and selecting contractors and supplies to formulating policies for schools (James, 1967). During the same period, superintendents have gone from being headmasters, originally in charge of the educational aspects of the schools, to chief executive officers, administering policies written by the school boards. 77 Bidwell (1965) views this development of the superintendent as, . . a slow, reluctant, and recent relinquishment by boards of education of direct managerial functions. It seems likely that the division of functions between boards and superintendents is still somewhat ambiguous ideologically, if not legally, especially in smaller districts which more recently still have followed the lead of the city systems. (p. 995) In general, most school systems today operate with the understanding that the school board sets policy and the superintendent implements it. However, for some individuals involved in school management, these roles are still not clearly defined. Role clarification during the past 50 years has not been an easy process for either school board members or superintendents. Boyd (1975) believes the relationship between school boards and superintendents has always been a concern and focus of a number of studies throughout the history of public school education. He points out a long-standing complaint that school boards have often interfered with the management of the school. Boyd asks why this relationship has always been problematic. Is it just that policy-making and administrative functions are so hard-~some would say impossible--to separate? Or does the problem run deeper than that? Can it be . . . that ”representation and administration are inherently at odds“ . . . that there is an inescapable tension between the needs of the two functions, i.e., for democratic deliberation on the one hand, and efficient, expeditious action on the other hand? (p. 103) Dykes (1965), in Schmidt and Voss (1976), suggests that boards make instructional decisions in broad terms to serve the broad needs of the 78 community; once the strategy is established, it should be the function of the staff to determine how such goals and objectives are to be met. (p. 519) Finally, Dykes concludes that it would appear '. . . the purpose of professional literature and school board manuals is to encourage boards to take an essentially passive role. In contrast, school administrators are urged to be more aggressive” (p. 519). When both groups understand their roles and responsibilities and work harmoniously together for the good of the school system, the results can be very positive for everyone in the community. If the opposite occurs, the results can be disastrous for everyone in the school system. Obviously, most of those actively involved in the governing of public schools know a good working relationship between the school board and the superintendent is imperative to the well-being of the school district (Dickinson, 1973). Fowlkes (1976) concurs with Dickinson and stresses that, in order for the relationship to be successful and lasting, there must be mutual respect from both sides. He argues this rests upon ”. the effectiveness with which the superintendent, as a professional executive, serves as a source of information about educational policy, and his effectiveness as the operational officer administering the educational policies that the board of education has established” (p. 11). When there is mutual respect and both parties understand their roles adequately, the relationship can be very positive. However, when school board members try to interfere with the management of the 79 school, the relationship can become strained. Gross (1958) found the following. Many school board members who are well motivated have ill-defined or hazy notions about their jobs. In some school systems school board members spend most of their time dealing with trivial matters and display little interest in the more crucial school problems such as curriculum improvement. Some school board members act as if they as individuals had the right to make decisions, which is the prerogative of the entire school board. Some school board members act as if they, rather than the superintendent, had the right to administer the policy decisions of the board. Superintendents and school board members frequently disagree over their respective rights and obligations. (p. 139) Hayden (1986) agrees with Cross and concludes that misconceptions regarding roles can cause serious conflict between school boards and superintendents. He suggests superintendents can avoid some unnecessary confrontations with the school board by (a) avoiding single issues, (b) not playing favorites, and (c) encouraging the board to evaluate his performances regularly. By recognizing these possible conflict situations and working together to resolve any perceived differences, the school board and superintendent can have a positive and creative relationship. wynn (1972) also concurs with Cross and suggests . . that many of the more difficult conflicts arise from goal ambiguity and that the fundamental task is to strive for greater clarification and agreement on the goals of the organization. By reducing goal ambiguity we can reduce many of the conflicts which can arise over means. (p. 22) Getzels, et a1. (1968) believe role clarification is essential to a productive relationship between the school board and its 80 superintendent. They suggest, however, it is imperative both groups agree on the purposes of the organization. This agreement should include policy, norms, and expectations. For example, a school system which decides to change its reading curriculum from a basal textbook program to a whole language approach would need to coordinate all of its resources to successfully complete the implementation of a change of this magnitude. The goals and objectives of the program would need to be shared and understood by both the school board and superintendent, because it would involve budgeting, public relations, inservice programs, and teacher assignments. Once the goals, methods, and procedures had been agreed upon, the likelihood of misunderstandings and conflict arising would be minimal. Heller (1984), agreeing with Getzels et al, explains why there are two important reasons for setting goals and objectives. First, he purports that when a school system agrees on a set of goals, the relationship between the school board and superintendent is V strengthened. For example, if the superintendent experiences difficulties implementing a particular goal and community members and teachers begin criticizing him, he can expect the support and encouragement of the school board through these troublesome times. Secondly, agreed-upon goals can give the community a sense of where the school system is going. Stated goals also give them something to measure how well the school is progressing and how it compares with other school systems in the area. Lastly, student accomplishment 81 measured in terms of specifically defined skills can assist the community in identifying and judging if the school is, in fact, meeting its stated goals. Goldhammer (1964) would argue that the best way to clarify the roles for both the school board and the superintendent, and have them agree on common goals for a school, is to have a written policy manual specifically outlining the responsibilities for both groups. He believes nearly all the writers in the field of educational administration ”unanimously" agree that a written policy manual, serving as a guide for managing the school, alleviates many problems while encouraging harmonious relations. Specifically, Goldhammer suggests, ”The board acts in matters relating to over-all [sic] policy decisions, while the superintendent advises; after the board decides, the superintendent executes. After he executes policy, the board, in turn, evaluates" (p. 54). In addition to this, Goldhammer defines the effective superintendent as having the following responsibilities as executive officer of the board. 1. It is his responsibility constantly to assist the board to evaluate the effectiveness of the educational enterprise and the extent to which it is meeting both the needs for education generally and the aspirations of the citizens of the community particularly. It is his responsibility to inform the board of inadequacies and of needs which should be met if the school is to achieve its purposes. 2. It is his responsibility to advise the board of various alternatives of action with respect to any of the problems with which 82 the school district is confronted. It is his responsibility to assist the board in understanding the consequences for the community and for the public school of its accepting one set of alternatives in place of another. 3. It is his responsibility to execute the policies which the board has established and to inform the board of the extent to which effectiveness of the educational program is promoted or hindered as the results of these policies. (PP. 54-55) Much has been written regarding why school board members and superintendents have had strained relations since the original school committees deemed it necessary to employ a professional to administer their policies. Johnson (1980) propounds that the troubled relationship can be attributed to one simple fact: school board members and superintendents come from different ”tribes.” Board members are amateurs in education, superintendents are professionals; board members are volunteers, superintendents are paid; board members are part-time, superintendents are full-time; board members are usually elected, superintendents are usually appointed; board members hold their power collectively, superintendents hold their power individually. Most important, while the board is, in a sense, the boss and the superintendent the employee, the superintendent is hired to be a leader. Both the board and the superintendent are in charge. (p. 1) Obviously, with all these differences, it can be understood why the two groups not only locate in two different camps, but also speak completely different languages. Johnson asks how can the two groups be expected to articulate their needs and frustrations concerning various problems within the school system if the responsibilities are not clearly defined. She concludes that if both sides can 83 communicate, have mutual respect for one another, and have a clear understanding of each other's roles and responsibilities, they may be able to work more effectively together. Furthermore, Johnson (1981) views the relationship between the school board and the superintendent as ”symbiotic.“ She notes that as in nature, the relationship administrative personnel may have is similar to the one between some plants and animals. It is a relationship of mutual need and support. The school board needs a superintendent who can manage the school successfully and provide dynamic, educational leadership, whereas the superintendent needs a school board willing to make the necessary policies required to enable him to manage the school effectively. Magruder (1984) agrees with Johnson concerning the problems lack of communication can cause school boards and superintendents, but argues that there are two additional reasons which may cause conflict between these two groups. He suggests, in addition to poor communications, that personnel disputes and policy disagreements can cause feuding. The school board, in general, establishes policies regarding the employment and dismissal of staff members. In theory, it then expects the superintendent to find the most qualified staff for the school and, when necessary, dismiss those individuals he deems unacceptable for the school system. If, in fact, board members allow the superintendent to do his job, there are few, if any, major problems. However, when individual board members begin to interfere and suggest who to hire, fire, transfer, or discipline, the system begins to break down. 84 Furthermore, policy disagreements can also cause conflict between these groups. Magruder notes that it's difficult sometimes for a board to see the difference between ”making” and ”regulating" policy. He uses curriculum planning as an example to illustrate his point. Once a curriculum policy has been approved, some board members may be determined to become more involved with the actual implementation process. Most superintendents, by-and- large, believe curriculum planning is the responsibility of professional educators and should not be the concern of lay board members. This disagreement can and usually does lead to misunderstandings and negative reactions on both sides. Superintendents can avoid a situation similar to the one described here by clearly explaining, at the beginning of the process, the difference between "making" and "regulating" policy. It would be hoped that once the board members understand the difference between these two concepts, misunderstandings and possible conflict would not occur. Goldhammer (1964) questions whether conflict between the school board and superintendent can realistically be avoided. He asks whether the school board, which has legal authority for its school system, can delegate this authority to the superintendent. This question of ultimate legal authority, obviously, is a perplexing and complicated situation for pubic schools, which given the basic structure of the American public school system of education, may perhaps never be resolved. However, Goldhammer has two suggestions which school managers might consider as alternative solutions. 85 First, conflict can generally be avoided by establishing honest and cooperative relationships with subordinate personnel. Second, clearly stated policies which define the roles of participants in an organization are necessary so that individuals can clearly understand their official obligations as well as those of others with them. (p. 68) James (1967) suggests most school boards have probably never thought about Coldhammer's question. Routinely, most school boards try to avoid conflict whenever possible. He notes for some boards ". . the very existence of conflict involving local boards is an unhealthy sign.” However, he argues the ”. . . successful management of conflict . . . marks a vigorous and healthy board of education" (p. 9). In addition to the numerous perceptions related here as causing conflict, Moran (1973) suggests school board members and superintendents carefully examine the following ”seven trouble spots" if they want to avoid potential difficulties: (a) failure to understand the differences between policy and administrative rule; (b) failure to keep each other informed; (c) being physically or intellectually lazy; (d) failure to be open minded [sic]; (e) failure to exert leadership; (f) failure to keep the children the center of the decision-making process; (g) over delegation of authority. (p. 3) In sum, most experts would argue the relationship between school board members and superintendents is the foundation of American public schools. Some school districts may not have the financial means to support all of the programs the school personnel may desire, but this should not interfere with the responsibilities school board 86 members and superintendents have regarding their roles. Both groups have equally important jobs concerning the operations of a school. If one group does not understand its stated role or elects to ignore its responsibilities, this may cause serious problems for the school system. A school board and superintendent working together to provide the necessary leadership for a community enhances the learning potential of all of the students for whom they are responsible. It is the responsibility of both groups to work through their professional and personal disagreements and come to an understanding through which all individuals concerned can benefit and thrive. Concluding suggestions from McCarty and Ramsey (1971) for school board members and superintendents regarding the improvement of relationships and the managing of schools are worthy of consideration. For Boards of Education 1. Boards of education must make a special effort to develop careful screening processes for the selection of superintendents. 2. Boards of education should take responsibility for supporting the case for good education at all political levels, but particularly for their own school system. 3. Boards should take the initiative to sponsor open evaluation and review sessions with their superintendents. 4. Boards of education have an accountability responsibility which cannot be ignored or avoided. 10. 87 Boards of education should stump for higher education, for sabbatical leaves and other perquisites [sic] for their superintendents and fellow administrators. Boards of education should educate themselves by extensive reading and attendance at clinics held by their own state association and by the National School Boards Association. Boards should take a solemn oath to refrain from usurping the prerogatives of its [sic] administrative officer. Boards of education ought to demand criteria for the employment of the teaching staff. Board members should make as much use as possible of citizen committees and ad hoc advisory groups on specific problems. Boards of education should become more politically responsible. (pp. 229-234) For the Superintendent 1. Principal effort should be placed on developing important educational issues instead of concentrating on the endless administrative details. The superintendent should systematically build a political base inside and outside his school system; he should legitimize programs ahead of time. The superintendent should symbolize both intellect and will his own humanity. The superintendent should consciously attempt to build a favorable leadership image. Superintendents should learn how to be master administrators; in this instance we are referring to ordering processes in such a way that means are appropriate to ends. 88 6. Since the quality of education depends on the talents of individual teachers, the superintendent should give much more attention to the selection process. 7. Like any political leader, a superintendent of schools should be ready to resign whenever necessary to advance the cause of education in the school system under his charge. 8. The superintendent should see himself as the prime advocate of educational innovations. 9. The superintendent who wishes to influence curricular change must find the techniques that will permit him to fruitfully engage faculty and students in the planning process. 10. Superintendents should develop their own in-service [sic] training sessions and not rely excessively on professional courses randomly offered at colleges and universities. 11. The superintendent should never take himself too seriously; a sense of humor and a tolerance for ambiguity are prerequisites for the position. 12. Several systems-oriented changes not requiring complete redesign are in order. (pp. 220-229) Finally, the researcher notes in closing, he believes . that most board members and superintendents are men of integrity and good will, motivated by a sincere desire to serve education to the best of their ability. If such is the case, improved understanding of their respective responsibilities will ultimately improve the quality of their performance. (Dykes, 1965, p. X) 89 W A number of Americans and citizens from other nations, for a variety of reasons (government, business, military), select to live outside their home countries for an extended period of time. They will often be accompanied by their families. If they have children, the need for adequate education then arises (Luebke, 1976). This section is a review of the literature, discussing international schools responsible for educating expatriate children, as well as their important role in fostering better relations among the peoples of the world. Additionally, a brief overview has been added outlining the management and organization of international schools. Peterson (1987) suggests . that we have not inherited this world from our parents, but borrowed it from our children. Unless the next generation of the young are brought up in such a way as to stimulate, liberate and educate their natural propensity to make friends across frontiers--national, racial, and cultural-- we, the educators, are failing in our responsibility to our children. (p. 216) Moreover, it is not only the responsibility of educators to attempt to create this type of environment for their students; it is also the responsibility of state and national governments throughout the world to encourage their citizens to look beyond their borders and view their international neighbors as individuals who can possibly assist them with resolving problems common to all. The future of man on this planet will be greatly affected by our capacity to understand each other's cultures, problems, and motivations, and by our 90 ability to adapt together to meet new needs and disseminate new knowledge. It will also be affected by our ability to solve prevailing social problems, such as narcotics abuse and population growth. In the past, men have often been bound together for survival by bonds of mutual fear. Our survival now requires that our common bond be shared knowledge. Improved understanding will not necessarily bury old antagonisms, but misunderstanding is certain to contribute to them. It is therefore important that we increase communication, understanding and cooperation among people as among nations. (Commission for the Assessment of the Intercultural Contribution of the American-sponsored Overseas Schools, 1971, p. 3) It has been 20 years since this statement was issued by the Secretary of State regarding the foreign policy of the United States. Most probably, this statement could be issued again today, and many students of political science would not know it had been released in 1969. One might say this statement is timeless. Even more, it really is not important to know when it was published. At the least, one should endeavor to know if the government or the people of the United States have moved closer to understanding their neighbors around the world. Ideally, one should labor to increase and broaden this understanding. One way to foster better relations between peoples of different cultures is the establishment of international schools. These schools, because of their unique locations throughout the world present educational environments for students, not only conducive to understanding other cultures but also encourage mutual cooperation among peoples of different nationalities. This educational atmosphere provides students with an opportunity to work and play 91 together in the hope that some day, in the near future, they may be able to resolve some of the world's problems. An international education, which, being really liberal and general, goes well beyond information and includes an appreciation of the art of other cultures and a discussion of the basis of morality in other cultures, is inevitably involved in the development of attitudes-—embraces, if you prefer that terminology, the affective as well as the cognitive domain. Its intention is not simply to help the next generation to know better their enemies or their rivals, but to understand and collaborate better with their fellow human beings across frontiers. (pp. 194-195) Leach (1969), on the other hand, sees international schools as ”. . . a mongrel educational institution which upsets the basic prejudices of all pure nationally bred schools” (p. 1). He adds that most countries believe their national systems of education can and do meet the needs of their students. Each country has the right to educate their children as they see necessary. Given this understanding about national schools, one must then ask where international schools fit in this educational framework. Bruce (1987) reports international schools were conceived out of the need for diplomats and foreign correspondents to have some form of education for children accompanying them in foreign countries. In the beginning, these schools primarily served only this population. However, with the proliferation of multinational companies after the Second World War, and the reluctance of parents to send their children to boarding schools, enrollments in existing international schools began to increase and new schools were established throughout the world. The following is an example of how one school changed dramatically in a relatively short period of time. 92 The famous American School in London, now boasting a five million dollar modern, open-classroom, airconditioned, closed-circuit TV equipped plant and enrolling over a thousand pupils, resulted directly from Stephen L. Eckard's agreement (in 1954), to tutor four boys in his London apartment. (Phillips, 1974, p. 7) Peterson (1987) observes that with the business world increasingly driven by the search for "competitiveness” with countries throughout the world, '. . . it is advantageous that the entrepreneur should know enough about his competitors, their language, and their customs and markets, to ensure that it is they and not he who suffer from competition" (p. 194). FUrthermore, Salmon (Commission for the Assessment of Intercultural Contributions of the American-sponsored Overseas Schools, 1971) notes international schools are an important impetus for encouraging Americans to move overseas so that the United States, like many other industrialized countries, can compete on the world markets. He further adds, ”They are essential to meeting the nation's commitment to equality of educational opportunity for all its citizens. They are contributing toward the creation of a climate of mutual understanding and cooperation vital to the future of mankind” (p. 42). Orr (1985) reports there are more than 900 American-type schools located around the world in approximately 100 countries. These schools serve the needs of expatriates who work in the diplomatic corps, government sponsored AID (Agency for International Development) programs, or in the private business sector. These 93 schools are independent from one another and are funded almost exclusively through annual tuition payments. The schools are similar in educational philosophy to the better private schools located in the USA. Additionally, Orr reports that in 1984 there were 168 schools around the world serving approximately 80,000 students. He noted these schools belong to a loosely organized association referred to as the American-Sponsored Overseas Schools (ASOS). These schools receive financial grants from the USA government for special projects or programs. However, it should be understood that not all international schools receive funding from the USA. If a school is sponsored by a religious organization, by a USA company, or has a non-American curriculum, it will not be eligible to receive any USA funding. Logically, it follows that international schools established by the British, French, Germany, and Japanese would not receive funding from the USA. In general, for a school to be considered an ASOS, it should have the following seven characteristics. 1. The A808 are non-profit, non-sectarian institutions. 2. Most of them are urbanly located, in the capitals or major cities. 3. A system of local control and management is maintained. Three main types of governance are found: a. a self-perpetuating association composed of share or stock holders, such as a board of trustees or foundation; 94 b. a school board elected by the local patrons of the school or by the trustees or foundation; and c. a school board composed of parents elected by the parents who are members of a parent-cooperative. 4. The schools have binational [sic] or multi- national composition. 5. The schools are financed mainly by tuition fees. 6. The curricula of the schools are American with attention given to the language, social studies, and culture of the host country. 7. Most of the teachers are American-trained, but a large proportion of the staff is hired locally from American dependent wives and local qualified personnel. (Orr, 1974, pp. 8-9) At this point, the researcher would like to present a brief history about the development and establishment of American and international schools. Luebke (1976) reports, historically, Americans have preferred to establish and manage their own schools no matter where they have lived overseas. Consequently, there has been a long history of Americans establishing schools in foreign countries. In 1888, the first American overseas school was established in Mexico City for the dependents of diplomats and businessmen living in the city at that time. Since then, hundreds of elementary and secondary schools have been set up in countries throughout the world. However, Luebke adds many of these schools have been established since the Second World War. Of the 140 A808 schools, existing in 95 1976, only 17 were in operation before World War 11. Additionally, only seven of these schools were in locations other than the Americas. After the War, more schools began to spring up as American businessmen began to move overseas and wanted their families to live with them. More than 402 of these schools were established between 1960 and 1970 and another 201 from 1970 to 1976. In addition to the A508 schools described here, there have been a number of other types of overseas schools established for various groups of expatriates living abroad. Orr (1974) briefly describes the nature of these schools. MW These are the oldest of overseas schools and were designed to serve either the local children in the overseas area, dependents of missionaries or both. Mission schools represent many denominations and can be found all over the world. One important factor of mission schools is their boarding facilities and in some overseas areas they serve as the only available boarding school. W These are the second oldest group of schools and are profit-making institutions owned and operated by an individual or a small group of individuals. Although there are still a number of these schools in Europe, many are now found in other parts of the world. Wheels Company schools were begun by business or individual organizations operating in areas where educational facilities were inadequate or non-existent. They were deemed necessary in order to attract and retain qualified personnel in remote areas. Although they were founded to serve only 96 the dependents of company personnel, many of them have become bi-national through the enrollment of children of company personnel recruited from local populations. WW These schools are significant because they were established by and are comprised of multi-national groups. They have developed criteria which have multi-national aspects and attempt to meet the multi-cultural needs of their student bodies. They are located mainly in Europe. Examples include: -- the (Foundation of the) International School of Geneva-~2,695* students from 50 countries -- the International (American) School of the Hague--575* students from 40 countries -- the United Nation's (International) School in New York-~1,246* students from 111 countries *Enrollment figures taken from the 1989 European Council of International Schools Directory. WW 5.911221341821205). The largest overseas school system is the military dependents' system run by the U.S. Department of Defense. There is a branch of the system operated by each of the arms of the military. The schools are located in 25 countries all over the world; but since they serve only the dependents of overseas-based USA military personnel, all of the students are American. Total enrollments are about 160,000 students in 300 (271 schools--Orr, 1985) schools with a professional staff of over 7,000. (pp- 7-8) A majority of the schools participating in this study were ASOS. Detailed profiles for three of these schools are located in Appendix A (fact sheet, “American-sponsored Elementary and Secondary Schools Overseas”). 97 As noted previously, international schools have operations similar to good public or private schools within the USA. However, the management and organizational structure of these schools varies somewhat compared with their counterparts in the USA. Phillips (1974) reports American parents are accustomed to the idea of a public school district or system with a central administrative office managing the affairs of the school and being responsible to a school board which in turn is responsible to the State Board of Education. Overseas schools, on the other hand, are not organized this way and do not belong to the kind of system normally operating in the USA. These schools are incorporated or otherwise organized under the auspices of the government of the host country. Some schools are even incorporated in the United States. The regulations for governing these schools vary greatly from country to country. Some countries insist the host national language be taught, while others look carefully at the certification of the teachers employed at the schools. Because some countries have little concern or control over these schools, they allow them to operate according to the by-laws of the school's constitution (Luebke, 1969). In general, these schools are governed by a school board elected or appointed from the school community. The school board hires a chief administrator who administers the policies written by the board and employs teachers. In theory, this is how an international school should be organized and managed, but as was mentioned previously, 98 these schools are independent from one another and have a certain amount of freedom to decide how they will be organized (Luebke, 1969). For professional development, many of these schools belong to regional organizations. One primary purpose of these associations is to assist schools in developing their programs. Additionally, these associations sponsor conferences several times a year and invite top educators from the United States and the United Kingdom to discuss the latest educational research and trends. These conferences also allow teachers and administrators to attend workshops and discuss common problems (McPherson, 1982). Many of the schools do not depend completely on the regional associations for professional development. A great majority of the schools have been "accredited" by one of the six regional associations in the United States. International schools located in Europe can also be accredited by the European Council of International Schools. There are, for one reason or another, some international schools not accredited. This does not imply they are not doing an excellent job for their students. Still, for many professional educators and lay individuals, accreditation is an important measure of the quality of a school. This certification affirms to parents and teachers alike that a school has been inspected by a group of outside professionals and has met certain acceptable standards, i.e., teacher certification, volumes in the library, and educational materials and supplies (Phillips, 1974). 99 Luebke, mentioned earlier, showed the majority of the funds used to operate an international school are derived from tuitions collected from parents. Additional funding may come directly from company donations for specific fund raising drives. Kelly (1974) notes that limited financial resources are a drawback in planning a program for an international school. Nearly all of the teaching supplies and books must be shipped from either the USA or the UK. This adds additional cost to the materials because of the shipping fees and various custom duties levied on goods from one country to another. Another major financial consideration a chief administrator must take into account is the annual budget. The budget, established by the school board and chief administrator, is in most instances based on the size of potential student enrollment. In small schools of less than 150 students, 10 students not returning can make a significant difference in the school's income and, consequently, the amount of money allocated to line items. Predicting the number of students returning each autumn is an inexact science at best and may cause serious conflict between a school board and its chief administrator (Kelly, 1974). Since this research project focused, in part, on the elements causing conflict between school boards and superintendents, it seems appropriate to treat briefly the relationship between these two groups. Defoe (1976) suggests the following. The quality of the school programs provided overseas largely will depend upon the leadership and decision-making abilities of the governing board. Boardmanship must be conceived of as both 100 an art and a science. There are principles of boardmanship which can be enunciated and emphasized, but the ability of a board to sense and be responsive to the educational needs and desires of the community it serves cannot be easily expressed. (p. 11) adds, . the relative size of a school does not determine the relative importance of board membership. Indeed the work of a board in a small operation may be more difficult because of more immediate community pressures and the lack of staff to research board problems. (p. 11) He concludes, ”. . . the greatest task of boardmanship is not expertise, but wisdom; not detailed knowledge, but sound judgment." Dafoe asserts, . . a great deal of time is required in studying and acting upon school problems, based on the research and recommendations of the chief administrator. The greatest reward, perhaps the only reward, is the satisfaction of being of service to the school community and its youth. (pp. 11-12) Phillips (1974) observes one of the major relational problems between school boards and chief administrators is . the frequency of change in the Boards of Directors . . . . Most board members are USA or English business men or diplomats who change assignments with alarming frequency--alarming, that is, to the school administrator who, having carefully adjusted his sights, ways, procedures, educational goals and plans to particular notions of a majority of the Board, suddenly finds that the majority has become the minority. He either must change his sights, ways, educational goals, etc., to conform to the ideas of the new majority, or he rapidly becomes a “Joseph whom Pharaoh knoweth not.