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THE EFFECTS OF ORGANIZATIONAL FACTORS
ON THE TRANSFER OF TRAINING:
A STUDY OF FOUR ELECTRONIC INDUSTRIAL COMPANIES

IN SHENZHEN SPECIAL ECONOMIC ZONE, CHINA

BY

Jin Xiao

A DISSERTATION

Submitted to
Michigan State University
in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY

Department of Educational Administration

1992

{97v 70%

ABSTRACT

THE EFFECTS OF ORGANIZATIONAL FACTORS
ON THE TRANSFER OF TRAINING:
A STUDY OF FOUR ELECTRONIC INDUSTRIAL COMPANIES
IN SHENZHEN SPECIAL ECONOMIC ZONE, CHINA

By

Jin Xiao

In recent decades, developing the workforce with adult education
and training has been a major effort to increase productivity in China.
However, the concern over the unsatisfactory transfer of training has
been growing among training practitioners, managers and researchers.
This study provides the first empirical study of the effects of
organizational factors in the process of the transfer of training.

A conceptual framework was conjectured which took into
consideration the effects of organizational variables on the transfer of
training in the workplace. Training was considered as a pre-condition
to improve work efficiency by acquiring knowledge, skills and attitude
(KSA) in the first place, but not sufficient for promoting the ultimate
transfer of learning to the job. Many organizational variables in the
workplace could intervene into the transfer of training.

This conceptual framework was applied to two state-owned and two
joint-venture electronic companies in Shekou Industrial Zone, Shenzhen

Special Economic Zone, China. One controlling card production line in

each company was included in this study. A survey questionnaire was
designed for data collection. Regression analyses were applied to data
of the entire sample, and the state-owned and joint-venture companies
separately as well for a comparison. Interviews were conducted with
concerned company personnel to have an in-depth understanding of the
transfer of training.

This study had four major findings. First, the statistical results
indicated an interaction of the organizational factors with training
achievement. This occurred in a way that training achievement and
organizational variables mutually reinforced the effect on the transfer
of training of one another. Second, the organizational factors
contributing to the transfer of training varied in the two types of
companies. A company's assumptions about organizational practices were
associated to the difference. Third, the empirical results showed an
interaction between training achievement and group peers support. In
the less cooperative environment, training achievement of individual
workers was a significant factor in the transfer of training, while in
the more cooperative environment, peer support was a significant factor
in the transfer of training, instead. Finally, the study found, among
those organizational factors studied, human factors had the most

statistical magnitude in predicting the transfer of training.

Copyright by
JIN XIAO

1992

DEDICATION

To adult educators and learners who devote their careers

for people to work better, live better, and love better

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

This is one of those quiet nights when I think of those people
whose advice, guidance, support and patience encouraged me through the
completion of this dissertation project. It is to them that I express
my personal and genuine gratitude.

First, I would like to express my appreciation to Professor Cas
Heighmen for his guidance when I wrote my research proposal. That was
the time when our cohort of Ph.D candidates had no clear idea of ”where
to hang the swing on the tree."

I also benefitted from my peer graduates students in the cohort
counseling group. Sitting around a warm fire on winter nights or
chatting in the early 1990 summer sunset, I obtained valuable ideas and
support from peers who offered suggestions for formulating my project
proposal and who also share my frustration, joy and laughter. I am
especially grateful to Janet Gray who spent so many hours reading and
editing my proposal.

Next, I would like to express special thanks to my advisory
committee members, Professors Richard E. Gardner and James E. Snoddy.
Beside the valuable academic advice and guidance they offered, their
care as friends, understanding, willingness to help and kindness made my
study at MSU a pleasant experience.

Most of all, I would like to express my heartiest appreciation to

vi

two people. I am grateful to the Chair of the Advisory Committee,
Professor Howard W. Hickey. As a leader and teacher, he taught me to
grasp the essence of a concept and to see the fundamental base of a
philosophy. As the Chair, he offered guidance, but also left an
abundance for me to explore. His enthusiasm in working with people
greatly furthered my interest in adult education. As a friend, he
always had time to listen and share, and was willing to offer his help.
I deeply appreciated his willingness to read every draft of my
dissertation, to edit and offer advice. Many times, his care and
laughter made it possible to overcome my difficulties with courage.

To my dissertation adviser, Professor Mun C. Tsang, I can never
express thanks enough. As a teacher and researcher, he stimulated my
interested in studying adult education from the viewpoint of the
economics of education. He taught me how to perceive the problem,
construct a fundamental framework and conduct an empirical analysis. At
every stage of this dissertation project, be accompanied me with his
invaluable, scholarly guidance and advice. Despite his busy schedule,
he always set time aside for me, and worked with me on my dissertation,
even my early, fledgling ideas. I also feel grateful for his patience
when things were slow. I benefitted greatly from his admirable
scholarship. As a friend, he cared a great deal. This made my Ph.D
program much easier to complete and a very pleasant experience.

My dissertation was completed in the warm, pleasant, and caring
environment that the international graduate students find in MSU's
College of Education. In particular, I would like to express my

appreciation to Professor Jack Schwille, Anne Schneller, Priscilla

vii

Martin, Drs. Steve Raudenbush, Keith Anderson, Norman Bell, as well as
to Verla Ensign, Kate Baird, Dr. Louis Romano and many others. These
people may never be conscious of how they helped and encouraged me, and
other international graduates, but it was the same kind of caring for
students displayed by Dr. Kenneth Harding that attracted me to MSU.

I would also like to express my appreciation for the support and
help offered by the individuals and institutions in Shekou Industrial
Zone, Shenzhen, China. Particularly, I express my thanks to Mr. Guo
Yonglu, the Deputy Director for Department of Policy Research and
Development, who helped me contact the field sites and provided valuable
information; to my friends in the Training Center, such as the Vice
Dean, Yin Din, Director for Administration Affairs, Zhao Baozhang,
Director for Academic Affairs, Jiao Peiming, educators, Wang Xiaoming,
Situ Yuzen, Liu Huanyan, Dai Huanguang; secretaries Liu Junying and Chen
Weilan and staff member, Deng Rongchang. I cannot name them all, but
they always were and always will be my dear friends. I would also like
to express my thanks to those workers, supervisors and managers from the
work units that participated in this research project. For the reasons
of anonymity, I cannot mention their names here. Nevertheless, these
people who work hard everyday in the frontier for the economic
development and progress of the society and who are the pride of Shekou
Industrial Zone, will always be my friends.

Thanks are also due Mr. Li Hairong who coached me on SPSS and
helped with various projects time and again in my Ph.D program.

Finally, my deep appreciation goes to my family. For all that my

parents have given me over the years, I find words too weak to express

viii

my gratitude. When I was young, they took me to the workplace to see
people working, helped me to build up self esteem through out my growth,
and taught me how to respect people. Later, they took care of my son
for several years when I had to work hard, and be away for study at
M.S.U. Above all, they have been my models of successful professionals
and they instilled courage in me to accomplish cherished goals. I am
indebted to them for their love and care.

To my son, Wu Xiao, I appreciate his understanding of my need for
time to study and work hard and his help in finding books and handing me
a pencil when I was occupied with too much. Chatting with him and
listening to him practicing violin at break time really gave me great
joy and relaxation and kept me going on.

Finally, I am especially grateful to my husband, Kegang, who had
patience and understanding all those long days that I had to study and
work. Only his readiness to accommodate the extra family demands made
the completion of this dissertation possible. I would like to
acknowledge his valuable knowledge about the development of the Shekou
Industrial Zone. It offered me insights into the issues of adult
education and training in practice and started my inquiry into the

problem.

ix

LIST OF

LIST OF

CHAPTER

1.

CHAPTER

CHAPTER

TABLE OF CONTENTS

TABLES

FIGURES .

l

1

INTRODUCTION .

Concern Over the Transfer of Training
Rationale for the Study

The Purpose of the Study .

The Context of the Study .

Statement of the Problem

Definition of Terms

The Limitations of the Study .
Organization of the Following Chapters .
REVIEW OF LITERATURE .

Approaches to Studying the Transfer of Training

.1.1 Major focus of Current Literature in the U.S.A.
.1.2 Current Literature on AET in China

.1.3 The Neglected Area in Training Transfer .

The Evaluation Problem .
THE CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK .
AET And Organizational Learning

Organizational Factors and Employee Behavior .

3.2.1 Training Orientation

X

xiv

. 11

. 12

. 14

. 15

. l6

. l7

. l7

. 20

. 22

. 26

. 30

. 30

. 32

. 32

3.

3.

3.3

3.4

3

3

3

CHAPTER 4

4.1

4.

4.3

4

4.5

.2.2 WOrk Environment

2.3 Reward Practices
2.4 Skill, Work Effort and Productivity .

A Proposed Scheme of the Transfer
of Training in the Workplace .

Research Question and Hypotheses .

.4.1 Primary Research Question .
.4.2 Hypotheses

.4.3 Defining Variables

METHODOLOGY
Overview of Methodology

1.1 Questionnaires

.l.2 Interviews
.1.3 Performance and Productivity Records Checking .

.1.4 Sample and Field Study

The Four Electronic Companies

.2.l Products and Production Technology
.2.2 Supervisors and Workers .

.2.3 Training

Measurement of the Variables .

.3.l Variables Estimating the Transfer of Training .

.3.2 Worker Characteristic Variables .

Reliability and Validity .

.4.l Reliability

.4.2 Validity

A General Overview of The Data .

xi

. 33
. 36

. 37

. 39
. 46
. 47
. 47
. 48
. 54
. 54
. 55
. 56
. 57
. 58
. 6O
. 61
. 64
. 65

. 70

. 73
. 75
. 75
. 77

. 78

CHAPTER 5

5.1

5.

5.

5.2

5.3

5.4

5.5

5.6

CHAPTER 6

6.1

6.2

6.3

6.4

APPENDIX A

APPENDIX B

APPENDIX C

APPENDIX D

APPENDIX E

APPENDIX F

APPENDIX C

APPENDIX H

APPENDIX I

DATA ANALYSIS AND EMPIRICAL RESULTS
Methods of Analysis
1.1 Correlation Estimation

1.2 Regression Models .

.1.3 Estimating the Difference

in Organizational Factors .

.l.4 Estimating Transfer of Training

in Two Types of Companies .
The Correlation of Organizational Factors
The Equations of Transfer of Training

Difference in the Organizational Factors
in Two Types of Companies

The Transfer of Training in the Two Types of Companies .

Summary of the Empirical Study .

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION .

Summary

Conclusions
Policy Implications
Recommendations for Further Studies

Trained Worker Survey Questionnaire .

Supervisor Survey Questionnaire .

Top Management/Training Officer Interview Guide .
Trained WOrker Interview Guide

Supervisor Interview Guide

Performance and Productivity File Checking Guide
Training Achievement Test .

Cronbach's Alpha and Standardized Alpha .

Scrap Rate of the Production Line .

xii

. 85

. 85

. 86

. 86

. 88

. 88

. 89

. 94

103
108
118
125
125
129
134
140
143
157
166
174
177
180
187
194

195

APPENDIX J Matrices of Correlation Coefficients

APPENDIX K

Comparison of Regression Results of State-owned
and Joint-venture Companies .

APPENDIX L The Distribution of Residuals .

BIBLIOGRAPHY

xiii

200

203

206

216

Table

10

11

12

13

14

15

16

LIST OF TABLES

Comparison of Four Electronic Companies .
Distribution of Training Variables

Comparison of Cronback's Alpha and
the Standardized Item Alpha .

Descriptive Statistics (Overall Companies)
Descriptive Statistics (State-Owned Companies)
Descriptive Statistics (Joint-venture Companies)
Matrix of Correlation Coefficients (Overall Sample)

Regression Statistics of the Transfer of
Training Equation (1)

Regression Statistics of the Transfer of
Training Equation (2)

T-test for State-Owned and Joint-Venture Companies

Comparison of Regression Results of State-Owned and
Joint-Venture Companies (1)

Comparison of Regression Results of State-Owned
and Joint-Venture Companies (2)

Comparison of Regression Results of State-Owned
and Joint-Venture Companies (3)

Summary of Correlation Coefficient Statistics
(Entire Sample)

Summary of Statistics of Regression Coefficients
(Overall Sample)

Summary of T-Tests

xiv

Page
62

. 68

. 76
. 79
. 81
. 82

. 90

. 95

101

104

109

110

112

118

119

121

17

18

l9-a

19-b

20

21

22

23

Summary of Statistics of Regression Coefficients
(State-owned Companies)

Summary of Statistics of Regression Coefficients
(Joint-venture Companies)

Descriptive of Scrap
T-Test of Scrap Rate

Matrix of Correlation Coefficients
(State-owned Companies)

Matrix of Correlation Coefficients
(Joint-venture Companies)

Comparison of Regression Results of State-owned and
Joint-venture Companies (4)

Comparison of Regression Results of State-owned and
Joint-venture Companies (5)

XV

122

123

198

198

201

202

204

205

Figure

10

LIST OF FIGURES

Determinants of the Transfer of Training

Histogram of Standardized Residual of
(Entire sample)

Equation 1

Normal Probability Plot of Equation 1 .

(Entire sample)

Scatterplot of Standardized Residuals
(Entire sample)

Histogram of Standardized Residual of
(State-owned companies) .

Normal Probability Plot of Equation 1
(State-owned companies) .

Scatterplot of Standardized Residuals
(State-owned companies)

Histogram of Standardized Residual of
(Joint-venture companies)

Normal Probability Plot of Equation 1
(Joint-venture companies) . . .

Scatterplot of Standardized Residuals
(Joint-venture companies)

xvi

of Equation 1 .

Equation 1

of Equation 1

Equation 1

of Equation 1

page
. 40

207

208

209

210

211

212

213

214

215

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Concern Over the Transfer of Training

Since the late 1970's, China has embarked on the road to economic
development. Adult education and training (AET) appears to be an ideal
route for developing the workforce in the process of economic growth.
The concept of developing 'productive workforces' underlies the
development of adult education and training in China. It is assumed
that the precondition of production and the national economic
development is the competency of the existing workforces. Hence, the
development of productive workforces demand continuously raising the
educational level and work-required skills of the people (Yao, 1984).
It is also further believed that the trained workforces are more capable
of handling new technology and will increase productivity (The Central
Committee of the Communist Party of China and the State Council, China,
1981; The State Education Commission, China, 1987). Based on such
assumption, adult education system has been formalized in the last
decade. AET programs have been developed in various modes and made
accessible to a large number of adult learners. 200 million people in
workforces were involved in various kinds of training and educational
programs in the last decade (Personnel News Bulletin, China, 1989).

However, the transfer of knowledge, skills and attitude (KSA) from
training to the workplace were varied within similar programs. AET

administrators, educators and work unit managers in Shenzhen Special

2
Economic Zone (SSEZ) in China have noticed that the transfer of KSA is
low sometimes, or even zero in the workplace in some cases (Huang
Fuchang, 1988; Situ, 1988; Zhong, 1988; Zhen, 1988; Huang Gaopin, 1988).
On the one hand, large amounts of resources (e.g., time, personnel,
facilities) have been invested in training employees to acquire job
skills; on the other, the quality and quantity of work performance of
employees were sometimes not satisfactory (SiTu, 1988; Huang Gaopin,
1988). This may suggest a costly waste in the investment in AET (Situ,
1988; Huang Gaopin, 1988). Hence, there has been a growing concern over
the transfer of training in the workplace.

In addition to the AET program operation variables, some trainers
noticed that industrial enterprises varied in their organization of
training and production, which impacted the effectiveness of AET as
well. Some factors intervening with the process of training transfer
were suggested by some Chinese AET educators and human resources
managers. First, there existed the mismatch of training and required
KSA in the workplace (Zhen, 1988; Huang Fuchang, 1988; Huang Gaoping,
1988). Next, reward practices (e.g., bonus, wage system, and promotion)
were not well linked to employee performance (Huang Fuchang, 1988;
Zhong, 1988). Third, supervision is critical to the transfer of
training in the workplace (Huang Fuchang, 1988). Therefore, it appeared
that some organizational factors might contribute to, or inhibit AET
effectiveness in the workplace.

Conceptually, training is defined as the systematic acquisition of
knowledge, skills, or attitudes (KSA) by workers (Goldstein, 1986; The

Central Committee of the Communist Party of China and the State Council,

3

China, 1981). It is assumed to result in improved worker performance
and is seen as the primary means to meet the gap between the workers
present performance status and the desired status (Bergsma, 1986; Savage
5 Samuel, 1986; Goldstein, 1986; The Central Committee of the Communist
Party of China and the State Council, China, 1981; The State Education
Commission, China, 1987). The ultimate end would be to exact the
necessary transfer of learning from AET to performance and to keep the
workforce competent in the changing world (The Central Committee of the
Communist Party of China and the State Council, China, 1981; The State
Education Commission, China, 1987). The purpose of AET, then, is to
provide workers with the opportunities to acquire KSA and become
competent; thus improving the productivity of the enterprise.

However, a positive transfer of training does not always come about
as expected (Clark, 1987; Clark and Voogel, 1985). In the U.S.A.,
facing the problems of inflation, lagging productivity, foreign
competition, recurring economic crises and chronic shortage of competent
employees on all fronts (Finkel, 1987; U.S. Congress, 1990) and
considering the huge investment in training, there is a growing
recognition of the problem in the transfer in organizational training
(Finkel, 1987; Michalak, 1981; Baldwin & Ford, 1988; Robinson &
Robinson, 1985; Phillips, 1983; Goldstein, 1986; Reilly & Manese, 1979;
Eurich, 1985; Gilbert, 1976a and 1976b). In many developing countries
at the stage of economic development, AET is adapted as a route to
workforce upgrading. Considering the scarce resources devoted, the
transfer of training in the work environment has been a paramount

concern in technology transfer and management training. The concern

4
over unsatisfactory transfer has been expressed, and possible
intervening factors have been suggested in studies in: Indonesia
(Spielman, 1983), India (Baumgartel & Jeanpierre, 1972), Sudan (Mohamed,
1984), Kenya and Brazil (Gor, et a1. 1987), Pakistan (Sergsma, 1986),
China (Xiao, 1989; Huang Fuchang, 1988; Situ, 1988; Zhong, 1988; Zhen,
1988; Huang Gaopin, 1988), and generally (Savage & Samuel, 1986).

In order to improve the transfer of training, practioners and
researchers in previous studies focused on the improvement of training
procedures of AET programs. These areas include teaching and learning
theories, adult characteristics and learning environment, programs
design an development and learning retention. Effective learning in AET
programs is obviously important in the first place to improve the
competency of the workforce, but is not necessarily sufficient to ensure
the transfer of training in the workplace.

In recent years, some researchers (Baldwin & Ford, 1988; Spielman,
1983; Levin, 1987; Tsang & Levin, 1987; Tsang, 1988a; Gash & Kossek,
1989; Shi, 1989; Xu & Liu, 1989) suggest that while the education and
training process is vital to acquire KSA, there are many factors in the
organization of production that could affect the transfer of learning in
the workplace after the training. This suggests that the internal
effectiveness--acquisition of KSA--be a necessary but not sufficient
variable leading to the external effectiveness and benefits--the
application of KSA in the workplace. Literature in both America and
China has suggested several organizational factors that have an effect
on individual performance in the workplace. The factors include: (1)

the involvement of trainees and their supervisors in training

5
orientation; (2) the work environment which includes the match/mismatch
of workers' ability, job requirements, and supervisory and peer support;
and (3) the reward system.

There had been no any parallel empirical study on the
organizational variables intervening into the transfer of training done
in China. This study attempted to explore the relationship between
organizational factors and the transfer of training in the workplace.
An in-depth field study of the effects of organizational factors on the
transfer of training was conducted in two state owned companies and two
joint venture companies in industrial settings in Shekou Industrial Zone

(SKIZ), Shenzhen Special Economic Zone (SSEZ), China.

1.2 Rationale for the Study

Due to the fact that: l) the literature both in China and in other
countries indicated a possible relationship between certain
organizational factors and the effectiveness of training transfer, 2)
such organizational factors mentioned previously may explain the
effectiveness of training transfer and 3) such research efforts have
never been undertaken in the Shenzhen Special Economic Zone which is
undergoing a fast growth, there was a need to conduct an investigation
into organizational factors and the transfer of training in China where
AET programs had been adopted as a means for workforce development.

This study was meaningful in the following ways:

(1) In many cases, AET programs in such modes as on-the-job

training, spare-time training, and work-released training and education

6

resulted in excellent internal effectiveness. However, as suggested by
some theoretical arguments and evidence in practice, the external
effectiveness can be ultimately affected by organizational variables.
Training programs, even with enteral effectiveness, are not sufficient
considering the ultimate transfer of training. Therefore, it was
necessary to examine factors which are external to the training process
and which might contribute to or hinder the transfer of learning.

(2) Most of the literature on organizational factors affecting the
transfer of training were arguments and conjectures based on limited
research. One study (Tsang, 1987) showed that the match/mismatch of
workers skills and work requirement can affect the workers' utilization
skills in the workplace. Furthermore, such study was not designed to
study the relationship between organizational factors and the transfer
of training in the workplace. Hence, it was meaningful to design
systematical empirical studies to investigate the association of the
organizational factors with trained employees' performance in the
workplace.

(3) The limited studies on supervisory support of trainees were
done to evaluate the training programs on interpersonal skills. As
reviewed by Baldwin and Ford (1988), the major problems in these studies
were the static nature of the research in relation to the dynamic nature
of the transfer process and the self-reported measure of effort toward
the application of learning (Baldwin & Ford, 1988). Therefore, the
”strong" support for the importance of environmental characteristics to
the transfer of training cannot be inferred. Related literature also

suggested that other organizational factors beside supervisory support

7
have an effect on workers' performance. Thus, an in-depth study on
organizational factors in dynamic relationship with the transfer of
training was needed.

(4) The newly developed SSEZ ratified the autonomy to business
companies in making decisions on production in favor of their best
interests. Hence, different types of organizations can provide
variations in organizational factors which are not easily obtained and
manipulated when taking an experimental approach. The cost of the study
was relatively low. The comparison of the organizational factors in
different types of companies was likely to provide contrasts and reveal
meaningful information in which organizational factors were related to
the transfer of training.

As an exploratory study, this research intended to provide
meaningful information for enterprises adopting AET programs, for human
resource managers, and AET educators to explain the transfer of training

in the workplace beyond the incomplete evidence available at this stage.

1.3 The Purpose of the Study

As indicated in the literature, and argued by some prior
researchers that certain organizational factors may contribute to or
hinder the transfer of training and, the purposes of this study were as
follows:

1. Identify the organizational variables in the work

environment, which had been suggested to be related to

employee performance; and

8

2. explore the association of these organizational factors with

the transfer of training in the workplace.

Therefore, this study had two major tasks: (1) develop a conceptual
framework on how organizational variables in the workplace may affect
the transfer of training on the job; and (2) conduct an empirical study
of how the organizational variables affect the transfer of training in
the workplace.

More specifically, this study first examined whether such factors
as training orientation, the match/mismatch of worker skills with work
design, supervisory assistance, peer support, and reward practices were
associated in any way with trainees' persistent use of newly acquired
skills, knowledge and attitudes in the workplace.

Then, this study explored in what way the organizational variables
were associated with the transfer of training. As the sample included
two state owned companies and two joint venture companies, this study
compared the patterns of the transfer of training in two types of

enterprises in the electronic industrial settings.

1.4 The Context of the Study

Shenzhen Special Economic Zone (SSEZ) is a newly developed
industrial and commercial area in China and is considered the frontier
of economic reform. Most of the business and industry in this area are
under such different ownership as state-owned, joint-venture or foreign
enterprises. The ratified autonomy in SSEZ allows these organizations

to have many opportunities to develop international business (The

9
National People's Congress, 1980). These business and industry are
global market-oriented and have a broad range for their development.
The advanced technology, management practices and economic principles in
the West have been introduced into SSEZ, contributing to its growth, or
influencing changes occurring. For example, the enterprises have the
autonomy to open new plants or divisions according to the economic
principles of supply and demand. At a final step, practices that have
proved to be successful in this area have been disseminated to inner
China in the last decade and have benefitted the economic reform and
development for overall China. In fact, another fourteen similar
special economic zones along the coastal areas were given sanction by
the State Council and started economic reform in 1984.

In order to keep their competency, organizations of different
ownership have to adapt to changes to different degrees. AET has been
the major means adopted by business and industry for their employees to
acquire knowledge, skills and attitude expected in the workplace.

The field study was conducted in four electronic industrial
companies, in Shekou Industrial Zone, Shenzhen (SKIZ), China. Among the
four electronic companies, two were state-owned companies, and two were
joint-venture companies. The state-owned electronic companies were
established by electronic entities owned by the Chinese state
government, one in September 1984 and one in August 1983. The
organization of production was largely in congruence with the state
interest. The joint-venture companies were jointly established in terms
of investment and management by a Chinese state-owned electronic entity

and a foreign electronic entity, one in December 1984 and one in October

10
1985. The organization of production in the joint-venture companies was
modified in congruence with the interest of both parties.

The sample included two types of companies with similar production
technology, and apparently different organizational practices. The two
different types of organizations were expected to provide variation in
organizational factors, which, when studied comparatively, might be much
easier to extract than when studied individually. On the other hand,
the manipulation of treatment and control groups regarding
organizational factors is usually costly and difficult to administrate
in business and industry. The comparison of the two types of intact
manufacturing companies provided contrasts about the relationship
between organizational factors and the transfer of training in reality
at a relatively lower costs. As an exploratory stage, an in-depth case
study was employed and considered more appropriate to investigate the
relationship between the organizational factors and the transfer of
training.

Regarding the situations in China, it was unfortunate to note here
that the political events of 1989 in China had set back the overall
economic reform and development process. Nevertheless, the interviews
and observation done by this researcher indicated that they had had a
relatively small impact on the economic activities in SSEZ because of
the stable economic activities and overall effective management in this
area. China is still pursuing reform and open-door policies. This is
especially so, as China gradually comes back to the route of economic
reform, and successful practices of the SSEZ will continue to be

disseminated through inland China.

11

1.5 Statement of the Problem

Nowadays, adult education and training (AET) has been adopted as
the primary means to upgrading employees' knowledge, skills and attitude
for adaption to changes in the stage of economic development in SSEZ,
China. Improving the competency of the workforces is fundamental to
keeping work units internally competent. However, the transfer of
training in the workplace has been adisturbing concern to adult
educators and managers in the work units when AET programs are adopted.
This is compounded by the fact that different types of enterprises in
SSEZ may have their training and production organized in different ways.
Hence, the transfer of training in the workplace have varied to a great
extent, even within similar programs.

The related literature indicates that the internal effectiveness of
training programs is a necessary but not sufficient variable leading to
the transfer of learning in the workplace and the increase in
productivity. The transfer of training can be affected by
organizational variables in the work environment. Such variables
suggested by literature include training orientation, a match of
trainees' capacity with job requirements, supervision assistance, peer
support, and reward system.

However, few empirical studies have been conducted to determine
what organizational factors may intervene in the transfer of training.
Furthermore, if there are any intervening effects on the transfer of
training, in what way are these organizational factors associated with

the transfer of training? To date, no such studies have been conducted

12
in China, and also rarely in other countries.

