lCSfiOF: :SELEcTi-ib .PA" ‘ , TAIVE STUDY :OF l8 A COM uuru. .m... I D AN REC . R ETHNIC CHARACTE FORMATION SOURC ES IN TH INFLUENCE ougma was. i 'Thésis for theiD'egfeé of 'Ph ’4 MICHIGAN GARY L.3HULE _1972. 21’! C“? 090 LIBRARY . , MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY LIBRARIES Michigansmtc IIHINIHIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIHIIIIIIIIIIIHIIIHHI L University r; -. 3 1293 00776 0055 This is to certify that the thesis entitled A Comparative Study of Selected Ethnic Characteristics of Information Sources and their Influence on the Receiver presented by Gary L. Hull has been accepted towards fulfillment of the requirements for Ph. D. deg!” in Education Mdzflze Major professor Date M 0-7639 (ac—HI??? ABSTRACT A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF SELECTED ETHNIC CHARACTERISTICS OF INFORMATION SOURCES AND THEIR INFLUENCE ON THE.RECEIVER BY Gary L. Hull Purpose of the Study The purpose of this study was to investigate the in- fluence that selected ethnic variables of an information source have on selected Black and White pupils. The research was focused on the effects of the auditory and visual channels of an information source on the pupils. The major concern of this study was to determine if White or Black pupils were influenced more by an information source with selected ethnic characteristics than by alter— nate sources with differing sets of selected ethnic char— acteristics° The voice of the narrator and the physical characteristics designating the race of individuals de- picted in the visuals were the variables that were manipu- latedo Procedures The subjects that participated in this study were selected from a pOpulation comprised of sixth—grade pupils Gary L. Hull attending a single public elementary school within a city of 200,000 people. The school was located in a racially- mixed neighborhood. Sixty White subjects and sixty Black subjects were randomly selected from the pOpulation and then randomly assigned appropriately to one of the six treatment groups. All treatment groups received the same message. An instructional tape/slide presentation was the information source. The message dealt with the misuse of drugs. Two variables in the information source, the voice of the narrator and the race of the people depicted in the visu— als, were manipulated for the experiment. The two voices were selected from voices previously determined to be distinguishable as either belonging to a Black or White individual. The race of the individuals depicted in the visuals was either Black or White. Five instruments were designed for this study. One was a retention test that had been pre-tested. Three semantic differential scales were also designed to measure the subjects' concepts of "trustworthiness" and "expertness" of the information source, and the "concept acceptability" of the message. A fifth instrument was deve10ped to measure the subjects" "preference" for the various infbrmation sources. Reli- ability of the instruments were determined by Hoyt's Estimate of Reliability Formula. Gary L. Hull The experiment was conducted in three rooms that normally served as sixth grade classrooms. Three sixth grade teachers from the school served as proctors. An analysis of covariance for the retention test and a multivariate analysis of variance for the attitude scales were used for testing the seven statistical hypo- theses for the main effects or the interaction effects. All hypotheses were tested using the .05 level of con- fidence with the appropriate degrees of freedom. Conclusions Analysis of the data supports the following conclu— sions: 1. Information sources with either a distinguishable White voice or a distinguishable Black voice have an equal amount of influence on students of the sixth grade. 2. Students of the sixth grade level perceive infor— mation sources with visuals depicting all White peOple as having more "expertness1T than sources with visuals depicting all Black individuals. The same students also have a "preference" for information sources with visuals depicting a combination of Black and White peOple over information sources depicting aIl Black people. (A close examination of the data indicates that these main effects are due to the interaction effect between the White sub— jects and the visuals of the information sources.) Gary L. Hull 3. It was concluded from the data that Black sub- jects perceived all information sources as having more "expertness" than did the White subjects. The data also indicated that Black subjects gave a higher "preference" rating to all information sources than did the White subjects. It was also concIuded that the White subjects scored higher on the retention test than did the Black subjects. The results from the "retention test" can probably be contributed to several irrelevant variables that were Operating in the school environment. 4. White students respond equally as well to infor— mation sources with a distinguishable Black voice as they do to information sources with a distinguishable White voice. Also, Black subjects respond equally as well to information sources with a distinguishable White voice as they do to information sources with a distinguishable Black voice. It is concluded that Black subjects and White sub— jects are not affected more positively by voices of their own race. 5. The matching of a distinguishable White voice or a distinguishable Black voice with visuals depicting Black or White peOple does not have a significant affect on sixth grade students. 6. White students of the sixth grade level perceive information sources with viSuaIs depicting all White individuals, or a combination of White and Black individuals Gary L. Hull as having more "expertness" than information sources with visuals depicting all Black peeple. White students also have a preference for information sources with visuals depicting all White individuals, or a combination of White and Black individuals over sources depicting all Black individuals. 7. It is concluded that any combination of distin— guishable White or Black voices with visuals depicting White or Black people in an information source does not significantly differ in the affect on Black or White students. A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF SELECTED ETHNIC CHARACTERISTICS OF INFORMATION SOURCES AND THEIR INFLUENCE ON THE RECEIVER BY Gary L. Hull A THESIS Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY College of Education 1972 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS This study would have been impossible without the con- tinued help, encouragement and support of many people. I wish to express my appreciation to as many of these people as possible. To Dr. Paul W. F. Witt, Chairman of the Guidance Com— mittee, for his unique insights and encouragement offered throughout the entire doctoral program. I also wish to express my appreciation to Drs. Norman T. Bell, Kent L. Gustafson, Lawrence Lezotte, and James L. Page for their assistance as members of my guidance com— mittee. I am also grateful to all the staff members of the Instructional Development and Technology Department and my fellow graduate students. Lastly, but really first, to my wife, Janice, whose understanding, love and inspiration are, in many ways, the cornerstone of this study. Finally, to my son, Matthew, who endured the most. ii TABLE OF CONTENTS CHAPTER LIST OF TABLES . . . . . . . . . . LIST OF FIGURES. . . . . . . . . . I. THE PROBLEM. . . . . . . . . . . . Purpose of the Study. . . . . . Statement of the Hypothesis . . Definitions . . . . . . Limitations of the Study. Theory Underlying the Study Need for the Study. . . . . . Organization of the Study II. REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE . . . . . Source Credibility. . Ethnic Dialect and RelationShip Effectiveness. . . . . Racial Bias . . . . . . . . III. DESIGN OF THE STUDY. . Introduction. . . . . . . . . . The Sample. . . . . . . . Design and Analysis . . . . . Stimulus Material . . . Development of Audio Segment to Source 9 o o o o a n o of the Presentation (selection of voices). Development of Audio Segment of the Presentation (recording the stimulus o o a o o o for the experiment) . . . Development of Visual Segment of the Presentation. . . . . . . Instrumentation . . . . . . . . 4: o o a o o Page vi viii 19 29 36 42 52 53 54 TABLE OF CONTENTS——Continued CHAPTER Retention Test . . . . . 0 Semantic Differential Scales . Attitude Instrument for Preference Ethnic Group Identification Check Sheet. Procedure . . . . . . . . . Statistical Hypotheses. . . Summary . . . . . . . . . . IV. ANALYSIS OF DATA . . . . . . . Analysis of Data. . . . . . Summary . . . . . . . . V. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS. . . . Findings and Conclusions. . Discussion of Results . . . Implications for Education. 0 9 O 0 Implications for Further Research BIBLIOGRAPHY. . . . . °.° . . . . . . APPENDICES A. POST-TEST SCRIPT . . . . . . . O O 0 0 B. VOICE DISTINGUISHABILITY RATING SCALE. C. VOICE QUALITY RATING SCALE . . D. STIMULUS MATERIAL SCRIPT . . . O O 0 O 0 O E. SELECTED SLIDES FROM THE PRESENTATION. F. PILOT STUDY RETENTION TEST . . G. EXPERDMENTAL RETENTION TEST. . H. SEMANTIC DIFFERENTIALS . . . . I. ATTITUDE PREFERENCE SCALE. . . 0 J. ETHNIC IDENTIFICATION CHECK SHEET. iv 0 O Page 54 57 6O 62 62 65 69 7O 7O 91 93 96 101 104 105 107 113 115 118 121 129 131 137 141 143 145 TABLE OF CONTENTS—-Continued APPENDICES Page K. INTRODUCTORY INSTRUCTIONS TO STUDENTS. . . . . 147 L. INSTRUCTIONS FOR USING THE SEMANTIC DIFFEREN- TIALS...................149 M. SUMMARY OF STATISTICAL ANALYSES. . . . . . . . 151 "LIST OF TABLES Mean Scores on Voice Perception. . . . . . . . Total Score for Veice Quality. . . . . . . . . Internal Reliability Analysis of the Retention Test 0 O O O O O 0 o O O O O 0 O O O O O O O 9 Factor Loading for "Trustworthiness" and "Expertness" Scales from Research by Berlo and Lemert . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Internal Reliability Analysis of the Semantic Differential Scales. . . . . . . . . . . . . . Internal Reliability Analysis for "Preference" Scale. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Group Means for the Retention Test . . . . . . Analysis of Covariance on Retention. . . . . . Multivariate Analysis of Variance of Scores from the Attitude Scales for the Seven Test— able Hypotheses. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Univariate Analysis of Scores from the Atti— tude Scales for White Visuals Versus Black Visuals Versus Combination of Black and White Visuals. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Mean Scores from the "Expertness" and "Preference” Scales for the.Main Effect of the Visuals. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Univariate Analysis of Scores from the Atti— tude Scales for the.Main Effect of White Students Versus Black Students . . . . . . . . Mean Scores from the "Expertness" and "Preference" Scales fer White Subjects versus Black Subjects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vi Page 50 51 56 59 6O 61 71 72 77 79 80 82 83 LIST OF TABLES——Continued TABLE Page 4.8 Univariate Analysis of Scores from the Atti- tude Scales for the Interaction Effect Between the Visuals and the Race of the Subjects . . . 87 4.9 Mean Scores from the "Expertness" and "Preference" Scales for the Interaction Effect Between the Visuals and the Race of the Subjects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , . . . . 88 4.10 Number of Distinguishable and Indistinguish— able Voice Sounds from 120 Experimental Subjects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92 vii FJKSURE 1. 2. LIST OF FIGURES Design of the study. . . . . . . . . . . . . Interaction effect between the race of the subjects and the visual sets of the informa- tion sources on the "expertness" scale . . . Interaction effect between the race of the subjects and the visual sets of the informa- tion sources on the "preference“ scale . . . viii Page 44 89 9O CHAPTER I THE PROBLEM Purpose of the Study The purpose of this study is to investigate the influ— ence that selected ethnic variables of an information source have on students (both Black and White) as indicated by their retention of the message and their attitudes (selected variables) toward the information source. Specifically examined in this study are the effects of the auditory and visual channels of an information source(tape/ slide presentation) in relationship to studeht reaction as measured by the dependent variables when selected ethnic characteristics of the source are manipulated. The major concern of this study is to determine if White or Black students perceive an information source with selected ethnic characteristics more effectively than alternative sources with differing sets of seI‘ected' ethnic characteristics. The selected ethnic characteristics of the information source that are manipulated are the voice of the narrator and the physical characteristics which designate the race of individuals depicted in the visuals. Statement of the Hypothesis .A general statement of the hypothesis for this study is: There is a significant interaction between the race (yflhite or Black) of the subjects as indicated by selected zrttitude measurements and a test for retention of message (nontent from designated information sources with: 1) selected ethnic characteristics of voice and 2) selected ethnic characteristics of persons depicted in the visuals. Significant Questions to be Answered: 1. What effect does an information source in the form of a tape/slide presentation, which includes a Black ethnic voice as the narrator and visuals:which por- tray peOple with BIaCk ethnic characteristics, have on a) Black subjects and b) White subjects as indi- cated by a retention tést and selected attitude measurements? What effect does an information source in the form of a tape/slide presentation, which includes a Black ethnic voice as the narrator and visuals which por- tray peOple with White ethnic characteristics, have on a) Black subjects and b) White subjects as indi— cated by a retention test and selected attitude measurements? What effect does an infermation source in the form of a tape/slide presentation, which includes a Black ethnic voice as the narrator and visuals which por— tray peOple either with Black ethnic characteristics or White ethnic characteristics, have on a) Black subjects and b) White subjects as indicated by a retention test and selected attitude measurements? What effect does an information source in the form of a tape/slide presentation, which includes a White ethnic voice as the narrator and visuals which por— tray people with White ethnic characteristics, have on a) Black subjects and b) White subjects as indi— cated by a retention test and selected attitude measurements? 5. What effect does an information source in the form of a tape/slide presentation, which includes a White ethnic voice as the narrator and visuals which por- tray peOple with Black ethnic characteristics, have on a) Black subjects and b) White subjects as indi— cated by a retention test and selected attitude measurements? What effect does an infOrmation source in the form of a tape/slide presentation, which includes a White ethnic voice as the narrator and visuals which portray people either with White ethnic characteristics or Black ethnic characteriStics, have on a) Black sub- jects and b) White subjects as indicated by a reten— tion test and selected attitude measurements? Definitions Specific terms used in this study are defined as follows: 1. Black-—persons of predominantly African ancestry who are labeled as belonging to the Black minority, ethnic group.1 White—~persons who belong to the Caucasian ethnic group. Distinguishable Voiceu—a voice which the subjects associate with a Black or Caucasian speaker. Ethnic Visuals-—the racial composition of individuals depicted in the 2 x 2 slides. Preference--the degree to which the voice of the narrator and the visuals of a tape/slide presenta— tion are preferred by the subjects over the other sets of combined voice and visuals as indicated by an attitude measurement. 1In this study Black. will be used when referring to the Black minority group. However, cited material may include other terms such as Negro. 6. Source Credibility--listener response to the infor- mation source as measured by two dimensions of credibility. Those dimensions are: l) perceived trustworthiness of the source, and 2) the perceived expertness of the source. Receiver—~the individuaI or individuals who are the target of a communiCation. Information Source-—the person, the group, or any of the various forms of media which present messages or communication. Limitations of the Study Specific limitations to this study which must be con- sidered in facilitating a correct interpretation of the find— ings are the following: 1. The study is limited to a measurement of responses from selected Black and White pupils of the sixth grade level. The study is limited to materials containing only peOple with White or Black ethnic characteristics. No attempt will be made to include other minority groups. The study is limited to materials which are in an automated tape/slide format. Results obtained are not intended to function as a basis for inference to other information sources. This study is further limited in that no attempt is made to distinguish between such possible variables as the student's sex, intelligence, economic back- ground and existing racial attitude. Theory Underlying the Study The degree to which a teacher or an information source influences the reactions of students is dependent upon many variables within the communication—teaching process. In order to determine how influential various information sources are, it is necessary to examine source differences (variables) which are relevant to the receiver's percep— tions. Bettinghaus indicates that there are several inter— related variables such as source credibility, source—receiver similarities, status and charisma that can positively or negatively affect the influence of the information source.2 Research in the area of communication indicates that acceptance of a message is largely determined by how the receiver perceives the credibility of the information source. Emphasis is given to this point when Berlo et al. state that "The more credibility a source is perceived to have, the more likely the receiver is to accept the transmitted information."3 Some information sources are clearly more effective than others in communicating information, ideas, and points of View. This effectiveness that one source has over another can often be contributed to the different characteristics that each possesses. These different characteristics may be either ideological or demographic in nature. Bettinghaus, When discussing these characteristics in relationship to 2Erwin P. Bettinghaus, Persuasive Communication (New York: H01t. Rinehart and Winston, Inc., 1968). p. 104. .