“ In the former case, he girds his educational loins to see out his contract and starts looking for greener pastures; in the latter case, he becomes a member of the 2-2-2-2 society (remaining 101 as chief administrator at a school for two years, two months, two days, and two hours). (p. 9) Kelly (1974) believes the problem described by Phillips is exacerbated by the manner in which boards have organized their school board elections. Some board terms are only for one year, creating the possibility of having a completely new board every year. In other schools, where the terms are two years in length, some boards have staggered the elections so only half of the members are being elected in any given year. For stateside superintendents, the idea of changing boards every year to every other year might sound inviting. However, this constant change in personalities makes it very difficult for an administrator to accomplish school goals. More than likely, each new board will see last year's goals slightly different than their predecessors. This makes long term planning difficult for the administrator. Kelly concludes, ”It is fine to assume that if the Board restricts itself to merely setting policy no problems should accrue. The difficulty arises as each Board re-evaluates and changes past policy so that its implementation becomes rapid, confusing, and complicated" (p. 85). Moore (1975-76) observes yet another interesting situation concerning overseas boards. In large foreign cities, a number of small schools will develop to serve the needs of the various expatriate communities. For example, Paris has an American school, an English school, a Japanese school, etc. However, in some smaller cities there are not enough students in a particular expatriate community to warrant the establishment of a school. The parents then 102 select to send their children to the American or International school with English as the language of instruction. He notes that when there are many nationalities attending a school, it logically may have a multinational board. He says the following. The dynamics of a multicultural board membership are especially interesting because of the attending constraints. Each member is expected to forcefully represent the home educational delivery system of his constituent culture. Yet it becomes quickly obvious that no particular cultural-specific educational philosophy can be adopted without the formation of a coalition among the differently disposed members of the board. (p. 185) Moore adds it is unusual that two members of the same culture community are elected to a school board. Therefore, board members from different cultural backgrounds are encouraged to join together to form a coalition. They may do this to ensure that their particular curricula goals be introduced into a school. These coalitions may, in fact, benefit the school. ”The formation of a coalition across the boundaries of national origin demonstrates overtly that there are commonalities of interest and concern, even though they may be differently expressed” (p. 188). The conclusion drawn by Moore is certainly a possibility regarding board members in overseas schools. However, he fails to discuss the possibility of what might occur when these individual board members come together to make a decision regarding an issue they do not agree upon. This scenario might occur, primarily, when each of these board members views a specific problem only through his perspective and shows an unwillingness to accept alternative 103 solutions. The point being made here is that multi-cultural boards may or may not have a detrimental effect on the decisions made in the operation of an overseas school. Having completed his overview of American-sponsored and international schools as well as addressing some attending details regarding the operation of these schools, the researcher would now like to briefly discuss one major contribution to the field of international school research. In an attempt to fill the void regarding international school research, Orr (1974) completed an extensive review of the studies completed up to 1974. In completing this task, he classified the research he found according to six major categories: (a) school setting, (b) school institutionalization, (c) school organization and administration, (d) school program, (e) school personnel, and (f) school pupils. This systematic review and categorization of the research enabled Orr to develop a research ”matrix" identifying those areas which needed further investigation. Consequently, this matrix has continued to provide researchers interested in studying about international schools with valuable information. Orr's research has enabled observers of overseas schools to better understand how they serve the educational needs of expatriate children living abroad while fostering a mutual understanding and respect for the different cultures represented in each school. Another important factor in the organization and managing of an international school is the relationship between the school board and 104 its chief administrator. Researchers conclude that a good working relationship between these two groups can greatly benefit a school, whereas a relationship strained for whatever reason can and often does, prove debilitating to community members, teachers, and most importantly the students. Lastly, this researcher believes the following paragraph by Leach (1969) is an apt summation of his hopes and desires for all students involved in overseas education: . the international school challenges the most enlightened elements in any given nation to be willing to submit ethnocentric shibboleths to universal standards. The success of a chain of international schools may well be involved in the survival of men. The post-jet age must once and for all scrap the 1920 League of Nations dictum that education is a private or national prerogative. (p. 186) CHAPTER III DESIGN OF THE STUDY 11mm The researcher's purpose in completing this study was to examine the arenas of conflict that exist between school boards and their chief administrators in American-sponsored overseas schools and in- ternational schools located in Europe. The researcher examined the perceived elements that contribute to these conflicts and how they were resolved/managed. Other areas of focus were how these conflicts affect the professional teaching staff and, parents as well as ques- tioned if the size of the student enrollment had an influence on the different types of conflict existing between school boards and chief administrators. The research methodology employed for this study was a survey technique utilizing descriptive statistics to analyze the findings. Two instruments were utilized to collect the necessary data: a six part questionnaire and an in-depth interview format. The question- naire was sent to 90 school board members and 30 chief administrators in 24 American-sponsored overseas schools and six international schools located in Europe. 105 106 After the questionnaires were returned in February, 1989, in-depth interviews were conducted in April among 12 schools located in Europe. School selections were based on the willingness of the chief administrator and board members in each school to participate in the interview part of the study. Following the completion of the in-depth interviews, descriptive statistics in conjunction with the use of content analysis were employed to analyze and report the data collected. These results assisted the researcher in responding to the following research questions: 1. What are the perceived arenas of conflict between the school board and its chief ad- ministrator? 2. What are the perceived elements that con- tribute to conflict between the school board and its chief administrator? 3. How are conflicts between the school board and its chief administrator re- solved/managed? 4. How are the professional teaching staff and parents affected by conflict between the school board and its chief administra- tor? 5. Does the size of the student enrollment have an influence on the different types of conflict that exist between the school board and its chief administrator? The researcher selected a survey methodology to complete this study because it would best serve the purpose of collecting the nec- essary data required to respond to the research questions. The ra- tionale in utilizing a questionnaire and an in-depth interview format 107 as data-collecting instruments was determined by the type of data that would be required for this research project. Zeigler et a1. (1980) concluded: Survey research typically refers to interviews with a random sample, or stratified sample of a pre-determined population. Interviewing, whether structured, unstructured, or semi-structured, is a technique which extends well beyond the normal 'survey'. Interviewing as a method of inquiry is universal in the social sciences. The literature of anthropol- ogy is a product of the interviewing of infor- mants. Sociologists and political sciences make wide use of interviews. The writing of psychiatrists, psychologists, and journalists normally have their beginnings in an interview situation. (PP. 75-76) Bidwell (1965) suggested: Studies using direct observation, informants, and the analysis of documents are especially needed. Ratings of others' behavior or judge- mental nominations, which to date have been the principal sources of material on school operations, are weak substitutes for phenome- nological data. (p. 1018) Riley (1963, p. 167), as cited in Zeigler (1980), emphasized: Interviewing has the particular merit of re- flecting directly upon subjective states of the actors, as well as uncovering information unavailable from other sources: ‘when skill- fully used, questioning reveals dormant as- pects of the systems which are not acted but while the observer watches, and which may also be concealed from other group members'. (P- 75) The population was not randomly selected, but consisted of those participants who were the best informed concerning the subject of this study. Mass or random sampling would not have been appropriate 108 for this study. ”This (was) a purposive sample, rather that a repre- sentative one that would provide a statistical basis for generaliza- tion to a larger population...” (Willis and Bartell 1988, pp. 20-21). This method was best suited for this type of research because the es- sence of the study was to investigate the perceptions of the arenas of conflict, the contributions of conflict, and the resolu- tion/managing of conflict. Responses obtained from participants as- sociated with other types of overseas schools, i.e., DODDS, mission- ary or company, would have had little meaning regarding the problem that was investigated in this research study. It should be noted that it is not always necessary for an re- searcher to utilize random sampling as a technique when using field research methods. Glaser and Strauss (1967) concluded: ...any discussion about whether survey data are better than field data is usually meaningless. Often the researcher is forced to obtain only one kind and when theory is the object, both kinds are useful. Only under particular condi- tions of a group which allows both, does the question arise: 'which method would give the best data on the information desired?’ The answer is technical, not doctrinaire. (P- 65) Bale, in his study (1984/1985), further clarifies the rationale for selecting a statistical sample. ...adequacy is judged on the basis of techniques of random sampling in relation to the social structure of the group sampled. In field research, the adequate theoretical sample is appraised on the basis of how abundantly and heteroge- neously the analyst chose the group for saturating catego- ries according to the type of theory that is wished to be developed. The field researcher need not combine random sampling with theoretical sampling when setting forth the relationship among categories and properties. It is assumed that people are reasonable and therefore if the relationship among categories and properties holds for one group under certain conditions, then they will probably hold for other groups under similar conditions. (p. 81) 109 Sites. The 30 schools invited to participate in this study were those sites specifically selected by the researcher. The schools were se- lected on the basis of three criteria; (a) curriculum, i.e., ASOS or an international school that followed an American-based curriculum; (b) geographical location within Europe; and (c) size of student en- rollment. There were 26 American-sponsored overseas schools and six inter- national school included in the study. Thirteen schools had either N/K-8 or N/K-9 programs and the remaining 17 schools had N/K-12 pro- grams. The individual school enrollments ranged from 54 students to 595 students. The researcher designated three categories in which to place each of the schools. Schools in category ”A” consisted of a student enrollment between 1 to 150 students. In category ”B” student enrollment was from 151 to 300. The category ”C” student enrollment was from 301 to 600 stu- dents. International schools with enrollments larger than 600 stu- dents were not included in this study. The categories for the stu- dent enrollment size were selected on the basis of the data that were required to respond to research question number five. It should be noted that the researcher contacted Dr. Gray Mattern, executive secretary for the European Council of Interna- tional Schools (ECIS), in September 1988 and inquired if he might be willing to assist the researcher in selecting those schools which he 110 believed might participate in the study. With his advice, a prelimi- nary list of schools was developed followed by the addition of sev- eral others which were needed to balance the three categories equally. The specific sites included: Anglo-American School of Sofia, Bulgaria International School of Prague, Czechoslovakia International School of Helsinki, Finland American International of Budapest, Hungary American International School of Florence, Italy American International School of Genoa, Italy American International School of Rotterdam, Netherlands American School of Bucharest, Romania International School of Berne, Switzerland International School of Belgrade, Yugoslavia American International School of Cote d' Azur (Nice), France American School in Aberdeen (Scotland), Great Britian International School of Trieste, Italy American Cultural Association of Turin, Italy American International School of Luxembourg, Luxembourg American School of Warsaw, Poland Benjamin Franklin International School (Barcelona), Spain American School of Bilbao, Spain American International School of Zurich, Switzerland International School of Stockholm, Sweden Antwerp International School, Belgium International School of Dusseldorf, Federal Republic of Ger- many International School e.v. (Hamburg), Federal Republic of Germany American School of Milan, Italy American Overseas School of Rome, Italy International School of Amsterdam, Netherlands Stravanger American School, Norway American School of Barcelona, Spain American School of Madrid, Spain Istanbul International Community School, Turkey 111 299411121211 The selected sample population was not chosen randomly. The pop- ulation included those board members, chief administrators, and teachers working at the American-sponsored overseas or international schools during the time this study was being completed. Parents who had children attending these schools were also included in this study. There were two different data collection instruments utilized in this study, i.e., a six-part questionnaire and an in-depth interview format. Not all of the participants completed both instruments. The chief administrator and three board members from each of the 30 schools were requested to complete and return the six-part question- naire. The researcher selected 12 schools from the surveys returned in February to include in the in-depth interviews. These schools were selected on the basis of two criteria: (a) Those board members and chief administrators willing to participate in the interview pro- cess, and (b) The individual school's geographical location within litarope. Once the schools had been selected, the researcher contacted each ihrmdividual chief administrator by telephone and agreed on a tentative date in April for the interviews to take place. He also reminded the c=1'l:l.ef administrator that in addition to himself, the chairman of the At><>4lrd, and a second board member, he needed to have an in-depth in- t:elrview with two professional staff members and two parents. The re- ‘3‘3iircher then told each chief administrator he would contact them a few days in advance of his planned visit to their school to 112 re-confirm the agreed upon date and to receive instructions on how to find their school from the central train station in their cities. In sum, there was a total of 120 possible participants who were included in the six-part questionnaire, i.e., 30 schools - 30 chief administrators and 90 school board members. There was a total of 84 possible participants who were included in the in-depth interview, i.e., 12 schools - 12 chief administrators, 24 board members, 24 teachers, and 24 parents. W The data were collected using two different instruments: a six-part questionnaire and an in-depth interview format. The ques- tionnaire was developed by Martinez (1987/1988) and modified by the researcher for the purpose of this study (See appendixes G and H). The questions for the in-depth interviews and the school board mem- bers' vignettes were taken from Garmon (1982) and Zeigler et a1. (1980) (See appendixes J - L). Martinez (1987/1988) utilized two questionnaires for his study: one for the school board members and a slightly different one for chief administrators. He did this in order to compare and contrast the responses he obtained from the two specific groups. Both ques- tionnaires consisted of six parts: Section I - Personal Characteristics Section II - General Information Section III - School Board/Superintendent Conflict Section IV - Other Causes of Conflict Section V - Strategies for Resolution of Conflict Section VI - Strategies to Prevent Conflict 113 Martinez (1987/1988) developed sections I and II utilizing a questionnaire that he reviewed in a study completed by Hentges (1984). These sections served as a method for collecting the demo- graphic information needed concerning the participants in his study. The researcher examined Martinez's sections and decided the data col- lected from these sections and analyzed would assist in determining the following information regarding the school board members, i.e., personal characteristics, existing conditions in the school before their election, motivation for running for the board; and chief ad- ministrators: background information, statistics concerning the turnover rate of board members and chief administrators. However, in order to use these sections of the questionnaire, the researcher needed to make a number of minor alterations. In section I (School Board Questionnaire), question three was deleted and re- placed with "What is your nationality?” Question six was reworded and "If yes, why?” was added. Question seven was deleted because not all overseas school board members are American and secondly, U.S. po— litical party affiliation does not necessarily have a bearing on the working of an overseas school board. Questions eight and nine were changed to reflect a more realistic time dimension and educational level for overseas community members. Question eleven was reworded slightly to specify salary and not income. In Section II, the term ”superintendent" was deleted and replaced with “chief administrator” in one question. The word "immediate” was added to question four- teen. The word "civic” was deleted from the first response in ques- tion twenty-two. 114 In Section I (Superintendent), the term "superintendent” was re- placed with ”chief administrator” in four questions. Questions three, and eight were changed similarly to those in the Board Member Questionnaire. Question six was deleted because the researcher did not need this information for his study. Question seven was deleted because this is not applicable to overseas school administrators. In Section II, the term “superintendent” was replaced with “chief admin- istrator” in one question. Questions fourteen through nineteen were restructured to include N/A and 0 categories. Questions twenty and twenty-one were deleted because these issues do not pertain to over- seas schools. Question twenty-two was reworded to reflect the over- seas time frame more appropriately. Question twenty-three was de- leted because it was combined with question twenty-two. Sections 111 through VI of the questionnaire were developed simi- larly for both school board members and superintendents. After re- viewing the literature, Martinez (1987/1988) developed Section 111 after ascertaining those issues he believed to have been the sources of conflict between school board members and superintendents. Fol- lowing consultation with his doctoral advisor, Martinez prepared a list of 62 issues and field-tested them for validity in four states. When the results were returned, the superintendents who had partici- pated in the field-test identified twenty-five key issues creating conflict in their individual school districts. These twenty-five issues were then used as the basis to construct Section III of his questionnaire. 115 After examining and analyzing the twenty-five issues contained in Section III, the researcher concluded that eight of the issues were not entirely applicable to overseas schools. Four issues were elimi- nated completely, three issues were modified slightly, and one new issue was added to the list. This now left twenty-four conflict issues in Section III for school boards and chief administrators to evaluate. These modifications were based on the researcher's thir- teen years of working with overseas school boards and administrators. After the researcher's guidance committee met to review his proposal, more modifications were made to Section III. The committee advised the format be altered slightly to eliminate the yes/no part of the section. It further suggested this information be obtained from the participants by including a ”not a source of conflict" as one of the five responses. The researcher agreed with these suggestions and modified the format. Martinez (1987/1988) developed Section IV along with his doctoral committee. The researcher examined this section and concluded that the majority of the points included in this section would be benefi- cial for this study. However, a number of modifications were needed to make some of the specific factors more applicable to overseas schools. Question fifty-two was changed to read "Personality differ- ences' instead of ”Lack of personality." Question fifty-four, ”Reli- gious affiliation,” was deleted and replaced with ”Lack of orienta- tion.” Number fifty-seven, “Political affiliation,“ was deleted and replaced with ”Cultural differences." Finally, three more items were added: (55) "Differences in educational philosophies,” (56) "Lack of 116 clear role definitions," (57) ”Can you think of any other factors that are important sources of conflict between your school board and the chief administrator?" Martinez (1987/1988) based section V on an instrument developed by Garmon (1982). After reviewing this instrument, the researcher elected not to use it, because he had not been successful in locating a source that would validate it. Consequently, the researcher, after a thorough review of the literature, elected to use the Thomas-Kilmann Conflict Mode (1974) for this part of the question- naire. The researcher examined three other models; the Blake and Mouton (1964), the Lawrence-Lorsch (1967), and the Hall (1969), before deciding to use the Thomas-Kilmann instrument. This instrument was utilized to reflect ways in which conflict is managed by individuals. Thomas and Kilmann (1977) developed this in- strument to measure the interpersonal conflict modes of people di- rectly involved in conflict. The five conflict styles are: Compet- ing, Collaborating, Compromising, Avoiding and Accommodating. This model attempts to understand conflict relationships as they relate to conflict personalities. If, for example, the scores of several board members on the same board indicate their mode of managing conflict is "competitive”, and the superintendent's score reflects a similar 'mode, it could be assumed there would be a measurable amount of con- flict among these individuals when dealing with certain issues. 117 In two different studies, Thomas and Kilmann (1977), and (1978) concluded that their instrument, compared to three similar ones, re- duced the social desirability bias and had a higher test-retest reli- ability. ...the new instrument significantly reduces the social desirability bias for the overall population tendencies in comparison to three other conflict behavior instruments, although all four instruments may still be susceptible to some individual tendencies in this response bias. By and large, the MODE instrument also com- pared well on the criteria of internal consis- tency and test-retest reliability. In addi- tion, the forced-choice format appears to con- tribute to the instrument's structural valid- ity. ...reported on a number of findings giving some support to the external validity of the MODE instrument. (PP. 309, 322) Section VI was developed by Martinez (1987/1988) after reviewing the literature concerning the strategies employed by school boards and chief administrators to resolve/manage their conflicts. The Re- searcher analyzed these strategies and determined that this section of the questionnaire could be utilized for this study. The re- searcher modified this section slightly by deleting the term ”super- intendent" and substituting it with the term "chief administrator.” After a number of revisions, Martinez (1987/1988) validated his questionnaires by field-testing them among school board members and superintendents in Arizona, California, Colorado, New Mexico, Oregon, Texas, Utah, Washington, and Wisconsin. A total of twenty-one school board presidents and twenty-six superintendents examined the ques- tionnaires and made suggestions concerning ways to improve them. 118 When the questionnaires were returned, Martinez (1987/1988) ana- lyzed the input from the participants, then worked with a research and development department in the local school district and his doc- toral committee to make the necessary modifications required for the final draft of his field instrument. The second instrument utilized in this study was an in-depth in- terview format (See Appendixes J - L). The in-depth interview for the school board members and chief administrators consisted of six questions. The questions were taken from Zeigler et a1. (1980) and changed slightly to meet the needs of this study. Zeigler et al. (1980) developed their questions as part of a re- search project investigating the various methods used by chief admin- istrators to manage conflict effectively. The authors spent an ex— tensive amount of time testing and validating their questions in the field. Therefore, it was concluded that the questions selected from the Zeigler et a1. research for use in this study did not need to be field tested. The three vignettes taken from Garmon (1982) were administered only to board members. The vignettes were descriptions of situations in which board members might possibly have found themselves at some time. These specific data collected indicated whether or not board members had difficulties in managing conflict among themselves. The results also demonstrated some of the reasons why board members have conflicts with chief administrators. Garmon (1982) developed his vignettes as part of the manual for 'workshop leaders concerned with conflict management for school boards 119 and superintendents. Garmon completed his work at the Northwest Re- gional Educational Laboratory located in Portland, Oregon. His manual does not elaborate on the validation of the vignettes. In De- cember, 1988, the researcher wrote a letter to Dr. Garmon requesting permission to use the vignettes in his manual and also requested that he briefly describe the validation process that was completed. Several weeks later, Dr. Garmon telephoned the researcher and gave him permission to use any part of the manual that he found ap- plicable. Dr. Garmon also described the field-testing and validation process in reference to the vignettes. He explained that the North- west Laboratory conducted extensive field tests on all of the compo- nents in the manual in five states over a period of one year. He also added that this manual had been used on the national level by the National School Board Association in assisting school boards and chief administrators with issues causing conflict. The researcher was also interested in determining how conflict between the school board and its chief administrator directly and in- directly affected the school and community. Therefore, to collect the necessary data required, an additional interview schedule was de- veloped for the professional teaching staff and parents to complete (See Appendix L). This instrument consisted of four questions used in the school board/chief administrator questionnaire and an addi- tional fifth question to specifically address the researcher's fourth research question. Permission was requested and later granted by Dr. Andrew Martinez and Dr. Harmond Zeigler to use parts of their questionnaires in this 120 study. Permission was also granted and contract agreed upon between the researcher and Xicom Inc. to use the Thomas-Kilmann Conflict MODE Instrument (1974). Finally, a letter from the university committee on research involving human subjects was requested and permission re- ceived to complete this research study (see Appendix M). W The researcher mailed three copies of the six-part questionnaire to the school board chairman and one copy to the chief administrator of each of the schools in the study at the end of January, 1989. A cover letter explaining the purpose and rationale for the study, was sent to the participants in addition to the questionnaire. The letter stressed the importance of the study and emphasized the fact that the questionnaire was intended to permit the partici- pant to have some direct input into this area of study. The partici- pants were instructed to complete the questionnaires within one week of receiving them and then to return them to either the researcher's home address in the United Kingdom or campus address at Michigan This procedure attempted to give the participants This 8 tate University . an opportunity to select the address that was most convenient. Procedure also ensured that fewer questionnaires were lost in the mail and assisted in reducing the mailing cost to the individual par- t1(zilpants. A second cover letter from Dr. L. Grell, Executive Director of the Association for the Advancement of International Schools Educa- tion, (A.A.I.E.), was also included with the questionnaire. It was 121 hoped that by including this letter, it would encourage more adminis- trators and board members to participate in the study (see Appendix E). The chairman of the school board was given three copies of the questionnaire. He was then requested to complete one of the surveys himself and to give the other copies to two board members who demon- strated an interest in participating in the study. In order for the researcher to determine which schools were will- ing to participate in the in-depth interview, a postcard indicating three choices was included with the cover letter and questionnaire (See Appendix F). The three choices were: (a) to complete the ques- tionnaire and participate in the in-depth interview; (b) to complete only the questionnaire; (c) to not participate in either part of the research. When postcards were returned in February, 1989, the researcher was able to determine the individuals who were willing to complete the questionnaires and participate in the in-depth interviews. Unfortunately, the researcher discovered that he did not have a suf- ficient number of schools willing to participate in the in-depth in- terview. Three more schools were needed to balance the three catego- ries so that there would be ten schools in each group. Fortunately, the researcher had originally planned to attend the annual Association for the Advancement of International Education (AAIE) Conference in Orlando, Florida in the beginning of March, 1989. This gave him an opportunity to discuss his research study in 122 person with several chief administrators with the hope he might per- suade several of them to participate in the in-depth interviews. He was able to speak with a number of administrators, and, within a day, arranged for three more schools to participate. While attending the conference, the researcher was able to con- tact all but two of the other chief administrators who had agreed to participate in the in-depth interview to inform them that they had formally been selected to participate in study. They were informed of the researcher's tentative travel schedule and the date when he would visit their schools. This conversation also gave the re- searcher an opportunity to answer any questions the administrators had concerning the purpose of the study, the interview format, the time required, and the teachers and parents who would be involved in the interview . When the final arrangements were completed, the researcher flew to England on March 14, 1989. He stayed with his family for one and During this time he was able to visit Aberdeen, On April 4, 1989 one -half weeks . Scotland, one of the twelve schools in the study. the researcher began his journey throughout Europe visiting nine of the schools in his study. Three weeks later, on April 23, 1989 he finished his interviews and was able to fly back to the United States. Two other schools, located in Turin, Italy and Helsinki, F inland, had been visited previously in February when the researcher had been in Europe interviewing for a headmaster's position. The researcher traveled by train to each of the following nine c1ties staying one to two days at each school. The cities were 123 Amsterdam, Rotterdam, Antwerp, Budapest, Genova, Nice, Barcelona, Dusseldorf, and Hamburg. Where possible, the researcher interviewed only those board chairman and board members who had completed the questionnaire. In addition to interviewing these individuals, the researcher attempted to interview two professional staff members and two parents at each school. Unfortunately, the researcher was not always able to meet with all of the persons he had originally in- tended to interview. The specific number of individuals interviewed in each school and the reasons for other individuals not being inter- viewed are reported and explained in Chapter IV. n o e When the questionnaires were returned to the researcher, the data 'were analyzed by first tallying the number of responses for each of the individual items. Percentages were then calculated for each of the numbered item responses. Next, statistical tables were designed :in order to present the data. These tables recorded the percentages showing which items the participants perceived to be significantly important or unimportant. A descriptive analysis preceded each of the tables explaining the significance of the data presented with regard to specific research questions. The Strauss (1987) and Patton (1987) approach to content analysis ‘Uils employed to analyze the data collected from the transcriptions of the in-depth interviews. Interpretation of the data was completed according to the theoretical framework of conflict theory applied to oI‘ganizations described in Chapter II. 124 From the data collected and analyzed, the researcher was able to examine the arenas of conflict that exist between school boards and their chief administrators in American-sponsored overseas schools and international schools located in Europe. The researcher examined the perceived elements that contribute to these conflicts and how they were resolved/managed. Other areas of focus were how these conflicts affect the professional teaching staff members and parents and the relationship of the size of student enrollment to different types of conflict existing between school boards and chief administrators. CHAPTER IV PRESENTATION OF THE DATA Introduction The researcher's purpose in completing this study was to examine the arenas of conflict that exist between school board members and chief administrators in American-sponsored overseas schools and in- ternational schools located in Europe. The researcher also examined the perceived elements that contributed to these conflicts and how they were resolved and/or managed. Another area of focus was how these conflicts affected the professional teaching staff members and parents in each overseas community. Finally, the size of the student enrollment was examined to determine if this influenced the types of conflict existing between school boards members and chief administra- tors. The data collected from the two questionnaires and the in-depth interviews are described in Chapter Four. The data were analyzed, .summarized, and presented using both numerical tables and descriptive statistics. This chapter is divided into six sections. The first section is a review of the social demographics and gen- Eiral background information concerning the school board members and Calief administrators who participated in the study. The relative data in reference to the five research questions developed for this study are presented in sections two through six. The statistical 125 126 data taken from the questionnaires and the ethnographic data from the in-depth interviews are presented following each of the research questions. W One hundred and twenty questionnaires were mailed to 30 sites in Europe. Thirty went to chairmen of the boards, 60 to board members and 30 to chief administrators. Thirty-two (35.52) completed ques- tionnaires were returned from the school board members. This total included both chairmen of the boards and board members. Seventeen (56.71) of the questionnaires were returned from the chief adminis- trators. Six schools from each of the three student enrollment size categories (60% of the total number of schools) participated in the study. The school categories are "A” schools 1-150, "B” schools 151-300, "C" schools 301-600). The number sampled and percentage of participants who completed the questionnaires are shown in Table 3. Table 3 WWW WWW Respondent Sampled Responded Percentage S<:hool board members 90 32 35 . 5 cHhief administrators 30 17 56.7 127 Four schools from each of the three student enrollment size cat- egories were selected to participate in the in-depth interview sec— tion of the study. A total of 75 (89.31) of the interviews was com- pleted. Twenty school board members were interviewed, 12 chief ad- ministrators, 24 professional teacher staff members and 19 parents. The number and percentage of participants are displayed in Table 4. Table 4 Respondent Sample Completed Percentage School board members 24 20 83.3 Chief administrators 12 12 100.0 Professional teaching staff 24 24 100.0 Parents 24 19 79 . 2 ‘ Overall 84 75 89 . 3 128 The number of schools that participated in the study and the names of the countries where the schools were located are presented in Table 5. Further details concerning the names of the individual schools are presented in Appendix N. The schools are grouped according to their student enrollment size. Those schools with participants completing both the questionnaire and the in-depth interview are also shown in Appendix N. Table 5 Country Schools Total ”A" ”B” ICU. (1-150) (151-300) (301-600) Belgium 1 Finland 1 France 1 .Hungary Italy lNorway l lPoland 1 Romania 1 Spain 2 1flhe Netherlands 1 l lhnited Kingdom (Scotland) 1 West Germany 2 Yugoslavia 1 i-‘H ..e H NNHHHwi—IHHH F‘BJPJ ‘ Total 6 6 6 18 ‘ 129 During the period the study was completed, the average school board member in an American-sponsored overseas or international school located in Europe was a married American male, 40 - 49 years old with one or two children. The average chief administrator was a married American male, 40 - 49 years old with one or two children. The average school board member had lived in his present community from one to four years and had obtained at least bachelor's degree. The average chief administrator had lived in the same community from one to four years and had a master's degree. However, nearly 202 of the board members and 25% of the chief administrators had lived in their present community for nine or more years (see Table 6). Table 6 Descriptor Board Members Administrators Gender Male 68 . 8 94 . 1 Female 31 . 3 5 . 9 Age 20 - 29 0 . 0 0 . 0 30 - 39 25 . 0 11.8 40 - 49 50 . 0 52 . 9 50 and over 25.0 35.3 Table 6 cont'd 130 Descriptor Board Members Administrators Nationality U.S.A. 68.2 94. British 18.8 0. Others a12.5 b5. Martial status Single 0.0 0. Married 96.9 100. Divorced/ separated 3.1 0. Widowed 0.0 0. (Ihildren 0 0.0 17. l - 2 59.4 70. 3 - 4 37.5 11. 5 or more 3.1 0. Years in Community 1 - 2 34.4 29. 3 - 4 25.0 23. 5 - 6 9.4 17. 7 - 8 12.5 5. 9 or more 18.8 23. 