As the effectiveness of training transfer is obviously vital to
organizational effectiveness, this researcher sought 1) to examine the
organizational factors which affected the transfer of training; 2) to
explore the association of the organizational factors with the transfer
of training in the workplace; and 3) to compare the transfer of training
in two types of companies in the electronic industrial settings in SSEZ.

The primary research question guiding the research is stated as
follows:

Is there any relationship between such organizational factors as
training orientation, the match of trainee's KSA to work design,
supervisory assistance, peer support, and reward system with the
transfer of training in the workplace of four industrial settings in

SSEZ, two state owned companies and two joint venture companies?

1.6 Definition of Terms

Some terms and variable used in the study are defined in this
section.

Training: designed learning experiences that enable employees to
acquire knowledge, skills and attitude necessary to accomplish job
required tasks:

Training orientation: activities or events organized to get workers
prepared for the training and the subsequent application of KSA in the

workplace.

Transfer of training: the persistent application of knowledge,

13
skills and attitude (KSA) acquired from AET programs in the workplace in
conformity with the intention of the training objectives based on work
requirements.

Organisational factors: the variables in the work environment that
have been suggested to be related to workers performance in the
workplace. The factors examined in this study include training
orientation, match/mismatch of workers' skills to work-design,
supervisory assistance, and peer support, and the reward practices.

Match/mismatch of trainee KSA with work-design: the conformity or
nonconformity between the acquired KSA and the job requirement,
production equipment, and information needed for accomplishing tasks.

Werk environment: the sociotechnical system, or the physical, and
social context within which any client system (a person, group or
organization) is functioning. The physical context refers to the work
design and technology; and social context refers to the human
relationships in the work place.

Werk-design: the designing of jobs for employee fulfillment and
productivity. The technical intervention includes the technical
opportunities to apply acquired KSA, the provision of information and
equipment and worker discretion in applying KSA.

Supervisory assistance and peer support: the human relation aspect
of the work environment. The assistance and support include the
awareness of the trainees KSA and additional needs, and the facilitation
and assistance to trainees in their application of acquired knowledge,
skills and attitude in the workplace by the supervisors and peers.

Reward practices: the practices of recognition, wage increase,

14
bonuses, and promotion in regarding to the application of KSA in the
workplace.

Internal effectiveness of training : the extent to which the
trainees have satisfactorily acquired KSA in the training program where
the designed learning experiences are facilitated.

External effectiveness: the extent to which the acquired KSA in the

designed experience are applied in the workplace.

1.7 Limitations of the Study

The study has the following limitations:

1. The relationship between organizational characteristics and
training transfer may be complex. As an exploratory study, the research
focuses on the selected organizational factors which have been suggested
to have effects on the employee behavior on the job. They are as
follows:

a. training orientation--the preparation of workers for the
training and the subsequent application of KSA in the
workplace;

b. the match/mismatch of the trainees' KSA to the work-design;

c. the supervisory assistance and peer support;

d. the reward practices.

Further research may examine the potentially relevant factors such

as leadership, group design, task structure, and the organizational

culture.

2. The case study assumed that the four manufacturing plants

15

selected for the study were typical of industrial plants in SSEZ, and
the selected plants might still be subject to uniqueness of their own.

3. The study was conducted in an industrial area which had
relatively more advantages over other inland China regions, such as
autonomy in decision-making on business, relatively advanced production
technology, and close geographic contact with the world economy. Hence,
the generalizability of the findings of this study to other areas in
China, or in other countries, should not be assumed; specific contextual

factors of those areas should also be considered.

1.8 Organization of the Following Chapters

The remainder of this dissertation is organized into six chapters.
In Chapter 2, to justify the research problem, pertinent literature is
reviewed regarding approaches of studying the transfer of training. In
Chapter 3, the organizational factors related to employee performance in
the workplace are discussed and a conceptual framework which guides this
study is presented. Also presented are the hypotheses made about the
relationship of the organizational factors with the transfer of training
transfer. Methodology for this study is discussed in Chapter 4. In
Chapter 5, data analyses is presented and empirical results discussed.
Finally in Chapter 6, a brief summary of this study is provided.
Conclusion given regarding the findings, and policy implications are
discussed. Recommendations for further research will are suggested, as

well.

CHAPTER 2

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

Based on pertinent literatures, this chapter justifies this study
of exploring organization factors in terms of their relationship with
training transfer. The first section consists of a discussion based on
relevant literatures on approaches to studying the transfer of training.
In the second section, relevant literatures on organizational factors
affecting worker performance are examined.

Empirical research on adult education in China is lacking. Most of
the educational literature is the summary of education in descriptive
manner, and expressions of subjective opinions without empirical support
(Tsang, 1988b). The AET literature in recent years appears in the same
manner, consisting of descriptions of adult education and training (AET)
events, and conjecture on AET deducted from assumptions. Therefore, the
literature used to guide this research will also include studies in
other countries, especially the U.S. Though to some extent the
literature is foreign to situations in China, it is hoped that given
that l) the nature of the systematic study of the literature, 2) the
similarity of the major training and organizational features as observed
by researchers and practioners around the world and 3) the knowledge of
this researcher about adult training and education in China, the
embedded biases will be reduced to the greatest extent possible for the
present study. Furthermore, such an exploratory study could make a
positive contribution to the adult education and training practice in,

and literature on China.

16

17

2.1 Approaches to Studying the Transfer of Training

In recent years, huge resources have been invested in AET programs
for employees to upgrade KSA. In a less developed country like China,
200 million people in the workforce have been involved in various of
training and educational programs in the last decade (Personnel News
Bulletin, China, 1989). The transfer of training is sometimes noticed
low, or even zero in the workplace in some cases (Huang Fuchang, 1988;
SiTu, 1988; Zhong, 1988; Zhen, 1988; Huang Gaopin, 1988). In order to
increase the transfer of training, previous studies have focused on
learning aspects of AET programs. These approaches intend to control

and improve learning within the training process.

2.1.1 Major focus of Current Literature in the U.S.A.

Today, the unfulfilled expectations from training have induced
trainers' t? question how to maximize positive transfer of learning, and
what elements it takes to maximize positive transfer (Baldwin & Fort,
1988; Goldstein, 1986; Wexley & Latham, 1981; Dickinson, 1985).

Previous studies on improving learning transfer have focused on: (1) the
traditional concepts including using identical elements, the teaching of
underlying principles, and the use of overlearning (McGhee & Thayer,
1961; Goldstein, 1986); (2) philosophical concepts of adult learning
including the consideration of learners' characteristics, providing the
appropriate learning environment, and using flexible instructional
strategies (Knowles, 1973; Cross, 1981; Knox, 1977, 1986; Brookfield,

1986; Darkenwald & Marriam 1882; Rogers 1969; Woldkowski 1986); (3)

18

program design and development including improving and controlling the
components and techniques during the training process (Goldstein, 1986;
Boyle, 1981; Cranton, 1989; Kowalski, 1988; Brookfield, 1986; Knowles,
1967; Laird, 1985; Dickinson, 1985); and finally (4) retention of skill
and knowledge after training including posttraining strategies and
relapse prevention (Wexley & Baldwin, 1986; Leifer & Newstrom 1980, Marx
1982). By giving attention to the improvement of transfer of learning,
these approaches intended to enhance the learner's proficiency in
acquiring and retaining KSA (e.g. by use of overlearning, the matching
of learner's characteristics to the task), relapse prevention, (e.g.,
learning retention), or improve the quality of the training delivery
(e.g., effective training strategies, flexible methods). At this point,
it may be noted that these research practices all concentrate on the
process within the training or educational scope, which are very crucial
to ensure the learning required in the first place.

Training program development is an important aspect of training.
Most often, training programs are developed in accordance with two kinds
of models. The first kind, the conventional model, is usually a linear
and cyclic model which consists of phases of needs assessment, program
design, training implementation and evaluation. Many similar models
have been built based on this framework, and provided good a guide for
program design and development, which includes improving and controlling
the components and techniques during the training process (Goldstein,
1986; Boyle, 1981; Cranton, 1989; Kowalski, 1988; Brookfield, 1986;
Knowles, 1967).

The second kind (Kowalski, 1988) is the holistic model. Kowalski

19

(1988) has developed a holistic model of program planning based on the
sociopolitical theory and social psychology of the organization. In his
holistic model, there are three critical elements: the individual, the
organization, and the external environment. These three elements all
have values and needs which are congruent with their interests. The
existence of these parties exerts power and influence over the goals,
operations, and outcomes of the organization. In this model, the
planning process simultaneously considers the three elements. The other
three basic components developed for the systems approach are: inputs,
throughputs, and outputs. Inputs are formulated using information from
the three elements above and also from other items such as books,
teachers, and instructional equipment. These three sources provide the
needs and values necessary for the appropriate design of adult education
programs. Throughputs refer to such procedures as programs which are
designed instruction experiences and are conducted to bring about
changes in the learner (e.g., changes in behavior or knowledge to
improve performance). Outputs are the products of the educational
experience and provide the basis for eventual program evaluations. This
model provides a framework to look at training and education in an
organization with a more dynamic view. Goldstein's model (1986) has
some similar characteristics in common with Kolwalski's model in that it
uses organizational analysis in the needs assessment precess.

The above models of training have provided adequate guidance for
research and practices. In many cases, adult education and training
programs using these models as the framework for analysis have produced

internal effectiveness (Knowles, 1980). However, considering the

20
ultimate external effectiveness of training--the improved work
efficiency and increased productivity, these models are not sufficient
enough to provide us with a framework thorough enough to consider all
the many organizational factors which can affect the transfer of

learning after training.

2.1.2 Current Literature on AET in China

The literature on AET in China also shows that the major emphasis
is on the controlling and increasing of the quantity and quality of the
training process in the last ten years. Yet even though this
researcher conducted an exhaustive search of literature on AET in China,
(more than one hundred studies), she could only locate a few studies
(LinHu, 1989; Shong et al., 1989; Chen & Chen, 1989; Yang, 1989; Wang &
Lu, 1989; Angang Steel & Iron Company, 1989; Chendu Seamless Steel
Plant, 1989)1 done on the evaluation of the effectiveness of training
in the workplace. These studies were by nature (1) the description of
training events and general results and (2) the conjecture based on
deductive assumptions. However, no empirical study was done on the
specific variables that affect the transfer of training. Some studies
(Linghu, 1989; Shong, 1989; Chen 5 Chen, 1989; Yang, 1989; Wang & Lu,
1989; Angang Steel & Iron Company, 1989; Chendu Seamless Steel Plant,
1989; Shi, 1989; Shu & Liu, 1989) described AET events in the past years

and tried to identify economic benefits and new technological adaption

 

1 These are papers written from 1986-1989 and collected as

the best research papers in W

W- China: China
Geology University Press, 1989.

21
resulting from such training programs. Yet no specific problems were
stated and variables specified. Though some statistics were gathered,
none of them were based on systematic empirical research. However,
results of the AET were all concluded to be positive and the outcomes of
the training were expressed in general terms. The positive results were
either the increased gross income or the new technological adaption.
The other type of study on this topic (Shong, et. a1. 1989) was based on
the conjecture over the benefits of the AET in terms of economical,
individual, technological and societal gain, yet without adequate
research.

Yet, the major flaws with these studies, on the transfer of
training, are the compounding effects of inflation and new technology on
training results. In the last ten years, inflation has been rising so
rapidly every year in China that it is doubtful that the increase of any
productivity from the previous period has resulted from training. Along
with this, adaption to new technology is usually an ongoing process and
training is only part of the project anyway. Furthermore, this
researcher would like to point out the fact that there was no systematic
research design used in these studies on training transfer, which also
leads her to doubt that profit and innovations were solely due to the
training. The final problem with these studies is that they were all
the best examples of AET programs, and not necessarily represent the
average AET program's results. In Chinese culture, the unsatisfactory
and inferior results are not always reported and, as a result, the real
problems are usually left unconfronted.

Nevertheless, some AET practioners in SSEZ (Shi, 1989; Xu & Liu,

22
1989; Zhen, 1988; Huang Fuchang, 1988; Huang Gaoping; 1988 Zhong, 1988)
touched on the idea that organizational factors such as an appropriate
and legitimate reward system, working conditions, supervision, the match
of training with job content, and responsibility and autonomy of the
trainees, can be binding forces and motivators toward the utilization of
KSA by the trainees on the job. In concordance with such concepts, the
government had called on the legitimization of policies including human
resource management (HRM), pay systems, and worker recruitment so that
reinforcement could be provided for the utilization of trainees' KSA in
the workplace, thus increasing the chances for the transference of
training (Li, 1986).

In this researcher's experience (Xiao, 1989), organizational
factors could affect the training transfer in the workplace. In the
interviews with AET practitioners, and with managers in China in the
summer of 1989, the impression was that (1) the incongruence of the job
requirements and the trainees' newly acquired KSA created negative
trainee attitudes toward the work unit in many cases, (2) wage increase
and promotion based on seniority resulted in lowered motivation in
applying KSA, and (3) managers' ignorance of the potential benefits of

training could hurt employees who desired career development.

2.1.3 The Neglected Area in Training Transfer

Some practitioners and researchers have noted some organizational
factors in the work environment might contribute to, or inhibit the
training transfer (Gash & Kossek, 1989; Goldstein, 1986; Robinson &

Robinson, 1985). Very few attempts have been made to study the

23
relationship between organization factors and training transfer (Baldwin
& Ford, 1988).

Baldwin & Ford (1988), however, made a review of the literature on
the transfer of training. The scope of the review included training
design, learner characteristics and work-environment characteristics.
The authors were able to locate a very limited amount of empirical
studies on the transfer of training regarding work environment, such as
perceived transfer climate. The major problems in these studies were
the static nature of the research in relationship to the dynamic nature
of the transfer process. The transfer criterion most frequently used
was a self-reported measure of effort used to transfer learning to the
job (Baldwin & Ford, 1988). Furthermore, those studies did not explore
how the supervisory support was associated or related to the training
transfer and most of them were gathered too soon after the training
programs were completed. Therefore, the "strong” support for the
importance of environmental characteristics to training transfer could
not be inferred in such short period of time. Baldwin and Ford (1988)
suggested that other organizational factors besides supervisory support
might have effect on workers' performance. They then suggested that
further research was needed to identify the key work-environment
variables and to operationalize these variables. The authors also
suggested that examination of the effects of environmental
characteristics from a levels-of-analysis perspective, would be most
useful.

Gash and Kossek, two researchers in human resource development

(HRD), used organizational systems as a framework to study a computer

24
training program for the end-user (1989). They conjectured that there
was both positive and negative impact of factors at three levels within
the organization--the individual, the group, and the organization. They
maintained that while the training process is vital to the increase of
competency of the workforce, there are many factors in the organization
that could inhibit the transfer of learning to job tasks in the
workplace after the training. The organizational factors are trainees'
characteristics, trainees' job tasks at the individual level; the
internal status of the client group, skill deficiency at the group
level; and organizational cultures and resources HRM system at the
organizational level.

Two studies, that did reveal some significant indication of effects
of organizational factors on training transfer were Spielman's
experiment on an international technology transfer project (1983) and
Tsang's empirical study of the impact of under-utilization of education
on productivity in 22 U.S. Bell Telephone Companies (1987).

In the project studied by Spielman, new maintenance techniques were
introduced to about 2,000 employees in Java, Indonesia. To ensure the
appropriateness of technology for the local environment, a pilot project
was established in which the maintenance techniques were adapted and
applied. A well-planned technology transfer system and training courses
was developed for workers as well. The training courses were successful
in that trainees were able to operate the new equipment satisfactorily
and clients were satisfied. Two years later when the author went back
to follow up on the project, he was surprised to find that the long-term

training results were not as good as anticipated. In many areas, old

25
work techniques returned and some supporting procedures were not being
used. The author claimed that no amount of training nor well-organized
systems of transference of technology will be successful unless the
technology was integrated into the organization-specific system, and
that this procedure required the commitment of the whole organization
and management development.

Tsang (1987), in the field of economics of education, made attempts
to measure the effects of underutilization of skill on productivity in
twenty-two U.S. Bell Companies using the Tsang-Levin Model (1985). The
model is based on a synthesis of literature on industrial psychology,
workplace productivity and the conventional economic analysis of
productivity. According to Tsang's review of the literature on
industrial psychology, workers with more education than their jobs
required (mismatch of workers' ability with job required skills) have
been found to be more dissatisfied with their job. They may therefore,
exhibit higher rates of absenteeism and turnover, and poorer health.
The underutilization of education may thus result in reduced work
effort, increased production costs and consequently lower productivity.
Tsang (1987) found that each year of underutilization of education was
associated with a loss of 8.351 in output, which was $4.58 billion for
the Bell Companies with a total annual output of $54.9 billion for the
22 companies in 1981.

Another study also found that workers with more schooling than
their jobs require will be less satisfied with their jobs and less
productive in their jobs, and these workers and indicated a greater

intention to turnover (Tsang, Rumberger, & Levin, 1991: 224).

26

The findings that the mismatch of workers' skills with required job
skills (Tsang, 1987; Tsang et a1. 1991) can result in adverse worker
responses, thus leading to lower work effort and productivity, have
significant implications for understanding training transfer in the
transfer process. After training, certain worker characteristics have
changed, which can incur changes in their expectations of the work
environment. So, the mismatch of work environment with changed worker
characteristics may cause failure in motivating the trained workers and
in the transfer of training.

In short words, there have been very few attempts to study the
impact of organizational factors on training transfer. However, the
limited research does suggest that organizational factors are an area in
need of our attention in order to improve the ultimate transfer of

training to the work environment.

2.2 The Evaluation Problem

A few experts in training and educational evaluation have defined
several levels of evaluation of education and training (Kirkpatrick,
1959; Parker 1973; Jackson & Kulp, 1979; Warr, Bird & Rackham, 1970;
Phillips, 1983). The most popular approach is the Kirkpatrick (1959)
approach which operationalized the evaluation process into four levels:
(1) the reaction leve1--what the participants think of the training; (2)
the learning 1evel-- how much of the KSA presented in a program is
learned; (3) the behavior level which is concerned with measuring job

performance; and finally (4) the results of the programs-~where

27
organizational improvement is considered.

For the purpose of analyzing educational costs and efficiency,
Tsang (1988) put forward a framework that distinguishes external
efficiency from internal efficiency of education. The internal
efficiency component compares the costs of education to the outputs
within education such as the acquisition of cognitive and non-cognitive
skills; the external efficiency component compares the costs of
education to the benefits of education that are external to education
programs, such as higher productivity. The author points out that the
external economic benefits of education depend not only on the quantity
and quality of education, but also on the utilization of education in
the workplace.

In many cases, evaluations of reaction and learning are conducted
because these two usually take place in training and educational
settings. This is true for the evaluation of teaching and learning
achievement. The data are easy to obtain, and evaluation is within the
control of the instructors. However, these two levels only measure the
"internal” effectiveness of learning, without measuring the "external"
effectiveness of training and education.

The perplexing part of the evaluation of training and education is
the changes in employee behavior and benefits to the organization
because the data are the most difficult to obtain, document and measure
(Phillips, 1983; Baldwin & Ford, 1988). The reasons can be several.
First, the learners are out of the instructional settings, and therefore
out of the control of instructors. Second, learners are usually shifted

to the supervision by another person on the job. It is usually not

28
trainers' responsibility to ensure that the newly learned KSA will be
performed on the job. Third, during the shift from one setting to
another, there are many other environment variables that can affect
learners' perception and values, and subsequently their performance
(Gash & Kossek 1989; Phillips, 1983; Goldstein, 1986; Tsang and Levin,
1985; Levin, 1987).

A positive transfer of learning as discussed by Baldwin and Ford
(1988), is highly contingent on factors in the trainee's work
environment. That is, the utilization of KSA in the workplace is
simultaneously affected by variables which may not affect the learning
in the training setting. Levin (1987) argues that the organization of
work has a crucial impact on the productive utilization of both
education and technology to increase productivity. However, in many
cases, researchers and practitioners examine training issues separately
from the work environment and focus on the improvement of quality
learning in the training and educational settings, (which is necessary),
to study the problem of transfer. We fail to consider the possible
intervening factors on the transfer process during the shift of learners
from the training setting to the work setting.

In summary, the relevant literature indicates that the internal
effectiveness of AET is a necessary but not sufficient variable leading
to the external effectiveness and benefits of training and education.
The transfer of training can be affected by organizational variables
(e.g. mismatch of trainees' KSA and job requirement), which are outside
of the training process. In order to study the problem of transfer of

training, we need to consider the possible intervening variables

29
affecting the transfer of training in the workplace. More specifically,
what are the organizational variables that do promote or discourage the
persistent use of acquired KSA on the job?

In conclusion, the relevant literatures have indicated that the
current research on and practice of AET has focused on the training
process in order to improve the internal effectiveness of training
programs. Some studies presumed that adult education and training could
resulted in increased productivity. While the quality of training
programs is vital to the transfer of training in the first place, some
literature also suggests that internal effectiveness is not sufficient
for the effective transfer of training on the job. Certain variables
external to AET programs could affect the transfer of training in the
workplace. To bring about effective transfer of training in the
workplace, there is a need to look beyond training process into
organizational factors and examine their relationship to the transfer of
training in the workplace. In the next chapter, this researcher will
present a framework for understanding the relationship between
organizational factors and the transfer of training, based on a more in-
depth review of the literature on the variables affecting employee

behavior.

CHAPTER 3

THE CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK

In this chapter, the function of adult education and training (AET)
in production organizations is first briefly discussed. Then selected
organizational variables and their reciprocal relationship with
individual behavior is reviewed in Section 3.2. Next, in Section 3.3,
the conceptual framework guiding the dissertation research is presented.
Finally, the hypotheses and variables conceived for this study are

specified.

3.1 AET And Organizational Learning

According to Schein (1987), the organization forms and grows around
two major concerns of the organization: survival in and adaptation to
the external environment, and integration of its internal processes to
ensure the capacity to continue to survive and adapt. Argyris (1964)
also pointed out three similar core activities of the organization: (1)
adapting to the external environment, (2) achieving objectives, and (3)
maintaining themselves internally. The internal integration is the
process of creating togetherness, which make groups capable of
accomplishing tasks that individuals alone cannot accomplish (Schein,
1987). As the external environment changes, and economic, political, or
technologic changes occur, the organization needs to readjust to these
changes by rebuilding internal competency. At this point,

organizational learning (Bennis & Nanus, 1986) takes place, in many

30

31
forms (e.g. employee training, management development, reorientation of.
production, and organizational development).

Training and education are seen as a primary means of adapting to
changes because it offers opportunities to help employees acquire KSA.
As for the role of education and training in organizational learning,
AET is assumed to hold the ultimate goal of helping the individual and
his/her organization remain competent and productive while adapting to
the changing world. Therefore, the effective transfer of training or
the persistent applying KSA in the workplace should be expected for
purpose of the organizational learning.

A general assumption underlying much of the AET literature and
practice is that AET will lead to higher productivity by increasing
trainees' KSA ability. This positive linkage between AET and
productivity typically comes from the idea that by improving KSA,
workers will become more competent. The workforce competency, in turn,
should improve productivity. However, there is a growing concern, as‘
discussed in the previous chapter, over the unsatisfactory transfer of
training. Relevant literature suggests that the employee KSA ability-
productivity premise is not at all that simple. The high AET
investment, high quality of internal effectiveness of AET, and the
unsatisfactory transfer of training, or the low return in productivity
in the workplace indicates that something is intervening between

internal and external effectiveness of training.

32

3.2 Organizational Factors and Employee Behavior

An organization is a group of people who are engaged in a common
enterprise with missions, goals, and needs. The individuals join the
enterprise and offer behaviors in attempts to make contributions and to
receive reward in turn for their participation; and the organization on
the other hand offer incentives in attempts to seek efforts from
individuals to accomplish its mission and meet individual needs (Bennis,
1986; Arthur & Kram, 1989). Hence, there is a reciprocal relationship
between the organization and individual. The focus of organizational
efforts are upon human resources and their motivation and utilization
in, and integration into the organization (Huge & Cummings, 1985).

This section focuses on some organizational variables that are
suggested to have effects on organizational learning, and integration of

human resources in/into the organization.

3.2.1 Training Orientation

Training orientation is the event developed to prepare the
employees for training and the subsequent application of KSA on the job.
Before trainees and the organization can benefit from any form of
training, the employees must be prepared to learn. Sanders and Yanouzas
(1983) note that trainees come to the learning environment with certain
attitudes and expectations and these may or may not be helpful in the
learning process. In their viewpoint, trainees with positive
expectations and supportive attitudes are more likely to be ready to

learn. Goldstein (1986: 70) agrees that motivational level affects

33
performance through an energizing function. And the motivation for
training involves the attitude, purpose, and goal-direction. (Bourne 8
Edstrand, 1973).

To prepare the supervision and trainees for training and subsequent
application, Laird (1985) suggests that training and development
officers must ensure the following conditions: (1) reasonably definite
objectives; (2) the preparation of the manager for assigning the trainee
to work that will permit use of new insights, skills, or attitudes, and
(3) reinforcing application of the new behavior, and (4) trainees'
understanding the purpose of the programs. Baldwin and Ford (1988) also
suggest that the extent to which the supervisor behaves in the ways
congruent with the training objectives will have a major impact on
transfer of trained skills by subordinates (Baldwin 8 Ford, 1988)

A well-designed training orientation can provide clear objectives
and requirements, and better prepare trainees.for learning with expected
attitudes and motivation. On the other hand, the shared expectation of
learning and subsequent application of KSA can also prepare the
management for designing strategies to promote the transfer of training.
Therefore, training can result in more relevant experience for both

employee and the organization.

3.2.2 Work Environment

The work environment is referred to as the physical and social
context, within which any client system (a person, group or
organization) is functioning to achieve a goal, such as producing

products (Huse 8 Cummings, 1985). Both organizational variables in the

34
work environment affect employee behavior and productivity. A recent
contingency framework by Huse and Cummings (1985) further emphasizes the
interaction between the technical and personal factors affecting work-
design success as important.

Intervening in the physical structure of an organization includes
designing jobs and.work groups for high levels of employee fulfillment
(satisfaction) and productivity. When work is designed to fit personal
factors, work experience is most likely to be both productive and
humanly satisfying. In contrast, the mismatch of workers' ability with
the job required ability can affect the satisfactoriness of job
performance, personal satisfaction, as well as the proper utilization of
workers' skills (Betz, Fitzgerald, 8 Hill 1989, Dalton, 1989; Tsang and
Levin, 1985; Tsang, 1987). Similarly, dissatisfaction can also lead to
the lowering of workers' efforts in the workplace (Tsang and Levin,
1985; Tsang, 1987).

Huse and Cummings (1985) offer a dynamic explanation of the effect
of physical structure on productivity. According to them, work design
can affect productivity directly. First, an appropriate work design as
an intervention can improve communication and coordination among
workers. Secondly, the appropriate work design intervention can improve
employee motivation, particularly when they satisfy important individual
needs. Motivation is translated into improved performance when people
have the necessary abilities to perform well, and when the technology
and work situation allows people to (positively) affect productivity.
Thirdly, a good match between the technical and personal work factors

(requirements) can improve the capabilities of employees, thus enabling

35
them to perform better.