|. 3David K. Berlo, James B. Lemert, and Robert Mertz. Dl'mensions for Evaluating the Acceptability of Message Sources." The Public opinion Quarterly, Vol. 33 (Winter, 1969-70). p. 563. source credibility, states: The problem is that credibility is not a single char— acteristic of an individual, such as socio—economic position. Credibility is a set of perceptions by the receiver. Characteristics of the source like age, sex and socio-economic status may affect the perceptions that a receiver has, and thus such characteristics become relevant to the study of credibility.4 Since credibility is measured by the audience's percep— tion of the source, reference group membership becomes a facUmr to be considered. The concept reference group has cmmmnnly been referred to as "That group which serves as a point.c>f reference in making comparisons or contrasts, eSpeciaJJy'in forming judgment about one's self and others."5 innplicit in this concept of reference group is the notion that an individual derives values and goals as well as Emmnes of reference from the perspective of the group. A-Person's reference group may well contain persons whom he has.nevem seen,6 but it is important that the individuals COITIPOSJ'.ng such a group bear a psychological and perhaps even a PhYSiLnal relationship to each other.7 Newcomb, indicates that reference groups may be classified as primary or \ 4Bettinghaus, 0p. cit., p. 104. 5 C 0 :w I C Q Tknnotsu Shibutani, "Reference Groups as Perspectives," EfELSEHLLEerspectives in Social Psychology (New York: xford University Press, 1963) , p. 98. (N 5M- Sherif and Caroline Sherif, Reference Groups ew‘York: Harper & Row, Publishers. 1964): PPo 44‘48° 7 0f P. Krech, and R. S. Crutchfield, Theory and Problems ‘-~§22131Psychology (New York: McGraw—Hill, 1948). g secondary.8 “Racial groups and social class groups are two excellent examples of reference groups in which the members share common frames of reference or norms and exhibit a cer— tain identification and cohesiveness with other members of their group. As previously stated, the effectiveness of a communica= tion is at least partially determined by the characteristics of the source. There is considerable evidénce in social sciencme literature to suggest that reference group member- ship.is used by receivers to some extent in evaluating in- fonmition sources which in turn determine their effective— ness. Newcomb gives support to this proposition when he indicates that reference groups serve as guides in the decisionrmaking process in determining the effectiveness of an information source.9 Additional support is given to thiSjproposition by Sherif and Sherif who indicate that reaction to a source's physical characteristics may be in— fluenced by an individual’s reference group.10 Hovland et al. support; this line of thought when they write: \ .D 8Theodore M. Newcomb, Social Psychology (New York: ryden Press, 1950), pp. 492—516. 't‘ SBT'heodoreM. Newcomb, "Attitude Development as a Func— .1°n‘°§ Reference Groups: The Bennington Study." Readings figLEEEE££L_Psychology (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, nc., 1958), pp. 265-275. 3P3 lon Sherif and Caroline Sherif, An Outline of Social “~¥S§2l222.(New York: Harper & Row, Publishers, 1956). ‘ One of the ways that physical cues of a source can operate is to heighten the individuals awareness (salience) of his membership in a given group. Source characteristics which are demographic in nature such as age, sex and ethnic origin tend to be easily identi— fied. Individuals have little or no choice in selecting membership in such groups. However, demographic similarities do apparently have an influence on communications. McGuire states that information sources appear to be more effective when tflnere is a similarity or identification between the source and the receiver of the message. Puresumably the receiver, to the extent that he per— ceuyes the source to be like himself in diverse charac— ‘teristics, assumes that they also share common needs and.goals. The receiver might therefore conclude that Murat the source is urging is good for "our kind of people,“ and thus changes his attitude accordingly. lDemographic variables can produce negative results eSpeciallywhen individuals of one ethnic origin are put in the position of judging the acceptance of an information source from another ethnic origin. .McGuire supports this Point in his statement: Peeple, particularly prejudiced peOple, have little CCurtact with others of a different race. In the am- bifiyuity that results, one tends to ascribe ideological f Persuasion," PPo-ll4— 126. [...-Il-____‘ 30 to the measurement of an information source's ethos based upon its phonemic pattern--a term which is related to "dialect." Of particular importance is the ethnic dialect research which examines dialectical variations involving tone, rate and articulatiOn. Syntactical variations from standard dialect do not serve as variables in the present study; however, some of their implications are discussed in this section. Investigators in education, psychology, linguistics and sociology have long believed that voice cues provide ibasic personal and social status information concerning sources. Gray and Wise in an early publication stated: '5 .. much of what we have called personality is found, when it .is carefully analyzed, to be resident in the voice."18 Harms19 in a more recent report concluded that varia— bles; carried in a speech signal presented enough valid information for the receiver to determine the social status of time source.~ These results substantiate earlier findings by 1:}1e same researcher. In that earlier study Harms20 found thal: :receivers from different social strata were capable of \ 18Giles Wilkeson Gray and C1aude.M. Wise, The Bases of -§§§E§s§g CRevised Edition; New York: Harper and Brothers, ) , p. 11. - (l 19L. S. Harms, "Status Cues in Speech," Lingus, 12 963), pp. 300-306. 20L. S. Harms, "Listener Comprehension of Speakers of T ligee Status Groups," Language and Speech (1961), pp, 109- 31 rating the social status Of an individual after hearing ten to fifteen seconds of a tape recorded speech. The receivers also consistently rated the high-status speakers as more credible than the low—status speakers. Another study by Harms21 shows that receivers' test scores are somewhat higher when the speakers are high in stirtus than when they are low. The inferred reasons sug- gesd:ed for this result is that high status speakers are more "ccxnprehendible." A further result, secured through a dif- ferwential analysis of listener groups, is that listeners , respmond with greater comprehension to those from their own class than to speakers from either a higher or a lower class. Voiers22 found in a study that "extrastimulus factors" Operuated in the perceptual responses of the receivers to the VOiCHs stimuli of the source. Such factors included receiver biases toward stereotyped sounds. He concluded that the reCEEivers' perceptions were based partially upon personal feelaings and past history. In a similar study Miller and Hewgill23 found that the auclience's perception of source credibility was negatively 1nfluenced as the number of "nonfluencies" were increased K L 21L- 5- Harms, "Social Judgments of Status Cues in ang‘LaQE." Speech Monograph, XXVII (1960), p. 87. Id ?2William D. Voiers, "Perceptual Bases of Speaker lenixlty," Journal of the Acoustical Society of America ( 964) . pp. 1065-1073. 23Miller and Hewgill, Op. cit., p. 37. ¥ .‘ 32 in a message given by an information source. Three dimen— sions of credibility were included in the measurement instrument: Competence, Trustworthiness, and Dynamism. Both the Competence and Dynamism factors of source credi— bility were negatively affected when the number of "nonfluencies" were increased. However, no difference was found on the trustworthiness factor. The findings by Miller and Hewgill provide evidence that audience perception of verbal cues does exercise influence on source credibility. Several studies have shown that receivers can dis- tinguish between Black voices and Caucasian voices based upon the variation in voice cues. Stroud24 concluded that some undefined quality in the Black voice enabled judges to diScr iminate between recorded voices of Black and White Students in 93 per cent of the cases. Similar findings are found by Nerbonne.25 He concluded from his data that receivers of a message can consistently differentiate between Black and Caucasian speakers. He also rePOJTtS that this difference was detected more effectively on the basis of oral readings than on the basis of extemper— aneous speech. \_ . 24Robert Stroud, “‘A Study of the Relations Between Social Igistance and Speech Differences of White and Negro High School B udents of Dayton, Ohio,!' (unpublished Master's thesis, owllng Green State University, 1961) . 25Patrick G. Nerbonne, " Identification of Speaker Char— :fiteristics on the Basis of Aural Cues," (unpublished Ph. D. SS‘eli‘tation, Michigan State University, 1967), p. 114. ¥ 33 Still further support is indicated in a recent study by Boone.26 He concludes that college age students can effecrtively distinguish between Black voices and Caucasian voices on prerecorded audio tape. Hurst27 has investigated the psychological and socio— logixzal correlates of dialect differences which are non— standiard and concluded that they have a negative effect on the Easychological, educational, and vocational welfare of the :individual. Anisfeld,28 also found that listeners tend to 136: influenced negatively by stereotypes which are rein— fOT-‘Ced by the Speech patterns of speakers. In a study by Larson and Larson29 on receiver reaction to Furonunciation, it was found that the pronunciation pat— terrls of Blacks were generally rated as more unpleasant, 19555 educated, and less urbane than White pronunciations. Reslllts of the study Show that receivers tend to favor White Profnanciation and they also rated such sources with a higher levéil of credibility. The receivers were able to distinguish betNVeen the White and Black speakers even when the 26Boone, op. ci_., p. 64. tolal2_7Charles.G. Hurst,r Psychological Correlates in Dialec— ———__~_ig. Washington: United States Office of Education Co— OpenTative Research. Project Number 2610, 1966. Speka £81111.RAnisfellld],3 ifiviluation :eaction :olAEcentediggglish Pp. i—é. esearc u e in on .n ergroup e a ions ( , Promiivisazi: r“:-.::;::§..:22.ng:32.§-satin t° . e Culturally ePrived. Washington: United States Office of Education Co— operative Research. Project No. 2107, 1966, pp. 52=58. ‘ , 34 pronunciations were very similar. The authors concluded that there is some phonemic pattern that is identified with the Black speakers which allows for this distinction. Educators have demonstrated a concern for the dialect that is used by a large percent of the Black minority. This major concern is mostly in relationship to substandard speech patterns involving syntactical variations, however, as re— Ported earlier phonemic patterns are also of concern. In a 1963 article, Green referred to Negro dialect as the last barrier to integration. The problem of the American Negro who has been reared in a segregated community is that he has a dialect which constantly reminds his listener that he is a descendant of slaves. Regrettably this dialect has been popularized and stereotyped by the entertainment world through the old minstrel shows and such person— alities as Stepin Fetchit, Amos n' Andy, and Rochester. Consequently the dialect itself is considered a joke by most Americans and anyone using such a dialect is not taken seriously.30 The position taken by Green however is not necessarily taken by all. Linguists conducting social dialect studies appear to be in. increasing agreement on the existence of a Black dialect as a legitimate dialect. of English. Even though some linguists consider it as a legitimate dialect, coma-(On acceptance will be slow. In fact, McDavid et a1. r("apoli‘ts that there may be an unconscious conflict of values \ 30Gordon C. Green, “Negro Dialect, the Last Barrier to {gtegrationfl' Journal of Negro Education, XXXII (Winter, 63), pp. 81-83. 35 in the speaker of a nonmstandard dialect. It is stated that: - -. it is possible for a lower-class speaker to parti- cipate in the full sociolinguistic structure of a speech community, and possess a good knowledge of the norms of careful speech, yet be unable or unwilling to use those forms in speech or writing.31 However, others suggest that a speaker of one dialect may have problems in processing information from a source with a different dialect. Cherry—Persach writes: .In general, when the speaker of one dialect must pro— <:ess a verbal string from another dialect, the redundancy .in that message is less for him than for a speaker of 'the dialect in which the string was presented. Or, 53ince redundancy is inversely related to amount of infor- rnation in that task is greater for him if it were pre- ssented in his own dialect. This describes the situation :for many minority ethnic groups who have learned a non— standard dialect at home and are taught in the school by a.teacher speaking a different dialect.32 'The findings of these studies indicate that receivers can <2onsistent1y determine the social status of an individual baseKi upon his speech. Also, several studies show that a very higfl1 Ipercent of Black speakers can be distinguished by some undefined phonomic quality. These same studies suggest that aural cues denoting race of the source generally serve to dnniiiish the credibility of a Black source. Some of these Studies also give an indication that a person will respond \ cat' 31Raven I. McDavid Jr. and William M. Austin. Communi- -—~3é2n Barriers to the Culturally Deprived. Washington ‘ - Office of Cooperative Research. Project No. 2107, (1966), p. 23. 32Estelle Cherry-Persach, "Children's Comprehension of Teacher and Peer Speech," Child Development, V01. 30 (1965), PP- 468-480. ..III-.__ .LAIII 36 more favorably to speakers of their own social class while others deny this. Racial Bias The literature in the area of racial bias is reviewed in this section because of its special implication for the present study. It is of most importance that the reader keep in mind that source credibility is measured in terms of receivers' perceptions. This body of research gives some indication as to how reference group membership may influ— ence its member's responses to various information sources. It has been suggested that the perceived prestige of the information source significantly affects the influence that it has upon receivers. Kumata states: The higher the perceived prestige, trustworthiness, or expertness of the communicator, the greater the influence toward the position advocated in the message.33 Our society has produced differential effects in regards to how the prestige of sources of different races are per— ceived by both Black and White children. Children at an early age learn the predominant racial feeling in America of "34 "white over black, with the line between. In a study of 33Hideya Kumata, "Attitude Change and Learning as a Function of Prestige of Instructor and.Mode of Presentation." The Impact of Educational Television: Selected Studies from the Research Sponsored by the National Educational Television and Radio Center. Edited by Wilbur Schramm. Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1960° 3“Mary Ellen Goodman, Race Awareness in Young Children (New York: Collier Books, 1964), p. 256. 37 New England children, Goodman35 found White children to be in—group oriented. They were basically oriented toward the White group and were without any racial self—doubt such as found in Black children. The Black children were out—group oriented as was evident by their "sense of direction" away from Blacks and toward Whites. Similar findings were reported by Morland36 in his study of preschool children in Virginia, and also by Stevenson and Stewart.37 They found that while White children tended to prefer members of their own racial group, Black children tended to have a preference for the White group also. In a study involving mixed Black—White classes, Criswell38 found marked cleavage between Blacks and Whites. She found White children beginning to withdraw from Black children by fourth grade and forming racial groups by fifth grade. Radke, Sutherland, and Rosenberg39 studied White and Black children from grades two to six with the use of pro— jective pictures and sociometric data. Their results indicated 35Ibid. 36J. K. Morland, “Racial Recognition by Nursery School Children in Lynchburg, Virginia,“ Social Forces, Vol. XXXVII (1958). pp. 134—37. 37H. W. Stevenson and E. C. Stewart, "A Developmental Study of Racial Awareness in Young Children," Child Develop- ment, Vol. XXIX (1958), p. 408. 38Joan H. Criswell, "A Sociometric Study of Race Cleavage in the Classroom," Archives of Psychology (1939), p. 235. 3%Marion J. Radke, Jean Sutherland, and Pearl Rosenberg, "Racial Attitudes of Children," Sociometry, Vol. XIII (1950), pp. 154—71. 38 that White children assigned almost no undesirable charac— teristics toward their own race while Black children assigned undesirable characteristics to Black pictures. White children at all ages expressed definite preferences for their own racial group. Radke and Trager40 tested 152 White and 90 Black children in six Philadelphia schools. They used interview and doll techniques with children in kindergarten to second grade. Their findings showed that 89 per cent of the White children preferred a White doll, while 57 per cent of the Black children preferred a Black doll. The White children tended to ascribe inferior social roles to Blacks. Similar findings were reported from a study conducted inbdinneapolis involving third, fourth, and fifth—grade children.41 It was found that White children expressed biased feelings toward Blacks. The Black children, however, held more favorable attitudes toward White children than theYdid toward Black children. Some scholars such as Erikson42 and Pettigrewffl'3 however, believe that the negative K .4chflarion J. Radke and Helen G. Trager, "Children's Per- ceptltnas of Social Roles of Negroes and Whites," Journal of W. Vol. XXIX (1950), pp. 3—33. t' 4'1C. Bird, E. E. Monachesi, and H. Burdick, "Infiltra- Jéon Eindthe Attitude of White and Negro Parents and Children," Wf Abnormal and Social Psychology, Vol. XLVII (1952), pp' 695~96. Rel (tzErik H. Erikson, “The Concept of Identity in Race atabons," Daedalus, XCV (Winter, 1966), pp. 145~170. 