131 Table 6 cont'd Descriptor Board Members Administrators Education Some post secondary 9.4 0.0 Bachelor's 53.1 5.9 Master's 34.4 70.6 Specialist 0.0 5.9 Doctorate 0.0 11.8 Professional 3.1 5.9 (Law, medicine) ISQEQ- 8School Board Members: (2 Dutch, 1 German, and l b Austrian/Italian). Chief Administrator: (1 Australian). When the school board members were asked if they had other chil- clren attending another school, 53.1% responded yes. A closer obser- vation revealed that some board members included children who were eatxending university. However, a high percentage of parents indi- cated they had sent their child to other schools because the local 111ternational school did not offer a secondary school program (see Traflole 7). More than 601 of the school board members were professionals and had salaries ranging from $70,000 to $180.000 annually (see Table 7). Inaddition to their salaries, many, if not all, of them who were 132 executives also received furnished apartments, company cars, and free tuition for their children's schooling. Table 7 r e b Descriptor Percentage Occupation Foreign service diplomat 28.1 Professional/manager/executive 21.9 Engineer 6.3 Film director 3.1 Missionary/student 3.1 Housewife (one formally a psychologist) 15.6 No response 21.9 l?amily income $29,000 to $29,999 3.1 30,000 to 39,999 12.5 40,000 to 49,999 6.3 50,000 to 59,999 12.5 60,000 to 69,999 6.3 70,000 to 79,999 25.0 100,000 to 180,000 25.0 No response 9.4 133 Table 7 cont ' d Descriptor Percentage Children attending another school No 46.9 8Yes 53.1 Mo. a_ 9 to 10 year olds: 2 students. - 11 to 18 year olds: 10 students. — University level: 5 students. Repatriating wife and son in U.S.A. - I am a non-parent board member. My children attend the local (name of country) schools. A majority of chief administrators, like many administrators in international schools around the world, are hired from outside the school system. More than 702 of the administrators responding to the questionnaire reported they were hired from outside of the school system. Thirty percent of the administrators indicated they had been chief administrators from four to six years. However, there was an approximately equal percentage of administrators serving as heads of Schools in three of the other four categories. Almost 501 of the administrators said their current position was the first chief admin- istrator's position they had held in their professional careers. Ap- proximately 101 stated they had held four or more chief administra- tors's positions during their professional careers (see Table 8). 134 Table 8 MW Descriptor Percentage Hired Within school system 29.4 Outside school system 70.6 ‘Years as chief administrator I - 3 23.5 t, - 6 29.4 7 - 9 17.6 10 - 12 23.5 13 or more 5.9 Number of positions held 1 47.1 2 23.5 3 17.6 4 5.9 5 or more 5.9 firears in current position 1 - 2 29.4 3 - 4 29.4 5 - 6 17.6 7 - or more 23.6 135 Table 9 shows that less than 121 of the chief administrators left the school system involuntarily in any one year during the past five years . Table 9 W11 Past Years Two Three Four Five Yes 5.9 11.8 11.8 5.9 No 94.1 88.2 88.2 94.1 The school board members were asked several questions related to their tenure on school boards and if they had been elected or ap- pointed to their position. Approximately 60% of the respondents in- dicated they had served on a board less than three years. Another 301 disclosed they had been members from four to six years. These data show more than 901 of the school board members in this study had six or less years of experience serving on board's of education (see Table 10) . 136 Table 10 Years Percentage 1 - 3 59.4 4 - 6 31.3 7 - 9 9.4 10 - 12 0 0 13 or more 0.0 Nearly 45% of the school board members disclosed they had been appointed not elected to their boards. In a few situations, this oc- curred because a parent was asked to complete an unexpired term for another board member who had resigned to return to his home country or to move to another assignment. The researcher did discover, while completing the in-depth interviews, that a percentage of school boards have written policies stating a set number of members be ap- pointed to the board and not elected by the community (see Table 11). 137 Table 11 WW BMW: Appointed/Elected Percentage I was appointed 43.8 I was clcccco 53.1 No response 3.1 In reference to board membership, the chief administrators were asked to indicate the number of incumbent board members who were de- feated or did not seek re-election during the past two elections. The administrators reported that nearly 501 of the board members were not elected but were appointed to the school board. Approximately 10! indicated that one or two incumbents had been defeated during one of the last two elections. Conversely, 25 to 30! indicated that one or two incumbents had not sought re-election during the last two elections (see Table 12). 138 Table 12 Defeated Not seeking re-election aN/A Zero One Two N/A Zero One Two Last election 47.1 41.2 5.9 5.9 47.1 29.4 11.8 11.8 Two elections ago 47.1 47.1 5.9 0.0 47.1 23.5 23.5 5.9 Nocc. 8Not applicable - School board incumbents were appointed. Fifty percent of the school board members who responded to I'Reason for seeking board membership” stated they were motivated by duty.” Still another group of approximately 201 of the parents indi- cated they were “motivated to represent a particular group” within the community. More than 201 selected I"others" and reported addi- tional explanations for seeking membership to the board (see Table 13). 139 Table 13 Reason Percentage Motivated by duty 50.0 Motivated by a desire to obtain political experience 3.1 Motivated to represent a particular group 15.8 No response 6.2 “Other 21. 9 flocc. aSchool by-laws require that I be chairman of the board. My position with the American Embassy; I thought the school could improve by better management; Believed I could make a difference for the better; I felt responsible to my children and to my company to try and insure a solid educational program; My daughter in school and concern for her education; I was motivated to render community service; Interest in education; I wanted to be involved more with the education of the children. School board participants were then requested to indicate the ”Sources of encouragement to seek election to the board.” More than 75! indicated other board members had encouraged them, whereas more than 451 had been encouraged by their “chief administrator." Less than 202 had been encouraged by “formal citizen's group/ organiza- tions” and another 12.5% reported they had been encouraged by "friends.’ This information is addressed in Table 14. 140 Table 14 Source Yes No aNR Immediate family 56.3 43.8 0.0 Board members 78.1 21.9 0.0 Chief administrator 46.9 53.1 0.0 Other professional school personnel 18.8 81.3 0.0 Formal citizens' groups/organizations 15.6 84.3 0.0 Governmental and political figures 12.5 87.5 0.0 Friends 50.0 50.0 0.0 bOther 15.6 50.0 34.4 Nocc. aNo Response bEmbassy staff, employer, supervisor, previous experience, and head in former school Table 15 illustrates the types of ”Public affairs” the board mem- bers were active in prior to becoming members of the various school boards. Forty percent indicated they had previously been active in “civic/business/professional affairs“ and another 9.4! responded they ‘had been active in ”political/government affairs” before becoming 141 board members. A further 251 of the participants revealed they had not been previously active in any of these organizations. Lastly, 15.6! reported they had been active in "educational affairs.” Table 15 W W Dominant Activity Percentage Active in civic/business/professional affairs 40.6 Active in political/governmental affairs 9.4 Active in educational affairs 15.6 Active in more than one of the above 9.4 Not previously active 25.0 Responses to the question referring to school board members' "Perceptions about school governance compared to other candidates' revealed that nearly 601 of these candidates' perception were ”not very different“ as compared to other candidates. Similarly, an addi- tional 9.41 disclosed their perceptions were "not different at all.” However, nearly 301 stressed their perceptions were somewhat differ- ent compared to those of other candidates (see Table 16). 142 Table 16 W MW Perception Percentage Very Different 3.1 Somewhat different 28.1 Not very different 59.4 Not different at all 9.4 When the board members were asked to reveal their positions con- cerning “change" preceding an election, more than 50% reported they were ”supportive of the present status cxccoc_foc_m1oo;_chongcc they advocated.“ Along similar lines of thinking, another 21.92 indicated they were "interested in mcioccining_chc_ccccoc_goo; major changes were not needed” (see Table 17). 143 Table 17 W W Campaign Position Percentage I was as W in school district policies and/or program(s). 21.0 I was supportive of the present status cxccoc Was: I advocated. 53.1 I was interested in W: major changes were not needed. 21.9 No response 3.1 144 We What are the perceived arenas of conflict between the school board and its chief administrator? This section has been divided into two parts. Part one is a presentation of the statistical data in response to research question number one. The ethnographic data for the stated research question is discussed in part two. W School board members and the chief administrator in each partic- ipating school were given a list of 21 possible conflict issues and requested to identify the degree in which each of the conflicts had affected their international school, i.e., not a source of conflict, insignificant, moderately significant, significant, and very signifi- cant. The terms ‘insignificant' and “significant" used here oo_noc connote the use of inferential statistics. Instead, these terms are used to show the degree of importance of each of the issues as per- ceived by the participants, i.e., insignificant-unimportant, significant-important. The value of the mean scores calculated for each of these terms is shown as follows: Not a source of conflict, 0.00-0.99; insignificant 1.00-1.99; moderately significant 2.00-2.99; signifi- cant 3.00-3.99; and very significant 4.00-5.00. Table 18 indicates the percentage of responses by the school board members and the degree to which they perceived each issue to 145 have been a source of conflict between themselves and their chief ad- ministrator. Table 19 displays the percentage of degree of concern/importance pertaining to those issues perceived as sources of conflict between school board members and chief administrators as reported by chief administrators. The issues were then ranked to determine those conflicts per- ceived by both groups as major areas of concern. In order to com- plete the ranking, the mean and standard deviation were calculated for each of the conflict issues as reported by both the school board members and chief administrators (see Table 20). The five issues with the highest mean scores as reported by the school board members were as follows: communication failure (mean - 2.563); performance expectation (mean - 2.406); difference over methods of management (mean - 2.333); role and responsibility of the school board (mean - 2.125); values and goal differences (mean - 2.094). The five issues indicated by the chief administrators were dis- similar when compared to those conflicts reported by the school board members (see Table 20). They noted the following areas of conflict: salary increases for the professional and support staff members (mean - 2.938); role and responsibility of the school board (mean - 2.706); impact of community pressure groups on the school (mean - 2.470); approval of annual budget (mean - 2.438); personality clashes in school board meetings (mean - 2.412). 146 0.0 o.o 9.0 0.9 0.3 m.~0 glue ...-3:. 0.0 o6 o.o v.9 mfin 0.3 .8303 v.33 ue cot-Eomct‘t earl...“ ed n.0 n.0 new pow 0.3 28530:“. .89 WI 31> :6 ...n m.~.. m.~. no, finm Lou-.335! coin of we 52.3.5 o... n.0 n.0 o._.~ o.m~ 0.3 v.33 .85. to 5.338.! as :3. 9.0 n.0 ...n 0.3. o._.~ o.3 53933558 ooze of 0o 333.9892 El 3oz ed «.0 n.0 ...n 92. n.~0 .853 so 33.3 so... 5323:— 9.7.23 06 ...n ad «.0 o.m~ m.~0 .5953 .85. 9:53:38 fin n0 «.0 ..8 ...ow. 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To collect the necessary data required to respond to the first research question, the school board members and chief administrators were requested to reply to the following questions: 1. One reads and hears about problems that affect schools such as financial matters, staff contracts, curriculum. What are some of the issues that are particular problems in this school that cause con- flict between the school board and chief administrator? 2. Are there any important differences be- tween what you think the job of the chief administrator involves and the way the school board see it? g2L;g§_§;_j.5m_9ng.L The statements taken from the participants in response to the first question are found in Appendix 0. The statements are divided into two major headings, "School Board Member" and "Chief Administrators.” Each heading is subdivided into three smaller categories, one for each of the three student enrollment size groupings. Under each of these sub-categories, the researcher recorded the participants' comments by topics similar to those issues mentioned in the questionnaire, i.e., financial matters, staffing, curriculum issues. 153 The researcher analyzed these statements in order to compare and contrast the results with the statistical data taken from the ques- tionnaires. This interpretation of the similarities and differences between the two different types of data collected is presented in Chapter Five of this study. The school board members discussed a wide variety of conflict issues they had encountered with either the current or previous chief administrators. However, the majority of the board members, much more than 652, stressed their current chief administrators were very good and they had not had many serious conflicts with them. They added that the conflicts taking place had been relatively insignifi- cant. Host of the serious conflicts had taken place previously, under either other chief administrators or other board members who were no longer in the community. The board members in the study did, however, describe l7 spe- cific issues causing some conflict in their individual schools. The issues were ranked according to the number of times board members re- ferred to them while being interviewed by the researcher (see Table 21). There was a total of 47 statements made by the school board mem- bers. Three issues; financial matters, curriculum, and staffing were mentioned the majority of times (58.4%). Financial matters were the leading cause of conflict between the school board members and the chief administrators. Thirty-four point seven percent of the board members reported this issue to the researcher (see Table 21). 154 Table 21 Issue Response Percentage Financial 16 34.7 Curriculum 7 15.1 Staffing 4 8.6 Role and Responsibility of the chief administrator 3 6.4 Communications 3 6.4 Policy 2 4.2 Accreditation 2 4.2 30thers 10 20. 6 note. aPersonality clash, school calendar, teacher evaluation, public relations, teacher representative on the school board, profes- sional staff member dismissal, conflict of interest, problem solving, professional teaching staff and chief administrator conflict, cul- tural differences. 155 In response to the identical question presented to the school board members, the chief administrators shared their thoughts con- cerning the issues they perceived to have caused conflict in their individual settings. They noted 14 issues causing conflict between themselves and school board members. The issues were ranked accord- ing to those most frequently stated. The conflict issues were simi- lar to those outlined by the school board members. However, there were some noticeable differences in the percentage of times reference was made about a specific issue (see Table 22). The school board members and the chief administrator both agreed that financial matters were the primary source of conflict. Both groups reported it approximately 331 of the time. The chief adminis- trator believed that an understanding of their role and responsibil- ity was a source of conflict. Even though the school board members acknowledged this issue, they did not report it as often as did the administrators. Curriculum issues were a concern of the board mem- bers. The administrators did not make any reference to this issue at all. Lastly, the administrators reported a larger number of "other" issues (45.82) as compared with those made by the board member (20.62). 156 Table 22 2erssntas2_anQ_EunbsI.2f_S5at2msnts_naée_hx_§hief_eémini§£rafgrs_ - t su Issue Response Percentage Financial matters 8 33.3 Role and responsibility of the chief administrator 3 12.5 Staffing 2 8.3 “Others 11 45.8 Note. aCommunications, staff contracts, role and responsibility of the school board members, school calendar, policy, staff evalua- tions, apathy, conflict of interest, teacher representative on the board, legal fees, physical facilities. Questign_lgg. The second question posed to both the school board members and chief administrators was designed to determine if both groups viewed the role and responsibility of the chief administrator similarly. The question from the in-depth interview was as follows: 2. Are there any important differences be- tween what you think the job of a chief administrator involves and the way the school board sees it? 157 Fourteen school board members out of a total of 19 (751) indi- cated that they gid_n2§ see any difference between how the chief ad- ministrator saw his role and how they saw his role. However, five board members (approximately 251) replied "Yes,” they did see the role of the chief administrator differently. One member stated: Some board members feel that the chief admin- istrator should have 110! control of the school. Historically, this board has been involved more that it should. They were forced to do so. However, the board should stay out. Yet another member suggested: Personally, I believe that the chief adminis- trator should be an educator first and then be a good administrator. The businessman on the board want the chief administrator to be a good administrator first They are adminis- trators in their field, so they feel that he should be one at school. The chief administrators responded to the second question simi- larly. Eight (66.72) noted they gig_ng; see their role differently when compared to the board members. A closer observation of the data revealed that the chief administrators from the “A“ and ”B" schools responded to the question differently than did the administrators from the 'C' schools. Fifty percent of the administrators from the two smaller schools indicated they saw their role differently than did their school boards. Conversely, all four administrator's from the 'C' schools unanimously agreed that their school boards viewed the administrator's role as they perceived it. It should be noted that the following data and statements were recorded by the investigator while completing the in-depth interviews 158 at the individual sites. Each of the participants were requested to respond to the following question: Are there any important differences between what you think the job of a chief administra- tor involves and the way the board sees it? I I co Yes 1 No 5 Both 1 n - 7 Personality differences: Chief administrator has a low threshold of irritation for board members taking on more responsibilities than they should. He should restrain himself as others do. He detests any teacher having contact with the board members. He wants to do his own recruiting and doesn't want any suggestions from the embassy. He is afraid that these people might be “plants.” Yes 1 No i n - 8 Role and responsibility of the chief administrator: Some board members feel that the chief administrator should have 110! control of administering the school. Historically, this board has been involved more than it should. They were forced to do so. However, the board should stay out. Role and responsibility of the board members: There are some board members who feel they have the right or responsibility to say to the chief administrator "do this and do that.“ They want to become more involved with the day-to-day running of the school. However, they would not admit this. Curriculum issues: Chief administrator not solving curriculum problems like the introduction of the International Baccalaureate program. 159 fig. ighgg]: Yes 1 No A n-5 Role and responsibility of the chief administrators: - Personally, I believe that the chief administrator should be an educator first and then be a good administrator. The busi- nessmen on the board want the CA to be an administrator first. They are administrators in their fields, so they feel that he should be one at school. ” " s 5. Yes 2 No 2 n04 Role and responsibility of the chief administrator: - Board wants an administrator and chief administrators want to be involved in the educational matters of the school. - Difference in the amount of work demanded of the chief admin- istrator. Accreditation report pointed this out. Chief ad- ministrator trying to do too much and doing the work ineffec- tively. This is the fault of the board and chief administra- tor. Chief administrator has not delegated work to board and other staff members. In” Eghgglfi Yes 2 No 2 n-4 Role and responsibility of the school board: - In the past, the chairman of the board wanted to be the boss of the chief administrator. He thought that the chief admin- istrator needed help making management decisions for the school. - Board did not understand its role. They should create policy and find the finances to run the school. .9. EQhQQJE Yes Q No 5 n-4 No conflicts were noted in this group. 160 W What are the perceived elements that contribute to conflict between the school board and its chief administrator? The third section has been divided into two parts. Part one pre- sents the statistical data in response to research question number two, and part two presents the ethnographic data for the research question. W The school board members and chief administrators were given a second list of ”other" conflict elements and requested to indicate the extent to which each of these contributed to conflict in their international schools. The participants were instructed to rate each item according to their perceptions of their special school settings, i.e., strongly disagree, disagree, neutral, agree, and strongly agree. Table 23 shows the percentage of responses indicating the degree to which school board members had assessed the ”other” elements con- tributing to conflict between themselves and their chief administra- tor . Table 24 displays the percentage of responses by chief adminis- trators in reference to those elements contributing to conflict be- tween school board members and chief administrators. 1651 .0000 3:000 000 0000.50.00.00 .0.00 0003000 0000000 000 00.0.0..00 0.00 .o .00. .0000..00 .0000300 0000 .0 0000. .0 00.00.000 “00000 00 >0.:00. 0000.0 00.: 0000000 0>.000..0 00 00 o. 00...0. 0:0. .00...000 0.0)0 00 000300 00: 0000000 00.: 00..000 .0 .>u.:o....0 000 .000000.0 0:o.>000 000 .o 0000 00. 0. .0..s 000000: 00 0000000 .000.00>o x0030 .mmmm 0.0 .... 0.0. 8. .02. 22.0. a... 0.... 0.0 0.0. 0.8 ..00. 80.0.5.8 0.0.. 000.0 .0 0.00.. 0... .... 0... 0.0. ..0~ .....0 8.8.08.0... .08.. .080. ... 89.20.... o... 0.... .... 0.... . 0.0 0.... 02288. .0 .8. 0... .... 0.0 .... ...... 0.00 .088. .0 .03 0... .... 0.... 3. 0.3 0.00 .0802 .0 ..8. ... 0.0 00. 00. ...... 0... 8:08.... .0 .8. .... ..0 0.0 0... .30 n... 0880...... .8350 0... 0.0. 0.... ...... 0.0. 0...... 83.0.5.5... .0 .03 0... 0.... ..n 0.0 0.... 0.3 0.08.... .0 .8. 0... 0.0. .... 0.0 0.... 0.00 8.03.0.8 .o .8. o... 00. o... .... 0... 0.0.. 0:003... .0 .8. o... ..n ...n 0.8 0.0. ..0... 89.80:... 0:88.... o... 00. 0.0.. 3. ...w 0...... .25 .0 .8. 0000000.. 00000 00003.0 0.. 0.000000 0002 .0050: 000000 .0 59.0000 00005.0 W'r'fii w .0000. >00000030 000.3000 0000...00.0 >02. 0 00 v0. 000 0.00.00.00.00 0.00 000000 00 00.000 0.0000 00. .000> 00 000 .0000 00. ..00000 000 00 0>.00000000000 3.300. 90.00) 0 0. 00000 “0000030350030 .0.0000.. 00 0000003.... "00.60030 000000 .000: m.n~ 00» 0.0.. 0.. 000000 0 0.0 «an... m.n~ 0.... a.“ 0.m 000.0.0..0.u 0.00 000.0 .0 0.00.. 0.0 0.0 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.: 002000000 .80: -0030 0. 0000000...0 0.0 0.0. 0.00 0.0 a... 0...... 0.0000000. .0 0.00.. 0.0 0.... ~40 0.0 0.0. m.n~ 0000000 .0 0.00.. 0.0 0.0 ..00 0... 0.0 n.nn 0000000 .0 0.00. 0.0 0.0 ...0 m.n~ 0.... m.n~ 00.000000 .0 0.00. 2 0.0 0.0 0.0... 0...... 0.: 0.... 0000000....0 .003050 N 0.0 0.0.4. 0.0.0. 0.0 a.“ 0.: 00.000.500.00 .0 0.00.. 0.0 0.0. 0.0. 0.0... 0.: 0.0... >0.0000.0 .0 0.000 0.0 0.0.. n60 0.0 0.: ....n~ 020300.00 .0 0.00.. o... ...o~ 0.0.. a... 06 n.mn 3.00000. .0 0.00.. 0.0 0.0 ..00 0.... 0.0 0.0m 0000000....0 >03000000.. 0.0 0.0~ 0.0.... 0.0 0.... 0.90. 00:00 .0 0.00. 00000000 000000... 0.. 3000000 0003 .0002... 000000... 0.000000 00005.0 ..N 3‘. 163 The mean and standard deviation were calculated for each of the "other“ conflict elements as reported by both the school board mem- bers and chief administrators. These were completed in order to rank the elements to determine which ones were perceived by both groups as areas contributing to conflict (see Table 25). The five elements with the highest mean scores as reported by the school board members were as follows: lack of communication (mean - 2.813); lack of clear role definitions (mean - 2.688); personality differences (mean - 2.563); lack of leadership (mean - 2.531); lack of rapport (mean - 2.500). Three of the five elements indicated by the chief administrators were similar to those indicated by the school board members (See Table 25). They reported the following: lack of clear role defini- tions (mean - 3.588); lack of communications (mean - 3.412); lack of orientation (mean - 3.125); lack of leadership (mean - 3.118); lack of trust (mean - 3.059). 164 2... 8: a. 8n. 8...... n. 3.38... ..o .2: 2.... an... .. an. .8.~ ~. bros... to v.8. E... «~34. o. 5.. 93.... .. 8935.... .9533 as... 8...». o as... n..~ o. 88.2 ..o ..u: 5.. 9.... ~. ...... 83 o 8.88:... .82. .88. c. 8888.: 3.... .23 o 5.. 8.3 a 83.85 3 .8. n... 08.». m 5.. R3. . .3: .o ....3 3... n; n 3.... 83.. o 8:35.... .o .85 «3.. 8: n. ...... 83 a tan... 3 .8. 8... 9.... q 5.. :3 . 3:888. .o .33 5.. .x.~ o 3.. 33 n 882...... £888.. 3.. 8m... . ...... 83 ~ 83.5.8 30.. .330 3 x93 8.... 3.... ~ .3. no... . 8.5.5.8 .o .8. a.“ is. is. ....m 8o... is. 38.3: 2323.58! 3.5 238.. B8. .85.. 3 0X1» 165 W The ethnographic data presented in this section were extrapolated from one of the questions taken from the in-depth interview schedule conducted by the investigator when he visited 12 schools during his four week tour in Europe. To collect the necessary data required to respond to the second research question, the school board members and chief administrators were requested to reply to the following question: 1. One reads and hears about problems that affect schools such as financial matters, staff contracts, curriculum. What are some of the issues that are particular problems in this school that cause con- flict between the school board and chief administrator? All of the individual statements reported by the participants in response to this question are presented in Appendix 0. The conflict issues identified in Section II are presented again for a second time in this section (see Tables 26 and 27). This was necessary in order to assist the reader in comprehending how the elements presented in this section directly contribute to the conflict issues identified by the school board members and chief administrators. Preceding tables 26 and 27, the ethnographic data are analyzed to enable the investigator two compare and contrast it with the sta- tistical data taken from the questionnaires. The interpretation of the similarities and differences between the two types of data col- lected is presented in Chapter Five of this study. 166 W The school board members identified 17 issues that caused conflict in their schools. The investigator recorded 47 statements in reference to these 17 conflict issues. Three of the issues; financial matters, curriculum, and staffing were mentioned nearly 601 of the time. Statements regarding financial matters dominated the comments of- fered by the board members. The majority of comments focused on the fact that the international schools in the study basically lacked the funding required to provide the programs school board members wanted for their children. This conflict issue affected all aspects of the school from the educational materials ordered to the salaries for the professional staff members. Since the funding for these schools comes directly from the tu- itions paid by the parents, the board members must be sensitive to the amount they increase tuitions annually. Parents whose companies pay for the tuition of their children are not affected by this prob- lem. However, those parents, generally host nationals, who pay for their own children's education privately, become irritated if the school board continues to increase tuition. For some of these parents, the cost of the tuition is already too high for the quality of education they perceive their children are receiving. The children from these parents make up a large percent- age of the total enrollment for a number of schools in EurOpe. If the tuition payments become too expensive, these parents have an option 167 and can take their children out of the school. Consequently, this factor can cause serious financial problems for some schools already operating on restricted budgets. The second major issue reported by the school board members was related to curriculum. Elements contributing to this issue were ex- pressed by a number of board members concerned not only with the type of programs their school offered, but also the direction the school was taking for the future. Several board members believed they should take a more active role in curriculum development, however, some reported that their chief administrators did not encourage this practice. The remaining conflict issues, i.e., staffing, role and respon- sibility of the chief administrator, etc. are presented in Table 26. Further details concerning the specific statements made by the par- ticipants regarding elements contributing to these issues are included in Appendix Q. 168 Table 26 a . - I; oat . ., t :s Le-o- e- . We Issue/Element Response Percentage Financial 16 34.7 Curriculum 7 15.1 Staffing 4 8.6 Role and responsibility of the chief administrator 3 6.4 Communications 3 6.4 Policy 2 4.2 Accreditation 2 4.2 Others 10 20.6 169 Wants. The chief administrators noted 14 issues they believed caused conflict between themselves and school board members. The issues were similar to those outlined by the school board members. However, there were some noticeable differences in the percentage of responses for various issues. For example, curriculum issues were mentioned by the board members 151 of the total. The chief administrators made only one ingilggt statement concerning this issue. Table 25 shows the chief administrators were concerned with fi- nancial matters and the effect this had on their schools. They em- phasized that inadequate funding for teachers' salaries was a major element contributing to conflict between the school board and them- selves. Furthermore, they indicated that lack of funds affected the types of program offered in their schools. One administrator said, ”There might be a demand for a program, but there are insufficient funds to support it. Raising fees to support these programs causes conflict.” The second issue noted by the administrators causing conflict was the 'role and responsibility of the chief administrator.” Sev- eral administrators reported that contributing elements to this con- flict were directly related to the fact that some board members were very interested in assisting them with the administration of the school. Others reported that board members do not always know what is the role of the chief administrator. Consequently, they either 170 demand the administrator do this or that, or they allow the adminis- trator a free hand in managing the school. The conflict issues are presented in Table 27. Many of the issues and elements reported in the others category were only reported once by individual chief administrators. However, the data showed that the administrators reported nearly twice as many issues and elements than were reported by the school board members. Further details concerning specific statements made by the participants regarding contributing elements are included in Appendix R. Table 27 r en e e ts i u 0 on 1 t as Re orte b thsf;Adminiatrat22§ Issue/Element Response Percentage Financial matters 8 33.3 Role and responsibility of the chief administrator 3 12.5 Staffing 2 8.3 8Others 11 45.8 HQEQ- 8The chief administrators included 11 more issues they viewed as contributors to conflict in their schools. Approximately 502 of these issues were noted on the questionnaire as sources of conflict Therefore, the elements contributing to these conflicts were consid- ered important to this study even though there was only one element per issue reported. 171 W How are conflicts between the school board and its chief administrator resolved/managed? To respond to research question number three, the data in this section are presented in four parts. The data collected and analyzed in reference to the Thomas-Kilmann Conflict Mode instrument (1974) are presented in part one. The ethnographic data taken from the in-depth interviews are examined in part two. Next, the data ana- lyzed from a series of three vignettes are displayed in part three. Finally, the results of the data collected from the "methods employed to prevent conflict,” in the sixth section of the questionnaire, are discussed. e - o d The Thomas-Kilmann Conflict Mode Instrument (1974) was used to determine the various strategies employed by school board members and chief administrators to resolve/manage their conflicts. Participants were given 30 paired statements and instructed to select one response for each given pair. The responses selected for each pair repre- sented one of the five conflict modes developed by Thomas and Kilmann. For example: 1. a. There are times when I let others take responsibility for solving the problem. (Avoiding) b. Rather than negotiate the things on which we disagree, I try to stress those things which we both agree. (Accommodating) 172 When the questionnaires were returned, the results were tabu— lated and summarized to determine the various modes a majority of school board members and chief administrators selected when resolv- ing/managing conflicts. Tables 28 and 29 illustrate the percentage of responses for the school board members and chief administrators concerning the individual pairs of statements. Question number one in Table 28 shows the majority of school board members selected the avoiding mode (56.3%) versus the accommodating mode (40.62). A numerical summary of the score profiles for each of the con- flict modes as reported by the school board members and chief admin- istrators are shown in Tables 30 and 31. The scores range from O (for very low use) to 12 (for very high use). These totals were com- puted by counting the appropriate letters in each of the conflict mode columns. For example, in Table 30 there were three letters in the competing column for a total of three. This means that a major- ity of the school board members in this study selected the competing mode statement three times as an alternative to one of the other modes presented. 173 Differences of minion Ilode Percentage 'IR 1. A. there are tins than 1 let others take Avoiding 56.3 3.1 responsibility for solving the problem. I. lather than negotiate the thims on Acconodating 40.6 mich we disagree, I try to stress those things won mich we both agree. 2. A. I try to find a min solution. Comromising 65.6 3.1 8. l attemt to deal with all of his/her Collaborating 31.3 and my concerns. 3. A. I am usually firm in pursuing my goals. Coweting 46.9 3.1 8. 1 might try to soothe the other's feel- Accomdating 50.0 ings and preserve our relationship. 4. A. I try to find a compromise solution. Cowromising 75.0 6.3 8. I sometimes sacrifice my own wishes for Acco-odsting 18.8 the wishes of the other person. 5. A. l consistently seek the other's help Collaborating 53.1 3.1 in working out a solution. 8. I try to do shat is necessary to Avoiding 43.8 avoid useless temions. 6. A. I try to avoid creating u'pleasantness Avoiding 28.1 3.1 for myself. 8. I try to win my position. Counting 68.1 7. A. I try to postpone the issue mtil l Avoiding 37.5 6.3 have had some time to think it over. 8. I give up sue points in exchange Waisim 56.3 for others. 8. A. l a usually firm in pursuim my goals. twating 12.5 3.1 I. I attemt to get all concerns and Collaborating 84.4 issues insdiately out in the open. 9. A. I feel that differences are not always Avoiding 68.8 6.3 worth worrying tout. I. I make some effort to get my way. Casting 25.0 174 table 28 cont'd Differences of winion lode Percentage till 10. A. l a firm in pursuim my goals. Cmting 12.5 3.1 I. 1 try to find a wake solution. Comromieing 84.4 11. A. l attth to get all concerns and Collaboration 68.8 3.1 issues i.ediately out in the open. I. l midit try to soothe the other's Accmdatim 28.1 feelings and preserve our relationship. 12. A. i sometimes avoid takim positions Avoidim 34.4 3.1 mich would create controversy. 8. i will let the other person have some Cowromising 62.5 of his/her positions if he/ehe lets me have some of mine. 13. A. l propose a middle-ground. Comromieing 62.5 3.1 I. i press to get my points nde. Counting 34.4 14. A. i tell the other person my ideas and Collaboration 59.4 3.1 ask for his/hers. 8. I try to show the other person the Cometing 37.5 logic and benefits of my position. 15. A. l midit try to soothe the other's Acconodating 34.4 3.1 feelings and preserve our relationship. 8. i try to do that is necessary to avoid Avoiding 62.5 tensions. 16. A. I try not to hurt the other's feelings. Acco—odsting 40.6 3.1 I. I try to convince the other person of Counting 56.3 the merits of my position. 17. A. l a usually firm in pureuim my goals. Cmting 28.1 3.1 8. 1 try to do that is necessary to avoid Avoiding 68.8 uslees tensions. 18. A. if it mites other people happy, I might Accoundeting 25.0 6.3 let them maintain their views. 8. i will let other people have some of Comromieing 68.8 their positions if they let me have some of mine. 175 Table 28 cont'd Differences of minion lode Percentage NR 19. A. l attwt to get all concerns and Collaborating 81.3 3.1 issues indiately out in the open. I. I try to postpone the issue mtil l Avoiding 15.6 have had some time to think it over. 20. A. l attept to i-ediately work thread: Collaborating 78.1 3.1 our differences. 8. 1 try to find a fair cdination of Conromising 18.8 gains and losses for both of us. 21. A. In approaching negotiations, I try Accoundating 34.4 3.1 to be considerate of the other person's wishes. 8. i always lean toward a direct Collaborating 62.5 discussion of the problem. 22. A. I try to find a position that is inter- Ceromeing 71.9 3.1 mediate between hie/hers and mine. 8. l assert my wishes. Cometing 25.0 23. A. l u very often concerned with satisfy- Collaborating 31.3 3.1 ing all our wishes. 8. There are times then i let others take Avoiding 65.6 responsibility for solving the problem. 24. A. if the other's position seem very Acco'odeting 37.5 3.1 isportant to him/her, 1 would try to meet his/her wishes. I. i try to get the other person to settle Cowromising 59.4 for e capromise. 25. A. i try to show the other person the logic Cometing 50.0 6.3 and benefits of my position. I. In approachim negotiations, I try to Accouodating 43.8 be considerate of the other person's wishes. 26. A. I propose a midle ground. Ceromising 75.0 6.3 8. l a nearly always concerned with Collaborating 18.8 satiefyirg all our wishes. 27. A. i sometimes avoid taking positions that Avoiding 46.9 6.3 would create controversy. I. If it nkee other people hamy, 1 might Accomdating 46.9 let them nintain their views. 176 table 28 cont'd Differences of minion lode Percentage 81! 28. A. l . muelly firm in pureuim my goals. Cwetim 15.6 3.1 I. i usually seek the other's help in work- Collaboratim 81.3 ing out a solution. 29. A. I propose a midis grand. Conromising 50.0 3.1 8. I feel that differences are not always Avoidim 46.9 worth worryim about. 30. A. I try not to hurt the other's feelings. Accmodating 28.1 3.1 I. I always share the problem with the Collaborating 68.1 other person so that we can work it out. 5953. .80 Response. 