The social context in the workplace affect worker performance and
behavior as well (Dalton, 1989; Kenter, 1977; Zelezik, Christensen 8
Roethlisberger, 1958). In the social environment of a group, supervisor
support is suggested as a key variable in terms of goal-setting,
reinforcement, and modeling for the desired performance, and can affect
the training transfer process (House, 1968; Baldwin 8 Ford, 1988). If
used properly, supervisory assistance, with its five key elements
defined by Huse and Cummings (1985), can involve supervisors and
trainees in joint efforts in helping employees to work to their full
capacity. The five key elements are (l) diagnosing trainees' job tasks;
(2) determining meaningful goals for utilization of the required KSA on
the job; (3) gaining commitment through participation of both the
workers and the supervisor; (4) assessing progress according to the
accepted work criterion and giving feedback connected to the behavior
and performance; and (5) providing support and counseling when
necessary. By orienting trainees to appropriate kinds of behaviors and
work outcomes, supervisors can reinforce the commitment of trainees to
transfer their learning in the work environment, which in turn,
stimulate supervisors' support of the transfer of learning. When these
conditions are met, supervisory assistance can be used as a powerful
intervention "tool” for clarifying roles, developing employees, and
improving motivation and performance (Huse 8 Cummings, 1985).

Besides the supervisory support, the interdependent relationship of
group members also affects the effectiveness of both the group and

individuals. Each individual brings something (e.g., ability, value) to

36
the relationship and derives something from it. It is through such
relationships that much of the group work is done (Dalton, 1989) and
individual needs are met. Zaleznik, et.al (1958) and Kanter (1977)
found that negative group-member relationships can restrict both the
group and its members to a very limited opportunity to grow and to
assume responsibilities. It can also result in a lowered commitment of,

and adverse behaviors by members.

3.2.3 Reward Practices

HRM reward policies regarding human resources directly affect an
organization's efficiency. The equity of HRM activities in
organizations affects employee's motivation toward just how much effort
they may or should exert on the job (Milkovich 8 Boudreau, 1988).
Generally, reward systems are designed to improve the organization by
motivating people to join the organization, and to offer their efforts
and to perform effectively. Specifically, performance can be enhanced
by linking important rewards to good performance in a timely, causal
manner. Here, employees must perceive the relationship between valued
rewards and effective performance to be equitable. Moreover, workers
must have trust that the organization will fulfill its promise to reward
good performance. When these conditions are met, rewards systems can

contribute to effective performance (Huse 8 Cummings, 1985).

37
3.2.4 Skill, Work Effort and Productivity

In studying how individuals determine their efforts and how their
efforts affect productivity in the organization, Tsang and Levin (1985)
developed a model of production for a firm which reveals the linkage
between the level of over-education of workers to the firm's output.

In the Tsang-Levin Model (1985), workers are not just another
”inert input” like other components such as capital, material, job
structure, time and technology, which can be mechanically manipulated.
The firm only obtains their work capacity when hiring workers, while
their work effort is not guaranteed (Tsang 8 Levin, 1985: 98). Workers
join a firm with such characteristics as ability, skills, needs and
expectation. Workers then ”assess their job environment and offer a
level of effort consistent with their needs, skills and personality"
(Tsang 8 Levin, 1985, p.99). Tsang and Levin (1985) define effort as an
intangible input to the production function, which encompasses both this
intangible input and other tangible inputs. In studying the impact of
inputs such as the utilization of education on productivity, this model
takes into account the effort of workers as an important intangible and
dynamic input. The problem revealed is that the match/mismatch between
the characteristics of the workers and the characteristics of the jobs
directly and indirectly affect productivity. Workers with skills
greater than required (the mismatch of worker ability with job-required
ability) can show higher job dissatisfaction, lowered work efforts,
higher turnover and absenteeism, and poor health due to the dissonance
between the job and their abilities. Hence, under-utilization of

education leads to lower work efforts and thus lower productivity.

38

The most salient feature of the model is that while considering
other major tangible components in the process components of production,
it explicitly specifies, in the dynamic approach, how the workers
determine their effort at work. This has a direct impact on the final
production output. According to the authors, an important task for the
organization, then, is to devise a system of supervision and incentive
schemes to extract more effort from workers.

Obviously, it can be inferred that after training, the workers'
potential capacity, and their expectations have changed. In such case,
workers changed characteristics may be incongruent with such
organizational factors as task requirements, supervisory assistance,
peer relation, or reward practices. The incongruence may then cause
failure in motivating the workers to use the newly acquired KSA. Hence,
workers can not work to full capacity, nor the firm can exact the
expected potential out of workers after training. Therefore, a system
of production with an environment appropriate to motivate workers and
exert their abilities is critical to promote the transfer of training.
Such organizational variables discussed above as training orientation,
work design, supervisory assistance, group climate, and reward, can be
used to motivate individuals. Thus, the appropriate manipulation of the
organizational variables may end with the increased value of the

investment in human resources development.

39

3.3 A Proposed Scheme of the Transfer of Training in the workplace

Based on the literature on factors affecting employees' behavior,
this researcher developed a conceptual framework for understanding the
transfer of training in the workplace and for guiding this study. The
conceptual framework is illustrated in Figure One.

First, an enterprise employs workers who have certain individual
characteristics. These characteristics include the KSA that are
attractive to the organization; these characteristics also include the
workers' needs, value, expectation of working in the organization. The
workers come to offer their contribution of KSA in hopes of receiving
economic, social, and psychological rewards.

On the other hand, the organization hires the workers in hopes of
extracting their KSA to accomplish the organizational goals. The
organization will first attract workers, and then extract their KSA by
manipulating such internal organizational factors as orientation, job-
design, supervisory support, peer support, and reward policies. The
ideal manipulation should be in a way that worker KSA best matches up
with the job required ability, and that human relations,e external
variables such as government policies, economic fluctuation, and
technological advancement, also have an impact on the organization.
Here, any perceived or assessed internal incompetency will trigger the
organization to make readjustments, (e.g., by introducing new
technology, flattening the organizational structure, and reorienting

production, and training).

40

W
Political, Economic and
Technological Variables

l l

V V

 

Organizational Internal Efficiency

 

W

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

l
V

 

WM
llproved Work Performance
increased Quantity
Improved Quality and Lower Scrap
Low Absence

 

 

 

 

Needs Assessment
r c i i *——> Prosr-I Desisn *—e W
Skills/Knowledge I Physical Aspects
Attitude/Ability ? Social Aspects, HRM
Emectation —-r W a——Cellllw'ov Expectations
7 Training (bjectives
Content, Expectation
V 1 V
__mTNIini Mm
Potential 4. Gaining Remired skill
Expectations K,S,A Emip l Infm.
V
W
e Potential KSA e—— W
Expectation m
Other needs
1
V
e 1’me of Tginig 4
Utilizing New KSA M

 

 

 

 

FIGURE 1 Determinants of the Transfer of Training

 

 

41

If training and education are determined by needs assessment as the
appropriate way to eliminate the gap between the present state and the
expected state of workers' KSA, then they have the function of
increasing the competency of the workforce. By teaching employees
certain KSA, training can contribute to rebuilding the internal
efficiency of the organization. Specifically, well-developed training
programs can provide relevant learning experiences, and improve worker
capacity, thus enabling them to work more effectively on the job.

At this stage of learning, it is necessary to postulate a potential
linkage between newly acquired AET and improved performance and
productivity. That is, there is only a relation in the sense that the
workers have gained from training a potential KSA capacity of working
more effectively (the internal effectiveness of training). After
training, the KSA capacity is only "potential" because the direction of
work behavior and the level of effort of the trainees on the job has not
yet been demonstrated. While training improves workers' capacities of
working efficiency, the it can also provoke changes in individual
expectations of trainee himself and the organization. The trainees' new
potential capacity and their expectations then may be incongruent with
such organizational factors as company expectation, task requirements,
supervision, peer relation, and reward systems. It can be inferred that
in such a case, the direction of behavior and level of effort may not
necessarily correlate positively with the potential capacities. This is
because the transforming of the intangible input of workers into
behavior and efforts in the workplace is based on the opportunities,

reinforcement and outcomes of such input. Training and education, as a

42
subdivision or event within the organization, does not have much control
on those organizational factors affecting employee behavior and
therefore cannot ensure workers' behavior on the job. On the other
hand, trainees assess the opportunities to use KSA and the outcomes of
their behavior and efforts, weighing their own potential capacity and
expectations. Such transforming process is subtle, individual, or even
unconscious, over which the organization has only some control.

Anyway, the organization is able to promote the utilization of
trainees' KSA potential by devising a system with relevant variables.
The work unit can seek strategies to manipulate the organizational
factors that will motivate workers to exert their new KSA, thus
increasing work efficiency and productivity. While implementing AET
programs, the organization needs to devise a system with an appropriate
work environment which may include (1) starting training with a clear
orientation; (2) matching of trainees' KSA with the work design (e.g.,
job task requirements, providing opportunities, information, and
equipment); (3) providing supervisory assistance (e.g., task diagnosing,
goal-setting, criteria, feedback, not only controlling or monitoring);
(4) encouraging peer support; (5) stipulating appropriate rewards.
These organizational factors in the workplace are expected to motivate
the trainees to exert their potential capacity and improve their work
efficiency.

First, training can be started with a clear orientation. The
implementation of training orientation aims at helping both supervisors
and employees to have an understanding of the company's goals and

traiining objectives. The shared understanding of training programs and

43
expectation of parties involved prepares trainees and their supervisors
for learning, and the subsequent applications. The preparation
explicate the learning objectives, training contents, the relevancy with
production and expected applications on the job. It prepares the
organization to adopt appropriate strategies of promoting the
utilization of KSA as well. On the contrary, the unprepared trainees
and management can become frustrated with irrelevant learning, and
restrained environment for applications, and unsatisfactory behavior on
the job.

The potential KSA paired with the work design may result in either
a match or mismatch. If the potential KSA is required as part of the
worker ability needed for accomplishing the job, provided with
appropriate equipment, information etc., then the trainees' KSA and the
work design are in concordance with one another. The trainees are in
the position and have the opportunity to use KSA gained from the
training to accomplish their tasks. If the potential KSA is not
described in the work design, then the trainees' KSA and job ability
requirements come to a discord, or a mismatch. Trainees will find
little opportunity to use KSA on the job.

However, the match in work design alone will not determine the
transfer of training, the persistence use of the acquired KSA in the
workplace. Besides, supervisory assistance and peer support, and the
reward system, can affect the transfer of training.

For instance, if supervisors provide such support as goal-setting,
information, allocating resources and giving feedback on trainees'

application of their KSA, the trainee will perceive the available

44
assistance and feel encouraged to apply the KSA. Supportive peer
relation also encourages application on the workplace. Positive
feelings can stimulate peer learning and consultation. On the contrary,
the negative feeling among peer will suppress the new ideas for being
afraid of scorn or restrained cooperation for changes. If the reward
system includes incentives for the application of KSA, improved
performance and increased productivity, the trainee will feel motivated
and see the application meaningful for both himself and the
organization.

Although they may not be aware of the process, and others can't
read, trained employees assess the organizational factors, and weigh
their new KSA potential. During this assessment process, which is
unobservable, trainees convert the information on the organizational
factors, along with their own characteristics, into a decision on the
behavior and efforts which they will demonstrate in the workplace. This
is where the transfer process takes place. Such steps taken by
individuals is sometimes conscious and sometimes very subconscious.
Though this process of converting is unobservable, it can be inferred
from worker behavior and productivity.

Given that the trainee himself is the constant regarding his
characteristics, the organizational factors are variables which affect
how trainees determine the direction of their behavior and the level of
effort in the workplace. If the organization can promote the transfer
of training by appropriately manipulating such organizational factors as
training orientation, the match of trainees' KSA potential with the work

design, supervisory assistance, peer support and adequate reward, the

45
responses exhibited from trainees are most likely the desired positive
behavior and committed efforts. The application of KSA, along with
committed efforts to the application, can lead to the transfer of
training, or improved worker performance, thus increasing productivity
in terms of quality and quantity. Both the organization and the workers
will get rewards. The organization.will regain internal competency and
obtain increased productivity (external effectiveness of training),
while the individuals will obtain their satisfaction in the terms of
economic, social, psychological and career needs.

On the contrary, the lack of training orientation, opportunities,
supervisory assistance and peer support, and of perceived inequity in
HRM policies, can inhibit the transfer of training in the workplace, and
lead to a negative transfer of KSA in the workplace. If trainees see
little relevance of training with job tasks, fewer opportunities of
application, or face a negative social climate in the workplace, and
unfair and meaningless reward for the application of KSA, they may
resort to a reserved behavior, thus not using the newly acquired KSA.
Or, even worse, they may develop such adverse behaviors as engaging in
activities not related to increasing productivity, remaining resistent
to taking responsibility, or even quitting to seek a new organization
which might expand the scope of their career. The failure in the
transfer of training then results in input loss in investment in
training. This loss is due to not being able to exert the trainees'
potential capacities and integrate their efforts into the organization.

In conclusion, training is a necessary condition for developing the

workforce, but not a sufficient condition for promoting the transfer of

46
training. Specifically, the internal training effectiveness, which is
within the control of training process, is vital to the training
transfer in the first place. However, many organizational factors which
are outside of the training programs are associated with the ultimate
transfer of learning on the job. This association could be in such a
way that trainees determine the direction of behavior and level of
efforts based on their assessing relevant organizational factors and the
implied outcomes of applying KSA in the work environment. The
appropriate manipulation of the organizational factors can promote the
positive transfer of training, resulting in the desired work behavior

and increased productivity.

3.4 Research Question and Hypotheses

Based on the framework presented in Section 3, the key elements in
understanding the association of organizational factors on the transfer
of training are as follows:

1. trainees' and their supervisors' involvement in training
orientation to be prepared for training and subsequent

application;

2. match/mismatch of trainees potential KSA with the work-design in
the workplace;

3. supervisory assistance for workers' application of KSA on the
job;

4. peers support to each other for utilizing KSA;

5. reward practices in terms of a meaningful connection with
trainees behavior and efforts;

6. the transfer of training in terms of trainees utilization of KSA
on the job.

47
3.4.1 Primary Research Question
Is there any relationship between such organizational factors as
training orientation, the match of trainee's KSA to work design,
supervisory assistance, peer support, and reward system with the
transfer of training in the workplace of four industrial settings in
SSEZ, two state owned companies and two joint venture

companies?

3.4.2 Hypotheses
The exploration of the relationship of organizational factors with
the transfer of training started with the estimation of the correlation
of the organizational factors with the transfer of training. Therefore,
it was assumed a correlation between the organizational factors and the
transfer of training:
HIEQIHE§1§_1: SUCH FACTORS IN THE WORKPLACE AS TRAINING
ORIENTATION, THE MATCH OF KSA WITH WORK-DESIGN, SUPERVISOR!
ASSISTANCE, PEER SUPPORT, AND REWARD PRACTICE ARE CORRELATED WITH

TRAINED WORKERS' UTILIZATION OF KNOWLEDGE, SKILLS AND ATTITUDE
ACQUIRED FROM TRAINING ON THE JOB.

The further investigation of the association of organizational
factors with the transfer of training in the workplace is the major
thrust of this study. It is assumed that the organizational factors
which are suggested having impact on employee behavior on the job affect
the transfer of training in the workplace:

HIEQIH§§1§_Z: BY FACILITATING THE UTILIZATION OF KNOWLEDGE,

SKILLS, AND ATTITUDE ACQUIRED IN TRAINING, SUCH ORGANIZATIONAL

FACTORS AS TRAINING ORIENTATION, THE MATCH OF WORK-DESIGN WITH KSA,

SUPERVISOR! ASSISTANCE, PEER SUPPORT AND REWARD PRACTICE HAVE
SIGNIFICANT AND POSITIVE IHPACT ON THE WORK EFFICIENCY.

48
This conceptual framework is applied to both the state-owned and
joint-venture companies in Shekou Industrial Zone (SKIZ), Shenzhen
Special Economic Zone (SSEZ), China. It is expected that in the two
types of companies there is a difference in the organizational factors
in the workplace, which might lead to the varied patterns of the
transfer of training. Therefore, it is hypothesized that:

HIEQIBE§1§_2: THERE IS A DIFFERENCE IN THE ORGANIZATIONAL FACTORS
AND WORK EFFICIENCY GAINED BY UTILIZING KNOWLEDGE, SKILLS AND
ATTITUDE ON THE JOB BETWEEN THE STATE-OWNED AND JOINT-VENTURE
COMPANIES.

To compare the patterns of the transfer of training in the state-
owned and joint-venture, it is hypothesized that:

HIPQIfl§§L§_&: IN THE STATE-OWNED COMPANIES, BY FACILITATING THE
UTILIZATION OF KNOWLEDGE, SKILLS, AND ATTITUDE ACQUIRED IN
TRAINING, SUCH ORGANIZATIONAL FACTORS AS TRAINING ORIENTATION, THE
MATCH OF WORK-DESIGN WITH KSA, SUPERVISORY ASSISTANCE, PEER SUPPORT
AND REWARD PRACTICE HAVE SIGNIFICANT AND POSITIVE IMPACT ON THE
WORK EFFICIENCY.

w: IN THE JOINT-VENTURE COMPANIES, BY FACILITATING THE
UTILIZATION OF KNOWLEDGE, SKILLS, AND ATTITUDE ACQUIRED IN

TRAINING, SUCH ORGANIZATIONAL FACTORS AS TRAINING ORIENTATION, THE
MATCH OF WORK-DESIGN WITH KSA, SUPERVISORY ASSISTANCE, PEER SUPPORT

AND REWARD PRACTICE HAVE SIGNIFICANT AND POSITIVE IMPACT ON THE
WORK EFFICIENCY.

3.4.3 Defining Variables
In accordance with the hypotheses derived from the conceptual
framework, the variables conceived to accomplish this study are defined

in the following.

49

Wills

WORK EFFICIENCY GAINED BY UTILIZING KSA. In this study, work
efficiency gained by utilizing KSA is defined as the degree of improved
work efficiency to which the trained worker gained by utilizing KSA
learned from the training, in terms of work speed and quality. It has
been suggested that some organizational factors may correlate with the
utilization of KSA (Baldwin 8 Ford, 1988; Goldstein 1986; Spielman,
1983; Baumgartel, 8 Jeanpierre, 1972; Mohamed, 1984; Levin, 1987; Tsang
8 Levin, 1987; Tsang, 1988; Cash 8 Kossek, 1989; Shi, 1989; Xu 8 Liu,
1989). In this study, perceived work efficiency gained by utilizing KSA
on the job is an overall measure of work efficiency in terms of work
speed, quality and scrap. Based on researcher's conceptual framework,
the organizational factors which may contribute to, or inhibit learning
transfer in the workplace include training orientation, the match of KSA
with work-design, supervisory assistance, peer support, and rewarding

practices.

WM

TRAINING ORIENTATION. Training orientation is defined as the
degree to which the worker realized that she was prepared for the
training and the utilization of KSA on the job after the training. By
orienting trainees to appropriate kinds of behaviors and work outcomes,
it can reinforce the commitment of the trainees' to transfer their
learning to the real environment, and subsequently stimulate their
supervisors' support of the transfer of learning (Huse and Commings,

1985). And it is also said that employees who perceive that the

50
training programs are important to the supervisor will be more motivated
to attend to, learn, and transfer acquired KSA to the job (Baldwin 8
Ford, 1989). In SKIZ, an orientation is usually given before training
by the supervisor. It is to orient workers to a new learning by giving
information of the training content, importance and the expected
consequence of the training. In this study, training orientation is an
overall measure of how the workers were prepared for the training and
utilization of KSA. ’

MATCH OF KSA WITH WORK-DESIGN. The match of KSA with job-design
is defined as the degree to which the technical\physica1 structure of
the job and KSA come to a fit so that trained workers have opportunities
to utilize KSA on the job. The mismatch of workers' ability with the
job required ability can affect the satisfactoriness of job performance
and personal satisfaction, as well as the proper utilization of workers'
skills (Betz et. at 1989, Dalton, 1989; Tsang and.Levin, 1985; Tsang,
1987; Levin, 1987). A good match between the technical and personal
work factors (requirements) can improve the capabilities of employees,
thus enabling them to perform better (Huse 8 Cummings, 1985). In this
study, the match of KSA with work-design is an overall measure. The
variable takes into consideration of the way the job is designed so that
using KSA is required to finish the tasks, that the information such as
production flow chart and equipment appropriate are provided, and that
workers have some discretion in using KSA in proper ways.

SUPERVISOR ASSISTANCE. Supervisor assistance is defined as the

degree of assistance to which the worker experienced and obtained

from her supervisor. Social context in the workplace can affect worker

51
performance and behavior (Dalton, 1989; Kenter, 1977; Zalezik, et. at.
1958). Supervisor support is a key work-environment variable (House,
1968; Baldwin 8 Ford, 1988) and has been indicated as an important
organizational factor affecting the transfer of training process for
trainees (House, 1968; Baldwin, 1988). Supervisor assistance includes
diagnosing job tasks, determining meaningful goals on the job, assessing
progress according to the accepted work criterion and giving feedback,
providing support and counseling when necessary (Huse and Cummings ,
1985). In this study supervisor assistance includes setting goals and
criteria for utilizing KSA in accomplishing job tasks, provide help in
solving problems in utilizing KSA, and providing feedbacks.

PEER SUPPORT. Peer support is defined as the degree to which the
workers help and care each other when utilizing KSA in accomplishing
tasks. Peer relationship is another important social environment
variable. The interdependent relationship of group members affects the
effectiveness of both the group and individuals because it is through‘
such relationships that much of the group work is done (Dalton, 1989).
In this study, peer support includes peer care and help in applying KSA.

REWARDING PRACTICES. Rewarding practices is defined as the
incentives given to trained workers when KSA is utilizing on the job
satisfactorily. The equity of HRM activities in organizations affects
employee's motivation toward just how much effort they may or should
exert on the job (Milkovich 8 Boudreau, 1988). HRM reward policies
regarding human resources directly affect an organization's efficiency
(Gordon, 1987). If rewards are linked with good performance in a causal

manner, rewards systems can contribute to effective performance (Huse 8

52
Cummings, 1985). In this study, rewards to satisfactory utilization of
KSA include verbal appraise, bonus, wage increase, and skill level
promotion.

TRAINING ACHIEVEMENT. Training achievement is defined by the
score that the worker obtained for a training achievement test. In
SKIZ, a test is given after each training to assess how much the worker
have learned--internal effectiveness of training. The training
achievement test written by the management and technicians comprises two
parts: (1) the learning of job-related knowledge, skills, and required
attitude on the job; and (2) the application of KSA on the job. The
test scores are also filed as the reference for decision on promotion of

working proficiency level which is the basis of wage pay.

W k a ct Var b s

The following control variables regarding worker background
characteristics are selected. Theories on industrial psychology and
organization (Betz et al., 1989; Arygris, 1964; Huse 8 cummings, 1985;
Vroom, 1964) suggest that the overall interaction between worker
characteristics and job characteristics can influence the capabilities
of workers and their performance. It is also believed that they are
needed as controls in Tsang and Levin's theoretical framework, in
Tsang's empirical study (1987), and in Min and Tsang's empirical study
(1990).

WORK EXPERIENCE. The worker experience is defined as the years of
working in the electronic company.

WORK PROFICIENCY LEVEL. Work proficiency level is defined as the

53
level of performance proficiency appraised, notified by the
company as the wage baseline. The work proficiency level is assessed
once a year based on the performance appraisal and the training
achievement by supervisors and managers. It is expected that workers at
higher work proficiency level have higher work efficiency which leads to
higher productivity. The work skill efficiency level in SKIZ ranks from
1 to 3, with l as the lowest and 3 as the highest level.

EDUCATION. The education attainments is defined as the years of
schooling completed by the workers. Recruitment of workers requires
that workers should have at least 12 years of education.

AGE. Age in the survey was coded into the following age groups: 18
to 25 years, 26 to 30 years, 31 to 35 years, and above 36 years. In the
electronic industry in Shenzhen, young women are assumed to be more
quick to learn, accurate and patient in handing with the electronic
cells onto the printed circuit control card than women of
older ages. 18 is the age of the majority of high school graduates with

12 years of education.

CHAPTER 4

METHODOLOGY

In Chapter 3, a theoretical framework was established as the
conceptual foundation for this study. Hypotheses were made, and
variables included in the study were defined. In this chapter, the
methodology employed to conduct the empirical investigation is
discussed.

This chapter consists of five sections. Section 4.1 begins with a
general overview of the methodology employed for this study. Section
4.2 provides a brief description of field settings of the investigation,
and a discussion of the sample included in the study. In Section 4.3,
the measurement of the variables is discussed in detail. Section 4.4
then provides a discussion on the reliability and validity of the

measurement. Finally, the overview of the data is provided.

4.1 Overview of Methodology

To fulfil the purpose of this exploratory case study, several
instruments were designed to collect data. The major instrument for
this study was a survey questionnaire completed by the trained workers.
In order to have in-depth views of the transfer of training in the
industrial sector, supplementary instruments were employed in the study,
they were: 1) interview protocols for the trained workers, their
supervisors, training officers, or managers; 2) a survey questionnaire

to the supervisors, and 3) the workers' performance and productivity

54

55
file records were checked.

Since there were no instruments ready for studying the relationship
between organizational factors and the transfer of training, the
instruments were constructed and designed by the researcher, based on
the related literature (Likert, 1967; Insel 8 Moos, 1981; Eddy, et. al.,
1967; Hand, et. al., 1973; Huczynski 8 Lewis, 1980; Baumgartel 8
Jeanpierre, 1972; Fleishman, 1953; Hariton, 1951). The scales
constructed to measure the variables in this study were constructed in

accordance with the conceptual framework.

4.1.1 Questionnaires

The major set of data for this study was collected by the survey
questionnaire to trained workers (See Appendix A). The survey
questionnaire for trained workers consisted of six parts. Part One was
designed to elicit information about the training programs that the
trained workers attended. Part Two to Part Five contained scales which
measure the hypothetical variables of training orientation, the match of
acquired KSA (Knowledge, Skills, and Attitude) with work design,
supervisory assistance, peer support, reward practice, self-perceived
productivity efficiency gained by applying KSA. In accordance with the
conceptual framework, each variable consisted of more than one content
aspect. In order to precisely measure the related property of the
variables, scales that were composed of a number of related items were
developed. Therefore, each variable was measured by a number of items
related to the specific variable. Each item was a statement followed by

five responses with one indicating the lowest level of the perceived

56
practice, four indicating the highest perceived practices, and N
indicating not applicable in the situation. Part Six was designed to
collect demographic and personal data about the respondents.
In order to have an overall understanding of the sampled
population, a supplementary questionnaire for the supervisors of the
trained workers was designed with the same corresponding parts and

constructs (See Appendix B).

4.1.2 Interviews

Three supplementary semi-structured interview protocols were
designed for the trained workers, their supervisors, and
managers/trainers. This was done in order to elicit in-depth and
background information about the variables to be studied.