4 . . . (Pr' 3Thomas F. Pettigrew, A Profile of the Negro American lnceton. N. J.: Van Nostrand, 1964), pp. 6-11. ...--___ ____ __ 39 attitude that Blacks have had toward their racial group is in the process of change. They see the current Black Pride movement as having a positive influence on the Black racial group. .An.interesting contrast with the racial preference and bias research is found in a number of studies in which the race cxf the experimenter was used as a variable in deter— mining; how well subjects responded on a cognitive task or performed a psychomoter skill. IKatz, Henchy, and Allen'M report a study in which 148 Black boys aged seven through ten, were tested to determine their performances on a paired-associates learning task. Each boy viewed ten pairs of pictures of familiar objects. During the initial presentation series, each boy was in- structemi to call out the name of each object as it was shown. Then he was given ten trials in which he had to call out the names of both stimuli as soon as the first picture of the Pair was shown. Each boy was tested individually by one of four examiners, two of whom were White and two of whom were Black. Subjects who were tested by the Black examiners did Significantly better at the verbal learning task than the Subjects tested by White examiners. \ 4 . of R 4IrWin Katz, Thomas Henchy, and Harvey Allen, "Effects Ch‘lace of Tester, ApprovaluDisapproval, and Need on Negro 1‘ dren's Learning," Journal of Personality and Social W, VIII (January, 1969), pp. 38—42. ¥ ._J 40 Kennedy and Vego45 investigated the proficiency of Black children who performed a discrimination task. Two variables, race of the experimenter and type of verbal reinforcement, were employed in this research. These Black children's performance improved more markedly When the ex— perimenter was Black than when the experimenter was White. There was no difference between the performance of subjects praised by White experimenters and that of subjects praised by Black experimenters. When the proficiency of the Black children was criticized by the experimenter, however, there was a decrease in the performance of those subjects tested by the White experimenters and an increase for subjects tested by Black experimenters. Allen, Dubanoski, and Stevenson46 employed a psycho— motor skill, a marble:drop, for an experiment involving Black and White boys in grades one and two, and four through six. Black SUbjeCts had significantly higher rates of re— sponse when tested by Black experimenters than when tested by White experimenter, while White subjects had higher rates of response when tested by White experimenters than when tested by Black experimenters. 45Wa11ace A. Kennedy and’ Manuel Vego, "Negro Children's Berformance on a Discrimination Task as a Function of Exam- iner 'Race and verbal Incentive, " Journal of ‘PersonalitY and SOCial PS Cholo . II (December, 1965), pp. 839—843. “asara A: Allen, Richard A. Dubanoski, and Harold W- Stevenson, "Children's Performance as a Function of Race of E, R399 0f S, anti Type of Verbal Reinforcement," Journal of Eggerimental Child Psychology, IV (November, 1966), pp. 248‘ 41 The racial bias research suggests that the Black race is perceived by both White and Black individuals as a less prestigious race. The White race is given a higher pref- erence rating in various studies by both races. However, there is some indication that the Black ethnic group is currently developing into a more prestigious race than it has been in the past. Also, the literature indicates that subjects from the Black race and the White race respond more favorably to experimenters of their own race than to experi- menters of the opposite race. CHAPTER III DESIGN OF THE STUDY Introduction In this chapter, the determination of the population, the nature of the stimulus material and the data collection instruments are deséfibed. The specific procedures, experi— mental design, method used for statistical analysis, and the research hypotheses are also reported. The Sample The subjects that participated in this study were selected from a pOpulation comprised of the sixth—grade Pupils attending a single public elementary school within a uddwestern city of 200,000. This school was selected be- cause it had a high percentage of both White and Black FmPils. The actual racial composition of the school was approximately 62% Black pupils, 38% White pupils and less than 1% other minority groups. The school's enrollment consisted of pupils from the residential area. All students 1iVeél witflnin walking distance to the school. HEM; school's pOpulation of sixth graders numbering 186 was divided into two groups, one White, the other Black.1 \ l F0urstudents-“were excluded from the pOpulation because t . . hey Were neither Black or White. 42 43 Sixty White students and sixty Black students were randomly selected from the population and then randomly assigned appropriately to one of the six treatment groups. Three additional subjects from each of the two races were selected by the sampling procedure mentioned above. These students served as a replacement group. Actually, one White replace— ment and two Black replacements were used. Design and Analysis The design of the study and the treatments are summarized in Figure 1. The main effect and interaction effect of the voices, the three sets of visuals and the race of subjects were analyzed with a 3 x 2 x 2 multivariate analysis of variance design. Six different treatment groups with two sets of sub— jeCtS created twelve cells for study. Each cell within the design contained an equal number of subjects, ten. Five SeParate analyses were performed using the measurements of: 1) "trustworthiness," 2) "expertness," 3) "concept accept— ability," 4) "preference," and 5) "retention of message." A multivariate analysis of variance was employed to determine simultaneously if significant difference existed be"'-“\7€-?‘-en the mean scores of the different treatments on the Various attitude measurements. A multivariate analysis of Variance with a covariable was used with the retention test. The :05 level of significance was selected for rejecting the null hYpothes es . k _- 44 Audio Black Voice White Voice Visuals W* B* C* W* B* C* White Subjects IO 10 10 10 ‘ 10 10 Black Subjects 10 10 10 10 10 10 OS 5‘on age? $6 Q9 \) 6 Qo "Retention of Message“ Scale "Trustworthiness" Scale "Expertness"'Soa1e "BrEferenceU Scale \" Conc ept Acceptab ility " S cale W*--Visuals depicting all White people B*--Visuals depicting all Black peOple C"""-V:i.suals depicting a combination of White and Black peOple. Figure 1. Design of the study. The data were punched ~on computer cards and analyzed at the Michigan State University Computer Center. A program by Jeremy D. Finn2 with modifications for the Control Data corporation 3600 and 6500 computer system was used. \ Stud' 2Office of Research Consultation School for Advanced "Uniles _College of Education Michigan State Univers1ty, VariVaITJ-ate and Multivariate Analy51s of Variance and Co— Statancef A FORTRAN IV Program, " by Jeremy D. Finn (Michigan e UniverSity, March, 1970), pp. 1-19. 45 Stimulus Material An instructional sound-slide presentation served as the stimulus material (information source) in this study. The original form of the presentation was entitled, Drug Misuse and Your Health,3 produced by the Society for Visual Education Company. The material was intended for students in the intermediate grades and junior high school. The material was obtained in a filmstrip-record format. Fifty—three separate visuals and a sound recording running approximately 18 minutes made up the presentation. Thirteen visuals contained charts and other non—human elements. The remaining forty visuals did contain drawings of one or more People. Small details indicating various facial charac- teristics provided a realistic image. Selection of the stimulus material was based on two major criteria. First, the topic had to be appropriate for both races. Drug abuse, a current topic affecting peOple 0f every race and economic level was chosen. A second criterion was that the message had to be persuasive and had to eliCit a range of opinions and attitudes. The element of persuasion was needed to measure the trustworthiness level 0“- credibility. The original version of the presentation contained the VOice Of a White speaker and visuals depicting people of \ Your Society for Visual Education, Inc., Drug Misuse and 1970) Health (Chicago: Society for Visual Education, Inc., 53 frames. ‘_ 46 the White race. This made it necessary to modify the materials so that they would be suitable for the study. The following sets of visuals and recorded voices were needed: Audio 1. a distinguishable White voice 2. a distinguishable Black voice Visual 1. visuals with all White peOple 2. visuals with all Black peOple 3. visuals with both White and Black peOple The format that was used for the experimental presentation was a 2 x 2 slide/audio tape. The 2 x 2 slide/audio tape fermat represented a change from the original filmstrip and record format. Qgelopment of Audio Segment of the E£§sentation (selection of voices) 5Nne audio portion of the stimulus material required two versions of the sound track. The vocal characteristics of a White iruiividual and a Black individual were recorded separetE£ly for use in the experiment. To facilitate this StrateQYU» four White male individuals and four Black male individruals in graduate school at Michigan State University were 8e14ected to participate in the study. The eight peOple seleCted were asked to record a brief reading of approxi- mately 30 seconds. The recordings were later presented in a pilot Study to a sample of students very similar to the experi— mental group. The pilot group consisting of twenty-five pupils was used to determine whether the voices could be ¥ i 47 distinguished as those belonging to either White or Black individuals. A short narrative passage was considered adequate be- cause past research indicates that voice distinctiveness can be recognized by listening to the reading of a passage of 15 seconds—or—less. It was deemed appropriate that the passage contain an informative message for students of the siorth grade and also that it have an interest level high enough to hold their attention through eight playings of the same passage. A passage entitled, A Tapestry of Dream; (see Appendix A), by Clara Ingram Judson, was selected from a pepular sixth grade reading text.4 Each reader was asked to practice the reading until he felt familiar with the passage. Then each of the eight script readers recorded the passage on an audio tape. A master tape to be used in the pilot study was produced from the readers' original tapes. The voices were randomly assigned to the master tape in an attempt to avoid estab- lishing an apparent sequence. A five step rating scale was employed to collect data from the sample group concerning their perceptions of the Various speakers (see Appendix B). This rating scale was a 4Helen M. Robinson, Marion Monroe, A. Sterl Artley, m1.C1harlotte S. Huck, The New Basic Reader: Cavalcade; ChJ-Czago: Scott, Foresman 8c Company, 1965): Po 94- 48 irevised from an instrument developed by Boone5 for determin- .Lng distinguishable Black and White voices. Below is a representation of the scale used for each voice: 1. Sounds clearly distinguishable as a Black speaker. 2. Sounds like a Black speaker. 3. Sounds indistinguishable. 4. Sounds like a White speaker. 5. Sounds clearly distinguishable as a White speaker. A sample of twenty-five pupils was randomly selected frcnn the pilot study's population to listen to the master tape containing the eight voices. A tape recorder had been placmed in a classroom before the students entered. The stu— dentisiwere told that their assistance was needed to see if it were possible to distinguish the .race of a speaker by just; hearing a recording of the individual's voice. They were; informed that the data would be analyzed for future use :Ln.the selection of voices for narrators of instructional matenfials. The rating scale for each voice was distributed to thus twenty-five students and was followed with instruc— tions; for the prOper marking of the instrument. After the inetructions were given, a time was allotted for questions. The Huister tape was played for the subjects beginning with \ 5Arthur I. Boone, "The Influence of Voice Distinguish- agiiitfi' on Source Credibility," (unpublished doctoral disser— ion” Michigan State University, 1971), p. 111, _——— 49 the first voice and continuing through to the last. When each speaker finished reading the passage the tape recorder was stepped. After the recorder was stopped, the subjects were asked to check one of the five appropriate spaces on the instrument based upon their perceptions. At the end of the eighth voice the instrument was collected for analysis. The data for the instrument were obtained by computing the mean score of the 25 subjects for each voice. The range of possible mean scores was from 1.0 to 5.0. The lower mean score ranging from 1.0 to 2.0 indicated that the subjects perceived the voice to be a distinguishable Black voice and a score of 4.0 to 5.0 indicated that the subjects perceived the voice as a distinguishable White voice. A mean score of not more than 2.0 had been set as the criterion for determining a distinguishable Black voice, while a mean score of not less than 4.0 was set as the criterion for determining a distinguishable White voice. An analysis of the data showed that all four White voices received a rating of not less than 4.0 and that all Black voices received a rating of not more than 2.0. This indi- cated that the subjects were able to perceive correctly the race of each speaker by hearing a recording of the indi— Viduel '3 voice. Table ‘"3”.l’presents a summary of mean scores for each speaker as perceived by the subjects. 50 TABIJE 3.1—4Mean Scores on Voice Perception. Voices Mean White #1 4.76 Black #1 1.24 White #2 4.60 Black #2 1.32 White #3 4.56 Black #3 1.20 White #4 4.64 Black #4 1.16 It was further determined that the two distinguishable VOicxes selected for the study needed to have similar voice qualJities. In order to make the final selection for a diStinguishable Black voice and a distinguishable White voice a Pallel of speech teachers was consulted. The panel con— Sist43d of four speech teachers who were at the time engaged in tJeaching. All four had Master's degrees in Speech. The four speech teachers were asked to listen to the SaWNe master tape that the subjects listened to during the pil<311 study. The speech teachers rated each speaker on an instzrument (see Appendix C) containing scales suggested by O ' . . llVeer and Cortright to measure listener's response.6 IF“-.l______________ 6Robert T. Oliver and Rupert L. Cortright, Effective S —— Egsigflgll (4th ed.; New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1965), ‘ 91-96. L ' ,_ 51 The scale used by the speech teachers to determine voice quality was: be H be H be H no N no N no m L» h1LU w to w The rating by the speech teachers indicated a wide range of quality in the eight voices. Table 3.2 gives the sob-see Sense of Communication. Pleasantness of Pitch. Pronunciation. Voice Variation. Speaking Rate. UIU'IU'IU1U1U'I General Effectiveness. tota1.score for each voice. The higher total scores repre— sent a higher quality of voice as perceived by the panel of speech.teaChers. TABLE 3.2—-Total Score for Voice Quality. Voices Total Score White #1a 104 Black #1 56 White #2 115 Black #2 97 White #3' 106 Black #3b 100 White #4 82 Black #4 84 \ aWhite voice that was Presentation used in Black voice that was Presentation used in ‘III-___ selected to narrate the tape/slide the experimental treatment. selected to narrate the tape/slide the experimental treatment. 52 The two voices (White #1 and Black #3) selected for the experimental treatment had a slightly wider spread than was found in two other voices (White #4 and Black #4). However, it was determined that the differences ware slight and were so selected because their ratings were of a much higher quality than the other voices. Development of Audio Segment of the Presentation (recording the_§timulus for the Experiment) Each of the two individuals selected for making the final recording of the stimulus material was provided with a script (see Appendix D) one week before the recording session. This tune period allowed them to become familiar with the script and its demands. Instructions were given to both individuals to read.the script in as normal a manner as possible. Both voices were recorded on the same day. This recording was done under the supervision of a professional sound tech— nician. The original recordings of the two voices were duplicated Gnu: audio cassettes in order to facilitate the testing pro- cedure. The recording of the voice was placed on one channel and an inaudible synchronous pulse was placed on the second channel. This allowed for the slides and audio tape to be. synchrtnnized so that there would be no difference in the presentation rate for each treatment group. 