177 Differences of Opinion lode Percentage 1. A. There are times when 1 let others take Avoiding 41.2 responsibility for solving the problem. 8. Rather than negotiate the things on Accommodating 58.8 mich we disagree, 1 try to stress those things upon which we both agree. 2. A. I try to find a compromise solution. Comromising 76.5 8. l attempt to deal with all of his/her Collaborating 23.5 and my concerns. 3. A. I am usually firm in pursuing my goals. Competing 58.8 8. I might try to soothe the other's feel- Accommodating 41.2 ings and preserve our relationship. 4. A. 1 try to find a compromise solution. Compromising 76.5 8. I sometimes sacrifice my own wishes for Accommodating 23.5 the wishes of the other person. 5. A. l consistently seek the other's help Collaborating 47.1 in working out a solution. 8. I try to do That is necessary to Avoiding 52.9 avoid useless tensions. 6. A. i try to avoid creating mpleasantness Avoiding 52.9 for myself. 8. i try to win my position. Competing 47.1 7. A. I try to postpone the issue until 1 Avoiding 76.5 have had some time to think it over. 8. I give Lp some points in exchange Compromising 23.5 for others. 8. A. l a usually firm in pursuing my goals. Competing 17.6 8. l attupt to get all concerns and Collaborating 82.4 issues i.ediately out in the open. 9. A. I feel that differences are not always Avoiding 58.8 worth worrying about. 8. I make some effort to get my way. Cometing 41.2 178 Table 29 cont'd Differences of Opinion lode Percentage 10. A. l a firm in pursuing my goals. Counting 17.6 8. l try to find a cowromise solution. Cmromising 82.4 11. A. l attamt to get all concerns and Collaboration 88.2 issues inediately out in the open. 8. l midtt try to soothe the other's Acconodating 11.8 feelings and preserve our relationship. 12. A. I sometimes avoid taking positions Avoiding 58.8 thich would create controversy. 8. i will let the other person have some Compromising 41.2 of his/her positions if he/she lets me have some of mine. 13. A. l propose a middle-grand. Compromising 70.6 8. 1 press to get my points made. Coasting 29.4 14. A. i tell the other person my ideas and Collaboration 58.8 ask for his/hers. 8. I try to show the other person the Competing 41.2 logic and benefits of my position. 15. A. l midtt try to soothe the other's Accommodating 47.1 feelings and preserve our relationship. 8. 1 try to do that is necessary to avoid Avoiding 52.9 tensions. 16. A. i try not to hurt the other's feelings. Accoupdating 47.1 8. 1 try to convince the other person of Counting 52.9 the merits of my position. 17. A. l a usually firm in pursuing my goals. Coasting 35.3 8. I try to do that is necessary to avoid Avoiding 64.7 useless tensions. 18. A. if it makes other people happy, I might Accampdating 41.2 let them maintain their views. 8. i will let other people have some of Cmomising 58.8 their positions if they let me have some of mine. 179 Table 29 cont'd Differences of Opinion lode Percentage 19. A. I attempt to get all concerns and Collaborating 70.6 issues immediately out in the open. 8. I try to postpone the issue until i Avoiding 29.4 have had some time to think it over. 20. A. I attempt to immediately work through Collaborating 70.6 our differences. 8. 1 try to find a fair combination of Compromising 29.4 gains and losses for both of us. 21. A. In approaching negotiations, I try Accommodating 47.1 to be considerate of the other person's wishes. 8. I always lean toward a direct Collaborating 52.9 discussion of the problem. 22. A. i try to find a position that is inter- Compromsing 70.6 mediate between his/hers and mine. 8. l assert my wishes. Competing 29.4 23. A. i am very often concerned with satisfy- Collaborating 35.3 ing all our wishes. 8. There are times when I let others take Avoiding 64.7 responsibility for solving the problem. 24. A. If the other's position seems very Accommodating 29.4 important to hither, I would try to meet his/her wishes. B. i try to get the other person to settle Compromising 70.6 for a compromise. 25. A. I try to show the other person the logic Competing 47.1 and benefits of my position. 8. In approaching negotiations, 1 try to Accommodating 52.9 be considerate of the other person's wishes. 26. A. I propose a middle grotnd. Comromieing 82.4 8. I am nearly always concerned with Collaborating 17.6 satisfying all our wishes. 27. A. I sometimes avoid taking positions that Avoiding 47.1 would create controversy. 8. If it makes other people happy, I might Accommodating 52.9 let them maintain their views. 180 Table 29 cont'd Differences of winion lode Percentage 28. A. I am usually firm in pursuing my goals. Counting 17.6 8. 1 usually seek the other's help in work- Collaborating 82.4 ing out a solution. 29. A. I propose a middle gromd. Compromising 52.9 8. i feel that differences are not always Avoiding 47.1 worth worrying about. 30. A. i try not to hurt the other's feelings. Accommodating 23.5 D. 1 always share the problem with the Collaborating 76.5 other person so that we can work it out. Oueetion Certing Collaboration Compromising Avoiding Accommodating 182 Table 30 cont'd Question Competing Collaboration Compromising Avoiding Accommodating 19 A 20 A 21 8 22 A 23 8 24 8 25 A 26 A 27 A 8 28 8 29 A 30 8 Totals 3 9 1 1 7 2 Range Low Middle High High Low Table 31 Question Coweting Collaboration Compromising Avoiding Accommodating Table 31 cont 'd 184 Duestion Cometing Collaboration Compromising Avoiding Accommodating 19 A 20 8 21 8 22 A 23 B 24 B 25 B 26 A 27 B 28 B A 8 Totals 2 8 9 8 3 Range Low Middle High high Low 185 Two line graphs illustrating a summary of the total scores for the school board members and the chief administrators are presented in Tables 32 and 33. The results in Table 32 demonstrate that a ma- jority of the school board members resolve/manage their conflicts using the collaborating and compromising modes. Closer examination of the scores disclose that the compromising mode was the highest on the scale with a score of 11 out of 12. The results further indicate that the board members used the competing and accommodating modes in- frequently. Both these modes were in the lower range (below the 25 percentile rank). The totals presented in Table 33 indicate that the majority of the chief administrators use the compromising and avoiding modes to resolve/manage their conflicts. A low percentage of administrators indicated they utilized the competing and accommodating modes when resolving/managing conflict situations with their school board mem- bers. 186 Table 32 Collab- Compro- Avoid- Accom- Competing orating mising ing modating 1001 12 12 12 12 ll 11 11 12 R 10 1o 10 ll 0 9 9 901 .jL_ High 251 9 10 7 801 8 9 8 6 70% 7 8 602 6 8 5 7 6 Middle 501 501 7 5 40% 4 6 4 5 301 5 6 a Low 20! 5 4 2 3 101 a 3 3 2 2 2 1 l l l 1 0 0 O 0 0 OZ 187 Table 33 WW Collab- Compro- Avoid- Accom- Competing orating mising ing modating 1001 12 12 12 12 12 11 11 11 12 11 10 10 10 11 10 9 9 901 8 High 251 9 10 7 so: 8 H 70% 7 8 7 601 6 O 5 7 6 Middle 501 502 7 5 402 101 4 3 3 2 2 2 2 1 1 1 1 1 O 0 0 0 O OZ 188 Ills—BMW The ethnographic data were extrapolated from the in-depth inter- views conducted by the researcher at the 12 schools he visited during his four week tour in Europe. The data are organized according to the three school enrollment size categories. These categories are further subdivided into two headings, ”School Board Members' and "Chief Administrators." An analysis for the school board members and the chief administrators were written in order to enable the re- searcher to determine the similarities and differences between the data from the in-depth interviews and the data from the question- naires. A comparison is presented in Chapter Five. Each of the school board members and chief administrators who participated in this research study was requested to respond to the following question: Assuming that conflict occurs, how is it pos- sible to regulate or control? (Probes: Bring disrupting parties together privately; try to find areas of agreement within the conflict; create a committee to study the problem and make recommendations; contain conflict within staff to resist expansion; delay decisions until support can be found.) Lgnzgllngng_1;1§91‘ The board members first indicated they would use all or a combination of the examples given to them to resolve the conflict. The method they would select depends on the conflict situation. Secondly, they stated they would bring disruptive parties together and then try to find areas of agreement. Next, they 189 suggested a conflict could be resolved by having a committee investigate the facts. Finally, two members wanted to either contain the conflict within the staff or to delay the decision until support could be found. 1n1_a5;I]22.1.,§__(_].,'i,]._-_2QQ)_.L The majority of board members in this category selected “bring disruptive parties together privately“ for their first choice when resolving conflicts. One member said, "If you can talk to a few people, those who may be wrong, they may be willing to admit to this if there aren't a lot of people around.” Secondly, the members indicate all of these strategies applied in different situation. Finally, one individual remarked, ”People in general want what’s good; they just have differences of perception. Hen of good will will find a solution." 1Q1_aghgg1g_(gn;gllmgn§_§91;§QQ)L Several of the board members suggested all of the methods could be used at different times with different situations. They also noted that because their school communities were ”small,” it was easier to know what the conflicts were about and who was involved. So, depending on the situation and the individuals involved, a specific method would be utilized according to the individual problem. The importance of good communication was also stressed by another member. Secondly, two members indicated their first choice would be to bring disruptive parties together privately. Another individual pre- ferred to find areas of agreement first and then added, ”...indicate very clearly what the results of maintaining the conflict will‘be if 190 a compromise is not agreed upon." Another member suggested forming a committee as a third method, while two others said they would delay the decision until support could be found or more information was ob- tained. Finally, none of the board members selected “containing the conflict within the staff” as an alternative. The administrators suggested that all of the examples could be used with the exception of delaying the decision. Good communications were stressed by one individual, while yet another stated that if both parties knew and understood their roles, the conflict could be resolved more easily. Lastly, one administrator ranked the methods as he would use them in various situation, i.e., (a) contain the con- flict; (b) form a committee; (c) find areas of agreement; (d) bring disrupting parties together. :3:_§§h291§‘ Three out of the four administrators said they talk to individuals first then later ”bring disruptive parties together privately.” The importance of good, open communications was mentioned by one administrator. The same administrator added if people were willing to take risks and discuss an issue frankly, then the results can be very positive. Another administrator suggested decisions not be delayed, for this causes yet further problems. The opposite position was taken be another administrator. He believed listening to individuals was the most important factor and to wait and not make a decision until the last moment. Lastly, none of the 191 administrators advocated creating a committee to resolve/manage con- flict. :§:_§£h921§‘ The majority of the administrators selected “bring disruptive parties together privately“ as their preferred method for resolving conflict. As one administrator put it, ”Get the problem out in the air. Don't put it under the carpet.” The second most common method selected by the participants was “to find areas of agreement within the conflict.” One administrator disclosed that in the past he had sometimes delayed making a decision, but discovered this method did not work very well in most cases. Lastly, one individual stated he would form a committee to study a particular problem. None of the other three administrators suggested this method as an alternative to resolving conflict. W When the board members had responded to all of the questions on the in-depth interview schedule, they were then requested to read three short vignettes. Having done this, they were asked to select two of the three vignettes they felt were interesting situations. The participants were then directed to select one solution for each of the vignettes according to their own perception of the situation. Following this, they were asked to choose a reply for each vignette according to how they believed their board as a group would respond. The vignettes presented in Tables 34, 35, and 36 report the per- centages of responses for each of the alternatives to the situation as reported by the school board members. 192 Nearly 401 of the board members who selected the first vignette selected 'C' as their choice to resolve/manage the situation. How- ever, more than 501 of the members indicated their boards would have selected response '0' (see Table 34). Table 35 reveals none of the school board members selected either alternative 'A' or '8'. Conversely, more than 701 of the members chose solution "D” as their and their board's response to the par- ents's complaint. The third vignette presented the board members with a "Split Board" scenario. Here, nearly 452 selected alternative ”A” and ap- proximately 201 chose alternative '8." When the members were re- quested to select how they thought their boards would react, the per- centages changed. Approximately 331 selected ”A" and 33! indicated '8' (see Table 36). 193 Table 34 MW As a result of recent elections, a new member has joined your board. This person was elected because of changes he wants to make in the district. Specifically, he wants to place greater emphasis upon the “basics" in all phases of the instructional program. He has hinted that “if this takes getting rid of the superintendent and some teachers, then that's what we'll do!” You and other members of the board hired the superintendent two years ago because of his strengths in instructional leadership. At that time, the board wanted to broaden the district program to include career education and more elective offerings for college bound kids. Question: How to handle the challenger? Hy Board Choice Choice N-18 N-18 npl3 n-l3 A. Ignore him, believing that in time he 15.92 7.71 will ”get the message,” and come more in line with you and the other board members. 8. Make it clear to him that you disagree 0.0 7.7 with his position, will work to see that he is 'outgunned" on critical voting. C. Move to reassess board priorities in 38.4 23.1 instruction, allowing the new member the opportunity to have his say. D. Hove to direct the superintendent to 30.8 53.8 conduct an assessment of student achievement and career goals, hoping that these will put to rest the new board member's concerns. 1:. Other. “15.8 7.7 1. Give the board member his say, and at the same time provide him with the results of objective testing to show how the new superintendent's policies have strengthened the school. 2. Deal with the new member - Try to find appropriate solution to satisfy his concerns yet establish the idea that the group establishes the policy. 194 Table 35 The parents of a good student, a generally responsible youngster, have come to you with complaints about the teachings of a social studies teacher. They claim the teacher is using biased materials and giving slanted opinions in his classes. Further, they claim that when their child tried to question the materials and opinions, she was greeted with sarcasm and threats of having her grade lowered. The matter is further complicated by the father's strong influence in the community, and he demands evidence of action immediately. Question: What action do you take? My Board 911mm N-18 N-18 n-lS n-15 A. Agree with the parents that the 0.01 0.01 teacher is wrong and indicate that you will contact the teacher and apply censure in some form. 8. Call the building principal and have 0.0 0.0 the child transferred into another classroom with a teacher whose techniques and methods are well known to you, knowing this will placate the parents. C. Call the superintendent and ask for 6.6 13.2 some corroboration of the incidents; then proceed with action. D. Assist the parents in making an 72.6 72.6 appointment with the superintendent and advise them that if the problem is not resolved to their satisfaction they have the right to appear before the board of education at its next regular meeting. E. Other. 19.8 13.2 (after the board's review). 1. ...right to petition the board and appear at a regular meeting 2. Have the parent first meet with the teacher. 195 Table 35 cont'd b 3. 4. I would not interfere. This question should not be brought to the board. There's a procedure: First see the teacher, then the class teacher (homeroom teacher), then head of upper or lower school, then Director. If not solved, the Director will bring the matter up with the chairman of the board. When not solved, it will be brought up in the full board meeting. Our board tries to channel all parent requests through the appropriate people. First the principal then chief administrator, then to the board as a last resort. I find it works. Table 36 195 W A seven member board has had a recent history of a four-three split in voting. The board is debating an umbrella motion containing recommendations for the award of six bids. One board member (of the minority faction) takes issue with the recommendation of award of a bid for what she calls "junk foods.‘l Two other board members (of the majority faction) take issue with a recommendation to purchase an 'extravagantly priced“ musical instrument. As the debates continues, it becomes clear that neither side will be persuaded by the arguments of the other. Finally, the chairman calls for a vote on the umbrella motion, and the board, with one member absent, deadlocks in a three-to-three vote. What would you do? My Board Choice Choice N-l8 N-18 n-9 n-9 A. Hove to vote on the bid 44.41 33.31 recommendations separately. B. Move to table the umbrella 22.2 33.3 motion until the seventh member returns. C. Approach the disagreeing board 11.1 00.0 members individually at a break and encourage them to change their vote on the umbrella motion. In exchange, offer your vote on some future issue. D. Consider changing your vote on 00.0 11.1 the motion in order to resolve the deadlock. 5. Other action. ‘22.2 11.1 Note. 81. Do A and 8 together. 2. As a chairman, I will never allow any umbrella motion at all. I would propose a change in the agenda and then discuss each bid separately. 197 Willa In the sixth section of the questionnaire the school board mem- bers and chief administrators were requested to indicate the extent to which they agreed or disagreed with a set of statements regarding the methods or techniques employed to prevent conflict in interna— tional schools. The percentage of responses indicating the extent to which the school board members agreed with these statements is shown in Table 37. The results show the board members agree or strongly agree with two-thirds of the statements. The results also show there were some disagreements among the board members concerning statements 6, 9, ll, 13, 15, and 17. Table 38 records the percentage of responses for similar state- ments made by the chief administrators. With few exceptions, the ad- ministrators reported they agreed or strongly agreed with 16 out of the 18 statements. 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B. «'30 OM 0“» 204 The mean score and standard deviation were calculated in order to determine the order of importance for the non-conflict methods. This was done to enable the researcher to compare the results of the school board members with those of the chief administrators (see Table 39). The six methods with the highest mean scores reported by the school board members were as follows: 1. School boards should support the chief ad- ministrator fully publicly and privately after decisions have been reached (mean - 4.667). . Confidentiality is essential between school boards and chief administrators in matters pertaining to school personnel and negotia- tions (mean - 4.667). . The competence of the chief administrator is valued by the board (mean - 4.655). . The board's role is setting policy (mean - 4.633). . The school board and chief administrator es- tablish clearly understood goals for the school (mean - 4.533). . Evaluation of the chief administrator should be based on objective and honest assessment of professional performance (mean - 4.500). The six methods with the highest mean scores indicated by the chief administrators were very similar to those reported by the school board members (see Table 39). They noted the following non-conflict patterns: 1. Confidentiality is essential between school boards and chief administrators in matters pertaining to school personnel and negotiations (mean - 5.000). 205 School boards should support the chief ad- ministrator fully publicly and privately after decisions have been reached (mean - 4.765). The board's role is setting policy (mean - 4.765). The competence of the chief administrator is valued by the board (mean - 4.765). Evaluation of the chief administrator should be based on objective and honest assessment of professional performance (mean - 4.706). 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The data collected to respond to research question four are divided into two categories, ”Professional Teaching Staff Members' and "Parents." These catego- ries are further subdivided into two headings, ”School” and ”Commu- nity." Two analyses included concern the statements made by the par- ticipants for both the ”School” and the ”Community.” These analyses were written to enable the reader to comprehend the essence of the data without having to read all of the individual statements recorded (see Appendix P for individual statements). Each of the professional staff members and parents who partici- pated in the in-depth interview were requested to respond to the fol- lowing question. Vhat are your perceptions of how these con- flicts affect the school and community di- rectly/indirectly? It should be noted that the researcher emphasized to the partic- ipants that the term "school” referred to both professional teaching staff members and students. They were told the term ”community” re- ferred to parents with children attending the school. 210 ,L. - . . ,- - . -.. .,;, -. , ,. . ,-fl.- ~ _i -u-, School. Statements from the teachers included "absolute catastrophe,“ ”it has minor affects on me or the students,“ and "some propagate the situation for political or professional gains.“ Many respondents stated when there was negative conflict in a school, the morale of the teachers was greatly affected. The teachers added low morale related directly to a number of other factors; that is, their teaching ability, attitude toward school, and job security. Several others noted that when negative conflict situations do exist, their stress levels go up and they feel a loss of energy. Consequently, the teachers concluded all of these elements contribute to a bad at- mosphere within a school and directly affect the quality of education for their students. A number of teachers interviewed reported when a conflict does manifest itself a solution or decision concerning the problems is generally made. This decision affects them both directly and indi- rectly. One group of teachers noted their school board and chief ad- ministrator had to make a decision concerning the renewal of several teaching contracts for the following school year. The final decision affected both the morale of the teachers involved and that of a ma- jority of the staff. They began to ask, "Who will be next?” Yet an- other teacher stated that decisions like those regarding the school calendar and curriculum issues all directly affected the teachers in one way or another. Furthermore, these decisions can alienate the 211 staff from the chief administrator and the school board. Relation- ships on both sides can suffer under these circumstances. Several other teachers emphasized when the school board and its chief administrator have a conflict, it directly affects them in two ways. First, if the chief administrator needs support for an idea he may have concerning a program for the school, he will come to the staff for support. Among the staff members there will be members who are willing to support the chief administrator, others, however, will not. Within a period of time, a few staff members may begin to feel isolated if they do not support the administrator. Consequently, this situation begins to divide the staff into separate camps. The teachers stressed this type of scenario has a negative affective on the morale, attitude, and energy levels of all those involved in the conflict. The conflict between the chief administrator and the school board affects not only the administrator and his staff, but also the board members as well. The school board members, who are representa- tives of the community, will look for support from the community for their ideas. The community members who get involved will eventually put pressure directly or indirectly on certain teachers to support the board's point of view. This type of community involvement can further aggravate the conflict. It can help in splitting the staff into different camps which produces further friction among the group and encourages negativism to grow within the staff itself. when a conflict evolves into a situation similar to the one de- scribed previously, the staff begins to question the leadership of 212 the chief administrator and the performance of the school board mem- bers. This in turn leads teachers to lose faith in the organization and begin to have doubts about the future of the school. The teach- ers noted when they believe the future is unstable, unpredictable or uncertain, they will begin to look for a new position in another school where there are fewer problems. This may force a school to confront a situation where there might be a high turnover rate among the staff. Ultimately, the teachers insisted the educational level and quality of instruction being provided for the students will be directly affected by this negative situation. Finally, one teacher suggested when conflict does occur it af- fects different people in different ways. He has observed through many years at the school teachers have done one of two things when a conflict situation exists. They have either become involved in the conflict and stayed in to the end, or they have ignored the situa- tion, stayed in their classroom and concentrated on their teaching. Among this latter group of teachers, he noted, there were individuals who elected to stay in their classrooms purely from the fear of being on the losing side when the conflict was eventually resolved. Lastly, he added, there have been those teachers within this staff who in fact thrive on conflict. He believes they purposely created a conflict situation to gain either personally or professionally from the results of the conflict. 213 anngnity‘ There were fewer comments (approximately one-third) from teachers concerning the effects of conflict on the community. However, those teaches who responded stated if the parents sense a conflict in the school, they will become discontented. In a negative conflict situation, they may not know whether to trust the board member, the chief administrator or their child's teacher. This uneasiness leads them to have a negative image of the school. This reaction can directly affect their over-all attitude about the school, which in turn may be passed on to their children intentionally or unintentionally. Students as well also can detect when their teachers are not concentrating all of their efforts on education. The students inevitably pass these feelings on to their parents, who in turn become concerned about the quality of education in the school, and the cycle begins again. Parents also may be aware of a lack of unity among the staff members or between the staff and the chief administrator. A situa- tion like this directly affects their children's present well-being and their future education. One teacher remarked that the decisions taken by the school board members concerning school policies such as bus routes, length of the school day, and curriculum directly affect the community in many different ways. The teacher pointed this out, that it, of course, depends entirely on the severity of the initial conflict situation between the school board and its chief administra- tor . 214 MW fignngnity‘ More than two-thirds of the parents who were interviewed said they were not aware of any conflict in their schools between the school board members and the chief administrator. Several parents believed this was due to the lack of communication from the school board. One parent reported that since the board meetings were closed to the community, no one could know if there were any conflicts between the board and the administrator. On the other hand, many parents spoke highly of their chief administrators and remarked if there were any conflicts in the school, the board and administrator had acted very professionally by keeping the issues away from the community. Those parents who had either observed conflict in their schools or had heard about previous conflict situations suggested that when the school board and its chief administrator do not agree on an issue, the community can be directly affected. An example of this is when the chief administrator wants to introduce a new program into a school. First, he must approach the school board with a proposal re- questing approval for this program. If the board approves the pro- posal, tuition may have to be increased. This affects the community directly. If, on the other hand, the board does not approve the new program, the parents can be affected indirectly because their chil- dren may not have the opportunity to participate in it. In either 215 case, a conflict situation similar to the one described here would ultimately affect any educational community. Yet another parent said, "Parents recognize the chief adminis- trator as the authority and leader of the school." Parents believe his difficulties handling conflict with the board may be an indica- tion of how the school is being managed. If a situation gets out of control, parents begin to question the integrity of the school. In a community where there are only a few major companies, this can be ex- tremely destructive for the parents; a majority of these individuals not only work but socialize together. Major conflicts, like the dis- missal of a chief administrator, have in the past divided communities into opposing factions. Often it takes communities years to recover from such a traumatic, negative conflict experience. School, The parents viewed conflict affecting the school in two ways. First, they examined how it affects the teachers, and then, how it affects their children. Again, it should be noted very few parents made comments regarding this question. Those who did offer comments saw conflict affecting teachers by encouraging them to divide into two groups, either for or against a particular issue. This situation would in turn create a bad atmosphere for the teachers in which to work. Consequently, the teachers' unhappiness and an unpleasant working atmosphere directly affects the students in a negative way. 216 Students can be affected by conflict in several ways. If a teacher decides to discuss a conflict openly with students, this can affect their students' attitude towards the individuals involved in the conflict. They are not mature enough to fully understand all the ramifications of the situation and the possible consequences of the decision. One parent noted the secondary students in their community had been directly affected by a conflict between the school board and the chief administrator in yet another way. The two groups could not reach an agreement on whether to continue offering the high school program or to cancel it and provide only a K - 8 program. In the end, the chief administrator left the school and the new administra- tor agreed to continue having the high school. Furthermore, he added the International Baccalaureate program in order to attempt to in- crease the secondary enrollment. 217 BMW Does the size of the student enrollment have an influence on the different types of conflict that exist between the school board and its chief administrator Both statistical data and ethnographic data are utilized in this section to respond to research question number five. In part one the statistical data is reviewed. This includes two sections. The first section is a record of data regarding conflict issues. The “Other” elements contributing to conflict are shown in section two. Part two is a discussion of the ethnographic data in reference to the research question. W an£119;_1§§ug§, School board members and the chief administrator in each participating school were given a list of 21 possible conflict issues and requested to identify the degree to which each of the conflicts affected their international school, i.e., not a source of conflict, insignificant, moderately signifi- cant, significant, and very significant. The mean score and standard deviation were calculated for each of the conflict issues reported by the school board members and chief administrators. This was completed to determine the order of impor- tance for each of the statements as well as to allow the researcher to compare these issues among the three student enrollment size cate- gories. Only the five issues with the highest mean scores from each of the categories were selected and analyzed for this study. 218 The school board members in all three categories agreed that Iperformance expectation“ was a source of conflict. However, each group ranked it slightly differently, 'A' schools ranked it number two, '8' schools ranked it number three, and 'C' schools ranked it number four. This was the only issue all three groups agreed was a source of conflict in their schools. However, there were three issues which two of the three school categories agreed were conflict issues. In addition, each category reported two unique conflicts different from those reported by the other groups i.e., ”A“ schools - “curriculum issues" and ”personality clashes in school board meetings;' '8” schools - "role and responsibility of the chief administrator," and ”role and responsibility of the school board;' 'C' schools - "salary increases for professional and support staff members and approval of annual budget” (see Table 40). The responses recorded by the school categories are as follows. 1W Communication failure (mean - 2.583; performance expectations (mean - 2.333); Curriculum issues ((mean - 2.100); impact of community pressure groups on the school (mean - 2.083); personality clashes in school board meetings (mean - 2.083). 219 W Communication failure (mean - 3.090); differences over method of management (mean - 2.900); performance expectations (mean - 2.727); role and responsibility of the chief administrator (mean - 2.546); role and responsibility of the school board (mean - 2.546). W Differences over method of management (mean - 2.222); salary increases for professional and support staff members (mean - 2.111); approval of annual budget (mean - 2.111); performance expectation (mean - 2.111); impact of community pressure groups on the school (mean - 2.000). 220 ~36 0mm; ~.. 2.0." 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P 0.5:: 538.3 .96 coo: is. .9.» ca... at... a.» cast ate: 83a. 83.59 0.028 sus 0.838 ans 38.3w s03...) 0 so... 8.08.82. 8......» 80. . $0... .. $0... 300 0 000.. 00.... n. sou-.3355. .30“. 2.» .o >u...0.ecoau2 pc- 38. 35.0 3.... n. 30. nah... .~ 00.... 20.. u. cit-.3 .800» 2.0.2300 .0.» cast its .0.» can: scan .0.» cues are: 8:8. 8.350 302.0» s9. 38cc» :0: 302.0» :5. P280 3 3i» 222 The majority of the chief administrators from all the three cat- egories agreed that ”salary increases for professional and support staff members' and "role and responsibility of the school board” were both sources of conflict in their schools. The "A” and '8" schools agreed that “personality clashes in the school board meeting” had caused conflict for them in the past. '8' and ”C” schools both re- ported that "impact of community pressure groups on the school" was a source of conflict. Finally, the ”A” and ”C” schools indicated two unique conflict issues not reported by the other groups, i.e., "A” schools - "value and goal differences” and "determining school calendar;” "C" schools - ”curriculum issues and performance expectations” (see Table 41). Responses by school categories follow: LA:_§§hggl§, Salary increases for professional and support staff members (mean - 2.833); role and responsibility of the school board (mean - 2.667); value and goal differences (mean - 2.333); determining school calendar (mean - 2.167); personality clashes in school board meetings (mean - 2.167). _':fi_'_‘__gg_hgg].§_L Salary increases for professional and support staff members (mean - 3.000); Approval of annual budget (mean - 3.000); personality clashes in school board meetings (mean - 3.000); role and responsibility of the school board (mean - 3.000); impact of the community pressure groups on the school board (mean - 2.833). 223 :§:_§ghgg1§* Curriculum issues (mean - 3.000); salary increases for professional and support staff members (mean - 3.000); impact of community pressure groups on the school (mean - 2.600); role and responsibility of the school board (mean - 2.400); performance expectations (mean - 2.400). 224 0.3.0 00~.~ 0 «fl... mad 0 000.0 08.~ 0 0080008 .o 8000! 008 000020.30 000.0 000d n 00... n9... m 80.0 08.~ 0 .8000 000 00 800 0.300000 3.80 .o 0008. 20.0 08... n. 3m... 50.... 0 ~50... 0.2.0. 5 030000.58 00.00 000 .0 33.0.0080! Fl 32. Q.— 08.~ .. n3... 000d ~_. 00.0.. 0.0.... o 0000300 .8000 8.0.0.8000 Bud 08.~ 0 0.0... 08.n ... mad so...“ 0 08.0000 .0008 .8000 8. 8.0008000 000.0 000.. 0~ 2.0.0 03.. 0.. nmud so...“ 0 000.0000 .808 .8000 0. 000030 0.0..-00000.. 53d 08.. ~.. 3...... seed 0 0.3.0 nnnd n 0000000....v .80 000 00.0.. 50.0 000d 0 000.. 08... 0 30.. need ~ .0000 .8000 00a .0 3.0.0.882 .8. 0.2. 5.0.0 08d ~ nnod 000.» .. 00... n9... . ...-00 a; 08 38.30.80 .3. 00000000. >030» dd 000.. 88¢ .0.» 000.. 08.. .0.» 000.. 08.. 0300. 00.389 0.00.08 80.. «.00..—0m so: udoozum s00&< 500.0 08.. n. 0.00.. n00... 5 03.. 000.... 0. 000..00 00.000.55.00 .0.» 000.. 0.00.. .0.» 000.. 0.00.. .0.» 000.. 0.00.. 00:00. 0030000 0.00:8 0.0.. 0.8.00” :9. 0.00.00” :5. P28 3 as: 226 W122. The school board members and chief administrators were given a second list of “Other” conflict elements and requested to indicate the extent to which each of these contributed to conflict in their international schools. The mean and standard deviation were calculated for each of the "Other“ conflict elements. These were computed in order to rank these elements and allow the researcher to compare them among the three enrollment size categories. Only those five elements with the highest mean scores were presented for each of the categories. The school board members in the three categories chose ”lack of communications“ as the only element of which a majority agreed con- tributed to conflict in their schools. Five other elements were identified by at least two of the three groups as contributors to conflict. Lastly, the elements indicated by the 'C' schools were similar to those elements reported by either the ”A” or ”B" schools (see Table 42). Responses organized by school categories follow: :1Al_§_¢.;h_g2521fi_L Differences in educational philosophies (mean - 2.927); lack of communication (mean - 2.927); lack of rapport (mean - 2.750); personality differences (mean - 2.667); lack of trust (mean - 2.583). :B:_§§hgglfi* Lack of communication (mean - 3.273); lack of clear role definitions (mean - 3.273); lack of trust (mean - 2.818); lack of leadership (mean - 2.818) lack of orientation (mean - 2.818). 