The interview with management/training personnel (See Appendix C)
was divided into four parts. Part One contained questions on training
orientation; Part Two contained questions on such work organization
environmental factors as the match of KSA with work design, supervisory
assistance, and peer support; Part Three contained questions eliciting
information of the performance appraisal and reward policies; and Part
Four contained questions about workers' productivity.

The interview for trained workers, with 15 questions (See Appendix
D), and interview for supervisors, with 14 questions (See Appendix E)
were both constructed to elicit information corresponding to scales
measured in the questionnaires. These questions were focused on the
training orientation, the match of KSA with work design, supervisory

assistance, peer support work organization environmental factors, reward

57

practice, and perceived work efficiency by utilizing KSA.

4.1.3 Performance and Productivity Records Checking

An attempt was made by the researcher to obtain the information on
performance and work efficiency rate of the surveyed workers. The
information about worker performance and work efficiency rate was
gathered by checking files which consisted of the following three parts
(See Appendix F).

l. The trained workers' performance was measured in terms of skill,
attitude, work effort, commitment and ability. The data was gathered by
checking the performance appraisal done by supervisors. Each
performance aspect was measured by a 4 point scale, with 1 indicating
the lowest valued performance and 4 indicating the highest valued
performance; and N indicating not applicable in the situation.

2. Indirect productivity was measured in terms of worker's
attendance/absence on the job by the measurement of hours monthly.

3. Direct productivity, (the productivity of the group) was
measured in the terms of monthly quantity and scrap rate.

Due to the fact that the filing system for the employee performance
records and production records were not consistent and complete in the
four companiesz, the data gathered with the instrument were incomplete.
Therefore, the data on scrap rate were used only for supplementary data

analysis (See Appendix I about t-tests on scrap rate).

 

2 In SKIZ, filing and human resource management systems have
not been.well established.yet. Each company has autonomy on
its organization and management of production.

58
4.1.4 Sample and Field Study

The field study was conducted in four electronic industrial
companies, in Shekou Industrial Zone (SKIZ), Shenzhen, China, between
mid August to the end of November, 1990. The electronic industry in
SKIZ was made up of 38 industrial enterprises, about 301 of the whole
industry sector in SKIZ. In selecting the sample for this case study,
background information on production technology, products, training
programs, worker population, company establishment date, and company
size, were first carefully reviewed. Eight of the 38 electronic
companies were selected for the first field visit. After observing the
working environment and interviewing the managers and trainers in each
company, 4 companies were selected for this study.

Among the four electronic companies, two were state-owned companies
and two were joint-venture companies. The state-owned electronic
companies were established by electronic industrial entities owned by
the Chinese state government. One state-owned company was established
in September 1984, and one in August 1983. The joint-venture companies
were jointly established in terms of investment and management by a
Chinese state-owned electronic industrial entity and a foreign
electronic industrial entity. One joint-venture company was established
by a Japanese electronic industrial entity and a Chinese state-owned
electronic industrial entity in December 1984, and the other one was
established by a Hong Kong electronic industrial entity with a Chinese
state-owned electronic industrial entity in October 1985. All of them
had experienced their developmental period and now was in a more

stabilized status.

59

There were three production lines/groups in each company;
controlling card board lines, semi-products assembling lines, and
assembling and testing lines. The production groups of controlling card
boards in each company were included in this study, the production of
which required trained and skillful workers for handling complicated
electronic cells. In order to have an adequate investigation on the
transfer of training, workers on the controlling card board lines, their
supervisors, and two managers from each company was sampled. Anonymity
for respondents and for the sampled companies were guaranteed.

Before the survey, interviews were first conducted with two to
three trained workers on the production line, their supervisors, and the
factory managerial or training personnel. The information from the
interview was used to improve the questionnaires. A pretest was
administrated to a small group of 8 workers in the four companies.

The questionnaires were then administrated to all the workers on
the production line of controlling card board in each of the four
electronic industrial companies. The completion of each questionnaire
took about 20 to 25 minutes. The sample size of production line workers
were 26, 24, 32, and 24 in Company 1, Company2, Company 3, and Company
4 respectively. The supplementary questionnaires were, at the same
time, administrated to the supervisors responsible for the production
line in each of the four electronic industrial companies. The
supervisor sample size were 2, 2, 3, and 2 in Company 1, 2, 3, and 4
respectively. Totally, 106 workers,9 supervisors, 8 managerial/training
personnel were included in this study. The performance and productivity

data were gathered by checking on the company available files.

60
The data gathered from the trained worker questionnaires were
analyzed in accordance with the theoretical framework by employing
correlation, regression models, and t-tests. The supplementary
information gathered with supervisors' questionnaires, interviews, and
performance and productivity efficiency file checking are used

additionally to interpret statistical analysis results, when necessary.

4.2 The Four Electronic Companies

The electronic industry in SKIZ is made up of 38 industrial
enterprises, about 30% of the whole industry sector in SKIZ. The
electronic industry in SKIZ is considered the leading section of high
technology in Shenzhen Special Economic Area. These enterprises are
engaged in developing and producing products ranging from computer
magnetic heads, computer mother boards, computer power switches,
computer CPU, computer hard-and-software controlling boards, hard disk
units, assembled computers, supersonic detectors, nuclear magnetic graph
scanners, silicon crystal transmitters, solar Casio calculators, TV
sets, electronic machinery and Nintendo game cards. These enterprises
are both domestic and international market oriented, and many of their
products, and intermediate-products have been exported to countries such
as Japan, Taiwan, Korea, Hong Kong, the USA, Canada and other Southeast
Asian countries.

Four electronic industrial companies, two state-owned companies and
two joint-venture companies, were chosen for the case study for the

following reasons. First, the electronic industry makes up of the

61
largest proportional share of the industrial sector in SKIZ. Second,
the four companies all have similar production equipment which requires
skilled workers engaged in production. Third, the introduction of
advanced production technology in the four companies from foreign
countries requires training for the native workers. Fourth, in the four
companies, the workers are assumed representing the employee population
in the electronic industry in SSEZ because the requirements and
qualification of the recruitment are the same (e.g. l2-year high school
graduates, from rural areas of Guangdong, and the majority is female).
The newly recruited workers had no experience of living and working in
the urban and industrial areas. In order to stay abreast of the
advancing electronic technology, training is continuously provided to
both the newly recruited and experienced workers once a year. Fifth,
the electronic companies in SKIZ are largely market-oriented. Their
work organization is oriented to high quality electronic products at low
cost. Last, the electronic industry provides a setting where a mixture
of state-owned and joint-venture enterprises with contrasting
organizational practices exists. With the assumed difference in the
ownership nature and organizational practices, the study was expected to
reveal more information about the association of organizational factors

with the transfer of training.

4.2.1 Products and Production Technology
The products of the four plants (See Table l) are uninterrupted
power switches (UPS) for computers, and solar calculators with printers.

Though the final assembled products of Company 3 are different from

Table 1

62

Comparison of Four Electronic Companies

 

COMPANY NAME*

 

Company type
Establishment

Employee size

Major
Products

Product
Markets

Production
Technology

Sample unit

Processing
parts

Processing
step 1

step
step
step
step

UI-l-‘UJN

Sample size
workers

supervisors

State-owned State-owned Joint-venture Joint-venture

Sept. 1984
156

UPS**

Domestic 8

International

Standardized

Production
line

Controlling
board group

Controlling
card board

Cells
installing
welding
inspection
repairing
cleansing

26
2

Aug. 1983

152

UPS

Domestic 8

International

Standardized

Production
line

Controlling
board group

Controlling
card board

Cells
installing
welding
inspection
repairing
cleansing

24
2

Dec. 1984
180

SCP***

Oct. 1985
186

UPS

International Domestic 8

International

Standardized Standardized

Production
line

Controlling
board group

Controlling
card board

Cells
intalling
welding
inspection
repairing
cleansing

32
3

Production
line

Controlling
board group

Controlling
card board

Cells
installing
welding
inspection
repairing
cleansing

24
2

 

* Since anonymity is guaranteed, the companies are referred as to

COMPANY l, 2, 3, and 4.
** Uninterrupted Power Supply for PC computers.
*** Solar Calculator with Printer.

63
those of the other three companies, the production process for the
controlling card board is very similar.

The controlling card board is the most important part in electronic
products. On production lines, workers process the printed circuit
cards by installing cells of different functions and sizes onto the card
boards, welding cells to the card boards, then inspecting the quality,
and repairing the flaws. These are operated manually. Finally the
boards are cleansed and shifted to the next processing line.

Each controlling card boards contains about 120 to 250 tiny
different electronic cells, depending on the model of the card board.
Cells are tiny and look similar, but are different in function,
size, and capacity. Different colors, strip signs, numbers, and
shapes are used on the tiny cells to illustrate their function, size,
capacity, and polar direction. The production line standardizes and
simplifies the process so that each worker on the line is responsible
for finishing 10 to 20 cells. The number of cells assigned to workers
is decided by supervisors according to individual worker's knowledge and
skill proficiency; and also based on their knowledge and experience of
production organization in the frontline. Usually, the process requires
about 24 to 30 or so workers on the production line at the same time
when the conveyer is turned on. Good knowledge of basic electronics,
accurately reading the cell signs and the processing flow charts, and
excellent operation skill proficiency are required of each worker on the
line. Any mistake in installing the cells, or flaws in welding will
cause the malfunction of the whole product later. Besides knowledge and

skill proficiency, good work attitude and commitment on the line is

64

critical to accuracy and quality of the work.

4.2.2 Supervisors and Workers

The workers at controlling card boards are organized as a
production group with 2 or 3 supervisors. Workers in SKIZ are recruited
every year on a two to three-year contract. They are recruited from
rural areas or small towns in Guangdong Province as is required by the
Guangdong government. 12-year education attainment is also requested by
electronic industry in recruitment. Almost all the workers on the line
are young women in ages of 18 to 25 years old. The underlying
assumptions on recruiting young women are that (1) they are patient and
accurate in handling tiny cells smaller than the finger tips; (2) young
women have better eye-hand coordination (e.g., like doing embroidery);
(3) young girls can adjust better to jobs requiring patience, and long-
hour concentration. As the contract ends, some workers go back to their
hometown, and other some may search for another similar jobs in SKIZ and
start another contract.

The supervisors are usually responsible for assigning tasks and
coordinating production Operation on the line, material supply, quality
control, performance appraisal, and worker grooming. Supervisors in the
SKIZ electronic industry are promoted from the workers. Workers are
recruited on a two to three-year contract. When the contract ends, a
few workers having acquired excellent knowledge, skills, and kept good
performance records may get a contract renewed or tenure. Among these
few best workers, those who proved to have the ability to organize

production on the frontline will get a promotion. Therefore, the

65
supervisors are usually well experienced on the production frontline and

capable of taking responsibilities of the frontline production.

4.2.3 Training

The recruited workers in the electronic industry are normally rural
area high school graduates from the Guangdong Province. The education
system in the rural areas is devoted to general basic education.
Therefore, the workers usually had little knowledge and experience
working and living in urban and industrial areas. The introduction of
advanced production technology from foreign countries requires training
for the native workers. On the other hand, the models of electronic
products are changing rapidly every year. In order to stay abreast of
electronic technology advancement, continuous training is needed for
both the newly recruited and experienced workers. Therefore, training
is required of every worker, and usually provided by the electronic
company at least once a year. Workers, who have had their required
training, can volunteer for training sponsored by either her company, or
by other organizations like the SKIZ training center, or by the mother
company.

Training programs in the electronic companies are developed and
conducted by the personnel managers and technical personnel in the same
company. Managers and personnel officers first examine the workers KSA
status and the needs of the production. Training usually consists of
two major parts for workers: 1) work orientation, and 2) job required
skills learning. Personnel manager is responsible for program

development of the first part; and technicians and engineers are

66
responsible for curriculum development of the second part. This part is
in accordance with both the requirements of the basic electronic
knowledge and skills stipulated by the Bureau of Electronic Industry (it
was called Should-Know and Be-Able-to-Operate by Electronic Workers),
and the job requirement of production in the company.

Training is usually conducted in the first quarter and early in the
second quarter of the year when production was not very busy. This is
also the time when new workers started their first working days (after
the New Year and Chinese Spring Festival). The last time training was
conducted in the four companies was the end of the winter quarter, 1990.

Training was conducted in two locations in the company.

Orientation and lectures on knowledge and skills usually occurred in the
conference room. Skill learning and practice took place on the factory
floor at scheduled time. During the orientation, new workers are
expected to learn the history of the company, adjust to the working
environment, and foster an expected working attitude. This part of
training is conducted by managers. The managers lecture on the history
of the company; supervisors and workers are invited to talk about their
experience in the company; and regulation and rules of working and
living are also interpreted and illustrated by managers in detail. For
instance, these rules and regulations include how to use a toilet, how
to dine in the dining hall, how to park a bicycle, how to behave on the
production line, how to respond to supervisors and peers and how to
report problems. Workers also tour each division of the company, and
the whole Shekou Industrial Zone. In retraining, workers are asked to

review problems in production and their operation. They also make

67
comments on the organization of production and management in each
division.

In technical skill learning, technicians and engineers are
responsible for teaching job required knowledge and skills. The
learning includes basic electronic knowledge, and operation skills.
Usually, knowledge is taught in the evenings, or spare-time, and
operation skills are taught and practiced in on-the-job training mode.
The retraining for workers often consists of in-depth study of knowledge
and job-related problem solving skills, and continuous emphasis on
quality control by fostering workers' attitude and commitment on job.

Training usually lasts for one to two weeks, 6 7-hour days per
week. Evenings may be used for training when production is busy.
Training may also last for more than two week in rare cases when
production is not busy.

From Table 2, one can see that for 87.8% of the workers, training
was sponsored by the work unit. 92.51 of the workers attended training
in the workplace. 87.72 Of the workers attended training sponsored by
the company because of the requirement. For 83.01 Of the workers,
costs were paid by the company. Those 10.4% who paid their own fees
seem to be in the group who volunteered for training and who attended
training in such other places as the SKIZ training center. 73.61 of the
workers had on-the-job training, and 19.8% had training in the evenings
so as not to lower production when the production was busy. Only 2.8!
had work-released training. For 75.52 of the workers attending

training, the purpose of their training is to learn job related KSA;

68

 

 

 

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70
13.21 of the workers had training to update their job related KSA.
64.9% of the workers specified training content as job-related; 0.92 had
training to raise education level. 34.1 of the respondents didn't
specify anything. 55.61 of workers had training within one week; 13.4%
had training within two weeks; and 12.1! had training for more than two
weeks. The rest was missing data.

Usually, a test is given after training to assess how much the
worker has learned. The training achievement tests in four companies,
written by the management and technicians, are made up two parts (See
Appendix G) in similarity: (1) job-related knowledge, skills, and
expected work attitudes; and (2) the application of KSA on the job and
problem solving. A one-hundred score system is used in measuring
learning. In such a score system, 60 is considered as a pass; 60 to 75
then is considered as an intermediate level; 76 to 89 as satisfactory
level, and 90 and above is excellent.

The test scores are also filed as the reference for decision of
promotion on work skill proficiency level which is the wage base line.
One can find from Table 2 that over 82.1% of the workers had scores

above 76 which is considered satisfactory learning from training.

4.3 Measurement of the Variables

The data collected with the worker questionnaire consist of three
subgroups of variables: variables eliciting information on training
programs (See Table 2), variables eliciting information on the transfer

of training, and variables eliciting information about worker

71
Characteristics. The variables included in the statistical analysis are
the latter two groups: variables eliciting information on the transfer
of training, and variables eliciting information about worker
characteristics. The definition of the variables are provided in
Chapter 4. Here, the preparation and measurement procedure of each set

of variables are discussed.

4.3.1 Variables For Estimating the Transfer of Training

In this study, variables eliciting information on the transfer of
training included training orientation, work-design, supervisory
assistance, peer help, reward practice, perceived work efficiency by
utilizing KSA on the job, and training achievement.

Training orientation, work-design, supervisory assistance, peer
help, reward practice, perceived work efficiency by utilizing KSA on the
job were measured by a scale with a value of one for the lowest level of
perceived practices in the work unit, a value of four for the highest
level of in the work unit, and N as not applicable in the workplace.

The measurement scale of each variable was based on a set of items (See
Appendix A). Each of the items was a statement followed by five
responses with a one-to-four value scale, and an N for not applicable
indication. For each of the statements, the workers were allowed to
choose one of the five mutually exclusive responses which best tells
their response to that statement. Since each variable was measured by
several statement items, the values from the responses to these
statements measuring the same variable were added, and then the

arithmetic mean is taken as that variable value. It was an overall

72
measure of each variable. For each statement item, N, the not-
applicable indication, was estimated by running frequency. The
frequency over 301 of the overall sample was arbitrarily considered
indicating that the statement was not applicable in this study, and then
was dropped. Since no statement had ”Not Applicable" indication more
than 5 counts (4.72) in the overall sample, all of the items measuring
the variables were considered applicable in the situation, thus being
included in the analysis.

Training achievement test score was an interval variable measured
by the Chinese hundred-point scoring system, for which 60 is a pass
point; 60 to 75 is considered intermediate achievement level; 76 to 89
is considered good achievement level; and above 90 is considered
excellent achievement level. Training achievement tests were made up of
two parts (See Appendix G): (1) job-related knowledge, skills, and
expected work attitudes; and (2) the application of KSA on the job and
problem solving. As training curriculum were developed and tests were
written in accordance with the requirement of the Bureau of Electronic
Industry in China (it was called "Should-Know and Be-Able-to-Operate by
Electronic Workers”), the training achievement scores were treated as a
control variable for the training programs conducted by the companies.

One can find from Table 2 that for over all sample, 82.12 of the
workers had scores above 76 which was considered satisfactory learning
from training. Individually, 88.52 of the workers in Company 1 had
score above 76; 79.21 in Company 2; 83.91 in Company 3; and 761 in
company 4. Arbitrarily, 75 percent was often used by managers in these

company as refers to majority in estimating training results. As the

 
  

     

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73

percentage of trainees who had obtained satisfactory scores from
training achievement tests of 1990 in all the companies is above 70!,

training in the four companies were considered controlled.

4.3.2 Worker Characteristic Variables
The measurement of worker characteristics included in the

estimation are discussed in the following.

WORKER EXPERIENCE: The years of working in the current electronic
company. It is measured by the actual years working in the
electronic company.

WORK PROFICIENCY: The work proficiency level. It is an ordinal variable
measured by the level of performance proficiency appraised,
notified by the company as the wage baseline. The lowest level -
1, intermediate level - 2, and highest level - 3. In SKIZ, the
highest level of performance proficiency is 3. Among 106 workers
surveyed, 10 workers indicated work skill proficiency from 4 to 8.
They were recruited from electronic factories in inland China as
skilful workers to help the new and inexperienced workers. The
work proficiency level of these workers was coded as 3.

EDUCATIONAL ATTAINMENT: The amount of a formal schooling completed by
the workers. It was measured by the number of years that a worker
had attended school.

AGE GROUP: In the analysis, age is a dummy variable with a value of
zero for workers aged over 26 and a value 1 for workers aged 25 and
under. The age data in the survey were coded into the following

age groups: 18 to 25 years, 26 to 30 years, 31 to 35 years, and

74

above 36 years. The discrete age variable with a borderline at age

25 was chosen because in electronic industrial in Shenzhen, for

most of the workers, the 2-to-3 year job contract ends before the

workers reach the age of 26. YOunger women was assumed to be
quicker to learn, be accurate and patient in installing the
electronic cells onto the printed circuit control card than older
women.

The above variables or items of statements do not include every
item in the questionnaire. The study was exploratory by nature. Most
of the items of the scales were constructed by this researcher in
accordance with the theoretical framework and based on some related
literature (Likert, 1967; Insel 8 Moos, 1981; Eddy, et. al., 1967; Hand,
et. al., 1973; Huczynski 8 Lewis, 1980; Baumgartel 8 Jeanpierre, 1972;
Fleishman, 1953; Hariton, 1951). A few items were constructed in order
to have more general, or possible in-depth view of the context of the
transference of training. For instance, items 5 and 6 in Section 3 (See
Appendix A) were included in the survey to elicit information about how
well the training programs were designed and implemented in accordance
with the production need, but not like item 4 which measures how close
the KSA is matched with the work design. For this reason those items
eliciting background or in-depth information in the survey were not

included in the analysis.

75

4.4 Reliability and Validity

Considering that the conceptual framework for this exploratory
study is developed based on existing literature outside China, and most
of the items of the scales are constructed by this researcher,

reliability and validity of these measurements were carefully examined.

4.4.1 Reliability

Since the study was an exploratory in nature, and the sample was
small, the reliability of the scales were estimated by using the data
collected from the sample. 6

In any survey, it is important that the responses to the items
measuring a given variable agree reasonably well with each other so that
the respondent can express explicitly and clearly the given
organizational practices that she experienced and perceived in the
workplace. Both Cronbach's alpha and the standardized alpha (See
Appendix H for equations) were employed to estimate the reliability of
the scales measuring the theoretic framework variables.

Cronbach's a is one of the most commonly used reliability
coefficients and is based on the "internal consistency” of a test. That
is, it is based on the average correlation of items which are assumed to
measure, to a certain extent, a common property. The standardized alpha
is an a value that would be Obtained when all of the items in the scale
are standardized to have a variance of 1. If the items on the scale

have widely differing variances, the Cronback's a and the standardized

a may differ substantially. If the items in the scale have fairly

76

 

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77
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Table 3 contains both Cronbach's alpha and the standardized item
alpha's for the scales in the worker's survey questionnaire this study.
In basic research or research at early stages, a reliability alpha of
.70, or higher will suffice; a reliability alpha at 0.8 would be money
and time consuming (Nunnally, 1978). All the scales, except training
orientation, appeared to possess the satisfactory reliability. Besides,
the two a's were fairly close in the magnitude which apparently meant
that the items in each scale had fairly comparable variances. Yet,
training orientation appeared to have alphas below a recommended point.
This was due to the moderate to low average correlation of items on the
scale, and may mean that the items on the training orientation need

improvement in a future study.

4.4.2 Validity

The scale employed to measure each of the organizational factors
should have satisfactory discriminant validity so that the respondents
could distinguish each aspect of the organization variables in the
workplace and respond accordingly. Discriminant validity is judged to
be adequate if the intrascale reliability estimates for each scale are
higher than the interscale correlations (Marsh and Mannari, 1977; Chew,
1984). All of the scales in this study had intrascale reliability (both
Cronbach's alpha and the inter-item correlation reliability coefficient,
or standardized item alpha) that was higher than the interscale

correlations (See Table 3). Therefore, the scales in this study were

78
presumed to possess adequate discriminant validity for the attribute to
be measured.

The overall content validity was established by conducting
interviews and discussions with policy and development researcher in
SKIZ, the trainers in SKIZ, managers, supervisor and workers in the four
electronic companies, and by revising the items accordingly. Trainers,
managers, workers and supervisors were invited to review the instruments
about the variable definitions, the specific content universe to be
sampled by the variables, the appropriateness of the items selected to
measure each variables, the language clarity and rhetoric of the items
and instruction. Questionnaires were administrated to a small group of
eight trained workers from the target population as a pretest. Some
revisions were made based on suggestions, and the final questionnaire
items were considered to be appropriately constructed. The
questionnaires were administrated to all the workers on the controlling

card production line in two state-owned and two joint-venture companies.

4.5 A General Overview of The Data

In this section, the descriptive statistics of the variables for
the companies are presented first, and then those of the two different
type of companies are reviewed.

In Table 4, one can find that the mean value of training
orientation is 2.69, showing that workers felt that they were moderately

prepared for the training and utilization of KSA after training. The

79

 

 

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80
mean value Of match of KSA with job design is 2.87, showing that the
generally there is a reasonable match of KSA with the work design. The
mean of supervisor assistance is 2.72 , showing that workers generally
sensed moderate assistance by the supervisor on the job. The mean of
peer support is 2.87, showing that workers generally provided support to
each other in utilizing KSA. The mean of the reward practices is 2.00,
showing that workers usually felt that they got relatively low reward
when they had utilized KSA. The mean of the training achievement test
is 80.17, showing that on the average, the workers had satisfactory
mastery of the KSA. The mean of perceived work efficiency is 3.15,
showing that workers generally felt that they had relatively high level
of work efficiency by utilizing KSA.

The mean of work experience for all the workers in the present
electronic companies is 2.54 years with a standard deviation of 1.23
years. The very low average work experience is related to the fact that
most of the young women work in the electronic companies on a 2 to 3-
year contract condition and most of the workers have work experience
varying from 1 to 3 years. As the contract is due, most of them go back
to their rural hometown. Only some very good ones can get a renewed
contract, or obtain tenure by being promoted to a supervision position.
The standard deviation appears large due to the fact that about one
third of the workers are recruited every year. The mean of work
proficiency level is 1.73 with a standard deviation of 0.80, showing
that most of the worker were at the satisfactory skill proficiency level

of 2. The average education workers obtained is 11.93 with a standard

 

81

 

 

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82

 

 

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83
deviation of 1.02, showing that almost all the workers graduated from
twelve year senior high schools. This is so because it was required
that all the workers recruited in the electronic industry should have,at
least, graduated from senior high schools. The mean of the age group
for all the workers is 1.10 with a standard deviation of 0.33, showing
that most of the workers were in the age group of 18 to 25 years old.
This is also associated with the work contract policy; and most of the
workers have their contract ended before they are over 25 years old.

In Tables 5 and Table 6, one can find that the average values of
training orientation, match of KSA with job design, peer support, reward
practices and perceived work efficiency by utilizing KSA for both kinds
of companies are very close, except the average value for supervisor
assistance. The joint-venture companies seemed to have a relatively
higher level of supervisory assistance (2.83) to workers from the state-
owned companies (2.58).

Regarding work experience in the present companies, the state-owned
companies tended to have workers having, on the average, 0.41 more years
of work experience than the joint-venture companies. The workers in the
joint-venture companies tended to have 0.43 less years of education than
workers in the state-owned companies. While comparing work efficiency
level, the joint-venture companies had, on the average, 0.54 higher than
workers in the state-owned companies. The mean value of age in both
state-owned and joint-venture companies are very close, 1.16 and 1.05,
showing that most of the workers in both kinds of companies were between.
18 to 25. Statistic tests on the variables for the two types of

companies are discussed in the next chapter.

84
In Chapter 5, the data analysis models will be presented and the

empirical results discussed.

CHAPTER 5

DATA ANALYSIS AND EMPIRICAL RESULTS

Investigating the impact of organizational factors on the transfer
of training in the workplace was the primary focus of this researcher.
Statistical analyses were employed to achieve such a purpose.

This chapter consists of six sections. In Section 5.1 the
statistic models for data analysis are presented first. Then, the
empirical results are discussed in the following sections. In Section
5.2, the Pearson correlation matrix containing all the variables in the
study are presented and discussed. In Section 5.3, the regression
results for estimating the transfer of training in the workplace are
examined. In Section 5.4, the differences in the organization factors
between two types of companies are discussed. In Section 5.5, the
regression results for estimating the transfer of training in two types
of companies are examined. Section 5.6 contains a summary of the data

analysis.