53 DevelOpment of Visual Segment of the Presentation The experiment required three sets of visuals: 1) visuals depicting all peOple as White, 2) visuals depict— ing all peOple as Black, and 3) visuals depicting both White and Black individuals. The original presentation depicted most all individuals as White. This necessitated the con— struction of two additional sets of visuals. One major factor was the necessity of keeping all vari— ables in the visuals the same, with the exception of race. Thirteen of the existing visuals did not contain any people and were therefore directly c0pied onto 2 x 2slides which were used in each of the three sets of slides. The remaining forty visuals, however, had to be specifically adapted for the exPeriment. These forty frames of the filmstrip were sent to the Eastman Kodak Company where a 5 x 7 color print was made of each. The next step was to obtain the assistance of a professional graphics artist to make further adapta— tions of these pictures. A graphics artist, who possessed a wide eXperience in drawing facial characteristics of the Black race was employed. A face representing a Black indi— Vidual was produced for each person depicted in the visuals.7 M"itching expressions were drawn for each of the three sets of Visuals in order to make them as similar as possible except for facial features. The reconstructed set of Black \ 7 r Also, visible skin characteristics of appendages were eprcMinced. ¥ 54 characteristics were produced slightly larger than the originals so that when cut out they would fit directly into place on the 5 x 7 color print. To keep the three visual sets consistent, the White version, the Black version, and the mixed version, all were copied onto 2 x 2 slides from the same 5 x 7 color print with a 35mm single lens reflex camera. This was accomplished by placing the cutout images onto the 5 x 7 prints in the pr0per sequence. A sheet of clear glass was placed on tOp of the cutouts and the 5 x 7 prints to hold them in place so that no ridges would show during the projection of the slides. A group of three graduate students checked the slides for any errors (see Appendix E for selected slides from the pres entation) . Instrumentation Six instruments were employed to collect the needed data for this study. Each of the six instruments are dis— cuss ed in the section that follows. Ret&Eion Test 1k pilot study was conducted prior to the experiment in Order to construct the retention. test. An assessment of the knowledge level of sixth grade students concerning drug misuse was made by consulting teachers at that level. From this information a 34 question multiple-choice test (see A . Ppendlx F) was constructed. ¥ 55 Sixty students (50% White and 50% Black) from the sixth 5 grade were randomly selected from a pOpulation similar to the experimental group. The stimulus material was presented to this group in the original filmstrip record format. After the presentation the 34 question retention test was administered. The data from this test were then submitted to an item analysis in order to determine the index of dis— crimination and the index of difficulty for each question. The questions for the experimental test needed to have a dif- ficulty level (percentage of the total group- making a wrong answer) of 35% to 60% and a discrimination index (percentage difference between the t0p 27% and the bottom 27%) as high as Possible.8 (See Appendix F for discrimination and dif— ficulty index on each question.) A second group of twenty-five students was randomly selected from the same population. The same retention test was administered to this group of students. However, they were not shown the stimulus material. The non—stimulus group was used to compare the difference between knowledge already possessed and knowledge gained from the information sour ce. (See Appendix F for percentage difference between Stimulus group and non-stimulus group.) Twenty questions were eventually selected from the pilot study (see Appendix G) for the experimental retention \ Ea‘l‘llichigan State University, "Item Analysis" (Michigan University, Office of Evaluation Services, October, p. 5. State 1970) ' ¥ _ _ L 56 test- The questions were selected on three bases: 1) difficulty index, 2) discrimination index, and 3) degree of discrimination between stimulus group and non-stimulus group. Fifteen of the twenty questions met the criteria listed above. The other five items in the retention test were questions of little difficulty. These questions were left in the test in an effort to reduce the possibility of creating frustration for students who otherwise might miss most of the answers. A reliability analysis using the Hoyt Estimate of Reliability Formula9 was performed on the-retention test and is reported in Table 3.3. For the purpose of analysis the subj ects' scores on the retention test were determined by the number correct. The scores ranged from eighteen to six. TABLE 3.3——Internal Reliability Analysis of the Retention Test. 1 Sum of Mean Sour ce d. f . Squares Squares Reliability \ Individuals 119 192.8414 1.6206 .7866 Items 19 406.2424 21.3811 Error 2261 7256.0012 3.2092 Total 2399 7855.0850 \ \ 9C J. Hoyt, "Test Reliability Estimated by Analysis of v o ariance," Psychometrika, Vol. 6 (1941), pp. 153-60. ¥ 57 Semantic Differential Scales Three semantic differential scales (see Appendix H) were developed for this study. One scale was designed to measure the "trustworthiness" dimension of source credibil- ity. A second scale was designed to measure the "expertness' dimension of source credibility. The third scale was de— signed to measure the subjects' "concept acceptability" of the message presented by the information source. During the past decade the semantic differential has anne:to be recognized as a reliable and valid instrument for'lneasuring attitude and attitude change. The semantic differential technique was developed by Osgood, Suci, and Tanneenbaum10 to measure the cognitive meaning of concepts as points in what is called "Semantic space." In the past decade the semantic differential has received broad and More specifical— extensive use in communication research.11 183 tile validity of the technique for measuring source creditnility is widely acknowledged.12 1'OCharles E. Osgood, George J. Suci, and Percy H. Tagnenbaum, The Measurement of Meaning (Urbana, Ill-111015: University of Illinois Press, 1957), p. 37. 1 libig. , pp. 272-32. "D' '12David K. Berlo, James B. Lemert, and Robert Mertz, S lmeI'M-"ions for Evaluating the Acceptability of Message lgunces,u The Public Opinion Quarterly,‘Vol. 33 (Winter, 69"70). p. 563. ¥ 58 DiVesta and Dick13 established the reliability of the semantic differential for elementary students. They found the correlation between test-retest evaluation factors for sixth graders to be .87. DiVesta also found that the child's possessive use of modifiers at the third grade level and above corresponded closely with those of the adult.14 All three semantic differential scales were designed according to the principles and construction techniques sug— gested by Kerlinger15 and Osgood.16 A five-step scale was employed in this study rather than the seven—step scale most often found. Osgoodl7 suggests that grade school children seem to work better on a five—step scale than the seven—step scale. Bi-polar adjective pairings for the two semantic dif- ferentials to measure "trustworthiness" and "expertness" were selected from previous source credibility factor analytical research by Berlo and Lemertlg (see Table 3.4). 13France I. DiVesta and Walter Dick, "The Test-Retest Reliability of Children's Ratings on the Semantic Differen- tial," Educational and Psychological Measurement, Vol. XXVI, No. 3 (1966). PP. 605—16. . 14James G. Snider, and Charles E. Osgood, Semantic Differential Techni ue: A Sourcebook (Chicago: Aldine Paglishing Company, 1969), pp. 386-87.. 15Fred N..Kerlinger, Foundations of Behavioral Research, éggw York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Inc.,L 1964), pp. 564— 16Osgood, Suci, Op. cit., pp. 80-85 17Ibid., p. 85. 18Berlo, Op. cit., pp. 568—569. 59 TABLE-3.4——Factor Loading for "Trustworthiness" and "Expertness" Scales from Research by Berlo and Lemert. Dimension Scale Factor Loading Trustworthiness Believable-Unbelievable 72 Right—Wrong 77 Correct—Incorrect 73 Reasonable—Unreasonable 81 Dependable—Undependable 7l Honest—Dishonest 79 Expertness Effective—Ineffective 68 Successful—Unsuccessful 69 Expert—Ignorant 81 Capable—Incapable 79 Intelligent—Unintelligent 73 Powerful—Powerless 7l The bi—polar adjectives selected for measuring the subjects' attitudes toward the "concept acceptability" of the message were selected from items validated by Osgood's research.19 The scoring on the semantic differentials was done by assigning a value of from one to five for each pair of adjectives. The most positive end of the scale was assigned five and the most negative end of the scale was assigned one. 19Osgood, Suci, and Tannenbaum, op. cit. 60 Each of the three semantic differentials contained six.sets of bi—polar scales. .By summing all six scales, a range of scores from six to thirty was provided, with higher scores being more positive. A reliability analysis using Hoyt Estimate of Relia— bility Formula20 was performed on each of the three semantic differential scales. The results are reported in Table 3.5. TABLE 3.5——Internal Reliability Analysis of the Semantic Differentials Scales. Sum of Mean Source d.f. Squares Square Reliability Trustworthiness Scale , Individual 119 170.6611 1.4341 .6226 Items 5 65.9444 13.1888 Error 595 322.0556 .5412 Total 719 558.6611 Expertness Scale Individual 119 303.1653 2.5476 .7790 Items 5 13.4736 2.6947 Error 595 335.0264 .5630 Total 719 651.6653 Concept Acceptability Scale Individual 119 221.4986 1.8613 .6630 Items 5 53.2569 10.6514 Error 595 373.2431 .6273 Total 719 647.9986 L Aptitude Instrument for Preference The attitude measurement for "preference" (see Appendix 1) consisted of six questions. The six questions were seeking ¥ 20Hoyt, op. cit. A...---——__1 _‘III 61 the students' reactions toward the information source. Specific questions about both the visual and audio channels of the information source were developed. The instrument was developed with the assistance of a sixth grade teacher and a member of the Michigan State University's Educational Research Department. The instrument was first tried during the pilot study and revised. The attitude scale was given a value of one to five for each of the six questions. The most positive end of the scale was assigned five and the most negative end of the scale was assigned one. By summing all six questions a range of scores from six to thirty was obtained. A reliability analysis using Hoyt Estimate of Reliability Formula21 was performed on the attitude'measure- ment for preference and is reported in Table 3.6. TABLE 3.6—-Internal Reliability Analysis for "Preference" 'Scale. Sum of Mean Source d.f. Squares Squares Reliability Individual 119 193.4653 1.6257 .7903 Items 5 11.2736 2.2547 Error 595 202.8930 .3409 Total 719 407.6319 __ 21Hoyt, op. cit. 62 Grade equivalency scores were employed as covariables with all instruments used in the study. These scores were obtained from the SRA Achievement Series: Multilevel Edition, for grades four through nine.22 Composite scores are obtained from the Social Studies, Science, Language Arts, and Arithmetic parts of the test. The SRA Achievement Test is designed to provide a reliable measurement for a wide range of individuals and group differences. Ethnic Group Identification Check §h§2§ At the conclusion of the experimental treatment, the subjects were given a check sheet (see Appendix J) to mark the identification of the correct race of the speaker. This instrument was used to validate that the subjects did per— ceive the speakers correctly. Procedure All data for this study were collected from sixth grade classes of a single elementary school. The data were col— lected by employing the services of three sixth grade teachers from the school to serve as proctors. The three sixth grade teachers met with this writer two days before the experiment. This meeting was used to x . 22Science Research Association, Inc., "SRA Achievement SeFles: Organizing Your Local Testing Program" (Chicago: Sclence Research Associates, Inc., 1968), pp. 1-4. 63 familiarize the teachers with the stimulus materials, equipment, and data collecting instruments. The three teachers were used instead of one researcher for several reasons . First, it would enable the data to be collected in a single day, thus minimizing the disturbance of classes. A second reason for using three pe0p1e to administer the treatments was to eliminate any socialization of subjects between treatments that could occur over a period of days. The plan was to have sixty students (30 White and 30 Black), who had been randomly assigned to the six treatments, go to one of three classrooms. Each of the six treatment groups contained ten Black subjects and ten White subjects. During this time the remainder of the sixth grade pupils remained with three other sixth grade teachers. At the completion of the first three treatments the next set of sixty subjects were brought to their respective treatment groups for the experiment. rooms, the teachers, While the subjects were changing serving as proctors, made the appro— priate changes in the stimulus material. .Below is the arrangement for conducting the six treatments. Teacher- Proctor #1 #2 #3 #1 #2 #3 10 ‘10 10 10 10 10 subjects White, White, White, White, White, White, 10 10 10 10 10 10 Black Black Black Black Black Black Treatment White Voice/White Visuals Black Voice/Black Visuals White VoiceflMixed Visuals Black Voice/White Visuals White Voice/Black Visuals Black Voice/Mixed Visuals 64 The necessary equipment, a cassette tape recorder and a slide projector, was set—up in each of the three experi- mental rooms in the morning before school started. After the subjects reported to their designated treatment rooms the teacher-proctor read a set of instructions (see Appendix K) describing the purpose of the project. At the completion of the introductory statement the respective stimulus material was presented to the subjects. After the presentation was over the teacher-proctor explained how to use the semantic differential scales. This was done by reading a set of instructions (see Appendix L) and using a diagram previously placed on the chalkboard. A short time was allowed to clarify questions. The three semantic differential scales were then distributed to the subjects. Each scale on the semantic differentials was read to the students. It was decided to have the proctor read the scales aloud to reduce the difficulty some subjects might have in reading it themselves. The proctors were instructed to read the questions only once so that the treatments would be the same. The attitude "preference“ scale was next given to the subjects. The proctor once again read the instructions and then allowed time for questions. Each question on this instrument was also read to the subjects. After all attitude instruments were completed, the retention test was distributed to the subjects. The reten— tion test was given last so that its ease or difficulty 65 would not affect the subjects' attitude toward the informa- tion source. Each of the twenty questions on the retention test was read one at a time to the subjects. Upon completion of the instruments listed above the ethnic check sheet for identification of voice sound was administered to the students. Statistical Hypotheses To evaluate the effectiveness of the various informa— tion sources, seven statistical hypotheses were generated and tested. Each null hypothesis tested is presented first, followed by an accompanying alternate hypothesis. Null Hypothesis 1. There will be no difference between the mean score of subjects who receive a message from an information source with a distinguishable White voice and the mean score of subjects who receive a mes- sage from an information source with a distinguishable Black voice when the following scales are the dependent variables: 1. "trustworthiness" scale. . "expertness” scale. . "preference" scale. . "concept acceptability" scale. . “retention of message" scale. UlubLAJN Alternate Hypothesis 1. There will be a difference be- tween the mean score of subjects who receive a message from an information source with a distinguishable White voice and the mean score of subjects who receive a mes— sage from an information source with a distinguishable Black voice when the following scales are the dependent variables: 1. "trustworthiness" scale. 2. "expertneSs" scale. 3. "preference" scale. 4. "concept acceptability" scale. 5. "retention of message" scale. 66 Null Hypothesis 2. There will be no difference in the mean score of subjects who receive a message from an information source with Visuals depicting all White people, the mean score of subjects who receive a mes- sage from an information source with visuals depicting all Black people, and the mean score of subjects who receive a message from an information source depicting a combination of both Black and White people when the following scales are the dependent variables: 1. "trustworthiness" scale. . "expertness" scale. . "preference" scale. . "concept acceptability" scale. . "retention of message" scale. U11§WN Alternate Hypothesis 2. There will be a difference in the mean score of subjects who receive a message from an information source with visuals depicting all White pe0p1e, the mean score of subjects who receive a mes- sage from an information source with visuals depicting all Black people, and the mean score of subjects who receive a message from an information source depicting a combination of both Black and White people when the following scales are the dependent variables: 1. "trustworthiness" scale. 2. "expertness" scale. 3. "preference" scale. 4. "concept acceptability" scale. 5. "retention of message" scale. Null Hypothesis 3. There will be no difference between the mean score of the White subjects and the mean score of the Black subjects when the following scales are the dependent variables: 1. "trustworthiness" scale. 2. "expertness" scale. 3. "preference" scale. 4. "concept acceptability" scale. 5. "retention of message" scale. Alternate Hypothesis 3. There will be a difference be— tween the mean score of the White subjects and the mean score of the Black subjects when the following scales are the dependent variables: 1. "trustworthiness" scale. . “expertness" scale. . "preference" scale. . "concept acceptability" scale. . "retention of message" scale. U'lubWN 67 Null Hypothesis 4. There will be no two—way interac- tion between the race of the subjects and an information source with a distinguishable White voice or an infor— mation source with a distinguishable Black voice as indicated by the mean scores of the subjects when the following scales are the dependent variables: 1. "trustworthiness" scale. . "expertness" scale. . "preference" scale. . "concept acceptability" scale. . "retention of message" scale. 01pr Alternate Hypothesis 4. ”There will be a two—way inter- action between the race‘of the subjects and an informa- tion source with a distinguishable White voice or an information source with a distinguishable Black voice as indicated by the mean scores of the subjects when the following scales are the dependent variables: 1. "trustworthiness" scale. 