227 :§:_§gh291§‘ Lack of clear role definitions (mean - 2.333); personality differences (mean - 2.222); lack of rapport (mean - 2.222); lack of leadership (mean - 2.222); lack of communication (mean - 2.111). The two elements with the highest mean scores identified by all three groups of chief administrators as contributing to conflict ”lack of clear role definitions” and "lack of communications.” Schools ”A” and ”C" both reported that ”differences in educational philosophies” contributed to conflict in their settings. The ”A" and “C" schools reported ”lack of leadership" was a contributing element of conflict in their individual schools. Two of the three groups identified two elements unique to their categories (see Table 43). A summary of the reports by school categories follows: :A:_§gh921§‘ Lack of clear role definitions (mean - 3.667); lack of communication (mean - 3.333); differences in educational philosophies (mean - 3.333); lack of orientation (mean - 3.333); lack of leadership (mean - 3.167). :§:_§gh291§‘ Lack of clear role definitions (mean - 3.833); lack of communication (mean - 3.833); Lack of trust (3.667); lack of leadership (mean - 3.500); lack of integrity (mean - 3.500). :§:_§gh991§* Lack of clear role definitions (mean - 3.200); lack of communication (mean - 3.000); differences in educational philosophies (mean - 2.800); lack of expertise (mean - 2.800); personality differences (mean - 2.800). 228 5... 3.... N. 8... 3...... a 3.. n8.~ n. bras... ... so: 8.. an. n. a... 5.... .. 5.. 3...... .. 3.88.. .o .63 .2. .8. o 3.... 5... o. 5.... as .. .892 ... so: «3.. 98.. . .9... 8a.... . E... as o 8:89.. 3 so: 9.... o8.~ o 3.... o.o.~ m E... as o 8335.3 ... .8. 933.53. 8... a... . 3... nun ~ 8... ...... o :8 .....o .o .33 “no. E... o as... 8.... .... an. “9.... . 88.5.... 53.3 .9... -~.~ . a... o.o.~ ... 8... 83 o 3:28.: .... ".83 E. on... o. 3.. and ... R»... a... n :2. .... .8. 8a.. -~.~ N 5.. Es o E... .8... .. 8828.... 3:23: 8»... -~.~ n 5.. «9.... o .3... on... n .38: .8 an... ...... ....~ m ...... nun . 8.... to... ~ 838.558 ..o as: 8.88:5. .6383. 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B... . ...... .8... . 8.25.... 3o. ...-.9 3 nos. ....» is. ...... ....» is. is. ....m S... .2... 8:8. 8:28 :86» ...... 38.8 ...... 38.8 ...... ..s a. q. .....1 ‘l‘ . ‘0‘“ I‘. me 0:1» 230 W The ethnographic data presented in part two were extrapolated from one question taken from the in-depth interviews conducted by the researcher when he visited the 12 participating schools during his four weeks in Europe. The necessary data required to analyze the fifth research ques- tion were acquired from the school board members' and chief adminis- trators' responses to the following question: 1. One reads and hears about problems that affect schools such as financial matters, staff contracts, curriculum. What are some of the issues that are particular problems in this school that cause con- flict between the school board and chief administrator? The specific statements recorded by the researcher in response to this question are included in Appendix 0. A summary of the data is presented in two tables. The percentage of responses given by school board members according to the student enrollment size is dis- played in Table 44. The similar information reported by the chief administrators is presented in Table 45. A descriptive analysis of the data precedes the two tables in order to compare and contrast them with the statistical data extrapo- lated from the questionnaires. An interpretation of the similarities and differences of these two separate types of data is presented in Chapter V. 231 W More than 651 of all of the school board members interviewed stressed their current chief administrators were very good and they had had few serious conflicts with them. They added that the conflicts having taken place were relatively unimportant. Host of the serious conflicts reported to the researcher occurred previously under other chief administrators and with other board members. The school board members did note 17 different issues causing some degree of conflict in their international schools. The issues found in Table 44 were ranked according to the number of times board members mentioned them during all of the interviews conducted by the researcher. The issues covered topics from finances to cultural dif- ferences. Some issues were referred to one time while others, like financial matters, were stressed many times. A closer observation revealed nearly 452 of the statements concerning all of the issues came from the '8" schools. Furthermore, they had the greatest number of ”other” issues (eight out of ten items). All three schools ac- knowledged financial matters were the primary conflict issue. Both the '8' and "C” schools reported this issue twice as often as did the ”A" schools. 232 Table 44 . . . ... . ... . . , .. 1e . , ., t W Issue School Enrollment A B C Financial 3 6 7 Curriculum 2 3 2 Staffing 1 1 2 Role and Responsibility of the chief administrator 2 0 1 Communications 0 1 2 Policy 2 O 0 Accreditation 0 2 0 Others: - Personality clash 1 - School calendar 1 - Teacher evaluation 1 - Public relations 1 - Teacher representation on the school board 1 - Professional staff member dismissal 1 - Conflict of interest 1 - Problem-solving 1 233 Table 44 cont'd Issue School Enrollment - Professional teaching staff and chief administrator conflict 1 - Cultural differences 1 Total 12 21 14 Percentage 25.5 44.7 29.8 mmumummmmmmmum Responding to the identical question given the school board members, the chief administrators suggested 14 issues they perceived to cause conflict between themselves and school board members. Table 45 dis- plays the percentage of responses reported by the chief administra- tors. The issues are ranked according to the number of statements re- ferring to them, i.e., eight statements concerning finances compared to one statement regarding physical facilities. The chief administrators in all three schools agreed ”financial matters“ were the greatest area of conflict. The '8” and ”C” school administrators reported “other” types of conflict more often than did the administrators from the "A” schools. The ”A” schools reported 234 only one conflict in this category, while the other two schools both reported five different types of conflict. The “role and responsibil- ity" of the chief administrator was a source of conflict for the 'A' schools. The 'C' schools did not indicate this as an issue. The ad- ministrators in the 'A' schools reported the lowest number of con- flicts, (approximately 202) when compared to the other two groups. Curriculum issues were not indicated as a source of conflict for any of the administrators (see Table 45). Table 45 use 0 x 00 o a! a: g o \ o g 0, W25 Issue School Enrollment A B C Financial matters 2 3 3 Role and responsibility of the chief administrator 2 1 0 Staffing 0 1 1 Others: 5 Communications 1 - Staff contracts 1 - Role and responsibility of the school board members 1 School calendar 1 235 Table 45 cont'd Issue School Enrollment A B C - Policy 1 - Staff evaluations 1 - Apathy 1 - Conflict of interest 1 - Teacher representative on the board 1 - Legal fees 1 - Physical facilities 1 Totals 5 10 9 Percentage 20.8 41.7 37.5 921191221211 The significance of asking these five questions, and the data represented in the answers, clearly establish the varying degrees of conflict in the schools studied. The completed research becomes a record of the types of conflict, the elements contributing to con- flict, and the methods used by the participants to resolve/manage it. Concomitant with this is the secondary effect conflict has on the school community, which includes parents, students, and teachers. CHAPTER V SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS Samar: W A summary of the findings for each research question is presented in this final chapter. These questions were used to investigate common perceptions both the school board members and the chief admin- istrators have concerning the arenas of conflict between them; the elements that contribute to conflict; the methods employed to re- solve/manage conflict; and if the size of the student enrollment in- fluenced the different types of conflict existing among the schools. The perceptions of the professional teaching staff and parents were also included to determine how conflict between the school board and its chief administrator affects the school and community. Conclusion, recommendations, and research ideas for further in- quiry follow the research summary. mantis! Details of the statistical and/or ethnographic analyses ill- uminating the perceptions of the participants are presented following each research question. 236 237 BMW What are the perceived arenas of conflict between the school board and its cheif administrator? WW2. The five major issues reported by the school board members were: 1. Communication failure 2. Performance expectation 3. Difference over methods of management 4. Role and responsibility of the school board 5. Values and goal differences E;hgggra2hig_g§£a. More than two-thirds of the board members stressed that their current chief administrators were very good, and that they had not had many serious conflicts with them. They added that the conflicts taking place were relatively unimportant. Most of the serious ones occurred either under past chief administrators or with board members who were no longer in the community. However, in response to the ”issues" question on the in-depth in- terview, the school board members reported 17 conflict issues they had encountered with either the current or previous chief administra- tors. There were a total of 47 statements made by the school board members. Three issues; financial matters, curriculum, and staffing were mentioned nearly two-thirds of the time. Financial matters were the leading cause of conflict between the school board members and l [— 238 the chief administrators with over one-third of the board members re- porting this issue to the researcher. The second question on the in-depth interview posed to both the school board members and chief administrators was designed to deter- mine if both groups viewed the role and responsibility of the chief administrator similarly. Three-fourths of the school board members indicated that they §1g_ng; see and difference between how the chief administrator saw his role and how they saw his role. However, ap- proximately one-fourth of the participants replied “yes," they did see the role of the chief administrator differently. W- The five major issues indicated by the chief administrators were: 1. Salary increases for the professional and support staff mem- bers 2. Role and responsibility of the school board 3. Impact of community pressure groups on the school 4. Approval of annual budget 5. Personality clashes in school board meetings £thnggzgph1g_fla§§. In response to the ”issues" question on the in-depth interview, the chief administrators reported 14 issues causing conflict in their individual settings. These conflict issues were similar to those outlined by the school board members. However, there were some noticeable differences in the percentage of times reference was made concerning specific issues. 239 The chief administrators reported that financial matters were the primary source of conflict between themselves and school board mem- bers. They further believed that their role and responsibility were sources of conflict. Though the school board members acknowledged this issue, they did not report it as often as the administrators. Lastly, the administrators reported a larger number of ”other" issues than those made by the school board members, i.e., 45.8! vs. 20.62. The administrators responded to the second question on the in-depth interview indicating that a majority g1g_ngt see their role differently as compared to the perception by the board members. A closer reading of the data reveals the chief administrators from schools ”A” and ”B” responded to the question differently than admin- istrators from the ”C" schools. Fifty percent of the administrators from the two smaller schools indicated they saw their roles differ- ently than their school boards. Conversely, all four administrator's from the ”C" schools unanimously agreed that their school boards viewed their role similarly. W What are the perceived elements that contribute to conflict between the school board and its chief administrator? The five major elements that contributed to conflict reported by the school board members were: 1. Lack of communication 2. Lack of clear role definitions 240 3. Personality differences 4. Lack of leadership 5. Lack of rapport Ethnggraph1§_§§§g. The school board members responded to the 'conflict issues" question in the in-depth interview and identified 17 conflicts in their schools. Forty-seven statements in reference to these 17 issues were recorded by the researcher. Three of the issues, financial matters, curriculum, and staffing were mentioned nearly two-thirds of the time. Statements regarding financial matters dominated the comments of- fered by the board members. The majority of comments focused on the fact that the international schools in the study basically lacked the funding required to provide the programs the school board members wanted. This contributing conflict element affected all aspects of the school from the educational materials ordered to the salaries for the professional staff members. The second major issue reported by the school board members con- cerned the curriculum in their schools. They were not only apprehen- sive about the types of programs being offered in their schools and the quality of instruction for the students, but they were also con- cerned about where their schools were going in the future. Several board members believed they should take a more active role in curric- ulum development. They added that their chief administrators had not encouraged them along these lines. 241 W The five major elements that contributed to conflict reported by the chief ad- ministrators were: 1. Lack of clear role definitions 2. Lack of communication 3. Lack of orientation 4. Lack of leadership 5. Lack of trust E;hn2gzaph1g_§g§g. The chief administrators, in response to the question on the in-depth interview concerning "conflict issues," noted 14 items that created conflict between themselves and their school board members. The issues were similar to those outlined by the school board members. Yet, there were some noticeable differences in the percentage of responses for various issues, i.e., curriculum issues were mentioned more often by the board members. The chief administrators only made one indirect statement concerning this issue. The administrators indicated they were concerned with financial matters and how this issue directly affected their schools. They em- phasized that inadequate funding for teachers' salaries was a major contributing element to conflicts between the school board and them- selves. Furthermore, they indicated that lack of funds affected the types of programs offered in their schools. One administrator stated 242 that, "There might be a demand for a program, but there are insuffi- cient funds to support it. Raising fees to support these programs causes conflict.“ The second issue noted by the administrators referred to the role and responsibility of the chief administrators. Several administra- tors report that this contributing element directly relates to the fact that new board members are often very eager to assist them with the administration part of the school. ‘Others report board members are not knowledgeable concerning the role and responsibilities of the chief administrator. Consequently, board members either demand the administrator do specific tasks they believe are important, or they allow him a free hand in managing the school. W How are conflicts between the school board and its chief administrator resolved/managed? Magnets—WW The results of the Thomas-Kilmann Conflict Mode Instrument (1974) re- vealed a majority of the school board members resolve and/or manage their conflicts using the collaborating and compromising modes. A closer examination of the scores indicate the compromising mode ranks highest on the scale with a score of 11 out of 12. The results further indicate the board members use the competing and accommodat- ing modes infrequently. Less than one-quarter of the respondents selected either one of these conflict resolution techniques. 243 E;hngg;gph1g_g§;§. Each of the school board members who partici- pated on the in-depth interview was requested to respond to the following question: Assuming the conflict occurs, how is it possi- ble to regulate or control? (Probes: Bring disruptive parties together privately; try to find areas of agreement within the conflict; create a committee to study the problem and make recommendations; contain conflict within staff to resist expansion; delay decisions until support can be found). The responses collected from the participants were analyzed and summarized according to their enrollment-size categories. The summa- ries were organized in this manner so the reader could compare and contrast the different methods used by the participants in each of the categories to resolve and/or manage conflict. ZAI_flsh221§_£2n1211mgn§_1;1§91. The board members indicated they would use all or a combination of the examples given to them to resolve conflict. The method they would use would depend on the conflict situation itself. They stated they would bring disruptive parties together and then try to find areas of agreement. They also suggested a conflict could be resolved by having a committee investigate the facts. :§:_§gh991§_11§1;1991. The majority of board members in this category selected “bring disruptive parties together privately: for their first choice when resolving conflicts. One member said, ”If you can talk to those who may be wrong, they will be willing to admit 244 to this if there aren't a lot of people around.“ The members also indicated all of these strategies were applicable in different situations. One individual remarked, “People in general want what's good. They just have different perceptions. Men of good will will find a solution.” ' ' - . Several of the board members suggested all of the methods could be used at different times with different situations. They also noted that because their school communities were ”small,” it was easier to know what the conflicts were and who was involved. They reasoned that depending on the situation and the individuals involved. a specific method would be utilized accordingly to the individual problem. The importance of good communications was also stressed by another member. Eigggttgg. Following the in-depth interviews, three vignettes were given to the school board members to read. They were requested to select two of the three vignettes and select one response for each of the two conflict situations. Next, they were asked to make a second response, indicating how they believed their school boards would respond to the same situation. Slightly more than one-third of the board members who chose the first vignette selected the compromising solution to resolve the conflict. A further third selected the collaborating solution for their response. When asked how their board might react, one-fourth selected the compromising 245 method, while nearly half selected the collaborating method to resolve the conflict situation. The results of the second vignette indicated that more than two-thirds of the board members selected the collaborating method for both themselves and for their school boards as a way to resolve the conflict situation. Almost one-half of the school board members who selected the third vignette reported they would have chosen the collaborating method as their response. However, only one third indicated they be- lieved their school boards would have selected the avoiding method to resolve this particular conflict situation. d d v . Finally, the school board members were requested to indicate, in the sixth section of the questionnaire, the extent to which they agreed or disagreed with a set of statements regarding the establishment of non-conflict patterns in their international schools. The six major methods selected by the school board members were: 1. School boards should support the chief administrator fully both publicly and privately after decisions have been reached. 2. Confidentiality is essential between school boards and chief administrators in matters pertaining to school personnel and negotiations. 3. The competence of the chief administrator is valued by the board. 246 4. The board's role is setting policy. 5. The school board and chief administrator establish clearly understood goals for the schools. 6. Evaluation of the chief administrator should be based on ob- jective and honest assessment of professional performance. Walden. The results of the Thomas-Kilmann Conflict Mode Instrument (1974) indi- cated that the majority of the chief administrators use the compro- mising and avoiding modes to negotiate their conflicts. A low per- centage of administrators disclosed they utilize the competing and accommodating modes when resolving and/or managing conflict situa- tions with their school boards. E;hnggraph1g_data. The data collected and analyzed from the chief administrators responses to the following question taken from the in-depth interview schedule were summarized according to the enrollment size categories. Assuming the conflict occurs, how is it possi- ble to regulate or control? (Probes: Bring disruptive parties together privately; try to find areas of agreement within the conflict; create a committee to study the problem and make recommendations; contain conflict within staff to resist expansion; delay decisions until support can be found) :Afi_§ghgglg. The administrators suggested all of the examples could be used with the exception of delaying the decision. Good communications were stressed. One individual stated if both parties knew and understood their roles, the conflict could be resolved more 247 easily. Another administrator ranked the methods differently, i.e., (a) contain the conflict, (b) form a committee, (c) find areas of agreement, (d) bring disruptive parties together privately. :8:_§gh921§. Three out of the four administrators interviewed said they talk to individuals first and then later bring disruptive parties together privately. The importance of good, open communications was mentioned by one administrator. The same administrator added if people were willing to take risks and discuss issues frankly, then the results can be very positive. A second administrator suggested decisions should not be delayed, for this causes yet further problems. The opposite position was taken by a third administrator. He believes listening to individuals is the most important factor and one should wait and not make a decision until the last moment. None of the administrators advocated creating a committee to resolve and/or manage conflict. :9:_§£h221§. The majority of the administrators selected ”bring disruptive parties together privately” as their preferred method for resolving conflict. As one administrator succinctly put it, ”Get the problem out in the air. Don't put it under the carpet.” The second most common method selected by the participants was "to find areas of agreement within the conflict.“ Another administrator revealed in the past he had sometimes delayed making a decision but discovered 248 this method did not work very well in most cases. Lastly, one indi- vidual stated he would form a committee to study a particular prob- lem. None of the other three administrators suggested this method as an alternative to resolving conflict. W. The six major methods em- ployed to prevent conflict selected by the chief administrators were: 1. Confidentiality is essential between school boards and chief administrators in matters pertaining to school personnel and negotiations. 2. School boards should support the chief administrator fully both publicly and privately after decisions have been reached. 3. The board's role is setting policy. 4. The competence of the chief administrator is valued by the board. 5. Evaluation of the chief administrator should be based on ob- jective and honest assessment of professional performance. 6. The school board and chief administrator establish clearly understood goals for the school. WW How are the professional teaching staff and parents affected by conflict between the school board and its chief administrator? The professional staff members and parents who participated in the in-depth interview were requested to respond to the following question. 249 What are your perceptions of how these conflicts affect the school and community directly/indirectly? The summaries of the professional teaching staff members and par— ents are each divided into two subsections, 'School' and "Community." Statements from the teachers include "absolute catastrophe,” "it has minor affects on me or the students,“ and "some propagate the situa- tion for political or professional gains." Many respondents state that when there was negative conflict in a school, the morale of the teachers was greatly affected. The teachers indicate low morale directly affected a number of factors, that is, their teaching abil- ity, attitude toward school, and job security. Several others note when negative conflict situations exist, their stress levels rise and they feel a loss of energy. Consequently, the teachers conclude that all of these elements contribute to a bad atmosphere within a school and directly affect the quality of education for their students. A number of teachers interviewed report that when a conflict does manifest itself, a solution or decision concerning the problem is generally made. This decision affects them either directly or indi- rectly. One group of teachers noted that their school board and chief administrator had to make a decision concerning the renewal of several teaching contracts for the following school year. The final decision affected not only the morale of the teachers involved but also a majority of the staff. They began to ask, "Who will be next?" 250 Still another teacher said that decisions regarding the school calen- dar, curriculum, etc. all directly affect the teachers in one way or another. This teacher believed these decisions can alienate the staff from the chief administrator and the school board. Relation- ships on both sides can suffer under these circumstances. Several other teachers emphasize that when the school board and its chief administrator have a conflict, it directly affects them in two ways. First, if the chief administrator needs support for an idea he may have concerning a program for the school, he will come to the staff for support. Among the staff members there will be members who are not willing to support the chief administrator. Conse- quently, this situation begins to divide the staff into separate camps. The teachers stressed that this type of scenario has a nega- tive affect on the morale, attitude, and energy levels of all those involved in the conflict. The conflict between the chief administrator and the school board not only affects the administrator and his staff, but also the board members themselves. The school board members, who are representa- tives of the community, will look for support from the community for their ideas. The community members who get involved will eventually put pressure directly or indirectly on certain teachers to support the board's point of view. This type of community involvement can aggravate the conflict situation further. It can help in splitting the staff into different camps, produce further friction among the groups, and encourage negativism to grow within the staff itself. 251 When a conflict evolves into a situation similar to the one de- scribed in the previous paragraph, the staff begins to question the leadership of the chief administrator and the performance of the school board members. This in turn leads teachers to lose faith in the organization and to begin to have doubts about the future of the school. Teachers explained that when they believe the future is un- stable, unpredictable or uncertain, they will begin to look for new positions in other schools where there are fewer problems. The pos- sible high staff turnover rate may force a school to confront yet an- other conflict situation, unhappy students and discontented parents. Ultimately, the teachers insisted that the educational level and quality of instruction being provided for the students will be di- rectly affected by a negative situation. Finally, one individual suggested that when conflict does occur it affects different people in different ways. He has observed through the many years at his school that teachers have done one of two things when a conflict situation has existed. They have either become involved in the cause and stood by it to the end, or, they have ignored the situation, stayed in their classroom, and concen- trated on their teaching. Among this group of teachers, he noted, there were individuals who elected to stay in their classrooms be- cause they feared being on the losing side when the conflict was eventually resolved. Lastly, he added, there have been certain teachers within this staff who thrive on conflict. He believed they have purposely propagated a situation to gain either personally or professionally from the results of the conflict. 252 annunity. There were fewer comments (approximately one-third) from teachers concerning the effects on the community. However, those teachers who responded, said if the parents sense a conflict in the school, they will become discontented. In a negative conflict situation, they may not know who to trust; their friend the board member or their child's teacher. This uneasiness then leads them to have a negative image of the school. This reaction can directly affect their over-all attitude about the school which in turn many be passed on to their children wittingly or unwittingly. Conversely, students can also detect when their teachers are not concentrating all of their efforts on their lessons. The students then inevitably pass these feelings on to their parents, who in turn become concerned about the quality of education in the school and the cycle begins again. Parents may also be aware of a lack of unity among the staff mem- bers or between the staff and the chief administrator. A situation like this directly affects their children's well-being and the qual- ity of education they are receiving. One teacher remarked that the decisions taken by the school board members concerning school poli- cies, i.e., bus routes, length of the school day, curriculum issues etc., directly affects the community in many different ways. The teacher pointed out this depends entirely on the severity of the ini- tial conflict situation between the school board and its chief admin- istrator. 253 W More than two-thirds of the parents interviewed, said they were not aware of any conflict in their school between the school board members and the chief administrator. Several parents believed this was due to the lack of information they received from the school board. One parent wondered how, since the board meetings were closed to the community, a parent could know if there were any conflicts between the board and adminis- trator. On the other hand, many other parents spoke highly of their chief administrators. They remarked if there were any conflicts in their school, the board and administrator acted very professionally by keeping the issues away from the community. Those parents who had either observed conflict in their schools or had heard about previous conflict situations said they can be di- rectly affected when the school board and its chief administrator do not agree on an issue. For example, when the chief administrator wants to introduce a new program into the school, he must first ap- proach the school board with a proposal requesting approval for this program. If the board approves the proposal, the tuitions may have to be increased. This act affects the community directly. If on the other hand, the board does not approve of the new program, the par- ents can be affected indirectly because their children may not have the opportunity to participate in this new program. In either case, a conflict situation similar to the one described here would ulti- mately affect the parents in any community. 254 Several parents recognize the chief administrator as the author— ity and leader of the school. When he is having difficulties han- dling conflict with the board, this may be an indication of how the school is being managed. Whenever there is a conflict in a school, there are always rumors and misunderstandings about the situation. There are very few individuals who are in the position to know all of the facts and who are willing to communicate these facts to the com- munity. If a situation gets out of control, parents begin to ques- tion the reputation of the school. In a community where there are only a few major companies, this can be extremely destructive for the parents, because a majority of these individuals may not only work together but also socialize together. Major conflicts, like the dis- missal of a chief administrator, have in the past divided communities into opposing factions. Often it takes communities years to recover from such a traumatic and negative conflict experience. fighggl. The parents view conflict affecting the school in two ways: how it affects the teachers and, how it affects their children. Again, it should be noted that very few parents made comments regarding this question. Those who did offer their observations saw conflict affecting teachers by encouraging them to divide into two groups, either for or against a particular issue. This situation would in turn create a bad atmosphere for the teachers in which to work. Consequently, when the teachers are not happy and have an unpleasant working situation this has a direct, adverse affect on the students. 255 One parent remarked that some students in their secondary school become knowledgeable about a situation between the board and the ad- ministrator because one teacher chose to discuss the issue with them openly. Another parent noted that the secondary students in their community had been directly affected by a conflict that occurred be- tween the school board and the chief administrator. The two groups could not reach an agreement on whether to continue offering a high school program or to cancel it and provide only a K - 8 program. In the end, the chief administrator left the school and the new adminis- trator agreed to continue having the high school. Furthermore, he added the International Baccalaureate program in an attempt to in- crease the secondary enrollment. W213. Does the size of the student enrollment have an influence on the different types of conflict that exist between the school board and its chief administrator? W. The results of the data suggest that a majority of the participants in each of three enrollment size categories believe that "performance expectation” is a source of conflict. This was the only issue out of the five major ones that the majority of the participants agreed was a source of conflict. It should be noted that each group ranked it somewhat differently, i.e., "A" schools ranked it second, ”B” schools ranked it third, and "C" schools ranked it fourth. Furthermore, there were three other issues where two out of the three groups were 256 in agreement, i.e., "A” and ”B” schools - "communication failure;” ”A” and 'C' schools - "impact of community pressure groups on the school;' and 'B' and "C” schools - "differences over methods of management.“ Additionally, each school category reported two unique conflicts that were different from those reported by the other groups, i.e., “A" schools - “curriculum issues and personality clashes in school board meetings,“ 'B' schools - ”role and responsibility of the chief administrator" and ”role and responsibility of the school board;' ”C” schools - ”salary increases for professional and support staff members' and ”approval of annual budget." W. The school board members were given a second list of "Other” conflict elements and requested to indicate the extent to which each of these contributed to conflict in their international schools. The board members in the three school categories disclosed that ”lack of communications" was one of the five major elements contrib- uting to conflict in their schools. This was the only element where a majority of the participants in the categories were in agreement. However, there were five other elements identified where two out of the three groups were in agreement. 'A' and "B" schools - ”lack of trust." ”A” and "C" schools - “lack of rapport” and ”personality differences.” 'B' and 'C' schools - “lack of clear role definition” and ”lack of leadership.” 257 WM The majority of administrators from the three enrollment size categories agreed “salary increases for professional and support staff members” and “role and responsibility of the school board” were the two major issues creating conflict in their schools. The ”A“ and 'B' schools agreed that ”personality clashes in the school board meetings" caused conflict for them in the past. The 'B' and 'C' schools both reported that “impact of community pressure groups on the school" was a source of conflict. Finally, all three school categories disclosed one or two unique conflict issues not reported by the other groups. ”A" schools - ”value and goal difference” and ”determining the school calendar.” “B“ schools - ”approval of annual budget.“ "C” schools - ”curriculum issues” and performance expectations.” Mammals;- The only two elements common to all three school categories were the ”lack of clear role definitions" and 'lack of communication." Schools ”A" and 'C' both reported that "differences in educational philosophies” contributed to conflict in their settings. The ”A” and "C“ schools disclosed that ”lack of leadership" was a contributing element of conflict in their individual schools. Finally, all three groups identified one or two elements unique to their categories. ”A“ schools - 'lack of orientations.“ 'B' schools - ”lack of trust” and “lack of integrity.” 'C' schools - ”lack of expertise” and ”person- ality differences." 258 mm W: The researcher concludes that the majority of the 32 school board members and 17 chief administrators who participated in this research study both have very different perspectives defining con- flicts in their schools. The only issue of the five major ones on the questionnaire where both groups were in agreement was the "role and responsibility of the school board.” However, the two groups rank the importance of this issue differently. School board members rank it fourth, while school administrators rank it second. The school board members report the five major issues of con- flict as: communication failure; performance expectation; difference over methods of management; role and responsibility of the school board; and values and goal differences. Conversely, the chief administrators indicate the five major conflicts in their schools are: salary increases for the profes- sional and support staff members; role and responsibility of the school board; impact of community pressure groups on the school; ap- proval of annual budget; and personality clashes in school board meetings. A careful analysis of these statistical data, shows the five major conflict issues reported by the school board members are rela- tively unimportant. The chief administrators view their conflicts as slightly more serious but still report them as being unimportant to moderately important. 