5.1 Methods of Analysis

Most of the studies on the transfer of learning focus on such
factors as the learning process, learner characteristics, program design
and development, and reinforcement of learning. All those factors are
largely controlled within the training process. Limited studies suggest
that organizational factors may contribute, or inhibit the transfer of

training in the workplace. None of them have investigated the direct

85

86
relationship of organizational factors on the transfer of training in
the workplace. The major effort of the study is to examine the
association of the organizational factors in the work environment with
the transfer of learning on the job. Models employed to estimate the

relationship are discussed in this section.

5.1.1 Estimating Correlation of Organizational Factors

The exploration of the impact Of organizational factors on transfer
of training started with estimating the correlation of organizational
factors with the transfer of training (perceived work efficiency gained
by utilizing knowledge, skills and attitude (KSA) acquired in the
training). It was hypothesized that:

SUCH FACTORS IN THE WORKPLACE AS TRAINING ORIENTATION, THE MATCH OF

KSA WITH WORK DESIGN, SUPERVISORY ASSISTANCE, PEER SUPPORT, AND

REWARD PRACTICE ARE CORRELATED WITH TRAINED WORKERS' UTILIZATION OF

KNOWLEDGE, SKILLS AND ATTITUDE ON THE JOB. (Hypothesis 1).

To estimate the direction and strength of the hypothesized
correlation, correlation coefficients are estimated. The Pearson

correlation coefficient is commonly used to measure such relation.

5.1.2 Regression Models

Estimating the impact of organizational factors on the transfer of
training in the workplace was the major thrust of this study. In
accordance with the theoretical framework, it was hypothesized that:

BY FACILITATING THE UTILIZATION OF KNOWLEDGE, SKILLS, AND ATTITUDE

ACQUIRED IN TRAINING, SUCH ORGANIZATIONAL FACTORS AS TRAINING

87

ORIENTATION, THE HATCH OF WORK-DESIGN WITH KSA, SUPERVISORY ASSISTANCE,
PEER SUPPORT AND REWARD PRACTICE HAVE SIGNIFICANT AND POSITIVE IMPACT ON
THE WORK EFFICIENCY (Hypothesis 2).

Models employed to test the Hypothesis are listed as follows:

Y - a+b1x1+bzxz+b3x3+

b,.x‘+b5x5+b,.’x6+b7x7+bax8+b9x9+b1”Km“;1 (1)
Y - a+b1x1+bzxir-bgizfl-b,.){,.+b5x5+b6x6+e2 (2)

bl.)(,.+b5X._.,~I-b7x.,+baxa+b,,x,,+b10x1o+e3 (3)
Y - a+b1x1+b2x2+b3x3+b‘x‘+b5xs+e‘ (4)

In these equations, Y - Perceived Work Efficiency Gained by
Utilizing KSA; X1 - Training Orientation; X2 - the Match of KSA with Job
Design; X3 - Supervisor Assistance; X‘ - Peer Support; X5 - Reward
Practices; X6 - Training Achievement Score; X7 - Age; X3 - Education
Attainments; X9 - Work Skill Efficiency Level; Km - Work Experience;

e of each equation - deviation of a worker's Perceived Work Proficiency
from an expected value based on the model; the deviations were assumed
to be independent and normally distributed. The unit of analysis in
these models was the individual worker on the production line.

EQUATION (1) includes all the organizational factor variables, and
training achievement score, and the worker characteristic variables.
EQUATION (2), (3), (4), (5) are alternative equations. EQUATION (2)
tests the hypothesis without taking account of worker characteristics.
In EQUATION (3) , the estimation excludes training achievement. EQUATION

(4) only includes the organizational factors in the workplace. EQUATION

88
(5) regresses the perceived work efficiency gained by utilizing KSA only
on the training achievement score. Within each model, T tests and their
significant levels associated with the standardized regression
coefficient, Beta, for the independent variables will be discussed. The
total explanatory power of each of these five regression models (R

square) will be examined. This analysis was based on the entire sample.

5.1.3 Estimating the Difference in Organizational Factors

It was expected that the difference in the ownership of companies
was related to certain difference in the organizational factors in the
workplace, which might explain the difference in the transfer of
training. Therefore, it was hypothesized:

THERE IS A DIFFERENCE IN THE ORGANIZATIONAL FACTORS AND WORK
EFFICIENCY GAINED BY UTILIZING KNOWLEDGE, SKILLS AND ATTITUDE ON THE JOB
BETWEEN THE STATE-OWNED AND JOINT-VENTURE COMPANIES (Hypothesis 3).

The difference in organizational factors and work efficiency
between the two types of companies was tested by t-test. The pooled-
variance t-test was used because it was assumed that the population

variances in the state-owned and joint-venture companies were equal.

5.1.4 Estimating Transfer of Training in Two Types of Companies

To compare the patterns of the transfer of training in the state-
owned and joint-venture, it was hypothesized that:

a. IN THE STATE-OWNED COMPANIES, BY FACILITATING THE UTILIZATION OF
KNOWLEDGE, SKILLS, AND ATTITUDE ACQUIRED IN TRAINING, SUCH

ORGANIZATIONAL FACTORS AS TRAINING ORIENTATION, THE MATCH OF WORK-DESIGN

89
WITH KSA, SUPERVISORY ASSISTANCE, PEER SUPPORT AND REWARD PRACTICE HAVE
SIGNIFICANT AND POSITIVE IMPACT ON THE WORK EFFICIENCY (Hypothesis 4);

b. IN THE JOINT-VENTURE COMPANIES, BY FACILITATING THE UTILIZATION
OF KNOWLEDGE, SKILLS, AND ATTITUDE ACQUIRED IN TRAINING, SUCH
ORGANIZATIONAL FACTORS AS TRAINING ORIENTATION, THE MATCH OF WORK-DESIGN
WITH KSA, SUPERVISORY ASSISTANCE, PEER SUPPORT AND REWARD PRACTICE HAVE
SIGNIFICANT AND POSITIVE IMPACT ON THE WORK EFFICIENCY (Hypothesis 5).

To compare patterns of the transfer of training in the two types of
companies, regression models (1) to (5) were applied the subsamples of
the state-owned companies and joint-venture companies separately.

In this study, some of the independent variables were expected to
be intercorrelated significantly one with another. Therefore,
multicollinearity was suspected in regressions. Stepwise regression
procedures were then used to select out those highly intercorrelated
variables. Two-tailed tests at significant level of 0.1 were used to
test hypotheses. This was because that the study was exploratory by

nature and the sample was small.

5.2 The Correlation of Organizational Factors

The Pearson correlation coefficient was used to measure the
correlation of organizational variables with the transfer of training.
In Table 7, correlation coefficients of variables are presented.

First, one can find from this table that three organizational
variables, the match of KSA with work design, supervisory assistance,

and peer support were positively and significantly correlated with the

90

 

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91
perceived work efficiency gained by utilizing KSA on the job. The
statistical results are consistent with the findings and theories in the
literature of organizational behavior, management, industrial
psychology, and economics of education which suggest that match/mismatch
of workers' ability with work design, supervisory assistance and peer
relationship affect the workers' performance in the workplace (Baldwin 8
Ford, 1988; Goldstein 1986; Spielman, 1983; Baumgartel 8 Jeanpierre,
1972; Mohamed, 1984; Levin, 1987; Tsang 8 Levin, 1985; Tsang, 1987; Cash
8 Kossek, 1989; Shi, 1989; Xu 8 Liu, 1989; Robinson 8 Robinson, 1985).
In this study, the high correlation meant that the these three
organizational factors in the workplace were positively associated with
the transfer of training.

Reward practice and training orientation were not found
significantly correlated with perceived work efficiency. Regarding
reward practice, all workers interviewed, and 252 (26 workers) surveyed
indicated in the open questions of the organizational practices that
they had worked very hard to achieve the companies's goals of
productivity. However the reward was not enough to meet their
expectation.

In the Chinese culture, people Often work hard even if the reward
has not been appropriate because hard-working has been a highly valued
merit of the culture. Keeping the worthy image of oneself is always
valued more than working for rewards. This cultural uniqueness might,
to some degree, influence the workers attitude in the workplace.

Another reason that workers keep working hard might be that there is a

chance for a small number of excellent workers to be retained in the

92
company and receive a promotion after their initial contract.
Therefore, the correlation of reward practice with work efficiency,
which was not significant, may have indicated that reward was not
practiced in a way to contribute to the transfer of training.

Training orientation didn't show significant correlation with the
work efficiency, either. In the previous chapter, the reliability of
training orientation measurement was also found low. This may indicate
that on the average, training orientation had a low correlation with the
workers' performance on the job. This might be due to 1) orientation
was not organized well enough to prepare the workers for training and
the subsequent utilization of KSA; and 2) orientation occurred before
training and the time elapse might dim their recall of the event.

The correlation coefficients supported the hypothesis that the
match of KSA with work design, supervisory assistance, and peer support
were significantly correlated to the utilization of KSA on the job; and
the correlation coefficients did not support the hypothesis that
training orientation and reward practices were significantly correlated
to the utilization of KSA on the job by trained workers.

Second, Table 7 also shows that training achievement was highly
correlated with the perceived work efficiency gained by utilizing KSA on
the job. This meant that KSA acquired in training was associated with
the transfer of training on the job.

Thirdly, it is evident that among several organizational variables
the intercorrelations were moderate to moderately high. These were
expected because it was indicated in the organizational theories that

organizational factors could affect one another (Schein 1987; Bennis,

93
1986; Huse 8 Cummings, 1985; Dalton, 1989; Kenter, 1977; Zalezik, et.
at. 1958; Cash 8 Kossek, 1989). In this study, supervisory assistance
and the match of KSA with work design had significant correlation
coefficients with every organizational variable. These correlation
coefficients reflect the reality that supervisors had the major
responsibility in coordinating and supervising production on the factory
floor. The match of KSA with work design was the basic necessary
condition of production and utilizing KSA acquired in training.
Training orientation, peer support, and reward practices also had
significant correlation coefficients with some organizational variables.
These intercorrelations need our caution about the multicollinearity in
regressions later.

Finally, one finds that among the worker characteristic variables,
only work skill proficiency had significant, but negative correlation
with perceived work efficiency gained by utilizing KSA. It also had an
significant, but negative correlation with peer support.

In SKIZ, the highest level of performance proficiency was 3. Among
106 workers surveyed, 10 workers indicated their work skill proficiency
from 4 to 8. (The work proficiency level of these workers was coded at
3.) In interviewing the managers, it was known that 10 workers were
recruited from other state-owned electronic factories in inland China,
which used a different work skill proficiency system from 1 to 8, with l
as the lowest and 8 as the highest level. These workers were recruited
as a skilful workers to help the inexperienced workers. Therefore, the
results in correlation have two indications: a) workers with higher

skills (at work skill proficiency level 3) might feel less able to

94
utilize all their skills while working in an environment where
supervision assistance and peer co-operation were significantly related
with work efficiency; and b) most of the peers had lower skills (821 of
the sampled workers were at work skill proficiency 2).

There also appeared a significant, but negative correlation between
peer support and work skill level. This implied that workers with
higher skill proficiency needed less peer interaction while workers with
less skill proficiency needed more peer support. These results appear
congruent with the finding in the study by Min and Tsang (1990) that
education and skill background of the workers became less important in a
work environment which was more co-operative. Further, underutilization
of education and skill may cause the lower efforts of workers on the job
(Tsang, 1987, Tsang 8 Levin, 1985).

Other worker characteristic variables did not show significant
correlation with the perceived work efficiency. This may be due to the
reality that workers in these electronic companies all had similar
background, regarding their age, education attainment, work experience
(See Table in chapter 4, 5, 6), therefore, the homogeneous background

didn't explain much of the variance in the transfer of training.

5.3 The Equations of Transfer of Training

The impact of organizational factors on the transfer of training in
the workplace was estimated by a set of regression models presented in
Section 5.1. In the following tables, the statistical results are

presented and discussed.

95

Table 8 REGRESSION STATISTICS OF THE TRANSFER OF TRAINING (l)

 

Dependent Variable: Perceived work efficiency gained by utilizing KSA

 

 

 

 

on the job
EQUATION l EQUATION l EQUATION 2
Stepwise Enter All Enter All
Hetbpd VMMML—
Independent Variables:
X5 Training .087 (0.88)‘ .065 (0.63) .068 (0.53)
Orientation
X2 Match of KSA .169 (3.30)* .143 (1.39) .160 (1.68)*
with Work Design
x3 Supervisor .281 (7.71)*** .268 (2.38)** .290(2.79)***
Assistance
X, Peer .190 (4.08)** .187 (l.91)** .187 (2.00)**
Support
xs Reward Policy -.047 (0.28)1 -.017 (-.17) -.035 (-.40)
and Practices
X6'Training .297 (11.44)*** .296 (3.26)*** .293 (3.40)***
Achievement
x7 Age .021 (0.06)1 .043 (0.44)
x, Education -.066 (0.57)1 -.075 (-.80)
Attainments
x9 Work Skill -.023 (0.06)1 -.067 (-.68)
Proficiency
x,o Work .099 (1.31)1 .104 (1.03)
Experience
Constant .113 .221 -.037
R Square: .337 .361 .352
F 11.32 4.67 12.24
p .0000 .0000 .0000
N - 994_ 99 97

The variable is dropped out of the equation by stepwise method
because its coefficient is not significant in the equation. The
coefficient and t value are the estimation for the variables if they
were in the equation.

*** significant at .01 level. ** significant at .05 level.

* significant at .10 level.

96

In Table 8, one can see that in Equation (1) based on the stepwise
method, four independent variables--the match of KSA with work design,
supervisory assistance, peer support, and training achievement--were
significantly and positively related to perceived work efficiency gained
by utilizing KSA, showing that these four organization factors possessed
the predictive power of trainees work efficiency on the job. Among the
four variables, supervisory assistance had a regression coefficient of
.281 (T - 7.71, p < 0.01); and training achievement had a regression
coefficient of .297 (T - 11.44, p < 0.01). The regression coefficient
for peer support was .190 (T - 4.08, p < 0.05) and the coefficient for
the match of KSA with work design was .169 (T - 3.30, p < 0.1). These
regression coefficients indicated that on the average, the supervisory
assistance, training and peer support had more statistically significant
prediction of the work efficiency gained by utilizing KSA while the
match of KSA work design had less. The R square for the equation was
.337 (F - 11.32, p < 0.0000), indicating that the work efficiency gained
by utilizing KSA on the job had been significantly explained by the
equation with the predictors of match of KSA with work-design,
supervisory assistance, peers support, and training achievement. The
rest of the independent variables were automatically dropped out of the
equation because they did not appear as significant predictors of the
workers' utilization of KSA on the job.

The regression coefficient of training orientation would be 0.087
(T - 0.88, p > 0.1); and the regression coefficient of reward practices
‘would be -.047 ( T - 0.28, p > 0.1). The coefficients were not

Significant, showing that these two variables would not be significantly

97
related to work efficiency gained by utilizing KSA on the job, if they
had been in the equation.

Among worker characteristics, the regression coefficients of age
and work experience in the company would be positively, but not
significantly related to the work efficiency gained by utilizing KSA on
the job. The regression coefficients for education and work skill
proficiency level would be negative, but not significant. Most of the
workers in the four electronic companies had similar background--in the
age group 18 to 25, working on the 2-to-3 year contract condition,
having 12 year education, and about level 2 work skill efficiency. On
the average, the similarity of background did not account for the
variance in work efficiency gained by utilizing KSA on the job.

In the middle column, one can see that there are some changes in
the regression coefficients of the independent variables when all the
variable were entered in the equation. Compared with the results by
using stepwise method, the regression coefficient for supervisory
dropped from 0.281 (T - 7.71, p < 0.01) to 0.268 (T - 2.38, p < 0.5).
The coefficient for the match of KSA with job design dropped from 0.169
(T - 3.30, p < 0.1) to 0.143 (T - 1.39, p > 0.1) and turned to be not
significant. The coefficient for peer support remained no much change.
The coefficients for training orientation and reward practices, though
not significant, also decreased little. This indicated that there was
collinearity among these organizational independent variables. In this
case, one can find (See Table 7) that supervisory assistance was
significantly correlated with training orientation, the match of KSA

'with work design, peer support and reward practices; and that the match

98
of KSA with work design was significantly correlated with reward
practices, supervisory assistance, training orientation, and peer
support. When regression model included all the variables, the
multicorrelations overlapped the effects of the match of KSA with work
design and supervisory assistance. Therefore, the magnitude of the
regression coefficients for the match of KSA with work design and
supervisory assistance decreased. The worker characteristic variables
remained without much change in magnitude. This indicates, again, that
statistically, worker characteristic variables did not explain much of
the variation in the transfer of training. The reason could be that
there was limited variation in the worker characteristic variables; or
the measurement of these variables need an improvement.

The R square of the equation using stepwise method was 0.337
(F - 11.32, p <.0000) while the equation with all the variables in was
0.361 (F - 4.67, P <.0000), with an unnoticeable increase in R square,
0.024. This shows that when all the variables were in the equation, the
other six variables (training orientation, reward practices, age,
education, work skill proficiency, and work experience) had no
significant impact on the work efficiency gained by utilizing KSA on the
job, and their being in the equation contributes no further to the
regression equation explanatory power.

EQUATION (2) estimates the impact of organizational factors on the
transfer of training without taking account of worker characteristics.
In Table 8, the results of Equation (2) show the similar regression
coefficient patterns to those in the Equation (1) using stepwise method

and Equation (1) with all the variables entered in the equation. When

99
work characteristic variables were excluded from the equation, the
coefficient of match of KSA with work-design became significant (Beta -
.160, T - 1.68, p < 0.1). This indicates that the match of KSA.with
work-design had correlation with some worker characteristics. In this
cases, it was correlated with worker education attainment (See Table 7).
With the worker characteristic variables present in the equation, the
multicorrelation overlapped the match of KSA with work design and its
coefficient became not significant.

The R square for Equation (2) is 0.352 (F -12.24, p < 0.0000),
which is close to the R squares for Equation (1). Compared with
Equation (1) using stepwise method, R square for Equation (2) increased
only by .015 with training orientation and reward practices in the
equation, showing that on the average these two variables had no
significant impact on the work efficiency gained by utilizing KSA on the
job. The R square for Equation (1) with all the variables was .361,
only .009 higher than that for Equation 2, showing that the worker
characteristic variables contributed little to the work efficiency after
the organizational factors had been taken into account.

Based on the statistical results, one can find by the T tests for
regression coefficients that the association of match of KSA with work
design, supervisor assistance and peer support with the transfer of
training was positive and significant. Therefore, the hypothesis that
such relevant organizational factors as match of KSA with work-design,
supervisory assistance, and peer support present in the workplace tend
to further the work efficiency gained by utilizing acquired KSA on the

.job was supported; and the hypothesis for training orientation and

100
reward practices was rejected.

To estimate the impact of organizational variables and training on
the workers' utilizing KSA on the job respectively, Equation (3), (4),
and (5) were also employed. Equation (3) was used to estimate the
transfer of training without taking account of training achievement.
Equation (4) was employed to estimate the transfer of training by only
taking account of the organizational variables. In Equation (5), the
transfer of training was estimated by regressing it only on the training
achievement.

In Table 9, first, one can see that when training achievement
variable was taken away from the equation, the magnitude of regression
coefficients of supervisor assistance in both Equation (3) and (4)
increased by 0.11 ( T - 3.19, P < 0.01) and 0.126 ( T - 17.35, P < 0.01)
respectively, compared with coefficient in Equation (1). The T values
remain at 0.01 significant level. This result indicates that
supervisory assistance in the workplace had the most significant
prediction of the transfer of training.

Second, compared with Equation (1), the magnitude of peer support
coefficient in Equation (3) dropped by 0.018 (T - 1.72, p < 0.1) while
the regression coefficient in Equation (4) dropped by 0.026 (T - 2.82, p
< 0.1). The match of KSA with work design was dropped out of the
equations. This indicates the multicollinearity among the match of KSA
with work-design, supervisory assistance, and peer support. Among these
variables, supervisory assistance explained most of the variation in
work efficiency.

Then, one can find that in Equation (5), the regression coefficient

101

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102
for training achievement (Beta - .274, T - 2.65, P < 0.01)
was significantly related with work efficiency gained by utilizing KSA
on the job. The R square for Equation (5) was .075 (F - 8.12, p <
0.001), indicating that training achievement alone could explain the
training significantly. However, R square was reduced substantially.

Finally, one also finds that the R square for Equation (1) was .337
(F - 11.32, p < 0.0000) and the R square for Equation (3) was .235 (F -
13.96, p < 0.0000), R square for Equation (4) was .246 (F - 15.36, P <
.0000), implying that these equations possess significant explanatory
power to work efficiency gained by utilizing KSA on the job, or the
transfer of training.

By comparing the R square of Equation (1) with R squares of
Equation (3), (4), and (5), one can see a drop of R square for Equation
(3) by 0.102; and the drop of R square for Equation (4) by 0.091. The R
square for Equation (5) was 0.075 (F-8.12, p < .001). The R square of
Equation (3) and (4) show that the organizational variables in the
workplace accounted for about 241 of the transfer of training on the
job. Training achievement, though significantly associated with the
transfer of training on the job, accounts for only 7.51 of the transfer
of training. Addition of organizational variables substantially raised
the explanatory power of the equation.

Considering the above statistical results discussed, one could
conclude interesting findings on the transfer of training in the
workplace. First, the statistical results implied that training in the
first place was a necessary, or pre-condition in improving work

Tefficiency by acquiring job required KSA, but not sufficient.

103
Organizational factors in the workplace contribute to much furthering
the transfer of training on the job. Among these organizational
variables studied, supervisory assistance, peer support, and match of
KSA with work design showed prediction with statistical significance of
the transfer of training on the job. These organizational variables had
an interaction with training in a way that training and organizational
variables could mutually reinforce the effect on the transfer of
training one another in the workplace. Such interaction contributed to
the transfer of training to a degree that neither training achievement,
nor organizational factors alone could reach. Second, among the
organizational variables, one finds that the human factor variables,
supervisory assistance and peer support, counted for the most
significant statistical prediction of the transfer of training. This
indicates that human factor is an important variable to increase the
transfer of training. Assistance by supervisors and support by peers
can promote the transfer of training as the basic technical production

condition is satisfied.

5.4 Difference in the Organizational Factors

in Two Types of Companies

The difference in the organization factors between the state-owned
and joint-venture companies in this study was tested by using t-tests.
The statistical results are presented in Table 10.

In this table, one can see that supervisory assistance was the only

organizational variable that the state-owned companies showed

104

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105
significant difference from the joint-venture companies (t - -2.38,
p < 0.05). It implied the supervisors in the joint-venture companies
provided more support or assistance to their employees than that of the
state-owned companies. Therefore, the hypotheses that there was
significant difference in supervisory assistance between the state-owned
and joint-venture companies was accepted. For other variables in this
study, the t-tests didn't show statistically significant difference and
therefore the hypothesis for other variables was not supported.

The statistical implication is that in the state-owned companies
and joint-venture companies, there exited a difference in supervisory
assistance provided for trained workers in the workplace. This
difference could be due to the different practice and concept of
supervisory assistance.

In interviews, it was known that supervision in the joint-venture
was considered by the management as a very critical factor to bring
about the potential of the workers. It was believed by supervisors in
the joint-venture that the capacity of workers was a constant in work
efficiency. Supervisors were assumed to have the responsibility to
bring about employees' full capacity by providing assistance and working
closely with them. Therefore, the direct contact with the workers,
close supervision, and provision of assistance on the production line
were accepted as important tasks of the supervision.

While in the state-owned companies, cooperation among peer was
often encouraged by supervision. The supervisors acted more as a mentor
and kept an intimate relationship with workers. The supervisors thought

it important for the workers to provide support among themselves, and

106
help each other when there were problems. In observation, case analysis
and problem-solving were promoted among peers by the supervision.
Moreover, workers tried to solve problems by themselves before turning
to superiors for help. The concept of supervision and practice may have
made the difference significant between the two types of companies.

The statistical results didn't show difference in other variables,
training orientation, the match of KSA with work-design, peer support,
reward practice, work efficiency, and training achievement score. Upon
the visitations to factory floors and by interviews with the management
and supervisors in the two types of companies, it was observed that the
production equipment in the four companies were much the same. They
were all introduced from a foreign country. The training content was
also largely consistent with the production technical requirement, and
training achievement tests were very similar. The observation and
interview were consistent with the t-tests for the match of KSA with
work-design, training orientation, and training.

Regarding peer support, difference in practice was observed on the
factory floor though no statistical difference was shown. Workers in
the state-owned companies could talk and exchanged ideas on the
production line, while workers in the joint-venture could not talk on
the production line (by regulation and in practice) and worked very much
independently (this difference is discussed in detail in the next
section). However, back in the dormitory, workers in both types of
companies behaved much the same way as the researcher observed. They
cooked together, talked about work and their supervisors and entertained

:1n the similar way. Workers of the both type of companies care about

107
each other, but in a different way on the factory floor. Due to that t-
test was based on the means, the different pattern of peer support and
co-operation may not be detected. For future study, this variable
should specify detailed range of peer support.

Considering reward practice, workers interviewed and 26 workers
(about 251) surveyed indicated in the open questions of the
organizational practices that they had worked very hard to achieve the
company goals of productivity, but did not feel rewarded enough to what
they thought they should be. This may indicate that on the average,
workers in both joint-venture and state-owned companies felt reward
practice in a same way.

The t-test didn't show significant difference in perceived work
efficiency gained by utilizing KSA between the state-owned and joint-
venture companies, either. In Table 5 and Table 6, one can find that
the means for perceived work efficiency gained by utilizing KSA were the
same. Moreover, the means for perceived work efficiency gained in both
state-owned and joint-venture are higher than the means for all other
organizational variables, especially the mean of reward practice. It
appears that the workers tended to think themselves doing better. This
subjective perception of workers may conceal the difference in the
perceived work efficiency gained by utilizing KSA between the state-

owned and joint-venture companies.

108

5.5 The Transfer of Training in the Two Types of Companies

In addition to the t-test, the patterns of transfer of training in
the state-owned and joint-venture companies were compared by Equation
(1) to (5). Each equation was applied to the state-owned and joint-
venture subsample groups separately. In Table 11, 12, and 13, the
statistical results are presented and discussed.

In Table 11, one can find that in the state-owned group, peer
support, supervisory assistance and work experience were positively and
significantly related to the perceived work efficiency gained by
utilizing KSA on the job. The regression coefficient for peer support
is .399 (T - 7.89, p < 0.01); .304 (T - 6.75, p < 0.01) for work
experience; and .296 ( T - 4.32, p < 0.5) for supervisory assistance.
The significant regression coefficients of the three variables indicate
that in the state-owned companies, peer support, supervisory assistance
and work experience were significantly related to the perceived work
efficiency gained by utilizing KSA.