2. "expertness" scale. 3. "preference" scale. 4. "concept acceptability" scale. 5. "retention of message“ scale. Null Hypothesis 5. There will be no two—way interac- tion between visuals depicting all White people, or Visuals depicting all Black pe0p1e, or visuals depicting a combination of White and Black pe0p1e and a distin— quishable White or Black voice as indicated by the mean scores of the subjects when the following scales are the dependent variables: l° "truStworthiness" scale. . "expertness" scale. . ”preference" scale. . "concept acceptability" scale. . "retention of message" scale. 01wa Alternate Hypothesis 5. There will be a two-way inter— action between visuals depicting all White people, or visuals depicting all Black pe0p1e, or visuals depicting a combination of White and Black people and a distin- guishable White or Black voice as indicated by the mean scores of the subjects when the following scales are the dependent variables: 1. "trustworthiness" scale. . "expertness" scale. . "preference" scale. . "concept acceptability" scale. . "retention of message" scale. 01wa 68 Null Hypothesis 6. There will be no two-way interac— tion between the race of the subjects and an informa- tion source with visuals depicting all White pe0p1e, or an information source with visuals depicting all Black pe0p1e, or an information source with a combina— tion of White and Black people as indicated by the mean scores of the subjects when the following scales are the dependent variables: 1. "trustworthiness" scale. 2. "expertness" scale. 3. "preference" scale. 4. "concept acceptability" scale. 5. "retention of message" scale. Alternate Hypothesis 6. There will be a two-way inter- action between the race of the subjects and an informa- tion source with visuals depicting all White people, or an information source with visuals depicting all Black pe0p1e, or an information source with a combination of White and Black pe0p1e as indicated by the mean scores of the subjects when the following scales are the dependent variables: 1. "trustworthiness" scale. 2. "expertness" scale. 3. "preference" scale. 4. "concept acceptability" scale. 5. "retention of message" scale. Null Hypothesis 7. There will be no three-way interac— tion with the race of the subjects and an information source with a distinguishable White voice or a distin— guishable Black voice and visuals depicting all White pe0p1e, or visuals depicting all Black people, or visuals depicting a combination of both Black and White people as indicated by the mean scores of the subjects when the following scales are the dependent variables: 1. "trustworthiness" scale. 2. "expertness" scale. 3. "preference" scale. 4. "concept acceptability" scale. 5. "retention of message" scale. Alternate Hypothesis 7. There will be a three-way interaction with the race of the subjects and an infor— mation source with a distinguishable White voice or a distinguishable Black voice and visuals depicting all White pe0p1e, or visuals depicting all Black people, or visuals depicting a combination of both Black and White people as indicated by the mean scores of the subjects when the following scales are the dependent variables: 69 "trustworthiness" scale. "expertness" scale. "preference" scale. "concept acceptability" scale. "retention of message" scale. UMP-MN!“ Summary One hundred eighty-six sixth graders were divided into two groups according to race. Subjects were then randomly selected, thirty from the group of White pupils and thirty :Ercm.the group of Black pupils and then randomly assigned to cuie of the six experimental treatment groups. Each of tflie six treatment groups consisted of ten Black subjects and 'tenLWhite subjects. All groups received the same message .flrom a different information source with variations only in iflne voice of the narrator and the race of the people depicted 1J1 the visuals. The information sources were in an audio tape/2 x 2 slide format. After the presentation was over, the proctors adminis- tered to the subjects three semantic differential scales, ODE! attitude preference scale, and a retention test. The Scales were all read to the subjects by one of the three tea cher -proctors . A multivariate analysis of variance and an analysis of covariance were employed to determine the main effect and thfi interaction effect of the race of the voice, the three Sets of visuals, and the race of the subjects. To evaluate theSe effects seven null hypotheses were generated and tested. A Eiignificance level of .05 was selected for the study. ¥ — _ 4h— CHAPTER IV ANALYSIS OF DATA The statistical hypotheses for the main effect and the interaction effect were tested using a multivariate analy- sis of variance on the attitude scales and an analysis of covariance on the retention test. Grade equivalency scores from an SRA achievement test were used as the covariable. Scores from the three semantic differential scales, an atti- tude preference scale and a retention test were used as the dependent variables. The independent variables were race of subjects, race of voice, and race of visuals. A11 hypotheses were tested using the .05 alpha level with the appropriate degrees of freedom. Analysis of Data Since the data for this study were analyzed with two different statistical procedures, the null hypotheses will be first stated for the retention test and then again for the attitude scales. An analysis of covariance was employed to determine the effect of the independent variables in relationship to the retention test. The total number of items answered 70 71 correctly out of a possible twenty was used in the analysis. The scores ranged from a high of eighteen to a low of six. A summary of the analysis of group means is reported in Table 4.1. TABLE 4.1——Group Means for the Retention Test. White Black Visuals Subjects Subjects White 13.5 12.2 White Voice Black 14.0 11.8 Mixed 13.5 12.4 White 13.7 12.0 Black Voice Black 13.5 11.6 Mixed 13.3 11.5 An analysis of the usefulness of the covariate on the retention test resulted in an F-ratio of 33.00 (degrees of freedom 1 and 107) which was significant at the P = .0001 level. An analysis of covariance was then performed on each of the seven testable hypotheses for the retention test. A summary of the analysis of covariance for the retention test is reported in Table 4.2. TABLE 4.2—-Analysis of Covariance on Retention. 72 Source d.f. M.S F~Va1ue Probability Voice 1 2.0211 0.3409 .5606 Visual 2 0.0855 0.0144 .9857 Race of Subjects 1 14.4357 4.1213 .0449* Voice X Subjects 1 0.2931 0.0494 .8245 Voice X Visuals 2 1.1170 0.1884 .8286 Visuals X Subjects 2 0.5289 0.0892 .9148 Voice X Visuals X 2 0.2417 0.0408 .9601 Subjects *Significant at or above the .05 level. The testable hypothesis for the main effect of the Black voice versus the White voice is as follows: Null Hypothesis 1. There will be no difference between the mean score of subjects who receive a message from an information source with a distinguishable White voice and the mean score of subjects who receive a message from an information source with a distinguishable Black voice when "retention of message" is the dependent variable. Alternate Hypothesis 1. There will be a difference be- tween the mean score of subjects who receive a message from an information source with a distinguishable White voice and the mean score of subjects who receive a message from an information source with a distinguishable Black voice when "retention of the message" is the dependent variable. The analysis of covariance on the retention test pro- duced a F—value of .3409 which was not significant at the .05 alpha level. Since no significant difference was found at the .05 alpha level, the null hypothesis is not rejected. 73 The testable hypothesis for the main effect of the White \nisuals versus the Black visuals versus the combination of Black and White visuals is as follows: Null Hypothesis 2. There will be no difference in the mean score of subjects who receive a message from an information source with visuals depicting all White pe0p1e, the mean score of subjects who reCeive a message from an information source with visuals depicting all Black pe0p1e, and the mean score of subjects who receive a message from an information source depicting a combi— nation of both Black and White pe0p1e when "retention .of message" is the dependent variable. Alternate Hypothesis 2. There will be a difference in the mean score of subjects who receive a message from an information source with visuals depicting all White pe0p1e, the mean score of subjects who receive a message from an information source with visuals depicting all Black people, and the mean score of subjects who receive a message from an information source depicting a combina- tion of both Black and White people when "retention of message" is the dependent variable. ”The analysis of covariance on the retention test pro— Chiced an F-value of .9857 which was not significant at the -()5 alpha level. Since no significant difference was found at: the .05 alpha level, the null hypothesis is not rejected. The testable hypothesis for the main effect of White Silkijects versus Black subjects is as follows: Null Hypothegis 3. There will be no difference between the mean score of the White subjects and the mean score of the Black subjects when "retention of message" is the dependent variable. Alternate Hypothesis 3. There will be a difference between the mean score of the White subjects and the mean score of the Black subjects when "retention of message" is the dependent variable. The analysis of covariance on the retention test produced an Ehyalue of 4.1213 which was significant beyond the .05 alpha. level. The mean score for the White subjects was 74 13.58 while the mean score for the Black subjects was 11.93, indicating that the White subjects' retention test scores were higher. Since the range between these two scores was significant beyond the .05 alpha level, the null hypothesis is rejected and the alternate hypothesis is accepted. The testable hypothesis for the two—way interaction effect between the race of the subjects and the distinguish— able Black or the distinguishable White voice is as follows: Null Hypothesis 4. There will be no two—way inter— action between the race of the subjects and an informa— tion source with a distinguishable White voice or an information source with a distinguishable Black voice as indicated by the mean scores of the subjects when "retention of message" is the dependent variable. Alternate Hypothesis 4. There will be a two-way inter- action between the race of the subjects and an informa— tion source with a distinguishable White voice or an information source with a distinguishable Black voice as indicated by the mean scores of the subjects when "retention of message" is the dependent variable. The analysis of covariance on the retention test pro— duced an F—value of .0494 which was not significant at the .05 alpha level. Since no significant difference was found at the .05 alpha level, the null hypothesis is not rejected. The testable hypothesis for the two-way interaction effect between the White visuals or the Black visuals or the combination of White and'Black visuals and the distinguish- able White or distinguishable Black voice is as follows: Null Hypothesis 5. There will be no two-way interac- tion between visuals depicting all White people, or visuals depicting all Black people, or visuals depict- ing a combination of White and Black pe0p1e and a distinguishable White or Black voice as indicated by the mean scores of the subjects when "retention of message" is the dependent variable. 1‘. 75 Alternate Hypothesis 5. There will be a two-way inter- action between visuals depicting all White pe0p1e, or visuals depicting all Black people, or visuals depicting a combination of White and Black pe0p1e and a distinguish- able White or Black voice as indicated by the mean scores of the subjects when "retention of message" is the dependent variable. The analysis of covariance on the retention test pro- duced an F-value of .1884 which was not significant at the .05 alpha.1evel. Since no significant difference was found at the .05 alpha level, the null hypothesis is not rejected. The testable hypothesis for the two-way interaction effect between the race of the subjects and the White visuals or the Black visuals or_the combination of White and Black visuals is as follows: Null Hypothesis 6. There will be no two-way interac— tion between the race of the subjects and an informa- tion source with visuals depicting all White people, or an information source with visuals depicting all Black people, or an information source with a combination.of White and Black pe0p1e as indicated by the mean scores of the subjects when "retention of message" is the dependent variable. ' Alternate Hypothesis 6. There will be a two—way inter- action between the race of the subjects and an informa— tion source with visuals depicting all White people, or an information source with visuals depicting all Black pe0p1e, or an information source with a combination of White and Black people as indicated by the mean scores of the subjects when "retention of message" is the dependent variable. The analysis of covariance on the retention test pro- duced anF-value of .0892 which was not significant at the ~05 ialpha.1eve1. Since no significant difference was found at tine .05 alpha level, the null hypothesis is not rejected. 76 The testable hypothesis for the three—way interaction effect for the race of the subjects and the White visuals or the Black visuals or the combination of White and Black visuals and the distinguishable White or distinguishable Black voice is as follows: Null Hypothesis 7. There will be no three-way inter- action with the race of the subjects and an information source with a distinguishable White voice or a distin- guishable Black voice and visuals depicting all White people, or visuals depicting all Black people, or visuals depicting a combination of both Black and White people as indicated by the mean scores of the subjects when "retention of message" is the dependent variable. Alternate Hypothesis 7. There will be a three-way interaction with the race of the subjects and an infor— mation source with a distinguishable White voice or a distinguishable Black voice and visuals depicting all White pe0p1e, or visuals depicting all Black people, or visuals depicting a combination of both Black and White pe0p1e as indicated by the mean scores of the subjects when "retention of message" is the dependent variable. The analysis of covariance on the retention test pro— duced an F—value of .0408 which Was not significant at the .05 alpha.leve1. Since no significant difference was found at the .05 alpha levelf the null hypothesis is not rejected. An analysis of the usefulness of the covariate on the fidur attitude scales resulted in an F-ratio of 2.199 “degrees of freedom 4 and 107) which was not significant at the P’: .6992 level. A decision was made not to use the covariate in analyzing the data from the attitude scales Since no association was found between the dependent and independent variables. A multivariate analysis of variance was then employed without the covariate. See Table 4.3 77 for a summary of the multivariate analysis of variance of scores from the attitude scales for the hypotheses. TABLE 4.3—4Mu1tivariate Analysis of Variance of Scores from the Attitude Scales for the SeVen Testable Hypotheses. Source d.f. F—Value Probability Voice 4 0.3182 .8653 Visual 8 5.0394 .0001* Race of Subjects 4 5.6943 .0004* Voice X Subjects 4 1.2230 .3056 Voice X Visuals 8 0.9133 .5063 Visuals X Subjects 8 7.6939 .0001* Voice X Visuals X 8 0.9418 .4830 Subjects *Significant at or above the .05 level. The testable hypothesis for the main effect of the Black VOice versus the White voice is as follows: Null Hypothesis 1. There will be no difference between the mean score of subjects who receive a message from an information source with a distinguishable White voice and the mean score of subjects who receive a message from an information source with a distinguishable Black voice when the following scales are the dependent variables: . "trustworthiness” scale. "expertness“ scale. . "preference" scale. . "concept acceptability” scale. hump Alternate Hypothesis 1. There will be a difference be— tween the mean score of subjects who receive a message from an information source with a distinguishable White voice and the mean score of subjects who receive a mes— sage from an information source with a distinguishable 78 Black voice when the following scales are the dependent variables: 1. "trustworthiness" scale. 2. "expertness" scale. 3. "preference" scale. 4. "concept acceptability" scale. The multivariate analysis of variance of means yielded an F-ratio of .3182 (degrees of freedom 4 and 105) which was not significant at the P = .8653 level. This indicated that there was no significant difference on any of the dependent variables being simultaneously analyzed. Since no significant difference was found at the .05 alpha level, the null hypothesis is not rejected. The testable hypothesis for the main effect of the White visuals versus the Black visuals versus the combination of Black and White visuals is as follows: Null Hypothesis 2. There will be no difference in the mean score of subjects who receive a message from an information source with visuals depicting all White people, the mean score of subjects who receive a mes— sage from an information source with visuals depicting all Black pe0p1e, and the mean score of subjects who receive a message from an information source depicting a combination of both Black and White pe0p1e when the following scales are the dependent variables: 1. "trustworthiness" scale. 2. "expertness" scale. 3. "preference" scale. 4. "concept acceptability" scale. Alternate Hypothesi§_2. There will be a difference in the mean score of subjects who receive a message from an information source with visuals depicting all White pe0p1e, the mean score of subjects who receive a mes- sage from an information source with visuals depicting all Black pe0p1e, and the mean score of subjects who receive'a message from an information source depicting a combination of both Black and White pe0p1e when the following scales are the dependent variables: 1. "trustworthiness" scale. 2. "expertness" scale. 3. "preference" scale. 4. "concept acceptability" scale. 