259 The ethnographic data suggest both the school board members and chief administrators view financial matters as a major source of con- flict between themselves. This issue dominated the responses col- lected from all participants. The ethnographic analysis concurs with the statistical analysis of the chief administrators where they stressed that ”salary increases for professional staff members' and “approval of annual budget” were two of the three major issues caus- ing conflict between themselves and their school board members. However, the ethnographic analysis is inconsistent with the sta- tistical analysis concerning the school board members. During the in-depth interviews, the majority of the school board members empha- sized that financial matters were a major concern of their schools. This issue, however, was not reported on the questionnaire as being one of the five major issues. In fact, the board members ranked “salary increases for professional staff members' number 12 in impor- tance as compared with the chief administrators, who ranked it as their number one issue. The ethnographic analysis supports the conclusion that the school board members are more concerned about curriculum issues than are the chief administrators. Board members indicated this issue was the second most important conflict they had with their administra- tors. On the other hand, of the 14 issues reported by the chief ad- ministrators, only one indirect statement was made regarding curricu- lum as being a conflict issue. Again, it should be noted that this analysis is inconsistent with the statistical analysis. The school board members ranked "curriculum issues” tenth out of a total of 22 260 issues while the chief administrators from the 'C' schools ranked it number one. Finally, the researcher concludes both the school board members and chief administrators view the ”role and responsibility of the chief administrator“ similarly. Three-quarters of the school board members and two-thirds of the chief administrators indicated they 'did not“ see a difference in what they thought the job of the school administrator involved and the way the school board perceived it. W Analysis of the statistical data, suggests the school board mem- bers and the chief administrators both agree that the "lack of commu- nication,” ”lack of clear role definitions,” and ”lack of leadership” are all elements contributing to conflict between the two groups. The school board members also report that "personality differences" and “lack of rapport" contribute to conflict in their schools. School administrators state, in addition to the three elements where they agree with the school board members, that a “lack of orienta- tion” and a ”lack of trust" also contribute to conflict between their school board and themselves. Furthermore, both the school board members and the chief admin- istrators perceive the degree of importance of these contributing el- ements differently. The analysis of the statistical data from the school board members shows that the mean scores for the five major elements were between disagree and neutral. Contrary to this, the chief administrators' mean scores for their five major elements range 261 from slightly above neutral to agree. These score differences demon- strate yet another area of potential conflict between the two groups. Drawing from the analysis of the ethnographic data, the re- searcher concludes that the lack of funds to operate the school sat- isfactorily is the most serious element contributing to conflict be- tween the school board and its chief administrator. The school board members note nearly all of the funds needed to operate their schools come directly from tuition paid by the parents. They have found it increasingly difficult to continue to raise tuition payments to pay for all of the programs and salary increases recommended by their chief administrators. The chief administrators concur with the school board members concerning the funding problem. However, the chief administrators insist that it is the responsibility of the school board to ade- quately fund the school so they can provide the very best education for the students and satisfy the demands of the parents by offering a wide variety of challenging programs and procuring the most qualified teachers. Finally, the conclusions reached concerning the analysis of the ethnographic data are inconsistent with the conclusions drawn from the analysis of the statistical data. None of the participants indi- cated on the questionnaire that ”finances" were a contributing ele- ment to conflict between the school board and its chief administra- tor. However, the predominant 'conflict issue“ and "contributing factor to conflict” reported by a majority of participants during the in-depth interviews was in reference to ”financial matters". 262 W The Thomas-Xilman Conflict Mode Instrument (1974) test results reveal a high percentage of the school board members utilize the col- laborating and compromising modes as methods to resolve and/or manage conflict. A low number of board members use the competing and accom- modating modes to resolve conflict. The chief administrators had similar results with some slight variations in their scores. The most noticeable differences between the two groups were in reference to the collaborating, compromising, and avoiding modes. Administra- tors scored in the middle range for the collaborating mode but in the high range for the avoiding mode. They scored in the high range for the compromising mode, but it was lower than the school board mem- bers' score. In general, it can be concluded that both groups use similar methods to resolve conflict. Recognition of personal conflict resolution techniques is only the beginning of conflict management. Thomas and Kilmann (1974 p. 14) pose a number of additional questions for individuals who score "High” (751 or above) on the collaborating, compromising, and avoiding modes: WW 1. Do you spend time discussing issues in-depth that do not seem to deserve it? (Collaborating takes time and energy - perhaps the scarcest organizational resources. Trivial problems don't require optimal solutions, and not all personal differences need to be hashed out. The overuse of collaboration and consensual decision making sometimes represents a desire to minimize 263 risk - by diffusing responsibility for a decision or by postponing action. Does your collaborative behavior fail to elicit collabora- tive responses from others? (The exploratory and tentative nature of some collaborative behavior may make it easy for others to disregard collabora- tive overtures; or the trust and openness may be taken ad- vantage of. You may be missing some cues which would indi- cate the presence of defensiveness, strong feelings, impa- tience, competitiveness, or conflicting interests.) WM Do you concentrate so heavily upon the practicalities of compromise that you sometimes lose sight of larger issues - principles, values, long term objectives, com- pany welfare? Does an emphasis on bargaining and trading create a cynical climate of gamesmanship? (Such a climate might undermine interpersonal trust and deflect attention away from the nggigg of the issues discussed.) Amidinsieds Does your coordination suffer because people have trou- ble getting your inputs on issues? Does it often appear that people are 'walking on egg- shells?’ (Sometimes a dysfunctional amount of energy can be de- voted to caution and avoiding of issues, indicating that issues need to be faced and resolved.) Are decisions on important issues made by default? They also pose several questions for individuals who score "Low” (25% or below) on the competing and accommodating modes: W 1. Do you often feel powerless in situations? (It may be because you are unaware of the power you do have, unskilled in its use, or uncomfortable with the idea of using it. This may hinder your effectiveness by restricting your influence. 264 2. Do you have trouble taking a firm stand, even when you see the need? (Sometimes concerns for others' feelings or anxieties about the use of power cause us to vacillate, which may mean postponing the decision and adding to the suffer- ing and/or resentment of others. WW 1. Do you have trouble building goodwill with others? (Accommodating on minor issues which are important to others are gestures of goodwill.) 2. Do others often seem to regard you as unreasonable? 3. Do you have trouble admitting it when you are wrong? 4. Do you recognize legitimate exceptions to rules? 5. Do you know when to give up? Individual participants who either scored high or low on one or more of the conflict modes may in fact be unwittingly causing or con- tributing to conflict within their schools because of their preferred style of managing conflict. ”Communication failure” and "value and goal differences" were cited by the school board members as conflict issues. They also in- dicated that "lack of communications,” ”lack of leadership,” and ”lack of rapport” contributed to conflict between themselves and their chief administrators. Similarly, the chief administrators re- ported that ”lack of trust" and "lack of leadership" contributed to conflicts between themselves and their school boards. These similarities would imply the methods used for resolving conflicts can have a direct affect on both the types of issues that become conflicts and the elements that contribute to these conflicts. 265 The analysis of the results from the Thomas-Kilmann Conflict Hode Instrument (1974) lead the researcher to draw two conclusions. First, the school board members in the study tended to select and/or work with administrators who had similar management styles to their own. Secondly, a series of comments from professional staff members reinforced the analysis presented here that a majority of the school board members and chief administrators are content with maintaining the "status quo” and avoiding not only negative conflict situations but also positive conflicts. Analysis of the ethnographic data showed school board members utilize all of the following choices concerning possible methods to regulate or control conflict: bring disruptive parties together pri- vately; try to find areas of agreement within the conflict; create a committee to study the problem and make recommendations; contain con- flict within the staff to resist expansion; delay decisions until support can be found. Furthermore, depending on the conflict situa- tion, the participants use specific methods with certain people to resolve conflict. The majority of the board members stated that their preferred method for resolving conflict is "bring disruptive parties together privately.“ The data collected from the chief administrators, indicate good communication skills are needed to resolve and/or manage conflict. Another conclusion drawn from the analysis was administrators prefer “bringing disruptive parties together privately" and "finding areas of agreement” as methods of solving conflicts. All of the methods 266 suggested to the administrators are utilized in different situations for different circumstances. The conclusions drawn from the ethnographic analysis and the statistical analysis were conclusive for both groups. The school board members and chief administrators both revealed on the Thomas-Kilmann instrument that the compromising and collaborating modes were methods used when resolving conflict issues. This was substantiated by the ethnographic analyses. Both groups indicated they use ”bring disruptive parties together privately," or the col- laborating method to resolve conflict. Furthermore, the board mem- bers and administrators both reported they would use all of the methods suggested to them during the in-depth interview to resolve conflict. That is, they would use various conflict resolution tech- niques (compromising) at different times with different individuals or groups depending on the situation. Next, the school board vignettes reveal that the participants would first select the collaborating method and then the compromising method to resolve and/or manage their conflicts. A majority of the school board members believed the methods they selected to resolve the conflicts in the vignettes would also be compatible with the choices their school boards would make given similar situations. Finally, the researcher found the school board members and chief administrators are in unanimous agreement on the first six major ”methods employed to prevent conflict." Though the order of prefer- ence was slightly different for the two groups, there was a consensus between them concerning the methods that should be utilized. 267 2. 1. School board should support the chief administrator fully publicly and privately after decisions have been reached. 1. 2. Confidentiality is essential between school boards and chief administrators in matters pertaining to school personnel and negotiations. 4. 3. The competence of the chief administrator is valued by the board. 3. 4. The board's role is setting policy. 6. 5. The school board and chief administrator establish clearly understood goals for the school. 5. 6. Evaluation of the chief administrator should be based on objective and honest assessment of professional performance. Note. aChief Administrators' rank order School Board Members' rank order W We. Interview results show the morale of the professional teaching staff is adversely affected when there is conflict between the school board and its chief administrator. Low morale results in reduced teaching performance, poor attitude toward school, and fear for job security. When negative conflict situations exist, teachers' stress levels rise and they feel a loss of energy. Consequently, all of these elements contribute to a tense atmosphere within a school and this impairs the quality of education for the students. Most interviewees indicated that when a conflict does manifest itself, a solution or decision concerning the problem is generally needed. This decision can affect teachers directly and/or indirectly 268 as with the example of renewing teaching contracts. The decision taken by the board and its administrator affects not only the morale of the teachers directly involved in the contract renewal situation, but possibly all of the teachers on the staff. In addition to the contract renewal example, decisions made re- garding the school calendar and curriculum may directly affect the teachers in one way or another. These decisions or conflicts can aid in dividing a staff into various camps. This produces further fric- tion among the groups and encourages negativism to grow with the staff itself. Furthermore, these conflicts can alienate the staff from the chief administrator and the school board. Consequently, re- lationships on both sides can become strained during negative con- flict situations. Finally, when a conflict becomes very serious, the staff begins to question the leadership of the chief administrator and the capa- bility of the school board members. This in turn leads teachers to lose faith in the organization and begin to have doubts about the stability of the school. If teachers believe that the future is un- stable, unpredictable, or uncertain, they will begin to look for new positions in other schools where there are fewer problems. This may force a school to confront yet another problem: the possibility of a high staff turnover rate. Ultimately, the level of education and quality of instruction for the students will be lessened. Q2mmun1ty_§gtting. The teachers believe that when parents sense a negative conflict situation in a school, they may become very 269 concerned about the well being of their children. They may sense a lack of unity among the staff members or between the staff and the chief administrator. They may not know who to trust; the board members, the chief administrator, or their child's teacher. This uneasiness leads them to develop a poor image of the school which can directly affect their over-all attitude about the school. This attitude may in turn, be passed on to their children. It was further concluded that conflicts between school board members and their chief administrators concerning school policies dealing with bus routes, length of the school day, and curriculum issues affect the community in many ways. One example noted was when the school board and its administrator had a conflict concerning the length of the school day. The chief administrator wanted a longer school day and the school board wanted to leave the number of minutes the students were attending school per day the same. Eventually, a compromise was made. The school day was lengthened by 20 minutes in- stead of the 45 minutes recommended by the chief administrator. How- ever, a number of the parents in the community still did not like the solution to the conflict. The lengthening of the school day pre- sented problems for some parents because of transporting their chil- dren home after school. 2azgnts;__§2nnuni§y_sgt§1ng. More than two-thirds of the parents interviewed were not aware of any conflict in their school between the school board members and the chief administrator. This was due to the lack of information parents received from the school 270 board. One parent reported that since the board meetings were closed to the community, parents could not know about any conflicts between the board and its administrator. It was further shown that many parents are very satisfied with their chief administrators and remarked that if there were any conflicts in the school, the board and administrator had acted very professionally by keeping the issues away from the community. However, a significant revelation was that those parents who had either observed conflict in their schools or had heard about previous conflict situations between the school board and its chief adminis- trator believe they were adversely affected by it. For example, if the chief administrator wants to introduce a new program into a school, he must first approach the school board with a proposal re- questing approval for this program. If the board approves the pro- posal, tuition may have to be increased. Consequently, the higher tuitions affect the community financially. If, on the other hand, the board does not approve a new program, the parents can be affected indirectly because their children will not have the opportunity to participate in the proposed program. In either case, a conflict sit- uation similar to the one described here would ultimately affect the parents in a community. Finally, it is concluded parents recognize the chief administra- tor as the authority and leader of the school. When he is having difficulties handling conflict with the board, this may indicate how the school is being managed. If a conflict situation gets out of control, parents begin to question the reputation of the school. 271 This can be extremely destructive for the parents in a community where there are only a few major companies, because the majority of these individuals not only work together but also socialize together. Furthermore, it was concluded that when major conflicts do occur, like the dismissal of a chief administrator, it can divide a commu- nity into opposing factions. Unfortunately, it often takes the com- munity years to recover from such a traumatic and negative conflict situation. Sghggl_§g££1ng. The researcher concluded parents develop two categories when there is conflict between the school board and its chief administrator. First, they look at how it affects the teachers. Secondly, they think about how it affects their children. It should be noted that very few parents made comments regarding this issue. Those who did offer their observations saw conflict affecting teachers by encouraging the staff to divide into separate groups supporting or against a particular issue. This divisiveness in turn creates a stressful working environment for the teachers. Consequently, if the teachers are unhappy and have an unpleasant working atmosphere, the students' education is harmed. The students can also be directly affected by a conflict between the school board and its chief administrator. For example, in one school setting, the board and the administrator could not reach an agreement on whether to continue offering a high school program or to phase it out over several years and provide only a K - 8 program. 272 The students were very anxious during the time the board and adminis- trator were attempting to resolve the conflict. The students did not know if they were going to be able to con- tinue attending their school or if they were going to be sent to a boarding school in another country. A number of the students were from the host country where the international school was located and believed they would have major adjustments to make if their parents enrolled them in the local secondary schools to complete their educa- tion. In the end, the situation became so serious that the chief ad- ministrator was forced to leave the school. The school board then found a new administrator who agreed to continue the secondary school program. W This section is divided into two parts; conclusions drawn from the school board members and conclusions drawn from the chief admin- istrators. W: W. One conclusion drawn from the data suggests "performance expectation” was the only source of conflict common to the majority of the participants from all three enrollment size categories. However, each group ranked it differently. 'A' schools ranked it second, "B” schools ranked it third, and "C” schools ranked it fourth. Among the major issues identified by the three groups, there were three issues common to two out of three. The ”A” and ”B" 273 schools noted "communication failure.” ”A" and 'C' schools agreed on the “impact of the community pressure groups on the school" and 'B' and '6' schools felt the same about “difference over method of man- agement.” Finally, each category also has two unique conflict issues dif- ferent from the other groups. School 'A' emphasized “curriculum issues” and ”personality clashes in school board meetings.” School 'B' underscored the 'role and responsibility of the chief administra- tor" and "role and responsibility of the school board.” School ”C” highlighted ”salary increases for professional and support staff mem- bers" and "approval of annual budget.“ Wet. Even though the ”lack of communication" was the only element of the first five major ones believed to contribute to conflict in the three school categories, it should be noted that this element was ranked differently by each group. ”A” schools placed it second; ”B” schools first and "C” schools ranked it fifth. Furthermore, five other elements identified were common to two of the three groups. 'A' and 'B' schools agreed on ”lack of trust." "A” and 'C' schools noted “lack of rapport” and “personality differ- ences.“ "B" and ”C" schools concurred with “lack of clear role defi- nitions' and 'lack of leadership.“ Ethngg132h1g_d§ta. The researcher concluded more than two-thirds of the school board members interviewed emphasized that 274 their current chief administrators were very good, and that they had had few serious conflicts with them during their tenure. They believed the conflicts that had taken place had been relatively insignificant. Conflicts reported during the interviews had occurred with previous chief administrators or with board members who had since left the community. Further investigation suggests that of the 17 different issues reported by all of the school board members, “financial matters” was the major conflict issue. Both the ”B” and 'C' school reported this issue twice as often as did the "A“ schools. After the data were an- alyzed for each of the individual school categories, it showed nearly half of the statements came from the 'B' Schools. These schools also reported the greatest number of ”other” issues with eight out of a total of ten. Having analyzed the ethnographic data and the statistical data, the researcher concluded there are some incongruities between the two analyses. A majority of school board members from all three catego- ries indicated on the questionnaire that “performance expectation" was one of the five major sources of conflict in their schools. How- ever, this issue was not reported to the researcher during the in-depth interviews. Furthermore, the ethnographic data showed that a majority of the school board members reported “financial matters” as the major conflict issue in their schools. This issue was not identified as a conflict issue on the questionnaires by either the 'A' or “B" schools. However, the 'C' schools did indicate this as one of their five major conflict issues. 275 All three school categories shared at least one common conflict according to the statistical data and a second common conflict ac- cording to the ethnographic data. Beyond these shared issues, each school category has several other issues unique to their schools. Two of the three schools have at least one or two issues they share in common. Finally, the '8' schools had the highest number of con- flict issues reported as well as the highest mean scores for each of the first five major conflict issues as compared to the 'A' and 'C” schools. WW- ”Salary increases for professional and support staff members' and ”role and responsibility of the school board" were both sources of conflict in all three enrollment size schools. Additionally, there were several issues common to two schools only. ”A” and 'B' schools defined ”personality clashes in school board meeting.“ "B” and ”C" schools agreed upon the ”impact of commu- nity pressure groups on the school.“ Finally, the research data show each of the three school catego- ries have one or two conflict issues unique to their school settings. ”A” schools selected ”value and goal differences" and "determining school calendar.“ 'B' schools discussed ”approval of annual budget.” 'C' school chose "curriculum issues" and ”performance expectations.” WW. ”Lack of clear role definitions" and ”lack of communication" were two elements common to 276 all three school categories. Several issues were common to only two of the three schools. Schools 'A' and 'C' agreed on “differences in educational philosophies.” ”A” and 'B' schools shared agreement on “lack of leadership.” Finally, all three groups had one or two elements unique to their categories. 'A' schools thought "lack of orientation” impor- tant. 'B' school emphasized "lack of trust" and “lack of integrity.” 'C' schools supported “lack of expertise” and “personality differ- ences.‘ £thn2g;aph19_ggtg. Having analyzed the ethnographic data, the researcher concluded that of the 14 issues reported by the school administrators, "financial matters" was the conflict issue most often reported. However, it should be noted that only a few statements were made by the participants concerning this issue. The 'B' and ”C” schools both had five different types of "other” conflicts while, the “A” schools only had one. The "A” schools had the lowest number of conflicts reported, when compared to the other two school groups. Finally, the 'role and responsibility of the chief administrator” was a source of conflict for the 'A' and 'B' schools only. The conclusions drawn from the statistical analysis and the eth- nographic analysis are consistent with each other with regard to fi- nancial matters. The statistical data revealed that the administra- tors from all three categories indicated that financial issues had caused conflicts in their schools, centering specifically around the ”lack of operational funds.“ Similar conclusions were extrapolated 277 from ethnographic data. However, there were some dissimilarities be- tween the two analyses. The "role and responsibility of the school board” was reported as a conflict issue by all three groups, but only one reference was made to this during the in-depth interviews. Con- versely, during the interviews a number of comments were made regard- ing the 'role and responsibility of the chief administrator” which was not considered as one of the first five major issues on the ques- tionnaire. After reviewing these analyses, the researcher concludes that all three enrollment size categories have conflict issues in common. Still, there are also a number of conflict issues unique to each school group. Recommendations The researcher offers the following recommendations to both school boards members and chief administrators of overseas schools anticipating that through mutual understanding and cooperation, these two groups can work together effectively for the benefit of the teaches, students, and parents involved with overseas schools throughout the world. 1. It is essential that there be confidentiality between the school board and its chief administrator in all matters per- taining to school personnel and negotiations. 2. All members of the school board should support the chief ad- ministrator fully both publicly and privately after deci- sions have been reached. 10. 278 The professional competence of the chief administrator should be valued by the school board. The school board and its chief administrator should define their roles clearly. The board's role is setting policy and the chief administrator's role is to administer the policies established by the board. The school board and its chief administrator should annually establish clearly understood goals for the school. The chief administrator should be evaluated annually based on an objective and honest assessment of professional per- formance. The school board and its chief administrator should develop strategies for effective communication skills to ensure the flow of information and to encourage an open, cordial atmo- sphere in which conflict issues may be discussed in a pro- fessional manner. The school board members and their chief administrator should be aware of their conflict mode styles in order that they may work more effectively with each other during times of conflict. The school board and its chief administrator should re- solve/manage conflict through consensus, thereby avoiding the win - lose scenario. There should be a certain amount of positive conflict in schools. Individuals should be encouraged to express their opinions and ideas in order to help stimulate and enrich the 279 school environment. New and creative ideas are needed so schools can continue to be institutions where young minds will be challenged and matured for future endeavors. W This study could be the seminal influence for expanding research into other American-sponsored overseas schools and international schools located in different regions throughout the world such as Africa, Asia, and South America. Another study involving other types of overseas schools might be completed including a larger number of participants like the British, DODDS, and missionary schools. An ethnographic study could be completed where only one or pos- sibly two schools would be studied in-depth for a period of three to six months. This would possibly enable a researcher to gain more in-depth understanding regarding conflict issues between school board members and chief administrators. Bsflsstisne Because conflict is an inevitable part of any organization, the first concern of the individuals involved with the organization should be in identifying conflict. Once the conflict has been deter- mined, the elements contributing to it should be recognized. When these two stages have been completed, the individuals in the organi- zation must learn how to resolve/manage it effectively. 280 Having completed this study, the researcher offers a number of insights regarding the data collected for this research. These re- flections are predicated on a set of feelings arising during the col- lection and interpretation of the data. Some or all of the conclu- sions drawn in these reflections may or may not be fully supported by the data collected. However, the intent of this exercise is to assist the reader in developing a greater insight into the relation- ship between the school board and its chief administrator in an over- seas school. During the course of reviewing the related literature, the re- searcher discovered that conflict is not always considered negative. Through his readings, he was able to substantiate the neutrality of the conflict as a subject of study. However, the researcher found it fascinating that nearly all the participants interviewed, with rare exceptions, defined conflict as negative, something destructive and to be avoided. Yet, when the participants were asked if they made the distinction between negative and positive conflict, the vast ma- jority said they did. Many were in fact able to give some very good examples of both types of conflict. Additionally, the researcher found that a high percentage of the school board members, generally business executives, welcomed posi- tive conflict and indicated that no organization could survive with- out some of it. Positive conflict was needed to both stimulate and create new and better ideas for the organization. Conversely, it was 281 the rare school administrator who had a similar attitude. The major- ity of them preferred avoiding conflict and said that a ”smooth run- ning ship” was important for the operation of a successful school. This administrative attitude leads the researcher to his next observation. During the time he spent interviewing, he believed the majority of individuals wanted the status quo maintained in the schools where little negative conflict was observed or recorded. If conflict was seen by the majority as negative, then most of the par- ticipants intentionally wanted to avoid it even at the risk of not having creative programs in their schools. Unfortunately, the researcher observed little positive conflict in a majority of the schools either- WW3.- W. This was possibly due to the type of schools that volunteered to participate in the study. It might be concluded that the schools who perceived them- selves as having little or no conflict would in fact be more recep- tive to participating in a research project of this nature. The re- searcher found only two schools where there was any substantial nega- tive conflict occurring. In one school, the chief administrator was leaving because of problems he had had with the board. In the other organization, again where the administrator was also leaving (but for another reason) they were in the middle of a conflict situation which had developed only a few weeks previous to the arrival of the re- searcher. One wonders if the conflict had been known before hand, would the researcher have been invited to visit the school. 282 Furthermore, the researcher concluded from his observations that a majority of the administrators he interviewed were not educational or instructional leaders but simply administrators. Many appeared to be working with the boards to maintain the status quo. One, in fact, said he knew the board was disorganized and wrong in its educational goals, but he was staying at the school temporarily to better his own professional career. He would stay a few years and then move on to a larger international school. One is left with the impression that he is politically astute but professionally shortchanging the students for whom he is responsible. Another observation made by the researcher was the considerable differences in perceptions between the school board members and the chief administrators regarding the conflicts in their schools. The only issue identified from the statistical data where both school board members and chief administrators agreed was the ”role and re- sponsibility of the school board.“ However, both groups in the eth- nographic data reported that ”financial matters” were the most press- ing conflict issues. As was suggested in the conclusions, the dif- ferent perceptions between these groups is itself a conflict issue. Understanding this discrepancy between perception, one is lead to ask, if both groups cannot identify similar conflicts in their schools, how can they begin to identify the contributing elements to these conflicts, and more importantly, the methods needed to manage the conflicts effectively. Still another observation concerns the surprising responses made by the parents. In the various schools with which the researcher had 283 been affiliated during the past 13 years, parents, because of the lack of other activities in the community, always have monitored the schools closely. In general, they know about most of the conflicts taking place in a school, negative or positive. Conversely, the par- ents in the study knew of few conflicts in their schools. Further- more, they were at times even reluctant and somewhat hesitant to dis- cuss these matters with the researcher. He now believes this situa- tion could have been created by the way in which the parents were se- lected for the interviews. The researcher asked each administrator to select two parents to participate in the study. In many cases, the parents were working in the school. Obviously, these parents were conveniently accessible for the interviews. More than likely, these parents were also friendly with the administrator. Since most of their jobs were unpaid positions, they would be working in the school as a favor to the administrator. Consequently, these parents were not the most objective individuals to have participate in the study. Unfortunately, few of these parents offered statements which shed light on any conflict in their schools. The researcher observed that most of the conflict occurring in the three school categories was coming from the ”B” schools. Possi- bly, this was because a majority of these schools had K—12 programs and small enrollments. The participants indicated they needed more funds to operate their schools. They had a serious problem because their enrollments were small and their school boards hesitant in con- tinuing to raise tuition fees for fear of having parents select other alternatives. 