In the joint-venture companies, there appeared a different pattern
of variables associated with the transfer of training. Training
orientation, supervisor assistance, and training achievement were
significantly and positively related with the perceived work efficiency
gained by utilizing KSA on the job. Training achievement showed a
regression coefficient of .429 (T - 13.67, p < 0.01); the coefficient
for supervisory assistance is .274 ( T - 4.69, p < 0.5); and .231 (T -
3.37, p < 0.1) for training orientation. This indicates that in the

~joint-venture group, training achievement, training orientation, and

109

Table 11 COMPARISON OF REGRESSION RESULTS OF STATE-OWNED AND
JOINT-VENTURE COMPANIES (l)

 

Dependent Variable: Perceived work efficiency gained by utilizing KSA

 

 

 

State-Owned Joint-Venture
EQUATION 1 EQUATION 1
Stepwise Stepwise
Hsthpd Hsthsd_______

Independent Variables:

X1 Training -.111 (.80)1 .231 (3.37) *
Orientation

X2 Match of KSA .145 (1.23)1 .091 (.51)1
with Work Design

X3 Supervisor .296 (4.32) ** .274 (4.69)**
Assistance

x, Peer .399 (7.89) Hut .049 (.176)1
Support

X5 Reward Policy .029 (.05)1 -.l71 (2.11)1
and Practices

x. Training .090 (.51)1 .429 (12.67) ***
Achievement

X7.Age 4.487E-04(000)1 -.008 (.01)1

X6 Education .014 (.01)1 -.l92 (2.76)1
Attainments

X. Work Skill -.105 (.69)1 -.115 (.962)1
Proficiency

X10 Work Experience .304 (6.75) *** -.053 (.183)1

Constant .462 .147

R Square: .467 .383

F 11.38 9.71

p .0000 .0000

n - 46 53

 

Notes: 1 The coefficient and T value are the estimation only if the
(variable were in the equation.

*** significant at .01 level **

* significant at .10 level

significant at .05 level

Table 12

110

AND JOINT-VENTURE COMPANIES (2)

COMPARISON OF REGRESSION RESULTS OF STATE-OWNED

 

Dependent Variable: Perceived work efficiency gained by utilizing KSA

 

 

State-Owned Joint-Venture
EQUATION 3 EQUATION 3
Stepwise Stepwise
Mgthod Methgd

Independent

Variables:

X4 Training .111 (.80)1 .184 (1.72)1
Orientation

X2 Match of KSA .146 (1.23)1 .098 (.38)1
with Work Design

X3 Supervisor .296 (4.32) ** .417 (10.35) ***
Assistance

x, Peer .399 (7.89) m .044 (.11)1
Support

X; Reward Policy .029 (.047)1 -.144 (1.18)1
and Practices

X5 Training --- ---
Achievement

X7.Age 4.487E-04(.000)1 .036 (.07)1

X5 Education .014 (.013)1 -.104 (.63)1
Attainments

Xg‘Work Skill -.106 (.694)1 -.155 (1.42)1
Proficiency

)gfl Work Experience .304 (6.75) *** -.018 (.020)1

Constant .462 1.63

R Square: .467 .174

F 11.38 10.35

p .0000 .0023

ll - 44 54

 

Notes: 1 The coefficient and T value are the estimated once if the
variable were in the equation.

*** significant at .01 level

** significant at .05 level

* significant at .10 level

111
supervisory assistance could predict the work efficiency of the trained
workers at a statistically significant level.

R square for the state-owned group was .467 (F - 11.38, p <
0.0000), and R square for joint-venture group was .383 (F - 9.705, p <
0.0000), indicating that both equations have significantly explained the
transfer of training. The magnitude of R square for the state-owned
group was about .084 higher than that of the joint-venture group,
indicating that more work efficiency gained by utilizing KSA on the job
were explained by the predictors.

In Table 12, one can see that when training achievement was
excluded from the equation, R square for state-owned group remained the
same while the magnitude of R square for joint-venture group dropped
from .383 (F - 9.71, p < .0000) to .174 ( F - 10.35, P < .0023).

In the joint-venture group, when training was out of the
consideration, the coefficient Of training orientation also became not
significant and dropped out of the equation. This implies the
multicollinearity between the match of KSA with word-design and
supervisory assistance (See Appendix J). Supervisory assistance was
correlated with the match of work design, and supervisory assistance
explained most of the variation in work efficiency. The statistical
results of Equation (3) applied to the state-owned and joint-venture
companies indicated that training was an important predicting variable
for the joint-venture group, but for the state-owned.

In Table 13, one obviously notices that training achievement of the
Iaorkers in the state-owned companies accounted for little explanatory

[Dower of the transfer of training; the training achievement of workers

112

Table 13 COMPARISON OF REGRESSION RESULTS OF STATE-OWNED
AND JOINT-VENTURE COMPANIES (3)

 

Dependent Variable: Perceived work efficiency gained by utilizing KSA

State-Owned
W5

Joint-Venture

W

 

Independent Variables:

X1 Training - - - - - -
Orientation

X2 M8t¢h Of KSA --- ---
with Work Design

X3 Supervisor --- ---
Assistance

X, Peer --- ---
Support

X5 Reward Policy - - - - - -
and Practices

X5 Training
Achievement

-.021 (-.142) .489 (4.05) ***

X7 Age --- ---

X3 Education --- ---
Attainments

X9 Work Skill --- ---
Proficiency

X10 Work Experience - - - - - -

Constant

3.217

1.77

 

R Square:
F

P
N

Note: *** significant at .01
** significant at .05
* significant at .10

.0004

.0201

.8879
48

level
level
level

.239
16.42

.0002
54

113
in the joint-venture companies accounted 241 of the transfer of
training.

The regression statistics discussed above have shown consistently
varied patterns of transfer of training in the two types of companies.
For the state-owned companies, supervisory assistance, peer support, and
work experience were significantly associated with work efficiency of
the trained workers on the job; for the joint-venture companies,
training orientation, supervisory assistance, and training were
significantly associated with work efficiency.

The interviews and observations on the factory floor were
consistent with the statistical result of regress for the two types of
companies. In observing the factory floor, some difference in the human
factors were noticed. In the joint-venture companies, it was easy to
notice the different patterns in human relationship on the production
line. Workers on the production line were disciplined not to talk to
each other and they worked independently. The whole floor was quiet
with only the humming of the machinery. The supervisors were busy
walking along the production line to inspect the line at every minute.
If the workers had questions or wanted to use the restroom, she raised
her hand. The supervisor then came to talk to her about the problems,
or take her position on the line till the worker got back from the
restroom. The interaction between peers on the line was not observed.

In interviews, both the supervisors and workers responded to
questions about supervisory assistance and peer support, saying that the
interaction between peers on the production line was discouraged because

that could distract attention on the job. Individuals were encouraged

114
to develop their competency. Peer interaction was encouraged in the
group meeting under supervision. Any worker having an innovative idea
about work was supposed to talk at the group meeting. If the idea
turned out to be good, the supervisor would instruct the workers to
apply it on the job. The training orientation conducted managers with
the supervisory involved was intended to discipline the workers on the
job and align them to the goals of the company. Annual training was
provided to train workers and update their KSA accordingly. Workers
were required to write a paper in the annual training, discussing KSA
utilization and production line management in the applications.
Training, group meeting, and training orientation become important
events of workers' learning. Therefore, in the joint-venture companies,
worker performance was more influenced by such organized events as
training orientation, training, and close supervision.

In the joint-venture companies, the supervisors believed that the
capacity of the workers was a constant in work efficiency, which could
be developed through training. Since peer cooperation was not
encouraged and workers engage in production in a more individual manner,
training (acquiring knowledge and skills and attitude of work) became a
very important factor for learning. The supervisors also believed that
workers' potential capacity could be brought about to limit by
organizing production properly and mobilizing workers to
conscientiousness and willingness through such events as training
orientation and group meetings. The supervisors interacted with workers
constantly and took a full responsibility of their performance on the

production line; directly contacting workers and providing assistance

115
were critical roles of the supervision and vital to realize workers'
potential capacity.

In contrast, there was significant interaction among peers in the
state-owned companies. On the factory floors, supervisors assigned the
tasks. They only checked with the workers when there were problems and
questions coming up, and then provided assistance accordingly. Workers
in the state-owned were observed talking to each other on the production
line, including exchanging ideas about accomplishing the tasks and
chatting, as well.

In China, cooperation and support in the work group among peers
have been emphasized in the workplace. In the traditional practice, KSA
are learned through apprenticeship for two years, not through group
training. Thus, the experience in the workplace, and interaction with
peers, a mentee relation with supervisor contribute to most of the
workers' learning and behavior in the organization. In the state-owned
companies, though much advanced production teChnology and management
have been introduced, orientation and training are practiced to prepare
workers for jobs, people seem to habitually fall back into the
conventional behaviors of learning and working in the workplace.

The supervisors were observed taking a mentor and intimate
relationship with workers. Peers were encouraged by the supervisors to
provide support among themselves and help each other in solving
problems. Statistics also showed significant correlation between
supervisory assistance and peer support (See Appendix J). The
regression model applied to the state-owned group was significantly

explained with the predictors in the equation. This indicated that in

116
such a co-operative environment as the state-owned companies,
interaction among peers accounted for most of the learning and
contributed to the transfer of training.

Comparing the patterns of the transfer of training in the two types
of companies, there appeared interaction between training achievement
and group dynamics in this study. That is, in the joint-venture
companies where environment was less co-operative and workers work more
independently, workers' training achievement became significant in the
transfer of training; while in the state-owned companies where workers
had significant interaction, training achievement appeared not
significant in the transfer of training. As the regression model
applied to the state-owned company group was significantly explained by
the predictors in the equation, the statistical results indicated that
the interaction of workers could make up the deficiency in learning in
training, if there were any.

A comment must be made here on the relation Of worker training
achievement and group dynamics. This research did not intend to study
the interaction between workers' KSA and group dynamics, particularly,
but to examine the general patterns of transfer of training in the
different types of companies. However, the findings were interesting
and congruent with the finding in Min 8 Tsang's study of vocational
education an productivity in workplace in China. In their study,
significant interaction between education and the level of co-operation
among group members was found (Min 8 Tsang, 1990, p.358). According to
their study, in a work environment which is more co-operative, members

of the group share knowledge and provide mutual assistance, but this

117
reduces the individual differences in skills, and the individual
education and skill background become less important.

Before concluding the data analysis, there is a limitation of this
study one has to realize. That is, the self-reported data was used to
measure perceived work efficiency gained by utilizing KSA on the job.

It was noticed in Section 5.4 that people tend to think of themselves as
doing better than they actually might have done. To avoid the
subjectivity of the surveyed data, an attempt was made by this
researcher to gather the objective data of work efficiency and
productivity. Due to the inconsistent filing system and incomplete data
in the four companies, the complete data for the statistic analysis of
the entire sample was impossible. However, three companies had scrap
rate of the products over one year (See Appendix I for detail). The
scrap rate was calculated in the percentage of the scrap out the total
products per month in Company 1 (state-owned), Company 2 (state-owned),
and Company 3 (joint-venture). Therefore, a t-test was used to
estimated the difference in the scrap rate of products among the three
companies (See Table 19 in Appendix I).

In Table 19-b, one can see that t-tests of scrap rate between
Company 1 and 3, and between Company 2 and 3 show significant difference
over 12 months. The t-test does not show significant difference between
the two state-owned companies, Company 1 and 2. This provides obvious
contrasts of work efficiency among production groups between state-owned
companies and one joint-venture company, regarding the transfer of

training on the job.

118

5.6 Summary of the Empirical Study

The primary concern of this case study has been to estimate the
statistical parameters to examine the association of organizational
factors with the transfer of training in the workplace in accordance
with a conceptual framework. In this section, the empirical results
presented and discussed above are summarized.

(1) For Hypothesis 1, the correlation coefficients of the match of
KSA with work design, supervisory assistance, and peer support with the
trained workers' utilization of KSA on the job were statistical
significant. Thus the hypothesis for these variables was supported by
the statistical results. The correlation coefficients of reward

practices and training orientation with the worker's utilization of KSA

Table 14 SUMMARY OF CORRELATION COEFFICIENT STATISTICS
(Entire Sample)

 

Hypothesis:
SUCH FACTORS IN THE WORKPLACE AS TRAINING ORIENTATION, THE MATCH OF
KSA WITH WORK-DESIGN, SUPERVISORY ASSISTANCE, PEER SUPPORT, AND REWARD
PRACTICES ARE CORRELATED WITH TRAINED WORKERS' UTILIZATION OF KSA ON THE
JOB.
Coefficient with

 

Variables Work Efficiency

r v Drawn:—
Training Orientation .1924 > 0.05 rejected
Match of KSA with Work Design .2770 < 0.01 accepted
Supervisory Assistance .4664 < 0.01 accepted
Peer Support .3277 < 0.01 accepted

Begg1g_£;ggtigg, .1046 > 0.05 rejegtgd

 

119
on the job did not appear statistically significant.
Therefore,hypothesis for these two variables was not supported by the
statistical results (See Table 14).

(2) For Hypothesis 2, among the organizational variables studied,
the match of KSA with work-design, supervisory assistance, and peer
support showed prediction of the perceived work efficiency gained by
utilizing KSA on the job at a statistically significant level (See Table
15). Thus, hypothesis for these three variables was supported by the
statistic results of regression. The association of reward practice and
training orientation with perceived work efficiency was not supported by
the statistical results of regress, implying that reward practice and

training orientation had little impact on the transfer of training. The

Table 15 SUMMARY OF STATISTICS OF REGRESSION COEFFICIENTS
(Entire Sample)

 

Hypothesis:

BY FACILITATING THE UTILIZATION OF KNOWLEDGE, SKILLS, AND ATTITUDE
ACQUIRED IN TRAINING, SUCH ORGANIZATIONAL FACTORS AS TRAINING
ORIENTATION, THE MATCH OF WORK-DESIGN WITH KSA, SUPERVISORY ASSISTANCE,
PEER SUPPORT AND REWARD PRACTICE HAVE SIGNIFICANT AND POSITIVE IMPACT ON
THE WORK EFFICIENCY.

 

 

Independent Regression Decision
Varighlgsi Coefficient t o On H:

Training Orientation .087 .88 > 0.1 rejected
Match of KSA with Work Design .169 3.30 < 0.1 accepted
Supervisory Assistance .281 7.71 < 0.01 accepted
Peer Support .190 4.08 < 0.05 accepted

We: - .047 .28 > 011 ram.

120
hypothesis for these two variable was not supported.

The statistical results implied that such organizational factors
inthe workplace as supervisory assistance, peer support, and match of
KSA with work-design contributed to furthering the transfer of training
on the job. The statistical results also showed that these
organizational variables had an interaction with training in a way that
training and organizational variables could mutually reinforce the
effect on the transfer of training one another in the workplace. Such
mutual reinforcement contributed to the transfer of training to a degree
that neither training achievement, nor organizational factors alone
could reach. Second, among the organizational variables, the human
factor variables, supervisory assistance and peer support, counted for
the most prediction of the transfer of training. This indicated that
human factor was an important to increase the transfer of training.

(3) For Hypothesis 3, the statistical results supported that there
as a difference in supervisory assistance between the state-owned and
joint-venture companies (See Table 16). The statistical implication was
that in the state-owned companies and joint-venture companies, there
exited a difference in supervisory assistance provided for trained
workers in the workplace. The statistical results did not support the
hypothesis that there was a difference in the variables of the match of
KSA with work design, peer support, reward practices, training
achievement, and the perceived work efficiency gained by utilizing KSA
between the state-owned and joint-venture companies.

However, a difference in peer interaction was observed on the

factory floor though no statistical difference was shown. Workers in

121

Table 16 SUMMARY OF T-TESTS

 

Hypothesis:

THERE IS A DIFFERENCE IN THE ORGANIZATIONAL FACTORS AND WORK
EFFICIENCY GAINED BY UTILIZING KSA ON THE JOB BETWEEN THE STATE-OWNED
AND JOINT-VENTURE COMPANIES.

 

 

W 1' Value D W1...—
Training Orientation .53 > .1 rejected
Match of KSA with WOrk Design 1.01 > .1 rejected
Supervisory Assistance -2.38 < .05 accepted
Peer Support -.54 > .1 rejected
Reward Practice -.07 > .1 rejected
WW)! .02 > -1 redacted

 

 

the state-owned companies were seen talking and exchanging ideas on the
production line, while workers in the joint-venture companies did not
talk on the production line and worked independently.

(4) For Hypothesis 4, among the organizational variables studied,
supervisory assistance and peer support showed prediction of perceived
work efficiency gained by workers' utilizing KSA on the job at a
statistically significant level (See Table 17). Thus, hypothesis for
supervisory assistance and peer support was supported by the statistical
results of regression. The association of match of KSA with work-
design, reward practice, and training orientation with perceived work
efficiency was not supported by the statistical results of regress,
implying that these three variables in the state-owned companies had

little impact on the transfer of training. The statistical results

122

Table 17 SUMMARY OF STATISTICS OF REGRESSION COEFFICIENTS
(State-owned Companies)

 

Hypothesis:

IN THE STATE-OWNED COMPANIES, BY FACILITATING THE UTILIZATION OF
KNOWLEDGE, SKILLS, AND ATTITUDE ACQUIRED IN TRAINING, SUCH
ORGANIZATIONAL FACTORS AS TRAINING ORIENTATION, THE MATCH OF WORK-DESIGN
WITH KSA, SUPERVISORY ASSISTANCE, PEER SUPPORT AND REWARD PRACTICE HAVE
SIGNIFICANT AND POSITIVE IMPACT ON THE WORK EFFICIENCY.

 

 

Independent Regression Decision
W Coefficient: t P On H1
Training Orientation -.111 .80 > 0.1 rejected
Match of KSA with Work Design .145 1.23 > 0.1 rejected
Supervisory Assistance .296 4.32 < 0.05 accepted

Peer Support .399 7.89 < 0.01 accepted
W - -029 405 > 041 mm.

 

indicated that in the state-owned companies peer interaction and
supervisor assistance contributed to furthering the transfer of
training.

(5) For Hypothesis 5, among the organizational variables studied,
training orientation, and supervisor assistance showed prediction of the
perceived work efficiency gained by utilizing KSA on the job at a
statistically significant level (See Table 18). Thus, hypothesis for
training orientation and supervisory assistance was supported by the
statistical results of regression. The association of match of KSA with
work design, peer support, and reward practice with perceived work
efficiency was not supported by the statistical results of regress,

implying that these three variable in the joint-venture companies had

123

Table 18 SUMMARY OF STATISTICS OF REGRESSION COEFFICIENTS
(Joint-venture Companies)

 

Hypothesis:

IN THE JOINT-VENTURE COMPANIES, BY FACILITATING THE UTILIZATION OF
KNOWLEDGE, SKILLS, AND ATTITUDE ACQUIRED IN TRAINING, SUCH
ORGANIZATIONAL FACTORS AS TRAINING ORIENTATION, THE MATCH OF WORK-DESIGN
WITH KSA, SUPERVISORY ASSISTANCE, PEER SUPPORT AND REWARD PRACTICE HAVE
SIGNIFICANT AND POSITIVE IMPACT ON THE WORK EFFICIENCY.

 

 

 

Independent Regression Decision
MM Coefficient 1: a 0n 11,
Training Orientation .231 3.37 < 0.1 accepted
Match of KSA with Work Design .091 .51 > 0.1 rejected
Supervisory Assistance .274 4.69 < 0.05 accepted
Peer Support .049 .18 > 0.1 rejected
Bega;g_£;agtig§ o.l7l 2411 > 0.1 arejggtgd____

 

little impact on the transfer of training. The statistical results
indicated that in the joint-venture companies, training orientation and
supervisory assistance on the factory floor contributed to the workers's
utilization of KSA on the job while the other three organizational
variables had little impact on the transfer of training.

Comparing the patterns of the transfer of training in the two types
of companies, the statistical results of regressions also indicated an
interaction between training achievement and group dynamics in this
study. That is, in the joint-venture companies where environment was
less co-operative and workers worked more independently, workers'
training achievement was a significant factor in the transfer of

training; while in the state-owned companies where workers had

124
significant interaction, training achievement appeared not to be a
significant factor in the transfer of training. As the regression model
applied to the state-owned company group was significantly explained by
the predictors in the equation, the results indicated that the
interaction of workers could make up the deficiency in learning in
training, if there is any.

In the next chapter, a brief summary of this study will be
included. The interpretations of the statistical empirical results will
be discussed; and policy implication will be drawn for the employee
training in electronic industry. The limitations of this study and

recommendations for future study will be suggested.

CHAPTER 6

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION

Summary and conclusions are presented in this chapter. Policy
implications on the transfer of training in the industry are discussed.

Finally, recommendations for the further studies are made.

6.1 Summary

This researcher investigated the relationships between selected
organizational factors and the transfer of training in four industrial
organizations in SKIZ. The literature reviewed indicated that while
investment in training had been enormous, the rate of return was less
than expected. So far, most of the studies on the transfer of learning
focused on such factors as learning process, learner characteristics,
program design and development, and reinforcement of learning. All
these factors were within the control of the training process. A
limited number of studies indicated that organizational factors may
contribute, or inhibit the transfer of training in the workplace. None
of them investigated the association of the organizational factors on
the transfer of training in the workplace. Therefore, the major effort
of this study was to examine the association of the organizational .
factors in the work environment on the transfer of learning on the job.

Those potential organizational factors which affect employee

behavior were reviewed carefully in the Chapter 2. These factors

include training orientation, the match of employees' knowledge, skills

125

126
and attitude (KSA) with the work-design, supervisory assistance, peer
relationship, and reward system. Literature on organizational behavior,
economics of education, industrial psychology, and organizational
training all suggest that these factors are important variables in
studying employees' behavior in the workplace.

To study the association of organizational factors with the
transfer of training, this researcher constructed a conceptual framework
to reveal the relationship between organizational factors and the
transfer of training in the workplace. The conceptual framework was
presented in Chapter 3. The conceptual framework of transfer of
training was developed by synthesizing the theories of organizational
behavior, organizational training, industrial psychology, and economics
of education.

In recent decades, developing the workforce has been a major effort
to increase productivity. In this study, it is argued that training is
a necessary, or pre-condition to improve work efficiency by acquiring
KSA required by job tasks in the first place, but considered not
sufficient for the transfer to learning to the job. Organizational
factors in the workplace, which are out of the control of training, can
be associated with the ultimate transfer of training. The conceptual
framework suggests that workers with newly acquired KSA from training
have only obtained potential capacity of required work proficiency. The
consistent utilization of KSA on the job is not ensured yet. Such
organizational factors in the work environment as training orientation,
a match of KSA with work-design, supervisory assistance, peer support,

and reward practices in the work environment may contribute to, or

127
inhibit the transfer of training on the job. This association could be
in such that trainees determine the direction of behavior and degree of
work effort, based on their assessing relevant organizational factors
and the implied outcomes of applying KSA in the workplace.

Hypotheses for this study were made in accordance with the
conceptual framework. The main hypothesis was: by facilitating the
utilization of knowledge, skills and attitude acquired in training, such
organizational factors as training orientation, the match of work-design
with worker KSA, supervisory assistance, peer support and reward
practice have significant and positive impact on the work efficiency.

This conceptual framework was applied to two state-owned and two
joint-venture companies in the Shekou Industrial Zone, Shenzhen Special
Economic Zone, China. In Chapter 5, statistical analysis models were
constructed to estimate the association of the organizational factors
with the transfer of training in the workplace, and the empirical
results were carefully examined.

First, the Pearson correlation coefficients were used to estimate
the correlation of organizational factors with the perceived work
efficiency gained by utilizing KSA on the job. The results indicated
that the match of KSA with work design, supervisory assistance, and peer
support were positively and significantly correlated with the perceived
work efficiency gained by utilizing KSA on the job.

Then, regression models were employed to estimate the impact of
organizational factors on the transfer of training in the entire sample.
The results indicated that on the average, the match of KSA with work

design, supervisory assistance, and peer support were significantly and

128
positively related to the transfer of training. The association of
these three organizational factors, the match of KSA with work-design,
supervisory assistance and peer support, together with training
achievement, accounted for about 342 of the transfer of training while
training achievement along accounted for 7.51. Among the organizational
variables, human variables appeared to contribute the most to the
transfer of training.

T-tests were then used to estimate the difference in the
organizational factors and work efficiency gained by utilizing KSA on
the job between the state-owned and joint-venture companies. The
statistical results supported that there was a significant difference in
supervisory assistance between the state-owned and joint-venture
companies, but not for other organizational factors. Regardless of the
statistical results, difference in peer interaction was observed on the
factory floor in the two types of companies. Nor did t-tests showed
significant difference in the perceived worker efficiency gained by
utilizing KSA on the job. However, supplementary t-tests showed
significant difference in scrap rate between one joint-venture company
and both state-companies.

Finally, the regression models were applied to the state-owned and
joint-venture companies separately, to compare the patterns of the
transfer of training. The results showed different patterns in the
transfer of training between the state-owned group and joint-venture
group. For the state-owned companies, supervisory assistance and peer
support showed prediction of the transfer of training with statistical

significance while for the joint-venture, training orientation and

129
supervisor assistance showed predication of the transfer of training
with statistical significance. The statistical results of regression
also indicated an interaction between training achievement and peer
support.

6.2 Conclusions

In conclusion, there are several major findings in this study.
First, the empirical results generally indicated on the average, the
match of KSA with work-design, supervisory assistance, and peer support
were significantly related the perceived work efficiency gained by
utilizing KSA on the job and tended to further the transfer of training
in the workplace. The statistical results also indicated an interaction
of the organizational factors with training achievement in a way that
training achievement and organizational variables can mutually reinforce
the effect on the transfer of training of one another. A plausible
reason is that these three organizational variables can further the
utilization of KSA by mobilizing employees with job opportunities and
human support. Hence, the mutually reinforcement of organization and
training increases the transfer of training. The findings tended to
support the assumption of the conceptual framework that training was
necessary and important in the first place for workers to acquire KSA,
but not sufficient in realizing the potential KSA capacity obtained from
training.

The study also found that the organizational factors contributing
to the transfer of training varied in the state-owned and joint-venture

companies. The difference is probably due to the different culture and

130
assumptions about the organizational practice in the workplace by the
state-owned and joint-venture companies. For example, supervision
assistance appeared significantly associated with the transfer of
training consistently in both the state-owned sample and the joint-
venture sample, but was observed in different ways. In the joint-
venture companies, it was believed that supervision had the full
responsibility of workers performance on the production line. There was
little interaction among workers on the production line and a direct
contact with workers and the provision of assistance by supervision
appeared vital to realize workers' potential capacity. Training
orientation and group meetings were organized by supervisors to align
the group to the goals of the company. In contrast, supervisors in the
state-owned companies kept a mentor and intimate relationship with
workers. The supervisors believed it important for the workers to
provide support among themselves. Therefore, peer interaction on the
ling was encouraged by supervisors and appeared a significant factor in
the process of the transfer of training.

Thirdly, comparing the patterns of the transfer of training in the
two types of companies, the statistical results of regressions indicated
an interaction between training achievement and group dynamics in this
study. That is, in the joint-venture companies where environment was
less co-operative and workers engaged in work more independently,
workers' training achievement was a significant factor in the transfer
of training; while in the state-owned companies where workers had
significant interaction, training achievement appeared not to be a

significant factor in the transfer of training. As the regression

131
models applied to the state-owned company group was significantly
explained by the predictors in the equation, the results indicated that
the interaction of workers could make up for deficiency in learning in
training, if there is any.