79 The multivariate analysis of variance of means yielded an F-ratio of 5.04 (degrees of freedom 8 and 210) which was significant at the P = .0001 level. This indicated that there was a significant difference on at least one of the dependent variables being simultaneously analyzed. A uni- variate analysis was then performed on each of the dependent variables. A summary of the univariate analysis of measure— ment is reported in Table 4.4. TABLE 4.4——Univariate Analysis of Scores from the Attitude Scales for White Visuals Versus Black Visuals Versus Combination of Black and White Visuals. Between Mean Variable Squared F-Value Probability Trustworthiness 0.5083 0.2384 .7884 Expertness 14.1750 . 3.9878 .0214* Concept Accept- 3.3250 1.2124 .3016 ability Preference 86.3083 16.3360 .0001* Degrees of freedom for hypothesis 2 Degrees of freedom for error 108 *Significant at or above the .05 level. The univariate analysis of variance resulted in find— ing a significant difference in two of the dependent variables: "expertness" scale, and "preference" scale. The subjects' scores on the "expertness" scale for information sources with visuals depicting all White people. 80 versus information sources with visuals depicting all Black people, versus information sources with visuals depicting a combination of Black people and White people produced an F-value of 3.98 which was significant beyond the .05 alpha level. The subjects' mean scores from the "eXpertness" scale (higher scores indicate greater degree of perceived "expertness") for the three visuals sets of the various information sources are reported in Table 4.5. TABLE 4.5—eMean Scores from the "Expertness" and "Preference" Scales for the Main Effect of the Visuals. Visual Sets Expertness Preference White 27.87 25.12 Black 26.75 23.90 Combined 27.65 26.82 A post hoc comparison established that the significant dif— ference was located in the range between the subjects' mean scores for information sources with White visuals and infor— mation sources with Black visuals. This range indicated that the subjects perceived the information sources that had Visuals depicting White individuals as more "expert" than the information sources that had visuals depicting Black individuals. Since the range between these mean scores was Significant-beyond the .05 alpha level, the null hypothesis is rejected and the alternate hypothesis is accepted. 81 The subjects' scores on the "preference" scale for information sources with visuals depicting all White people, versus information sources with visuals depicting all Black people, versus information sources with visuals depicting a combination of Black people and‘Whitejpeople produced an F— value of 16.32 which was significant beyond the .05 alpha level. The subjects' mean scores from the "preferenCe" scale (higher scores indicate greater "preference") for the three visuals sets of the various information sources are reported in Table 4.5. A post hoc comparison establiShed that the significant difference was located in the range between the subjects' mean scores for information sources with visuals depicting a combination of White and Black individuals and information sources with visuals depicting all Black individuals. Since the range between these mean scores was significant beyond the .05 alpha level, the null hypothesis is rejected and the alternate hypothesis is accepted. The testable hypothesis for the main effect of White subjects versus Black Subjects is as follows: Null Hypothesis 3. There will be no difference between the mean score of the White subjects and the mean score of the Black subjects when the following scales are the dependent variables: 1. "trustworthiness" scale. 2. "expertness" scale. 3. "preference" scale. 4. "concept acceptability" scale. Alternate Hypothesis 3. There will be a difference be— tween the mean score of the White subjects and the mean score of the Black subjects when the following scales are the dependent variables: 82 "trustWorthiness" scale. "expertness" scale. "preference" scale. "concept acceptability" scale. 0 bwww The multivariate analysis of variance of means yielded an F-ratio of 5.69 (degrees of freedom 4 and 105) which was significant at the P = .0004 level. This indicated that there was a significant difference on at least one of the dependent variables being simultaneously analyzed. A uni— variate analysis was then performed on each of the dependent variables. A summary of the univariate analysis of measure— ment is reported in Table 4.6. TABLE 4.6—-Univariate Analysis of Scores from the Attitude Scales for the-Main Effect of White Students Versus Black Students. Between Mean Variable Squared F—Value Probability Trustworthiness 0.0750 0.0352 .8516 Expertness 42.0083 11.8179 .0009* Concept Accept- 0.5333 0.1945 .6602 ability ’ Preference 70.5333 13.3502 .0005* Degrees of Freedom for hypothesis 1 Degrees of Freedom for error 108 —‘ *Significant at or above the .05 level. The univariate analysis of variance resulted in finding a Significant difference in two of the dependent variables: "expertness" scale, and "preference" scale. 83 The "expertness" scores for White subjects versus Black subjects produced an F-value of 11.82 which was significant beyond the .05 alpha level. The mean scores of the ”expertness" scale (higher score indicated greater perceived "expertness") for White subjects versus Black subjects are reported in Table 4.7. TABLE 4.7—eMean scores from the "Expertness" and "Preference" Scales for White Subjects versus Black Subjects. Subject Level Expertness Preference Black Subjects 26.83 26.05 White Subjects 26.01 24.51 The range between the two sets of subjects indicated that the Black subjects judged the various information sources higher on the "expertness" scale than did the White subjects. Since the range between these mean scores was significant beyond the .05 alpha level, the null hypothesis is rejected and the alternate hypothesis is accepted. The "preference" scores for White subjects versus Black subjects produced an F-value of 13.35 which was significant 'beyond the .05 level. The mean scores of the "preference" scale (higher score indicate greater "preference") for the ‘White subjects versus the Black subjects are reported in Table 4.7. The range between the two sets of subjects 84 indicated that Black subjects judged the various informa— tion sources higher on the "preference" scale than did the White subjects. Since the range between these mean scores was significant beyond the .05 alpha level, the null hypthe- sis is rejected and the alternate-hypothesis is accepted. The testable hypothesis for the two—way interaction effect between the race of the subjects and the distinguish— able Black or the distinguishable White voice is as follows: Null Hypothesis 4. There will be no two-way interac- tion between the race of the subjects and an informa- tion source with a distinguishable White voice or an information source with a distinguishable Black voice as indicated by the mean scores of the subjects when the following scales are the dependent variables: 1. "trustworthiness" scale. 2. "expertness" scale. 3. "preference" scale. 4. "concept acceptability" scale. Alternate Hypothesis 4. There will be a two—way inter— action between the race of the subjects and an informa— tion source with a distinguishable White voice or an information source with a distinguishable Black voice as indicated by the mean scores of the subjects when the following scales are the dependent variables: . "trustworthiness" scale. . “expertness" scale. . "preference" scale. . "concept acceptability" scale. pump The multivariate analysis of variance of means yielded ail F—ratio of 1.2230 (degrees of freedom 4 and 105) which was not significant at the P = .3056 level. This indicated t1“latthere was no significant difference on any of the dependent variables being simultaneously analyzed. Since no Significant difference was found at the .05 alpha level, the null hypothesis is not rejected. 85 The testable hypothesis for the two-way interaction effect between the White visuals or the Black visuals or the combination of White and Black visuals and the distinguish- able White or distinguishable Black voice is as follows: Null Hypothesis 5. There will be no two-way interac— tion between visuals depicting all White pe0p1e, or Visuals depicting_all Black people, or visuals depict— ing a combination of White and Black people and a distinguishable White or Black voice as indicated by the mean scores of the subjects when the following scales are the dependent variables: 1. "trustworthiness" scale. 2. "expertness" scale. 3. "preference" scale. 4. "concept acceptability" scale. Alternate HypotheSis 5. There will be a two-way inter— action between visuals depicting all White people, or visuals depicting all Black pe0p1e, or visuals depicting a combination of White and Black pe0p1e and.a distin- guishable White or Black voice as indicated by the mean scores of the subjects when the following scales are the dependent variables: 1. "trustworthiness" scale.o 2. "expertness" scale. 3. "preference" scale. 4. "concept acceptability" scale. The multivariate analysis of variance of means yielded an F-ratio of .9133 (degrees of freedom 8 and 210) which was not significant at the P = .5063 level. This indicated that there was no significant difference on any of the dependent VaJ'Siables being simultaneously analyzed. Since no signifi— Carrt difference was found at the .05 alpha level, the null 'hYpothesis is not rejected. The testable hypothesis for the two—way interaction effec.~.t between the-race of the subjects and the White visuals or tflie Black visuals or the combination of White and Black Vlsufills is as follows: .III--____ l_4i-A 86 Npll Hypothe§is 6. There will be no two—way interac- tion between the race of the subjects and an informa— tion source with visuals depicting all White people, or an information source with visuals depicting all Black pe0p1e, or an information source with a combination of White and Black people as indicated by the mean scores of the subjects when the following scales are the dependent variables: 1. "trustworthiness" scale. 2. "expertness" scale. 3. "preference" scale. 4. "concept acceptability" scale. Alternate Hypothesis 6. There will be a two-way inter- action between the race of the subjects and an informa- tion source with visuals depicting all White pe0p1e, or an information source with visuals depicting all Black people, or an information source with a combination of White and Black pe0p1e as indicated by the mean scores of the subjects when the following scales are the dependent variables: 1. "trustworthiness“ scale. . "expertness" scale. . "preference" scale. . "concept acceptability" scale. bWN The multivariate analysis of variance of means yielded an F-ratio of 7.69 (degrees of freedom 8 and 210) which was significant at the P = .0001 level. This indicated that there was a significant difference on at least one of the dependent variables being simultaneously analyzed. A uni— variate analysis was then performed on each of the dependent Viiriables. A summary of the univariate analysis of measure— ment is reported in Table 4.8. The univariate analysis of variance resulted in find— in*g'a significant difference in two of the dependent VEtriables: "expertness" scale, and "preference" scale. 87 TABLE 4.8--Univariate Analysis of Scores from the Attitude Scales for the Interaction Effect Between the Visuals and the Race of the Subjects. Between Mean Variable Squared F-Value Probability Trustworthiness 1.4250 0.6683 .5148 Expertness 43.9583 12.3665 .0001* Concept Accept» 2.2583 0.8234 .4417 ability Preference 143.7583 27.2098 .0001* Degrees of freedom for hypothesis 2 Degrees of freedom for error 108 *Significant at or above the .05 level. The subjects scores on the "expertness" scale for the interaction effect between the three sets of visuals of the various information sources and the race of the subjects pro— duced an F-value of 21:37 which was significant beyond the -05 alpha level. The subjects' mean scores on the "expertness" scale for the interaction effect between the three visual sets and the race of the subjects are reported lhl Table 4.9. A post hoc comparison established that the Significant difference was located in the range between the WhiJ:e subjects' mean scores for information sources with eitfiler visuals depicting all White individuals or visuals depixrting a combination of White and Black indiViduals-and the :information sources with visuals depicting all Black indiViduals. This indicated that the White subjects 88 TABLE 4.9—eMean Scores from the "Expertness" and "Preference" 'Scales for the Interaction Effect Between the Visuals and the Race of the Subjects. subject Level Visual Level Expertness Preference Black Visuals 28.55 26.80 Black Subjects White Visuals 27.80 24.40 Mixed Visuals 27.70 26.95 Black Visuals 24.95 21.00 White Subjects White Visuals 27.95 25.85 Mixed Visuals 27.60 26.70 perceived sources with visuals depicting all White people or a combination of White and Black pe0p1e as more "expert" than sources depicting all Black people. Figure 2, on the following page, presents a graphic representation of the interaction effect of the three visual sets and the race of the subjects on the "expertness" scale. Since the range between the mean scores was significant beyond the .05 alpha level, the null hypothesis is rejected and the alternate hypothesis is accepted. The subjects' scores on the "preference" scale for the interaction effects between the three sets of visuals of the various information sources and the race of the subjects Produced an F—value of 27.21 which was significant beyond the The subjects' mean scores on the .05 alpha level. I'IJJ-"34‘-erence" scale for the interaction effect between the 89 30" 29" 28- 27 r 26r- 25" —————-White subjects 2: P ————— Black Subjects 1 l 1 I V l Black Mixed White Visuals Visuals Visuals Figure 2. Interaction effect between the race of the subjects and the visual sets of the information sources on the "expertness" scale. three visual sets and the race of the subjects are reported in Table 4.9. A post hoc comparison established that the significant difference was located in the range between the lflrtte subjects' mean scores for information sources with either White visuals or a combination of White and Black Visuuals and information sources with Black visuals. This indir:ated”that the White subjects preferred information Sourwzes with visuals depicting all White pe0p1e or a combi- natiom: of White and Black people over information sources with \risuals depicting all Black pe0p1e. Figure 3, on the fOIIOMRing page, presents a graphic representation of the lnteraction effect of the three visual sets and the race of the subjects on the "preference" scale. Since the range 9O ————— White Subjects ————— Black Subjects 21w _ 20- L l L l 1 l Black Mixed White Visuals Visuals Visuals Figure 3. Interaction effect between the race of the sub- jects and the visual sets of the information sources on the "preference" scale. between the mean scores was significant beyond the .05 alpha level, the null hypothesis is rejected and the alternate hypothesis is accepted. The testable hypothesis for the three—way interaction effect for the race of the subjects and the White visuals orthe Black visuals or the combination of White and Black ‘Pisuals and the distinguishable White or distinguishable Black voice is as follows: Null Hypothesis 7. There will be no three-way interac— tion with the race of the subjects and an information source with a distinguishable White voice or a distin- guishable Black voice and visuals depicting all White people, or visuals depicting all Black pe0p1e, or visuals depicting a combination of both Black and White pe0p1e as indicated by the mean scores of the subjects when the following scales are the dependent variables; 1. "trustworthiness" scale. 2. "expertness" scale. 3. "preference" scale. 4. "concept acceptability" scale. 91 Alternate Hypothesis 7. There will be a three—way interaction with the race of the subjects and an infor— mation source with a distinguishable White voice or a distinguishable Black voice and visuals depicting all White pe0p1e, or visuals depicting all Black pe0p1e, or visuals depicting a combination of both Black and White pe0p1e as indicated by the mean scores of the subjects when the followihg scales are the dependent variables: 1. "trustworthiness" scale. 2. "expertness" scale. 3. "preference" scale. 4. "concept acceptability" scale. The multivariate analysis of variance of means yielded an F—ratio of .9418 (degrees of freedom 8 and 210) which was not significant at the P = .4830 level. This indicated that there was no significant difference on any of the de— pendent variables being simultaneously analyzed. Since no significant difference was found at the .05 alpha level, the null hypothesis is not rejected. An ethnic identification check sheet was given to the :students at the end of the experiment. This instrument was LLsed to validate that the subjects did perceive the race of tile speakers correctly. Table 4.10 reports the check sheets data from the 120 experimental subjects.- 52mm Seven statistical hypotheses were generated for test- JHKJ the main and interaction effects of the independent and (dependent variables. An analysis of covariance was emPJJDyed to determine the relationship between the independent Variiables and the retention test. A multivariate analysis of vEariance was used to determine the effect of the 92 TABLE 4.10—~Number of Distinguishable and Indistinguishable Voice Sounds from 120 Experimental subjects. Total Number of Distin- Indistin- Voice Subjects quishable guishable , , . . White 10 10 0 White VOice/White Visuals Black 10 9 1 . . . White 10 9 1 White VOice/Black Visuals Black 10 9 1 . . . . White 10 9 1 White VOice/Mixed Visuals Black 10 10 o . . White 10 10 0 Black VOice/Black Visuals Black 10 10 0 , . . White 10 10 0 Black VOice/White Visuals Black 10 8 2 . . . White 10 9 1 Black VOice/Mixed Visuals Black 10 10 0 120 113 7 independent variables with the attitude scales. The .05 level of confidence was used for determining significance. (See Appendix M for a summary of the results of the statis- tical analyses.) A discussion of the findings and their implications are found in Chapter V. CHAPTER V SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS The purpose of this study was to investigate the influ— ence that selected ethnic variables of an information source have on selected Black and White pupils. The research was focused on the effects of the auditory and visual channels of an information source on the students. The major concern (of this study was to determine if White or Black students xvere influenced more by an information source with selected eethnic characteristics than by alternate sources with differ— iJig sets of selected ethnic characteristics. The voice of tile narrator and the physical characteristics designating the rtace of individuals depicted in the visuals were the varia— bles that were manipulated. The generalizations drawn from the review of the litera- ‘tuure indicated that ethnic reference group membership was employed by individuals to evaluate various information scuarwces and their messages. This literature also established tkuat. in many situations a White audience tends to.give less credibility to Black information sources than to White infor- This research, however, does not include mation sources . The Black minority Studies of the reactions of Blacks. 