284 The “A" and 'C' schools also indicated they needed more funding to operate their schools, but it was obvious the '8' schools were trying to operate a K-12 school on a very restricted budget. This issue contributed to other types of conflicts which in turn aggra- vated the overall situation. The 'B' schools faced two problems in curriculum planning; parents in the communities putting pressure on the school to maintain the secondary school and the financial cost of maintaining a secondary staff, which is neither financially feasible or educationally sound. Interestingly, the lowest level of negative conflict was ob- served in the 'C' schools. These schools had larger enrollments and could therefore generate a sufficient amount of funds to operate their school effectively. Also, though it was not presented in the conclusions, the board members in the larger schools were older and had more senior positions than did their counterparts in the 'A' and 'B' schools. It should be remembered, the researcher concluded that more than two-thirds of all board members had served on a board for only six or fewer years. The additional years of experience in their own corporations, and possible extra years as board members, might possibly bring more stability to the 'C' schools. A similar conclu- sion might be drawn concerning the age and professional experience of the chief administrators in the 'C' schools. Consequently, these two variables appear to have an effect on the amount of conflict there is in the 'C' schools. As has been shown, schools, like all organizations, have a cer- tain amount of conflict. Important elements influencing the degree 285 of conflict can include, but are not limited to, the age and social status of board members, the length of term in office, the rationale for holding board appointments, and the fiscal stability of the school. In conjunction with these factors are the goals that an ad- ministrator may envision for a school. It appears that conflict is exacerbated in all these schools studied when administrative goals are deadlocked with fiscal responsibilities. Administrators with different goals concerning financial matters for a school might en- counter greater conflict with traditional-thinking board members at- tempting to maintain the status quo by avoiding the necessity of in- creasing tuition. By recognizing the uneasy necessity to expand edu- cational opportunities while functioning on limited capital re- sources, both school board members and chief administrators can plan for inevitable conflict and anticipate methods for resolution/ management . APPENDIX A U.S. STATE DEPARTMENT FACT SHEETS 286 A School DEPARTMENT OF STATE OVERSEAS SCHOOLS ADVISORY COUNCIL INTERNATIONAL SCHOOL OF HELSINKI Hattulantie 2 00550 Helsinki, Finland FACT SH BET '1'“- 711‘715 ' 1987/88 The International School of Helsinki is an independent co-educational day school which offers an eductional program from kindergarten through grade 8 for students of all nationalities. The School was founded in 1963. The school year comprises two semesters extending from August 13 to December 18 and from January 5 to Nay 31. Organization: The School is governed by a 9-member School Board, elected annually by the Parents' Association which sponsors the School. Membership in the Association is automatically conferred on the parents and guardians of children enrolled in the School. The Parents' Association is a formal association registered with the Finnish Ministry of the Interior in accordance with local legal requirements. Curriculum: The curriculum in kindergarten through grade 8 draws upon both British and American influences. The objective of the School is to provide a quality education to the enrolled children so that they may return to their own countries prOperly prepared for continuing their elementary' and secondary education. The School has part-time programs in Learning Disabilities, music, library, and Finnish Studies and language. A full time English-as-a-Second—Language Program is available for those students needing this support. French is taught in grades 6-8, computer studies in grades 6-8, and Finnish in grades K-8. There is an after-school clubs program. The School is approved by the Finnish Ministry of Education and is accredited by the New England Association of Schools and Colleges and the European Council of International Schools. Faculty: There were 9 full-time and 5 part-time faculty members in the 1987-88 school year, including 8 U.S. citizens, 2 host country nationals, and 4 persons of other nationalities. Enrollment: Enrollment at the opening of the 1987-88 school year was 92 (K-5, 70: and 6-8, 22). Of the total, 27 were 0.8. citizens, 17 were host country nationals, and 48 were of other nationalities. Of the 0.8. enrollment, 20 were dependents of U.S. Government direct-hire or contract employees, 5 of 0.5. business and foundation employees, and 2 of other private U.S. citizens. Facilities: The School occupies one floor of a large Finnish elementary/middle school building, which includes seven classrooms, a large ESL/Remedial Room, a library, a teachers' work room, a teachers' lounge and offices. In addition, there is access to a music room, an audio/visual room, and a cafeteria. Attached to the School is a large playground with playing field and small park, and there is access to the local swimming pool. A nurse is on duty and free dental services are available. Finances: In the 1987-80 school year, the School's income was derived from regular day school tuition and fees. Annual tuition rates were $6,444 for grades x-B. There is a registration fee of $111. These fees are payable in Finnish marks (ka. 4.5 - US $1) or U.S. dollars. (All the above fees are quoted in 0.8. dollars.) ' ' ' detailed in- : Sheet is intended to gerenol UlfOMM The Office of Overseas Schools (AM) has more _ rm,“ provided by the “Mom m. 1 Overseas Schools manna-min“ . . Woe weave of the school new“ to inquire fin-tha- of A/OS, or made: the school directly for more specific and woo-Wes information ray in; man, special m, and the like. Statistics as of September. 1987 287 8 School- DEPARTMENT OF STATE OVERSEAS SCHOOLS ADVISORY COUNCIL THE AMERICAN CULTURAL ASSOCIATION OF TURIN Vicolo Tiziano 10 10024 Honcalieri (Turin). Italy FACT SHEET r21. 645-967 or 640-7610 1987/88 The American Cultural Association of Turin is an independent co-educational day school which offers an educational program from nursery through grade 12 for students of all nationalities. The School also offers a pre-nursery program. The school year comprises two semesters extending from September 7 to January 22 and from January 23 to June 14. Organization: The School is governed by a G-member Board of Directors. Two of the Board members are honorary. members, two are elected for three-year terms, two for two-year terms, and two for one-year terms. The Headmaster is an ex-officio member of the Board. The American Cultural Association, sponsor of the School, is incorporated in the State of Delaware. Curriculum: The curriculum is that of U.S. general academic, college-preparatory public schools. Instruction is in English. Italian and French are taught as foreign languages. The School is accredited by the New England Association of Schools and Colleges and by the European Council of International Schools. Faculty: There were 15 full-time and 7 part-time faculty members in the 1987-88 school year, including 10 U.S. citizens, 4 host country nationals, and 8 persons of other nationalities. Enrollment: Enrollment at the opening of the 1987—88 school year was 159 (N-S, 92: 6-8, 45: and 9-12, 22). Of the total, 20 were U.S. citizens, 93 were host country nationals, and 46 were of other nationalities. Of the U.S. enrollment, 3 were dependents of 0.5. business and foundation employees and 17 of other private U.S. citizens. Facilities: The School is housed in renovated quarters near the castle in Honcalieri, a suburb adjacent to Turin. Facilities include classrooms, laboratory, library, music room, art room, cafeteria and playground area. A nearby public gymnasium and field are used for physical education. Finances: In the 1987-88 school year, the School's income was derived from regular day school tuition. Annual tuition rates were as follows: N (3 yr-old): $3,046: N (4 yr-old): $4,154: Kdg: $4,246: grade 1: $4,892: grade 2: $4,935: grade 3: $5,169: grade 4: $5,354: grade 5: $5,446: grade 6: $5,631: grade 7: $5,315: grade 9: $6,000: grade 9: $6,092: grade 10: $6,277: grade 11: $6,462: and grade 12: $6,554. There is also a registration fee of $308 for returning students and $385 for new students. These fees are payable in Italian Lire (Lit. 1,300 - US $1). (All the above fees are quoted in U.S. dollars.) ' ' ' detailed in- l'his Foot Shsst is intended to W general information. The Office offices-seas Schools (A/OS) has more _ fanatics provided by the school on the WI Overseas Schools MUCW. vs wears of the sehoclrzuya‘fifi to {Inquire [la-the:- cf AIDS, or unseat the school diuctly for more Wftc and spots-mes inform-o tan 9 .9 was, special program, and the like. Statistics as of September, 1987 288 C School [DEHQAJQTIfiEflV1'CJF’E?TIFFEI OVERSEAS SCHOOLS ADVISORY COUNCIL Tuamnnrmnmnm»smmt Veltwijcklaan 180 2070 Ekeren, Belgium FACT SHEET Tel. 541-6047 1987,88 The Antwerp International School is an independent co-educational day school which offers an educational program from pre-school through grade 12 for students of all nationalities. A post-graduate year is also available. The School was founded in 1967. The school year comprises four quarters extending from August 31 to October 28: from November 2 to January 22: from January 25 to March 31: and from April 1 to June 16. Organization: The School is governed by an ll-member Board of Directors. Curriculum: The curriculum is basically that of U.S. general academic, college-preparatory public schools. The International Baccalaureate program is also offered. Instruction is in English. Dutch, French and German are taught as foreign languages. Courses include extensive programs in Art, Music and Athletics, a European study tour, computer education, typing and ‘word processing. Activities include yearbook and school newspaper. Instruction in English-as-a-Second-Language is offered. The School's testing program includes the Preliminary Scholastic Aptitude Test, the Scholastic Aptitude Test, the National Herit Qualifying Tests and the College Entrance Examination Board tests. The School is accredited by the New England Association of Schools and Colleges and the European Council of International Schools. Faculty: There were 42 full-time and S part-time faculty members in the 1987-88 school year, including 25 U.S. citizens, 8 host country nationals, and 14 persons of other nationalities. Enrollment: Enrollment at the opening of the 1987-88 school year was 460 (PS-6, 284: 7-8, 55: and 9-12, 121). Of the total, 240 were U.S. citizens, 11 were host country nationals, and 209 were of other nationalities. Of the 0.8. enrollment, 162 were dependents of U.S. Government direct-hire or contract employees, 59 of U.S. business and foundation employees, and 19 of other private U.S. citizens. Facilities: The School is situated on a four-acre wooded estate. The campus includes a large converted mansion which houses the administration offices, the Eng]ish-as-a-Second-Language program, one foreign language room and a conference room: two buildings which accommodate the elementary and some middle school classrooms: a new complex which houses the kitchen and cafeteria, the main gymnasium area, dressing rooms, two science laboratories and art and music studios: and a new secondary school building which includes a computer center, the library and the A-v room. Local swimming pools and sports fields are also used for athletic activities. Finances: In the 1987-88 school year, annual tuition rates were as follows: Pre-s (half day): $1,628: Fre-x (r11 2 pm): $2,300: xdg.: $6,831, grades 1-5: $1,553: grade 6: $7,760: grades 7-8: 88,337: and grades 9-13: $8,870. These fees are payable in Belgian francs (BF 38.5 - US $1). (All the above fees are quoted in U.S. dollars.) ' ' detailed in- Sheet is intended to eneml intonation. The Office of Oneness Schools (l/x) has more . rm“ W by the “mien-cl Overseas Schools mum . PMspective users. of the school mists): to inquire fie-the:- of use. or wisest the school dimectly {cu- mcrs specific and up—tc-the-mumate snfcmtwn reg mg ace-lulu, special paw, and the like. Statistics as of September. 1987 APPENDIX D COVER LETTER TO CHIEF ADMINISTRATORS 293 U—203 Owen Graduate Center Michigan State University East Lansing, Michigan 48825 January 24, 1989 Dear Chief Administrator: Conflict affecting school board members and chief school administrators can serve both as an instrument for effective school operation and an impediment to good management. The professional relationship between these two groups has been identified as a critical building block for the orderly and productive operation of all schools. In an effort to examine the phenomenon of conflict in school management more fully, I am conducting a study of the role of conflict in American-sponsored overseas schools and international schools located in Europe as part of my doctoral dissertation research at Michigan State University under the direction of Dr. Peggy M. Riethmiller, Professor of Curriculum and Instruction. My own experience of some 13 years in overseas schools, has led to my interest in focusing on your school and others located in Europe. I am writing this letter to you to request your assistance in completing this study. Last summer I discussed this proposed study with Dr. Gray Mattern, ECIS Executive Secretary, and requested that he recommend a number of schools which he thought might be interested in participating in this research project. He suggested your school because of its enrollment size and geographical location. Ybur participation is voluntary. You may choose not to participate or, not to answer certain questions without penalty. If you are willing to participate in the study, please complete the enclosed questionnaire and return it to my address in England or in the United States g§_§ggn_§§_22§§1h1g. As the second step of the study, I would like to visit your school for one to two days between March 15 and April 15. In order to plan my itinerary, would you please complete the enclosed blue postcard? £1g1g3_;ggfl_gn§_zg§§:n thia_sard_szsn_thansh_12u_maz_n2t_ha_ahla_t2.92malsts_ths_iirst_nart 9£_thia_studr- During my visit, I would like to meet with you and the board members who responded to the questionnaire, individually. Each person would be requested to participate in a short interview (approximately 30 minutes) about the same time it will-take you to complete the questionnaire. Furthermore, with your permission, I also would be 294 interested in interviewing several professional staff members and several parents regarding the research topic. Details concerning these interview questions would be mailed to you upon request. Through this study I hOpe to identify arenas of conflict, elements that contribute to conflict, resolution and management of conflict, ways in which conflict affects professional teaching staff members and parents, and the relationship of conflict to school size. Your participation, along with the school board members, is very important to the validity of this research. The results of this study should be a positive contribution to current knowledge “sardine overseas schools. Wm mdmmmmmmmmmm. The study results will be made available to all participants and should be helpful in assisting school board members and chief administrators with understanding and managing overseas schools more effectively. Yours sincerely, T. Patrick Van Kampen Doctoral Student Peggy M. Riethmiller, Ph.D. Director of Dissertation APPENDIX E COVER LETTER FROM DR. LEWIS A. GRELL Association for the Advancement 0 International EdUCOI‘IOfi Room 200. Norman Holl College of Education lmwemydfl Golnesvllle Florida 82611 (mu)mn1542 TO: HEADS OF AMERICAN AND INT’NL SCHOOLS IN EUROPE FROM: LEWIS A. GRELL, EXECUTIVE DIRECTOR, AAIE‘SiéézggL, DATE: JANUARY 19, 1989 SUBJECT: RESEARCH QUESTIONNAIRE SCHOOL BOARDS & HEADS OF SCHOOLS CONFLICT STUDY T. Patrick Van Kampen, a doctoral candidate at Michigan State University, is currently doing research on the topic “Conflict Between School Board Members and Chief Administrators in American Sponsored Overseas Schools and International Schools." The results of this research should be a welcome addition to the literature on this topic. I urge each of you to participate by completing the questionnaire sent to you by Mr. Van Kampen. A summary of the study, without identifying the source in any way, will be published in a future edition of 133:1;Eg. Mr. Van Kampen will provide our office with a list of participants in order for us to send copies to any schools that do not currently hold membership in AAIE. ‘I’rsrmursr W Nestor Wm‘lm Dr. Leonard Sevignorio Dr. Lewis A. Grell American idiool Formdodon Execwive Director Hamburg Central School District Dondojito 215 PO. Box V 5005 Abbou Rood Mexico. D.F.. Mexico Buzzards Boy. Massachusetts 02582 Humbug, New Yorir 14075 APPENDIX F POSTCARD ACKNOWLEDGING RECEIPT OF QUESTIONNAIRE 296 Please (I) one response below and mail this card today! Dear Mr. Van Kampen, Date I will complete the questionnaire within the next week and mail it to your address in the U.K. or U.S. I also agree to participate in the interview part ol the research study. Our school has its Spring break lrom _/_ to _ /_ . m/d m/d It would be convenient to have you visit our school between _ /_ to _ /_. m/d m/d I will complete the questionnaire within the next week and mail it to your address in the U.K. or U.S. but I will not be able to participate in the interview part oi the research study. B Unlortunately, I will not be able to complete the questionnaire as requested. Name oi School Yours sincerely, APPENDIX C SCHOOL BOARD MEMBER'S QUESTIONNAIRE 297 SCHOOL BOARD QUESTIONNAIRE QQEEIDEEIIALIIX: This questionnaire is identified by a code number to simplify recordkeeping and follow-up procedures only. In reporting the results, NO INDIVIDUAL'S or SCHOOL'S IDENTITY WILL EVER BE REPORTED. Only group statistics will be used to summarize the findings. W. I. PERSONAL CHARACTERISTICS DIEEQIIQES: Please use a pencil to record your responses on the ANSWER SHEET that has been provided. ng_np; complete the name section on the answer sheet. Mark only one response to each question. Where blanks are provided, fill in the requested information. 1. Gender: 1. Male 2. Female 2. Age: 1. 20-29 4. 50-59 2. 30-39 5. 60 and over 3 40-49 3. What is your nationality? 4. Marital Status: 1. Single 3. Divorced/separated 2. Married 4. Widowed 5. How many children do you have? 1. O 3. 3-4 2. 1-2 4. 5 or more 6. At the present time, are one or more of your children attending another school? 1. Yes 2. No If yes, please explain. 10. 298 How many years have you lived in this community? 1. l - 2 years 4. 7 - 8 years 2. 3 - 4 years 5. 9 - or more 3. 5 - 6 years Which category best describes your educational level? W. Graduated from high school Some post secondary Graduated from college/university Master's degree Doctorate degree Other, please specify OU§UNH What is your occupation? Please indicate the approximate combined family income (salary only) for you and your spouse. $20,000 to $29,999 $30,000 to $39,999 $40,000 to $49,999 $50,000 to $59,999 $60,000 to $69,999 Other, please specify O‘U‘erND-t 299 II. GENERAL INFORMATION 11. How many 3:315 have you served as a board member? 1ng13§g_§hg axesen£_xsar. 4. 10 - 12 13 or more \le 00th, VI 1. 2. 3 12. In the most recent board election 1n_gh1;h_ygg_ggzg_g_ggnd1§a§g, were you an incumbent? 1. Yes 2. No 13. Which of the following statements reflects your gziginal membership on the school board? 1. I was gppgintgd to fulfill the unexpired term of a former board member. 2. I was giggtgg to a full term of my own. Which of the following were sources of encouragement for you to run for the school board originally? Circle 153 if it applies. Circle lie if it issues. 14. Yes No Your immediate family 15. Yes No Board members 16. Yes No Chief administrator 17. Yes No Other professional school personnel 18. Yes No Formal citizens' groups/organizations 19. Yes No Governmental and political figures 20. Yes No Friends 21. Yes No Other, please specify 22. Which of the following best describes 393; reason for seeking board membership? figlggt_gnly_gng. 1 I was motivated by duty. 2 I was motivated by a desire to obtain political experience. 3. I was motivated to represent a particular group(s). 4 Other, please specify 300 23. Which of the following categories best describes your 24. 25. participation in public affairs WW mgmhgxfihip? Select ggninnnt activity, if possible. figlggt_gnly EDE- . Active in civic/business/professional affairs . Active in political/governmental affairs . Active in educational affairs . Active in more than one of the above on gn_gpngzin§;gly_ggua1 basis 5. Not previously active bWNH When you were a candidate for the school board £91_;hg_£1;fit Ling, how different were your ideas about schools and school governance from those of Qghgz_g§n§id§§gg? 1. Very different 3. Not very different 2. Somewhat different 4. Not different at all When you campaigned for election (or were appointed) to the board for the first time, which of the following best describes ygu; position? We. 1. I was an We). in this school's policies and/or program(s). 2. I was supportive of the present status g;ggp;_f21_n1ng; ghgnggg I advocated. 3. I was interested in ngin;gining_§hg_§;§£g§_ggg; major changes were not needed. 301 III. SCHOOL BOARD - CHIEF ADMINISTRATOR CONFLICT DIBEQIIQHS: Listed below are possible issues that are confronted by school boards and chief administrators. Please rate the degree to which these represent significant areas of conflict between the school board and chief administrator in gay; school. Not a Moderately Very Source of Insign- Signi- Signi- Signi- Conflict ficant ficant ficant ficant 26. Communication failure 1 2 3 4 5 27. Performance expectations 1 2 3 4 5 28. Differences over method of management 1 2 3 4 5 29. Student exclusions, expulsions, and suspen- sions from school 1 2 3 4 5 30. Role and responsibility of the chief adminis- trator 1 2 3 4 5 31. Determining school calendar 1 2 3 4 5 32. Salary increases for professional and support staff members 1 2 3 4 5 33. Approval of annual budget 1 2 3 4 5 34. Role and responsibility of the school board 1 2 3 4 5 35. Preparation periods for teachers 1 2 3 4 5 36. Sharing information from variety of sources 1 2 3 4 5 37. 38. 39. 40. 41. 42. 43. 44. 45. 46. 47. 48. 49. Selection of pro- fessional staff members Graduation require- ments (where applicable) Impact of community pressure groups on the school Hidden agendas Curriculum issues, please specify Surprise items/infor- mation at board meetings Evaluation of the chief administrator Preparation for board meetings Personality clashes in school board meetings Value and goal differences Other, please specify 302 Not a Source of Insign- Conflict ficant 1 2 l 2 l 2 l 2 1 2 l 2 1 2 l 2 1 2 l 2 1 2 1 2 Moderately Signi- ficant Signi- ficant Very Signi- ficant 303 IV. OTHER CAUSES OF CONFLICT DIBEQIIQHS: The following is a list of some of the factors that might contribute to conflict between school boards and chief administrators. To what extent do 193 agree that each of these factors contribute to conflict between the aghggl hggxg on which you serve and the school's ghigf_lglinigtzg§gz. Strongly Disagree Neutral Agree Strongly Disagree Agree 50. Lack of trust 1 2 3 4 5 51. Personality differences 1 2 3 4 5 52. Lack of integrity 1 2 3 4 5 53. Lack of orientation 1 2 3 4 5 54. Lack of sincerity 1 2 3 4 5 55. Lack of communication 1 2 3 4 5 56. Cultural differences 1 2 3 4 5 57. Lack of expertise l 2 3 4 5 58. Lack of rapport 1 2 3 4 5 59. Lack of respect 1 2 3 4 5 60. Lack of leadership 1 2 3 4 5 61. Differences in educa- tional philosophies l 2 3 4 5 62. Lack of clear role definitions 1 2 3 4 5 63. Can you think of any other factors that are important sources of conflict between your school board and the chief administrator? I. No 2. Yes If yes, please list them here: 304 V. MANAGEMENT OF DIFFERENCES EXERCISE Digestigng: Consider situations in which you find your wishes differing from those of another person. How do you usually respond to such situations? Listed below are several pairs of statements describing possible behavioral responses. For each pair, please select the 'A' or 'B" statement which is most characteristic of your own behavior. In many cases, neither the 'A' nor the '8' statement may be very typical of your behavior; but please select the response which you would be more likely to use. 64. A. There are times when I let others take responsibility for solving the problem. B. Rather than negotiate the things on which we disagree, I try to stress those things upon which we both agree. 65. A. I try to find a compromise solution. B. I attempt to deal with all of his/her and my concerns. 66. A. I am usually firm in pursuing my goals. B. I might try to soothe the other's feelings and preserve our relationship. 67. A. I try to find a compromise solution. B. I sometimes sacrifice my own wishes for the wishes of the other person. 68. A. I consistently seek the other's help in working out a solution. B. I try to do what is necessary to avoid useless tensions. 69. A. I try to avoid creating unpleasantness for myself. B. I try to win my position. 70. 71. 72. 73. 74. 75. 76. 77. 78. 305 . I try to postpone the issue until I have had some time to think it over. . I give up some points in exchange for others. . I am usually firm in pursuing my goals. . I attempt to get all concerns and issues immediately out in the open. . I feel that differences are not always worth worrying about. . I make some effort to get my way. . I am firm in pursuing my goals. . I try to find a compromise solution. . I attempt to get all concerns and issues immediately out in the open. . I might try to soothe the other's feelings and preserve our relationship. . I sometimes avoid taking positions which would create controversy. . I will let the other person have some of his/her positions if he/she lets me have some of mine. . I propose a middle-ground. . I press to get my points made. . I tell the other person my ideas and ask for his/hers. . I try to show the other person the logic and benefits of my position. . I might try to soothe the other's feelings and preserve our relationship. . I try to do what is necessary to avoid tensions. 79. 80. 81. 82. 83. 84. 85. 86. A. 306 I try not to hurt the other's feelings. . I try to convince the other person of the merits of my position. . I am usually firm in pursuing my goals. . I try to do what is necessary to avoid useless tensions. . If it makes other people happy, I might let them maintain their views. . I will let other people have some of their positions if they let me have some of mine. . I attempt to get all concerns and issues immediately out in the open. . I try to postpone the issue until I have had some time to think it over. . I attempt to immediately work through our differences. . I try to find a fair combination of gains and losses for both of us. . In approaching negotiations, I try to be considerate of the other person's wishes. . I always lean toward a direct discussion of the problem. . I try to find a position that is intermediate between his/hers and mine. . I assert my wishes. . I am very often concerned with satisfying all our wishes. . There are times when I let others take responsibility for solving the problem. 307 87. A. If the other's position seems very important to him/her, I would try to meet his/her wishes. B. I try to get the other person to settle for a compromise. 88. A. I try to show the other person the logic and benefits of my position. B. In approaching negotiations, I try to be considerate of the other person's wishes. 89. A. I propose a middle ground. B. I am nearly always concerned with satisfying all our wishes. 90. A. I sometimes avoid taking positions that would create controversy. B. If it makes other people happy, I might let them maintain their views. 91. A. I am usually firm in pursuing my goals. B. I usually seek the other's help in working out a solution. 92. A. I propose a middle ground. B. I feel that differences are not always worth worrying about. 93. A. I try not to hurt the other's feelings. B. I always share the problem with the other person so that we can work it out. From: WWW. TuxedO. NY: Xicom. 1974. 308 VI. METHODS EMPLOYED TO PREVENT CONFLICT DIRECTIONS: Methods to create non-conflict patterns are employed by school boards and chief administrators for a more cordial and productive relationship. Please indicate the extent to which you agree with each of the following statements in contributing to the establishment of non-conflict patterns between 193 and your chief administrator. Strongly Strongly Disagree Disagree Neutral Agree Agree 94. The board's role is setting policy. 1 2 3 4 5 95. The chief administrator's role is implementing policy. 1 2 3 4 5 96. Board members are responsible for doing their homework so they can make informed decisions. 1 2 3 4 5 97. Confidentiality is essential between school boards and chief administrators in matters pertaining to school personnel and negotiations. l 2 3 4 5 98. School boards should support the chief administrator fully publicly and privately after decisions have been reached. 1 2 3 4 5 99. The chief administrator should develop the formal board agenda. 1 2 3 4 5 100. Board members and chief administra- tors should periodically attend professional conferences and workshops. l 2 3 4 5 101. Evaluation of the chief adminis- trator should be based on objective and honest assessment of professional performance. 1 2 3 4 5 102. The chief administrator advocates self-evaluation by the board. 1 2 3 4 5 103. The school board and chief adminis- trator establish clearly understood goals for the school. 1 2 3 4 5 104. The duties and responsibilities of the chief administrator are clearly delineated by the board. 1 2 3 4 5 309 Strongly Strongly Disagree Disagree Neutral Agree Agree 105. The competence of the chief adminis- trator is valued by the board. 1 2 3 4 5 106. The political wisdom of the board is respected by the chief adminis- trator l 2 3 4 S 107. Written and oral communication is a two-way process between chief administrator and board. 1 2 3 4 5 108. There are no surprises emanating from either the school board or chief administrator. I 2 3 4 5 109. The board members and chief administrator solve problems and make decisions together. 1 2 3 4 5 110. Orientation meetings are conducted for new board members. 1 2 3 4 5 111. Members of the board work together as a team rather than as a collection of individuals. 1 2 3 4 5 Thank you for your help with this research project. Please return the questionnaire and answer sheet in the gnglgggngnyglgpg, and AIR MAIL them to: T. Patrick Van Kampen T. Patrick Van Kampen W-203 Owen Graduate Center OR 5 Beaufort Gr. Michigan State University Morecambe, Lanes. LA4 6UP East Lansing, MI 48825 U.K. U.S.A. APPENDIX H CHIEF ADMINISTRATOR'S QUESTIONNAIRE 310 CHIEF ADMINISTRATOR QUESTIONNAIRE CQNEIDENIIALLIX: This questionnaire is identified by a code number to simplify recordkeeping and follow-up procedures only. In reporting the results, NO INDIVIDUAL'S or SCHOOL'S IDENTITY WILL EVER BE REPORTED. Only group statistics will be used to summarize the findinss- W- 1. PERSONAL CHARACTERISTICS DIRECTIONS: Please use a pencil to record your responses on the ANSWER SHEET that has been provided. ng_np§ complete the name section on the answer sheet. Mark only one response to each question. Where blanks are provided, fill in the requested information. 1. Gender: 1. Male 2. Female 2. Age: 1. 20-29 4. 50-59 2. 30-39 5. 60 and over 3 40-49 3. What is your nationality? 4. Marital Status: 1. Single 3. Divorced/separated 2. Married 4. Widowed 5. How many children do you have? 1. 0 3. 3-4 2. 1-2 4. 5 or more 6. How many years have you lived in this community? 1. l - 2 years 4. 7 - 8 years 2. 3 - 4 years 5. 9 - or more 3. 5 - 6 years 10. 11. 311 Which category best describes your educational level? Spggify samu- Bachelor's Degree Master's Degree Doctorate Degree Professional Degree (Law, Medicine) Specialist Degree Other, please specify OAUI§wNH Were you hired as chief administrator? I. from within the school system 2 from outside the school system How many chief administrator positions have you held including your present position? 1. l 2. 2 3. 3 4. 4 5. 5 or more How long have you been a chief administrator? 3 years 6 years 9 years 12 years - or more years UbUNI-I' wONbH e l 1 How long have you been a chief administrator at this assignment? 1 l - 2 years 2 3 - 4 years 3 5 - 6 years 4 7 - 8 years 5 9 - or more years 312 II. GENERAL INFORMATION For each of the election periods listed below, please indicate the number of ingnnhgngg who were either defeated or chose not to run for re~election. Number of incumbents Number of incumbents defeated not running a. Last election 12. 0 l 2 3 4 or more 13. 0 l 2 3 4 or more b. Two elections ago 14. 0 l 2 3 4 or more 15. 0 l 2 3 4 or more 16. Has a chief administrator left your school Lnyglnnggxily during the past two years 1. Yes 2. No 17. three years? 1. Yes 2. No 18. four years? 1. Yes 2. No 19. five years? 1. Yes 2. No 313 III. SCHOOL BOARD - CHIEF ADMINISTRATOR CONFLICT DIBEQIIQNS: Listed below are possible issues that are confronted by school boards and chief administrators. Please rate the degree to which these represent significant areas of conflict between the school board and chief administrator in yang school. up; a Moderately Very source of Insigni- Signi- Signi- Signi- conflict ficant ficant ficant ficant 20. Communication failure 1 2 3 4 5 21. Performance expectations l 2 3 4 5 22. Differences over method of management 1 2 3 4 5 23. Student exclusions, expulsions, and suspen- sions from school 1 2 3 4 5 24. Role and responsibility of the chief adminis- trator 1 2 3 4 5 25. Determining school calendar 1 2 3 4 5 26. Salary increases for professional and support staff members 1 2 3 4 5 27. Approval of annual budget 1 2 3 4 5 28. Role and responsibility of the school board 1 2 3 4 5 29. Preparation periods for teachers 1 2 3 4 5 30. Sharing information from variety of sources 1 2 3 4 5 31. 32. 33. 34. 35. 36. 37. 38. 39. 40. 41. 42. 43. 314 m: Selection of pro- fessional staff members Graduation require- ments (where applicable) Impact of community pressure groups on the school Hidden agendas Curriculum issues, please specify Surprise items/infor- mation at board meetings Evaluation of the chief administrator Preparation for board meetings Personality clashes in school board meetings Value and goal differences Other, please specify source of Insigni- conflict ficant Moderately Signi- ficant Signi- ficant Very Signi- ficant 315 IV. OTHER CAUSES OF CONFLICT DIBEQIIQNS: The following is a list of some of the factors that might contribute to conflict between school boards and chief administrators. To what extent do 129 agree that each of these factors contribute to conflict between the gghggI hggzg and the school's ghIgj;‘flnInIg;;gggx in your school. Strongly Disagree Neutral Agree Strongly Disagree Agree 44. Lack of trust 1 2 3 4 5 45. Personality differences 1 2 3 4 5 46. Lack of integrity 1 2 3 4 5 47. Lack of orientation 1 2 3 4 5 48. Lack of sincerity l 2 3 4 5 49. Lack of communication 1 2 3 4 5 50. Cultural differences 1 2 3 4 5 51. Lack of expertise l 2 3 4 5 52. Lack of rapport 1 2 3 4 5 53. Lack of respect 1 2 3 4 5 54. Lack of leadership 1 2 3 4 5 55. Differences in educa- tional philosophies l 2 3 4 5 56. Lack of clear role definitions 1 2 3 4 5 57. Can you think of any other factors that are important sources of conflict between your school board and the chief administrator? I. No 2. Yes If yes, please list them here: 316 V. MANAGEMENT OF DIFFERENCES EXERCISE DIEEQIIQHS: Consider situations in which you find your wishes differing from those of another person. How do you usually respond to such situations? Listed below are several pairs of statements describing possible behavioral responses. For each pair, please select the 'A' or '8” statement which is most characteristic of your own behavior. In many cases, neither the 'A' nor the 'B' statement may be very typical of your behavior; but please select the response which you would be more likely to use. 58. A. There are times when I let other take responsibility for solving the problem. B. Rather than negotiate the things on which we disagree, I try to stress those things upon which we both agree. 59. A. I try to find a compromise solution. B. I attempt to deal with all of his/her and my concerns. 60. A. I am usually firm in pursuing my goals. B. I might try to soothe the other's feelings and preserve our relationship. 61. A. I try to find a compromise solution. B. I sometimes sacrifice my own wishes for the wishes of the other person. 62. A. I consistently seek the other's help in working out a solution. B. I try to do what is necessary to avoid useless tensions. 63. A. I try to avoid creating unpleasantness for myself. B. I try to win my position. 64. 65. 66. 67. 68. 69. 70. 71. 72. 317 . I try to postpone the issue until I have had some time to think it over. . I give up some points in exchange for others. . I am usually firm in pursuing my goals. . I attempt to get all concerns and issues immediately out in the open. . I feel that differences are not always worth worrying about. . I make some effort to get my way. . I am firm in pursuing my goals. . I try to find a compromise solution. . I attempt to get all concerns and issues immediately out in the open. . I might try to soothe the other's feelings and preserve our relationship. . I sometimes avoid taking positions which would create controversy. . I will let the other person have some of his/her positions if he/she lets me have some of mine. . I propose a middle-ground. . I press to get my points made. . I tell the other person my ideas and ask for his/hers. . I try to show the other person the logic and benefits of my position. . I might try to soothe the other's feelings and preserve our relationship. . I try to do what is necessary to avoid tensions. 73. 74. 75. 76. 77. 78. 79. 80. A. 318 I try not to hurt the other's feelings. . I try to convince the other person of the merits of my position. . I am usually firm in pursuing my goals. . I try to do what is necessary to avoid useless tensions. . If it makes other people happy, I might let them maintain their views. . I will let other people have some of their positions if they let me have some of mine. . I attempt to get all concerns and issues immediately out in the open. . I try to postpone the issue until I have had some time to think it over. . I attempt to immediately work through our differences. . I try to find a fair combination of gains and losses for both of us. . In approaching negotiations, I try to be considerate of the other person's wishes. . I always lean toward a direct discussion of the problem. . I try to find a position that is intermediate between his/hers and mine. . I assert my wishes. . I am very often concerned with satisfying all our wishes. . There are times when I let others take responsibility for solving the problem. 81. A. 82. A. B 83. A. B 84. A. B 85. A. B 86. A. B 87. A. B From: 319 If the other's position seems very important to him/her. I would try to meet his/her wishes. . I try to get the other person to settle for a compromise. I try to show the other person the logic and benefits of my position. . In approaching negotiations, I try to be considerate of the other person's wishes. I propose a middle ground. . I am nearly always concerned with satisfying all our wishes. I sometimes avoid taking positions that would create controversy. . If it makes other people happy, I might let them maintain their views. I am usually firm in pursuing my goals. . I usually seek the other's help in working out a solution. I propose a middle ground. . I feel that differences are not always worth worrying about. I try not to hurt the other's feelings. . I always share the problem with the other person so that we can work it out. Want. Tuxedo. NY: Xicom. 197a. 320 VI. METHODS EMPLOYED TO PREVENT CONFLICT DIBEQILQES: Methods to create non-conflict patterns are employed by school boards and chief administrators for a more cordial and productive relationship. Please indicate the extent to which you agree with each of the statements in contributing to the establishment of non-conflict patterns between you and your board. Strongly Strongly Disagree Disagree Neutral Agree Agree 88. The board's role is setting policy. I 2 3 4 S 89. The chief administrator's role is implementing policy. I 2 3 a 5 90. Board members are responsible for doing their homework so they can make informed decisions. 1 2 3 A 5 91. Confidentiality is essential between school boards and chief administrators in matters pertaining to school personnel and negotiations. l 2 3 4 5 92. School boards should support the chief administrator fully publicly and privately after decisions have been reached. 1 2 3 4 5 93. The chief administrator should develop the formal board agenda. 1 2 3 a S 94. Board members and chief administra- tors should periodically attend professional conferences and workshops. l 2 3 4 5 95. Evaluation of the chief adminis- trator should be based on objective and honest assessment of professional performance. 1 2 3 a S 96. The chief administrator advocates self-evaluation by the board. 1 2 3 4 5 97. The school board and chief adminis- trator establish clearly understood goals for the school. 1 2 3 a 5 321 Strongly Strongly Disagree Disagree Neutral Agree Agree 98. The duties and responsibilities of the chief administrator are clearly delineated by the board. 1 2 3 a 5 99. The competence of the chief adminis- trator is valued by the board. 1 2 3 a 5 100. The political wisdom of the board is respected by the chief adminis- trator l 2 3 a 5 101. Written and oral communication is a two-way process between chief administrator and board. 1 2 3 4 S 102. There are no surprises emanating from either the school board or chief administrator. I 2 3 a 5 103. The board members and chief administrator solve problems and make decisions together. 1 2 3 a 5 104. Orientation meetings are conducted for new board members. 1 2 3 4 S 105. Members of the board work together as a team rather than as a collection of individuals. 