The finding that peer interaction promotes learning was consistent
with the principles of adult education. In andragogy, learner
experiences are considered the resource of learning of high value, and
experiential and participatory learning has been advocated (Lindeman,
1926; Knowles, 1973). Many training and education programs with
learners involved were proved successful even in the international
setting (Knowles, 1984).

Finally, the study also found among those organizational factors
significantly associated with work efficiency (in the overall sample,
and sub-samples of the state-owned and joint-venture companies), human
factors (e.g. supervisory assistance and peers support) had larger
statistical magnitude in predicting the transfer of training than other
variables. This indicates that human factors in the workplace are
important variables to promote the transfer of training when the
technical conditions are satisfied. Therefore, this suggested that
integrating the capacity and efforts of employees is vital to increase
the work efficiency.

These findings have substantial implications in the training in
electronic industry in SKIZ, given the fact that training has been a
common practice for human resource development, and other industrial
sectors, too.

Several limitations of this study should be recognized. The

132
researcher intended to estimate the impact by utilizing both the
subjective self-reported data and the objective productivity data. Due
to the inconsistent filing system in the four companies and lack of
abundant productivity records, and due to the lack of (or impossibility
of) recorded individual productivity in the group work environment, the
major estimation of this study was based on the subjective data from the
workers' survey questionnaires. Therefore, one should be cautious about
the subjectivity of the perceived work efficiency gained by utilizing
KSA on the job, given that t-tests for perceived work efficiency
indicated no significant difference between the state-owned and joint-
venture companies, but t-tests for scrap rate indicated significant
differences between two state-owned and one joint-venture companies.
However, as individual psychological status is critical for employees to
assess the environment and determine their efforts, we can say that both
self-reported data and objective data are necessary in studying the
transfer of training, and have revealed very meaningful information on
the transfer of training in this study.

Second, in this case study, training was controlled by selecting
companies which had similar training programs and by using training
achievement scores obtained from similar training achievement tests.
However, as training occurred individually in each company, there was
always some variations, due to specific situations and trainers therein.
For instance, in one extreme, 34.6% of the trainees in Company 1
indicated training more than two weeks long while no trainees in Company
4 indicated training longer than 2 weeks. TherefOre, one has to be

cautious about generalizing the findings to other situations.

133

Then, the study was applied to the electronic industry in a fast
growing area which has a close linkage with the world market through
Hong Kong. Relatively advanced production technology has introduced;
productivity, standard of living, and wages are higher in this region.
One variable in this study, reward practice, was expected to be related
with the transfer, but turned not to be. In the interviews, some
workers indicate that the production was high, but the pay was far less
comparable. However, the wages of the workers on the average was 407
Yuan monthly (Xiao & Tsang, 1991), which was much higher than that of
the workers in inland China. There could be several reasons that the
reward showed no association with the transfer of training. First,
workers were comparing their income with the productivity, and felt
inequity and unsatisfied. Second, workers were comparing their pay with
that of the other types of personnel (e.g., staff and managerial
personnel) and felt unsatisfied. Thirdly, the pay was high enough to
the extent that workers felt the human relationship were more meaningful
in the work environment. Anyway, one might wonder what is the true
interpretation behind the statistical results and if it would have
impact on the transfer of training in other regions.

Finally, though the four electronic companies were selected as
representing the typical industrial enterprises in SSEZ area, they could
still be subject to uniqueness of their own. In addition, because of
the small sample size in this exploratory study, one should be cautious
about generalizing the findings to other industrial sectors and to other

regions.

134

6.3 Policy Implications

In China, investment in human capital in the form of training at
the stage of economic development is a common practice to improve the
employees' productive capacity. It is expected that workers with
acquired KSA can be more productive on the job. The findings of this
study have shown that, some organizational factors in the work
environment can promote the transfer of training on the job. If these
findings can be generalized to other companies and industry sectors,
there should be several implications for the training, the investment in
human capital and the organization of production.

For the individual employee in the company, the concern is whether
the company can provide the employee with an environment that can
utilize her potential capacity to its limit so that she can have
opportunities for individual development in her career. If the
organizational factors in the work environment are operating to promote
employee's utilization of KSA acquired in the training, she is able to
increase her work efficiency to a higher extent. Both the employee and
the company then can see the employee personal growth on the job and the
employee as successful. The improved work efficiency, in turn,
increases productivity. In other words, with the absence of the
appropriate organizational factors, the employee is not able to work to
the limit of her potential KSA acquired in the training.

Second, to a company which has invested in training, the increase
in workers' work efficiency accounts in the first place for the expected

return of the investment in training, the increased productivity.

135
Training itself can improve the worker's potential KSA and increase work
efficiency only to a certain extent as the statistical results indicate.
What is illustrated by this study is that the investment in training can
bring about a higher rate of increase in work efficiency when
appropriate organizational factors in the work environment are present,
and the absence of relevant organizational variables in the workplace
may curtail the potential higher rate of increase in work efficiency.
This will then present, for the organization, the problem of a loss of
the intangible value of potential capacity within the employees, which
might otherwise have been extracted with the appropriate organizational
factors in the work environment.

Third, the failure in exerting employees' potential KSA may mislead
some leadership and human resources managers in making decisions on
training. That is, the low return, or low work rate efficiency is due
to the insufficient investment in training--employees have not learned
well enough yet. This may cause the problem of continuously added
investment in the necessary, yet satisfied, condition while ignoring the
insufficient condition--promoting the transfer of training in the work
environment. Therefore, the marginal return keeps minimal but there is
a cost of training to bear.

Fourth, given that the organizational factors are associated.with
the transfer of training, a company implementing training for employees,
should reconsider training, its function, and niche in human resource
development. More specifically, training in a company is not a separate
event from production, nor a panacea to cure all employee work

efficiency problems. The findings indicated that organizational

136
variables in the workplace interact with training. Mutual reinforcement
can promote the transfer of training on the job, thus realizing
potential human resource value into a improved performance and increased
work efficiency. Therefore, higher management and human resources
management should integrate promoting the transfer of training on the
job as part of the workforce development plan.

The integration of training transfer promotion into training
development may include strategies of gaining employees' potential
capacity and devising an organizational system in the workplace.

The suggestions on promoting the transfer of training are made

as follows.

3- as 17 .w; e1-_ 0 e ' oce s or ,- ,ags - ., _.:_1 1:

It is important to bring the awareness of training and the process
of the transfer of training to the workplace. Managers, supervisors and
trainers in the company should be aware that training is not a separate
event in the company, nor a panacea to cure all the employee work
efficiency problems. Training is necessary for employees to acquire KSA
and improve their job required KSA, and certain relevant organizational
factors in the work environment can promote the transfer of training
further. Being aware of the specific variables contributing to the
transfer of training can orientate the managerial personnel and help
them seek to operate these variable in the relevant and positive way.

Orientations can be organized for managers, supervisors and
trainers to understand the transfer of training in their workplace. The

following strategy is suggested to bringing the awareness of training

137
and the transfer of learning.

Evaluating Training Programs and Organizational Factors in the Work
Environment. In a company, the leadership and the human resources
managers should evaluate both the training program and the
organizational factors in the work environment. Training is necessary
for employees to acquire KSA and improve their job required KSA. If the
training needs of the employees have been satisfied in terms of
acquiring required KSA on the job, the company should shift the
evaluation to the work environment. It should analyze what are those
factors affecting the employees' behavior on the job, and evaluate if
these factors in the present work environment are positive to promote
the transfer of training. This can avoid falling into the trap of
continuous by adding investment in training which might have been more
than enough to acquire the required KSA. A close examination of both
the training and the work environment will provide the leadership and
management with information about where the problem of transfer of

training exits.

v v e s n sin 0 am velo t
Supervisory assistance showed the most magnitude in the transfer of
training. Training programs in these electronic companies should
involve technicians and managers, but not only the supervisors in the
program development. Supervisors can be involved to share their
knowledge and experience of production frontline with the trainers.
Their knowledge and experience (e.g. production operation and employee

interaction patterns) can help better prepare the planners and trainers

138
in program planning and implementation. On the other hand, learning the
training process also helps supervisors to provide support and
assistance for employees in training and in applying knowledge, skills
and attitudes in the workplace. Specifically, supervisors should know
how the training is planned and implemented. Knowing these, supervisors
are in a better position to help the employees in the workplace and can

provide assistance accordingly.

e v en e I te a

As peer interaction can promoting learning, managers should create
an environment that allows the interaction among peer for promoting the
transfer of training. Employees learn at training sessions as well as
in their talks and on the job. In many situations, sharing similar
experience among peers makes learning easier than by going to a lecture.
Understanding some adult learning can give the management a new
perspective for promoting the transfer of training.

While training is going on, special sessions should be scheduled
for the interactive learning, especially for discussion, questions and
answers among peers. Supervisors and trainers should encourage
participatory learning, and also facilitate such sessions with their
expertise. When trainees are back to the workplace, group meetings can
be arranged for peers to share experience of applying KSA to the job.
At such meetings, experience of application should be considered rich
resources for learning on the job because even bad examples shared can
be used to avoid mistakes. Problem-solving, hands-on teaching, and

discussion should be advocated among employees.

139

W

The findings of this study illustrate that in different work
environments, the organizational factors associated with the transfer of
training may vary. This indicates that the unique organizational
culture in the company may induce different ways of operating the
production. In evaluating the organizational factors relating to
employee's work efficiency, the leadership and human resources managers
should make a careful examination of the organizational factors in the
work environment and the way that they are associated with the transfer
of training. Based on the information about the organizational factors,
the leadership and management can develop strategies to reinforce the
practices that have positive and significant impact on the transfer of
training. They should also improve some practices that could have
potential impact on the transfer of training, and eliminate some
practices which have negative impact on the transfer of training. Based
on the findings of this study, management in practice should 1) ensure
the match of work-design with KSA of the training workers; 2) promote
supervisory assistance with the application of KSA by the workers on the
job; and 3) encourage peer help in learning. Since supervisory
assistance appears significantly associated with the transfer of
training consistently in the entire sample, in the state-owned sample
and the joint-venture subsamples, organization of production should
emphasize nurturing the committed supervision on the factory floor.
This committed supervisory assistance then could promote the transfer of
training and increase the marginal return by realizing potential human

value.

140

Again, in the state-owned companies, for example, peer support has
an positive impact on the transfer of training. Management and
supervision can encourage learning among the peers which could make up
for the deficiency in training. The management and supervision can also
reinforce the peer modelling among the employees. This may foster the
positive support on the job, but avoid having employee chattering on the
job. In the joint-venture company, training orientation shows positive,
but marginal impact on the transfer of training. As training
orientation is considered as an important part in training programs, the
management may work on the improvement of training orientation (e.g., in
its clarity and format), thus increasing the positive impact on the
transfer of training.

In short, the efforts in human resource development should include
promoting the transfer of training and integrating workers' potential
capacity and efforts into the organization. The organization that keeps
its organizational development efforts concurrent with AET programs are
most likely to maximize benefit from potential capacities of the trained

and educated employees.

6.4 Recommendations for Further Studies

This study was an exploratory case study in examining the issue of
the transfer of training in the work environment. Based on the findings
and limitations of this study, recommendations for future studies are
suggested as follows.

This study included a small sample from four electronic companies

142
joint-venture, sole investment, or c00peration); 2) how the assumptions
of the leadership and management philosophy affect the organizational
practices; and 3) the way the organizational factors operate on
promoting the transfer of training in different companies.

Third, this exploratory study took the individual employee as the
level of analysis. In the field study, this research found that most of
the modernized production nowadays was operated in a group manner, the
productivity for the individual worker is usually incomplete or
unavailable. If individual productivity data is not available, further
research could consider taking the production group as the study units,
enlarging the sample size and shifting the analysis to production group
level. Or, the research can enlist the cooperation of companies in a
similar industrial sector to objectively collect productivity data.

This could provide access to the productivity records available for the
study of transfer of training.

Fourth, this study showed interaction of group dynamics with
individual training achievement. Further research also can take a study
on the group level to examine such variables at group level as group

dynamics, communication, and group skills proficiency.

141
in the fast growing area in China and revealed meaningful information
about the transfer of training. Further research is needed to determine
if the findings are generalizable to other companies in the same
industry or to other industrial sectors. It would also be interesting
and important to study the association of organizational factor in the
industrial sector in other regions in China since training is a major
strategy employed at the stage of economic development to increase
productivity.

Second, this study has considered the culture differences in two
types of companies, the state-owned companies which had the more
established culture, and the joint-venture which had the newly
introduced foreign culture blended with the native culture. If the
findings can be generalized to other similar companies, or to other
regions, one needs to examine carefully the culture in the work
environment. For instance, some factors are related with the transfer
of training in certain cultures, but may not necessarily be related with
the transfer of training (e.g., peer support) in other organizational
cultures. Some factors having impact on the transfer of training may
operate in a different way in different types of companies (e.g.,
supervisory assistance in this study). How the organizational factors
impact on job efficiency is far more complicated than this research can
deal with and one has to be aware of the culture in the work
environment. Hence, it would be interesting to do further study on how
the organizational culture affects the transfer of training. The topics
may include: 1) the relationship between ownership and the

organizational practices in different types of companies (state-owned,

APPENDICES

APPENDIX A: Trained Worker Survey Questionnaire

This appendix contains survey instrument for trained workers
in both English and Chinese. The questionnaire in Chinese version is
the copy of original one used for the data collection. The measurement
scales of each variables eliciting information on the transfer of

training are also listed with the statements measuring them.

143

144

TRAINED WORKER SURVEY
The Utilization of Knowledge,
Skills and Attitude in the Workplace

1. Training Experience

This section intends to obtain information about the training

programs you attended after you started working in the company. Please
respond to each question by placing a check mark in the appropriate
space provided.

1.

2.

10.

ll.

12.

 

 

 

 

The last training I attended was in: (month) (year).
The training was: (hours) (days) (weeks)

(months) (years) long.
The training was offered by: ___ our plant ___ other institution.
The training was conducted in: ___ our plant ___ other institution.
I was paid by: our plant/ my self/ the training
center.
My attending the training was: required by the job

voluntary for my own interest.

The training was conducted in the mode of:
on-the-job training
__ off-the-job training
evening/spare-time training.

The purpose of the training was to:

learn basic job skills
update the skills required by job
raise my education level
others. Please identify:

 

 

 

The content of the training program was (e.g. course title & what
were taught ):

 

I received / not received certificate of training
completion;
my training achievement score is satisfactory /

not satisfactory.

 

I felt the training was :
very satisfactory satisfactory
somewhat satisfactory not satisfactory.

 

My training achievement score is

145

The following elements are related to the utilization of acquired
knowledge, skills and attitude through training in the workplace.
Please rate the degree of the experience you have had in your situation
in the plant. Your careful responses to the statements will be greatly
appreciated.

Use the following scale for rating each of the statement:
1 - To little extent 2 - To some extend
3 - To considerable extent 4 - To great extent
N - Not applicable

11. Trainees and Supervisors' Involvement in Training Orientation
Activities

This section seeks to find out if you and your supervisors were
involved in pretraining activities to gain the awareness of the purpose,
objectives and contents of training programs.

1. My supervisor informed me of the training. 1 2 3 4 N

2. My supervisor discussed the content of training 1 2 3 4 N
before I attended the training.

3. I thought the training would be relevant to my 1 2 3 4 N
job tasks.
4. I had an idea about what I was going to learn. 1 2 3 4 N

5. I knew how well I could accomplish my job tasks 1 2 3 4 N
before training.

6. I knew that I would be required to use new KSA l 2 3 4 N
to accomplish job tasks after the training.

7. My supervisor talked about the benefits of l 2 3 4 N
applying new KSA on the job after the training.

111. Work Environment for Applying KSA on the Job

This section intends to find out if the group has provided an
environment that you can apply the acquired knowledge, skills and
attitude.

1. New KSA is described as part of my work in the l 2 3 4 N
task description.

2. My job requires training in finishing the tasks. 1 2 3 4 N

3. New KSA is very important in accomplishing l 2 3 4 N
my job tasks.

10.

ll.

12.

13.

14.

15.

16.

17.

146

Use the following scale for rating each of the statement:

1 - To little extent 2 - To some extend
3 - To considerable extent 4 - To great extent
N - Not applicable

I have used new KSA after the training on my job
frequently. I use(d) it (check only one)
everyday several times a week
a few times a month a few times a year
not at all.

The first time I used KSA was:

 

immediately 3 - 4 weeks
2 - 3 months 4 - 6 months after the training.

The last time I used KSA was:

today last week last month last year.
There is appropriate equipment for me to l 2 3
apply new KSA on my job.
There is adequate information ( e.g. manual, 1 2 3
diagrams, etc.) for me to apply new KSA on my job.
I have the discretion on selecting the most 1 2 3
appropriate KSA in accomplishing my tasks.
My supervisor helps me to set goals in applying 1 2 3
new KSA to accomplishing my job tasks.
My supervisor set criteria for applying new 1 2 3
KSA in accomplishing my job tasks.
My supervisor provided assistance when I had a l 2 3
problem in trying out new KSA.
My supervisor discussed how to apply the new KSA 1 2 3
in accomplishing my job tasks.
My supervisor informed me how well my job tasks 1 2 3
have been accomplished by using new KSA.
My supervisor informs me of our group 1 2 3
performances in accomplishing tasks.
I discussed problems I encountered in using new 1 2 3
KSA with my supervisor.
I discussed problems with my peers in trying 1 2 3

out new KSA.

147
Use the following scale for rating each of the statement:
1 - To little extent 2 - To some extend
3 - To considerable extent 4 - To great extent
N - Not applicable
18. My peers helped me in applying the new KSA. 1 2 3 4

19. My peers cared about my applying the new 1 2 3 4
KSA on the job.

IV. Reward System

This section intends to find out what rewards the organization or
group provide reward for improved performance by using new KSA.

1. There has been an evaluation of my application 1 2 3 4
of the new KSA.

2. Our supervisor gives verbal praise for trained 1 2 3 4
workers who have tried to apply the new KSA.

3. Trained workers can get a bonus for improved 1 2 3 4
performance by using new KSA.

4. Trained workers can get a wage increase when they 1 2 3 4
can use new KSA in accomplishing tasks effectively.

5. Trained workers can get a promotion when they 1 2 3 4
use new KSA in accomplishing tasks distinctively.

6. Other rewards are:

 

7. I have been given verbal praise for trying 1 2 3 4
to apply the new KSA.

8. I have received a bonus for improved 1 2 3 4
performances by using new KSA.

9. I have got a wage increase for accomplishing l 2 3 4
tasks effectively by using new KSA.

10. I have received a promotion as the results of 1 2 3 4
using new KSA distinctively on the job.

11. I have received other reward:

 

148

Use the following scale for rating each of the statement:
1 - To little extent 2 - To some extend
3 - To considerable extent 4 - To great extent
N - Not applicable

V. Benefits of Applying New KSA on the Job
This section intends to find out if the trained workers have
improved performance that may be related to training.

1. I have used new KSA acquired from training in l 2 3 4 N
finishing my job tasks.

2. I feel I achieved something when I am able to 1 2 3 4 N
use the new KSA doing my job.

3. Trying to use the new KSA is a pleasant work 1 2 3 4 N
experience for me.

4. Using the new KSA has improved my work. 1 2 3 4 N

5. I have maintained low absenteeism in work after 1 2 3 4 N
training.

6. I can accomplish my job tasks faster than before 1 2 3 4 N
the training.

7. I have accomplished my job tasks faster than 1 2 3 4 N
before training.

8. I can accomplish job tasks better in using 1 2 3 4 N
new KSA.

9. The quality of my work has been improved 1 2 3 4 N

after using the new KSA.

10. I have made fewer mistakes in production 1 2 3 4 N
by using new KSA.

11. I intend to find another job in the coming years. 1 2 3 4 N

VI. General Background

This section intends to obtain information about yourself. Please
respond to each question by filling the blank or placing a check mark in
the appropriate space provided.

1. I have a total work experience of years.

2. I have worked in this plant for years.

149

3. What I do in my job is

 

4. My skill level is

5. I have an education attainment of: 6 years
9 years 12 years more than 12 years.

 

 

6. I am in the age group of: 18 to 25 26 to 30
31 to 35 over 35.

Please use the space below to identify additional elements that you
believe are associated with workers' utilization of KSA acquired through
training in the workplace.

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154

Measurement Scales of Variables
Included in the Data Analysis

The measurement scale of each variable is based on a set of items.
Variables eliciting information on the transfer of training are listed
below with the statements measuring them:

TRAINING ORIENTATION:

0 My supervisor informed me of the training event. 1 2

0 My supervisor discussed the content of training 1 2
before I attended the training.

0 I thought the training would be relevant to my 1 2 3 4 N
job tasks.

0 I knew that I would be required to use new KSA 1 2 3 4 N
to accomplish job tasks after the training

0 My supervisor talked about the benefits of 1 2 3 4 N
applying new KSA on the job after the training.

Uh)
&
z

HATCH OF KSA WITH WORK DESIGN:

0 My job requires training in finishing the tasks.
0 New KSA is very important in accomplishing
my job tasks.
0 After training I have used new KSA on my job
frequently. I use(d) it ( check only one)

P'P‘
Bib)
Caua
s~
:z

everyday several times a week
a few times a month a few times a year
not at all.

0 There is appropriate equipment for me to apply 1 2 3 4 N
new KSA on my job.

0 There is adequate information (e.g. flow chart, 1 2 3 4 N
etc.) for me to apply new KSA on my job.

0 I have discretion in selecting the most 1 2 3 4 N
appropriate KSA in accomplishing my tasks.

Regarding the third item, KSA usage on the job, ”everyday" is
coded as 4, "several time a week" coded as 3, ”a few times a month”
coded as 2, ”a few times a year" coded as 1, and ”not at all” coded as
"Not Applicable”.

SUPERVISOR.ASSISTANCE ON THE JOB:

0 My supervisor helps me to set goals in applying 1 2 3 4 N
new KSA to accomplishing my job tasks.

155

0 My supervisor set criteria for applying new 1 2 3
KSA in accomplishing my job tasks.

0 My supervisor provided assistance when I had a l 2 3
problem in trying out new KSA.

0 My supervisor discussed how to apply the new KSA l 2 3
in accomplishing my job tasks.

0 My supervisor informed me how well my job tasks 1 2 3
have been accomplished by using new KSA.

0 My supervisor informs me of our group 1 2 3 4
performances in accomplishing tasks.

1P k 91>
Z Z Z Z Z

PEER HELP:
0 My peers helped me in applying the new KSA. 1 2 3 4 N
0 My peers cared about my applying the new 1 2 3 4 N

KSA on the job.

REWARD PRACTICE:

0 Our supervisor gives verbal praise for trained 1 2 3 4 N
workers who have tried to apply the new KSA.
0 Trained workers can get a bonus for improved 1 2 3 4 N

performances by using new KSA.
0 Trained workers can get a wage increase when they 1 2 3 4 N
can use new KSA in accomplishing tasks effectively.

0 Trained workers can get a promotion when they 1 2 3 4 N
use new KSA in accomplishing tasks distinctively.

0 I have been given verbal praise for trying 1 2 3 4 N
to apply the new KSA.

0 I have received a bonus for improved 1 2 3 4 N
performances by using new KSA.

0 I have got a wage increase for accomplishing 1 2 3 4 N
tasks effectively by using new KSA.

0 I have received a promotion as the result of l 2 3 4 N

using new KSA distinctively on the job.

Notice that the first 4 reward-practice items measure the company
reward policies; and latter 4 reward-practice items actually measure the
workers' experiences of being rewarded. As the correlation of the two
subsets of items are high ( r - 0.6, p < 0.01 ) and the reliability (
See Table 5 ) is also high enough (a - 0.84), which means that the
reward policy and workers' experiences of being rewarded are consistent.

Therefore, for the convenience of data analysis, these eight items are

156
combined as one measurement scale.

PERCEIVED WORK EFFICIENCY BY UTILIZING KSA ON THE JOB:

0 Using the new KSA has improved my work. 1 2 3 4 N

0 I can accomplish my job tasks faster than before 1 2 3 4 N
the training.

0 I have accomplished my job tasks faster than 1 2 3 4 N
before training.

0 I can accomplish job tasks better in using 1 2 3 4 N
new KSA.

0 The quality of my work has been improved after 1 2 3 4 N
using the new KSA.

0 I have been made fewer mistakes in production 1 2 3 4 N
using new KSA.

TRAINING ACHIEVEMENT SCORE. The training achievement test score is

an interval variable measured by the Chinese hundred-point scoring

system, for which 60 is a pass point; 60 to 75 is considered

intermediate achievement level; 76 to 89 is considered good achievement

level; and above 90 is considered excellent achievement level.

Appendix B: Supervisor Survey Questionnaire

This appendix contains survey instrument for supervisors both
in English and Chinese. The questionnaire in Chinese version is the

copy of original one used for the data collection.

157

158

SUPERVISOR SURVEY
The Workers' Utilization of Knowledge,
Skills and Attitude in the Workplace

I. Training Programs
This section intends to obtain information about the training

programs provided for workers in your group. Please respond to each
question by placing a check mark in the appropriate space provided.

1. Attending training programs is usually required for new workers
before starting work: Yes No.

 

2. Training programs for my workers are usually conducted in:
our plant; other institutions; others.

 

3. The training is usually offered by:

 

 

 

 

our plant; other institution; others.
4. The training is paid by:
our plant workers the Training Center.
5. The training on the average is about hours days
weeks months _____years long.

 

 

6. The training is in the categories of:
learning basic job skills

update the skills required by job
raise education level
others. Please identify:

 

 

 

7. The training programs have been conducted in the mode of:
on-the-job training

off-the-job training

evening/spare-time training.

others.

 

 

The following elements are related to the utilization of acquired
knowledge, skills and attitude through training in the workplace.
Please rate the degree of the experience you have had in your situation
in the plant. Your careful responses to the statements will be greatly
appreciated.

159
II. Training Orientation

This section seeks to find out if you and your workers were
involved in pretraining activities to gain the awareness of the purpose,
objectives and contents of training programs.

Use the following scale for rating each of the statement:
1 - To little extent 2 - To some degree
3 - To considerable extent 4 - To great extent
N - Not applicable

1. I inform the workers of the training which 1 2 3 4 N
they are going to attend.

2. I always have an idea about what the workers are 1 2 3 4 N
going to learn before the training.

3. I think that most of the training programs are l 2 3 4 N
relevant to the job tasks.

4. I discuss with workers about the contents of the 1 2 3 4 N
training they are going to attend.

5. I discuss with workers about how well they could 1 2 3 4 N
accomplish job tasks before training.

6. Workers know that they would be required to use 1 2 3 4 N
new KSA to accomplish job tasks after the training.

N
u
p
Z

7. I talk with workers about the benefits of applying 1
the new KSA on the job after the training.

8. I have opportunity to provide inputs to trainers 1 2 3 4 N
about the contents of training programs.

III. Work Environment for Applying KSA on the Job

This section intends to find out if the group has provided an
environment that you can apply the acquired knowledge, skills and
attitude.