93 94 element has received little investigation. While it was sug— gested by several writers that a Black individual might tend to be influenced more by a member of its own ethnic group, no studies were found”which tested this proposition. Several studies suggested that an audience formulates a level of perceived credibility for information sources from both visual and voice cues. These same studies indicated that an audience could determine the correct race of the in— formation source by hearing just a short recorded passage of the speaker's voice. A higher rating of credibility was generally given to the voices distinguished as belonging to White individuals . Another body of research suggested that both White and IBlack bhildren have a preference for the White race. This prreference for the White race was found in a wide range of scituations. The situation with most implications for the puresent study was where both White and Black children tended 'tc> select visuals with White people over visuals with Black people. Some writers, however, have suggested that the Black children's preference for the White race is in the Process of change. Several studies suggested that children's responses to cognitive tasks were influenced by the'race of the experi— menter. These studies show that White children tend to respond better to White experimenters and Black children better to Black experimenters. 95 The present research was conducted with an experimental population from a racially mixed school consisting of one hundred eighty-six sixth grade students. The pOpulation con— SiStedwan single public elementary school in a midwestern city of 200,000 pe0p1e. Sixty White pupils and sixty Black pupils were randomly selected from the population and then randomly assigned to one of the six appropriate stimulus groups. Twelve cells for experimentation were created as a result of dividing the two races and assigning them to sec— tions. An instructional tape/slide presentation was the infor— tnation source. The message dealt with the misuse of drugs. Thno variables in the information source, the voice of the riarrator and the race of the people depicted in the visuals, were manipulated for the experiment. The two voices were seelected from voices previously determined to be distin— ‘giiishable as either belonging to a Black or White individual. The race of the individuals depicted in the visuals was either Black or White. Five instruments were designed for tliiss study. One was a retention test that had been pre— tested. The test data from thirty-four questions were sub— mitted to an item analysis. Twenty questions for the experi— ment were then selected from the results of the item analysis. Three semantic differential scales were also designed. Bl‘Polar words were selected from previously validated research. These instruments measured the subjeCtS' concepts 96 of "trustworthiness" and "expertness" of the information source, and the "concept acceptability" of the message. A fifth instrument was deve10ped to measure the subjects' "preference" for the various information sources. This instrument was pre-tested at the same time as the retention test. Reliability of the instruments were determined by Hoyt's Estimate of Reliability Formula. The experiment was conducted in three rooms that nor- Three sixth grade mally served as sixth grade classrooms. teachers from the school served as proctors. After the presentation by the information source, four attitude instru— tnents were administered, and then followed by a retention iaest. At the end of the experiment the students were given arn.instrument to cheek for validating the correct race of 'tlie narrator. An analysis of covariance for the retention test and a.1nultivariate analysis of variance for the attitude scales were used for testing the seven statistical hypotheses for tire main effect or the interaction effect. All hypotheses were tested using the .05 level of confidence with the appropriate degrees of freedom. Findingg and Conclusions analysis of the data supports the following findings and c=C>nclus ions : Finding l . t . . . II he sLilbjects' scores on the "retention test," "trustworthiness No significant differences were found in ~ 97 scale, "expertness" scale, "preference" scale, and "concept acceptability" scale when Comparing the White voice and the Black voice of the various information sources. Conclu§ion 1. Information sources with either a dis— tinguishable White voice or a distinguishable Black voice have an equal amount of influence on students of the sixth grade. Finding 2. In comparing the relative effectiveness of the three sets of visuals of the various information sources, no significant differences were found in the subjects' scores on the "trustworthiness" scale, "concept acceptability" scale, and "retention of the message" scale. Significant differences, however, were found on the "expertness" scale and the "preference" scale. Conclusion 2. Students of the sixth grade level per: ceive information sources with visuals depicting all White people as having more "expertness" than sources with visuals depicting all Black individuals. The same students also have a "preference" for information sources with visuals depicting a combination of Black and White pe0p1e over infor— mation sources depicting all Black people. (A close examina- tion of the data indicates that these main effects are due to the interaction effect between the White subjects and the visuals of the information sources. The interaction effects are discussed in Finding number 6 and Conclusion number 6.) 98 Finding 3. Analysis of the data yielded no significant difference between the mean scores of the White subjects and the Black subjects on the "trustworthiness" scale, and "concept acceptability" scale. Significant differences were found, however, on the "expertness" scale, the "preference" scale and the "retention test." The Black subjects' composite mean score for all information sources was higher than the White subjects' composite score on the "expertness" scale and the "preference" scale. The White subjects' mean score on the "retention test" was higher than the Black subjects' mean score. Conclusion 3. It was concluded from the data that Black subjects perceived all information sources as-having more "expertness" than did the White subjects. The data also indicated that Black subjects gave a higher "preference" rating to all information sources than did the White sub— jects. It was also concluded that the White subjects scored higher on the retention test than did the Black subjects. The results from the "retention test" can perhaps be con— tributed to several irrelevant variables. These irrelevant variables are examined in the Discussion section of this chapter. Finding 4. No significant differences were found in the subjects' scores on the "retention test," "trustworthi— ness" scale, "expertness" scale, "preference" scale, and "concept acceptability" scale for a two—way interaction effect 99 between the race of the subjects and the White or Black voices of the various information sources. Conclusion 4. White students respond equally as well to information sources with a distinguishable Black voice as they do to information sources with a distinguishable White voice. Also, Black subjects respond equally as well to information sources with a distinguishable White voice as they do to information sources with a distinguishable Black / voice. It is concluded that Black subjects and White sub— jects are not affected more positively by voices of their own race. Finding 5. No significant differences were found in the subjects' scores on the "retention test," "trustworthi— ness" scale, "expertness" scale, "preference" scale, and "concept acceptability" scale for a two—way interaction effect between the three different sets of visuals and the I31ack or White voices of the various information sources. Conclusion 5. The matching of a distinguishable White V<>ice or a distinguishable Black voice with visuals depict— iJfis; Black or White pe0p1e does not have a significant affect 011 .sixth grade students. Finding 6. Analysis of the data yielded no significant difference in the subjects' scores for interaction between tilea race of the subjects and the three different sets of v' . . . . J*~°’I:.ials of the various information sources on the "trustworthi- ness " scale, "concept acceptability" scale, and "retention 100 of message" scale. Significant differences were found, however, on the "expertness" scale and the "preference" scale. Conclusion 6. White students of the sixth grade level perceive information sources with visuals depicting all White individuals, or a combination of White and Black indi- viduals as having more "expertness" than information sources with visuals depicting all Black people. White students also have a preference for information sources with visuals depicting all White individuals, or a combination of White and Black individuals over sources depicting all Black individuals. Finding 7. No significant differences were found in the subjects' scores on the "retention test," "trustworthi— ness" scale, "expertness" scale, "preference" scale, and ”concept acceptability" scale for a three-way interaction annong the Black or White voices, the three different sets <3f visuals of the information sources, and the race of the Subjects. Conclusion 7. It is concluded that any combination of difirtinguishable White or Black voices with visuals depict— ing White or Black people in an information source does not ‘Significantly differ in the effect on Black or White stu- dents . 101 Discussion of Results The data analysis has indicated that the selected ethnic characteristics of the various information sources accounted for little difference in the amount of information retained by the subjects. The only significant finding from the "retention test" was that White subjects obtained a higher score than Black subjects. There are several irrelevant variables that could have produced this result. The environ— ment of the school is one variable that may have contributed to this finding. Only two of the six sixth grade teachers *were Black. The school's entire teaching staff had a very low proportion of Black teachers compared with its 62% Black jpupil and 38% White pupil enrollment. Also, both the prin— <:ipal and assistant principal were White. The Black pupils' (desire to achieve was perhaps negatively affected by the low 19ercentage of Blacks on the professional staff. A second irrelevant variable that could have caused tile results on the "retention test“ was the number of stu- dents that had been directly or indirectly involved with CirWJgS. A negative attitude toward drug prevention could-have Caused the pupils to be less attentive to the message from ‘tlles information source. The subjects that were less atten- tive .to the message would of course-be expected to score lower on the "retention test." A third reason for the lower score on the "retention test " by the Black subjects could perhaps be contributed to 102 the short duration of the presentation. The Black subjects have-been so accustomed to materials which depict only White pe0p1e that they often pay little attention to them. In the experiment, the Black student may have automatically "tuned out" not realizing that some of the materials were designed to depict Black people. Research with materials of the type used in the present study should be conducted over a longer period of time. The Black pupils would prob- ably improve the "retention test" scores during the time~ period. The limited data of this study tend to suggest that Black subjects retain information equally as well from an information source with one set of ethnic characteristics as from information sources with differing ethnic character— istics. The same general statement can be made about the thite subjects. These results do not support the contention 1ihat more information will be retained by a person who is erxposed to an information source of similar ethnic back— ground. The data from the "trustworthiness" and "expertness" Scales do reveal some interesting results. The analysis in— ciii-cated that there was no difference on the "trustworthiness" Scale for any of the seven hypotheses. .However, significant differences were found for hypotheses numbers 2, 3, and 6. This tends to suggest that information sources may be per— ceiVed as "trustworthy" but, at the same time, be perceived 103 as having a low degree of "expertness." This finding sup- ports those individuals who suggest credibility as a multi— dimensional concept rather than a unidimensional concept. Hypotheses numbers 1, 4, 5, and 7 which examined the Black voice and the White voice all produced no significant difference. One reason for these results can perhaps be attributed to the voice selection procedure. This was a result that perhaps could be expected since the voices were judged to be similar in quality. It should be pointed out, however, that the subjects did correctly perceive the dif— ference in the White and Black voices. From this data it could be suggested that a Black voice and a White voice of compatible quality will not differ in influence upon White or Black subjects of the sixth grade level. The data from the three differing sets of visuals pro duced some interesting réSults. The White subjects tended to rate the information sources with visuals depicting all lBlack individuals much lower than the sources with visuals (depicting all White individuals, or a combination of White 23nd Black people. It is interesting to note that the sources vvith visuals depicting a combination of people were not sig— nuificantly different from sources with all White visuals. T1118 seems to indicate that the White subjects were able to acnzept visuals depicting Black and White individuals in an iniaegrated situation; but that they could not accept visuals depictingonly Black individuals. 104 The Black subjects' tendency was to rate each of the information sources about the same. These results indicated that the Black subjects were equally influenced by each of the information sources. In view of past research the above results seems to represent some new implications. .Data from the present study shows that the Black subjects rated infor- mation sources with Black characteristics about the same as information sources with White characteristics. These re— sults seem to support those individuals who suggest that the Black individual is deve10ping a greater amount of pride in his own race. Considering past research, these results 'would probably not have been found a few years ago. The visual channel of the information source in this study elicited more of a reaction from the subjects on the ”expertness" and "preference" scales than did the audio (channel. Even though the subjects did identify the correct :race of the narrator, they reacted more negatively to the \risuals depicting all Black pe0p1e than to a distinguishable Black Lvoice. Implications for Education Several implications from the data generated by this investigation seem to be worthy of consideration. . 1. It appears from these data that commercial compan— ies adbent, D. E. Perception and Communication. New York: Pergamon Press, Inc., 1958. Buclfi, Joyce. “The Effect of Negro and White Dialectal Varia- tions Upon Attitudes of College Students." Speech Monographs (May, 1968), 181—86. 107 108 Cherry-Persach, Estelle. "Children's Comprehension of _Teacher and Peer Speech." Child DevelOpment, Vol..30 (1965),,4682480T.. Cohen, Elizabeth G. "Status of Teachers." Review of Educa— cational Research, XXXVII (June, 1967), 275-89. Criswell, Joan H. "A Sociometric Study of Race Cleavage in the Classroom." Archives of Psychology, No. 235 (1939). DiVesta, Francis 1., and Dick, Walter. "The Test—Retest Reliability of Children's Ratings on the Semantic Dif— ferential." Educational’and Psychological Measurement, XXVI (1966), 605-16. Erikson, Erik H. "The Concept of Identity in Race Relations." Daedalus, XCV (Winter, 1966), 145-70. Goodman, Mary Ellen. Race Awareness in Young Children. New York: Collier Books, 1964. Gray, Giles Wilkeson, and Wise, Claude. The Bases of Speech. (Revised Edition) New York: Harper and Brothers, 1946. Green, Gordon C. "Negro Dialect, the Last Barrier to Inte- gration." Journal of Negro Education, XXXII (Winter, 1963), 81—83. ' Haiman, Franklyn. "An Experimental Study of the Effects of Ethos in Public Speaking." Speech.Monographs, XVI (September, 1949), 190—207. Harms, L. S. "Listener Comprehension of Speakers of Three Status Groups." Language and Speech (1961), 109—112. Harms, L. S. "Social Judgments of Status Cues in Language." Speech.Monograph§, XXVII (1960), 87. Harms, L. S. "Status Cues in Speech." Lingus (1963), 300- 3060 HOban. Charles F., and vanOrmer, Edward B. Instructional .Film.Re§earch 1918-1950. Technical Report SDC 269-7-— 19. New York: Special Devices Center, Office of Naval Research, 1951 . Hovland, Carl 1.; Irving, Janis L.; and Kelly, Harold H. Ckymmunicat;on and Persuasion. New Haven: Yale Univer- Slty, 1953. ' HOYWZ. C. .1. "Test Reliability Estimated by Analysis of Vartiance." Psychometrika, Vol. 6 (1941), 153—60. 