1 2 3 4 5 Thank you for your help with this research project. Please return the questionnaire and answer sheet in the gnglgggg_gnxglgng, and AIR HAIL them to: T. Patrick Van Kampen T. Patrick Van Kampen V-203 Owen Graduate Center OR 5 Beaufort Gr. Michigan State University Horecambe, Lancs. LAA 60F East Lansing. MI 48825 U.K. U.S.A APPENDIX I INTERVIEW CONSENT FORM 322 INTERVIEW CONSENT FORM I have been informed that the purpose of this study is to investigate the conflicts between school board members and chief administrators in American- sponsored overseas schools and international schools. I understand that I will be asked to respond to questions that are the same for all participants in my sample group. I will be asked to make particular responses to specific questions and will be encouraged to respond freely to others. I un- derstand and consent to the tape recording of the interview. This study is voluntary for all participants. I understand that I am free to discontinue my participation in the study at any time without penalty. I understand that the results of this study will be treated in the strictest confidence and that I will remain anonymous. My individual response will not be made available to anyone. Transcriptions of the interviews will remain solely with the researcher and will be erased as soon as they are transcribed (within two weeks, approximately). I understand that I will not be identified in any way but will be assigned a code number. I understand that, at my request, an abstract of this study will be made available to me upon completion of the study, and that such summary information will be made available to others. Signature of Participant Today's Date APPENDIX J IN-DEPTH INTERVIEW SCHEDULE FOR SCHOOL BOARD MEMBERS AND CHIEF ADMINISTRATORS 323 L I School Board Member/ Chief Administrator W A. When I first mention the word conflict what does it mean to you? Some people distinguish between different types of conflicts, e.g. avoidable/unavoidable; creative/destructive; necessary/unnecessary; healthy/unhealthy. Do you make such distinctions? Yes No Under what conditions would conflict be 'negative'/"positive' (substitute ”negative"/"positive' for respondent's word choice)? One reads and hears about problems that affect schools such as financial matters, staff contracts, curriculum. What are some of the issues that are particular problems in this school that cause conflict between the school board and chief administrator. 324 Are there any important differences between what you think the job of a school chief administrator involves and the way the school board sees it? (School board refers to either the entire board or individual members.) Yes No If yes: Just what are these differences? If yes: B. How many members hold this different viewpoint? (Probes -- One? Two or more? Are they always the same people? Is it unpredictable?) C. How often do you take a stand that the majority of the board seems to disagree with? Would you say this happens often, sometimes, rarely, or never? Often Sometimes Rarely Never D. Would you say that there is a lot of disagreement, a moderate amount, or not very much within the board? A lot Moderate Not very much What would you say accounts for this? What kinds of things do the members disagree about? E. Are there any specific policy areas that you regard as strictly the chief administrators responsibility? By that I mean areas that the chief administrator doesn't consider it necessary or desirable to consult with the school board about. 325 5. We'd like to turn to a more general discussion of your management style when conflict situations exist. A. Some administrators/board members try to anticipate conflict before it occurs. Are you able to do this? If yes, What kinds of things do you do to anticipate conflicts before they emerge? (Probes -- determine range of potential disagreement between groups; delegate conflict management tasks to staff members; control information as best source; consult with individuals and/or groups making policy.) Assuming the conflict occurs, how is it possible to regulate or control? (Probes -- bring disrupting parties together privately; try to find areas of agreement within the conflict; create committee to study problem and make recommendations; contain conflict within staff to resist expansion; delay decisions until support can be found.) If attempts to contain conflict fail, what do you do to minimize remaining hard feelings? (Probes -- provide solutions for all to accept; engage in hand-off and bargaining; assert your official authority.) 326 MW Directions: Thinking about a conflict situation in your school to which the board is a party, or in which the board has a stake, answer the following questions: 0 What is the situation? -What seems to be the cause? ~Who's involved? ~At what stage in the conflict cycle? 0 What solutions have been proposed or tried so far? With what success? 0 The conflict would be considered by all to be resolved or managed if... 0 Other suggestions for solutions: APPENDIX K SCHOOL BOARD MEMBER'S VIGNETTES 327 W WEB As a result of recent elections, a new member has joined your board. This person was elected because of changes he wants to make in the district. Specifically, he wants to place greater emphasis upon the “basics“ in all phases of the instructional program. He has hinted that “if this takes getting rid of the superintendent and some teachers, then that's what we'll do!“ You and other members of the board hired the superintendent two years ago because of his strengths in instructional leadership. At that time, the board wanted to broaden the district program to include career education and more elective offerings for college bound kids. Question: How to handle the challenger? My Board Chaise 53:21.29. A. Ignore him, believing that in time he will "get the message,” and come more in line with you and the other board members. B. Make it clear to him that you disagree with his position, will work to see that he is 'outgunned' on critical voting. C. Move to reassess board priorities in instruction, allowing the new member the opportunity to have his say. D. Move to direct the superintendent to conduct an assessment of student achievement and career goals, hoping that these will put to rest the new board member's concerns. E. Other. 328 Miami W The parents of a good student, a generally responsible youngster, have come to you with complaints about the teachings of a social studies teacher. They claim the teacher is using biased materials and giving slanted opinions in his classes. Further, they claim that when their child tried to question the materials and opinions, she was greeted with sarcasm and threats of having her grade lowered. The matter is further complicated by the father's strong influence in the community, and he demands evidence of action immediately. Question: What action do you take? My Board Chaise 9112193. A. Agree with the parents that the teacher is wrong and indicate that you will contact the teacher and apply censure in some form. B. Call the building principal and have the child transferred into another classroom with a teacher whose techniques and methods are well known to you, knowing this will placate the parents. C. Call the superintendent and ask for some corroboration of the incidents; then proceed with action. D. Assist the parents in making an appointment with the superintendent and advise them that if the problem is not resolved to their satisfaction they have the right to appear before the board of education at its next regular meeting. B. Other. 329 mm W A seven member board has had a recent history of a four-three split in voting. The board is debating an umbrella motion containing recommendations for the award of six bids. One board member (of the minority faction) takes issue with the recommendation of award of a bid for what she calls I'junk foods.“ Two other board members (of the majority faction) take issue with a recommendation to purchase an 'extravagantly priced" musical instrument. As the debates continues, it becomes clear that neither side will be persuaded by the arguments of the other. Finally, the chairman calls for a vote on the umbrella motion, and the board, with one member absent, deadlocks in a three-to-three vote . What would you do? My Board A. Move to vote on the bid recommendations separately. B. Move to table the umbrella motion until the seventh member returns. C. Approach the disagreeing board members individually at a break and encourage them to change their vote on the umbrella motion. In exchange, offer your vote on some future issue. D. Consider changing your vote on the motion in order to resolve the deadlock. E. Other action. APPENDIX L IN-DEPTH INTERVIEW SCHEDULE FOR PROFESSIONAL STAFF MEMBERS AND PARENTS 330 [ ] Teacher/Parent W A. When I first mention the word conflict what does it mean to you? Some people distinguish between different types of conflicts, e.g. avoidable/unavoidable; creative/destructive; necessary/unnecessary; healthy/unhealthy. Do you make such distinctions? Yes No Under what conditions would conflict be 'negative'/'positive' (substitute "negative”/"positive” for respondent's word choice)? 331 3. One reads and hears about problems that affect schools such as financial matters, staff contracts, curriculum. What are some of the issues that are a particular problem in this school that cause conflict between the school board and chief administrator. 4. What are your perceptions of how these conflicts affect the school and community directly/indirectly? 332 AJanfliaLSitaatian Dirgggigngz Thinking about a conflict situation in your school to which the board is a party, or in which the board has a stake, answer the following questions: 0 What is the situation? ~What seems to be the cause? -Who ' s involved? -At what stage in the conflict cycle? 0 What solutions have been proposed or tried so far? With what success? 0 The conflict would be considered by all to be resolved or managed if... 0 Other suggestions for solutions: APPENDIX M LETTER OF APPROVAL FROM UNIVERSITY COMMITTEE ON RESEARCH INVOLVING HUMAN SUBJECTS 333 MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY uwwnsrn costumes ON arsenal INVOLVING usr unsmc . nuancm . menu Hum saunas (none) as my HALL (517) 333.973: January 31, 1989 W T. Patrick VanKampen W-203 Owen Grad Center Dear Mr. VanKampen: Re: ”CONFLICT BETWEEN SCHOOL BOARD MEMBERS AND CHIEF ADMINISTRATORS IN AMERICAN-SPONSORED OVERSEAS SCHOOLS AND INTERNATIONAL SCHOOLS W32” The above project is exenépt from full UCRIHS review. I have reviewed the proposed research rotocol and fin that the rights and welfare of human subjects appear to be protecte . You have approval to conduct the research. You are reminded that UCRIHS approval is valid for one calendar ear. Ifyou plan to continue this project beyond one year, please make provisions for o taining appropriate UCRIHS approval anamanthmaualannw Any changes in procedures involvin human subjects must be reviewed by the UCRIHS prior to initiation of the chan e. U RIHS must also be notified promptly of any problems (unexpected side e ects, complaints, etc.) involving human subjects during the course of the work. Thank you for bringing this pro'ect to our attention. Ifwe can be of any future help, please do not hesitate to let us ow. Sincerely, J hn’K. udzik. Ph.D. air, UCRIHS JKH/sar cc: P. Riethmiller MSU it at Affirmative Action/Equal Opportunity Institution APPENDIX N PARTICIPATING AMERICAN¢SPONSORED OVERSEAS AND INTERNATIONAL SCHOOLS GROUPED ACCORDING TO STUDENT ENROLLMENT SIZE FOR 1988-89 334 School/Country Program Enrollment ”A” Schools (1-150) International School of Helsinki, Finland K-8 100 American International of Budapest, Hungary K-8 90 American International School of Genoa, Italy K-8 75 American International School of Rotterdam, The Netherlands K-8 120 aAmerican School of Bucharest, Romania K-8 100 8International School of Belgrade, Yugoslavia K-8 117 "B" Schools (151-300) American International School of Cote d'Azur, Nice, France K-l2 240 American School in Aberdeen, (Scotland) United Kingdom K-12 210 American Cultural Association of Turin, Italy K-12 152 8American School of Warsaw, Poland K-8 151 Benjamin Franklin International School, Barcelona, Spain K-12 160 8American School of Bilbao, Spain K-8 235 335 School/Country Program Enrollment 'C' Schools (301-600) Antwerp International School, Belgium R-12 400 International School of Dusseldorf, West Germany K-12 410 International School E.V. (Hamburg), West Germany K-12 540 8American Overseas School of Rome, Italy ‘ K-lZ 480 International School of Amsterdam, The Netherlands K-12 400 Stravanger American School, Norway K-12 330 Note. 8Participants in these schools completed the questionnaire only. APPENDIX 0 SCHOOL BOARD MEMBERS' AND CHIEF ADMINISTRATORS' STATEMENTS 336 Financial matters: - Problems in general. - Salary negotiations. - Staff salaries. Staffing: - Chief administrator didn't have control of what the staff was doing. Curriculum issues: - Interpretation of individual subjects (i.e., math and reading). Some board members have preconceptions abut curriculum - Reading program - chief administrators has some very strong ideas about the reading program. Policy issues: - Admission's policy - (Criteria) - We have to accept so many non-English speakers. How many host nationals do we accept? Who do you let in? - Chief administrator was hiring staff and following procedures that weren't necessary policies approved by the board. He was not following written policy. Role and responsibility of the chief administrator: - Chief administrator strengths lie in educational matters. He doesn't enjoy administrative activities. Not good in administrative details. - Chief administrator wasn't anticipating ahead for particular problems or issues (i.e., hiring teachers). School calendar: - Number of contract days that should be worked by the teachers. Every school day should be attended by the children. Financial matters: - Don't have funds to hire everyone that we need. - Selection of way to spend money. What are the priorities? - Teachers salaries. 337 - Lack of money. - Always a concern with a small school. Staffing: - Are we attracting the best teachers for the school? Difficulty for board members to assess since they do not attend the recruiting fairs. Curriculum issues: - Lack of development for the I.B. program. - Selection or introduction of new programs. Chief administrator is in the position to make decision but is the board willing to go along with his ideas? - Introduction of the I.B. program. Priorities are different between the board and the chief administrator. Accrediation: - Chief administrator didn't want to complete the process several years ago. - Teachers want more time to complete the self-study. (School just moved into new facilities). Teacher representative on the board of education: - The right for a faculty member to be a “voting" member of the board. Communications: - Lack of by the chief administrator. Dismissal: - Elementary principal was dismissed. Conflict of interest: - Chairman of the board was legal council for the board and charged for his services. Chief administrator thought this was correct, some board members did not agree. Teacher evaluation: - Parents have complained that a secondary math teacher is too difficult for the students. Half of the students in the classes need to have tutors to maintain good grades. 338 Personality clash: - Previous chairman of the board was very strong and wanted the chief administrator to do things his way. Public relations: - Previous chief administrator's poor relationship with the host country community. Problem solving: - Previous chief administrator's lack of ability to solve problems. Staff/Chief Administrator's conflict: - A group of teachers approached the board and complained that the chief administrator was not working with them. Board is now working closer with the staff. Board has told staff that they are appreciated. Financial matters: - Lack of regard for the budget. - Not foreseeing some of the expenses that should have been put in the original budget. - Always coming to the board with new ideas - Not really a good year plan set up. He always added items. _ Everything is so costly (i.e., maintenance of the building). - Source of money a problem - We've been close to bankruptcy several times. - Chief administrator would ask for a program and the board would say can we afford it? - Fiancee have always bee a problem. When the enrollment drops where do you find the money? This is really not the fault of the chief administrator but some board members would like to blame him. Staffing: - Complaints from the community about certain teachers that were hired. This ultimately got tot he board. - Chief administrator fired a teacher to make room for his wife on the staff. 339 Curriculum issues: - With more than 40 nationalities plus, the fact of trying to serve students who are both academic and non-academic - The school has been more for the elite of the school and has left the others behind. - Change of foreign language - Replaced one with another. Communications: - There is a lack of communications between the board and the chief administrator. - Major area that affects everything - Board isn't as well informed as it should be. People don't always know what is happening. Role and responsibility of the chief administrator: - Different board members want different things from the chief administrator (i.e., accountants want this and lawyers want that etc.). Cultural differences: - Interpretation of rules - Americans vs. Europeans. ShiaiaaninisarataraLfiaaaamanas Financial matters: - Salary differences between staff members - Taxation - Those teachers who pay local income tax and those who aren't paying. American staff don't pay but other nationalities do (i.e., 35 to 452). - Not enough money for staff compensation, teaching materials, facilities. Role and responsibility of the chief administrator: - Board wants an administrator and I want to be involved in the teaching aspect. - Some board members want to participate more in the administrative part of the school then they should. Staff evaluations: - Board wants a type of evaluation that can look at individuals who are growing professionally. Not reward just for years put in - Because of low turn over rate, most teachers are on the high end of the scale. 340 In. Sghggla Financial matters: - There's not been an adequate amount of funds to run the needed programs. - Lack of money - No systems, new school. - New board members wants to form an ad-hoc committee to look at the current salary and compensation package. Staffing: - Entrenched staff - Many staff members here for many years - Difficult in this country to get rid of these people. Policy issues: - Lack of written policies. Role and responsibility of the chief administrator: - One board did nothing, wanted the chief administrator to do everything. Another board wanted to be the administrator of the school. Apathy: - Many board members do not want to be on the board. Legal fees: - My expenditures of legal fees over a period of two years. Conflict of interest: - Board voted that the chairman of the board could not longer act as legal council for the school. Teacher representative on the board of education: - Special situation here - The faculty representative to the board votes. There have been conflicts with this individual concerning faculty remunerations. IQ” Sghgglfi Financial matters: - Annual preparation of the budget. Tuition is always raised more than the rate of inflation. Why? 341 - Financial problems linked to curriculum problems. Might be a demand for a program but insufficient funds to support it. Raising fees to support these programs causes conflict. - Salary scale - No scale at the moment - Scale foreign to the businessmen on the board - Teachers get raises but not all equally. I can see rhyme and reason for most raises but not all. Staff contracts: - Staff contracts have evolved like (name of the country) business contracts. This is a direct manifestation of business vs. Ideology. Staffing: - Timing of the announcement of the reduction in staff because of falling enrollments - Different mind set between the chief administrator and chairman of the board. Communications: - Rumor has it. Physical facilities: - Need for a fine arts building. School calendar: - Chief administrator wants more inservice days. Staff wants the starting date earlier than do some of the board members. Role and responsibility of the board members: - Generally, new board members want to interfere in the chief administrator's responsibility (i.e., that teacher is weak). APPENDIX P PROFESSIONAL STAFF MEMBERS' AND PARENTS STATEMENTS 342 Sahaal - Any conflict deeply affects the staff and the students. Morale is low. Teachers don't work well under stressful situations. Students lose out because teachers don't feel like teaching — loss of energy. - Not a happy environment or atmosphere. - If one teacher or group of teachers is down or affected, this causes others to be down. - After school, you just want to go home and not run. - You don't feel like teaching. - Stress levels go up - negativism goes up too. Teachers' attitudes go down. Conflict can be unhealthy mentally. This can be contagious. - Affects the staff directly by the policies that are decided upon (i.e., longer teaching day. Indirectly - staff morale). - There is a lack of communication between the board and the chief administrator. This causes the staff to feel isolated and polarized. - Board and chief administrator are afraid to confront issues. If the school is running smoothly and is not a financial deficit, we've ok! - Issues are not being addressed. Problems are not resolved or a few people end up doing all the work. - Staff was disappointed in salary increase, but they did not let this affect their teaching. - It will take time for some of the staff members to respect or warm up to certain board members after the board made their final salary offer. - I (locally hired teacher) make a lower salary than the overseas hired teachers do. I can not participate in all after school activities (like, field trips), because I can not financially afford to. - I don't know of any of the staff members who have complained publicly to any of the parents about this situation. Not general knowledge - Most parents are unaware of the situation. Teachers are not known in the community as being a disgruntled lot. 343 Canaan: - If the parents feel that the school isn't meeting certain needs, then they'll be frustrated and pick up on the discontent. Students pick up on their parents' unhappiness with the school. - Parents pick up on this because their kids don't want to come to school. - Directly - decisions about busing routes, length of day. - Indirectly - cause for rumors, lack of communication. - Board is not that knowledgeable about their role, therefore there is no leadership. Lack of unity and this directly affects the community. Sahaal - Conflict would affect the school quite a bit. Recently, some staff contracts were not being considered for renewal. These staff members became very uneasy with the situation. The board and chief administrator were discussing the issue of who would stay and who would go. - A number of years ago, the board wanted to dismiss the chief administrator. This had a major affect on the staff. The future was uncertain. Bad for staff, this uncertainty - Staff turnover situation was a problem. - Conflicts have affected morale of the staff and the community. - Opinion of the school was poor at one time. Some parents were sending their children to local schools. - This staff is split because of the poor situation between the board and the chief administrator. - Some teachers react negatively toward one another. There's not a unified staff here. - Maybe the chief administrator and school board members are not fulfilling their responsibilities. - If you don't respect your chief administrator, you don't feel like doing a lot to promote the school. - We say nothing to parents about school problems. - Splits among the faculty, if they get into the issue, can create a pretty depressing morale problem among teachers. Lose faith in school - Question the chief administrator of the school. - A number of teachers take a soldiering-on kind of attitude. We have our class and we get through to the best of our ability. Within my class, I can control the environment. 344 - Concern about the direction of the school - Lack of organization. - Lack of security - Staff wants a sense of more direction. Board needs to be educated about the large amount of talent the staff has to offer. - The board makes the chief administrator ineffective by trying to interfere in the running of school affairs. - There is a push me/pull me attitude about the finances. School doesn't get what they want or need. - The staff is badly paid. I don't know if this is because of a conflict between the board and the chief administrator. - Attitude towards the board spills over into attitudes about the community. Board members are representatives for the community. - Even though the staff tries to be professional and not allow their personal feelings to enter into the classroom, it is nearly impossible. - Morale is affected greatly. Home life is affected. How I feel about doing extra things at school - coming to school. Qammisx - Any conflict between these two leaves the community with a doubt of who they can trust. - Some of the community members will believe the board because they have friends on the board and won't listen to the chief administrator. - If an issue started as a private affair, and then became public and out of control; This should be avoided. Sshaal - Absolute catastrophe. - Staff can become divided - bad atmosphere - low morale of the staff and students. - Situation becomes unpredictable. - Teachers become insecure. - Situation becomes very unstable. - Situation can go one direction or the other very quickly, since it's not controlled by the state bureaucracy. - Takes the sap out of people - lessons suffer. - In some cases, individuals decide not to become involved and, in fact, keep their nest clean (kingdom tight). The conflict can 345 have a positive affect on these people. They shut out the problems and work harder in their classrooms, so as not to be distracted. Also, some may have the fear that if they participate in a conflict, and they are on the losing side when the dust settles, they, in fact, may be losers. Morale down. Affects the school because a lot of time and energy goes into not resolving the conflict but propagating it. Maybe an individual staff member may have something to gain politically by keeping a conflict going. They may propagate it for personal reasons. If the chief administrator can't resolve the problem with the board, he is forced to look outside for support... for his point of view. In doing so, he creates different camps among the faculty. This, then, can lead to a bad morale situation. The board members will do the same. They will look for support among the staff for their ideas. They are parents and will affect other parents. Any conflict affects the school and the community. People's approach to their work, the amount of energy needed to work properly, is greater because of the stress factor. School loses its unity. Morale is affected. Staff tends to stay together in little cliques. Leadership is very important in this situation. Parents become suspicious when the board and the chief administrator are not working together. This disunity spreads very quickly. If staff are not professional and keep their feelings to themselves, this can be chaotic for the students. People are beginning to polarize into groups. (staff - parents - board) There is an increase of friction between the groups. If there is conflict between the board and the chief administrator, this causes factions among the staff and other groups. Staff may become alienated from the chief administrator, because they don't know what the conflict is. Partly they don't know what side the chief administrator is on. Where does the chief administrator stand on the issue? This depends on how the conflict is dealt with between the board and the chief administrator. A good board and chief administrator relationship should be one where they show unity and don't show conflict to the staff. These conflicts should not be discussed with the staff and, more 346 importantly, students shouldn't know about these conflicts. If they don't know, then they won't be affected. Morale point of view - Board and chief administrator are discussing how to phase out these teachers with a long tenure at the school. Very minor affects on me as a teacher and minor affects on the students. menu They are sensitive to the moods of the teachers. Things are not going right so they can feel this. A weak faculty member would resort to discussing an issue with students. They in turn would talk to their parents without really understanding what's going on. These parents could then bring pressure on the teachers. If staff are affected, then the students will be affected. We deal with students on a day-to-day basis. Students inevitably hear it from their parents. Parents are often indiscreet, teachers too. Camila: Parents get into camps. Matters get discussed at the dinner table. Community gets a poor image of the school. If the community knows these conflicts, they get negative feelings about the school. Co-operation from the community falls off. They are less interested in supporting the school, which is essential. Reputation within the local host country community (i.e. cutting down trees to build a new building). Parents are affected by the decisions that are made by the board and the chief administrator. 347 mm We parents look at the chief administrator as the authority of the school and for guidance. If he can't handle conflicts with the board, this may be an indication of how the school is being run in 5 general. As an adult, I expect him to handle these problems. When there is a conflict between the board and the chief administrator, it has a direct affect on the parents. Last year, the bus route was changed. The parents were not asked their opinion. The chief administrator had one idea and the board had another. When the decision was finally made the parents were affected. is In our particular school, I don't think this affects the school or community. Board meetings are closed to the community, so no one knows what the conflicts are between the board and the chief administrator. Board minutes are not published, so the parents don't know what is going on, except that the school is functioning. Board works in subcommittees. They present final recommendations to the whole board. Problems and conflicts don't surface at the general board meetings. I have been here for three years and have not been aware of any conflicts between the board and the chief administrator. Impossible to answer the question. Sahaal Any type of conflict has to have an affect on the teachers. It's better to have a smooth-running school than to have conflicts going on. When the teachers are unhappy this can have a negative affect on the students. 348 Camiar - As a human being, I know if you have a board, chief administrator, and a staff, you are going to have conflict. Can't work together without having some type of conflict. - This conflict could affect me. One will concede and one will win on an issue. This decision will have an affect on me, especially if they don't come up with a compromise. - I don't know how you could avoid affecting people. - This type of conflict is extremely destructive, because the community has one major company and any problems affect the entire community. People here work and party together. We have a tightly knit community. Other types of overseas communities have small separate groups within the community. This community is not like that. - Community is very tightly knit. Any serious problem would have serious consequences for the community. ~ Any problems would be destructive for the teachers and all who were involved. - There have been many. I don't know what they've been about. I'm not a member of the board and have not attended the few board evenings. - Pupils have been unhappy. Older students become close to teachers, know more about school situation than is good. Who likes who etc. - In the past, the board wanted the chief administrator to leave. This caused a big split in the community. Some parents were pro board and others were pro chief administrator. This happened seven years ago and we are still talking about this today. - The board and the chief administrator were having some problems. When the chief administrator finally decided to leave some of the parents were upset and threatened to take their children away from the school. - Finances affect the parents directly. The parents may have to be asked to pay more tuition. 349 Sahaal - The chief administrator was having problems with the board. She finally decided to leave the school. The staff liked working with her and wanted her to stay. Students - Students were effected last year by not knowing whether there would be a secondary school or not. This effected them directly and indirectly. Camin - The school is the community and the community is the school, so any conflicts directly affect both groups (i.e., rumors). They can get out of proportion - misunderstandings. - When staff members are unhappy, parents are used as pawns in the game. - School's reputation for parents. - People's perception may not be good. Maybe because of financial reasons. - In most cases, unless the parent's community is directly involved, they wouldn't be aware of any conflict between these two groups. - Last year, a survey was sent out to the parents concerning the school's language program. I don't know where the chief administrator stood on the issue or where the board stood either. The two groups appeared to be one group. If he exerted any influence on the board, he did it very quietly. fiahaal - Factions would form - Pros and cons - Then this would cause a bad atmosphere among the staff. This is never good in a small community. An international community is a tight one, almost incestuous. You work and socialize with the same people. APPENDIX Q PERCENTAGE OF ELEMENTS THAT CONTRIBUTED TO CONFLICT AS REPORTED BY SCHOOL BOARD MEMBERS 350 WWW Wheaten Issue/Element Response Percentage Financial 16 34.7 -Salary negotiations. -Don't have funds to hire everyone that we need. F -Selection of way to spend money. What are the priorities? -Chief administrator would ask for a program and the board would say “can we afford it?” -Source of money a problem - “We've been close to bankruptcy several times." -Chief administrator had a lack of regard for the budget. -Everything is so costly (i.e., maintenance for the building etc.) -Fiances have always been a problem. When the enrollment drops where do you find the money? This is really not the fault of the chief administrator but some board members would like to blame him. 'F ”Edgar-.1“ Curriculum 7 15.1 -Interpretation of individual subjects (i.e., math and reading). Some board members have preconceptions about curriculum. -Selection or introduction of new programs. Chief administrator is in the position to make decision but is the board willing to go along with his ideas? -Introduction of the International Baccalaureate (I.B.) Program - priorities are different between the board and the chief administrator. oWith more than 40 plus nationalities, the fact of trying to serve students who are both academic and non-academic the school has been more for the elite of the school and has left the others behind. Staffing 4 8.6 -Are we attracting the best teachers for the school? Difficult for board members to assess since they do not attend the recruiting fairs. ~Complaints from the community about certain teachers hired. This ultimately got to the board. 351 Issue/Element Response Percentage Role and responsibility of the chief administrator 3 6.4 -Chief administrator's strengths lie in educational matters. He doesn't enjoy administrative activities. Not good in administra- tive details. -Different board members want different things from the chief administrator (i.e., accountants want this and lawyers want that, etc.). Communications 3 6.4 -There is a lack of communications between the board and the chief administrator. -Major area that effects everything - board isn't as well informed as it should be. People don't always know what is happening. Policy 2 4.2 -Admission's policy - we have to accept so many non-English speakers. How many host nationals do we accept? Who do you let in? What admissions criteria do we establish? -Chief administrator was hiring staff and following procedures that weren't necessary policies approved by the board. He was not following written policy. Accreditation 2 4.2 -Chief administrator didn't want to complete the process several years ago. Others 10 20.6 - Personality clash - The previous chairman of the board was very strong and wanted the chief administrator to do things his way. - School calendar - Teacher evaluation - Public relations - Teacher representative on the school board 352 Issue/Element Response Percentage - Professional staff member dismissal - Conflict of interest - Problem-solving - Professional teaching staff and chief administrator conflict - Cultural differences APPENDIX R PERCENTAGE OF ELEMENTS THAT CONTRIBUTED TO CONFLICT AS REPORTED BY CHIEF ADMINISTRATORS 353 WWW sajaniliaLeLBsaaraasLhLthaLAdmihimaaara Issue/Element Response Percentage Financial matters 8 33.3 -Salary differences between staff members - taxation - those teachers who pay local income tax and those who aren't paying. American staff don't pay but other nationalities do (35 to 451 of their salaries). -Not enough money for staff compensation, teaching materials or facilities. -Annual preparation of the budget. Tuition is always raised more than the rate of inflation. Board asks why? -Financial problems linked to curriculum problems. Might be a demand for a program, but insufficient funds to support it. Raising fees to support these programs causes conflict. Role and responsibility of “ the chief administrator 3 12.5 -Some board members want to participate more in the administrative part of the school than they should. -One board did noting, wanted the chief administrator to do every- thing. Another board wanted to be the administrator of the school. Staffing 2 8.3 -Entrenched staff - many staff members here for many years - difficult in this country to get rid of these people. -Timing of the announcement of the reduction in staff because of falling enrollments - different mind-set between the chief administrator and chairperson of the school board. Others 11 45.8 - Staff contracts - Staff contracts have evolved like (name of country) business contracts. This is a direct manifestation of business vs. Education ideology. - Role and responsibility of the school board members - Generally, new board members want to interfere with the chief administrator's responsibilities (i.e., that teacher is weak). 354 Table 27 cont'd Issue/Element Response Percentage - Apathy - Many board members do not want to be on the board. - Policy - Lack of written policies - Communications - Rumor has it - School calendar - I want more inservice days. Staff wants the starting date earlier than do some of the board members. - Staff evaluations - Board wants a type of evaluation that can look at individuals who are growing professionally, not reward just for years put in - because of low turn-over rate, most teachers are on the high end of the scale. - Conflict of interest - Board voted that the chairman of the board could no longer act as legal council for the school. - Teacher representative on the board - Special situation here - the faculty representative to the board votes. There have been conflicts with this individual concerning faculty remunerations. - Legal fees - My expenditures of legal fees over a period of two years. - Physical facilities - Need for a fine arts building BIBLIOGRAPHY 355 Aleshire, F. J. (1981). The Dynamics of Communication and Trust as School Board and Superintendent Prepare for Public Meetings (Doctoral dissertation, Arizona State University, 1980). MW. .42. 470A. Apker, W. (1982). 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