1. The new KSA are described as part of the work in 1 2 3 4 N
the group task dimension.

2. New KSA are important in accomplishing the l 2 3 4 N
tasks in our group.

3. I try to organize work in a way that is 1 2 3 4 N
convenient for using new KSA on the job.

160

Use the following scale for rating each of the statement:
1 - To little extent 2 - To some degree
3 - To considerable extent 4 - To great extent

10.

11.

l2.

l3.

14.

15.

16.

17.

N - Not applicable

I require workers in my group to use new KSA
in accomplishing work tasks.

I have difficulty meeting production norms
with trained workers using KSA.

Most trainees have used new KSA after the
training in the work frequently.

Trained workers always have appropriate equipment
for applying new KSA in accomplishing job tasks.

Trained workers always have adequate information
for applying new KSA in accomplishing job tasks.

I always discuss how to apply new KSA in
accomplishing job tasks with workers.

I help trained workers set accepted goals in
applying new KSA in accomplishing job tasks.

I set criterion for workers to apply new KSA in
accomplishing job tasks.

I provide assistance when workers have problem
in trying out new KSA.

I inform workers how well their job tasks have
been accomplished by using new KSA.

I also inform workers of our group performances
in accomplishing tasks.

Our group members share their problems of doing
work with one another.

Our group members help one another in using new
KSA when they have difficulties.

Our group members care about others and their
accomplishment of jobs with the new KSA on the job.

161
Use the following scale for rating each of the statement:
1 - To little extent 2 - To some degree
3 - To considerable extent 4 - To great extent
N - Not applicable
VI. Reward System

This section intends to find out what rewards the organization or
group provide for improved performance by using new KSA.

1. I do evaluation of workers' application of l 2 3 4
the new KSA.

2. I give verbal recognition for trained workers who 1 2 3 4
have tried to apply new KSA.

3. Workers can get bonus when they can do their 1 2 3 4
work well by using new KSA.

4. Workers can get wage increase when they can 1 2 3 4
accomplish tasks by using KSA effectively.

5. Workers can get a promotion when they make 1 2 3 4
distinctive achievements by using KSA.

6. Workers can get other rewards when they can do 1 2 3 4
their work well by using new KSA.

7. The other rewards are:

 

V. Benefits of Applying New KSA on the Job

This section intends to find out if the trained workers have
improved performance that may be related to training.

1. Trained workers are more capable of accomplishing l 2 3 4
job tasks than untrained workers.

2. Trained workers are more responsible for 1 2 3 4
accomplishing tasks than untrained workers.

3. Trained workers usually show more commitment to 1 2 3 4
accomplishing tasks than untrained workers.

4. Trained workers have lower turnover than 1 2 3 4
untrained workers.

5. Trained workers usually had lower rates of 1 2 3 4

absenteeism in work.

162
Use the following scale for rating each of the statement:
1 - To little extent 2 - To some degree
3 - To considerable extent 4 - To great extent
N - Not applicable
6. Trained workers can finish more job tasks. 1 2 3 4 N
7. Trained workers have been doing more job tasks. 1 2 3 4 N

8. Trained workers produce less scrap in production. 1 2 3 4 N

9. Most trained workers have been doing their job 1 2 3 4 N
in satisfactory quality.

VI. General Background

This section intends to obtain information about yourself. Please
respond to each question by filling in the blank or placing a check mark
in the appropriate space provided.
1. I have a total work experience of years.

2. I have worked in this plant since 19

3. My job title is

 

4. My skill level is grade.

5. I education attainmentis:

primary school junior high school

 

 

senior high school college.

 

6. I am years old.

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Appendix C: Top Management/Training Officer Interview Guide

This appendix contains interview guide for trained company
managers or training officers both in English and Chinese. The Chinese

version is the copy of original one used for the data collection.

166

167

Top Management/Training Officer Interview Guide

Name of Interviewer:
Date :

 

 

This guide will be used to check with the top management the
organizational factors in categories identified for this study.

W yea—__np CW

1. Training Programs
How are decisions made that
result in training programs?

 

 

Is there any pretraining
orientation activities?

How are the following people
involved?
workers
supervisors
trainers
Where is training done?
within the plant?
outside the plant?
Where are the trainers from?
from other
institutions?

your own people?

What training programs have
you conducted in the past years?

What training programs do
you plan to provide in the
next 12 months?

For whom? & Why?

168

Training conducted
on-the-job
length
purpose
content
off-the-job
length
purpose
content

evening training
length
purpose
content

II. work Environment

a-thflaalmmen;

Is there a job description
for each worker or position?

Is training required for
new workers?

Is there training plan
developed prior to training?

Are job assignment and KSA
of trained workers considered
when workers go back to jobs?

Does plant provide necessary
conditions for KSA application?
equipment

information
safety equipment

other assistance

kW

Regarding new KSA
application by trained
workers, does supervisor
provide the following
support?

169

diagnosis for applying
KSA

setting meaningful goals
challenging criteria
counseling for difficulties
feedback on performance

encouraging peer support

c.1nd1vigga1 control

Do workers have opportunity
to make suggestions?

Do workers have certain
autonomy to try innovation
on the job?

Is there any opportunity
that the plant can share
information about training
and worker performance with
workers? Such as:

bulletin board

group meeting

conference

others

III. Reward System

Is there any performance
evaluation for trained
workers?

What are the items?
attitude
efforts
commitment
absenteeism
leave
skill test
innovation
piece work quota (weights)
quality of work (weights)
scraps of work (weights)

170

Is there any reward for
trained workers' applying
new KSA on the job?
Such as
verbal appraisal
group recognition
bonus (I of basic wage)
fringe benefit
wage increase
promotion
others

IV. Productivity

Do you keep records of
workers performance?

In what format?
attitude
efforts
commitment
skill test
innovation
absenteeism

leave

Do you keep records of

group productivity?
piece work quota
quality of work
scrap of work
etc.

 

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Appendix D: Trained Worker Interview Guide

This appendix contains interview guide for trained workers bother
in English and Chinese. The interview guide in Chinese version is the

copy of original one used for the data collection.

174

10.

ll.

12.

13.

14.

15.

175
Data Collect Sheet

Trained WOrker Interview guide

. What pre-training orientation activities did you participate?
. Who were also involved in the activities?

. What did you perceive as the purpose of the training you were

going to attend?

. To what extend do you think KSA acquired from training program

is important in accomplishing your job tasks everyday? Please
give examples.

. What equipment, information and resources do you think are

needed in applying KSA you learned? Do you always have them?

. How did your supervisor(s) help you in applying KSA in

accomplishing your job tasks or trying innovative approaches?

. Do you know whether you were doing better job by applying new

KSA? And if yes, how do you know?

. What kind of help or negative attitude did your peer members

give to you in applying new KSA on the job?

. Is there any evaluation of trained workers' performance? If

yes, what items are included in the evaluation?

Can you think of any rewards (including verbal appraisal)
connected with applying new KSA on the job? Name them, if
yes.

Can you identify any ideas, skills, approaches or attitude
you learned from the training programs, which you have since
then applied in accomplishing your job tasks? If so, please
describe. If no, explain why.

Can you identify any improved performance of yours by
applying KSA on the job? And describe if yes.

What benefit do you think you have derived by applying KSA on
the job?

What benefit do you think your group/department has derived
from your applying KSA on the job?

What difficulties (other factors) do you think are barriers
for you in applying KSA on the job?

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HEHW fiWfififi’Wfififi/fii‘!

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Appendix E: 'Supervisor Interview Guide

This appendix contains interview guide for trained workers bother
in English and Chinese. The interview guide in Chinese version is the

copy of original one used for the data collection.

177

10.

ll.

12.

13.

14.

15.

178

Supervisor Interview guide

. What pre-training activities were organized for workers?
. How are you involved in any of the activities?

. To what extend did you think your workers had perceived the

purpose of training they were going to attend?

. To what extend do you think KSA acquired from training program is

important in accomplishing job tasks in your group? Please
give examples.

. Can you describe how your workers have applied KSA on the job?

. What kind of equipment, information and resources did your workers

need in applying KSA on the job? Can you help arrange them?

. What are other ways you used to help your trained workers in

applying KSA on the job?

. What kind of attitude or assistance do you perceive that the

peers have for each other regarding KSA application?

. Can you identify any ideas, skills, approaches or attitude the

trained workers learned from the training programs and have since
then applied in accomplishing their job tasks? If so, please
describe. If no, explain why.

Do/did you think trained workers have done better job by
by applying new KSA on the job? If so please provide examples; if
not please explain.

Is there any evaluation of trained workers' performance? If
yes, what items are included in the evaluation?

Can you identify any rewards (including verbal appraisal)
connected with applying new KSA on the job? Name them, if yes.

What benefit do you think your group/department has derived from
trained workers' applying KSA on the job? Please provide examples.

Can you identify any benefits derived from the workers'
applying new KSA on the job?

What difficulties (other factors) do you think are barriers
for workers in applying KSA on the job?

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10.
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13.
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179

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Appendix F: Performance and Productivity File Checking Guide

This appendix contains guides for checking trained workers'
performance and productivity both in English and Chinese. The interview

guide in Chinese version is the copy used as data collection guide.

180

181

Trained Worker Performance and
Productivity Data Collection Guide

Name of File Reviewer:
Date:

 

 

kW

1. Number of WOrkers:

 

2. Number of Trained Workers:

 

3. Products:

 

4. Production techniques:

 

5.121211129311111

1. Identify and check the records of the trained workers' performance in
terms of attitude and behavior. The data is supposed to be gathered
from the performance appraisal by group members (about 5 items). The
scale used to code the performance and attitude will be corresponding
with the scale used in questionnaires. After the first scan of the
performance appraisal, the researcher will arbitrarily use the following
scale to code the performance appraisal items accordingly:

1 - To little extent 2 - To some degree
3 - To considerable extent 4 - To great extent
N - No applicable

Performance appraisal items (for example):
a. skill: how well the trained workers has played to his
capable skill level?

b. work attitude: to what extent the trained workers have an
positive or negative manner or viewpoint toward the
accomplishing the job tasks?

c. efforts/commitment: to what extent the trained workers
have given exertion to applying new KSA on the job or to
accomplishing the job.

d. cooperation with peer: do workers help and care each other in
working?

e. following with prodution instruction: how well do workers follow
the instructions given by supervisors?

f. age, educational level, etc.

182

 

Case Year skill attitude effort etc.
1 87
89
2 87
89

2. The indirect productivity: the data is supposed to be gathered from
the group workers attendance/absence and employee turnover records
(about 5 items). Meaurement such as hours, days of lateness and number
of turnover will be used to gather the data.

Indirect Productivity Items (for example):
a. Lateness: the munites or hours late for work.
b. Early leave: the munites or hours leave earlier without
permitted.
c. Sick leave: permitted leave for sickness.
d. Absenteeims: absence from work without permission.
e. Private matter leave: permitted leave for private matters.

 

 

Case Year Late Early sick absenteeims P.M.Leave
(313,) (9:9,) (gav) (day) (gay)
1 87 120 30 3 O 0
88
89

3. Direct productivity (if possible): the data is supposed to come from
the group production records (about 4 items). Measurements used by the
production group will be used to gather the data.

Direct Productivity Items (for examples):

1. Quantity: the number of pieces of products or work the worker
has finished in a certain interval of time.

2. Quality: the degree of grade of satisfactory condition of the
products or work as requires. The amount of or percentage of
products satisfying the quality requirements will be used to
record the quality of the workers.

 

3. Scrap rate: the waste of the work.
4. Etc.
Case Xga; gggggnémggth quantity quality scraps Pete.
I 87 l , 876 866 10
2 890 875 15
3 880 878 2
a 880 880 O

 

total 3526 3499 27

183

 

 

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WWW: EH:
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185

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186

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Appendix G: Training Achievement Test

This appendix contains the typical training achievement test used
by the electronical companies. After each training, a test is given to
assess how much the worker has learned. The training achievement test,
written by the management and technicians, is made up two parts: (1)
job-related knowledge, skills, and expected work attitudes; and (2) the
application of KSA on the job and problem solving. This is a copy of
the original test used to measure learning achievement in one of the
electronic companies. The test scores are also filed as the reference
for decision of promotion on work skill proficiency level which is the

wage base line.

187

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APPENDIX H: Cronbach's Alpha and Standardized Alpha

Both Cronbach's alpha and standardized alpha were employed to
estimate the reliability of the scales measuring the theoretic framework

variables. The equations are listed below:

k cow/var

 

Cronbach’s s -
1 + (k-1)cov/var

k - the number of items in the scale

cov - the average covariance between items
var - the average variance of the items

kr

 

Standardized a -
1 + (k-1)r

k - the number of items in the scale
r - the average correlation between items.

194

Appendix I: ‘Scrap Rate of the Production Line

In this case study, to avoid the subjectivity of using the self-
perceived work efficiency to estimate the transfer of training, an
attempt was made by this researcher to gather the objective data of work
efficiency and productivity which included performance appraisal done by
supervisors, worker's attendance/absence on the job, and monthly
quantity and scrap rate. However, only part of the monthly quantity and
scrap rate were available.

It has to be realized that SKIZ is a newly developed industrial
zone and has a history of 10 only years. Each industrial company has
autonomy to organize and manage the production in its own sake. These
companies are still experimenting the effective organization and
management of production. Due to the inconsistent filing system and
incomplete data in the four companies, the complete subjective data for
the statistic analysis of the entire sample was impossible.

For instance, the production with the more advanced equipment and
technology was operated on the conveyer line and workers were engaged in
processing products at the same time. All of the four companies found
that recording work efficiency of individual workers, which was the
common practice in industry in inland China, was impossible and finally
gave it up. The supervisor only check on certain workers whose flaws
were inspected too often on her position. No individual records were
carried.

However, among the four companies, three companies had some group
productivity data, quantity, value, and scrap rate of the products

195

196
processed by the production line. For Company 1, scrap rate was
recorded in the first few years. Later, it was believed that after the
scrap was fixed, 1001 of the products were flawless and ready to get
through the quality control requirements. It was also assumed that
scrap recording took more time of the management. Therefore, scrap
recording was eliminated late 1990. Moreover, due to the managerial
personnel change, production files before 1989 could not be found.
Company 2 had kept complete production records. In Company 3, records
of product quantity of 1988 and then on were available, but the scrap
records were only available of 1989 and 1990. The value of products was
not available either. Company 4 had no scrap data available, but the
quantity of the products.

As the scrap data for Company I, 2, and 3 was available from
September, 1989 to August, 1990, the researcher decided to make use of
it to estimate the work efficiency of the production line group in the
three companies, instead of product quantity and value of the product.
There are several reasons for doing so. First, orders of clients and
seasons of the year may fluctuate the production quantity. Second, the
value of products were decided by the model and the demand of the
market. Third, the scrap can demonstrate the production skill
proficiency of the group which relies on the competency of every worker
in the group. Scrap rate was calculated in the percentage of the scrap
out of the total products processed on the production line per month.
Even if the models of products and quantity of orders might vary, the
scrap, to great extent, can obJEctively and consistently indicate the

production capacity in term of quality related to employee skill

197
proficiency. Besides, the scrap data of September, 1989 to August, 1990
appears appropriate because training for workers is required annually.
The last training for the workers had occurred during the period of
August 1989 to August 1990‘, usually in the first, or early second
quarter of the year when production is not very busy. Therefore, data
over 12 month period is long enough to give an adequate idea of workers
group skill proficiency and the production capacity in terms of quality.

Scrap rate was calculated by the company in the percentage of the
scrap out of the total products processed on the production line per
month. To estimate difference in work efficiency of the production line
group, descriptive statistics and t-tests were applied to data from
Company 1, 2, and 3.

One can fine in Table l9-a, the average monthly scrap rate for
Company 1 was 6.53, ranking the highest among the three companies. The
average monthly scrap rate for company 3 was the lowest, 0.06. For
Company 1, the standard deviation was 10.65 with the maximum scrap rate
as high as 30.56 and the minimum as low as 0. This indicated that
competency of the workers on the production line may not be adequate
enough or stable enough. Company 2 seemed to have much lower scrap rate
than Company 1, 2.55. The standard deviation was much smaller and the
range of scrape rate was 5.35. Workers in Company 2 appeared more
competent than Company 1. Company 3 showed the lowest scrap rate. The

standard deviation was very low, 0.05 with the scrap range of 0.13 over

 

' The field research started from late August 1990, and data
was collected in September and October 1990.

198

Table l9-a DESCRIPTIVES 0F SCRAP
(2 of products per month, 9/89 -- 8/90)

 

Variable Mean Std Dev Variance Minimum Maximum Month

 

Company 1 6.53 10.65 113.45 .00 30.56 12
(State-owned)

Company 2 2.55 1.71 2.92 .24 5.59 12
(State-owned)

Company 3 .06 .05 .00 .01 .14 12
(Joint-venture)

 

Table l9-b T-TESTS OF SCRAP RATE
(1 of products monthly, 9/89 -- 8/90)

 

Variable Mean Mean t Degrees of
Company 1 Company 2 Company 3 Difference Value Freedom

 

Scrap Rate -- 2.55 .06 2.490 5.04*** 11
Scrap Rate 6.53 -- .06 6.470 -2.02* 11
Scrap Rate 6.53 2.55 -- 1.980 -l.30 ll

 

Notes: Company 1 and 2 are state-owned companies;
Company 3 is a joint-venture company.
*** significant at 0.01 level
** significant at 0.05 level
* significant at 0.1 level

199

12 month period. This indicated that workers in Company 3 had higher
competency and more stabilized skill proficiency.

In Table l9-b, it is, then, not surprised to find out that t-tests
of scrap rate between Company 1 and 3, and between Company 2 and 3
showed significant difference over 12 months, while t-test did not show
significant difference between the two state-owned companies. This
provided obvious contrasts of work efficiency among production groups
between two state-owned companies and one joint—venture company,
regarding the transfer of training on the job by using the objective
data. It appears that workers in Company 3 possessed more competency by
utilizing KSA while workers in Company 2 and 3 had no difference
regarding the competency of KSA on the job.

The patterns of the transfer of training in two types of companies
varied (See Section 5.4, and Section 5.5), and the statistic analysis of
scrap also indicated difference in scrap rate. Therefore, it could be
suggested that the such variation in organizational variables and in
scrap rate was not a coincidence. Further study should attempt to make
efforts to obtain data on organizational variables as well as complete
productivity. Needless to say, there is need to study the relationship

between the patterns of the transfer of training and the productivity.

Appendix J: Matrices of Correlation Coefficients

This appendix contains matrixes of correlation coefficients of
variables estimated from the subsamples of state-owned and joint-venture

companies.

200

201

 

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202

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AmoHCGQEoo ousuco>-u:H0Hv mHZNHUHhhwou onH¢Ammmoo mo NHmfi<z Hm manna

Appendix K: Comparison of Regression Results of State-owned
and Joint-venture Companies

This appendix contains statistical results of regression Equation
(2) and (4) applied to the state-owned companies and joint-venture

companies separately. The statistical results are tabulated in Tables

22 and 23.

203

204

Table 22 COMPARISON OF REGRESSION RESULTS OF STATE-OWED AND

JOINT-VENTURE COMPANIES (3)

 

Dependent Viriable: Perceived work efficiency gained by utilizing KSA

 

 

 

 

on the job
State-Owned Joint-Venture
EQUATION 2 EQUATION 2
Stepwise Stepwise

Independent variables:

x1 Training -.037 (.09)1 .208 (2.87)*
Orientation

x2 Match of KSA .151 (1.21)1 .099 (.64)1
with Work Design

X3 Supervisor .327 (4.79)** .291 (5.54)**
Assistance

x4 Peer .385 (6.65)*** .039 (.11)1
Support

x5 Reward Policy .164 (1.73)1 -.161 (1.94)1
and Practices

x6 Training .099 (.59)1 .427 (14.04)***
Achievement

X7 Age

X3 Education
Attainments

X9 Work Skill
Proficiency

X10 Work Experience

Constant .101 .90

R Square: .404 .380

F .87 10.03

p .0000 .0000

N - 56

Notes: 1 The coefficient and T value are the estimated once if the

variable were in the equation.
*** significant at .01 level
** significant at .05 level
* significant at .10 level

205

Table 23 COMPARISON OF REGRESSION RESULTS OF STATE-OWED AND
JOINT-VENTURE COMPANIES (4)

 

Dependent variable: Perceived work efficiency gained by utilizing KSA

 

 

on the job
State-Owned Joint-Venture
EQUATION 4 EQUATION 4
asfienaiss Stsnflifi£______——
Independent variables:
x1 Training -.037 (.09)1 .161 (1.37)1
Orientation
x2 Match of KSA .151 (1.205)1 .090 (.43)1
with Work Design
X3 Supervisor .327 (4.79)** .426 (11.28)***
Assistance
x4 Peer .335 (6.65)*** .034 (0.7)1
Support
x5 Reward Policy .164 (1.73)1 -.139 (1.13)1

and Practices

X6 Training
Achievement

X7 Age

X3 Education
Attainments

X9 Work Skill
Proficiency

X10 Work Experience

 

Qaaatant 1.102 1.566
R Square: .404 .1811
F 13.87 11.28
p .0000 .0015
N - 50 56

 

Notes: 1 The coefficient and T value are the estimated once if the
variable were in the equation.
*** significant at .01 level
** significant at .05 level
* significant at .10 level

Appendix L: The Distribution of Residuals

This appendix contains histograms, normal probability plots, and
scatterplots of residuals of equation 1 using stepwise method, and
equation 6 using stepwise method for the state-owned and joint-venture

companies separately.

206

207

Figure 2 Histogram of Standardized Residual of Equation 1
(Entire sample)

7.98 -l.00 *******:
5.43 -1.33 ****:**
3.31 -1.67 **:

1.81 -2.00 *:*

.88 -2.33 .

.39 -2.67

.15 -3.00

.08 Out

N Exp N

O .08 Out

0 .15 3.00

0 .39 2.67

l .88 2.33 :

2 1.81 2.00 *:

2 3.31 1.67 **.

5 5.43 1.33 ****:

9 7.98 1.00 *******:*
14 10.51 .67 **********;***
14 12.40 .33 ***********;**
9 13 10 ,oo *********

9 12.40 -.33 *********

13 10.51 —.67 **********;**
8

7

3

3

0

0

0

0

* - 1 Cases
: - Normal Curve

208

Figure 3 Normal Probability Plot of Equation 1
(Entire sample)

Standardized Residual

1.0 + --------- + --------- + --------- + -------- **
I ** I
I *** I
I *. I
I ** I
.75 + * +
I ** I
0 I ** I
b I .* I
s I .** I
e 5 + ** +
r I *** I
v I *** I
e I ** I
d 1 *** I
.25 + *. +
I ** I
I ** l
I * I
I*** I

+ --------- + --------- + --------- + --------- + Expected

209

Figure 4 Scatterplot of Standardized Residuals of Equation 1
(Entire sample)

Out ++ ----- + ----- + ----- + ----- + ----- + ----- ++

3 + +

I I

I I

2 + +

I I

I I

1 + +

I ..... I

I I

O + +

I I

I * I

-1 + ..... +

I . I

I I

-2 + +

I I

I I

-3 + +

Out ++ ----- + ----- + ----- + ----- + ----- + ----- ++
-3 -2 -1 0 l 2 3 Out

Across: Standardized Predicted Values
Down: Standardized Residuals

Symbols:

*

«l-‘NH
COO

210

Figure 5 Histogram of Standardized Residual of Equation 1
(State-owned Companies)

N Exp N

0 .03 Out

1 .07 3.00 *

0 .17 2.67

0 .39 2.33

0 .80 2.00 .

3 1.47 1.67 :**

0 2.41 1.33 .

4 3.55 1.00 ***:

5 4.67 .67 ****:
6 5.51 .33 *****:
5 5.82 .00 *****.
7 5.51 -.33 *****:*
5 4.67 -.67 ****:
3 3.55 -l.00 ***.

3 2.41 -1.33 *:*

2 1.47 -1.67 :*

0 .80 -2.00 .

0 .39 -2.33

0 .17 -2.67

0 .07 -3.00

O .03 Out

* - 1 Cases
: - Normal Curve

1 Outlier found.

211

Figure 6 Normal Probability Plot of Equation 1
(State-owned Companies)

Standardized Residual

1.0 + --------- + --------- + --------- + -------- **
I * I
1 ***** 1
I I
1 *** 1
.75 + **. +
I . I
O I .* I
b 1 *** 1
s I ** I
e 5 + **** +
r I *. I
v I ** I
e I . I
d 1 *** 1
.25 + ** +
I .* I
1 *** 1
I ** I
I ** I

+* -------- + --------- + --------- + --------- + Expected

212

Figure 7 Scatterplot of Standardized Residuals of Equation 1
(State-owned Companies)

Out ++ ----- + ----- + ----- + ----- + ----- + ----- ++

3 + +

I I

I I

2 + +

I I

I I

1 + * +

I ° I

I I

0 + +

I I

I I

-l + +

I I

I I

-2 + +

I I

I I

-3 + +

Out ++ ----- + ----- + ----- + ----- + ----- + ----- ++
-3 -2 -1 O 1 2 3 Out

Across: Standardized Predicted Values
Down: Standardized Residuals

Symbols:

blob-0
COO

*

213

Figure 8 Histogram of Standardized Residual of Equation 1
(Joint-venture Companies)

.27 -l.00 ***:*
.91 -1.33 **:*
.77 -l.67 *:
.97 -2.00 .

.47 -2.33

.21 -2.67

.08 -3.00

.04 Out

N Exp N

O .04 Out

0 .08 3.00

1 .21 2.67 *

O .47 2.33

1 .97 2.00 :

1 1.77 1.67 *.

3 2.91 1.33 **:

S 4.27 1.00 ***:*
3 5.63 .67 *** .
8 6.64 .33 ******:*
6 7.02 .00 ******.
5 6.64 -.33 ***** .
9 5.63 -.67 *****:***
5 4

4 2

2 1

0

0

0

0

0

* - 1 Cases
: - Normal Curve

1 Outlier found.

Figure 9

214

Normal Probability Plot of Equation 1
(Joint-venture Companies)

Standardized Residual

1.0

.75

Dam < H m m 0‘0
La

.25

+ --------- + --------- + --------- + -------- **
I ** I
I ** I
I ** I
I * I
+ ***** +
I * I
I *. I
I *** I
I *. I
+ ** +
1 **** 1
I *** , 1
I I
I **. I
+ *. +
I * I
I *** I
I * I
I .* I
+** ------- + --------- + --------- + --------- +

Expected

215

Figure 10 Scatterplot of Standardized Residuals of Equation 1
(Joint-venture Companies)

U H
I
I
I
I
I
+
I
I
I
I
I
.9.
I
I
I
I
I
+
I
I
I
I
I
+
I
I
I
I
I
+
I
I
I
I
I

O
+HH+HH+HH+HH+HH+HH+

-3
Out ++ ----- + ----- + ----- + ----- + ----- + .....

Across: Standardized Predicted Values
Down: Standardized Residuals

Symbols:

#NH
COO

*

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