109 Iiurst, Charles G. Psychological Correlates in Dialectolalia. Project Number 2610, Washington: United States Office ,of Education Cooperative Research, 1966. I ,» nufivilrj‘fi‘ “i, NVOIHDIW ONISNV‘I “ s . ‘ ‘ ?'flfllm m w PF y w;— NVOIHJIW ONISNV‘W ‘ NVO‘HMW ONISNV‘I Emlfl m i k NV'DIHDIW ONISNV‘I EOIS SIHL W08! MSIA 301$ SIHl WOlH MSM SOIS SlHl W0!!! mam EOIS SlHl W08! MilA APPENDIX F PILOT STUDY RETENTION TEST 131 132 A=difficulty index =discrimination index C=percentage of stimulus group answering correctly D=percentage of non-stimulus group answering correctly A B C D 12 7 88 60 1. Drug misuse is one of the major problems in our society. Many of the pe0p1e in America who misue drugs are: _A;_under the age of 21. B. 21-30 years old. C. 31-40 years old. D. 41 and above. 15 19 85 68 2. The drug abuse problem affects: A. only peOple who are poor. B. only peOple who are rich. _§;_people Of all kinds. D. just misguided teenagers. 20 20 80 16 3. The first drugs were discovered: A. by the Japanese at the turn of the century. _§;.quite by accident by primitive man. C. by modern day doctors. D. just misguided teenagers. 52 31 48 24 4. "Over the counter," drugs are those that: A. are illegal. B. must be obtained with a prescription. _g&_may be obtained by almost anyone without a prescription. D. are used in treating house pets. 25 10 75 40 5. When a person obtains and uses prescription drugs, without a prescription written speci- fically for him: A. he is doing what the law wants him to do. B. he will suffer no harm to his body. C. both of the above. _2; he is breaking laws designed to protect him. 35 32 65 16 6. Most of us have taken aspirin, and do not look upon it as a dangerous drug. In fact, Americans consume: _§;_over 30 tons of aspirin daily. B. about 1000bottles of aspirin daily. C. over 300,000 tons of aspirin daily D. an average of 2 aspirins for each person each day of the year. 38 35 4O 28 68 42 4q 38 32 37 25 37 56 30 62 65 6O 72 32 58 58 20 20 4O 24 24 30 7. 133 The tape/slide presentation that was just presented to you discusses: A. the misuse of narcotics only. B. the misuse of alcohol and drugs. C. the misuse of "over the counter" drugs. D. the misuse of a wide range of drugs. 8. 9. The title of the tape/slide presentation was: Drug Misuse and YOur Health. B. Effects of Alcohol and Drugs on Your Health. C. Narcotics: Friend or Foe. D. Drugs that are Harmful to your Health. Most drugs that are used for medical purposes: A. are obtained from plants. B. are obtained from the skin tissue of animals. C. are the results of chemical processes 10. 11. 12. 13. deve10ped in laboratories. D. are obtained from the EurOpean countries. When misused, even aspirin is capable of causing death. In fact over 100 deaths each year: A. occur among hospitalized patients who have migraine headaches. _§;_occur mostly among children who accidently take an overdose. C. occur among peOple who are depressed. D. occur from the taking of illegal aspirin. An habitual drug user develOps: A. a physical need for the drug. _§;,an emotional or psycholoqical need for the drug. C. both of the above. D. no dependence for the drug. 'A drug addict has become: A. psychologically but not physically dependent upon a drug. B. physically dependent but not psychologica- lly upon a drug. _g&_both psychologically and physically depen- dent upon a drug. D. none of the above. Crime and violence frequently results from the addict's need for money to purchase drugs. It was indicated that the addict may spend as much as: A. $1,000 daily on drugs. B. $700 daily on drugs. _g:_$75 daily on drugs. D. $7.50 daily on drugs. 38 35 36 35 4o 28 52 25 50 50 44 25 50 57 62 65 64 65 6O 48 3O 50 32 24 00 36 24 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 134 The presentation indicated that in New York City, burglary, shoplifting, and other illegal activities provide money for drug users represents: A. 90% of that city's crime. B. 75% of that city's crime. C. 50% of that city's crime. D. About 10% of that city’s crime. In his desperation to obtain drugs the: A. addict no longer considers honesty to be important. B. the addict if honest will remain honest. C. addict's honesty will depend on the back— ground of the individual. D. addict will commit himself to the hospital. There are four major classes of drugs: the sed- atives, the narcotics, the stimulants, and the hallucinOgens. Of these four groups of drugs: A. sedatives are-misused more than any other type. B. all can be seriously misused. C. stimulants are never misused. D. only narcotics are misused. One group of sedatives called the barbiturates: A. are found in the form of pep pills. B. stimulate the central nervous system. C. tend to have little affect on the user. D. depresses the brains respiratory system to such an extent that breathing may cease. One major group of narcotics consists of the Opiates such as Opium, morphine, heroin, and code- ine. The primary medical use of Opiates is to: A. cure cancer patients. B. relieve pain of patients. C. to bring down a fever of a patient. D. acts as anesthesia during an Operation. In the United States heroin: A. is manufactured for medical use only. B. is sold only with a prescription. C. is illegal under any circumstance and may not be used for any purpose. D. is used only with patients in the hospital. The term "fix" is used to refer to: A. an over use of aspirin. B. the feelings a person experiences from using an overdose of drugs. C5 an injection of a narcotic. D. a long night's sleep. 32 35 37 65 67 20 22 12 13 29 25 25 62 31 68 65 35 33 80 78 24 36 16 20 24 50 24 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 135 The stimulants, such as the amphetamines are commonly known as: _A&."pep pills“ or "bennines." B. sleeping pills. C. "knockout drOps." D. narcotics. Stimulants when taken for a long period of time can: A. cause the user to become happy and satisfied. _§;_cause emotional dependence on the drug and may also cause the person to "black out." C. produce hallucinations. D. all the above. Another class of drugs called the halluncinogens: A. have no mental effect. B. cause predictable actions for all users. _g;_may cause either pleasant or terrifying visions. D. have no physical effect. The class of drugs called hallucigens can be considered: A. safe for the adult user. _§;_experimental and potenially hazardous for all. C. safe for all under a doctors care. D. a cure for most serious disease. Marijuana, although grouped with the narcotics for legal purposes, more closely resembles: A. the stimulants in its effects on the body. B. the sedatives in its effects on the body. C. an over dose of aspirin in its effects. _Q;_the hallucinogens in its effects on the body. One of the greatest dangers for marijuana user is: _A;_they soon may want a bigger "kick" and as a result turn to heroin or other drugs. B. death often occurs when an overdose has been taken. ’ C. they experience hallucantions.~ D. in its original form it may explode and cause permanent damage. Another dangerous activity that has been re- ported recently is the swallowing or sniffing of certain chemicals. Many of these toxic chemicals are contained in: A. hair sprays and hair dyes. _§;_oven cleaners and other types of cleaners. C. paint thinners and lighter fluid. D. pOppy plants. 50 67 50 42 40 20 13 19 13 38 36 50 50 37 50 33 50 58 60 80 87 24 20 16 20 16 64 60 136 28. The number of drug abusers continues to in- crease. The reason for this increase is due to: A. there being no laws concerning drug abuse at the present time. B. the legalization of marijuana. C. more pushers selling the drugs. _£k_there are no clear-cut answers to these questions. 29. Under adequate medical supervision, the addict may be cured of his physical dependence upon drugs; however: _A;_the addict often returns to addiction. B. the treatment is tooexpensive for most pe0p1e. C. the addict is never curred of his dependence. D. the addict must return to the hospital for treatment. 30. Federal, state and local governments realize the seriousness of drug misuse: A. but have been able to do nothing to control it. B. and are trying to start control of its misuse. _g._and have enacted laws to help control it. D. but considers it control should be up to each person. 31. Research in drug prevention and drug cure is being conducted by: A. doctors throughout the world. B. scientist with a chemistry background. _Q:_experts in many areas such as medicine, sociology and law. D. the police departments. 32. According to the presentation the penalty for illegally selling narcotics is: A. from 2 to 10 years in prison. B. life in prison. _Q;_20 to 40 years in prison. D. a $1,000 fine for the first offense. 33. The problem of drug abuse can be helped if young pe0p1e: A. try never to talk about the problem to their friends. B. try to make a citizen arrest of people misusing drugs. C. never watch television programs on drugs. ._Q;_never experiment with drugs in any form. 34. According to the tape slide presentation many drug abusers begin using drugs because: A. they are depressed and want to feel good. B. someone has given them "free drugs to try as an experiment." C. sOme of their friends do, and they want to be part of the group. D. drug users are alamnrous. APPENDIX G EXPERIMENTAL RETENTION TEST 137 138 ZINSTRUCTIONS: Read each question and make your selection based Iipon the information in the presentation. Circle the answer that you feel is most correct. 1. The drug abuse problem affects: A. only peOple who are poor. B. only people who are rich. C. pe0p1e of all kinds. 2. The first drugs were discovered: A. by the Japanese at the turn of the century. B. quite by accident by primitive man. C. by modern day doctors. D. by a group of scientists. 3. "over the counter,“ drugs are those that: A. are illegal. B. must be Obtained with a prescription. C. may be Obtained by almost anyone without a prescription. D. people use in treating house pets. 4. When a person Obtains and uses prescription drugs, without a prescription written specifically for him: A. he is doing what the law wants him to do. B. he will suffer no harm to his body. C. both of the above. D. he is breaking laws designed to protect him. 5. Most of us have taken aspirin, and do not look upon it as a dangerous drug. In fact, Americans consume: A. over 30 tons of aspirin daily. B. about 1,000 bottles of aspirin daily. C. over 300,000 tons of aspirin daily. D. an average of 2 aspirins for each person each day. 6. Most drugs that are used for medical purposes: A. are obtained from plants. B. are obtained from the skin tissue of animals. C. are results of chemical processes deve10ped in laboratories. D. are obtained from the EurOpean countries. 7. When misused, even aspirin is capable of causing death. In fact over 100 deaths each year: A. occur among hospitalized patients who have migraine headaches. B. occur mostly among children who accidently take an overdose. C. occur among pe0p1e who feel depressed. D. occur from the taking of illegal obtained aspirin. 8. 10. 11. 12. 13. 139 A drug addict has become: A. psychologically but not physically dependent upon a drug. B. physically dependent but not psychologically upon a drug. C. both psychologically and physically dependent upon a drug. D. none of the above. The presentation indicated that in New York City, burglary, shOplifting, and other illegal activities that provide money for drug users represents: A. 90% of that city's crime. B. 75% of that city's crime. C. 50% of that city's crime. D. 10% of that city's crime. There are four major classes of drugs: the sedatives, the narcotics, the stimulants, and the hallucinogens. Of these four groups of drugs: A. sedatives are misused more than any other type. B. all may be seriously misused. C. stimulants are never misused. D. only narcotics are misused. One group of sedatives called the barbiturates: A. are found in the form of pep pills. B. are used to stimulate the central nervous system. C. tend to have little affect on the user. D. depresses the brains respiratory system to such an extent that breathing may cease. One major group of narcotics consists of the opiates, such as Opium, morphine, heroin, and codeine. The primary medical use of Opiates is to: A. cure cancer patients. B. relieve pain of patients. C. to bring down a fever of a patient. D. acts as an anesthesia during an Operation. In the United States heroin: A. is manufactured for medical use only. B. is sold only with a perscription. C. is illegal under any circumstance and may not be used for any purpose. D. is used only with patients in the hospital. 14. The term "fix" is used to refer to: A. an over use of aspirin. B. the feelings a person experiences from using an overdose of drugs. C. a long night's sleep. D. an injection of a narcotic. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 140 Another class of drugs called the hallucinogens: A. may cause either pleasant or terrifying visions. B. have no mental effect. C. cause plodictable actions for all users. D. have no physical effect. One of the greatest dangers for marijuana users is that: A. they experience hallucinations. B. they soon may want a bigger "kick" and as a result turn to heroin or other drugs. C. death often occurs when an overdose has been taken. D. in its original form it may explode and cause permanent damage. Federal, state and local governments realize the seriousness Of drug misuse: A. but have been able to do nothing to control it. B. and are trying to start action for control of the misuse. C. and have enacted laws to help control it. D. but considers its control should be up to each individual. Research in drug prevention and drug cure is being conducted by: A. doctors throughout the world. 8. scientist with a chemistry background. C. the police departments. D. experts in many areas such as medicine, sociology and law. According to the presentation the penalty for illegally selling narcotics is: A. from 2 to 10 years in prison. B. 20 to 40 years in prison. C. life in prison. D. a $1,000 fine for the first offense. The problem of drug abuse can be helped if young pe0p1e: A. try never to talk about the drug problem to their friends. B. try to make a citizen's arrest of pe0p1e misusing drugs. C. never watch television programs on drugs. D. never experiment with drugs in any form. APPENDIX H SEMANTIC DIFFERENTIALS 141 142 TOPIC: What is your Opinion of the message that was just presented to you? 2 l 0 l 2 Believable _____:___:____:____:__ Unbelievable Right ____:___:___:___:__ Wrong Incorrect ____:__:____:___:____ Correct Reasonable ___:___:____:__-___:__ Unreasonable Dependable ___'__:____:__:___:___ Undependable Dishonest ____:_____:___:______:____ Honest 2 l 0 l 2 TOPIC: ‘What ispyour ppinion of the information source that presented the message? 2 l 0 l 2 Effective __:____:___:____:___ Ineffective Successful ____:___:___:____:___ Unsuccessful Ignorant __:___:____:___:___ Expert Capable ___:____:____:___:__ Incapable Intelligent ___:____:____:__:__ Unintelligent Powerless ____:____:___:___:__ Powerful 2 l 0 l 2 TOPIC: What is_your Opinion of the need for studying "drug misuse" based upon the information from this presentation? 2 l 0 l 2 Valuable ____:_____:_______:_____:____ Worthless Important ____: _: _: _: __ Un important Bad ____:____:___:____:____ Good Wise ____:___:___:____:____ Foolish Necessary ___:_____:___:______:____ Unnecessary Negative : : : : Positive APPENDIX I ATTITUDE PREFERENCE SCALE 143 144 DIRECTIONS The following questions are seeking your Opinion about the presentation just given to you. After reading each question place an §_above the respOnse that most closely relates to your "feelings." Be sure to check only one. 1. What is your general overall feelings_toward the presentation? like like neutral dislike dislike somewhat somewhat What is your Opinion of the voice that narrated this presentation? like -_11ke neutral dislike dislike somewhat somewhat What is your Opinion of the pictures that were useain this presentation? like like neutral dislike dislike somewhat somewhat How would you feel if all the materials used in your school work contained a voice like the one in this presentation? like like neutral dislike dislike somewhat somewhat How would you feel if all materials used in your school work contained pictures of people like those used in this presentation? like like neutral dislike dislike somewhat somewhat How would you like to have this presentation givento you again. like like neutral dislike dislike somewhat somewhat APPENDIX J ETHNIC IDENTIFICATION CHECK SHEET 145 146 INSTRUCTIONS Please read the followingpinstructions carefully. Check the appropriate space which best de- scribes how you perceive the voice sound of the narrator on the automated slide presentation. Sounds like a Black speaker Sounds indistinguishable. Sounds like a White speaker. APPENDIX K INTRODUCTORY INSTRUCTIONS TO STUDENTS 147 148 INSTRUCTIONS TO STUDENTS Good morning. Today you are meeting in a different room than usual so that you may participate in a special activity. You are about to view a tape/slide presentation entitled, Drug Misuse and Your Health. The presentation includes some special features that are being considered for production of other materials. During the presentation pay strict attention to the narrator and the projected vis- uals. After the presentation is completed you will be asked to give your reactions concerning its effectiveness. Further instructions will be given to you at the end of the presentation. APPENDIX L INSTRUCTIONS FOR USING THE SEMANTIC DIFFERENTIALS 149 150 INSTRUCTIONS The purpose of this study is to measure the meanings of certain things to various people by having them judge them against a series of descriptive words. In taking this test, please make your judgement on the basis of what these things mean to you. Here is how you are to use these scales: EXAMPLE: What is your Opinion of school? 1. If you feel that school is very closely related to one end of the scale, you should place your check-mark as follows: Good X : : : : Bad OR Good : : : : X Bad 2. If you feel that school is related somewhat to one end of the scale, you should place your check-mark as follows: Friendly : X : : : Unfriendly OR Friendly : : : : Unfriendly 3, If you feel that school is neutral, or you simply do not feel one way or the other, you should place your check— mark as follows: Fair : : : : Unfair Be sure to check every scale for each idea-~do not omit any. Never put more than one check-mark on a single scale. Do not worry or puzzle over individual items. Work at a fairly high speed. It is your first impression, your immediate "feelings" about the item that is important. Do not look back at items you have already checked. Make each item a separate and independent judgement. 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